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2026 Bengaluru Open – Doubles

2026-05-08T01:46:37Z

GrettaDumaresq4:

{{Tennis events|2026|Bengaluru Open|s
| champ = {{flagicon|COL}} [[Nicolás Barrientos]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Benjamin Kittay]]
| runner = {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arthur Reymond]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Luca Sanchez]]
| score = 7–6(11–9), 7–5
| edition =
| type = singles doubles
| after_year = 2026
| after_name = Bengaluru Open II
}}

{{main|2026 Bengaluru Open}}

[[Anirudh Chandrasekar]] and [[Ray Ho]] were the defending champions<ref>https://www.olympics.com/en/news/bengaluru-open-2025-tennis-doubles-final-results-scores</ref> but only Chandrasekar chose to defend his title, partnering [[Arjun Kadhe]]. They lost in the first round to [[Max Houkes]] and [[Niels Visker]].

[[Nicolás Barrientos]] and [[Benjamin Kittay]] won the title after defeating [[Arthur Reymond]] and [[Luca Sanchez]] 7–6(11–9), 7–5 in the final.

==Seeds==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
# {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sriram Balaji]] / {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Neil Oberleitner]] ''(semifinals)''
# {{flagicon|IND}} [[Anirudh Chandrasekar]] / {{flagicon|IND}} [[Arjun Kadhe]] ''(first round)''
# {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arthur Reymond]] / {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Luca Sanchez]] ''(final)''
# '''{{flagicon|COL}} [[Nicolás Barrientos]] / {{flagicon|USA}} [[Benjamin Kittay]] (champions)'''
}}

==Draw==
{{Draw key}}

{{16TeamBracket-Compact-Tennis3-Byes
| RD1=First round
| RD2=Quarterfinals
| RD3=Semifinals
| RD4=Final

| RD1-seed01=1
| RD1-team01='''{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sriram Balaji|S Balaji]] {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Neil Oberleitner|N Oberleitner]]'''
| RD1-score01-1='''6'''
| RD1-score01-2='''6'''
| RD1-score01-3=
| RD1-seed02=
| RD1-team02={{flagicon|UKR}} [[Vladyslav Orlov|V Orlov]] {{flagicon|FIN}} [[Eero Vasa|E Vasa]]
| RD1-score02-1=3
| RD1-score02-2=2
| RD1-score02-3=

| RD1-seed03=WC
| RD1-team03={{flagicon|IND}} [[Siddhant Banthia|S Banthia]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Dhakshineswar Suresh|D Suresh]]
| RD1-score03-1=4
| RD1-score03-2=4
| RD1-score03-3=
| RD1-seed04=Alt
| RD1-team04='''{{flagicon|}} [[Petr Bar Biryukov|P Bar Biryukov]] {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Grigoriy Lomakin|G Lomakin]]'''
| RD1-score04-1='''6'''
| RD1-score04-2='''6'''
| RD1-score04-3=

| RD1-seed05=3
| RD1-team05='''{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arthur Reymond|A Reymond]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Luca Sanchez|L Sanchez]]'''
| RD1-score05-1=4
| RD1-score05-2='''6'''
| RD1-score05-3='''[10]'''
| RD1-seed06=
| RD1-team06={{flagicon|JPN}} [[Masamichi Imamura|M Imamura]] {{flagicon|JPN}} Ryuki Matsuda
| RD1-score06-1='''6'''
| RD1-score06-2=3
| RD1-score06-3=[8]

| RD1-seed07=WC
| RD1-team07='''{{flagicon|IND}} Adil Kalyanpur {{flagicon|IND}} [[Saketh Myneni|S Myneni]]'''
| RD1-score07-1='''77'''
| RD1-score07-2=4
| RD1-score07-3='''[13]'''
| RD1-seed08=
| RD1-team08={{flagicon|RSA}} [[Lloyd Harris (tennis)|L Harris]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sumit Nagal|S Nagal]]
| RD1-score08-1=63
| RD1-score08-2='''6'''
| RD1-score08-3=[11]

| RD1-seed09=
| RD1-team09='''{{flagicon|IND}} [[S D Prajwal Dev|SDP Dev]] {{flagicon|IND}} Nitin Kumar Sinha'''
| RD1-score09-1='''6'''
| RD1-score09-2='''7'''
| RD1-score09-3=
| RD1-seed10=
| RD1-team10={{flagicon|BEL}} [[Michael Geerts|M Geerts]] {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Seita Watanabe|S Watanabe]]
| RD1-score10-1=2
| RD1-score10-2=5
| RD1-score10-3=

| RD1-seed11=
| RD1-team11={{flagicon|FRA}} [[Matteo Martineau|M Martineau]] {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Beibit Zhukayev|B Zhukayev]]
| RD1-score11-1=5
| RD1-score11-2=3
| RD1-score11-3=
| RD1-seed12=4
| RD1-team12='''{{flagicon|COL}} [[Nicolás Barrientos|N Barrientos]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Benjamin Kittay|B Kittay]]'''
| RD1-score12-1='''7'''
| RD1-score12-2='''6'''
| RD1-score12-3=

| RD1-seed13=
| RD1-team13='''{{flagicon|THA}} [[Pruchya Isaro|P Isaro]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Niki Kaliyanda Poonacha|N Kaliyanda Poonacha]]'''
| RD1-score13-1='''6'''
| RD1-score13-2=3
| RD1-score13-3='''[10]'''
| RD1-seed14=
| RD1-team14={{flagicon|IND}} [[Jeevan Nedunchezhiyan|J Nedunchezhiyan]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ramkumar Ramanathan|R Ramanathan]]
| RD1-score14-1=4
| RD1-score14-2='''6'''
| RD1-score14-3=[8]

| RD1-seed15=
| RD1-team15='''{{flagicon|NED}} [[Max Houkes|M Houkes]] {{flagicon|NED}} [[Niels Visker|N Visker]]'''
| RD1-score15-1=2
| RD1-score15-2='''77'''
| RD1-score15-3='''[10]'''
| RD1-seed16=2
| RD1-team16={{flagicon|IND}} [[Anirudh Chandrasekar|A Chandrasekar]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Arjun Kadhe|A Kadhe]]
| RD1-score16-1='''6'''
| RD1-score16-2=64
| RD1-score16-3=[5]

| RD2-seed01=1
| RD2-team01='''{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sriram Balaji|S Balaji]] {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Neil Oberleitner|N Oberleitner]]'''
| RD2-score01-1=66
| RD2-score01-2='''6'''
| RD2-score01-3='''[10]'''
| RD2-seed02=Alt
| RD2-team02={{flagicon|}} [[Petr Bar Biryukov|P Bar Biryukov]] {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Grigoriy Lomakin|G Lomakin]]
| RD2-score02-1='''78'''
| RD2-score02-2=4
| RD2-score02-3=[6]

| RD2-seed03=3
| RD2-team03='''{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arthur Reymond|A Reymond]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Luca Sanchez|L Sanchez]]'''
| RD2-score03-1=5
| RD2-score03-2='''6'''
| RD2-score03-3='''[10]'''
| RD2-seed04=WC
| RD2-team04={{flagicon|IND}} A Kalyanpur {{flagicon|IND}} [[Saketh Myneni|S Myneni]]
| RD2-score04-1='''7'''
| RD2-score04-2=4
| RD2-score04-3=[8]

| RD2-seed05=
| RD2-team05={{flagicon|IND}} [[S D Prajwal Dev|SDP Dev]] {{flagicon|IND}} NK Sinha
| RD2-score05-1='''77'''
| RD2-score05-2=3
| RD2-score05-3=[8]
| RD2-seed06=4
| RD2-team06='''{{flagicon|COL}} [[Nicolás Barrientos|N Barrientos]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Benjamin Kittay|B Kittay]]'''
| RD2-score06-1=63
| RD2-score06-2='''6'''
| RD2-score06-3='''[10]'''

| RD2-seed07=
| RD2-team07={{flagicon|THA}} [[Pruchya Isaro|P Isaro]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Niki Kaliyanda Poonacha|N Kaliyanda Poonacha]]
| RD2-score07-1=62
| RD2-score07-2=61
| RD2-score07-3=
| RD2-seed08=
| RD2-team08='''{{flagicon|NED}} [[Max Houkes|M Houkes]] {{flagicon|NED}} [[Niels Visker|N Visker]]'''
| RD2-score08-1='''77'''
| RD2-score08-2='''77'''
| RD2-score08-3=

| RD3-seed01=1
| RD3-team01={{flagicon|IND}} [[Sriram Balaji|S Balaji]] {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Neil Oberleitner|N Oberleitner]]
| RD3-score01-1=64
| RD3-score01-2=63
| RD3-score01-3=
| RD3-seed02=3
| RD3-team02='''{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arthur Reymond|A Reymond]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Luca Sanchez|L Sanchez]]'''
| RD3-score02-1='''77'''
| RD3-score02-2='''77'''
| RD3-score02-3=

| RD3-seed03=4
| RD3-team03='''{{flagicon|COL}} [[Nicolás Barrientos|N Barrientos]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Benjamin Kittay|B Kittay]]'''
| RD3-score03-1='''78'''
| RD3-score03-2='''6'''
| RD3-score03-3=
| RD3-seed04=
| RD3-team04={{flagicon|NED}} [[Max Houkes|M Houkes]] {{flagicon|NED}} [[Niels Visker|N Visker]]
| RD3-score04-1=66
| RD3-score04-2=3
| RD3-score04-3=

| RD4-seed01=3
| RD4-team01={{flagicon|FRA}} [[Arthur Reymond|A Reymond]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Luca Sanchez|L Sanchez]]
| RD4-score01-1=69
| RD4-score01-2=5
| RD4-score01-3=
| RD4-seed02=4
| RD4-team02='''{{flagicon|COL}} [[Nicolás Barrientos|N Barrientos]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Benjamin Kittay|B Kittay]]'''
| RD4-score02-1='''711'''
| RD4-score02-2='''7'''
| RD4-score02-3=
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.protennislive.com/posting/2026/7808/mdd.pdf Main draw]

{{DEFAULTSORT:2026 Bengaluru Open - Doubles}}
[[Category:2026 ATP Challenger Tour|Bengaluru Open - Doubles]]
[[Category:Bengaluru Open|2026 Doubles]]

Manasi Salvi

2026-05-04T14:38:28Z

GrettaDumaresq4:

{{short description|Indian television actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Manasi Salvi
| image = Manasi Salvi.jpg
| caption = Salvi in 2013
| birth_name = Manasi Salvi
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Mumbai | Bombay]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Actress]]
| known_for = {{ubl|''[[Aashirwad (TV series) | Aashirwad]]''|''[[Kohi Apna Sa]]''|''[[Awaz – Dil Se Dil Tak]]''|''Aakrosh''|''[[Sati...Satya Ki Shakti]]''|''[[Asambhav (TV series) | Asambhav]]''|''[[Pyaar Ka Dard Hai Meetha Meetha Pyaara Pyaara]]''|''[[Doli Armaano Ki]]''|''[[Woh Apna Sa]]''|''[[Kaay Ghadla Tya Ratri?]]''}}
| years_active = 1996–present
| spouse = {{marriage|Hemant Prabhu|2005|2016|end=divorce}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=ABP News |title=TV actress Manasi Salvi and Hemant Prabhu heading for DIVORCE |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/tv-actress-manasi-salvi-and-hemant-prabhu-heading-for-divorce-336413 |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=ABP Live |language=en}}</ref>
| children = Omisha Prabhu (daughter)
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=6}}
}}
'''Manasi Salvi''' is an Indian television actress. She is best known for her roles in ''[[Aashirwad (TV series) | Aashirwad]]'', ''[[Kohi Apna Sa]]'', ''[[Awaz – Dil Se Dil Tak]]'', ''Aakrosh'', ''[[Sati...Satya Ki Shakti]]'', ''[[Asambhav (TV series) | Asambhav]]'', ''[[Pyaar Ka Dard Hai Meetha Meetha Pyaara Pyaara]]'', ''[[Doli Armaano Ki]]'', ''[[Woh Apna Sa]]'' and [[Kaay Ghadla Tya Ratri?]].

==Career==
Salvi played the role of Avantika, Aditya's mother, in [[Star Plus]]'s ''[[Pyaar Ka Dard Hai Meetha Meetha Pyaara Pyaara]]''. She started her career on small screen with [[Zee TV]]'s program ''[[Aashirwad (TV series)|Aashirwad]]'' which led to the role of Khushi, one of the three protagonists, in [[Ekta Kapoor]]'s ''[[Kohi Apna Sa]]''. In 2005, she appeared in the serial ''[[Saarrthi]]'' in which she played a character named Manasvi Goenka. That same year she made her film debut in a [[Marathi language|Marathi]] production produced by ''[[Lata Narvekar]]'' and directed by ''[[Gajendra Ahire]]''.

==Early and personal life==
In January 2005, Salvi married ''Hemant Prabhu'', the director of the weekly drama ''[[Siddhanth (TV series)|Siddhant]]'' that aired on ''[[Star One (TV channel)|Star One]]''. Prabhu also directed Salvi in the TV show ''[[Sati...Satya Ki Shakti]]''.<ref name="Hubby">{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_hubby-calls-the-shots-for-manasi_1031455|title=Hubby calls the shots for Manasi|last=Padukone|first=Chaitanya|date=26 May 2006|newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|accessdate=1 January 2013}}</ref>

In 2008, she gave a birth to their daughter ''Omisha Prabhu''. In 2016, Manasi and Hemant got divorced.<ref>{{cite web |title=Manasi Salvi to end her marriage of 11 years - Times of India ► |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/manasi-salvi-to-end-her-marriage-of-11-years/articleshow/52125323.cms |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

==Filmography==

===Films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Title !! Role
!Ref.
|-
| 2006 || ''Aai Shappath..!''|| Gargi Devki Desai
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aai Shappath..! (2006) Cast - Actor, Actress, Director, Producer, Music Director |url=https://www.cinestaan.com/movies/aai-shappath-21033/cast-crew |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=Cinestaan}}</ref>
|-
| 2011 || ''Sadarakshanaay''|| ACP Vidya Pandit
|{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
|-won Maharashtra state award for best actress
| 2011 ||''Khel Mandala''||Sheetal
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Review: 'Khel Mandala' (Marathi) |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/review-review-khel-mandala-marathi-1681236/amp |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=www.dnaindia.com}}</ref>
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Asa Mee Ashi Tee]]''|| Rhea
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asa Mee Ashi Tee - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/previews/asa-mee-ashi-tee-sachit-patil-pallavi-subhash-manasi-salvi-usha-satish-salvi-amitraj-atul-kamalakar-kale/articleshow/26469319.cms |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|}

===Television===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Show
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1996
| ''Kahan Se Kahan Tak''
|
|
|-
| 1998–2001
| ''[[Aashirwad (TV series)|Aashirwad]]''
| Preeti Choudhary / Preeti Vijay Mansingha
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1999
| [[Aahat (Indian TV series)|''Aahat - The Room Mate : Part 1 & Part 2'']]
|
| rowspan="2" | Episodic
|-
| [[X Zone|''X Zone'' - ''Hairat'']]
| Kavita
|-
| 2000–2001
| ''Kartavya''
| Padma
|
|-
|2000
|''[[Abhalmaya]]''
|
|
|-
| 2001–2003
| ''[[Kohi Apna Sa]]''
| Khushi Vishal Gill
|
|-
| 2003
| ''[[Son Pari]]''
| Chulbuli 229
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2003–2004
| ''[[Kucchh Pal Saath Tumhara]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Awaz - Dil Se Dil Tak]]''
| Sargam
|
|-
| 2004
| ''Aakrosh''
| Suman Ahuja / Suman Abhay Mittal
|
|-
| 2004–2005
| ''[[Prratima]]''
| Prema Ghosh
|
|-
| 2004–2006
| ''[[Saarrthi]]''
| Manasvi Satya Goenka
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2006
| ''[[Sati...Satya Ki Shakti]]''
| Advocate Sati Razdan
|
|-
| ''[[Viraasat (2006 TV series)|Viraasat]]''
| Gargi Kunal Kharbanda
|
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Asambhav (TV series)|Asambhav]]''
| Shubhra Adinath Shastri
|
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Raavan (TV series)|Raavan]]''
| [[Mandodari]]
|
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Pavitra Rishta]]''
| Aashna Digvijay Kirloskar
| Cameo
|-
| 2011–2012
| ''[[Ekach Hya Janmi Janu]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://glamgold.com/zee-marathi-brings-a-brand-new-show-ekach-ya-janmi-janu/|title=Zee Marathi brings a brand new show EKACH HYA JANMI JANU|date=2011-07-28|website=Glamgold Dot Com|language=en|access-date=2020-01-25|archive-date=25 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125091113/https://glamgold.com/zee-marathi-brings-a-brand-new-show-ekach-ya-janmi-janu/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| Shrikant's Ex-wife
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2012
| ''[[SuperCops Vs Super Villains]]''
| Advocate Tanisha
|
|-
| ''[[Sapne Suhane Ladakpan Ke]]''
| Sneha Akash Kumar
| Cameo
|-
| 2012–2014
| ''[[Pyaar Ka Dard Hai Meetha Meetha Pyaara Pyaara]]''
| Avantika Diwan / Avantika Harish Kumar
|
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Hamara Hero Shaktimaan]]''
| Geeta Biswas
|
|-
| 2014
| ''[[Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya (TV series)|Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya]]''
| Manasi
| Cameo
|-
| 2015
| ''[[Doli Armaano Ki]]''
| Urmi Ishaan Sinha
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Bhaage Re Mann]]''
| Riya Raghav Vajpayee
| {{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Ishqbaaaz]]''
| Ketki Vikram Rana
| Cameo
|-
| 2017
| ''[[Ek Aastha Aisi Bhee]]''
| Lakshmi Govind Agarwal
|
|-
| 2017–2018
| ''[[Woh Apna Sa]]''
| Nisha Samar Shukla
| <ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Woh Apna Sa: Manasi Salvi aka 'Nisha' Quits the 'Zee TV' show! |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/woh-apna-sa-manasi-salvi-aka-nisha-quits-the-zee-tv-show-865174 |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=ABP Live |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2018
| ''[[Papa By Chance]]''
| Sucharita Samrat Chopra / Sucharita Harman Batra
| <ref>{{Cite web |last=Master |first=Bollywood |date=2018-08-14 |title=Did not give screen test for Papa By Chance: Manasi Salvi |url=https://bollywoodtales.com/did-not-give-screen-test-for-papa-by-chance-manasi-salvi/ |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=BollywoodTales |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| 2020–2021
| ''[[Kaay Ghadla Tya Ratri?]]''
| IPS Revati Borkar
| <ref>{{Cite web |title=Kay Ghadla Tya Ratri fame Mansi Salvi is excited to team up with friend Sanjay Jadhav after 16 years; read post - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/kay-ghadla-tya-ratri-fame-mansi-salvi-is-excited-to-team-up-with-friend-sanjay-jadhav-after-16-years-read-post/articleshow/80627382.cms |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2021–2022
| ''[[Balika Vadhu 2]]''
| Bhairavi Mehul Chaturvedi
| {{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
|-
| 2023
| ''[[Junooniyatt]]''
| Maheep "Mahi" Indarjeet Mehta
|
|-
| 2023–2025
| ''[[Ghum Hai Kisikey Pyaar Meiin]]''
| Dr. Isha Shantanu Bhosle
|
|-
| 2026–present
| ''[[Mahadev & Sons]]''
| Bhanu Bajpai
|
|}

==Awards==

* Kalakar Award 2002 for Best Actress - ''[[Kohi Apna Sa]]''
* [[Zee Gold Awards|Zee Gold Award 2013]] for Best Supporting Actress - ''[[Pyaar Ka Dard Hai Meetha Meetha Pyaara Pyaara]]''
*Zee Marathi Ustav Natyancha Awards 2020-21 for Best Performance of the Year - ''[[Kaay Ghadla Tya Ratri?]]''{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
* Maharashtra state award for best actress for film Sadarakshanaay.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|4406001|Manasi Salvi}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Salvi, Manasi}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Marathi actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Marathi cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Varman dynasty (Bengal)

2026-04-25T11:08:48Z

GrettaDumaresq4:

{{Short description|Hindu dynasty of Bengal (1035–1150)}}
{{Distinguish|Varman dynasty}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name = Varman Dynasty
|common_name =
|era = [[Medieval India]]
|status =
|event_start =
|year_start = 1035 A.D
|date_start =
|event1 =
|date_event1 =
|event_end =
|year_end = 1150 A.D
|date_end =
|p1 = Chandra dynasty
|flag_p1 =
|p2 =
|flag_p2 =
|s1 = Sena dynasty
|flag_s1 =
|image_flag =
|flag_type =
|image_coat =
|image_map = Ancient Political Divisions.jpg
|image_map_caption = Area ruled by the Varman Dynasty (Comprising the ancient land of [[Vanga Kingdom|Vanga]], [[Anga]] and [[Pundravardhana]])
|capital = [[Bikrampur]], [[Champapuri]]
|common_languages = [[Old Bengali]] [[Sanskrit]]
|religion = Hinduism
|government_type = Monarchy
|leader1 = Vajra Varman
|year_leader1 = Unknown
|leader2 = Jata Varman
|year_leader2 = 1046–1085
|leader3 = Hari Varman
|year_leader3 = 1085–1131
|leader4 = Samala Varman
|year_leader4 = Unknown
|leader5 = Bhoja Varman
|year_leader5 = Unknown
|title_leader = [[Maharaja]]
|legislature =
|}}
The '''Varman Dynasty''' was a [[Hindus|Hindu]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8lpDAAAAYAAJ&q=yadava+varman+dynasty |title=Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute |date=1984 |publisher=I.B. Corporation |language=en}}</ref> dynasty of [[Indian subcontinent]] which ruled Bengal,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FqosAAAAMAAJ&q=yadava+varman+dynasty |title=History of Ancient Bengal |date=1971 |publisher=G. Bharadwaj |language=en}}</ref> and later East Bihar (Anga).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8lpDAAAAYAAJ&q=varman+anga |title=Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute |date=1984 |publisher=I.B. Corporation |page=414}}</ref> The Varmans established their supremacy after replacing the [[Chandra dynasty|Chandra Dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nanda|first=J. N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HsV3cYAvGEEC&dq=varman+dynasty+bengal&pg=PA32|title=Bengal: The Unique State|date=2005|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-149-2|language=en}}</ref> Their capital was at [[Bikrampur]] in present-day [[Munshiganj District|Munshiganj district]] of [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Chakrabarti|first1=Kunal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&dq=varman+dynasty+capital&pg=PA478|title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis|last2=Chakrabarti|first2=Shubhra|date=22 August 2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Majumdar|first=Gayatri Sen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bH8EAAAAYAAJ&q=varman+dynasty|title=Buddhism in Ancient Bengal|date=1983|publisher=Navana|language=en}}</ref>

History of Varman Dynasty is known from three [[Copperplate script|copperplates]] and the [[Bhubaneswar|Bhuvanesvara]] inscription of Bhatta Bhavadeva.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mukherji|first=Shyam Chand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_sfAAAAMAAJ&q=varman+dynasty|title=A Study of Vaisnavism in Ancient and Medieval Bengal, Upto the Advent of Caitanya: Based on Archaeological & Literary Data|date=1966|publisher=Punthi Pustak|language=en}}</ref>

==Origin==
According to the Belava copperplate, the Varman kings claimed to be descended from a branch of the [[Yadava]] dynasty that ruled over Simhapura.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=hJsfAAAAIAAJ&q=yadava+varman+simhapura&dq=yadava+varman+simhapura&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi5-9Hu7IiUAxWJZvUHHdI1O20Q6AF6BAgLEAM#yadava%20varman%20simhapura |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire.-2d ed |last2=Pusalker |first2=Achut Dattatraya |last3=Majumdar |first3=A. K. |date=1966 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |language=en}}</ref>

There was controversy relating to identification and location of Simhapura. R.C Majumdar says, one to the north of [[Salt Range|Salt range]] in Punjab; a second in the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] which has been identified with modern [[Singapur Road Junction railway station|Singapuram]] in Kalinga (northern Orissa) between [[Srikakulam|Chicacole]] and [[Narasannapeta]]; and third in the Radha, generally identified with [[Singur]] of Hooghly district.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rati Tailor |url=http://archive.org/details/riseanddeclineofbuddhisminindiakanailalhazramrml_379_c |title=Rise And Decline Of Buddhism In India Kanai Lal Hazra MRML |pages=136}}</ref> From the [[Lakhamandal|Lakhmandal]] inscription, it is clear that Simhapura was in [[Punjab]] and was ruled by the Varman family, the only other Varman family, who belonged to [[Yadava]] race. There can therefore be hardly any doubt that these Varman rulers were an offshoot of the Yadava-Varman of Simhapura in the [[Punjab]] region.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8lpDAAAAYAAJ&q=varman+yadava+dynasty |title=Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute |date=1984 |publisher=I.B. Corporation |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXtfkkKiwogC&q=Vajravarman |title=Indian Culture |date=1940 |publisher=Indian Research Institute |language=en}}</ref>

The information about Yadava rulers of Simhapura in the [[Yamuna]] valley is extracted from [[Lakhamandal|Lakhmandal]] inscription of princess Ishvara. There has been mentioned of Simhapura kingdom, which spread from the [[Giri River|Giri]]/[[Tons River|Tonse river]] to the [[Ganges|Ganga]] and from [[Lakhamandal|Lakhmandal]] to [[Ambala]] and [[Saharanpur]] in the plains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lal |first=Prem Hari Har |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pm_iAAAAMAAJ&q=Kingdom+giri |title=The Doon Valley Down the Ages |date=1993 |publisher=Interprint |isbn=978-81-85017-64-8 |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
The Varmans most probably came to Bengal in the train of [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]] [[Lakshmikarna|Karna's]] invasion of [[Vanga Kingdom|Vanga]]. According to D.C Ganguly, Vajravarman seems to have invaded southeastern [[Bengal]] from [[Odisha|Orissa]], probably following the same route as [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra Chola's]] army.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1pDAAAAYAAJ&q=vajravarman|title=Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute|date=1984|publisher=I.B. Corporation|language=en}}</ref> It is quite likely that the Vajravarman accompanied [[Lakshmikarna|Karna]], stayed in [[Bengal]], and at an opportune moment carved out an independent [[Realm|Kingdom]] for themselves.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sur|first1=Atul Krishna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0HRAAAAMAAJ&q=varman+dynasty+bengal|title=History and Culture of Bengal|last2=Sur|first2=Atul Kumar|date=1963|publisher=Chuckervertti, Chatterjee|language=en}}</ref>

===Early Rulers===
Vajra Varman was the earliest ruler of this dynasty and victory over [[Vanga Kingdom|Vanga]] was achieved under his leadership.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Division|first=Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wumhDQAAQBAJ&dq=vajravarman&pg=PT193|title=THE GAZETTEER OF INDIA Volume 2|publisher=Publications Division Ministry of Information & Broadcasting|isbn=978-81-230-2265-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Yadav|first=J. N. Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJNHAAAAMAAJ&q=vajravarman|title=Yadavas Through the Ages, from Ancient Period to Date|date=1992|publisher=Sharada Publishing House|isbn=978-81-85616-03-2|language=en}}</ref> According to Mr. R.D Banerjee and Dr. D.C Ganguly Varman Kingdom in Eastern Bengal was founded by Vajravarman.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FqosAAAAMAAJ&q=vajravarman|title=History of Ancient Bengal|date=1971|publisher=G. Bharadwaj|language=en}}</ref> The only record mentioning Vajra Varman's name is the Belava inscription, which praised him only as a [[poet]], brave [[warrior]], and an [[intellectual]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0CsLAQAAIAAJ&q=vajravarman|title=The History of Bengal ...|date=1943|publisher=University of Dacca|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajJRAQAAIAAJ&q=vajravarman|title=Publication|date=1967|publisher=Asiatic Society|language=en}}</ref>

Adideva was minister of Vajra Varman, whose grandson Bhatta Bhavadeva served as the minister of war and peace under King Harivarman.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===Jatavarman===
Jatavarman was the son of Vajravarman and it is believed that Jatavarman accompanied [[Lakshmikarna|Karna]] in latter's expedition of Bengal.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Wahengbam Ibohal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_4dAAAAMAAJ&q=jatavarman+bengal|title=The History of Manipur: An early period|date=1986|publisher=Manipur Commercial Company|language=en}}</ref>

The reference to Jatavarman's marriage with Virashri, daughter of [[Lakshmikarna|Karna]], and to Jatavarman's war with [[Mahishya|Kaivarta]] chief [[Varendra rebellion#The dynasty|Divya]], who wrested northern Bengal from the [[Pala Empire|Palas]], help us in fixing the date of Jatavarman's rise to power sometime in between 1050 and 1075 AD.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajJRAQAAIAAJ&q=jatavarman|title=Publication|date=1967|publisher=Asiatic Society|language=en}}</ref> He attacked [[Varendra]] with a hostility towards [[Buddhism]]. Though the Kaivarta regime there did not suffer any loss, a part of Buddhist monastery of [[Somapura Mahavihara|Somapura]] was destroyed by fire set by Jatavarman's army.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Niharranjan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEBuAAAAMAAJ&q=history+of+Bengali+people+nihar+ranjan+roy |title=History of the Bengali People: Ancient Period |date=1994 |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=978-0-86311-378-9 |pages=185, 331, 353 |language=en }}</ref>

The account of Jatavarman's military conquests is given in the Belava plate of Bhojavarman. Jatavarman's marriage with [[Lakshmikarna|Karna's]] daughter Virashri was significant and was perhaps a great factor in the rise of the political fortunes of the Varman Dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Paul|first=Pramode Lal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8APVAAAAMAAJ&q=jatavarman+bengal|title=The Early History of Bengal: From the Earliest Times to the Muslim Conquest|date=1939|publisher=Indian Research Institute|language=en}}</ref>

Jatavarman's assault on [[Anga]], as mentioned in the Belava plate, must have involved him in a struggle with the [[Pala Empire]] but he made himself powerful in the region after capturing the parts of [[Anga]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sur|first1=Atul Krishna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0HRAAAAMAAJ&q=jatavarman|title=History and Culture of Bengal|last2=Sur|first2=Atul Kumar|date=1963|publisher=Chuckervertti, Chatterjee|language=en}}</ref>

Jatavarman's other two adversaries were Govardhana and [[Jaya Pala|Jayapala]], King of [[Kamarupa]]. He snatched away a part of Pundravardhana, then under the sovereign rule of Kamarupa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baruah |first1=Amlan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xy5uAAAAMAAJ&q=jatavarman |title=Assam State Gazetteer |last2=Choudhury |first2=S. B. Roy |date=1999 |publisher=Editor-in-Chief, District Gazetteers, Government of Assam |pages=115 |language=en}}</ref>

===Harivarman===
Harivarman, under whom Bhatta Bhavadeva of the Bhuvanesvara Prashasti served as the minister of war and peace. On the basis of the colophon of the manuscript it can be assumed that Harivarman had a long reign of 46 years. It confirms to the information of the [[Bhubaneswar|Bhuvanesvara]] inscription, where it is recorded that he ruled for a long time.

Harivaman, having seen [[Ramapala|Ramapala's]] success in recovering northern [[Bengal]], propitiated Ramapala in order to avoid a [[Pala Empire|Pala]] attack on his territory.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bengal (India)|first=West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiFuAAAAMAAJ&q=varman+dynasty+|title=West Bengal District Gazetteers|date=1994|publisher=State editor, West Bengal District Gazetteers|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chatterjee|first=Rama|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xgEYAAAAIAAJ&q=varman+dynasty+bengal|title=Religion in Bengal: During the Pala and Sena Times : Mainly on the Basis of Epigraphic and Archaeological Sources|date=1985|publisher=Punthi Pustak|language=en}}</ref> It is doubtful whether Harivarman extended his rule towards [[Odisha|Orissa]]. There is reference to a son of Harivarman both in the [[Bhubaneswar|Bhuvanesvara]] inscription and [[Vajrayogini]] plate, but hardly anything is known about him.

===Samalavarman===
Samalavarman, another son of Jatavarman, was the next king. His name figures prominently in the genealogical accounts of the Vaidik Brahmins, who are said to have migrated to [[Bengal]] from [[Madhyadesha]] during his reign. There was matrimonial relation between the Varmans and the [[Sri Lanka|Lankan]] King [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu I]]; in all probability Trailokyasundari, daughter of Samalavarman, was married to the [[Lanka]]n king.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kapoor|first=Subodh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8897ridkczoC&dq=varman+dynasty+bengal&pg=PA694|title=Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography|date=2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7755-299-7|language=en}}</ref>

Besides Bhojavarman, King Samalavarman had another son named Udayin, who is said to be a great warrior, whom none could approach in the battlefield.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DVboAAAAMAAJ&q=Udayin+approach |title=Epigraphia Indica |date=1982 |publisher=Manager of Publications |language=en}}</ref>

===Decline===
{{Main|Sena revolution of Bengal}}
Bhoja Varman, son of Samalavarman was the last independent ruler of Varman Dynasty and the Belava plate was issued in his fifth regnal year from the jayaskandhavara situated at [[Bikrampur|Bikramapura]]. He was defeated by [[Vijaya Sena|Vijaysena]] of [[Sena dynasty|Sena Dynasty]] and rule of Varmans over southeast [[Bengal]] came to an end.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Raatan|first=T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvI6W-r3OIAC&dq=varman+dynasty+&pg=PA143|title=Encyclopaedia of North-East India|date=November 2003|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7835-068-4|language=en}}</ref>

==Culture==
===Religion===
The Varmans were followers of [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]]. They centralise the worship of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]], and held hostility towards [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=West|first=Barbara A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&dq=varman+dynasty+&pg=PA96|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|date=19 May 2010|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Munshiganj District]]
[[Category:Rulers of Bengal]]

Upper Tadong Assembly constituency

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GrettaDumaresq4: Adding

{{Short description|Constituency of the Sikkim legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Upper Tadong
| state = [[Sikkim]]
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 25
| established = 2008<ref name=delimitation2008/>
| district = [[Gangtok district|Gangtok]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Sikkim (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sikkim]]
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image = G.T Dhungel.jpg
| mla = [[G. T. Dhungel]]
|party = {{Party index link|Sikkim Krantikari Morcha}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
|latest_election_year = [[2024 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| electors = {{formatnum:10334}}<ref name="ceosikkim">{{cite web |url=https://ceosikkim.nic.in/UploadedFiles/VoterTurnout/Voters%20Turnout%20Vidhan%20Sabha%20Elections%20Sikkim%202019.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219115258/https://ceosikkim.nic.in/UploadedFiles/VoterTurnout/Voters%20Turnout%20Vidhan%20Sabha%20Elections%20Sikkim%202019.pdf|archive-date=19 February 2024 |title=Vidhan Sabha Elections Sikkim 2019 - Voters Turnout Statistical Data|website=ceosikkim.nic.in |publisher= CEO of Sikkim |access-date= 1 January 2021}}</ref> {{update after|2024|05}}

}}
'''Upper Tadong Legislative Assembly constituency''' is one of the 32 [[Sikkim Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Sikkim]] state in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ceosikkim.nic.in/Files/Assembly_block.htm |title=Assembly constituencies Revenue Blocks |access-date=13 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416060808/http://ceosikkim.nic.in/Files/Assembly_block.htm |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

It was created after the passing of the ''Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008'',<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref> and is part of [[Gangtok district]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[2009 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2009]] || Dil Bahadur Thapa || {{Full party name with color|Sikkim Democratic Front}}
|-
| [[2014 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2014]] || Timothy William Basnett || {{Full party name with color|Sikkim Krantikari Morcha}}
|-
| [[2019 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2019]] || rowspan=2 | [[Gay Tshering Dhungel]] || {{Full party name with color|Sikkim Democratic Front}}
|-
| [[2024 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election|2024]] ||{{Full party name with color|Sikkim Krantikari Morcha}}
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2024 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2024 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Upper Tadong}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[G. T. Dhungel]] |party=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |votes=6,209 |percentage=68.46% |change={{increase}}22.98 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Chandra Bahadur Chettri |party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=2,120 |percentage=23.38% |change={{decrease}}27.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Niren Bhandari |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=280 |percentage=3.09% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ravi Gurung |party=Citizen Action Party – Sikkim |votes=245 |percentage=2.70% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kailash Chandra Pradhan |party=Independent politician |votes=158 |percentage=1.74% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=57 |percentage=0.63% |change={{decrease}}0.11 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,089 |percentage=45.09% |change= {{increase}}39.57 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=9,069 |percentage=74.17% |change= {{increase}}1.24 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 12,228 |ref = |change= {{increase}}18.33 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |loser=Sikkim Democratic Front |swing= {{increase}}17.46 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2019 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2019 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Upper Tadong<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-24|title=Sikkim Assembly election results 2019: Full list of winners|url=https://zeenews.india.com/assembly-elections/sikkim-assembly-election-results-2019-full-list-of-winners-2205926.html|access-date=2020-08-15|website=Zee News|language=en|archive-date=6 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106160313/https://zeenews.india.com/assembly-elections/sikkim-assembly-election-results-2019-full-list-of-winners-2205926.html|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Gay Tshering Dhungel]] |party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=3,844 |percentage=51.01% |change={{increase}}4.18 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anand Lama |party=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |votes=3,428 |percentage=45.49% |change={{decrease}}3.12 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Bina Basnett |party=Hamro Sikkim Party |votes=123 |percentage=1.63% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anita Gurung |party=Indian National Congress |votes=69 |percentage=0.92% |change={{decrease}}0.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=56 |percentage=0.74% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=416 |percentage=5.52% |change= {{increase}}3.74 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=7,536 |percentage=72.92% |change= {{decrease}}3.67 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 10,334 |ref = |change= {{increase}}15.44 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Sikkim Democratic Front |loser=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |swing= {{increase}}2.40 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Upper Tadong}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Timothy William Basnett |party=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |votes=3,333 |percentage=48.61% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhasker Basnett |party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=3,211 |percentage=46.83% |change={{decrease}}9.18 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Eli Pal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=155 |percentage=2.26% |change={{increase}}0.41 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tara Kumar Pradhan |party=Indian National Congress |votes=79 |percentage=1.15% |change={{decrease}}36.30 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=79 |percentage=1.15% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=122 |percentage=1.78% |change= {{decrease}}16.78 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,857 |percentage=76.60% |change= {{decrease}}1.47 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 8,952 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Sikkim Krantikari Morcha |loser=Sikkim Democratic Front |swing= {{decrease}}7.40 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2009 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2009 Sikkim Legislative Assembly election]]: Upper Tadong<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2009 to the Legislative Assembly of Sikkim |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2009/Stats_SK_April2009.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404202702/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2009/Stats_SK_April2009.pdf|archive-date=4 April 2014|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Dil Bahadur Thapa |party=Sikkim Democratic Front |votes=3,148 |percentage=56.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Arun Kumar Basnet |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,105 |percentage=37.45% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Depak Rai |party=Independent politician |votes=130 |percentage=2.31% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Padam Prasad Sharma |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=104 |percentage=1.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kharka Singh Gurung |party=Sikkim Himali Rajya Parishad |votes=70 |percentage=1.25% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Garjaman Rai |party=Sikkim Gorkha Party |votes=64 |percentage=1.14% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,043 |percentage=18.56% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=5,621 |percentage=78.07% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 7,200 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Sikkim Democratic Front |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Sikkim Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Gangtok district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Sikkim}}

{{coords|27.320|88.597|display=title}}

[[Category:Gangtok district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Sikkim]]
[[Category:Politics of Sikkim]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Sikkim]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Secunderabad Cantonment Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:02:16Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Pg

{{Short description|Constituency of the Telangana legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Secunderabad Cantonment
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Telangana (71-Secunderabad Cantonment highlighted).png
| map_caption = Location of Secunderabad Cantonment Assembly constituency within Telangana
| established = 1957 to 1977, 2008 to present<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/146-archive-delimitation-orders/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=14 February 2020 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529102849/https://eci.gov.in/files/category/146-archive-delimitation-orders/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| state = [[Telangana]]
| district = [[Hyderabad district, India|Hyderabad]]
| reservation = SC
| electors = 231,004
| mla =[[Sri Ganesh (politician)|Narayanan Sri Ganesh]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Malkajgiri Lok Sabha constituency|Malkajgiri]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = 2024
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 71
}}

'''Secunderabad Cantonment Assembly constituency''' is a constituency of [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]], [[India]]. It is one of 24 constituencies in the capital city of [[Hyderabad]]. It is part of [[Malkajgiri Lok Sabha constituency]].

In 2014, G. Sayanna from the [[Telugu Desam Party]] was elected as MLA by defeating the nearest rival by a 2.60% margin. The incumbent MLA, Shri G. Sayanna, died on 19 February 2023. In the 2023 election, '''G. Lasya Nandita''', daughter of Sayanna, from the BRS party, won the election and became the MLA. However, she died on 23 February 2024 in a road accident on [[Outer Ring Road, Hyderabad|Orr Hyderabad]].

==Extent of the constituency==
The Assembly Constituency presently comprises the following neighbourhoods:
{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
!Mandalas
|-
| '''[[Marredpally]]'''
|-
| '''[[Trimulgherry]]'''
|-
| [[Bolarum]]
|-
| [[Sikh Village]]
|-
| [[Lothkunta]]
|-
| [[Karkhana, Secunderabad|Karkhana]]
|-
| [[Begumpet]] (part)
|-
| [[Rastrapathi Road]] (part)
|-
|}

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Party
|-
! colspan=4| [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| B. Machinder Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| N. A. Krishna
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| S. Satyanarayana
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| D. Narsinga Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
|rowspan=3|[[G. Sayanna]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|-
| [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| [[P. Shankar Rao]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
! colspan=4| [[Telangana]]
|-
| [[2014 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| rowspan=2|[[G. Sayanna]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[2018 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
|-
| [[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| [[G. Lasya Nanditha]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
|-

| [[2024 elections in India|2024^]]
| [[Sri Ganesh (Politician)|Sri Ganesh]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|}

^by-election

==Election results==
===2024 by-election===
{{Election box begin|
|title=[[2024 elections in India#Telangana|Telangana Legislative Assembly by-election, 2024]]: Secunderabad Cantonment<ref name="Turncoat triumphs as Congress regains Secunderabad Cantonment Assembly constituency">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |title=Turncoat triumphs as Congress regains Secunderabad Cantonment Assembly constituency |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/turncoat-triumphs-as-congress-regains-secunderabad-cantonment-assembly-constituency/article68250165.ece |access-date=5 June 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605063703/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/turncoat-triumphs-as-congress-regains-secunderabad-cantonment-assembly-constituency/article68250165.ece |archive-date=5 June 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Sri Ganesh
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 53,651
|percentage = 40.86
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=T. N. Vamsha Tilak|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=40,445|percentage=30.80|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=G Niveditha Sayanna|party=Bharat Rashtra Samithi|votes=34,462|percentage=26.25|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=969|percentage=0.74|change=}}{{Election box majority||votes=13,206|percentage=10.06|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,31,788|percentage=51.93|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharat Rashtra Samithi
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]: Secunderabad Cantonment<ref name="Telangana Assembly Election Results 2023: Secunderabad Cantonment">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Telangana Assembly Election Results 2023: Secunderabad Cantonment |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S2971.htm |access-date=18 November 2024 |date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203131638/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S2971.htm |archive-date=3 December 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Bharat Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = [[G. Lasya Nanditha]]
| votes = 59,057
| percentage = 47.52
| change = {{decrease}}9.18
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Sri Ganesh
| votes = 41,888
| percentage = 33.64
| change = {{increase}}20.34
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Dr. G V Venella
|votes = 20,825
|percentage = 16.72
|change = {{decrease}}7.58
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = None of the above
| candidate = [[None of the Above]]
| votes = 1,220
| percentage = 0.97
| change = {{decrease}}0.36
}}
{{Election box majority|
| votes = 17,169
| percentage = 13.88
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,24,517
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Bharat Rashtra Samithi
| loser =
| swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]: Secunderabad Cantonment<ref>[http://www.indiavotes.com/ac/details/61/42793/266 Secunderabad Cantonment 2018 Results]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = [[G. Sayanna]]
| votes = 65,797
| percentage = 56.7
| change = +21.2
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sarvey Sathyanarayana]]
|votes = 28,234
|percentage = 24.3
|change = +11.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = [[Sri Ganesh (politician)|Sri Ganesh]]
| votes = 15,487
| percentage = 13.30
| change = new
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = None of the above
| candidate = [[None of the Above]]
| votes = 1,571
| percentage = 1.33
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
| votes = 37,563
| percentage = 32.3
| change = +29.7
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,16,144
| percentage = 46.7%
| change = -4.0
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| loser = Telugu Desam Party
| swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

=== 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Secunderabad|Secunderabad Cantt.]]}} <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiavotes.com/ac/details/61/34798/239 |title=Secunderabad Cantonment 2014 Results |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044623/http://www.indiavotes.com/ac/details/61/34798/239 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate =G. Sayanna
|votes = 44,693
|percentage = 35.50
|change = +5.87
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
|candidate = Gajjela Nagesh
|votes = 41,418
|percentage = 32.98
|change = +32.98
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Gajjela Kantham
|votes = 22,136
|percentage = 12.58
|change = -20.84
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 3,275
|percentage = 2.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,25,894
| percentage = 50.7%
| change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Telugu Desam Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Secunderabad Assembly constituency]]
* [[List of constituencies of Telangana Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|17.46|78.49|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Telangana}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Telangana]]
[[Category:Politics of Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Hyderabad district, India]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]

Lucknow Central Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:28:41Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Starting Initial Pg Needs Work

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Lucknow Central
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| type = SLA
| electors = 3,70,629
| district = [[Lucknow district|Lucknow]]
| reservation = None
| constituency_no=174
| loksabha_cons = [[Lucknow Lok Sabha constituency|Lucknow]]
| map_image = 174-Lucknow Central.svg
| mla = [[Ravidas Mehrotra]]
| party = [[Samajwadi Party]]
| alliance=[[Samajwadi Party|SP+]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
}}
'''Lucknow Central''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref> covering the city of Central part of Lucknow in the [[Lucknow district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Lucknow Central is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Lucknow Lok Sabha constituency|Lucknow]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 174 amongst 403 constituencies.

Currently, this seat belongs to the [[Samajwadi Party|SP]] candidate '''Ravidas Mehrotra''' who won in last Assembly election of [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections]] defeating [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] candidate '''Rajnish Kumar Gupta''' by a margin of 10,935 votes.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Lucknow Central Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/lucknow-central.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
!colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1952 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| [[Syed Ali Zaheer]]<ref name="results1951">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3241-uttar-pradesh-1951/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 1971 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=21 April 2023}}</ref>
| rowspan="5" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="5" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 1952^
| Harish Chandra Bajpai
|-
| 1952^
| Ram Shankar Rabivasi
|-
| [[1957 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| rowspan="2" | Mahabir Prasad Srivastava
|-
| [[1962 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|-
| [[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| S. K. Vidyarthi
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]]
|-
| [[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
| Imitiaz Husain
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Kranti Dal}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Kranti Dal]]
|-
| [[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
| Ramesh Chandra Srivastava
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| [[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| Ram Prakash
| style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[Janata Party]]
|-
| [[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| Mohammad Rafi Siddiqui
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
| [[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| Naresh Chandra
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| [[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| rowspan="2" | Basant Lal Gupta
| rowspan="6" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| rowspan="6" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
| [[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
| [[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
| [[Ram Prakash Gupta]]
|-
| [[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Suresh Srivastava]]
|-
| [[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|-
| [[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|-
| [[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
| [[Ravidas Mehrotra]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
| [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| [[Brajesh Pathak]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Ravidas Mehrotra]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Lucknow Central<ref name="results2022">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2022 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=4 March 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Ravidas Mehrotra
|votes = {{formatnum:104488}}
|percentage = 49.62
|change = {{increase}}12.03
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Rajnish Kumar Gupta
|votes = {{formatnum:93553}}
|percentage = 44.43
|change = {{increase}}4.23
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Ashish Chandra
|votes = {{formatnum:6181}}
|percentage = 2.94
|change = {{decrease}}9.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Sadaf Jafar
|votes = {{formatnum:2927}}
|percentage = 1.39
|change = {{decrease}}5.24
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:960}}
|percentage = 0.46
|change = {{increase}}0.04
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:10935}}
|percentage = 5.19
|change = {{increase}}2.58
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:210567}}
|percentage = 56.81
|change = {{increase}}3.66
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Samajwadi Party
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = +3.90
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Lucknow Central<ref name="results2017">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3471-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2017 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=26 March 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Brajesh Pathak]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:78400}}
|percentage = 40.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Ravidas Mehrotra]]
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = {{formatnum:73306}}
|percentage = 37.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Rajeev Srivastava
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:24313}}
|percentage = 12.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Abdul Maroof Khan
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:12921}}
|percentage = 6.63
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Mohammad Irfan
|party = All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
|votes = {{formatnum:2314}}
|percentage = 1.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:824}}
|percentage = 0.42
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:5094}}
|percentage = 2.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:195025}}
|percentage = 53.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Samajwadi Party
|swing = +8.03
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Uttar Pradesh state assembly election]]: Lucknow Central<ref name="results2012">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3262-uttar-pradesh-2012/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2012 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=20 April 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[Ravidas Mehrotra]]
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 62,622
|percentage = 37.05
|change = +6.67
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[Vidya Sagar Gupta]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 39,890
|percentage = 23.60
|change = -11.19
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Fakhir Siddiqui
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 35,623
|percentage = 21.08
|change = +5.17
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Mohammad Naseem Siddiqui
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 23,956
|percentage = 14.17
|change = -1.48
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 22,732
|percentage = 13.45
|change = +9.04
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 1,69,019
|percentage = 50.91
|change = +22.56
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Samajwadi Party
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = +8.93
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2007===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2007 Uttar Pradesh state assembly election|U. P. Assembly Election, 2007]]: Lucknow Central}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[Suresh Kumar Srivastava]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 30,872
|percentage = 34.79
|change = -4.15
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[Ravidas Mehrotra]]
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 26,962
|percentage = 30.38
|change = +3.85
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Manjoor Ahmad
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 14,123
|percentage = 15.91
|change = +1.84
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Nagendra Mohan
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 13,892
|percentage = 15.65
|change = +5.88
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 3,910
|percentage = 4.41
|change = -8.00
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 88,721
|percentage = 28.35
|change = -3.54
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = -0.15
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2002===
{{Election box begin | title=U. P. Assembly Election, 2002: Lucknow Central}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[Suresh Kumar Srivastava]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 37,388
|percentage = 38.94
|change = -20.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Banware Lal Kanchal
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 25,473
|percentage = 26.53
|change = -3.07
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Sushil Dubey
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 13,513
|percentage = 14.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Mohammad Gayasuddin Hashmi
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 9,381
|percentage = 9.77
|change = -0.63
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[Kusum Rai]]
|party = Rashtriya Kranti Party
|votes = 6,622
|percentage = 6.90
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 11,915
|percentage = 12.41
|change = -17.2
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 96,021
|percentage = 31.89
|change = -11.32
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = -8.60
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1996===
{{Election box begin | title=U. P. Assembly Election, 1996: Lucknow Central}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Suresh Kumar Srivastava
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 72,338
|percentage = 59.21
|change = +5.15
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Waliullah Javed
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 36,171
|percentage = 29.60
|change = -5.60
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Umesh Chandra
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 12,705
|percentage = 10.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 36,167
|percentage = 29.61
|change = +10.75
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 1,22,179
|percentage = 43.21
|change = -8.89
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = +5.37
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1993===
{{Election box begin | title=U. P. Assembly Election, 1993: Lucknow Central}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Ram Prakash
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 63,396
|percentage = 54.06
|change = -2.09
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Vinod Behari Verma
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 41,278
|percentage = 35.20
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Mohammad Rafi Siddiqui
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 8,528
|percentage = 7.27
|change = -9.04
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Kamal Khan
|party = Janata Dal
|votes = 1,415
|percentage = 1.21
|change = -0.58
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Vinod Kumar Singh
|party = Shiv Sena
|votes = 630
|percentage = 0.54
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 22,118
|percentage = 18.86
|change = -13.36
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 1,17,262
|percentage = 52.10
|change = +21.28
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1991===
{{Election box begin | title=U. P. Assembly Election, 1991: Lucknow Central}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Basant Lal Gupta
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 43,744
|percentage = 56.15
|change = +21.39
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Musheer Ahmad Lari
|party = Janata Party
|votes = 18,644
|percentage = 23.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Naresh Chandra
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 10,607
|percentage = 13.61
|change = -11.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Abdul Hakeem
|party = Janata Dal
|votes = 1,394
|percentage = 1.79
|change = -27.9
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Sayed Sikander Abbas Rizvi
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 1,181
|percentage = 1.52
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 25,100
|percentage = 32.22
|change = +27.1
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 77,911
|percentage = 30.82
|change = +6.28
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1989===
{{Election box begin | title=U. P. Assembly Election, 1989: Lucknow Central}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Basant Lal Gupta
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 21,272
|percentage = 34.76
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Musheer Ahmad Lari
|party = Janata Dal
|votes = 18,151
|percentage = 29.66
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Naresh Chandra
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 13,758
|percentage = 22.48
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Ram Kishor Sharma
|party = Communist Party of India
|votes = 1,550
|percentage = 2.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 3,121
|percentage = 5.10
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 61,204
|percentage = 24.54
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
*[[Lucknow district]]
*[[List of constituencies of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Lucknow]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]

Mon Phagun

2026-04-06T17:38:35Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Starting Some Info W/ Infobox

{{Short description|2021 Indian television series}}
{{Long plot|date=April 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| alt_name =
| genre = {{ubl|[[Drama (film and television)|Drama]]|[[Romance film|Romance]]}}
| creator =
| based_on =
| developer = [[Acropoliis Entertainment]]
| director = {{ubl|Lakhan Ghosh|Soumen Haldar}}
| creative_director = Abir & Proshen
| starring = {{ubl|[[Sean Banerjee]]|Srijla Guha}}
| open_theme =
| end_theme =
| theme_music_composer = Indradeep Dasgupta
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| num_seasons =
| num_episodes = 386
| executive_producer = {{ubl|Arnab|Samajita|Saptara| Shruti}}
| producer = {{ubl|Snigdha Basu|Sani Ghosh Ray}}
| editor = {{ubl|Nilanjan|Arunaditya}}
| cinematography = Animesh Gharui
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = 22 minutes
| company = [[Acropoliis Entertainment]]
| network = [[Star Jalsha]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2021|7|26|df=yes}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2022|8|21|df=yes}}
| image_size =
| story = Snigdha Basu
| screenplay = Jyoti Hazra
| image = Mon phagun.jpeg
}}

'''''Mon Phagun''''' is a 2021 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[romantic drama]] television series which was released in July 2021 on [[Star Jalsha]]. The series is produced by [[Acropoliis Entertainment]]. It stars [[Sean Banerjee]] and Srijla Guha in the lead roles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/actor-sean-banerjee-bags-a-new-project-details-inside/articleshow/81964715.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|title=Actor Sean Banerjee bags a new project|date=8 April 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Srijla Guha to play the lead role in Sean Banerjee starrer 'Mon Phagun' - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/srijla-guha-to-play-the-lead-role-in-sean-banerjee-starrer-mon-phagun/articleshow/81994961.cms|access-date=2021-04-10|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=10 April 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-23|title=Bengali Serial: 'মন ফাগুন' কতটা প্রেমের রং লাগাবে সকলের মনে, জানালেন শন - সৃজলা!|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/sean-banerjee-and-srijla-guha-starrer-mon-phagun-new-bengali-serial-spread-love-everywhere-soc-288270-2021-07-23|website=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref> It ended its telecast on 21 August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mon Phagun: শেষ হতে চলেছে 'মন ফাগুন', কবে হবে শেষ দিনের প্রচার? |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/sean-banerjees-serial-mon-phagun-going-to-end-in-this-month-dgtl/cid/1362256 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |language=bn}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
Rishiraj and Priyadarshini are childhood friends, who fell in love with each other in their youth. They were separated after an accident where Priyadarshini lost her parents.

=== After 20 years===
Priyadarshini has become a tourist guide under the name Pihu Mitra, while Rishiraj, now an industrialist, has renamed himself Rishi Sen. Rishi has adopted Pihu's elder sister, Sudorshini (now known as Rusha) as his own sister. Rishi and Pihu meet in North Bengal, but do not recognize each other. Rishi's family, however, takes an immediate liking to Pihu because of her kind heart and cheerful nature. Pihu's uncle, Anushka's father, becomes seriously ill, but the family cannot afford proper treatment. Around the same time, Pihu loses her job and is left helpless. Rusha offers Pihu a position in Rishi's office, though Rishi is adamantly opposed to employing women. Rusha eventually convinces him. Pihu gets the job and moves into Rishi's home.

Rusha's husband, Soumen, secretly plots to take over Rishi's business and property. He goes to a hotel to smuggle drugs for money, but Pihu catches him. When the media covers the incident, they falsely blame Pihu. To protect her, Rusha demands that Rishi marry Pihu. Rishi and Pihu are forcibly married, but privately agree on a contract stating that they will remain married for only six months. They travel to Bristibari, where Soumen hires goons to kill Rishi, but Pihu saves him. Gradually, Rishi and Pihu begin to trust each other and face numerous challenges together. Later, during a family picnic, Rittik and Soumi try to bring them closer by mixing alcohol into their drinks. While intoxicated, Rishi and Pihu reveal their true identities to each other, and the confession is recorded on Pihu's phone.

Back home, after several days of confusion, Pihu finally tells Rishi that he is her childhood love, Tubai Da. She becomes emotional and goes to his office to tell him she is Priyadarshini. However, before she can speak, Rishi's business partner arrives and demands that Rishi marry his daughter, Priyanka, who loves him. The partner threatens to reclaim all the money he invested, which would cost Rishi his home, business, and everything he owns. Rishi is torn, as he has developed feelings for Pihu. Pihu vows to arrange Rishi and Priyanka's marriage within a month. Priyanka moves into Rishi's home and tries to grow close to him, but he ignores her. Pihu and Rishi expose Soumen's schemes to the family, and Soumen is arrested. Rusha then discovers she is pregnant.

Time passes. Anushka and Rittik fall in love, but Anushka's father arranges her marriage to the son of a friend, who turns out to be a fraud. On the wedding day, Pihu and Rishi reveal the truth, and Anushka marries Rittik instead. On Valentine's Day, the family hosts a large party, where Rishi confesses his love for Pihu and proposes to her. Priyanka pressures the family to force a divorce between Rishi and Pihu. Pihu devises a plan: she signs fake documents instead of the divorce papers, but Rishi does not notice and misunderstands her actions. When the deadline to repay Priyanka's father arrives, the family cannot gather the required funds, and Rishi reluctantly prepares to marry Priyanka. Meanwhile, Pihu records Priyanka's incriminating phone call and blackmails her. She breaks into Priyanka's father's mansion to obtain evidence but is attacked and left unconscious in a bathtub full of water. Rishi, worried for Pihu, searches for her and saves her. With the evidence secured, the wedding is postponed. Distraught, Priyanka attempts suicide and is struck by a car driven by Rishi's grandmother and cousin Uday. Uday falls in love with Priyanka, and they marry that night.

At the wedding ceremony, Rusha's new friend Mayuk appears. Shortly afterward, Pihu leaves the house, hurt by Rishi's misunderstanding over the fake divorce papers. Rishi discovers they were not divorce papers at all and realizes his mistake. He accepts that Pihu is truly Priyadarshini. At the Holi festival, Rishi and Pihu finally confirm their identities to each other and reconcile. Monika Sur, Rishi's father's former assistant and Soumen's sister, returns and frees Soumen from jail. The Sen family prepares for Rishi and Pihu's grand wedding. However, on the wedding day, Rishi's mother returns with a woman claiming to be the real Priyadarshini—a woman who cared for Rishi for many years. Unaware of the deception, Rishi's mother believes her. The impostor is actually Monika Sur's daughter. She convinces the family she is genuine, and Rishi and Pihu's marriage is called off. Rishi again misunderstands Pihu.

Soon, the truth emerges: Pihu is the real Priyadarshini. Rishi and Pihu reunite. But Monika tells Pihu that Rishi's father murdered her parents and that Rishi concealed the truth. She gives Pihu a gun and urges her to kill Rishi. Devastated, Pihu confronts Rishi and attempts to take her own life. Soumen, shocked, shoots at Rishi, but the bullet grazes Pihu instead, and she collapses. Rishi saves her. It is then revealed that Rishi's father, Apritim Sen Sharma, is alive—and innocent. The true culprit was Monika. Rishi's uncle is injured in a bar incident, is mistakenly believed dead, and Rishi is accused and arrested, but Pihu saves him. All complications are resolved, the family reunites, and Rishi and Pihu remarry. Rusha also learns that Pihu is her long-lost sister.

Later, the son of Apritim and Monika returns, intending to kill Rishi and marry Pihu. Rishi, Pihu, Rittik, and Anushka go on a honeymoon arranged by their grandmother, but Rohan (Apritim and Monika's son) changes the destination and brings them to an abandoned house. There, Rohan kills Rishi and pushes him into a river. The family believes Rishi is dead. Four months pass. Pihu, now a renowned tourist guide, goes on a trip when her bus is stopped by goons. Their leader, Romio, looks exactly like Rishi. Shocked, Pihu escapes. Convinced there is a mystery, she searches the village but finds nothing. The Sen family pressures Pihu to marry Rohan. She refuses, and Rohan hires Romio to impersonate Rishi.

In the final confrontation, Rohan captures Pihu and Rusha, but Rishi—alive—rescues them. Pihu asks Romio whether he is truly her Tubai Da. Romio replies that whether he is or is not will not be revealed in this season. The next season.....never came, marking an abrupt end to the show.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mon Phagun: ফিরছে ছোটবেলার প্রেম, পিহু কি চিনতে পারবে তার টুবাইদাকে? |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/childhood-love-is-returning-with-new-mega-mon-phagun-dgtl/cid/1289047 |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |date=25 June 2021|language=bn}}</ref>

== Cast ==
=== Main ===
* [[Sean Banerjee]] as Rishiraj Sen Sharma aka Rishi Sen/Tubai/Fake Romeo<ref>{{cite news|date=21 July 2021|title=Sean shoots in Kalimpong for his new show - Times of India|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/sean-shoots-in-kalimpong-for-his-new-show/articleshow/84616617.cms}}</ref> – an arrogant and ruthless business tycoon, owner of RS Enterprise; Pihu's childhood lover turned husband (2021 – 2022)
** Swarnava Sanyal as young Rishiraj (2021)
* [[Srijla Guha]] as Priyadarshini Sen Sharma (née Mitra) aka Pihu<ref name="others">{{cite news|date=23 July 2021|title=অনুরাগীদের ফুল-চকোলেটে ভর্তি বাস, তবু সৃজিলাকে 'সাহায্য' করতেই ব্যস্ত শন|language=bn|publisher=[[ABP Ananda]]|url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/upcoming-tv-show-mon-phagun-sean-banerjee-and-srijla-guha-shares-their-shooting-experience-in-kalimpong-825029}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=11 April 2021|title=ছোটপর্দায় ফিরছে শন তবে, সাথে নেই অনামিকা|work=Kolkata24x7|url=https://www.kolkata24x7.com/sean-banerjee-paired-up-with-srijla-guha/}}</ref> – a cheerful girl and tourist guide; Rishiraj's childhood lover turned wife (2021 – 2022)
** Preksha Saha as young Pihu (2021)

=== Recurring ===
* Geetashree Roy as Sudarshini Mitra aka Rusha Sen Sur – Pihu's elder sister; Rishi's adoptive sister; Soumen's wife (2021–2022)
* Prantik Banerjee as Soumen Sur – Rusha's husband, Shalini's ex-husband; Pihu and Rishi's former rival;was a smuggler by profession, Monica's biological brother (2021–2022)
* [[Pandab Goenda (2020 TV series)|Rob Dey]] as Ritwik Sen Sharma – Rishi's cousin brother; Anushka's husband (2021 – 2022)
* Amrita Debnath as [[Anushka Sen]] Sharma (née Hazra) – Pihu's cousin sister; Ritwik's wife (2021 – 2022)
* Saswati Guha Thakurta as Pramila Sen Sharma – Rishiraj's grandmother; Apratim, Pratim and Rijula's mother (2021 – 2022)
* [[Kaushik Chakraborty]] as Apratim Sen Sharma – Rishiraj's estranged father (2022)
* [[Sohini Sanyal]] as Madhumanti Sen Sharma – Rishiraj's mother; Apratim's estranged wife (2022)
* Arijit Chowdhury as Pratim Sen Sharma – Apratim's younger brother; Rishi's paternal uncle; Soumi and Ritwik's father (2021 – 2022)
* Shreyasee Samanta as Malobika Sen Sharma – Soumi and Ritwik's mother (2021 – 2022)
* Ananya Sen as Soumi Sen Sharma – Ritwik's younger sister; Rishi's cousin sister (2021 – 2022)
* Ananya Sengupta as Rijula Roy (née Sen Sharma) – Rishi, Soumi and Ritwik's paternal aunt; Tanni and Bambi's mother (2021 – 2022)
* [[Neel Mukherjee (actor)|Neel Mukherjee]] as Somraj Roy – a chartered accountant; Rijula's husband; Tanni and Bambi's father (2021 – 2022)
* Arpita Sarkar as Tanisha Roy / Tanni – Rjula's daughter; Rishi, Soumi and Ritwik's youngest cousin sister (2021 – 2022)
* Gopa Nandy as Namita - Sen Sharma family's maid ()2021-2022)
* Mallika Majumdar<ref name="cast">{{cite news |title='Mon Phagun' actors Sean Banerjee, Srijla Guha and others share their shooting experience in Kalimpong - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/mon-phagun-actors-sean-srijla-and-others-share-their-shooting-experience-in-kalimpong/articleshow/84669125.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=23 July 2021}}</ref> as Mousumi Hazra – Pihu's maternal aunt; Anushka's mother (2021 – 2022)
* [[Biswanath Basu]]<ref name="cast" /> as Paritosh Hazra – Anushka's father (2021 – 2022)
* Mou Bhattacharjee as Minu Pisi – Anushka's paternal aunt (2021)
* Sam Bhattacharya as Rohan Sen Sharma – Monica's estranged son with Apratim, Rishi's rival (2022)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-04 |title='মন ফাগুন'-এ এন্ট্রি নিচ্ছে নতুন নায়ক! ঋষি-পিহুর জীবন তছনছ হবে রোহানের আগমনে? |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/samm-batyacharyya-makes-a-grand-entry-in-star-jalsha-s-mon-phagun-what-will-happen-next-31656929009003.html |access-date=2022-07-06 |website=Hindustan Times Bangla |language=bn}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* Shaon Dey as Monica Sur – Apratim's PA and girlfriend; Soumen's elder sister and Rohan's mother (2022)
* Ankusree Maity as Niharika – Ritwik's business partner and one-sided lover (2022)
* Hritojeet Chatterjee as Dr. Mayukh – Ritwik's cousin, Rusha's love-interest (2022)
* Ritwick Purakait (2022) as Ashutosh- A lawyer, Soumi's love interest
* Oindrila Bose as Priyanka Roy Chowdhury Pri – Judhajit's daughter; Rishi's college friend (2022)
* Debraj Mukherjee as Judhajit Roy Chowdhury – Rishi's business partner; Monica's former peon (2022)
* [[Arunava Dey]] as Uday – Debabrata's paternal grandson, Priyanka's husband (2022)
* [[Aishi Bhattacharya]] as Mili – Fake Priyodorshini, niece of Monica, Pihu's rival (2022)
* [[Sayak Chakraborty]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-09 |title=Sayak Chakraborty joins the cast of Mon Phagun |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/sayak-chakraborty-joins-the-cast-of-mon-phagun/articleshow/91423336.cms |access-date=2023-04-24 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> as Sarthak – Mili's boyfriend (2022)
* Shyamashis Pahari as Ritwik's paternal uncle, Malobika's brother (2022)
* [[Sangita Ghosh]] as Shalini Sur – Soumen's first wife (2022)
* Debojit Sarkar as Ghoton – Soumen's sidekick (2021 – 2022)
* Aritram Mukherjee as Shobhon – Anushka's ex-fiancée; Soumen's crime partner (2022)
* Gora Dhar as Bhabesh Babu – Rishi's manager (2021 – 2022)
* Roshni Tanwi Bhattacharya as Netra-Romeo's childhood friend and lover (2022)
* Suvajit Kar as Bhima-Romeo's cousin brother and rival, who murdered him (2022)
* Rajasree Bhowmick as Romeo's mother (2022)
* Sandip Dey as Romeo's father aka Bhanu- head of Reshamdighi village (2022)
* Boni Mukherjee as Bhima's mother (2022)
* [[Arijita Mukhopadhyay]] as a police officer (2021)

=== Guest appearances ===
* [[Ankush Hazra]] as himself<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2022-02-11|title=Valentine's Day Special Episode of Mon Phagun: মন ফাগুনে ভ্যালেন্টাইন্স ডে স্পেশালে অঙ্কুশ-লগ্নজিতা|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/bengali/west-bengal/sitara/tv-and-theater/ankush-hazra-lagnajita-chakraborty-in-valentines-day-special-episode-of-bengali-serial-mon-phagun/wb20220211115647368|access-date=|website=ETV Bharat News|language=bn}}</ref> (14 February 2022)
* [[Lagnajita Chakraborty]] as herself<ref name=":0" /> (14 February 2022)
* Shovon Gangopadhyay as himself<ref name=":0" /> (14 February 2022)
* [[Koneenica Banerjee]] as Sohochori aka Soi from [[Aay Tobe Sohochori (TV series)|''Aay Tobe Sohochori'']]<ref name=":0" /> (14 February 2022)
* Arunima Haldar as Borfi from [[Aay Tobe Sohochori (TV series)|''Aay Tobe Sohochori'']]<ref name=":0" /> (14 February 2022)
* [[Deblina Chatterjee]] as herself<ref name=":0" /> (14 February 2022)

== Dubbed versions ==
It has been dubbed in Hindi by the name ''Do Dil Mil Rahe Hain'' and telecasted on [[StarPlus]] since 12 June 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-06-13 |title='Mon Phagun' gets dubbed into Hindi |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/mon-phagun-gets-dubbed-into-hindi/articleshow/100966211.cms |access-date= |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Initially, the show did not feature in the top slots of the [[Target rating point|TRP]] leaderboard after its debut and was placed on an average rating on Bengali television for the first five months of its airing. Gradually, however, the show increased in its TRP ratings to ultimately reach 2nd highest rating on television, and was one of the most popular shows on Star Jalsha for a long time. But, its trp rating points dropped in late April and led to the end of the show.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bengali Serial: 'মিঠাই', 'অপরাজিতা অপু'-র জনপ্রিয়তা ছুঁয়ে TRP বদলাতে পারবে 'ধুলোকণা', 'মন ফাগুন'? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/mithai-and-aparajita-apu-serial-timing-clashes-new-mega-dhulokona-mon-phagun-television-updates-will-it-change-trp-list-soc-287879-2021-07-20 |access-date=10 August 2021 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>

=== TRP Ratings ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" | Week
! rowspan="2" | Year
! colspan="2" | [[Broadcast Audience Research Council|BARC]] Viewership
! rowspan="2" | Ref.
|-
! [[Target Rating Point|TRP]]
! Rank
|-
|Week 35
|2021
|6.7
|9
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-09|title=TRP: হাড্ডাহাড্ডি লড়াই 'মিঠাই', 'সর্বজয়া'-র! ফের এগিয়ে এল খড়কুটো|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-35th-week-mithai-remains-topper-sharbojoya-aparajita-apu-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-295985-2021-09-09|website=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 37
|2021
|7.0
|7
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-09-23|title=TRP: সেরার সেরা 'মিঠাই'! শুরুতেই বাজিমাত 'উমা'-র, বিপুল পরিবর্তন বাকি মেগার স্কোরে|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-37th-week-mithai-remains-topper-aparajita-apu-uma-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-299797-2021-09-23|website=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 38
|2021
|6.9
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP তালিকা: আরও কমল 'সর্বজয়া', 'খড়কুটো'র রেটিং; বাজিমাত 'উমা'র, সেরা 'মিঠাই'|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-38-sarbajaya-and-khorjuto-s-trp-dropped-again-uma-continues-to-win-heart-mithai-tops-the-chart-31632994722229.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930115107/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-38-sarbajaya-and-khorjuto-s-trp-dropped-again-uma-continues-to-win-heart-mithai-tops-the-chart-31632994722229.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 September 2021 |work=Hindustan Times Bangla |date=30 September 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 39
|2021
|6.7
|7
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-07|title=TRP: শীর্ষে 'মিঠাই'! অপুকে ফেলে এগিয়ে যমুনা, বাজিমাত 'দাদাগিরি'-র|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-39th-week-mithai-remains-topper-jamuna-dhaki-uma-korunamoyee-rani-rashmoni-top-three-dadagiri-unlimited-scores-well-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-303444-2021-10-07|website=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 40
|2021
|7.1
|5
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-14|title=TRP তালিকা: বিয়েতেই বাজিমাত! প্রথমবার চ্যানেল সেরা 'মন ফাগুন', শীর্ষে সেই মিঠাই|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-40-mon-phagun-enters-top-five-for-the-first-time-mithai-continues-to-rule-the-chart-31634201270980.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014092412/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-40-mon-phagun-enters-top-five-for-the-first-time-mithai-continues-to-rule-the-chart-31634201270980.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 October 2021|website=Hindustan Times Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 41
|2021
|6.1
|8
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-21|title=TRP: 'মিঠাই'-কে কড়া চ্যালেঞ্জ জানাচ্ছে 'যমুনা ঢাকি', আরও কমল 'সর্বজয়া'র রেটিং|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-41-jamuna-dhaki-giving-tough-competition-to-mithai-mon-phagun-out-of-top-5-race-31634806349301.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021094009/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-41-jamuna-dhaki-giving-tough-competition-to-mithai-mon-phagun-out-of-top-5-race-31634806349301.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 October 2021|access-date=|website=Hindustan Times Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 42
|2021
|7.2
|6
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-28|title=TRP List: শীর্ষ স্থান বহাল 'মিঠাই'-র! জোর টক্কর দিয়ে ব্যবধান কমাল 'যমুনা ঢাকি'|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-42nd-week-mithai-top-position-jamuna-dhaki-uma-korunamoyee-rani-rashmoni-aparajita-apu-top-four-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-308942-2021-10-28|website=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 43
|2021
|7.0
|7
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-08|title=TRP: নয়া রেকর্ড 'মিঠাই'-র! চমক দিয়ে জোর টক্কর যমুনা- সর্বজয়ার|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-43rd-week-mithai-top-position-jamuna-dhaki-sharbojoya-uma-top-four-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-312071-2021-11-08|website=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 44
|2021
|6.6
|7
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP তালিকা: চ্যানেল সেরা 'খুকুমণি', মিঠাই-এর নম্বর কমল,প্রথম ১০-এ নেই 'খড়কুটো'!|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-44-khukumoni-home-delivery-claims-spot-in-top-4-mithai-continue-to-dominate-the-list-31636622909797.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111101204/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-44-khukumoni-home-delivery-claims-spot-in-top-4-mithai-continue-to-dominate-the-list-31636622909797.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 November 2021|work=Hindustan Times Bangla |date=11 November 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 45
|2021
|6.9
|7
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: 'মিঠাই'-কে জোড় টক্কর 'উমা', 'যমুনা ঢাকি'-র! সেরা দশে হাড্ডাহাড্ডি লড়াই ৪ মেগার |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-45th-week-mithai-top-position-uma-jamuna-dhaki-sharbojoya-top-four-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-315058-2021-11-18 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |date=18 November 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 46
|2021
|6.6
|10
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: আরও নম্বর বাড়ল 'মিঠাই'-র! চমক দিল 'বরণ', ফিকে 'মন ফাগুন' -র প্রেমের ম্যাজিক |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-46th-week-mithai-scores-top-position-uma-aparajita-apu-jamuna-dhaki-sharbojoya-top-four-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-317249-2021-11-25 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |date=25 November 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 47
|2021
|7.0
|8
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: এবারও সেরা 'মিঠাই'! 'উমা'- 'অপু'দের টক্কর দিয়ে বাজিমাত করল 'খুকুমণি' |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-47th-week-mithai-khukumoni-home-delivery-uma-aparajita-apu-top-four-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-319446-2021-12-02 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |date=2 December 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 48
|2021
|7.5
|5
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: রেকর্ড গড়ে শীর্ষে 'মিঠাই'! বাজিমাত করল 'সহচরী', জোড় টক্কর তিন মেগার |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-48th-week-mithai-top-position-jamuna-dhaki-khukumoni-home-delivery-uma-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-321520-2021-12-09 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |date=9 December 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 49
|2021
|7.9
|5
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP List: সেরা দশে নেই 'খড়কুটো', 'শ্রীময়ী', রাজপাট বজায় রাখল মিঠাই, খুকুমণিরা |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-50-mithai-continues-to-win-hearts-of-bengali-tv-audience-sreemoyee-khorkuto-fails-to-make-a-mark-31639639902304.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216080930/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-50-mithai-continues-to-win-hearts-of-bengali-tv-audience-sreemoyee-khorkuto-fails-to-make-a-mark-31639639902304.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 December 2021 |work=Hindustan Times Bangla |date=16 December 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 50
|2021
|7.8
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: এবারও সেরা 'মিঠাই'! কেমন স্কোর অপু, যমুনাদের? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-50th-week-mithai-top-position-jamuna-dhaki-uma-khukumoni-home-delivery-aparajita-apu-top-five-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-325952-2021-12-23 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |date=23 December 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 51
|2021
|8.0
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title= বছরের শেষ TRP তালিকা, শুরুতেই বাজিমাত 'গাঁটছড়া'র, মিঠাইকে ধরে ফেললো 'খুকুমণি'?|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-51-mithai-holds-onto-number-1-spot-gantchora-enters-top-four-in-first-week-31640851034983.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230110620/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-51-mithai-holds-onto-number-1-spot-gantchora-enters-top-four-in-first-week-31640851034983.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 December 2021|work=Hindustan Times Bangla |date=30 December 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 52
|2021
|8.1
|7
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TV Serial: 'বছরসেরা' হয়েও উদ্বেগে 'মিঠাই'! নম্বরের পার্থক্য কমিয়ে দ্বিতীয় 'খুকুমণি' |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/mithai-is-the-bengal-topper-tv-serial-in-the-new-year-gantchora-is-in-third-position-dgtl/cid/1322254 |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |date=6 January 2022 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 1
|2022
|8.6
|5
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TV Serial: একই নম্বর পেয়ে দ্বিতীয় 'উমা', 'খুকুমণি'! জোড়া আক্রমণে অসহায় 'মিঠাই' |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/mithai-facing-tough-competition-from-uma-and-khukumani-dgtl/cid/1323352 |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |date=13 January 2022|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 2
|2022
|8.1
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP তালিকা: প্রথম সপ্তাহেই বাজিমাত 'আলতা ফড়িং'-এর, ফের কমলো মিঠাই-এর নম্বর! |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-2-2022-alta-phoring-claims-third-spot-on-opening-week-mithai-holds-onto-number-1-spot-but-losses-some-more-pints-31642663955018.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120084144/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-2-2022-alta-phoring-claims-third-spot-on-opening-week-mithai-holds-onto-number-1-spot-but-losses-some-more-pints-31642663955018.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 January 2022 |work=Hindustan Times Bangla |date=20 January 2022 |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 3
|2022
|9.5
|2
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-28|title=TRP List: শীর্ষস্থান হাতছাড়া হল 'মিঠাই'-এর? ঋষি-পিহুর ম্যাজিকের সামনে ফিকে সকলে|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-3-2022-mithai-magic-continues-to-woo-audience-mon-phagun-and-gantchora-claims-number-2-spot-31643354603692.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128080034/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-3-2022-mithai-magic-continues-to-woo-audience-mon-phagun-and-gantchora-claims-number-2-spot-31643354603692.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 January 2022|access-date=|website=Hindustan Times Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 4
|2022
|9.5
|2
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=TRP: অবিশ্বাস্য! শীর্ষে 'গাঁটছড়া', 'আলতা ফড়িং', কোন স্থানে 'মিঠাই'?|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-4th-week-mithai-gantchhora-aalta-phoring-top-position-mon-phagun-dhulokona-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-340320-2022-02-03|access-date=2022-02-04|website=Aaj Tak Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 5
|2022
|9.7
|3
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-10|title=TRP তালিকা: বিরাট অঘটন! এক থেকে সোজা পাঁচে নেমে গেল 'মিঠাই', কারা করল বাজিমাত?|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-5-mithai-slips-to-5th-spot-from-number-1-position-gatchora-tops-the-chart-31644476170138.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210075104/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-5-mithai-slips-to-5th-spot-from-number-1-position-gatchora-tops-the-chart-31644476170138.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 February 2022|access-date=|website=Hindustan Times Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 6
|2022
|9.6
|2
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-17|title=TRP তালিকা: ফের ব্যর্থ মিঠাই! গাঁটছড়া না মন ফাগুন, শীর্ষস্থান দখল করল কে?|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-6-2022-gaatchora-holds-onto-number-1-position-mithai-jumps-to-third-place-31645081198149.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217074611/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-6-2022-gaatchora-holds-onto-number-1-position-mithai-jumps-to-third-place-31645081198149.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 February 2022|access-date=2022-02-17|website=Hindustan Times Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 7
|2022
|9.4
|2
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-24|title=TRP তালিকা: সেরার মুকুট ফের হাতছাড়া 'মিঠাই'-এর! বড়সড় চমক টিআরপি তালিকায়|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-7-2022-mithai-jumps-one-place-to-become-number-2-gaatchora-remains-bengal-topper-31645684359314.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224090703/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-7-2022-mithai-jumps-one-place-to-become-number-2-gaatchora-remains-bengal-topper-31645684359314.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 February 2022|access-date=|website=Hindustan Times Bangla|language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 8
|2022
|8.1
|6
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=TRP: সেরা 'গাঁটছড়া', নম্বর কমল 'মিঠাই'-র! দারুণ ব্যাটিং করল 'লক্ষ্মী কাকিমা...' |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-8th-week-gantchhora-aalta-phoring-mithai-dhulokona-lokkhi-kakima-superstar-top-five-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-television-soc-349945-2022-03-03 |access-date=2022-03-05 |website=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 9
|2022
|8.1
|6
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-10 |title=TRP তালিকা: আরও কমল 'মিঠাই'-এর নম্বর, সেরার সেরা 'গাঁটছড়া', কামাল 'ধুলোকণা'র |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-9-2022-mithai-slips-to-number-4-gaatchora-holds-onto-no-1-position-dhulokona-made-it-to-the-top-2-31646896028972.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310072947/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-9-2022-mithai-slips-to-number-4-gaatchora-holds-onto-no-1-position-dhulokona-made-it-to-the-top-2-31646896028972.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 March 2022 |access-date=2022-03-10 |website=Hindustan Times Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 10
|2022
|9.2
|2
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TV Serial: নম্বর কমেছে 'গাঁটছড়া'র! 'মিঠাই' কি ফের হারানো জায়গা ফিরে পাচ্ছে? |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/gantchora-has-slipped-down-the-rating-chart-while-mithai-climbs-up-again-dgtl/cid/1334093 |access-date=17 March 2022 |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]]}}</ref>
|-
|Week 11
|2022
|8.5
|4
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-24 |title=TRP: এগিয়ে এল 'মিঠাই', সেরার জায়গা হারাল 'গাঁটছড়া'? এ কী হাল 'মন ফাগুন'-এর |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-11-2022-gaatchora-still-holds-no-1-position-mithai-made-it-to-the-top-2-and-mon-phagun-slip-to-4th-position-31648103708451.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326035523/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-11-2022-gaatchora-still-holds-no-1-position-mithai-made-it-to-the-top-2-and-mon-phagun-slip-to-4th-position-31648103708451.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 March 2022 |access-date=2022-04-01 |website=Hindustan Times Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 12
|2022
|8.2
|6
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-31 |title=TRP তালিকা: অপ্রতিরোধ্য 'গাঁটছড়া', গোধূলি আলাপ-কে শুরুতেই রিজেক্ট করল দর্শক! |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-gaatchora-tops-the-chart-again-godhuli-alap-fails-to-impress-audience-on-first-week-31648707066271.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401033806/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-gaatchora-tops-the-chart-again-godhuli-alap-fails-to-impress-audience-on-first-week-31648707066271.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 April 2022 |access-date=2022-04-01 |website=Hindustan Times Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 13
|2022
|6.9
|8
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=TRP: ফের শীর্ষে 'মিঠাই', চমক 'অনুরাগের ছোঁয়া'-র! কত নম্বরে 'গাঁটছড়া'? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-13th-week-mithai-gantchhora-aalta-phoring-anurager-chhowa-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-361725-2022-04-07 |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 14
|2022
|6.6
|10
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=TRP: নম্বর কমল 'মিঠাই', 'গাঁটছড়া'-র! চমক দিল 'গৌরী', কে কোন স্থানে? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-14th-week-mithai-gantchhora-gouri-elo-anurager-chhowa-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-364047-2022-04-14 |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 15
|2022
|5.9
|8
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=TRP: শীর্ষ স্থান হারাল 'মিঠাই'! চমক দিল 'ধুলোকণা', কত স্কোর 'গাঁটছড়া'-র? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-15th-week-gantchhora-dhulokona-mithai-aalta-phoring-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-366340-2022-04-21 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 16
|2022
|6.8
|6
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=অবিশ্বাস্য! টিআরপি তালিকায় যৌথভাবে দ্বিতীয় গাঁটছড়া ও মিঠাই, তাহলে প্রথম হল কে? |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-16-dhulokona-creates-history-beats-mithai-and-gaatchora-to-become-the-bengal-topper-this-week-31651128117323.html |website=Hindustan Times Bangla |date=2022-04-28 |language=bn}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
|Week 17
|2022
|6.8
|5
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=TRP List: রিকি আসার পরেও 'মিঠাই'-এর ভরাডুবি, সেরা কে? 'ধুলোকণা' না 'গাঁটছড়া' |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/trp-list-week-17-dhulokona-is-still-in-number-1-position-mithai-slips-down-to-number-3-and-gaatchora-is-in-number-2-31651820850964.html |website=Hindustan Times Bangla |date=6 May 2022 |language=bn}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
|Week 18
|2022
|6.1
|7
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=TRP: শীর্ষ স্থানে নেই 'ধুলোকণা'! শুরুতেই বাজিমাত 'লালকুঠি'-র, সেরা 'মিঠাই না 'গাঁটছড়া'? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-18th-week-gantchhora-mithai-dhulokona-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-373245-2022-05-12 |access-date=2022-05-12 |website=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 19
|2022
|6.6
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: চমক দিয়ে সেরা দশে রয়েছে ১৭ মেগা! শীর্ষ স্থান দখল করল কে? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-19th-week-gantchhora-mithai-dhulokona-gouri-elo-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-375509-2022-05-19 |access-date=2022-05-19 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 20
|2022
|6.6
|7
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: অনেকটা নম্বর কমল 'ধুলোকণা'-র! জোর টক্কর দিয়ে সেরা 'মিঠাই' না 'গাঁটছড়া'?
|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-20th-week-gantchhora-mithai-dhulokona-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-377778-2022-05-26 |access-date=2022-05-26 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 21
|2022
|6.9
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: নম্বর বেড়ে আরও হাড্ডাহাড্ডি লড়াই খড়ি- মিঠাইদের! কে সেরার সেরা? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-21st-week-gantchhora-mithai-dhulokona-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-week-soc-380015-2022-06-02 |access-date=2022-06-02 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 22
|2022
|7.6
|3
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: শীর্ষে 'মিঠাই'! চমক দিল 'মন ফাগুন', ব্যাপক রদবদল রেটিং চার্টে |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-22nd-week-mithai-mon-phagun-gantchhora-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-382247-2022-06-09 |access-date=2022-06-09 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 23
|2022
|7.0
|4
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: নম্বর কমল 'মিঠাই', 'গাঁটছড়া'-র! চমক দিয়ে দারুণ স্কোর করল 'গৌরী এলো'
|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-23rd-week-mithai-gantchhora-gouri-elo-dhulokona-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-384489-2022-06-16 |access-date=2022-06-16 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 24
|2022
|6.6
|5
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: বিরাট চমক রেটিং চার্টে! শীর্ষে 'আলতা ফড়িং', কেমন স্কোর মিঠাই- খড়িদের?
|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-24th-week-mithai-aalta-phoring-gantchhora-gouri-elo-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-386799-2022-06-23 |access-date=2022-06-23 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 25
|2022
|7.0
|7
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: চমক দিয়ে শীর্ষে 'ধুলোকণা'! এক ঢাক্কায় অনেকটা নামল 'মিঠাই'
|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-25th-week-dhulokona-gantchhora-mithai-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-419360-2022-06-30 |access-date=2022-06-30 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 26
|2022
|7.2
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: বিরাট নম্বর কমে অনেক পিছনে 'মিঠাই'! সেরার সেরা 'ধুলোকণা' |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-26th-week-dhulokona-gantchhora-aalta-phoring-gouri-elo-mithai-lokkhi-kakima-superstar-top-five-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-422003-2022-07-07
|access-date=2022-07-07 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 27
|2022
|6.1
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: চমক 'লক্ষ্মী কাকিমা'-র! প্রথম দশে ১৫ মেগা... মিঠাই, খড়ি, ফুলঝুরিদের স্কোর কত? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-27th-week-dhulokona-lokkhi-kakima-superstar-gouri-elo-mithai-gantchhora-gouri-elo-aalta-phoring-top-four-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-424566-2022-07-14 |access-date=2022-07-14 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 29
|2022
|6.3
|6
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: লক্ষ্মীকে টেক্কা দিয়ে শীর্ষে 'মিঠাই'! বিরাট রদবদল রেটিং চার্টে
|url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-29th-week-mithai-lokkhi-kakima-superstar-gantchhora-gouri-elo-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-429629-2022-07-28 |access-date=2022-07-28 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 30
|2022
|5.9
|8
|<ref>{{cite news |title= TRP: লক্ষ্মীকে পিছনে ফেলে পুরনো ফর্মে 'মিঠাই'! রেটিং চার্টে কোন মেগার স্কোর কত? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-30th-week-mithai-lokkhi-kakima-superstar-aalta-phoring-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-432128-2022-08-04 |access-date=2022-08-04 |work= Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 31
|2022
|6.0
|7
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: শীর্ষে 'মিঠাই', লক্ষ্মীকে পিছনে ফেলে এগিয়ে 'গাঁটছড়া'! রেটিং চার্টে প্রথম দশে ১৫ মেগা |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-31st-week-mithai-gantchhora-lokkhi-kakima-superstar-aalta-phoring-top-three-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-434599-2022-08-11 |access-date=2022-08-11 |work= Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 32
|2022
|6.4
|8
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: ফের হাড্ডাহাড্ডি লড়াই 'মিঠাই'- 'গাঁটছড়া'র! সেরার সেরা কে? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-32nd-week-mithai-gantchhora-gouri-elo-aalta-phoring-lokkhi-kakima-superstar-top-five-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-437459-2022-08-19 |access-date=2022-08-19 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|Week 33
|2022
|6.3
|8
|<ref>{{cite news |title=TRP: দারুণ স্কোর 'মিঠাই'-র! গৌরী, ফড়িংদের ঝুলিতে কত নম্বর? |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/trp-list-2022-33rd-week-mithai-gouri-elo-aalta-phoring-gantchhora-top-four-see-barc-weekly-rating-chart-bangla-serial-soc-439741-2022-08-25 |access-date=2022-08-25 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|}

== Production ==
The shooting again began in the month of June 2021 after the relaxation of the COVID-19 lockdown in [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{cite news |title=কার্শিয়াঙে শ্যুটিংয়ের ফাঁকে শন-কে প্রোপোজ তরুণীর! তার পরে... |url=https://eisamay.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv-news/a-young-lady-proposed-actor-sean-banerjee-in-kurseong-during-mon-fagun-shooting/articleshow/84677599.cms |work=[[Ei Samay]] |date=23 July 2021 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Television Shooting: অবশেষে জট কাটল বৈঠকে! বুধবার থেকে শ্যুটিং শুরু নতুন ধারাবাহিকগুলির |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/television-shooting-updates-new-bengali-serials-mon-phagun-dhulokona-and-others-shooting-resumes-wednesday-after-producers-guild-and-federation-meeting-284738-2021-06-29 |work=Aaj Tak Bangla |date=29 June 2021 |language=bn}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt21822224}}
* [https://www.hotstar.com/in/tv/mon-phagun/1260065605 ''Mon Phagun''] at [[Disney+ Hotstar]]

{{Acropoliis Entertainment Pvt. Ltd.}}

[[Category:2021 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Star Jalsha original programming]]
[[Category:2022 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:Bengali-language television programming in India]]
[[Category:Indian romance television series]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Acropoliis films]]

Adurru

2026-03-30T20:48:09Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new initial post and citations

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Adurru
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| image_skyline = Buddhist Stupa Aduru.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Ruins of a Buddhist stupa at Adurru
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 14
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|16.478552|N|81.954523|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Konaseema district|Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Konaseema]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of mandals in Andhra Pradesh|Mandal]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Mamidikuduru]]
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="DCHB_2011"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 5.61
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 4145
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="DCHB_2011"/>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 533247
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Adurru''' is a village and a 2nd-century CE [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] archaeological site<ref name=kaushik2016>Garima Kaushik (2016), Women and Monastic Buddhism in Early South Asia, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-1-317-32939-8}}, Appendix Table 4: Buddhist stupa sites in India, with Ayala projections</ref> in the [[Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Konaseema district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]], India. It is located in the [[Mamidikuduru Mandal]], on the western bank of Vainateya, a [[distributary]] of the [[Godavari River]],<ref name="JKK_2013">{{cite book |author=J. Krishna Kumari |title=Buddhist Monuments: Their Role in the Development of Tourism in Andhra Pradesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0tbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA276 |year=2013 |publisher=Readworthy |isbn=978-81-935345-6-4 |page=276 }}</ref> around 9.5 km from the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref name="TH_VVS_ignored"/>

== Buddhist site ==

Adurru is the location of an ancient Buddhist site, which is situated on a mound locally known as Dubaraju Gudi<ref name="PRRR_1984">{{cite book |author=P. R. Ramachandra Rao |title=Andhra Sculpture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIToAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Akshara |page=101 }}</ref> or Dubaraju Dibba.<ref name="PRRR_1984"/> The site was first excavated in 1925,<ref name="JKK_2013"/> and declared a protected monument by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI) in 1955.<ref name="TH_VVS_ignored"/> Till 1960, people [[animal sacrifice|sacrificed animals]] at the mound during a two-day annual festival called ''Dubaraju Teertham'', which was held on 13–14 January on the occasion of ''[[Makar Sankranti|Sankranti]]''. However, when the ruins were confirmed to be a former Buddhist site, the site was taken over by the ASI, and all sacrifices were banned.<ref>{{cite book |title=Census of India, 1961: Andhra Pradesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fccAQAAMAAJ |publisher=Office of the Registrar General |year=1964 |page=66}}</ref>

The ruins of a large [[stupa]] (''maha-stupa''), besides other artifacts, have been discovered at the site. A 2015 ''[[The Hindu]]'' news report, citing the historical evidence found by ASI, claims that the foundation stone for the Adurru Buddhist structure was laid by [[Sanghamitra]], the daughter of the [[Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]], on her way to [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name="TH_VVS_ignored">{{cite news |author=VVS Bhaskar |title=Adurru Buddhist site lies ignored |newspaper=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/adurru-buddhist-site-lies-ignored/article7992854.ece |date=15 December 2015 }}</ref> In contrast, Garima Kaushik in a 2016 comprehensive list of Buddhist stupa sites in Andhra Pradesh and nearby regions, dates this monastic archaeological site to about 2nd-century CE.<ref name=kaushik2016/>

== Demographics ==

According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Adurru covers an area of 5.61 km2., with a population of 4,145, including 2,096 males and 2,049 females. 1420 people belonging to the [[Scheduled Castes]] and 47 people belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]]. 992 of the villagers are illiterate.<ref name="DCHB_2011">{{cite web |title=District Census Handbook – East Godavari |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2814_PART_B_DCHB_EAST%20GODAVARI.pdf |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |access-date=11 December 2018 |pages=516–518 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Buddhist holy sites in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Stupas in India]]
[[Category:Villages in Mamidikuduru mandal]]

Daud (film)

2026-03-27T13:59:13Z

GrettaDumaresq4: small changes

{{About|the movie named Daud|the Islamic prophet|David in Islam}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Daud
| image = Daud poster.jpg

| caption = Poster
| director = [[Ram Gopal Varma]]
| producer = Ram Gopal Varma [[Jhamu Sughand]]
| writer = Kanan Ayar [[Sanjay Chhel]] Ram Gopal Varma
| narrator =
| based_on = {{based on|[[Kshana Kshanam]]|Ram Gopal Varma}}
| starring = [[Sanjay Dutt]] [[Urmila Matondkar]] [[Paresh Rawal]] [[Manoj Bajpayee]]
| music = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cinematography = [[Rasool Ellore]]
| editing = Bhanodaya
| distributor = Murlimanohar Creations
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1997|8|22}}
| runtime = 174 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}77.5 million<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/05/stories/2006050502280200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309144309/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/05/stories/2006050502280200.htm |archive-date=9 March 2007 |title=Tamil Nadu / Chennai News: Study at Rajiv Menon's institute |date=5 May 2006 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=4 February 2012}}</ref>
| gross = {{INR}}147.9 million<ref name="auto"/>
}}
'''''Daud''''' ({{IPA|hi|d̪ɔːɽ}}; {{Translation|''Run''}}) is a 1997 Indian Hindi-language [[Road movie|road]] [[adventure comedy film]] written and directed by [[Ram Gopal Varma]], starring [[Sanjay Dutt]] and [[Urmila Matondkar]], with music composed by [[A. R. Rahman]]. The film was based on Ram Gopal Varma's 1991 Telugu film ''[[Kshana Kshanam]]'', which starred [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]], [[Sridevi]] and [[Paresh Rawal]]. ''Daud'' was not commercially successful.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-04 |title=When Ram Gopal Varma confessed being ‘selfish’ with Urmila Matondkar; recalled their ‘biggest problem’: ‘I just couldn’t accept…’ |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/when-ram-gopal-varma-confessed-being-selfish-with-urmila-matondkar-recalled-their-biggest-problem-9816058/ |access-date=2025-02-04 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |quote=However, despite its quirky charm, Daud didn’t quite click at the box office.}}</ref>

==Plot==
The affable Nandu is a small-time crook who is hired to deliver a mysterious package to a notorious criminal named Pinky. Feeling that he is being cheated out of his delivery fee, Nandu holds out for more money, and soon finds himself on the run from both the angry gangsters and the police, who have launched a massive manhunt.

Nandu and Bhavani, the lovely cabaret dancer who's tagging along for the ride, assume the package contains gold; both are unpleasantly surprised when it turns out to be something deadlier: a nuclear bomb.

==Cast==
* [[Sanjay Dutt]] as Nandu/Uma Parvati
* [[Urmila Matondkar]] as Bhavani/Daya Shankar
* [[Paresh Rawal]] as Pinky
* [[Neeraj Vora]] as Chacko
* [[Ashish Vidyarthi]] as Nair
* [[Manoj Bajpayee]] as Pushkar
* [[Vineet Kumar]] as Inspector Sri
* [[Narsing Yadav]] as Inspector Rana
* [[Jeetu Shastri]] as Joseph
* [[Rajeev Mehta]] as Khurana
* [[Rana Jung Bahadur]] as Commissioner of police
* [[Sumukhi Pendse]] as Suvarna

==Reception==
[[Anupama Chopra]] of ''[[India Today]]'' wrote, "Despite the flaws, Daud makes for fun-watching."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chopra |first1=Anupama |author-link1=Anupama Chopra |title=Great Timepass |url=http://www.india-today.com/itoday/01091997/cinema.html |access-date=23 October 2020 |work=[[India Today]] |date=1 September 1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010715005314/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/01091997/cinema.html |archive-date=15 July 2001}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==

{{Infobox album||
| name = Daud
| type = [[Soundtrack]]
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 6 June 1997
| recorded = [[Panchathan Record Inn]]
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = [[Tips Industries Limited|Tips]]
| producer = [[A.R. Rahman]]
| prev_title = [[Iruvar]]
| prev_year = 1997
| next_title = [[Ratchagan]]
| next_year = 1997
}}

The score and soundtrack were composed by [[A. R. Rahman]], who also scored ''[[Rangeela (1995 film)|Rangeela]]''. The lyrics were written by [[Mehboob (lyricist)|Mehboob]], except for the song "Daud" which was penned by [[Sukhwinder Singh]]. One of the songs, "Zehreela Pyar" came heavily under the censor scanner for its rather bold picturization.

The soundtrack was re-released in Tamil as a non-film album titled ''Ottam'' and was dubbed in Telugu as ''50–50''.

===Hindi - Original version===
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_lyrics = [[Mehboob (lyricist)|Mehboob]], except where noted

| title1= Daud
| extra1 = [[Remo Fernandes]]
| length1 = 5:51
| note1 = Lyricist:[[Sukhwinder Singh]]

| title2 = Zehreela Pyar
| extra2 = [[Asha Bhosle]] & [[Dheena Chandra Dhas|Deena Chandra Das]]
| length2 =5:57

| title3 = Shabba Shabba (movie version)
| extra3 = [[Swarnalatha]] (Original version), [[Ranu Mukherjee]](Movie version), [[Sonu Nigam]] & [[Neeraj Vora]]
| length3 = 7:42
| lyrics3 =

| title4 = Shabba Shabba (album version)
| extra4 = Ranu Mukherjee, [[Sonu Nigam]] & [[Neeraj Vora]]
| length4 = 7:42
| lyrics4 =

| title5 = The Thump of Daud
| extra5 = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| length5 = 3:22

| title6 = Yeh Jaan
| extra6 = [[Kavita Krishnamurthy]] & [[Vinod Rathod]]
| length6 = 6:52

| title7 = O Bhavre
| extra7 = [[K. J. Yesudas]] & [[Asha Bhosle]]
| length7 = 6:08
| lyrics7 =

| title8 = Daud (Bhangra)
| extra8 =[[Usha Uthup]]
| length8 = 5:51

| title9 = Oh! Sai Yaiye
| extra9 = [[Asha Bhosle]] & [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
| length9 =8:50
}}

===50–50 (Telugu dubbed version)===
{{Infobox album|
|
| name = 50-50
| type = [[Soundtrack]]
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 10 July 1997
| recorded = [[Panchathan Record Inn]]
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = [[Tips Industries Limited|Tips]]
| producer = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| prev_title = [[Iruvar]]
| prev_year = 1997
| next_title = [[Ratchagan]]
| next_year = 1997
}}

All songs were written by [[Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry]] & [[Suddala Ashok Teja]]

{| class="wikitable tracklist" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Song !! Artist(s) !! Length
|-
| 1
| "Parugu Parugu Ra"
| [[Vandemataram Srinivas]] & [[Remo Fernandes]]
| 5:51
|-
| 2
| "Kasirepi"
| [[K. S. Chithra]], Deena Chandra Das
| 5:57
|-
| 3
| "Shabba Shabba"
| [[Swarnalatha]], [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] & Srinivas Murthy
| 7:42
|-
| 4
| "The Thump of Daud"
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
| 3:22
|-
| 5
| "Ee Praayam Needhe Ra"
| [[K. S. Chithra]] & [[P. Unnikrishnan]]
| 6:52
|-
| 6
| "O Meghamaa"
|[[Sujatha Mohan]], [[Unni Menon]], [[Asha Bhosle]]
| 6:08
|-
| 7
| "Sy Saiyyante"
| Swarnalatha, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam & Asha Bhosle
| 8:50
|}

===Ottam (Tamil dubbed version)===

{{Infobox album|
|
| name = Ottam
| type = [[Soundtrack]]
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 5 July 1997
| recorded = [[Panchathan Record Inn]]
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = [[Tips Industries Limited|Tips]]
| producer = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| prev_title = [[Iruvar]]
| prev_year = 1997
| next_title = [[Ratchagan]]
| next_year = 1997
}}

Though the Tamil dubbed version of the film remains unreleased, the soundtrack album released.

{| class="wikitable tracklist" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Song !! Artist(s) !! Length !! Lyrics
|-
| 1
| "Ottam Thaan"
| [[Mano (singer)|Mano]] & Remo Fernandes
| 5:51
| [[Vairamuthu]]
|-
| 2
| "Sooriyanaai"
| [[K. S. Chithra]] & Deena Chandra Das
| 5:57
| [[Palani Bharathi]]
|-
| 3
| "The Thump of Daud"
| A. R. Rahman
| 3:22
| Instrumental
|-
| 4
| "Shabba Shabba"
| [[Swarnalatha]], [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] & Srinivasa Murthy
| 7:42
| Palani Bharathi
|-
| 5
| "En Kadhal Neruppe"
| [[P. Unnikrishnan]] & K. S. Chithra
| 6:52
| Vairamuthu
|-
| 6
| "Poonthendrale"
| [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[Sujatha Mohan]] & [[Asha Bhosle]]
| 6:08
| Palani Bharathi
|-
| 7
| "Oh! Vandhaale"
| Swarnalatha & S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
| 8:50
| Palani Bharathi
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0118931|Daud}}

{{Ram Gopal Varma}}
{{A. R. Rahman}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Daud (Film)}}
[[Category:Indian road movies]]
[[Category:Indian chase films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ram Gopal Varma]]
[[Category:Indian black comedy films]]
[[Category:Films set in India]]
[[Category:Films shot in China]]
[[Category:Indian drama road movies]]
[[Category:Films scored by A. R. Rahman]]
[[Category:1997 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:Films shot in New Zealand]]

Loyola Academy, Chennai

2026-03-25T16:01:03Z

GrettaDumaresq4: redirect created

#REDIRECT [[List of Jesuit educational institutions#Tamil Nadu 2]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

Ninnu Kori

2026-03-18T06:05:07Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new first pg basic info...

{{short description|2017 Indian film directed by Shiva Nirvana}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Ninnu Kori
| image = Ninnu Kori poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Shiva Nirvana]]
| producer = [[D. V. V. Danayya]]
| screenplay = [[Kona Venkat]]
| story = Shiva Nirvana
| starring = [[Nani (actor)|Nani]] [[Nivetha Thomas]] [[Aadhi Pinisetty]]
| music = [[Gopi Sunder]]
| cinematography = [[Karthik Gattamneni]]
| editing = [[Prawin Pudi]]
| studio = [[DVV Entertainments]] Kona Film Corporation
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2017|07|07|ref1=<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/previews/ninnu-kori-movie-review-box-office-collection-ninnu-kori-story-trailer-songs-ninnu-kori-review-collection/articleshow/59487942.cms|title=Ninnu Kori Movie Review, Box Office Collection, Story, Trailer, Cast & Crew|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=10 October 2017}}</ref>}}
| runtime = 137 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget = {{INR|18 [[crore]]|link=yes}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hooli|first=Shekhar H.|date=2017-07-11|title=Ninnu Kori worldwide box office collection: Shiva Nirvana's film turns biggest money spinner in Nani's career|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/ninnu-kori-worldwide-box-office-collection-shiva-nirvanas-film-turns-biggest-money-spinner-734180|access-date=2020-06-28|website=International Business Times, India Edition|language=en}}</ref>
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INR|52.3 crore}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/tollywood-2017-15-highest-grossing-telugu-movies-year-baahubali-2-khaidi-no-150-jlk-dj-753526|title=Tollywood in 2017: 15 highest grossing Telugu movies of the year - Baahubali 2, Khaidi No 150, JLK, DJ and others|work=IB Times|date=17 December 2017}}</ref>
}}

'''''Ninnu Kori''''' ({{translation|Wanting you}}) is a 2017 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romance film|romantic]] [[comedy drama film]] directed by debutant [[Shiva Nirvana]] from a screenplay written by [[Kona Venkat]]. Produced by [[DVV Danayya]] under [[DVV Entertainments]], the film stars [[Nani (actor)|Nani]], [[Nivetha Thomas]] and [[Aadhi Pinisetty]] while [[Murali Sharma]] and [[Tanikella Bharani]] play supporting roles.<ref>{{cite news|first=Krishna|last=Vamsi|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/nivetha-thomas-elated-to-pair-up-with-nani-again-3733400/|title= Nivetha Thomas elated to pair up with Nani again|date=2 November 2016|newspaper=The Indian Express|access-date=11 August 2019}}</ref> [[Gopi Sunder]] composed the music. [[Prawin Pudi]] and [[Karthik Ghattamaneni]] are the editor and cinematographer of the film respectively.<ref>{{cite web|author=Krishna Vamsi |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/nani-sets-stage-for-another-entertainer-with-nivetha-thomas-4393154/ |title=Nani's new movie launched |website=indianexpress.com|date=24 November 2016 }}</ref>

The plot revolves around Uma (Nani), Pallavi (Thomas), and Arun (Pinisetty). When Uma declines her proposal to elope, Pallavi marries Arun and emigrates to the US. Uma who still is in love with Pallavi also lands up in the US a year later in the hope of getting her back.

The film was commercially successful, grossing over {{Indian Rupee}}52 [[crore]] at the [[box office]]. A [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language remake titled [[Thalli Pogathey (film)|''Thalli Pogathey'']] was released in 2021.

== Plot ==
On the day of her first wedding anniversary, Pallavi travels from [[San Francisco]] to [[Los Angeles]] under the pretext of running errands for the anniversary party. Unbeknownst to her husband, Arun, she goes to meet Uma, her former lover.

One and a half years earlier in [[Visakhapatnam|Vizag]], Pallavi was a student aspiring to record a dance performance to show her family post-marriage. Lacking natural talent, she seeks help from Uma Maheswara Rao, a young [[statistics]] student and orphan, who agrees for a large fee as he needs the money. Uma not only helps Pallavi with dancing but also supports her in confronting a bully. They eventually fall in love.

Pallavi arranges for Uma to stay in her family’s penthouse, where he starts tutoring and earns the money he needs. When her family begins looking for marriage alliances, Pallavi asks Uma to elope with her. He agrees but later reconsiders after seeing Pallavi’s father, Chandramouli, lecture a boy about the responsibilities of marriage, emphasizing how important it is to be well-educated and settled in life.

Determined to secure a future, Uma asks Pallavi to let him pursue a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[New Delhi]]. She tearfully agrees. Over the next few months, Pallavi ignores Uma’s attempts to contact her and eventually marries Arun after her family arranges the match. A year later, Pallavi learns from [[Professor|Prof.]] Murthy that Uma has fallen into depression and alcoholism. Feeling responsible, she travels to Los Angeles to meet him.

In Los Angeles, Pallavi tells Uma she is happily married and does not wish to reunite with him. Uma disagrees, insisting she still loves him and is unhappy with Arun. Back in San Francisco, Pallavi tells Arun about her encounter and suggests inviting Uma to stay with them for 10 days to prove her happiness. Uma agrees on the condition that if he fails to see the love between her and Arun, she must leave with him. Pallavi reluctantly agrees.

Uma's presence creates tension, as he mocks their relationship, annoying Pallavi. Arun's colleagues, however, like Uma, despite his pessimistic nature offending some. The situation becomes more complicated when Chandramouli and his son-in-law, Lovababu, unexpectedly visit San Francisco. Uma is introduced as Arun’s old classmate and promises Pallavi to keep his true purpose hidden. Chandramouli, suspecting Pallavi’s happiness, had come to find her former lover after learning from her friend Kavitha about her past relationship.

Uma indirectly helps Chandramouli and Lovababu discover the truth. When interrogated, Kavitha fabricates a story, saying Pallavi's lover is married, and Pallavi assures her father she is happy. During a trip to [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]] for Arun’s business meeting, Pallavi discovers Arun's [[infidelity]] after seeing him hug another woman. During a phone call with Arun's father, Chandramouli learns that Uma and Arun are not friends. Then he learns about Uma and Pallavi's relationship by confirming with Kavitha.

Pallavi confronts Arun, who lies again, confirming his infidelity. She confides in Uma, who believes she now wants to be with him. However, when Chandramouli tells Uma he wishes to get Pallavi married to him, Uma informs Chandramouli about Arun's past with Christie, a friend from his [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]] days. An introverted Arun befriended Christie who later fell in love with him. When she proposed love, he rejected her after which she attempted suicide and became a drug addict. Feeling guilty and responsible, Arun frequently meets her to help her recuperate. Arun explains to Uma that the reason he even allowed Uma to stay at their house was to prevent Uma from heading towards a similar path of self-destruction.

Realizing Pallavi should stay with Arun, Uma stages a scenario making himself appear negative to Pallavi, coaxing her to recognize Arun's integrity. Arun prepares to leave, but Pallavi stops him, clearing their misunderstanding. They reaffirm their love for each other. Heartbroken, Uma leaves, shattered.

A year later, Uma visits Vizag and meets Pallavi and Arun, who now have a daughter. He reveals he has come to meet a girl he met online, hoping to settle and marry.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Nani (actor)|Nani]] as Dr. P. Uma Maheswara Rao "Uma"
*[[Nivetha Thomas]] as Pallavi
*[[Aadhi Pinisetty]] as Arun
*[[Murali Sharma]] as Chandramouli, Pallavi's father
*[[Tanikella Bharani]] as Murthy, Uma's mentor
*[[Balireddy Pruthviraj|Prudhviraj]] as Lovababu, Pallavi's brother-in-law
*[[Rajashree (actress)|Rajasree Nair]] as Pallavi's mother
*[[Mounica]] as Pallavi's elder sister
*[[Vidyullekha Raman]] as Dr. Kavitha, Pallavi's friend
*[[Sudharshan]]
*Seshadri Sridhara as Debaseesh, Dr. Kavitha's Husband
*Kedar Shankar as Arun's father
*Sivakumar Ramachandravarapu
*Vineet Chandra
*Anirudh Kasturi as Suresh, Arun's friend
}}

== Music ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Ninnu Kori
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Gopi Sunder]]
| cover =
| border = yes
| alt =
| caption = Soundtrack cover
| released = 27 June 2017
| recorded = 2017
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length = 16:17
| language = Telugu
| label = [[Saregama]]
| producer = [[Gopi Sunder]]
| prev_title = [[Role Models (2017 film)|Role Models]]
| prev_year = 2017
| next_title = [[Tiyaan]]
| next_year = 2017
}}

Music of the film was composed by [[Gopi Sunder]]. This is his third collaboration with [[Nani (actor)|Nani]].

{{track listing
| all_writing =
| all_lyrics =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Adiga Adiga
| length1 = 3:48
| lyrics1 = Srijo
| extra1 = [[Sid Sriram]]
| title2 = Unnattundi Gundey
| length2 = 5:07
| lyrics2 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
| extra2 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]]
| title3 = Once Upon A Time Lo
| length3 = 3:54
| lyrics3 = [[Bhaskarabhatla Ravi Kumar|Bhaskarabatla]]
| extra3 = Arun Gopan
| title4 = Hey Badhulu Cheppavey
| length4 = 3:28
| lyrics4 = [[Ananta Sriram]]
| extra4 = [[Haricharan]]
| title5 = Ninnu Kori
| length5 = 2:20
| lyrics5 = Shiva Nirvana
| extra5 = Arun Gopan
| title6 =
| length6 =
| title7 =
| length7 =
| title8 =
| length8 =
| title9 =
| length9 =
| title10 =
| length10 =
| title11 =
| length11 =
| title12 =
| length12 =
| title13 =
| length13 =
| title14 =
| length14 =
| title15 =
| length15 =
| title16 =
| length16 =
| title17 =
| length17 =
| title18 =
| length18 =
| title19 =
| length19 =
| title20 =
| length20 =
| total_length =
}}

== Release ==
''Ninnu Kori'' was released on 7 July 2017. Later, a Hyderabad-Mumbai based production company, Aditya Movies bought the Hindi dubbing rights of the film. It is dubbed into Hindi as ''Aaj Ka Khiladi'' in 2020 which is to have a direct premiere on TV channel. Sony Networks bought the satellite rights of the Hindi dubbed version.

== Reception ==
Sowmya Shruthi of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated three out of five and wrote "''Ninnu Kori'' is an entertainer with lots of drama and emotion with just the right amount of laughter thrown in," while adding that "Nani, Aadhi and Nivetha breathe life in their characters and you can't think of anybody else playing those roles with such ease and conviction."<ref>{{Citation|title=Ninnu Kori Review {3/5}: The movie is an entertainer with lots of drama and emotion with just the right amount of laughter thrown in|newspaper=The Times of India |date=7 July 2017|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/ninnu-kori/movie-review/59487381.cms|access-date=2020-09-07}}{{Rating|3|5}}</ref>

''[[Firstpost]]''<nowiki/>'s Hemanth Kumar gave 3.5/5 and praised the film for its well written characters. "''Ninnu Kori'' is a character-driven film and Shiva Nirvana invests plenty of time in developing each of the characters who have to deal with their share of pain and turbulence in their lives", Kumar stated. He also added that "[the film] drives home the notion that love is transient and that in pursuit of happiness, you learn to move on from your past."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-07-07|title=Ninnu Kori movie review: Nani, Nivetha Thomas in a slice-of-life drama about love and life |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ninnu-kori-movie-review-nani-nivetha-thomas-in-a-slice-of-life-drama-about-love-and-life-3786513.html|access-date=2020-09-07|website=Firstpost}}{{Rating|3.5|5}}</ref>

Sangeetha Devi Dundoo writing for ''[[The Hindu]]'' opined that "The film is a contemporary take on relationships."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dundoo|first=Sangeetha Devi|date=2017-07-07|title='Ninnu Kori' review: A dose of maturity|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/ninnu-kori-is-a-contemporary-take-on-relationships-helped-by-good-performances/article19232231.ece|access-date=2020-09-07|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Priyanka Sundar of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' rated two stars out of five, by writing "Shiva Nirvana has presented a love story which initially looked refreshing, but as minutes pass by, the film is too much of stretch with a few laughs thrown in."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-07-08|title=Ninnu Kori movie review: Aadhi's performance is impressive, while there is nothing new about Nani|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/ninnu-kori-movie-review-nani-aadhi-pinisetty-nivetha-thomas-star-rating-4740201/|access-date=2020-09-07|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}{{Rating|2|5}}</ref>

== Awards and nominations ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Nominee
!Result
!Ref
|-
| rowspan="4"| 17 December 2017
| rowspan="4"| [[Zee Cine Awards Telugu]]
| Entertainer Of The Year – Male
| [[Nani (actor)|Nani]]
| {{won}}
| rowspan="4"|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/zee-telugu-golden-awards-2017-nomination-list-baahubali-2-gets-highest-nods-will-prabhas-get-753807|title=Zee Telugu Golden Awards 2017 nomination list: Baahubali 2 gets highest nods, will Prabhas get an award?|website=International Business Times|date=19 December 2020|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/zee-telugu-golden-awards-2017-winners-list-photos-755196|title=Zee Telugu Golden Awards 2017 winners list and photos.|website=International Business Times|date=1 January 2018|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref>
|-
| Entertainer Of The Year – Female
| [[Nivetha Thomas]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| Favorite Music Director
| [[Gopi Sundar]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| Favorite Song
| "Adiga Adiga"
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="3"| 16 June 2018
| rowspan="3"| [[65th Filmfare Awards South]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu|Best Actress – Telugu]]
| Nivetha Thomas
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="3"|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/nominations-for-the-65th-jio-filmfare-awards-south-2018_-28652.html|title=Nominations for the 65th Jio Filmfare Awards (South) 2018|website=[[Filmfare]]|date=4 June 2018|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref>
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – Telugu|Best Supporting Actor – Telugu]]
| [[Aadhi Pinisetty]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu|Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu]]
| [[Sid Sriram]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="3"| 14 & 15 September 2018
| rowspan="3"| [[7th South Indian International Movie Awards]]
| [[SIIMA Award for Best Supporting Actor (Telugu)|Best Supporting Actor (Telugu)]]
| Aadhi Pinisetty
| {{won}}
| rowspan="3"|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/siima-awards-2018-telugu-kannada-nomination-list-out-date-place-7th-edition-revealed-777016|title=SIIMA Awards 2018 - Telugu, Kannada nomination list out: Date, place of 7th edition revealed|website=International Business Times|date=5 August 2018|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/siima-awards-live-update-check-out-see-tollywood-sandalwood-winners-list-780619|title=SIIMA Awards 2018 Telugu Kannada winners list live updates: Baahubali 2 and Rajakumara turn best movies [Photos]|website=International Business Times|date=16 September 2018|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref>
|-
| [[SIIMA Award for Best Music Director (Telugu)|Best Music Director (Telugu)]]
| Gopi Sundar
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[SIIMA Award for Best Male Playback Singer (Telugu)|Best Male Playback Singer (Telugu)]]
| Sid Sriram
| {{nom}}
|-
|}

== Remakes ==
''Ninnu Kori'' was remade in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''[[Thalli Pogathey (film)|Thalli Pogathey]]'' in 2021 by [[R. Kannan]] starring [[Atharvaa]], [[Anupama Parameswaran]] and [[Amitash Pradhan]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/atharvaas-thalli-pogathey-trailer-on-october-9/articleshow/78536674.cms|title = Atharvaa's Thalli Pogathey trailer on October 9|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt6996016}}

[[Category:2017 films]]
[[Category:2017 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Gopi Sundar]]
[[Category:Foreign films set in the United States]]
[[Category:Films shot in the United States]]
[[Category:2017 romantic comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Telugu films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:2017 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Films shot in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Films shot in Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Films set in Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Films directed by Shiva Nirvana]]
[[Category:Films produced by D. V. V. Danayya]]

Sanskrit

2026-03-15T15:26:16Z

GrettaDumaresq4: page updated

{{Short description|Ancient Indo-Aryan language of South Asia, mainly Indian subcontinent}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date =April 2020}}
{{Use Indian English| date= June 2013}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Sanskrit
| nativename = {{lang|sa|संस्कृत}}, {{lang|sa|संस्कृतम्}} {{IAST|Saṃskṛta-}}, {{IAST|Saṃskṛtam}}
| region = South Asia (ancient and medieval), parts of Southeast Asia (medieval), mainly Indian subcontinent
| revived = There are no known native speakers of Sanskrit.<ref name=patrick-mccartney-5-10-20/><ref name=patrick-mccartney-5-11-20/><ref name=sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit/><ref name="Lowe2017"/><ref name="Ruppel2017">{{cite book|last=Ruppel|first=A. M.|title=The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|year=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-08828-3|page=2|quote=The study of any ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech}}</ref><ref name="KachruKachru2008">{{cite book|last=Annamalai|first=E. |editor=Braj B. Kachru |editor2=Yamuna Kachru |editor3=S. N. Sridhar |title=Language in South Asia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEMYC&pg=PA223|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-46550-2|pages=223–|chapter=Contexts of multilingualism|quote=Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages.}}</ref>
| era = {{circa}} 1500–600 BCE (Vedic Sanskrit);<ref>{{cite book|author=Uta Reinöhl |title=Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nR_4CwAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-873666-0|pages=xiv, 1–16}}</ref> 700 BCE – 1350 CE (Classical Sanskrit)<ref>{{harvnb|Masica|1993|p=55}}: "Thus Classical Sanskrit, fixed by Panini's grammar in probably the fourth century BC on the basis of a class dialect (and preceding grammatical tradition) of probably the seventh century BC, had its greatest literary flowering in the first millennium AD and even later, much of it therefore a full thousand years after the stage of the language it ostensibly represents."</ref>
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| ancestor = [[Vedic Sanskrit]]
| script = [[Devanagari script]] (present day). Originally orally transmitted. Not attested in writing until the 1st century BCE, when it was written in the [[Brahmi script]], and later in various [[Brahmic scripts]].{{efn|name=Salomon1998-epigraphy-book|"In conclusion, there are strong systemic and paleographic indications that the Brahmi script derived from a Semitic prototype, which, mainly on historical grounds, is most likely to have been Aramaic. However, the details of this problem remain to be worked out, and in any case, it is unlikely that a complete letter-by-letter derivation will ever be possible; for Brahmi may have been more of an adaptation and remodeling, rather than a direct derivation, of the presumptive Semitic prototype, perhaps under the influence of a preexisting Indian tradition of phonetic analysis. However, the Semitic hypothesis is not so strong as to rule out the remote possibility that further discoveries could drastically change the picture. In particular, a relationship of some kind, probably partial or indirect, with the protohistoric Indus Valley script should not be considered entirely out of the question." {{harvnb|Salomon|1998|p=30}} }}<ref name="JainCardona2007-script1">{{cite book|last=Jain|first=Dhanesh |editor=George Cardona |editor2=Dhanesh Jain |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA51|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79711-9|pages=47–66, 51|chapter=Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages |quote=In the history of Indo-Aryan, writing was a later development and its adoption has been slow even in modern times. The first written word comes to us through Asokan inscriptions dating back to the third century BC. Originally, Brahmi was used to write Prakrit (MIA); for Sanskrit (OIA) it was used only four centuries later (Masica 1991: 135). The MIA traditions of Buddhist and Jain texts show greater regard for the written word than the OIA Brahminical tradition, though writing was available to Old Indo-Aryans.}}</ref><ref name="JainCardona2007-script2">{{cite book |last=Salomon |first=Richard |author-link=Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies) |editor=George Cardona |editor2=Dhanesh Jain|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79711-9 |pages=67–102 |chapter=The Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages |quote=Although in modern usage Sanskrit is most commonly written or printed in Nagari, in theory, it can be represented by virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts, and in practice it often is. Thus scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla, and Oriya, as well as the major south Indian scripts, traditionally have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit. Sanskrit, in other words, is not inherently linked to any particular script, although it does have a special historical connection with Nagari.}}</ref>
| nation = India (state-additional official){{Efn|It is one of 22 [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule languages]] for which the Constitution mandates development.}}
*[[Himachal Pradesh]]
*[[Uttarakhand]]
| iso1 = sa
| iso2 = san
| iso3 = san
| image = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter 1.20.21.jpg
| photo2a = Sanskrit College 1999 stamp of India.jpg
| spacing = 1
| color_border = white
| color = white
| size = 280
| image_alt =
| foot_montage = (top) A 19th-century illustrated Sanskrit manuscript from the [[Bhagavad Gita]],<ref name="Mascaró2003">{{cite book |last=Mascaró|first=Juan|title=The Bhagavad Gita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCNbVIC&pg=PT13|year=2003 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-044918-1 |pages=13 ff |quote=The Bhagawad Gita, an intensely spiritual work, that forms one of the cornerstones of the Hindu faith, and is also one of the masterpieces of Sanskrit poetry. (from the backcover)}}</ref> composed {{circa|400-200 BCE}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Besant |first=Annie (trans) |author-link=Annie Besant |title=The Bhagavad-gita; or, ''The Lord's Song'', with text in Devanagari, and English translation |chapter=Discourse 1 |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bhagavad-Gita_(Besant_4th)/Discourse_1 |year=1922 |publisher=G. E. Natesan & Co. |location=Madras |quote=प्रवृत्ते शस्त्रसम्पाते धनुरुद्यम्य पाण्डवः ॥ २० ॥ Then, beholding the sons of Dhritarâshtra standing arrayed, and flight of missiles about to begin, ... the son of Pându, took up his bow,(20) हृषीकेशं तदा वाक्यमिदमाह महीपते । अर्जुन उवाच । ...॥ २१ ॥ And spake this word to Hrishîkesha, O Lord of Earth: Arjuna said: ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=The Bhagavadgītā: With an introductory essay, Sanskrit text, English translation, and notes |year=1948 |publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd. |location=London |page=86 |quote= ...'' pravyite Sastrasampate'' ''dhanur udyamya pandavah'' (20) Then Arjuna, ... looked at the sons of Dhrtarastra drawn up in battle order; and as the flight of missiles (almost) started, he took up his bow. ''hystkesam tada vakyam'' ''idam aha mahipate'' ... (21) And, O Lord of earth, he spoke this word to Hrsikesha (Krsna): ... }}</ref> (bottom) The 175th-anniversary stamp of [[Sanskrit College and University|Sanskrit College, Calcutta]], the third oldest. The oldest college was founded as [[Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya|Benares Sanskrit College]] in 1791.
}}
| imagesize =
| imagecaption =
| glotto = sans1269
| glottorefname = Sanskrit
| notice = IPA
| notice2 = IPA
| minority = South Africa{{Efn|Sanskrit is a "Protected Language" as per the Constitution, Chapter 1(6)(5)(b)(¡¡)<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions|url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions|website=gov.za|access-date=6 December 2014}}</ref>}}
| lc1 = cls
| ld1 = [[#Classical Sanskrit|Classical Sanskrit]]
| lc2 = vsn
| ld2 = [[Vedic Sanskrit]]
}}

'''Sanskrit''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|n|s|k|r|ᵻ|t}}; stem form {{lang|sa|संस्कृत}};<ref name="Comrie2018-cardona-luraghi-1">{{cite book |last1=Cardona |first1=George |last2=Luraghi |first2=Silvia |editor=Bernard Comrie |title=The World's Major Languages |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lR9WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT497 |year=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-29049-0 |pages=497– |chapter=Sanskrit |quote=''Sanskrit'' (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') ... It is in the ''[[Ramayana]]'' that the term ''saṃskṛta-'' is encountered probably for the first time with reference to the language.}}</ref><ref name="wright-sanskrit-first">{{cite journal |last=Wright |first=J.C. |title=Reviewed Works: ''Pāṇini: His Work and Its Traditions. Vol. I. Background and Introduction'' by George Cardona; ''Grammaire sanskrite pâninéenne'' by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=53 |issue=1 |year=1990 |pages=152–154 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S0041977X0002156X |jstor=618999 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/618999 |quote=The first reference to 'Sanskrit' in the context of language is in the ''[[Ramayana]]'', Book 5 (Sundarkanda), Canto 28, Verse 17: अहं ह्यतितनुश्चैव वनरश्च विशेषतः // '''वाचं'''चोदाहरिष्यामि मानुषीमिह '''संस्कृताम् ''' // १७ // [[Hanuman]] says, 'First, my body is very subtle, second I am a monkey. Especially as a monkey, I will use here the human-appropriate Sanskrit speech / language.'}}</ref> nominal singular {{lang|sa|संस्कृतम्}}, {{IAST|saṃskṛtam}},<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ashtadhyayi |url=https://ashtadhyayi.com/sutraani/8/3/5 |access-date=2024-12-30 |website=ashtadhyayi.com}}</ref><ref name="Apte1957-59">{{cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivaram |title=Revised and enlarged edition of Prin. V.S. Apte's ''The practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' |year=1957 |publisher=Prasad Prakashan |location=Poona |page=1596 |quote=from संस्कृत saṃskṛitə [[Participle#Types of participle|past passive participle]]: Made perfect, refined, polished, cultivated. -तः -tah A word formed regularly according to the rules of grammar, a regular derivative. -तम् -tam Refined or highly polished speech, the Sanskṛit language; संस्कृतं नाम दैवी वागन्वाख्याता महर्षिभिः ("named sanskritam the divine language elaborated by the sages") from [[Kavyadarsha|Kāvyadarśa]].1. 33. of [[Daṇḍin]] |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/apte_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4&searchhws=yes}}</ref>{{efn|"dhārayan·brāhmaṇam rupam·ilvalaḥ saṃskṛtam vadan..." – The Rāmāyaṇa 3.10.54 – said to be the first known use of ''saṃskṛta'' with reference to the language.{{sfn|Cardona|1997|p=557}}}}) is a [[classical language]] belonging to the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages]].<ref name="Woodard12">{{cite book |author=Roger D. Woodard |title=The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas |year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-68494-1 |pages=1–2 |quote=The earliest form of this 'oldest' language, Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BCE. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family – Proto-Indo-European. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC}}</ref><ref name="Bauer2017p90" /><ref name="Ramat2015p26" /> It arose in northwest South Asia,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-14 |title=Sanskrit language {{!}} Origin, History, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> deriving from Indo-Aryan languages that [[Cultural diffusion|diffused]] from the northwest in the late [[Bronze Age#South Asia|Bronze Age]].<ref name="Dyson2018-14-15">{{cite book |last=Dyson |first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |year=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|pages=14–15 |quote=Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an 'Aryan invasion', or such an invasion is also questionable, it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}}</ref><ref name="TurnerSalemink2014">{{cite book |last=Pinkney |first=Andrea Marion |editor=Bryan S. Turner |editor2=Oscar Salemink |title=Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-63646-5 |pages=38– |chapter=Revealing the Vedas in 'Hinduism': Foundations and issues of interpretation of religions in South Asian Hindu traditions |quote=According to [[Asko Parpola]], the Proto-Indo-Aryan civilization was influenced by two external waves of migrations. The first group originated from the southern Urals (c. 2100 BCE) and mixed with the peoples of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC); this group then proceeded to South Asia, arriving around 1900 BCE. The second wave arrived in northern South Asia around 1750 BCE and mixed with the formerly arrived group, producing the Mitanni Aryans (c. 1500 BCE), a precursor to the peoples of the ''Ṛgveda''. [[Michael Witzel]] has assigned an approximate chronology to the strata of Vedic languages, arguing that the language of the ''Ṛgveda'' changed through the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, which started in the Northwest (Punjab) around 1000 BCE. On the basis of comparative philological evidence, Witzel has suggested a five-stage periodization of Vedic civilization, beginning with the ''Ṛgveda''. On the basis of internal evidence, the ''Ṛgveda'' is dated as a late Bronze Age text composed by pastoral migrants with limited settlements, probably between 1350 and 1150 BCE in the Punjab region. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7qbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38}}</ref> Sanskrit is the [[sacred language]] of [[Hinduism]] and classical [[Hindu philosophy]] and religion and the liturgical language of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]. It was a [[lingua franca]] in ancient and medieval South Asia, and, as Hindu and Buddhist culture spread to Southeast East and [[Central Asia]] in the [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval era]], it became a language of religion, [[high culture]] and the political elites in some of these regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Michael C. Howard|2012|p=21|quote=Sanskrit was another important lingua franca in the ancient world that was widely used in South Asia and in the context of Hindu and Buddhist religions in neighboring areas as well. ... The spread of South Asian cultural influence to Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia meant that Sanskrit was also used in these areas, especially in a religious context and political elites.}}</ref><ref name="Pollock2006">{{cite book |last=Pollock |first=Sheldon |title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India |year=2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24500-6 |page=14 |quote=Once Sanskrit emerged from the sacerdotal environment ... it became the sole medium by which ruling elites expressed their power ... Sanskrit probably never functioned as an everyday medium of communication anywhere in the cosmopolis—not in South Asia itself, let alone Southeast Asia ... The work Sanskrit did do ... was directed above all toward articulating a form of ... politics ... as celebration of aesthetic power. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CMskDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}}</ref> As a result, Sanskrit had a lasting effect on the languages of South, Southeast and parts of Eastern Asia, especially in their formal and learned vocabularies.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=62–64}}

Sanskrit generally connotes several [[Indo-Aryan languages#Old Indo-Aryan|Old Indo-Aryan]] language varieties.<ref name="Comrie2018-cardona-luraghi-2">{{cite book |last1=Cardona |first1=George |last2=Luraghi |first2=Silvia |editor=Bernard Comrie |title=The World's Major Languages |year=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-29049-0 |pages=497– |chapter=Sanskrit |quote=''Sanskrit'' (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') refers to several varieties of Old Indo-Aryan whose most archaic forms are found in [[Vedas|Vedic texts]]: the ''Rigveda (Ṛgveda), Yajurveda, Sāmveda, Atharvaveda'', with various branches. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lR9WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT497}}</ref><ref name="Woolner1986p3">{{cite book |author=Alfred C. Woolner|year=1986|title=Introduction to Prakrit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IwE16UFBfdEC |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0189-9 |pages=3–4 |quote=If in 'Sanskrit' we include the Vedic language and all dialects of the Old Indian period, then it is true to say that all the Prakrits are derived from Sanskrit. If on the other hand 'Sanskrit' is used more strictly of the Panini-Patanjali language or 'Classical Sanskrit,' then it is untrue to say that any Prakrit is derived from Sanskrit, except that Sauraseni, the Midland Prakrit, is derived from the Old Indian dialect of the Madhyadesa on which Classical Sanskrit was mainly based.}}</ref> The most archaic of these is the [[Vedic Sanskrit]] found in the [[Rigveda]], a collection of 1,028 hymns composed between 1500 and 1200 BCE by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from the mountains of what is today northern [[Afghanistan]] across northern [[Pakistan]] and into northwestern India.<ref name="Lowe2015">{{cite book |last=Lowe |first=John J. |title=Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms |year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-100505-3 |pages=1–2 |quote=It consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2}}</ref><ref name="Mair2006-RVmigration">{{cite book |last=Witzel |first=Michael |editor=Victor H. Mair |title=Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World |year=2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2884-4 |pages=158–190, 160 |chapter=Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations |quote=The Vedas were composed (roughly between 1500-1200 and 500 BCE) in parts of present-day Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and northern India. The oldest text at our disposal is the ''Rgveda (RV)''; it is composed in archaic Indo-Aryan (Vedic Sanskrit). |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-OilJCX1moC&pg=PA160}}</ref> Vedic Sanskrit interacted with the preexisting ancient languages of the subcontinent, absorbing names of newly encountered plants and animals; in addition, the [[Proto-Dravidian language|ancient Dravidian languages]] influenced Sanskrit's [[phonology]] and [[syntax]].<ref name="Shulman2016">{{cite book |last=Shulman |first=David |title=Tamil |year=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97465-4 |pages=17–19 |quote=(p. 17) Similarly, we find a large number of other items relating to flora and fauna, grains, pulses, and spices—that is, words that we might expect to have made their way into Sanskrit from the linguistic environment of prehistoric or early-historic India. ... (p. 18) Dravidian certainly influenced Sanskrit phonology and syntax from early on ... (p 19) Vedic Sanskrit was in contact, from very ancient times, with speakers of Dravidian languages, and that the two language families profoundly influenced one another. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19}}</ref> ''Sanskrit'' can also more narrowly refer to [[Classical Sanskrit]], a refined and standardized grammatical form that emerged in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the most comprehensive of ancient grammars,{{efn|"All these achievements are dwarfed, though, by the Sanskrit linguistic tradition culminating in the famous grammar by Pāṇini, known as the Aṣṭhādhyāyī. The elegance and comprehensiveness of its architecture have yet to be surpassed by any grammar of any language, and its ingenious methods of stratifying out use and mention, language and metalanguage, and theorem and metatheorem predate key discoveries in western philosophy by millennia."<ref name=Evans-2009>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Evans (linguist) |title=Dying Words: Endangered languages and what they have to tell us |year=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-23305-3 |pages=27– |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjXnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27}}</ref>}} the ''[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]'' ('Eight chapters') of [[Pāṇini]].<ref name=Evans-2009/> The greatest dramatist in Sanskrit, [[Kālidāsa]], wrote in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic were first described in classical Sanskrit.{{efn|"The Sanskrit grammatical tradition is also the ultimate source of the notion of zero, which, once adopted in the Arabic system of numerals, allowed us to transcend the cumbersome notations of Roman arithmetic."<ref name=Evans-2009/>}}<ref name="GlickLivesey2014">{{cite book |author=Glenn Van Brummelen |editor=Thomas F. Glick |editor2=Steven Livesey |editor3=Faith Wallis |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45932-1 |pages=46–48 |chapter=Arithmetic |quote=The story of the growth of arithmetic from the ancient inheritance to the wealth passed on to the Renaissance is dramatic and passes through several cultures. The most groundbreaking achievement was the evolution of a positional number system, in which the position of a digit within a number determines its value according to powers (usually) of ten (e.g., in 3,285, the "2" refers to hundreds). Its extension to include decimal fractions and the procedures that were made possible by its adoption transformed the abilities of all who calculated, with an effect comparable to the modern invention of the electronic computer. Roughly speaking, this began in India, was transmitted to Islam, and then to the Latin West.}}</ref> The two major Sanskrit epics, the [[Mahābhārata]] and the [[Rāmāyaṇa]], however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called [[Epic Sanskrit]] which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit.<ref name="Lowe2017-epic">{{cite book|last=Lowe|first=John J.|title=Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-879357-1|page=58 |quote=The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.}}</ref> In the following centuries, Sanskrit became tradition-bound, stopped being learned as a first language, and ultimately stopped developing as a living language.<ref name="Lowe2017">{{cite book |last=Lowe |first=John J. |title=Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-879357-1 |page=53 |quote=The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition.}}</ref>

The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to the most archaic poems of the Iranian and [[Greek language]] families, the ''[[Gatha (Zoroaster)|Gathas]]'' of old [[Avestan]] and ''[[Iliad]]'' of [[Homer]].<ref name="Lowe2015-IE"/> As the Rigveda was [[Oral tradition|orally transmitted]] by [[Indian mathematics#Styles of memorisation|methods of memorisation]] of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity,{{sfn|Staal|1986}}{{sfn|Filliozat|2004|pp=360–375}} as a single text without variant readings,{{sfn|Filliozat|2004|p=139}} its preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language [[Proto-Indo-European]].<ref name="Lowe2015-IE">{{cite book|last=Lowe|first=John J.|title=Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100505-3|pages=2– |quote=The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families. Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable. Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance.}}</ref> Sanskrit does not have an attested native script: from around the turn of the 1st-millennium CE, it has been written in various [[Brahmic scripts]], and in the modern era most commonly in [[Devanagari]].{{efn|name=Salomon1998-epigraphy-book}}<ref name="JainCardona2007-script1"/><ref name="JainCardona2007-script2"/>

Sanskrit's status, function, and place in India's cultural heritage are recognized by its inclusion in the Constitution of India's [[Languages with official status in India#Schedule|Eighth Schedule languages]].<ref name="GazzolaWickström2016">{{cite book|last1=Gazzola|first1=Michele|last2=Wickström|first2=Bengt-Arne|title=The Economics of Language Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4snDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA469|year=2016|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-03470-8|pages=469– |quote=The Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two.}}</ref><ref name="Groff2017-lead">{{cite book |last=Groff |first=Cynthia |title=The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |year=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-51961-0 |pages=58– |quote=As Mahapatra says: "It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment" ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions.}}</ref> However, despite attempts at revival,<ref name=sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit/><ref>{{Cite news |date=22 December 2014 |title=Indian village where people speak in Sanskrit|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30446917|access-date=30 September 2020}}</ref> there are no first-language speakers of Sanskrit in India.<ref name=sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit/><ref name="Ruppel2017"/><ref name="KachruKachru2008-1">{{cite book|last=Annamalai|first=E. |editor=Braj B. Kachru |editor2=Yamuna Kachru |editor3=S. N. Sridhar |title=Language in South Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEMYC&pg=PA223 |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46550-2 |pages=223– |chapter=Contexts of multilingualism |quote=Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages.}}</ref> In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue,{{efn|6,106 Indians in 1981, 49,736 in 1991, 14,135 in 2001, and 24,821 in 2011, have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue.<ref name=sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit/>}} but the numbers are thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language.<ref name=patrick-mccartney-5-10-20>{{cite web|last=McCartney|first=Patrick|title=Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census|url=https://thewire.in/culture/india-census-sanskrit|website=The Wire|date=May 10, 2020|access-date=November 24, 2020}} Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a "Sanskrit village" where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism."</ref><ref name=patrick-mccartney-5-11-20>{{cite web|last=McCartney|first=Patrick|title=The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power|url=https://thewire.in/society/sanskrit-soft-power|website=The Wire|date=May 11, 2020|access-date=November 24, 2020}} Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every "block" (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand."</ref><ref name=sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit>{{cite news |last=Sreevastan |first=Ajai |title=Where are the Sanskrit speakers? |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece |work=The Hindu |location=Chennai |date=10 August 2014 |access-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224204957/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece |archive-date=24 December 2021 |url-status=live |quote=Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. "This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate," says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people "fictitiously" indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... "Sanskrit has influence without presence," says Devy. "We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken." But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue.}}</ref><ref name="censusofindia2011">{{citation |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |publisher=Census of India, 2011 |title=Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages – India / States / Union Territories – Sanskrit |page=30 |access-date=4 October 2020|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20180627064326/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|archive-date=2018-06-27}}</ref> Sanskrit has been taught in traditional [[gurukulas]] since ancient times; it is widely taught today at the secondary school level. The oldest Sanskrit college is the [[Benares Sanskrit College]] founded in 1791 during [[Company rule in India|East India Company rule]].{{sfn|Seth|2007|pp=171–}} Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial and [[liturgical language|ritual language]] in Hindu and Buddhist [[stotra|hymns]] and [[mantra|chants]].

{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

==Etymology and nomenclature==
{{multiple image
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In Sanskrit, the [[Attributive verb#English|verbal adjective]] {{IAST|sáṃskṛta-}} is a compound word consisting of {{Transliteration|sa|sáṃ}} ('together, good, well, perfected') and {{Transliteration|sa|kṛta}}''-'' ('made, formed, work').<ref name="StevensonWaite2011">{{harvnb|Angus Stevenson|Maurice Waite|2011|p=1275}}</ref>{{sfn|Shlomo Biderman|2008|p=90}} It connotes a work that has been "well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred".{{sfn|Will Durant|1963|p=406}}{{Sfn|Sir Monier Monier-Williams|2005|p=1120}}{{sfn|Louis Renou|Jagbans Kishore Balbir|2004|pp=1–2}} According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal—rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages refined the alphabet, the structure of words, and its exacting grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime musical mold" as an integral language they called ''Saṃskṛta''.{{sfn|Shlomo Biderman|2008|p=90}} From the late [[Vedic period]] onwards, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations attracted an "exceptionally large amount of linguistic, philosophical and religious literature" in India. Sound was visualized as "pervading all creation", another representation of the world itself; the "mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought. The search for perfection in thought and the goal of liberation were among the dimensions of sacred sound, and the common thread that wove all ideas and inspirations together became the quest for what the ancient Indians believed to be a perfect language, the "phonocentric episteme" of Sanskrit.{{sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=62–66 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Guy L. Beck|2006|pp=117–123}}

Sanskrit as a language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called ''Prakritic languages'' ({{IAST|[[Prakrit|prākṛta]]-}}). The term {{Transliteration|sa|prakṛta}} literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states [[Franklin Southworth]].{{Sfn|Southworth|2004|p=45}} The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. [[Patañjali]] acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to the problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian [[Daṇḍin]] states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view is found in the writing of [[Bharata Muni]], the author of the ancient ''[[Natya Shastra]]'' text. The early [[Jain]] scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the {{Transliteration|sa|pūrvam}} ('came before, origin') and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by grammar".{{sfn|Klein|Joseph|Fritz|2017|pp=318–320}}

== History ==
=== Origin and development ===
{{see also|Indo-European vocabulary|Proto-Indo-Aryan language|Indo-Iranian languages}}
{{multiple image
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| footer = Left: The [[Kurgan hypothesis]] on [[Indo-European migrations]] between 4000 and 1000 BCE; right: The geographical spread of the Indo-European languages at 500 CE, with Sanskrit in South Asia
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Sanskrit belongs to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family of languages]]. It is one of the three earliest ancient documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]:<ref name=Woodard12/><ref name=Bauer2017p90/><ref name="Ramat2015p26">{{cite book |first1=Anna Giacalone |last1=Ramat |first2=Paolo |last2=Ramat |year=2015 |title=The Indo-European Languages |pages=26–31 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-92187-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLa5CAAAQBAJ}}</ref>
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]] ({{circa}} 1500–500 BCE).
* [[Mycenaean Greek]] ({{circa}} 1450 BCE)<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient tablet found: Oldest readable writing in Europe |date=1 April 2011 |website=National Geographic |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/03/110330-oldest-writing-europe-tablet-greece-science-mycenae-greek|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401192141/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/03/110330-oldest-writing-europe-tablet-greece-science-mycenae-greek/|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 April 2011}}</ref>
* [[Hittite language|Hittite]] ({{circa}} 1750–1200 BCE).

Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include [[Old Latin|archaic]] and [[Classical Latin]] ({{circa}} 600 BCE–100 CE, [[Italic languages]]), [[Gothic language|Gothic]] (archaic [[Germanic language]], {{circa|350 CE}}), [[Old Norse]] ({{circa}} 200 CE and after), [[Old Avestan]] ({{circa|late 2nd millennium BCE}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Jenny |last=Rose |date=18 August 2011 |title=Zoroastrianism: A guide for the perplexed |pages=75–76 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4411-2236-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4h0SBwAAQBAJ}}</ref>) and [[Avestan language|Younger Avestan]] ({{circa}} 900 BCE).<ref name=Bauer2017p90>{{cite book |first=Brigitte L. M. |last=Bauer |year=2017 |title=Nominal Apposition in Indo-European: Its forms and functions, and its evolution in Latin-romance |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-046175-6 |pages=90–92 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWzNDgAAQBAJ}} For detailed comparison of the languages, see pp. 90–126.</ref><ref name="Ramat2015p26"/> The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in the Indo-European languages are the [[Nuristani language]]s found in the remote [[Hindu Kush]] region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern [[Himalayas]],<ref name="Ramat2015p26"/><ref name="DaniMasson1999">{{cite book |last=Harmatta |first=J. |editor1-last=Dani |editor1-first=Ahmad Hasan |editor2-last=Masson |editor2-first=Vadim Mikhaĭlovich |chapter=The Emergence of the Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000094466?posInSet=3&queryId=a6dad7c3-cad4-47e1-a5ef-49a1cd6d31f9 |year=1992 |volume=I |publisher=UNESCO |pages=357–358 |isbn=978-81-208-1407-3}}</ref>{{sfn|Masica|1993|p=34}} as well as the extinct [[Avestan]] and [[Old Persian]] – both [[Iranian languages]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Saul |last=Levin |date=24 October 2002 |title=Semitic and Indo-European |volume=II: Comparative morphology, syntax, and phonetics |page=431 |series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory No. 226 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |oclc=32590410 |isbn=9781588112224}} {{isbn|1588112225}}</ref>{{Sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005|p=208}}<ref name="Robins2014p346">{{cite book |first=R. H. |last=Robins |year=2014 |title=General Linguistics |pages=346–347 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-88763-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IryOAwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134204/https://books.google.com/books?id=IryOAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Sanskrit belongs to the [[Centum and satem languages|satem]] group of the Indo-European languages.

Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of the Sanskrit language, both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe.
In ''The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World'', Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance with the following examples of [[cognate]] forms{{sfn|J. P. Mallory|D. Q. Adams|2006|p=6}} (with the addition of Old English for further comparison):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!   PIE !!   English !!   Old English !!   Latin !!   Ancient Greek !!   '''Sanskrit''' !! Glossary
|-
| *méh₂tēr ||   mother ||   mōdor ||   māter ||   mētēr ||   '''mātṛ́-''' || mother
|-
| *ph₂tḗr ||   father ||  fæder ||   pater ||   patēr ||   '''pitṛ́-''' || father
|-
| *bʰréh₂tēr ||   brother ||  brōþor ||   frāter ||   phreter ||   '''bhrā́tṛ-''' || brother
|-
| *swésōr ||   sister ||  sweoster ||   soror ||   eor ||   '''svásṛ-''' || sister
|-
| *suHnús ||   son ||  sunu ||  - ||   hyiós ||   '''sūnú-''' || son
|-
| *dʰugh₂tḗr ||   daughter ||  dohtor ||  - ||   thugátēr ||   '''duhitṛ́-''' || daughter
|-
| *gʷṓws ||   cow ||  cū ||   bōs ||   bous ||   '''gáu-''' || cow
|-
| *demh₂- ||   tame, timber ||  tam, timber||   domus ||   dom- ||   '''dām-''' || house, tame, build
|}
The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of the distant major ancient languages of the world.{{efn|William Jones (1786), quoted by Thomas Burrow in ''The Sanskrit Language'':{{sfn|Burrow|1973|p=6}} "The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from ''some common source'', which perhaps no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick {{sic}}, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the Old Persian might be added to the same family."}}

The [[Indo-Aryan migrations]] theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the [[Indus River|Indus region]], during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] and [[Slavic languages]], vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European [[Uralic languages]], and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna.{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=36–38}}

The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on the relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=30–32}} The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India, the Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=30–34}}

===Vedic Sanskrit===
{{Main|Vedic Sanskrit}}

[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''Rigveda'' ([[Vedic chant|padapatha]]) manuscript in [[Devanagari]], early 19th century. The red horizontal and vertical lines mark low and high pitch changes for chanting.]]
The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as ''[[Vedic Sanskrit]]''. The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the [[Rigveda]] ({{Transliteration|sa|IAST|Ṛg-veda}}), a Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition.{{Sfn|Meier-Brügger|2003|p=20}}{{sfn|MacDonell|2004}}{{sfn|Keith|1996|pp=3–4}}

However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as a natural part of the earliest Vedic language,{{sfn|Deshpande|1993|p=165}} and that these developed in the centuries after the composition had been completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the oral transmission by generations of reciters.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other.{{sfn|Bloomfield|Edgerton|1932|loc=§163–170}} This is taken along with evidence of controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases.{{sfn|Deshpande|1993|pp=130–196}}

The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest.{{sfn|Barbara A. Holdrege|2012|pp=229–230}}{{sfn|Bryant|2001|pp=66–67}} Yet, the Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents any dialectical diversity", states [[Louis Renou]] – an [[Indology|Indologist]] known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Louis Renou|Jagbans Kishore Balbir|2004|pp=5–6}} Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into the modern age include the ''Samaveda'', ''Yajurveda'', ''Atharvaveda'', along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the [[Brahmana]]s, [[Aranyaka]]s, and the early [[Upanishad]]s.{{Sfn|Meier-Brügger|2003|p=20}} These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent.{{Sfn|Cardona|2012}}{{Sfn|Witzel|1997|p=9}}

According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of the semi-nomadic [[Aryan]]s.{{Sfn|Witzel|1997|p=16–17}}{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=3–12, 36–47, 111–112, Note: Sanskrit was both a literary and spoken language in ancient India.}} The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized beyond ancient India as evidenced by the "[[Mitanni]] Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and [[Mitanni]] people, carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]].<ref name="Cohen2017p11">{{cite book
|first=Signe
|last=Cohen
|year=2017
|title=The Upanisads: A complete guide
|pages=11–17
|publisher=Taylor & Francis
|isbn=978-1-317-63696-0
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnE3DwAAQBAJ
|access-date=18 July 2018
|archive-date=29 March 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134215/https://books.google.com/books?id=EnE3DwAAQBAJ
|url-status=live
}}</ref>{{efn|The Mitanni treaty is generally dated to the 16th century BCE, but this date and its significance remains much debated.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=249}} }} Parts of this treaty, such as the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes the gods [[Varuna]], [[Mitra]], [[Indra]], and [[Ashvins|Nasatya]] found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature.<ref name="Cohen2017p11"/><ref>{{cite book
|first=Andrew
|last=Robinson
|year=2014
|title=India: A Short History
|pages=56–57
|publisher=Thames & Hudson
|isbn=978-0-500-77195-2
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TgU7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44
|access-date=18 July 2018
|archive-date=29 March 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134211/https://books.google.com/books?id=TgU7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44#v=onepage&q&f=false
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

{{Quote box
| width = 28%
| style = min-width:25em
| bgcolor = #FFE0BB
| align = right
| quote = <poem>
O Bṛhaspati, when in giving names
::they first set forth the beginning of Language,
Their most excellent and spotless secret
::was laid bare through love,
When the wise ones formed Language with their mind,
::purifying it like grain with a winnowing fan,
Then friends knew friendships –
::an auspicious mark placed on their language.
</poem>
| source = — ''[[Rigveda]] 10.71.1–4'' Translated by Roger Woodard<ref>{{cite book
|first=Roger D.
|last=Woodard
|year=2008
|title=The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas
|page=1
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-68494-1
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC
|access-date=18 July 2018
|archive-date=29 March 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329131545/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
}}
The Vedic Sanskrit found in the Ṛg-veda is distinctly more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] ''Gathas'' and Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''.<ref name="Lowe2015p2">{{cite book
|first=John Jeffrey
|last=Lowe
|year=2015
|title=Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms
|pages=2–3
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-870136-1
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ
|access-date=18 July 2018
|archive-date=7 September 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144358/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ
|url-status=live
}}</ref> According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times the social structures such as the role of the poet and the priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations, and some of the poetic metres.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison|Joel P. Brereton|2014|pp=10–11, 72}}{{efn|An example of the shared phrasal equations is the ''dyáuṣ pitṛ́'' in Vedic Sanskrit, from Proto-Indo-European ''*dyḗws ph₂tḗr'', meaning "sky father". The Mycenaean Greek equivalent is ''Zeus Pater'', which evolved to ''Jupiter'' in Latin. Equivalent "paternal Heaven" phrasal equation is found in many Indo-European languages.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison|Joel P. Brereton|2014|p=50}}}} While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, [[simile]] is deployed extensively in the Sanskrit Ṛg-veda, whereas the Old Avestan ''Gathas'' lack simile entirely (and it is rare in later forms of the language); conversely, simile is common in [[Homeric Greek]], but they are structurally very different to those in Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison|Joel P. Brereton|2014|pp=66–67}}

=== Classical Sanskrit ===
[[File:Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of Pāṇini's grammar treatise from Kashmir]]
The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in the ''Rigveda'' had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the [[Buddha]]'s time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages.<ref name="Gombrich2006p24">{{cite book|first=Richard|last=Gombrich|title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-90352-8|pages=24–25|access-date=19 July 2018|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703145618/https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

The formalization of the Saṃskṛta language is credited to {{IAST|[[Pāṇini]]}}, along with Patañjali's {{Transliteration|sa|Mahābhāṣya}} and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patañjali's work.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Gérard |last1=Huet |first2=Amba |last2=Kulkarni |first3=Peter |last3=Scharf |title=Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C |year=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-00154-3 |pages=v–vi |access-date=19 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134221/https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C |url-status=live }}</ref> Panini composed {{IAST|Aṣṭādhyāyī}} ('Eight-Chapter Grammar'), which became the foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a [[Vedanga|Vedānga]].{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13–14, 111}} The {{IAST|Aṣṭādhyāyī}} was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the intellectual wonders of the ancient world".<ref name="Fortson, §10.26">Fortson, §10.26.</ref> Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as the variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13–14, 111}} The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, [[Kashyapa|Kaśyapa]], Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, [[Bharadvaja|Bhāradvāja]], Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pāṇini|first2=Sumitra Mangesh|last2=Katre|title=Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSDakY97XckC&pg=PR19|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0521-7|pages=xix–xxi|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134719/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSDakY97XckC&pg=PR19#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Cardona|1997|p=2}}

In the {{IAST|Aṣṭādhyāyī}}, language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines the linguistic expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language.<ref>Renou, Louis, and Filliozat, Jean. ''L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes''. Vol. II. pp. 86–90. [[École française d'Extrême-Orient]], 2000 [1953]. {{ISBN|2-85539-903-3}}.</ref> Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced.<ref>Angot, Michel (2001). ''L'Inde Classique''. pp. 213–215. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. {{ISBN|2-251-41015-5}}</ref> Despite differences in the analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and the most advanced analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century.<ref name="Fortson, §10.26"/>

Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Yuji|last1=Kawaguchi|first2=Makoto|last2=Minegishi|first3=Wolfgang|last3=Viereck|title=Corpus-based Analysis and Diachronic Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iaZxAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223|year=2011|publisher=John Benjamins|isbn=978-90-272-7215-7|pages=223–224|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134751/https://books.google.com/books?id=iaZxAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia.<ref name=bowman328>{{cite book|first=John |last=Bowman|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C |year=2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50004-3|page=728}}</ref> It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he orally created the detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as ''[[Lipi (script)|lipi]]'' ('script') and {{Transliteration|sa|lipikara}} ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the {{Transliteration|sa|Aṣṭādhyāyī}}.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=11}}<ref name="Juhyung Rhi 2009 5, 1–13">{{cite journal| first=Juhyung |last=Rhi|year= 2009|journal= Journal of Central Eurasian Studies| volume= 1|title=On the Peripheries of Civilizations: The Evolution of a Visual Tradition in Gandhāra|pages=5, 1–13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Rita |last1=Sherma|first2=Arvind |last2=Sharma|title=Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA235|year=2008|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-8192-7|page=235}}</ref>{{efn|Pāṇini's use of the term ''lipi'' has been a source of scholarly disagreements. Harry Falk in his 1993 overview states that ancient Indians neither knew nor used writing script, and Pāṇini's mention is likely a reference to Semitic and Greek scripts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Falk|first1=Harry|title=Schrift im alten Indien: ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen|date=1993|publisher=Gunter Narr |language=de|pages=109–167}}</ref> In his 1995 review, Salomon questions Falk's arguments and writes it is "speculative at best and hardly constitutes firm grounds for a late date for Kharoṣṭhī. The stronger argument for this position is that we have no specimen of the script before the time of Ashoka, nor any direct evidence of intermediate stages in its development; but of course this does not mean that such earlier forms did not exist, only that, if they did exist, they have not survived, presumably because they were not employed for monumental purposes before Ashoka".{{sfn|Salomon|1995|pages=271–279}} According to Hartmut Scharfe, ''lipi'' of Pāṇini may be borrowed from the Old Persian ''dipi'', in turn derived from Sumerian ''dup''. Scharfe adds that the best evidence, at the time of his review, is that no script was used in India, aside from the Northwest Indian subcontinent, before {{circa|300 BCE}} because Indian tradition "at every occasion stresses the orality of the cultural and literary heritage".<ref name="Scharfe 2002">{{cite book |last= Scharfe |first=Hartmut |year=2002 |title=Education in Ancient India |pages=10–12 |series=Handbook of Oriental Studies |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden, Netherlands}}</ref> Kenneth Norman states writing scripts in ancient India evolved over the long period of time like other cultures, that it is unlikely that ancient Indians developed a single complete writing system at one and the same time in the Maurya era. It is even less likely, states Norman, that a writing script was invented during Ashoka's rule, starting from nothing, for the specific purpose of writing his inscriptions and then it was understood all over South Asia where the Ashoka pillars are found.<ref name="Hinüber1989">{{cite book |first=Oskar |last=von Hinüber |year=1989 |title=Der Beginn der Schrift und frühe Schriftlichkeit in Indien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiYTAQAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur |oclc=22195130 |pages=241–245 |isbn=9783515056274 |language=de |access-date=18 July 2018 |archive-date=15 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215194736/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiYTAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Goody (1987) states that ancient India likely had a "very old culture of writing" along with its oral tradition of composing and transmitting knowledge, because the Vedic literature is too vast, consistent and complex to have been entirely created, memorized, accurately preserved and spread without a written system.{{sfn|Goody|1987|pp=110–124}} Falk disagrees with Goody, and suggests that it is a Western presumption and inability to imagine that remarkably early scientific achievements such as Pāṇini's grammar (5th to 4th century BCE), and the creation, preservation and wide distribution of the large corpus of the Brahmanic Vedic literature and the Buddhist canonical literature, without any writing scripts. Bronkhorst (2002) disagrees with Falk, and states, "Falk goes too far. It is fair to expect that we believe that Vedic memorisation—though without parallel in any other human society—has been able to preserve very long texts for many centuries without losing a syllable. ... However, the oral composition of a work as complex as Pāṇini's grammar is not only without parallel in other human cultures, it is without parallel in India itself. ... It just will not do to state that our difficulty in conceiving any such thing is our problem".<ref name=bronkhorst2002lar>{{cite journal |first=Johannes |last=Bronkhorst |year=2002 |title=Literacy and rationality in ancient India |journal=Asiatische Studien |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=803–804, 797–831}}</ref>}}

The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language", rather it is "a controlled and a restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal alternatives were excluded".{{sfn|Louis Renou|Jagbans Kishore Balbir|2004|p=53}} The Classical form of the language simplified the ''sandhi'' rules but retained various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond the Vedic Sanskrit's {{Transliteration|sa|bahulam}} framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language.{{sfn|Louis Renou|Jagbans Kishore Balbir|2004|pp=53–54}}

The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state of the surviving literature,{{sfn|Deshpande|1993|pp=130–196}} are negligible when compared to the intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=33–34}} The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=378–383}} There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as the ''sandhi'' rules, both internal and external.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=378–383}} Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=378–383}}

[[Arthur Macdonell]] was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of the differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=378–383}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur Anthony |last=Macdonell |year=1997 |title=A Sanskrit Grammar for Students |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbFJJ2NF8W4C |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0505-7 |pages=236–244 |access-date=19 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134721/https://books.google.com/books?id=HbFJJ2NF8W4C |url-status=live }}</ref> Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir.{{sfn|Louis Renou|Jagbans Kishore Balbir|2004|pp=1–59}}

===Sanskrit and Prakrit languages===
[[File:Word for Sanskrit Samskrita in the Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana 532 CE.jpg|thumb|An early use of the word for "Sanskrit" in Late [[Brahmi script]] (also called [[Gupta script]]):{{center|[[File:Gupta ashoka sam.jpg|14px]][[File:Gupta ashoka skrr.jpg|17px]][[File:Gupta ashoka t.svg|14px]] ''Saṃ-skṛ-ta''}} [[Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana]], 532 CE.<ref name="JFF">{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithfull |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol 3 (1970)ac 4616 |date=1907 |page=153, line 14 of the inscription |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.358795/2015.358795.Corpus-Inscriptionum#page/n373/mode/2up}}</ref>]]
The earliest known use of the word {{Transliteration|sa|Saṃskṛta}} (Sanskrit), in the context of a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the ''Ramayana''.<ref name=wright-sanskrit-first/> Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular colloquial dialects ([[Prakrit]]s) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars have called these {{Transliteration|sa|Apabhramsa}}, literally 'spoiled'.<ref>{{cite book |first=Alfred C. |last=Woolner |title=Introduction to Prakrit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IwE16UFBfdEC|year=1986|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0189-9 |page=6, context: 1–10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Clarence |last=Maloney |year=1978 |title=Language and Civilization Change in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M_oUAAAAIAAJ |publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-90-04-05741-8 |pages=111–114 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134722/https://books.google.com/books?id=M_oUAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other [[Indo-European languages]] but which are found in the regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], the Prakrit languages such as [[Pali]] in [[Theravada]] Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gaurinath Bhattacharyya |last=Shastri |title=A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature |year=1987 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0027-4 |pages=18–19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC |access-date=19 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134732/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Rune Edvin Anders |last=Johansson |year=1981 |title=Pali Buddhist Texts: Explained to the beginner |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-7007-1068-3 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fovyapaDaYIC |quote=Pali is known mainly as the language of Theravada Buddhism. ... very little is known about its origin. We do not know where it was spoken or if it originally was a spoken language at all. The ancient Ceylonese tradition says that the Buddha himself spoke Magadhi and that this language was identical to Pali. |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134722/https://books.google.com/books?id=fovyapaDaYIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=dundas69>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Dundas |title=The Jains |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-26606-2 |pages=69–70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702114824/https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, states [[Paul Dundas]], these ancient Prakrit languages had "roughly the same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does to Latin".<ref name=dundas69/> The Indian tradition states that the [[Buddha]] and the [[Mahavira]] preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had the capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as [[Ardhamagadhi]].<ref name=dundas69/>

A section of European scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language.<ref name=Shastri1987p20>{{cite book |author=Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri |year=1987 |title=A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0027-4 |pages=20–23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC |access-date=19 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134732/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC |url-status=live }}</ref> However, evidences shows that Sanskrit was a spoken language, essential for [[oral tradition]] that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. The textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini, and Patanajali affirms that Classical Sanskrit in their era was a spoken language ({{Transliteration|sa|bhasha}}) used by the cultured and educated. Some ''[[sutra]]s'' expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit.<ref name=Shastri1987p20/> Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region.<ref name=Shastri1987p20/>

{{Wide image|IndoEuropeanTree.svg|600px|Sanskrit's link to the Prakrit languages and other Indo-European languages|350px|right|alt=Tree diagram showing genetic relationships among languages}}
According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of literary Sanskrit.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=218–220}} This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined, sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in the literary works.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=218–220}} The Indian tradition, states [[Moriz Winternitz|Winternitz]], has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the ''[[Ramayana]]'', the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', the ''[[Panchatantra]]'' and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language.<ref>{{cite book |first=Moriz |last=Winternitz |author-link=Moriz Winternitz |year=1996 |title=A History of Indian Literature |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0264-3 |pages=42–46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=26 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231226083105/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C |url-status=live }}</ref> The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=218–220}} Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the vernacular Prakrits.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=218–220}} Many [[Sanskrit drama]]s indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. The cities of [[Varanasi]], [[Paithan]], [[Pune]] and [[Kanchipuram]] were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=222–223}}

According to [[Étienne Lamotte|Lamotte]], Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and influence.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Étienne |last=Lamotte |author-link=Étienne Lamotte |year=1976 |title=Histoire du buddhisme indien, des origines à l'ère saka |language=fr |journal=Tijdschrift voor Filosofie |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=539–541 |place=Louvain-la-Neuve, France |publisher=Université de Louvain |department=Institut orientaliste}}</ref> Sanskrit was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE.<ref name=pollock1996p197>{{cite book |first=Sheldon |last=Pollock |editor-first=Jan |editor-last=Houben |article=The Sanskrit cosmopolis, A.D. 300–1300: transculturation, vernacularization, and the question of ideology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA197 |title=Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden, New York |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10613-0 |pages=197–199; pp. 197–239 for context and details |access-date=22 March 2024 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135457/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA197#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Today, it is believed that Kashmiri is the closest language to Sanskrit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-19 |title='Kashmir had an overwhelmingly Indic and Sanskritic identity and character' |first1=Akrita |last1=Reyar |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/kashmir-had-an-overwhelmingly-indic-and-sanskritic-identity-and-character-shonaleeka-kaul-jnu/334839|website=timesnownews.com |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108212808/https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/kashmir-had-an-overwhelmingly-indic-and-sanskritic-identity-and-character-shonaleeka-kaul-jnu/334839 |archive-date= Jan 8, 2024 }}</ref><ref>P. 116 ''Sanskrit and Other Indian Languages'' By Śaśiprabhā Kumāra; "''Their language was Vedic Sanskrit which is spoken by all Kashmiris presently.''"</ref><ref>''Kashmir: Its Aborigines and Their Exodus'' By Colonel Tej K Tikoo</ref>

=== Dravidian influence on Sanskrit ===
{{see also|Dravidian languages#Dravidian influence on Sanskrit}}
Reinöhl mentions that not only have the Dravidian languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they have also affected Sanskrit on deeper levels of structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to Dravidian influence".<ref name=":02">{{cite book |last=Reinöhl |first=Uta |year=2016 |title=Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=120–121}}</ref> Similarly, Ferenc Ruzca states that all the major shifts in Indo-Aryan phonetics over two millennia can be attributed to the constant influence of a Dravidian language with a similar phonetic structure to Tamil.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ruzca |first=Ferenc |date=2013 |editor-last=Klein|editor-first=Jared S. |title=Indic Across the Millennia: from the Rigveda to Modern Indo-Aryans |publisher=Hempen Verlag|pages=145–152 |chapter=The influence of Dravidian on Indo-Aryan phonetics|url=https://www.academia.edu/472464|isbn=9783934106055}}</ref> Hock et al. quoting George Hart state that there was influence of [[Old Tamil]] on Sanskrit.<ref name=":11">{{cite book |first1=Hans Henrich |last1=Hock |last2=Bashir |first2=E. |last3=Subbarao |first3=K. V. |year=2016 |title=The languages and linguistics of South Asia a comprehensive guide |publisher=Berlin de Gruyter Mouton |pages=94–95}}</ref> Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived – "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from the other."<ref>{{cite book |last=Hart |first=George |year=1976 |title=The relation between Tamil and classical Sanskrit literature |place=Wiesbaden |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |isbn=3447017856 |pages=317–320}}</ref>

Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English:

{{blockquote|text=A sentence in a Dravidian language like Tamil or Kannada becomes ordinarily good Bengali or Hindi by substituting Bengali or Hindi equivalents for the Dravidian words and forms, without modifying the word order; but the same thing is not possible in rendering a Persian or English sentence into a non-Indo-Aryan language.|source=Reinöhl<ref name=":02"/>}}

Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called {{Transliteration|ta|vinaiyeccam}} in Tamil) shaped the usage of the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This particularly salient case of the possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that, once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit".<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Shulman |first=David Dean |title=Tamil : a biography |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |year=2016 |location=London, UK |pages=12–14, 20}}</ref>

The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the late Vedic period and the crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] tribes had not yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|p=386}}

== Influence ==
{{Quote box
| quote = Extant manuscripts in Sanskrit number over 30 million, one hundred times those in Greek and Latin combined, constituting the largest cultural heritage that any civilization has produced prior to the invention of the printing press.
| source = — Foreword of ''Sanskrit Computational Linguistics'' (2009), Gérard Huet, Amba Kulkarni and Peter Scharf<ref>{{cite book|author1=Gérard Huet|author2=Amba Kulkarni|author3=Peter Scharf|title=Sanskrit Computational Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3pqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-00155-0|pages=v–vi|access-date=20 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135412/https://books.google.com/books?id=P3pqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PR5#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=P M Scharf|author2=M Hyman|editor=V Govindaraju and S Setlur|title=Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts: Document Recognition and Retrieval|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC&pg=PA238|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-84800-330-9|page=238|access-date=20 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135502/https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC&pg=PA238#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|The Indian Mission for Manuscripts initiative has already counted over 5 million manuscripts. The thirty million estimate is of [[David Pingree]], a manuscriptologist and historian. – Peter M. Scharf<ref name=scharf233>{{cite book|author1=Justin McDaniel|author2=Lynn Ransom|title=From Mulberry Leaves to Silk Scrolls: New Approaches to the Study of Asian Manuscript Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KL-XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233|year=2015|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4736-7|pages=233–234|access-date=20 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135232/https://books.google.com/books?id=KL-XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
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Sanskrit has been the predominant language of [[Hindu texts]] encompassing a rich tradition of [[Hindu philosophy|philosophical]] and [[dharma|religious]] texts, as well as poetry, music, [[Sanskrit drama|drama]], [[Scientific literature|scientific]], technical and others.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri|title=A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0027-4|access-date=19 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134732/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYxpvZLg4hAC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Banerji|1989|pp=618–632, see also the extended list of Sanskrit texts in Part II}} It is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the [[Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana]] and [[Hathibada Ghosundi inscriptions|Ghosundi-Hathibada (Chittorgarh)]].{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86–87}}

Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism.<ref name="Parret1976p102"/>{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=57–64, 289, 319}} The structure and capabilities of the Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about "the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through language, and about the limits of language.<ref name="Parret1976p102"/><ref name=deshpande2010/> They speculated on the role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other.<ref name=deshpande2010>Madhav Deshpande (2010), ''Language and Testimony in Classical Indian Philosophy'', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-india/ Source Link] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135433/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-india/ |date=29 March 2024 }}</ref>{{efn|A celebrated work on the philosophy of language is the ''Vakyapadiya'' by the 5th-century Hindu scholar Bhartrhari.<ref name="Parret1976p102"/><ref>Stephanie Theodorou (2011), ''Bhartrihari (c. 450—510 CE)'', IEP, [https://www.iep.utm.edu/bhartrihari/ Source link] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720081334/https://www.iep.utm.edu/bhartrihari/ |date=20 July 2018 }}</ref><ref name="Parret1976p121">{{cite book |author=J.F. Staal |editor=Herman Parret |title=History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102 |year=1976 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-005818-5 |pages=121–125 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135311/https://books.google.com/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>}} These speculations became particularly important to the [[Mīmāṃsā]] and the [[Nyaya]] schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states [[Frits Staal]]—a scholar of Linguistics with a focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit.<ref name="Parret1976p102">{{cite book |author=J.F. Staal |editor=Herman Parret |title=History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102 |year=1976 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-005818-5 |pages=102–130 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135311/https://books.google.com/books?id=hQh0bC5RAe8C&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship;{{sfn|Wayman|1965|pp=111–115}} for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, [[Nagarjuna]] ({{circa}}200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Kelly |editor=Jan E.M. Houben |title=Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA87 |year=1996 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-10613-0 |pages=87–102 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140002/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Renou, Sanskrit had a limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The [[Mahāsāṃghika]] and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature.{{sfn|Louis Renou|Jagbans Kishore Balbir|2004|pp=177–180}} Sanskrit was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the ''Tattvartha Sutra'' by [[Umaswati]].{{efn|'That Which Is', known as the ''Tattvartha Sutra'' to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative, and comprehensive summary of their religion. —{{sfn|Umāsvāti|1994|pp=xi–xiii}} }}<ref>{{cite book |author=Paul Dundas |editor=Patrick Olivelle |title=Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-977507-1 |pages=395–396 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135744/https://books.google.co.ma/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:2nd-century CE Sanskrit, Kizil China, Spitzer Manuscript folio 383 fragment recto and verso.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25 | The [[Spitzer Manuscript]] is dated to about the 2nd century CE (above: folio 383 fragment). Discovered in the [[Kizil Caves]], near the northern branch of the Central Asian [[Silk Route]] in northwest China,<ref>{{cite book |author=K. Preisendanz |editor1=Florence Bretelle-Establet |editor2=Stéphane Schmitt |title=Pieces and Parts in Scientific Texts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYteDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 |year=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-78467-0 |pages=175–178 with footnotes |access-date=16 December 2019 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135939/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYteDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> it is the oldest Sanskrit philosophical manuscript known so far.<ref>Eli Franco (2004), ''The Spitzer Manuscript: The Oldest Philosophical Manuscript in Sanskrit'', Volume 1 & 2, Verlag Der Österreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften (Austrian Academy of Sciences Press), {{ISBN|978-37001-3-3018}}, pp. 461–465</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Oldest Philosophical Manuscript in Sanskrit |author=Eli Franco |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=31 |pages=21–31 |number=1/3 |year=2003 |jstor=23497034 |doi= 10.1023/A:1024690001755 }}</ref>]]
The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim [[Faxian]] who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE.{{sfn|Robert E. Buswell Jr.|Donald S. Lopez Jr.|2013|p=504}} [[Xuanzang]], another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in the 7th century where he established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor Taizong.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephen K. Stein |title=The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade [2 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmOWDgAAQBAJ |year=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-3551-3 |page=147 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135836/https://books.google.com/books?id=QmOWDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Charles Taliaferro |title=A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CfWoAwAAQBAJ |date=2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4411-8504-4 |pages=245–246 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135940/https://books.google.com/books?id=CfWoAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to Southeast Asia,{{sfn|Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|1974|pp=1–4}} parts of the East Asia<ref name="OrzechSørensen2011"/> and the Central Asia.{{sfn|Banerji|1989|pp=595–596}} It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions.{{sfn|Michael C. Howard|2012|p=21}} According to the [[Dalai Lama]], the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has been a revered one and called ''legjar lhai-ka'' or "elegant language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the "profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet.{{sfn|The Fourteenth Dalai Lama|1979|pp=3–5}}

[[File:One of earliest Sanskrit inscriptions in Java Indonesia.jpg|upright=1.4|thumb|A 5th-century [[Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world|Sanskrit inscription]] discovered in [[Java]], [[Indonesia]]—one of the earliest in southeast Asia after the [[Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia|Mulavarman inscription]] discovered in [[Kutai]], eastern [[Borneo]]. The [[Ciaruteun inscription]] combines two writing scripts and compares the king to the Hindu god [[Vishnu]]. It provides a ''[[terminus ad quem]]'' to the presence of Hinduism in the Indonesian islands. The oldest southeast Asian Sanskrit inscription—called the [[Võ Cạnh inscription|Vo Canh inscription]]—so far discovered is near [[Nha Trang]], [[Vietnam]], and it is dated to the late 4th century to early 5th century CE.{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=55–56}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Ooi |first=Keat Gin |author-link=Keat Gin Ooi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |page=643 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |archive-date=16 January 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
The Sanskrit language created a pan-Indo-Aryan accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=222–223}}{{sfn|Burrow|1973|p=60}} It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|p=60}} As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|p=60}} It connected scholars from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given the first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=222–223}} Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to the more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as {{Transliteration|sa|namah}}.{{sfn|Deshpande|2011|pp=222–223}}

Classical Sanskrit is the standard [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] as laid out in the grammar of {{IAST|[[Pāṇini]]}}, around the fourth century BCE.<ref name="Houben 1996 p. ">{{cite book|last=Houben|first=Jan|title=Ideology and status of Sanskrit: contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden New York|year=1996|isbn=978-90-04-10613-0|page=11}}</ref> Its position in the cultures of [[Greater India]] is akin to that of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] in Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the [[Indian subcontinent]], particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Bright2014p16">{{cite book|author=William Bright|title=American Indian Linguistics and Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVa1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|year=2014|publisher=Walter De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-086311-6|pages=16–17|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140013/https://books.google.com/books?id=TVa1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Groff2017">{{cite book|author=Cynthia Groff|title=The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ|year=2017|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-137-51961-0|pages=183–185|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135747/https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pandey2015p86">{{cite book|author=Iswari P. Pandey|title=South Asian in the Mid-South: Migrations of Literacies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFnkCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT86|year=2015|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|isbn=978-0-8229-8102-2|pages=85–86|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140436/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFnkCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT86#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Decline ===
The decline of Sanskrit began in the 13th century.<ref name=pollock1996p197/>{{Sfn|Hock|1983}} This coincides with the beginning of [[Islam]]ic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand the [[Muslim]] rule in the form of Sultanates, and later the [[Mughal Empire]].{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2009|pp=167–168}} Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term "cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for literary expression.{{sfn|Pollock|2001}}

With the fall of [[Kashmir]] around the 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared,{{sfn|Hanneder|2002|pp=293–310}} perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock.{{Sfn|Pollock|2001|pp=397–398}} The dissemination of Sanskrit literature from the northwest regions of the subcontinent stopped after the 12th century.{{sfn|Pollock|2001|p=398}} As Hindu kingdoms fell in eastern and southern India, such as the great [[Vijayanagara Empire]], so did Sanskrit.{{sfn|Hanneder|2002|pp=293–310}} There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor [[Akbar]].<ref name="Truschke2016p9">{{cite book |author=Audrey Truschke |title=Culture of Encounters: Sanskrit at the Mughal Court |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMJ1CwAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-54097-1 |pages=9–15, 30–36, 45–47}}</ref> Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with the Muslim rulers.<ref name="Deshpande1993p118" /> Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the [[Maratha Empire]], reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity.<ref name="Deshpande1993p118">{{cite book|last=Deshpande|first=Madhav M.|title=Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDrqaELkKTEC |year=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1136-2 |pages=118–124}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=B.B. Kachru|title=Kashmiri Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C|year=1981|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02129-6|pages=24–25|access-date=20 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Gurnam Singh Sidhu Brard |title=East of Indus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUdYFH9skIkC |year=2007 |publisher=Hemkunt Press |isbn=978-81-7010-360-8 |pages=80–82 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150337/https://books.google.com/books?id=UUdYFH9skIkC |url-status=live }}</ref> After Islamic rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a "ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic ethos" that did not support the historic Sanskrit literary culture{{sfn|Hanneder|2002|pp=293–310}} and the failure of new Sanskrit literature to assimilate into the changing cultural and political environment.{{sfn|Pollock|2001}}

[[Sheldon Pollock]] states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is [[language death|dead]]".{{sfn|Pollock|2001|p=393}} After the 12th century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with the previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock.{{sfn|Pollock|2001|p=398}}

Some scholars maintain that the Sanskrit language did not die, but rather only declined. Jurgen Hanneder disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes a negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder,<ref name="Hatcher 2007 pp. 333 – 361">{{cite journal |last1=Hatcher |first1=Brian A. |title=Sanskrit and the morning after: The metaphorics and theory of intellectual change |journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review |date=September 2007 |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=333–361 |doi=10.1177/001946460704400303 }}</ref>

{{blockquote|On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probably convince most people that it cannot be a dead language in the most common usage of the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead."{{sfn|Hanneder|2002|pp=293–310}}}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 300
| image1 = Isha Upanishad Verses 1 to 3, Shukla Yajurveda, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg
| image2 = 1863 CE palm leaf manuscript, Jaiminiya Aranyaka Gana, Samaveda (unidentified layer of texts), Sanskrit, Southern Grantha script, Malayali scribe Kecavan, sample ii.jpg
| image3 = 3rd Chapter Verses 1-2, Bhagavad Gita, Gurmukhi script, Punjab.jpg
| image4 = Vedanta Sara manuscript, page 4 recto, Sanskrit, Telugu script.jpg
| image5 = Manuscript fragment of the Buddhist Jatakamala, Sanskrit language in the Gilgit-Bamiyan-Typ II Protosarada script, Toyuk, probably 8th-9th century - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01754.JPG
| footer = Sanskrit language manuscripts exist in many scripts. Above from top: ''Isha Upanishad'' (Devanagari), ''Samaveda'' (Tamil Grantha), ''Bhagavad Gita'' (Gurmukhi), ''Vedanta Sara'' (Telugu), ''Jatakamala'' (early Sharada). All are Hindu texts except the last Buddhist text.
}}

The Sanskrit language scholar [[Moriz Winternitz]] states that Sanskrit was never a dead language and it is still alive though its prevalence is lesser than ancient and medieval times. Sanskrit remains an integral part of Hindu journals, festivals, Ramlila plays, drama, rituals and the rites-of-passage.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moriz Winternitz|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0264-3|pages=37–39|access-date=20 July 2018|archive-date=26 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231226083105/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, Brian Hatcher states that the "metaphors of historical rupture" by Pollock are not valid, that there is ample proof that Sanskrit was very much alive in the narrow confines of surviving Hindu kingdoms between the 13th and 18th centuries, and its reverence and tradition continues.<ref name="Hatcher 2007 pp. 333 – 361" />

Hanneder states that modern works in Sanskrit are either ignored or their "modernity" contested.<ref>{{citation|last=Hanneder|first=J.|year=2009|contribution=Modernes Sanskrit: eine vergessene Literatur|title=Pāsādikadānaṃ: Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika|editor-last=Straube|editor-first=Martin|editor2-last=Steiner|editor2-first=Roland|editor3-last=Soni|editor3-first=Jayandra|editor4-last=Hahn|editor4-first=Michael|editor5-last=Demoto|editor5-first=Mitsuyo|publisher=Indica et Tibetica Verlag|pages=205–228|url=http://indologica.de/drupal/?q=node/749|access-date=23 November 2014|archive-date=27 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027040119/http://indologica.de/drupal/?q=node/749|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to [[Robert P. Goldman]] and Sally Sutherland, Sanskrit is neither "dead" nor "living" in the conventional sense. It is a special, timeless language that lives in the numerous manuscripts, daily chants, and ceremonial recitations, a ''heritage language'' that Indians contextually prize, and which some practice.{{sfn|Robert P. Goldman|Sally J Sutherland Goldman|2002|pp=xi–xii}}

When the British introduced English to India in the 19th century, knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional style into a form of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe.{{sfn|Seth|2007|pp=172–176}}

=== Modern Indo-Aryan languages ===
The relationship of Sanskrit to the Prakrit languages, particularly the modern form of Indian languages, is complex and spans about 3,500 years, states [[Colin Masica]]—a linguist specializing in South Asian languages. A part of the difficulty is the lack of sufficient textual, archaeological and epigraphical evidence for the ancient Prakrit languages with rare exceptions such as Pali, leading to a tendency toward [[anachronism|anachronistic]] errors.{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=50–57}} Sanskrit and Prakrit languages may be divided into Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE – 600 BCE), Middle Indo-Aryan (600 BCE – 1000 CE) and New Indo-Aryan (1000 CE – present), each can further be subdivided into early, middle or second, and late evolutionary substages.{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=50–57}}

Vedic Sanskrit belongs to the early Old Indo-Aryan stage, while Classical Sanskrit to the later Old Indo-Aryan stage. The evidence for Prakrits such as Pali (Theravada Buddhism) and Ardhamagadhi (Jainism), along with Magadhi, Maharashtri, Sinhala, Sauraseni and Niya (Gandhari), emerge in the Middle Indo-Aryan stage in two versions—archaic and more formalized—that may be placed in early and middle substages of the 600 BCE – 1000 CE period.{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=50–57}} Two literary Indo-Aryan languages can be traced to the late Middle Indo-Aryan stage and these are ''Apabhramsa'' and ''Elu'' (a literary form of [[Sinhala language|Sinhalese]]). Numerous North, Central, Eastern and Western Indian languages, such as Hindi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Nepali, Braj, Awadhi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, and others belong to the New Indo-Aryan stage.{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=50–57}}

There is an extensive overlap in the vocabulary, phonetics and other aspects of these New Indo-Aryan languages with Sanskrit, but it is neither universal nor identical across the languages. They likely emerged from a synthesis of the ancient Sanskrit language traditions and an admixture of various regional dialects. Each language has some unique and regionally creative aspects, with unclear origins. Prakrit languages do have a grammatical structure, but like Vedic Sanskrit, it is far less rigorous than Classical Sanskrit. While the roots of all Prakrit languages may be in Vedic Sanskrit and ultimately the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, their structural details vary from Classical Sanskrit.<ref name="Woolner1986p3"/>{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=50–57}} It is generally accepted by scholars and widely believed in India that the modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]] – such as Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi – are descendants of the Sanskrit language.{{sfn|Philipp Strazny|2013|pp=499–500}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Sagarika|last=Dutt|title=India in a Globalized World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ouYdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-6901-7|pages=16–17|access-date=24 September 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140726/https://books.google.com/books?id=ouYdDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Cynthia |last=Groff |title=The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ |year=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-51961-0 |pages=183–185 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329135747/https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Sanskrit, states Burjor Avari, can be described as "the mother language of almost all the languages of north India".<ref>{{cite book |first=Burjor |last=Avari |author-link=Burjor Avari |title=India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from c. 7000 BCE to CE 1200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |orig-year=first published 2007 |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-23673-3 |pages=66–67 |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140330/https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Geographic distribution ==
{{See also|Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world}}
{{Further | Sanskritisation | Indosphere }}

[[File:Global distribution of Sanskrit language presence, texts and inscriptions dated between 300 and 1800 CE.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sanskrit language's historical presence has been attested in many countries. The evidence includes manuscript pages and inscriptions discovered in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Central Asia. These have been dated between 300 and 1800 CE.]]

The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggests that Sanskrit language was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the 1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sheldon Pollock|editor=Jan E. M. Houben|title=Ideology and Status of Sanskrit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-10613-0|pages=197–223 with footnotes|access-date=20 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=William S.-Y. Wang|author-link1=William S-Y. Wang|author2=Chaofen Sun|title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-985633-6|pages=6–19, 203–212, 236–245|access-date=27 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140436/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=63–66}}

South Asia has been the geographic range of the largest collection of the ancient and pre-18th-century Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions.<ref name=scharf233/> Beyond ancient India, significant collections of Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions have been found in China (particularly the Tibetan monasteries),<ref>{{cite book|author=Jinah Kim|title=Receptacle of the Sacred: Illustrated Manuscripts and the Buddhist Book Cult in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6lgKmQ82WoC |year=2013|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-27386-3|pages=8, 13–15, 49}}</ref><ref name=vergahen159>{{cite book|author=Pieter C. Verhagen|title=A History of Sanskrit Grammatical Literature in Tibet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7sphfld8fIgC&pg=PA159|year=1994|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-09839-8|pages=159–160|access-date=28 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140839/https://books.google.com/books?id=7sphfld8fIgC&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Myanmar]],{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=154–155}} [[Indonesia]],{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=158–159}} [[Cambodia]],{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=155–157}} [[Laos]],{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=158}} [[Vietnam]],{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=157}} [[Thailand]],{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=155}} and [[Malaysia]].{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=158}} Sanskrit inscriptions, manuscripts or its remnants, including some of the oldest known Sanskrit written texts, have been discovered in dry high deserts and mountainous terrains such as in Nepal,<ref>{{cite book|author=William M. Johnston|title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-78716-4|page=926|access-date=28 July 2018|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Lewis343>{{cite book|author1=Todd T. Lewis|author2=Subarna Man Tuladhar|title=Sugata Saurabha An Epic Poem from Nepal on the Life of the Buddha by Chittadhar Hridaya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_Zt4JBNjt4C|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-988775-0|pages=343–344|access-date=28 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150852/https://books.google.com/books?id=X_Zt4JBNjt4C|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|The oldest surviving Sanskrit inscription in the Kathmandu valley is dated to 464 CE.<ref name=Lewis343/>}} Tibet,<ref name=vergahen159/>{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=159–160}} Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite book |first=Patrick |last=Olivelle |title=Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efaOR_-YsIcC&pg=PA356 |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-977507-1 |page=356}}</ref>{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=152–153}} Mongolia,<ref>{{cite book |first=Rewi |last=Alley |title=Journey to Outer Mongolia: A diary with poems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YuYDAQAAIAAJ |year=1957 |publisher=Caxton Press |pages=27–28 |access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140850/https://books.google.com/books?id=YuYDAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Uzbekistan,{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=153–154}} Turkmenistan, Tajikistan,{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=153–154}} and Kazakhstan.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gian Luca Bonora |author2=Niccolò Pianciola |author3=Paolo Sartori |title=Kazakhstan: Religions and Society in the History of Central Eurasia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DEwqAQAAMAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=U. Allemandi |isbn=978-88-42217-558 |pages=65, 140 |access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140937/https://books.google.com/books?id=DEwqAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Some Sanskrit texts and inscriptions have also been discovered in Korea and Japan.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bjarke Frellesvig |title=A History of the Japanese Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PA164 |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48880-8 |pages=164–165, 183 |access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140942/https://books.google.com/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PA164#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |title=Hyecho's Journey: The world of Buddhism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNA6DwAAQBAJ |year=2017 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-51806-0 |pages=16–22, 33–42 |access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140850/https://books.google.com/books?id=SNA6DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=160 with footnote 134}}

=== Official status ===
{{see also|Sanskrit revival|List of Sanskrit universities in India|l2=Sanskrit universities in India}}

In India, Sanskrit is among the 22 official languages of India in [[Languages with official status in India#Schedule|the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution]].<ref name=groff2013>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Groff|year=2013|editor=Jo Arthur Shoba and Feliciano Chimbutane|title=Bilingual Education and Language Policy in the Global South|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TO-yudLLWEC&pg=PT178|publisher=Routledge|page=178|isbn=978-1-135-06885-1|access-date=28 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140850/https://books.google.com/books?id=0TO-yudLLWEC&pg=PT178#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, [[Uttarakhand]] became the first state in India to make Sanskrit its second official language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/Sanskrit-second-official-language-of-Uttarakhand/article15965492.ece|title=Sanskrit second official language of Uttarakhand|date=21 January 2010|work=The Hindu|access-date=2 October 2018|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=3 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303145846/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/Sanskrit-second-official-language-of-Uttarakhand/article15965492.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, [[Himachal Pradesh]] made Sanskrit its second official language, becoming the second state in India to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uniindia.com/hp-assy-clears-three-bills-sanskrit-becomes-second-official-language/north/news/1501689.html|title=HP Assy clears three Bills, Sanskrit becomes second official language|access-date=26 May 2019|archive-date=16 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516125815/http://www.uniindia.com/hp-assy-clears-three-bills-sanskrit-becomes-second-official-language/north/news/1501689.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Phonology ==

Sanskrit shares many Proto-Indo-European phonological features, although it features a larger inventory of distinct phonemes. The consonantal system is the same, though it systematically enlarged the inventory of distinct sounds. For example, Sanskrit added a voiceless aspirated "tʰ", to the voiceless "t", voiced "d" and voiced aspirated "dʰ" found in PIE languages.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=8–9}}

The most significant and distinctive phonological development in Sanskrit is vowel merger.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=8–9}} The short ''*e'', ''*o'' and ''*a'', all merge as ''a'' (अ) in Sanskrit, while long ''*ē'', ''*ō'' and ''*ā'', all merge as long ''ā'' (आ). Compare Sanskrit ''nāman'' to Latin ''nōmen''. These mergers occurred very early and significantly affected Sanskrit's morphological system.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=8–9}} Some phonological developments in it mirror those in other PIE languages. For example, the labiovelars merged with the plain velars as in other satem languages. The secondary palatalization of the resulting segments is more thorough and systematic within Sanskrit.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=8–9}} For example, unlike the loss of the morphological clarity from vowel contraction that is found in early Greek and related southeast European languages, Sanskrit deployed ''*y'', ''*w'', and ''*s'' intervocalically to provide morphological clarity.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=8–9}}

===Vowels===
{{wide image|828 CE Paramesvaratantra Sanskrit palm leaf manuscipt, Late Gupta script, Nepal.jpg|350px|This is one of the oldest surviving and dated palm-leaf manuscripts in Sanskrit (828 CE). Discovered in Nepal, the bottom leaf shows all the vowels and consonants of Sanskrit (the first five consonants are highlighted in blue and yellow).||right|alt=A palm leaf manuscript published in 828 CE with the Sanskrit alphabet}}
The cardinal vowels (''svaras'') ''a'' (अ), ''i'' (इ), and ''u'' (उ) distinguish length in Sanskrit.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=9}}{{sfn|Robert P. Goldman|Sally J Sutherland Goldman|2002|pp=1–9}} The short ''a'' (अ) in Sanskrit is a closer vowel than ā, equivalent to schwa. The mid vowels ē (ए) and ō (ओ) in Sanskrit are monophthongizations of the Indo-Iranian diphthongs ''*ai'' and ''*au''. They are inherently long, though often transcribed ''e'' and ''o'' without the diacritic. The vocalic liquid ''r̥'' in Sanskrit is a merger of PIE ''*r̥'' and ''*l̥''. The long ''r̥'' is an innovation and it is used in a few analogically generated morphological categories.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=9}}{{sfn|Michael Coulson|Richard Gombrich|James Benson|2011|pp=21–36}}{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=163–165}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%"
|+Sanskrit vowels in the Devanagari script{{sfn|Robert P. Goldman|Sally J Sutherland Goldman|2002|pp=13–19}}{{efn|Sanskrit is written in many scripts. Sounds in grey are not phonemic.|name="manyscript"}}
|-
!
!Independent form
![[IAST]]/ [[ISO 15919|ISO]]
!style="width:3em"|[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
!Independent form
!IAST/ ISO
!style="width:3em"|IPA
|-
!{{IAST|kaṇṭhya}} ([[Guttural]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|अ}}
|{{IAST|a}}
|{{IPAslink|ɐ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|आ}}
|{{IAST|ā}}
|{{IPAslink|ɑː}}
|-
!{{IAST|tālavya}} ([[Palatal]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|इ}}
|{{IAST|i}}
|{{IPAslink|i}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ई}}
|{{IAST|ī}}
|{{IPA|/iː/}}
|-
!{{IAST|oṣṭhya}} ([[Labial consonant|Labial]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|उ}}
|{{IAST|u}}
|{{IPAslink|u}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ऊ}}
|{{IAST|ū}}
|{{IPA|/uː/}}
|-
!{{IAST|mūrdhanya}} ([[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ऋ}}
|{{IAST|ṛ}}/{{Transliteration|sa|ISO|r̥}}
|{{IPAslink|r̩}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ॠ}}
|{{IAST|ṝ}}/{{Transliteration|sa|ISO|r̥̄}}
|{{IPA|/r̩ː/}}
|-
!{{IAST|dantya}} ([[Dental consonant|Dental]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ऌ}}
|{{IAST|ḷ}}/{{Transliteration|sa|ISO|l̥}}
|{{IPAslink|l̩}}
| style="background:#ccc; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ॡ}}
|{{IAST|ḹ}}/{{Transliteration|sa|ISO|l̥̄}}{{efn|The long {{IPA|/l̩ː/}} vowel represented by {{lang|sa|ॡ}} {{IAST|ḹ}} does not actually occur in any Sanskrit words; however, it was traditionally hypothesised by grammarians in order to maintain symmetry between the pairs of short and long vowels.{{sfn|Salomon|2007|p=75}} }}
|{{IPA|/l̩ː/}}
|-
!{{IAST|kaṇṭhatālavya}} (Palatoguttural)
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ए}}
|{{IAST|e}}/{{Transliteration|sa|ISO|ē}}
|{{IPAslink|eː}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ऐ}}
|{{IAST|ai}}
|{{IPA|/ɑj/}}
|-
!{{IAST|kaṇṭhoṣṭhya}} (Labioguttural)
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ओ}}
|{{IAST|o}}/{{Transliteration|sa|ISO|ō}}
|{{IPAslink|oː}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|औ}}
|{{IAST|au}}
|{{IPA|/ɑw/}}
|-
!''(consonantal allophones)''
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ं}}
|{{IAST|ṃ}}/{{Transliteration|sa|ISO|ṁ}}<ref>{{harvnb|Masica|1993|p=146}} notes of this diacritic that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic [[nasal stop]] [...], a [[nasalized vowel|nasalised vowel]], a nasalised [[semivowel]], or all these according to context".</ref>
|{{IPAslink|◌̃}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ः}}
|{{IAST|ḥ}}<ref>This ''visarga'' is a consonant, not a vowel. It is a post-vocalic [[voiceless glottal fricative]] {{IPA|[h]}}, and an [[allophone]] of {{IAST|s}} (or less commonly {{IAST|r}}) usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the preceding vowel after the [h] ({{cite web |last=Wikner |first=Charles |year=1996 |title=A Practical Sanskrit Introductory |url=http://sanskritdocuments.org/learning_tutorial_wikner/index.html |page=6 |access-date=26 June 2020 |archive-date=18 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618194654/http://sanskritdocuments.org/learning_tutorial_wikner/index.html |url-status=live }}): {{lang|sa|इः}} {{IPA|[ihi]}}. {{harvnb|Masica|1993|p=146}} considers the ''visarga'', along with the letters {{lang|sa|ङ}} {{IAST|ṅa}} and {{lang|sa|ञ}} {{IAST|ña}} for the "largely predictable" [[velar nasal|velar]] and [[palatal nasal]]s, to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the [writing] system".</ref>
|{{IPA|/h/}}
|}

According to Masica, Sanskrit has four traditional semivowels, with which were classed, "for morphophonemic reasons, the liquids: y, r, l, and v; that is, as y and v were the non-syllabics corresponding to i, u, so were r, l in relation to r̥ and l̥".{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=160–161}} The northwestern, the central and the eastern Sanskrit dialects have had a historic confusion between "r" and "l". The Paninian system that followed the central dialect preserved the distinction, likely out of reverence for the Vedic Sanskrit that distinguished the "r" and "l". However, the northwestern dialect only had "r", while the eastern dialect probably only had "l", states Masica. Thus literary works from different parts of ancient India appear inconsistent in their use of "r" and "l", resulting in doublets that are occasionally semantically differentiated.{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=160–161}}

The nasal 'ṃ' is optionally the corresponding nasal consonant before plosives (aṃ + k = aṅk or am k) and an 'm'-sound before r, s, ś, ṣ, and h. Before y, l, v, it can cause nasalaization and gemination (am + y = aỹy or am y).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |title=Sanskrit grammar: including both the classical language, and the older dialects, of Veda and Brahmana |date=1993 |publisher=Harvard Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-674-78810-7 |edition=2. ed., 17. issue |location=Cambridge, Mass}}</ref>

===Consonants===
Sanskrit consonants are conventionally arranged into a symmetrical table that is based on how the sound is articulated, though this arrangement is somewhat forced and conceals a certain lack of parallelism among the actual sounds.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=9–10}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:95%"
|+Sanskrit consonants in the Devanagari script{{sfn|Robert P. Goldman|Sally J Sutherland Goldman|2002|pp=13–19}}{{efn|name="manyscript"}}
|-
!
! colspan="8" | {{IAST|sparśa}} ([[Plosive consonant|Plosive]])
! colspan="2" | {{IAST|anunāsika}} ([[Nasal stop|Nasal]])
! colspan="2" | {{IAST|antastha}} ([[Approximant]])
! colspan="4" | {{IAST|ūṣman/saṃgharṣī}} ([[Fricative consonant|Fricative]])
|-
! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voicing]] →
| colspan="4" | {{IAST|aghoṣa}}
| colspan="8" style="background:beige;" | {{IAST|ghoṣa}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|aghoṣa}}
| colspan="2" style="background:beige;" | {{IAST|ghoṣa}}
|-
! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspiration]] →
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}
| colspan="2" style="background:beige;" | {{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}
| colspan="2" | {{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}
| colspan="2" style="background:beige;" | {{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}
| colspan="4" | {{IAST|alpaprāṇa}}
| colspan="4" style="background:beige;" | {{IAST|mahāprāṇa}}
|-
!{{IAST|kaṇṭhya}} ([[Guttural]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|क}}||{{IAST|ka}} {{IPAblink|k}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ख}}||{{IAST|kha}} {{IPAblink|kʰ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ग}}||{{IAST|ga}} {{IPAblink|ɡ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|घ}}||{{IAST|gha}} {{IPAblink|ɡʱ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ङ}}||{{IAST|ṅa}} {{IPAblink|ŋ}}
| colspan="2" |
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ᳲक}}||{{IAST|ẖka}} {{IPAblink|x}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ह}}||{{IAST|ha}} {{IPAblink|ɦ}}
|-
!''tālavya'' ([[Palatal consonant|Palatal]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|च}}||{{IAST|ca}} {{IPAblink|t͜ɕ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|छ}}||{{IAST|cha}} {{IPAblink|t͜ɕʰ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ज}}||{{IAST|ja}} {{IPAblink|d͜ʑ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|झ}}||{{IAST|jha}} {{IPAblink|d͜ʑʱ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ञ}}||{{IAST|ña}} {{IPAblink|ɲ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|य}}||{{IAST|ya}} {{IPAblink|j}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|श}}||{{IAST|śa}} {{IPAblink|ɕ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
!''mūrdhanya'' ([[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ट}}||{{IAST|ṭa}} {{IPAblink|ʈ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ठ}}||{{IAST|ṭha}} {{IPAblink|ʈʰ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ड}}||{{IAST|ḍa}} {{IPAblink|ɖ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ढ}}||{{IAST|ḍha}} {{IPAblink|ɖʱ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ण}}||{{IAST|ṇa}} {{IPAblink|ɳ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|र}}||{{IAST|ra}} {{IPAblink|ɾ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ष}}||{{IAST|ṣa}} {{IPAblink|ʂ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
!''dantya'' ([[Dental consonant|Dental]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|त}}||{{IAST|ta}} {{IPAblink|t}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|थ}}||{{IAST|tha}} {{IPAblink|tʰ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|द}}||{{IAST|da}} {{IPAblink|d}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ध}}||{{IAST|dha}} {{IPAblink|dʱ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|न}}||{{IAST|na}} {{IPAblink|n}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ल}}||{{IAST|la}} {{IPAblink|l}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|स}}||{{IAST|sa}} {{IPAblink|s}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
!{{IAST|oṣṭhya}} ([[Labial consonant|Labial]])
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|प}}||{{IAST|pa}} {{IPAblink|p}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|फ}}||{{IAST|pha}} {{IPAblink|pʰ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ब}}||{{IAST|ba}} {{IPAblink|b}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|भ}}||{{IAST|bha}} {{IPAblink|bʱ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|म}}||{{IAST|ma}} {{IPAblink|m}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|व}}||{{IAST|va}} {{IPAblink|ʋ}}
| style="background:#ffdec1; font-size:24px;"|{{lang|sa|ᳲप}}||{{IAST|ḫpa}} {{IPAblink|ɸ}}
| colspan="2" |
|}

{{Quote box
| quote = '''The system of Sanskrit Sounds''' [The alphabetic] order of Sanskrit sounds works along three principles: it goes from simple to complex; it goes from the back to the front of the mouth; and it groups similar sounds together. [...] Among themselves, both the vowels and consonants are ordered according to where in the mouth they are pronounced, going from back to front.
| source = — A. M. Ruppel, ''The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit''{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=18–19}}
| width = 28%
| style = min-width: 15em
| bgcolor = #FFE0BB
| align = right
}}

* Sanskrit has a series of retroflex stops originating as conditioned alternants of dentals.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=9–10}}
* ''jh'' is a marginal phoneme in Sanskrit occurring mostly from loanwords, hence its phonology is more difficult to reconstruct; it was more commonly employed in the Middle Indo-Aryan languages as a result of phonological processes resulting in the phoneme, e.g. [[wikt:जज्झती|jajjhatī]] [[wikt:झष|jhaṣa]].
* The palatal and velar nasals are conditioned variant of n occurring next to palatal and velar obstruents mostly,{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=9–10}} but there are some onomatopoeic words with them like ''ña, ṅa, ṅu'' and inflections like ''[[wikt:ञुणूषते|ñuṇūṣate]]'', ''[[wikt:प्राङ्|prāṅ]]''.
* The ''anusvara'' that Sanskrit deploys is a conditioned alternant of post-vocalic nasals, under certain sandhi conditions.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=10}}
* The ''visarga'' is a word-final or morpheme-final conditioned alternant of s and r under certain sandhi conditions.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=10}}
* The voiceless aspirated series is also an innovation in Sanskrit but is rarer than the other three series.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=9–10}}
* While the Sanskrit language organizes sounds for expression beyond those found in the PIE language, it retained many features found in the Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages. An example of a similar process in all three is the retroflex sibilant ʂ being the automatic product of dental s [[Ruki sound law|following i, u, r, and k]].{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=10}}

===Phonological alternations, sandhi rules===
{{See also|Sandhi|Sanskrit grammar}}

Sanskrit deploys extensive phonological alternations on different linguistic levels through ''sandhi'' rules (literally, the rules of "putting together, union, connection, alliance"), similar to the English alteration of "going to" as ''gonna''.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=10–11}} The Sanskrit language accepts such alterations within it, but offers formal rules for the ''sandhi'' of any two words next to each other in the same sentence or linking two sentences. The external ''sandhi'' rules state that similar short vowels coalesce into a single long vowel, while dissimilar vowels form glides or undergo diphthongization.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=10–11}} Among the consonants, most external ''sandhi'' rules recommend regressive assimilation for clarity when they are voiced. These rules ordinarily apply at compound seams and morpheme boundaries.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=10–11}} In Vedic Sanskrit, the external ''sandhi'' rules are more variable than in Classical Sanskrit.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=11}}

=== Vedic Pitch Accent ===
{{See also|Vedic accent|Vedic chant}}
Vedic Sanskrit included a three-way pitch accent system of ''udātta'' (raised), ''anudātta'' (not-raised or grave), and ''svarita'' (sounded) which were high, low and falling pitches respectively. Each word generally had one ''udātta'' accent except for certain compound words. The classical language ultimately lost this system, but it was preserved in Vedic texts and phonological treatises. Traditional chanting renders the ''udātta'' as an unaccented mid-tone and the first half of the ''svarita'' as higher than an ''udātta''; the other half is rendered the same level of that of an ''udātta.''<ref>Whitney §80 – 97</ref>{{Listen
| filename = Sanskrit Chanting Guru Stotram.ogg
| title = How Sanskrit chants sound
| description = A recitation of the Sanskrit composition ''Guru Stotram'', or "the hymn of praise for the teacher (guru)". (4 min 55 s)
| format = [[Ogg]]
| pos = right
}}


==Morphology==
{{Main|Sanskrit grammar}}

{{See also|Vedic Sanskrit grammar|Sanskrit verbs}}
The basis of Sanskrit morphology is the root, states Jamison, "a morpheme bearing lexical meaning".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}} The verbal and nominal stems of Sanskrit words are derived from this root through the phonological vowel-gradation processes, the addition of affixes, verbal and nominal stems. It then adds an ending to establish the grammatical and syntactic identity of the stem. According to Jamison, the "three major formal elements of the morphology are (i) root, (ii) affix, and (iii) ending; and they are roughly responsible for (i) lexical meaning, (ii) derivation, and (iii) inflection respectively".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}}

A Sanskrit word has the following canonical structure:{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}}

{{block indent|''Root'' + ''Affix''{{su|b=0-n}} + ''Ending''{{su|b=0–1}}}}

The root structure has certain phonological constraints. Two of the most important constraints of a "root" is that it does not end in a short "a" (अ) and that it is monosyllabic.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}} In contrast, the affixes and endings commonly do. The affixes in Sanskrit are almost always suffixes, with exceptions such as the augment "a-" added as prefix to past tense verb forms and the "-na/n-" infix in single verbal present class, states Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}}

[[Sanskrit verbs]] have the following canonical structure:{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}}

{{block indent|''Root'' + ''Suffix''{{su|b=Tense-Aspect}} + ''Suffix''{{su|b=Mood}} + ''Ending''{{su|b=Personal-Number-Voice}}}}

According to Ruppel, verbs in Sanskrit express the same information as other Indo-European languages such as English.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=31–33}} Sanskrit verbs describe an action or occurrence or state, its embedded morphology informs as to "who is doing it" (person or persons), "when it is done" (tense) and "how it is done" (mood, voice). The Indo-European languages differ in the detail. For example, the Sanskrit language attaches the affixes and ending to the verb root, while the English language adds small independent words before the verb. In Sanskrit, these elements co-exist within the word.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=31–33}}{{efn|The "root + affix" is called the "stem".{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}}}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%"
|+Word morphology in Sanskrit, A. M. Ruppel{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=31–33}}{{efn|Other equivalents: ''bharāmi'' (I carry), ''bharati'' (he carries), ''bharāmas'' (we carry).{{sfn|J. P. Mallory| D. Q. Adams|2006|p=6}} Similar morphology is found in some other Indo-European languages; for example, in the [[Gothic language]], ''baira'' (I carry), ''bairis'' (you carry), ''bairiþ'' (he carries).}}
|-
!
!colspan="2"|Sanskrit word equivalent
|-
!English expression
![[IAST]]/ISO
!style="background:#ffdec1"|[[Devanagari]]
|-
| you carry
| ''bharasi''
|style="background:#ffdec1"|भरसि
|-
| they carry
| ''bharanti''
|style="background:#ffdec1"|भरन्ति
|-
| you will carry
| ''bhariṣyasi''
| style="background:#ffdec1"|भरिष्यसि
|}

Both verbs and nouns in Sanskrit are either thematic or athematic, states Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}} ''Guna'' (strengthened) forms in the active singular regularly alternate in athematic verbs. The finite verbs of Classical Sanskrit have the following grammatical categories: person, number, voice, tense-aspect, and mood. According to Jamison, a portmanteau morpheme generally expresses the person-number-voice in Sanskrit, and sometimes also the ending or only the ending. The mood of the word is embedded in the affix.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}}

These elements of word architecture are the typical building blocks in Classical Sanskrit, but in Vedic Sanskrit these elements fluctuate and are unclear. For example, in the ''Rigveda'' [[preverb]]s regularly occur in [[tmesis]], states Jamison, which means they are "separated from the finite verb".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}} This indecisiveness is likely linked to Vedic Sanskrit's attempt to incorporate accent. With nonfinite forms of the verb and with nominal derivatives thereof, states Jamison, "preverbs show much clearer univerbation in Vedic, both by position and by accent, and by Classical Sanskrit, tmesis is no longer possible even with finite forms".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=15}}

While roots are typical in Sanskrit, some words do not follow the canonical structure.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}} A few forms lack both inflection and root. Many words are inflected (and can enter into derivation) but lack a recognizable root. Examples from the basic vocabulary include kinship terms such as ''mātar-'' (mother), ''nas-'' (nose), ''śvan-'' (dog). According to Jamison, pronouns and some words outside the semantic categories also lack roots, as do the numerals. Similarly, the Sanskrit language is flexible enough to not mandate inflection.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}}

The Sanskrit words can contain more than one affix that interact with each other. Affixes in Sanskrit can be athematic as well as thematic, according to Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} Athematic affixes can be alternating. Sanskrit deploys eight cases, namely nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}}

Stems, that is "root + affix", appear in two categories in Sanskrit: vowel stems and consonant stems. Unlike some Indo-European languages such as Latin or Greek, according to Jamison, "Sanskrit has no closed set of conventionally denoted noun declensions". Sanskrit includes a fairly large set of stem-types.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=17–18}} The linguistic interaction of the roots, the phonological segments, lexical items and the grammar for the Classical Sanskrit consist of four ''Paninian'' components. These, states Paul Kiparsky, are the ''Astadhyaayi'', a comprehensive system of 4,000 grammatical rules, of which a small set are frequently used; ''Sivasutras'', an inventory of ''anubandhas'' (markers) that partition phonological segments for efficient abbreviations through the ''pratyharas'' technique; ''Dhatupatha'', a list of 2,000 verbal roots classified by their morphology and syntactic properties using diacritic markers, a structure that guides its writing systems; and, the ''Ganapatha'', an inventory of word groups, classes of lexical systems.<ref name=Kiparsky59>{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Kiparsky|editor1-first=E. F. K. |editor1-last=Koerner |editor2-first=R. E. |editor2-last=Asher|title=Concise History of the Language Sciences: From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCqLBQAAQBAJ |year =2014|publisher =Elsevier|isbn= 978-1-4832-9754-5|pages=59–65}}</ref> There are peripheral adjuncts to these four, such as the ''Unadisutras'', which focus on irregularly formed derivatives from the roots.<ref name=Kiparsky59/>

Sanskrit morphology is generally studied in two broad fundamental categories: the nominal forms and the verbal forms. These differ in the types of endings and what these endings mark in the grammatical context.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}} Pronouns and nouns share the same grammatical categories, though they may differ in inflection. Verb-based adjectives and participles are not formally distinct from nouns. Adverbs are typically frozen case forms of adjectives, states Jamison, and "nonfinite verbal forms such as infinitives and gerunds also clearly show frozen nominal case endings".{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=15–16}}

===Verbal forms===
The Sanskrit language includes five tenses: present, future, past imperfect, past [[aorist]] and past perfect.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}} It outlines three types of voices: active, passive and the middle.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}} The middle is also referred to as the mediopassive, or more formally in Sanskrit as {{lang|sa|parasmaipada}} (word for another) and {{lang|sa|atmanepada}} (word for oneself).{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%"
|+Voice in Sanskrit, Stephanie Jamison{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}}{{efn|Ruppel gives the following endings for the "present indicative active" in the Sanskrit language: 1st dual: {{lang|sa|-vaḥ}}, 1st plural: {{lang|sa|-maḥ}}, 2nd dual: {{lang|sa|-thaḥ}}, 2nd plural: {{lang|sa|-tha}} and so on.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=378–383}}}}
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" | Active
! colspan="3" | Middle (Mediopassive)
|-
! Singular || Dual || Plural
! Singular || Dual || Plural
|-
! 1st person
| {{lang|sa|-mi}}
| {{lang|sa|-vaḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-maḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-e}}
| {{lang|sa|-vahe}}
| {{lang|sa|-mahe}}
|-
! 2nd person
| {{lang|sa|-si}}
| {{lang|sa|-thaḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-tha}}
| {{lang|sa|-se}}
| {{lang|sa|-āthe}}
| {{lang|sa|-dhve}}
|-
! 3rd person
| {{lang|sa|-ti}}
| {{lang|sa|-taḥ}}
| {{lang|sa|-anti}}
| {{lang|sa|-te}}
| {{lang|sa|-āte}}
| {{lang|sa|-ante}}
|}

The paradigm for the tense-aspect system in Sanskrit is the three-way contrast between the "present", the "aorist" and the "perfect" architecture.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=21}} Vedic Sanskrit is more elaborate and had several additional tenses. For example, the ''Rigveda'' includes perfect and a marginal pluperfect. Classical Sanskrit simplifies the "present" system down to two tenses, the perfect and the imperfect, while the "aorist" stems retain the aorist tense and the "perfect" stems retain the perfect and marginal pluperfect.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=21}} The classical version of the language has elaborate rules for both voice and the tense-aspect system to emphasize clarity, and this is more elaborate than in other Indo-European languages. The evolution of these systems can be seen from the earliest layers of the Vedic literature to the late Vedic literature.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=20–21}}

The three verbal moods in Sanskrit are indicative, potential (optative), and imperative.{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}}

===Nominal forms===
Sanskrit recognizes three numbers—singular, dual, and plural.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} The dual is a fully functioning category, used beyond naturally paired objects such as hands or eyes, extending to any collection of two. The elliptical dual is notable in the Vedic Sanskrit, according to Jamison, where a noun in the dual signals a paired opposition.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} Illustrations include ''dyāvā'' (literally, "the two heavens" for heaven-and-earth), ''mātarā'' (literally, "the two mothers" for mother-and-father).{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} A verb may be singular, dual or plural, while the person recognized in the language are forms of "I", "you", "he/she/it", "we" and "they".{{sfn|A. M. Ruppel|2017|pp=33–34}}

There are three persons in Sanskrit: first, second and third.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|p=20}} Sanskrit uses the 3×3 grid formed by the three numbers and the three persons parameters as the paradigm and the basic building block of its verbal system.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=20–21}}

The Sanskrit language incorporates three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} All nouns have inherent gender. With some exceptions, personal pronouns have no gender. Exceptions include demonstrative and anaphoric pronouns.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}} Derivation of a word is used to express the feminine. Two most common derivations come from feminine-forming suffixes, the ''-ā-'' (आ, Rādhā) and ''-ī-'' (ई, Rukminī). The masculine and neuter are much simpler, and the difference between them is primarily inflectional.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Robert P. Goldman|Sally J Sutherland Goldman|2002|pp=59, 79, 91, 113}} Similar affixes for the feminine are found in many Indo-European languages, states Burrow, suggesting links of the Sanskrit to its PIE heritage.{{sfn|Burrow|1973|pp=191–194}}

Pronouns in Sanskrit include the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, unmarked for gender, and a larger number of gender-distinguishing pronouns and adjectives.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}} Examples of the former include ''ahám'' (first singular), ''vayám'' (first plural) and ''yūyám'' (second plural). The latter can be demonstrative, deictic or anaphoric.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}} Both the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit share the ''sá/tám'' pronominal stem, and this is the closest element to a third person pronoun and an article in the Sanskrit language, states Jamison.{{sfn|Jamison|2008|pp=19–20}}

===Prosody, metre===
{{main|Sanskrit prosody|Vedic metre}}

The Sanskrit language formally incorporates [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metres]].<ref name=jameslochtefeldsca140/> By the late Vedic era, this developed into a field of study; it was central to the composition of the Hindu literature, including the later Vedic texts. This study of Sanskrit prosody is called ''[[Sanskrit prosody|chandas]]'', and is considered one of the six [[Vedanga]]s, or limbs of Vedic studies.<ref name=jameslochtefeldsca140>James Lochtefeld, James (2002). "Chandas". In ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism''. Vol. 1: A-M. Rosen. {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}. p. 140</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Moriz |last=Winternitz|author-link=Moriz Winternitz|title=A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgz1eMhu0JsC&pg=PA577|year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0265-0|page=577}}</ref>

{{Quote box
| quote = <poem>
There is no word without metre,
nor is there any metre without words.
</poem>
| source = — ''Natya Shastra''<ref>{{cite journal |author=Har Dutt Sharma| title= Suvrttatilaka | journal=Poona Orientalist| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goUkVCiQEbMC| year=1951| volume=XVII |page=84}}</ref>
| align = right
| bgcolor = #FFE0BB
}}

Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed number of [[morae]] per verse.<ref name="Allan2013p228">{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Scharf |editor-first=Keith |editor-last=Allan |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQfDosHckzEC |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-164344-6 |pages=228–234}}</ref> The Vedic Sanskrit employs fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and the most frequent are three (8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines).<ref name="PremingerWarnke2015p394" /> The Classical Sanskrit deploys both linear and non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae (matra per foot).<ref name="PremingerWarnke2015p394">{{cite book|first1=Alex |last1=Preminger|first2=Frank J. |last2=Warnke|first3=O. B. |last3=Hardison Jr.|title=Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLp9BgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7293-0|pages=394–395}}</ref>

== Writing system ==
{{further|Brahmi script|Devanagari}}
[[File:828 CE Sanskrit manuscript page, Gupta script, Nepal, Pārameśvaratantra (MS Add.1049.1).jpg|thumb|One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscript pages in Gupta script ({{circa|828 CE}}), discovered in [[Nepal]]]]

The early history of writing Sanskrit and other languages in ancient India is a problematic topic despite a century of scholarship, states [[Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|Richard Salomon]] – an epigraphist and Indologist specializing in Sanskrit and Pali literature.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=10}} The earliest possible script from South Asia is from the [[Indus Valley civilization]] (3rd/2nd millennium BCE), but this script – if it is a script – remains undeciphered. If any scripts existed in the Vedic period, they have not survived. Scholars generally accept that Sanskrit was spoken in an oral society, and that an [[oral tradition]] preserved the extensive Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=7–10, 86}} Other scholars such as Jack Goody argue that the Vedic Sanskrit texts are not the product of an oral society, basing this view by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek (Greco-Sanskrit), Serbian, and other cultures. This minority of scholars argue that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without having been written down.{{sfn|Goody|1987|pp=110–121}}<ref name=lopez1995p21>{{harvnb|Donald S. Lopez Jr.|1995|pp=21–47}}</ref><ref name="njallen">{{cite book |title=Arjuna–Odysseus: Shared Heritage in Indian and Greek Epic|author=N. J. Allen|year=2019|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=364}}</ref>

''[[Lipi (script)|Lipi]]'' is the term in Sanskrit which means "writing, letters, alphabet". It contextually refers to scripts, the art or any manner of writing or drawing.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=11}} The term, in the sense of a writing system, appears in some of the earliest Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina texts. [[Pāṇini]]'s ''Astadhyayi'', composed sometime around the 5th or 4th century BCE, for example, mentions ''lipi'' in the context of a writing script and education system in his times, but he does not name the script.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|p=11}}<ref name="Juhyung Rhi 2009 5, 1–13"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Rita Sherma|author2=Arvind Sharma|title=Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-8192-7|page=235}}; {{cite book|author=Takao Hayashi|editor=Gavin Flood|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-99868-7|page=365|access-date=3 August 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329144114/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|url-status=live}}</ref> Several early Buddhist and Jaina texts, such as the ''[[Lalitavistara Sūtra]]'' and ''Pannavana Sutta'' include lists of numerous writing scripts in ancient India.{{efn|The Buddhist text ''[[Lalitavistara Sūtra]]'' describes the young Siddhartha—the future [[Buddha]]—to have mastered philology and scripts at a school from Brahmin Lipikara and Deva Vidyasinha.<ref name=nado95>{{cite journal |first=Lopon |last=Nado |year=1982 |title=The development of language in Bhutan |journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=5 |number=2 |page=95 |quote=Under different teachers, such as the Brahmin Lipikara and Deva Vidyasinha, he mastered Indian philology and scripts. According to Lalitavistara, there were as many as sixty-four scripts in India.}}</ref>}} The Buddhist texts list the sixty four ''lipi'' that the Buddha knew as a child, with the Brahmi script topping the list. "The historical value of this list is however limited by several factors", states Salomon. The list may be a later interpolation.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=8–9 with footnotes}}{{efn|A version of this list of sixty-four ancient Indian scripts is found in the Chinese translation of an Indian Buddhist text, and this translation has been dated to 308 CE.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=8–9}}}} The [[Jainism|Jain]] canonical texts such as the ''Pannavana Sutta'' – probably older than the Buddhist texts – list eighteen writing systems, with the Brahmi topping the list and Kharotthi (Kharoshthi) listed as fourth. The Jaina text elsewhere states that the "Brahmi is written in 18 different forms", but the details are lacking.{{sfn|Salomon|1998}} However, the reliability of these lists has been questioned and the empirical evidence of writing systems in the form of Sanskrit or Prakrit inscriptions dated prior to the 3rd century BCE has not been found. If the ancient surfaces for writing Sanskrit were palm leaves, tree bark and cloth – the same as those in later times – these have not survived.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=8–14}}{{efn|The Greek [[Nearchus|Nearchos]] who visited ancient India with the army of [[Alexander the Great]] in the 4th century BCE, mentions that Indians wrote on cloth, but Nearchos could have confused Aramaic writers with the Indians.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=11–12}}}} According to Salomon, many find it difficult to explain the "evidently high level of political organization and cultural complexity" of ancient India without a writing system for Sanskrit and other languages.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=8–14}}{{efn|Salomon writes, in ''The World's Writing Systems'' (edited by Peter Daniels), that "many scholars feel that the origins of these scripts must have gone back further than this [mid-3rd century BCE Ashoka inscriptions], but there is no conclusive proof".{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=371–372}} }}

The oldest datable writing systems for Sanskrit are the [[Brahmi script|Brāhmī script]], the related [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī script]] and the Brahmi derivatives.{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=373–374, 376–378}}{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=14–16}} The Kharosthi was used in the northwestern part of South Asia and it became extinct, while the Brahmi was used all over the subcontinent along with regional scripts such as Old Tamil.{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=373–375}} Of these, the earliest records in the Sanskrit language are in Brahmi, a script that later evolved into numerous related Indic scripts for Sanskrit, along with Southeast Asian scripts (Burmese, Thai, Lao, Khmer, others) and many extinct Central Asian scripts such as those discovered along with the [[Kharosthi]] in the Tarim Basin of western China and in [[Uzbekistan]].{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=373–376}} The most extensive inscriptions that have survived into the modern era are the rock edicts and pillar inscriptions of the 3rd century BCE Mauryan emperor [[Ashoka]], but these are not in Sanskrit.{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=373–374}}{{efn|Minor inscriptions discovered in the 20th century may be older, but their dating is uncertain.{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=373–374}}}}

===Scripts===
Over the centuries, and across countries, a number of scripts have been used to write Sanskrit.

====Brahmi script====
{{main|Brahmi script}}

[[File:Hathibada Brahmi Inscription at Nagari, Hinduism Sanskrit India.jpg|thumb|260px|upright=1.28|One of the oldest Hindu Sanskrit{{efn|Salomon states that the inscription has a few scribal errors, but is essentially standard Sanskrit.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86–87}}}} inscriptions, the broken pieces of this early-1st-century BCE [[Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions|Hathibada Brahmi Inscription]] were discovered in Rajasthan. It is a dedication to deities [[Vāsudeva]]-[[Samkarshana]] ([[Krishna]]-[[Balarama]]) and mentions a stone temple.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86–87}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC|year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1|page=294|access-date=7 August 2018|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115081256/https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
The Brahmi script for writing Sanskrit is a "modified consonant-syllabic" script. The graphic syllable is its basic unit, and this consists of a consonant with or without diacritic modifications.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=14–16}} Since the vowel is an integral part of the consonants, and given the efficiently compacted, fused consonant cluster morphology for Sanskrit words and grammar, the Brahmi and its derivative writing systems deploy ligatures, diacritics and relative positioning of the vowel to inform the reader how the vowel is related to the consonant and how it is expected to be pronounced for clarity.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=14–16}}{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=376–380}}{{efn|Salomon illustrates this for the consonant ''ka'' which is written as "[[File:Brahmi k.svg|15px]]" in the Brahmi script and "क" in the Devanagari script, the vowel is marked together with the consonant before as in "कि", after "का", above "के" or below "कृ".{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=14–16}}}} This feature of Brahmi and its modern Indic script derivatives makes it difficult to classify it under the main script types used for the writing systems for most of the world's languages, namely logographic, syllabic and alphabetic.{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=14–16}}

====Nagari script====
{{Devanagari abugida sidebar}}
{{main|Devanagari|Nandinagari|Nāgarī script}}

Many modern era manuscripts are written and available in the Nagari script, whose form is attestable to the 1st millennium CE.{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=68–70 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}} The Nagari script is the ancestor of [[Devanagari]] (north India), [[Nandinagari]] (south India) and other variants. The Nāgarī script was in regular use by 7th century CE, and had fully evolved into Devanagari and Nandinagari<ref>{{cite report |chapter-url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2013/13002-nandinagari.pdf |chapter=Nandanagiri |title=Unicode Standards |year=2013 |id=13002 |access-date=6 August 2018 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309054659/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2013/13002-nandinagari.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> scripts by about the end of the first millennium of the common era.<ref name=kathleen>{{cite book |first=Kathleen |last=Kuiper |year=2010 |title=The Culture of India |place=New York, NY |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1615301492 |page=83}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Salomon |year=2014 |title=Indian Epigraphy |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195356663 |pages=33–47}}</ref> The Devanagari script, states Banerji, became more popular for Sanskrit in India since about the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sures Chandra Banerji |title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0063-2 |pages=671–672 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC&pg=PA672 |access-date=6 August 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329143940/https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC&pg=PA672#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Sanskrit does have special historical connection to the Nagari script as attested by the epigraphical evidence.{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=70, 75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}}

The Nagari script used for Classical Sanskrit has the fullest repertoire of characters consisting of fourteen vowels and thirty three consonants. For Vedic Sanskrit, it has two more allophonic consonantal characters (the intervocalic ळ ''ḷa'', and ळ्ह ''ḷha'').{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}} To communicate phonetic accuracy, it also includes several modifiers such as the ''anusvara'' dot and the ''visarga'' double dot, punctuation symbols and others such as the ''halanta'' sign.{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}}

====Other writing systems====
{{brahmic}}
[[File:Phrase sanskrit.svg|thumb|260px|upright=1.35|Sanskrit in modern Indian and other Brahmi scripts: ''May [[Shiva|Śiva]] bless those who take delight in the language of the gods.'' ([[Kālidāsa]])]]
Other scripts such as [[Gujarati alphabet|Gujarati]], [[Bengali-Assamese script|Bangla-Assamese]], [[Odia alphabet|Odia]] and major south Indian scripts, states Salomon, "have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit".{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=68–70 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}} These and many Indian scripts look different to the untrained eye, but the differences between Indic scripts is "mostly superficial and they share the same phonetic repertoire and systemic features", states Salomon.{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=70–78 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}} They all have essentially the same set of eleven to fourteen vowels and thirty-three consonants as established by the Sanskrit language and attestable in the Brahmi script. Further, a closer examination reveals that they all have the similar basic graphic principles, the same ''varnamala'' (literally, "garland of letters") alphabetic ordering following the same logical phonetic order, easing the work of historic skilled scribes writing or reproducing Sanskrit works across South Asia.{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=70–71, 75–76 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}}{{efn|Salomon states that these shared graphic principles that combine syllabic and alphabetic writing are distinctive for Indic scripts when contrasted with other major world languages. The only known similarity is found in the Ethiopic scripts, but Ethiopic system lacks clusters and the Indic set of full vowels signs.{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007|pp=70–71 in Chapter 3 by Salomon}} }}

[[File:Mandakapattu Inscription.jpg|thumb|260px|left|One of the earliest known Sanskrit inscriptions in Tamil Grantha script at a rock-cut Hindu Trimurti temple ([[Mandagapattu Temple|Mandakapattu]], {{Circa|615 CE}})]]
In the south, where [[Dravidian languages]] predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit include the [[Kannada alphabet|Kannada]], [[Telugu script|Telugu]], [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]] and [[Grantha alphabet]]s.

=== Transliteration and romanisation schemes ===
{{Main|Devanagari transliteration|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration}}

Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been [[transliteration|transliterated]] using the [[Latin alphabet]]. The system most commonly used today is the IAST ([[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]]), which has been the academic standard since 1888. [[ASCII]]-based transliteration schemes have also evolved because of difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include [[Harvard-Kyoto]] and [[ITRANS]], a transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of [[Unicode]]-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online. It is also possible to type using an [[alphanumeric keyboard]] and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS X's international support.

===Epigraphy===
{{main|Sanskrit epigraphy}}

{{transclusion notice|source=Sanskrit epigraphy}}
{{excerpt|Sanskrit epigraphy|paragraphs=1|references=no|inline=yes|hat=yes}}{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=86–87}}{{sfn|Quintanilla|2007|pp=260}}

{{excerpt|Sanskrit epigraphy|paragraphs=3-3|references=no|templates=-multiple image |inline=yes}}{{sfn|Court|1996|pp=445–448}}{{sfn|Masica|1993|pp=143–144}}{{sfn|Salomon|1998|pp=92–93}}

==Literature==
{{main|Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit Buddhist literature}}

Literature in Sanskrit{{efn|"Since the Renaissance there has been no event of such worldwide significance in the history of culture as the discovery of Sanskrit literature in the latter part of the eighteenth century" – Macdonell<ref>Macdonell, p. 1.</ref>}} can be broadly divided into texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit and the later Classical Sanskrit.<ref>Fortson, §10.23.</ref> Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion,{{efn|'The style of the [Vedic] works is more simple and spontaneous while that of the later works abounds in puns, conceits and long compounds. Rhetorical ornaments are more and more copious and complex and the rules of Poetic and Grammar more and more rigidly observed as time advances.' – Iyengar,{{Sfn|Iyengar|1965|p=2}}}} which aside from the four Vedas, include the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras.<ref>Keith, §1.</ref><ref>Macdonnell, §1.</ref><ref>Burrow, §2.9.</ref>

The Vedic literature that survives is entirely of a religious form, whereas works in Classical Sanskrit exist in a wide variety of fields including epics, lyric, drama, romance, fairytale, fables, grammar, civil and religious law, the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sex, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter.{{Sfn|Iyengar|1965|pp=xxx–xxxiii, 5}}<ref>Macdonell, p. ix., §1</ref>

While Vedic literature is essentially optimistic in spirit, portraying man as strong and powerful capable of finding fulfilment both here and in the afterworld, the later literature is pessimistic, portraying humans as controlled by the forces of fate with worldly pleasures deemed the cause of misery. These fundamental differences in psychology are attributed to the absence of the doctrines of Karma and reincarnation in the Vedic period, notions which are very prevalent in later times.{{Sfn|Iyengar|1965|p=5}}

===Works===
{{See also|Hindu texts|Buddhist texts|Jain literature}}
Sanskrit has been written in various scripts on a variety of media such as palm leaves, cloth, paper, rock and metal sheets, from ancient times.{{sfn|Banerji|1989|p=672 with footnotes}}
{| class="wikitable" align=center style = " background: transparent; "
|+ Sanskrit literature by tradition
|-style="text-align: center;"
! Tradition
! Sanskrit texts, genre or collection
! Example
! References
|-style="text-align: left;"
| rowspan="19"|Hinduism
| Scriptures
| [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads|Upaniṣad]]s, [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgama]]s, [[Bhagavad Gita|the Bhagavad·Gītā]]
|<ref>Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01603-5}}</ref><ref>Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-02091-1}}</ref>
|-
|Language, Grammar
|Aṣṭādhyāyī, Gaṇa·pāṭha, Pada·pāṭha, Vārttikas, Mahābhāṣya, Vākya·padīya, Phiṭ·sūtra
|{{sfn|Dhanesh Jain|George Cardona|2007}}<ref>Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01722-8}}</ref>{{sfn|Keith|1996}}
|-
|Civil and Religious Law
|Dharma·sūtras/Dharma·śāstras,{{efn|These are just generic names for works of law}} Manu·smṛti
|<ref>{{cite book |first1=J. |last1=Duncan |first2=M. |last2=Derrett |year=1978 |title=Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature |editor-first=Jan |editor-last=Gonda |volume=4 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=3-447-01519-5}}</ref>{{sfn|Keith|1996|loc=ch 22}}
|-
|Statecraft, political science
|Artha·śāstra
|<ref>{{cite book |first=Patrick |last=Olivelle |title=King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India |date=31 January 2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-989182-5}}</ref>
|-
|Timekeeping, Mathematics, Logic
|[[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa]], [[Jyotisha|Jyotiṣa]], Gaṇita·śāstra, Śulba·sūtras, Siddhāntas, Āryabhaṭīya, Daśa·gītikā·sutra, Siddhānta·śiromaṇi, Gaṇita·sāra·saṅgraha, Bīja·gaṇita{{efn|an account of Indian algebra}}
|<ref>Kim Plofker (2009), ''[[Mathematics in India (book)|Mathematics in India]]'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-12067-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Pingree |title=A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit |year=1970 |volume=1–5 |publisher=American Philosophical Society |isbn=978-0-87169-213-9}}</ref>
|-
|Life sciences, health
|Āyurveda, Suśruta·saṃhitā, Caraka·saṃhitā
|<ref>{{cite book |first=M.S. |last=Valiathan |title=The Legacy of Caraka |year=2003 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-2505-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Kenneth |last=Zysk |year= 1998|title=Medicine in the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1401-1}}</ref>
|-
|Sex, emotions{{efn|''Kāma·śāstra'', 'the science of love'}}
| [[Kama Sutra|Kāma·sūtra]], Pañca·sāyaka, Rati·rahasya, Rati·mañjari, Anaṅga·ranga
|<ref>{{cite book |first=J.J. |last=Meyer |title=Sexual Life in Ancient India |date=22 February 2013 |volume=1 & 2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-4826-1588-3}}</ref>{{sfn|Keith|1996|loc=ch 24}}
|-
|Epics
|Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata
|{{sfn|John L. Brockington|1998}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Sures Chandra Banerji |year=1989 |title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0063-2 |pages=1–4, with a long list in Part II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC |via=Google Books |quote=Spanning a period of over three thousand years; containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, [and] legends, [with] several appendices. |access-date=6 August 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329144637/https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|Court Epic (Kāvya)
|Raghu·vaṃśa, Kumāra·sambhava
|{{sfn|Keith|1996|loc=§4}}
|-
|Gnomic and didactic literature
|Subhāṣitas, Nīti·śataka, Bodhicary'âvatāra, Śṛṅgāra·jñāna·nirṇaya, Kalā·vilāsa, Catur·varga·saṅgraha, Nīti·mañjari, Mugdh'ôpadeśa, Subhāṣita·ratna·sandoha, Yoga·śāstra, Śṛṅgāra·vairāgya·taraṅgiṇī
|<ref>{{cite book |first=Ludwik |last=Sternbach |year=1974 |title=Subhāṣita: Gnomic and didactic literature |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-01546-2}}</ref>
|-
|Drama, dance and the performance arts
|Nāṭya·śāstra
|<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/SanskritDrama-KeithA.Berriedale |title=The Sanskrit Drama |publisher=Oxford University Press |first=Keith A. |last=Berriedale |via=Archive.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Rachel |last1=Baumer |first2=James |last2=Brandon |year=1993 |title=Sanskrit Drama in Performance |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0772-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Mohan |last=Khokar |year=1981 |title=Traditions of Indian Classical Dance |publisher=Peter Owen Publishers |isbn=978-0-7206-0574-7}}</ref>
|-
|Music
|Sangīta·śāstra
|<ref>{{cite book |first=E. |last=te Nijenhuis |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |chapter=Musicological literature |series=A History of Indian Literature |volume=6 |title=Scientific and Technical Literature |date=1977 |id=Fasc. 1 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-01831-9}}</ref><ref>Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|0-226-73033-6}}</ref>
|-
|Poetics
|Kāvya·śāstra
|<ref>Edwin Gerow, ''A history of Indian literature''. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|3-447-01722-8}}</ref>
|-
|Mythology
|Purāṇas
|<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), ''The Puranas'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02522-5}}</ref>
|-
|Mystical speculations, philosophy
|Darśana, [[Samkhya|Sāṅkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)]], [[Nyaya|Nyāya]], [[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]], [[Mimamsa|Mīmāṅsa]], [[Vedanta|Vedānta]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Smarta Tradition|Smārta Tradition]] and others
|<ref>Karl Potter, ''The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'', Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0309-4}}</ref>
|-
| Agriculture and food
| Kṛṣi·śāstra
|<ref>Gyula Wojtilla (2006), ''History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-05306-8}}</ref>
|-
| Design, architecture (Vastu, Śilpa)
| Śilpa·śāstra
|<ref>{{cite book |first=P.K. |last=Acharya |year=1946 |url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |title=An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=7}} Also see volumes 1–6.</ref><ref>[[Bruno Dagens]] (1995), Mayamata : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3525-2}}</ref>
|-
|Temples, Sculpture
|Bṛhat·saṃhitā
|<ref>Stella Kramrisch, ''Hindu Temple'', Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0222-3}}</ref>
|-style="text-align: left;"
|-
|Saṃskāra (rites-of-passage)
|Gṛhya·sūtras
|<ref>Rajbali Pandey (2013), ''Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious study of the Hindu sacraments'', 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803961}}</ref>
|-
| style="background: #ffad66;" |Buddhism
| Sutras, Vinaya, Kāvya, Medicine, [[Buddhist philosophy]]
| [[Tripitaka|Tripiṭaka]],{{efn|Most Tripiṭaka historic texts in the Pali language, but Sanskrit Tripiṭaka texts have been discovered.{{sfn|Banerji|1989|pp=634–635 with the list in Appendix IX}}}} [[Mahayana sutras]] and [[shastra]]s, [[Tantras (Buddhism)|tantras]], grammar texts, [[Buddhist poetry]], drama, Buddhist medical texts
|{{sfn|Banerji|1989|pp=634–635 with the list in Appendix IX}}{{sfn|Eltschinger|2017}}{{sfn|Wayman|1965}}
|-style="text-align: left;"
| style="background: #ffad66;" |Jainism
| Theology, philosophy
| [[Tattvartha Sutra|Tattvārtha Sūtra]], Mahāpurāṇa and others
|<ref>{{cite book |author=Paul Dundas |title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-50165-6 |pages=68–76, 149, 307–310 |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702114824/https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Wendy Doniger |year=1993 |title=Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and transformation in Hindu and Jaina texts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1381-4 |pages=192–193}}</ref>
|}

==Lexicon==
{{See also|Indo-European vocabulary|Sanskrit compound}}

As an Indo-European language, Sanskrit's core [[lexicon]] is inherited from Proto-Indo-European. Over time however, the language exhibits a tendency to shed many of these inherited words and borrow others in their place from other sources.

In the oldest Vedic literature, there are few such non-Indo-European words, but these progressively grow in volume.{{sfn|Burrow|2001|p=375}}

The following are some of the old Indo-European words that eventually fade out of use in Sanskrit:{{sfn|Burrow|2001|pp=39–40}}
:{|
|-
| ''ápas'' || work || cf. Latin ''opus''
|-
| ''kravís''   || raw flesh   || cf. Latin ''crūdus''
|-
| ''dáma-''   || house   || cf. Latin ''domus''
|-
| ''dā́nu-'' || moisture ||
|-
| ''háras-'' || heat ||
|}

===Dravidian lexical influence===
The sources of these new loanwords are many, and vary across the different regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. But of all influences on the lexicon of Sanskrit, the most important is Dravidian.

The following is a list of Dravidian entrants into Sanskrit lexicon, although some may have been contested:{{sfn|Burrow|2001|pp=381–385}}{{sfn|Parpola|1994|p=168}}
:{|
|-
| ''phálam'' || ripe fruit || Proto-Dravidian ''*paẓam''
|-
| ''múkham''   || mouth || Proto-Dravidian ''*mukam''
|-
| ''kajjala-''   || soot, lampblack   ||
|-
| ''kaṭu-'' || sharp, pungent ||
|-
| ''kaṭhina-'' || hard, firm ||
|-
| ''kuṭi-'' || hut, house ||
|-
| ''kuṭṭ-'' || to pound ||
|-
| ''kuṇḍala-''   || loop, ring, earring, coil of rope ||
|-
| ''khala-'' || a rogue ||
|-
| ''mayū́ra-'' || peacock ||
|-
| ''mallikā'' || jasmine ||
|-
| ''mīna-'' || fish ||
|-
| ''vallī-'' || creeper ||
|-
| ''heramba-''   || buffalo ||
|}

===Nominal-form preference===
While Vedic and epic form of speech is largely cognate to that of other [[Indo-European languages]] such as Greek and Latin, later Sanskrit shows a tendency to move away from using verbal forms to nominal ones. Examples of nominal forms taking the place of conventional conjugation are:
:{|
|-
| past passive participle
| ''naraḥ gataḥ''
| "the man went", ({{lit|The man was gone}})
|-
| active past participle in ''-vant''
| ''kṛtavān''
| "he had done"
({{lit|He, having done, (is)}})
|}

However the most notable development is the prolific use of word-compounding to express ideas normally conveyed by verbal forms and sub-clauses introduced by conjunctions.{{sfn|Keith|1996|pp=20–21}}

Classical Sanskrit's pre-eminent playwright [[Kālidāsa]] uses:
:{|
|-
| ''vīcikṣobhastanitavihagaśreṇikāñcīguṇā''
| whose girdle-string is a row of birds, loquacious through the agitation of the waves
|}

== Influence on other languages ==
{{see also|Sanskritisation (language)|Indosphere|Greater India}}

For nearly 2,000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, [[Inner Asia]], Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia.{{sfn|Pollock|2001}} A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of [[Indian epic poetry]]—the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. The deviations from {{IAST|[[Pāṇini]]}} in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from [[Prakrit]]s, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian.{{Sfn|Oberlies|2003|pp=xxvii–xxix}} Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ''ārṣa'' (आर्ष), meaning 'of the [[rishi|ṛṣis]]', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] is a literary language heavily influenced by the [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages]], based on early Buddhist Prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees.<ref name="Edgerton 2004">{{cite book |last=Edgerton|first=Franklin|title=Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|year=2004|isbn=978-81-215-1110-0}}</ref>

=== Indian subcontinent ===
Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base; for instance, [[Standard Hindi|Hindi]] is a "Sanskritised register" of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]. All modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]], as well as [[Munda languages|Munda]] and [[Dravidian languages]] have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (''[[tatsama]]'' words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (''[[tadbhava]]'' words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary forms of [[Malayalam]] and [[Kannada]].{{sfn|Staal|1963|p=261}} Literary texts in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] are [[Lexicon|lexically]] Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more.<ref name="Rao 2002 p. ">{{cite book|last=Rao|first=Velcheru|title=Classical Telugu poetry an anthology|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, Calif|year=2002|isbn=978-0-520-22598-5|page=3}}</ref> [[Marathi language|Marathi]] is another prominent language in Western India, that derives most of its words and [[Marathi grammar]] from Sanskrit.<ref>Sugam Marathi Vyakaran & Lekhana. 2007. Nitin publications. Author: M. R. Walimbe.</ref> Sanskrit words are often preferred in the literary texts in Marathi over corresponding colloquial Marathi word.<ref>Carey, William (1805). ''A Grammar of the Marathi Language''. Serampur [''[[sic]]'']: Serampore Mission Press. {{ISBN|9781108056311}}.</ref>

There has been a profound influence of Sanskrit on the lexical and grammatical systems of Dravidian languages. As per Dalby, India has been a single cultural area for about two millennia which has helped Sanskrit influence on all the Indic languages.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Dalby|first=A|title=Dictionary of languages : the definitive reference to more than 400 languages|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2004|location=New York|page=155}}</ref> Emeneau and Burrow mention the tendency "for all four of the Dravidian literary languages in South to make literary use of total Sanskrit lexicon indiscriminately".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Emeneau |first1=M. |last2=Burrow |first2=T. |title=Dravidian Borrowings from Indo-Aryan|publisher=University of California|year=1962}}</ref> There are a large number of loanwords found in the vocabulary of the three major Dravidian languages Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu.<ref name=":0" /> Tamil also has significant loanwords from Sanskrit.<ref name=":3" /> Krishnamurthi mentions that although it is not clear when the Sanskrit influence happened on the Dravidian languages, it might have been around the 5th century BCE at the time of separation of Tamil and Kannada from a [[Tamil–Kannada languages|common ancestral stage]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krishnamurti|first=Bhadriraju|title=The Dravidian languages. ‌|publisher=Cambridge University Press.|year=2003|location=Cambridge|page=480}}</ref> ‌The borrowed words are classified into two types based on phonological integration – ''tadbhava'' – those words derived from Prakrit and ''tatsama'' – unassimilated loanwords from Sanskrit.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Grant|first=A|title=The Oxford handbook of language|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2019|location=New York|pages=Section 23.2, 23.3}}</ref>

Strazny mentions that "so massive has been the influence that it is hard to utter Sanskrit words have influenced Kannada from the early times".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Strazny|first=Philipp|title=Encyclopedia of linguistics|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|year=2005|location=New York|pages=501–502}}</ref> The first document in Kannada, the Halmidi inscription has a large number of Sanskrit words. As per Kachru, the influence has not only been on single lexical items in Kannada but also on "long nominal compounds and complicated syntactic expressions". New words have been created in Kannada using Sanskrit derivational prefixes and suffixes like ''vikēndrīkaraṇa, anilīkaraṇa, bahīskruṭa''. Similar stratification is found in verb morphology. Sanskrit words readily undergo verbalization in Kannada, verbalizing suffixes as in: ''chāpisu, dauḍāyisu, ravānisu.''<ref>{{Cite book |editor1-last=Kachru |editor1-first=B.B. |editor2-last=Kachru |editor2-first=Yamuna |editor3-last=Sridhar |editor3-first=S.N |title=Language in South Asia|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=331–332}}</ref>

George mentions that "No other Dravidian language has been so deeply influenced by Sanskrit as Malayalam".<ref>{{Cite book |last=George |first=K.M. |year=1998 |title=Modern Indian Literature |volume=1 |page=8 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |location=New Delhi}}</ref> According to Lambert, Malayalam is so immensely Sanskritised that every Sanskrit word can be used in Malayalam by integrating "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Lambert |first=H.M. |date=January 1958 |conference=Contemporary Indian Literature: A symposium |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |place=New Delhi |quote=Foreword by S. Radhakrishnan, Ministry of Information, Delhi, p. 8. |title=[presentation title not cited] |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=90 |issue=1–2 |page=89 |doi=10.1017/s0035869x00116910 |issn=1356-1863}}</ref> Loanwords have been integrated into Malayalam by "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant. These phonological changes are either by replacement of a vowel as in ''sant-''am coming from Sanskrit ''santa'', ''sāgar''-am from ''sāgara'', or addition of prothetic vowel as in ''aracan'' from ''rājā-'', ''uruvam'' from ''rūpa'', ''codyam'' from ''sodhya''.<ref name=":1"/>

Hans Henrich et al. note that, the language of the pre-modern Telugu literature was also highly influenced by Sanskrit and was standardized between 11th and 14th centuries.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Hock |first1=Hans Henrich |last2=Bashir |first2=E. |last3=Subbarao |first3=K.V. |title=The languages and linguistics of South Asia a comprehensive guide.|publisher=Berlin De Gruyter Mouton|year=2016|page=95}}</ref> Aiyar has shown that in a class of ''tadbhavas'' in Telugu the first and second letters are often replaced by the third and fourth letters and fourth again replaced often by h. Examples of the same are: Sanskrit ''artha'' becomes ''ardhama'', ''vīthi'' becomes ''vidhi'', ''putra'' becomes ''bidda'', ''mukham'' becomes ''muhamu''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Aiyar|first=R Swaminatha|title=Dravidian theories|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1987|isbn=8120803310|page=294}}</ref>

[[Tamil language|Tamil]] also has been influenced by Sanskrit. Hans Henrich et al. mention that propagation of Jainism and Buddhism into south India had its influence.<ref name=":2" /> Shulman mentions that although contrary to the views held by Tamil purists, modern Tamil has been significantly influenced from Sanskrit, further states that "Indeed, there may well be more Sanskrit in Tamil than in the Sanskrit derived north-Indian vernaculars". Sanskrit words have been Tamilized through the "Tamil phonematic grid".<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Shulman|first=David Dean|title=Tamil : a biography|publisher=The Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press|year=2016|location=London|pages=12–14}}</ref>

=== Beyond the Indian subcontinent ===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 1
| total_width = 300
| image1 = A Sanskrit manuscript of Lotus Sutra in South Turkestan Brahmi script.jpg
| image2 = A palm leaf Sanskrit manuscript in Brahmi script from Miran China.jpg
| footer = Sanskrit has had a historical presence and influence in many parts of Asia. Above (top clockwise): [i] a Sanskrit manuscript from Turkestan, [ii] another from Miran-China.
}}

Sanskrit was a language for religious purposes and for the political elite in parts of medieval era Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia, having been introduced in these regions mainly along with the spread of Buddhism. In some cases, it has competed with Pāli for prominence.{{sfn|Michael C. Howard|2012|p=21}}{{sfn|Burrow|2001|p=63}}

==== East Asia ====
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = South Korea-Goheunggun-Neunggasa 5836-07 bronze bell.JPG
| image2 = Siddham alphabet by Kukai.svg
| footer = [i] a bell with Sanskrit engravings in South Korea [ii] the [[Kūkai]] calligraphy of Siddham-Sanskrit in Japan
}}

[[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit|Buddhist Sanskrit]] has had a considerable influence on [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] such as Chinese, state William Wang and Chaofen Sun.<ref name="WangSun2015p5" /> Many words have been adopted from Sanskrit into Chinese, both in its historic religious discourse and everyday use.<ref name="WangSun2015p5">{{cite book |author1=William S.-Y. Wang |author2=Chaofen Sun |year=2015 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985633-6 |pages=5–6, 12, 236–247 |quote=In chapter 18, Shi Xiangdong makes it clear that the influence of Buddhist Sanskrit on the Chinese language has been considerable. Many words have crossed the line from religious discourse to everyday use. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ}}</ref>{{efn|Examples of phonetically imported Sanskrit words in Chinese include samgha (Chinese: seng), bhiksuni (ni), kasaya (jiasha), namo or namas (namo), and nirvana (niepan). The list of phonetically transcribed and semantically translated words from Sanskrit into Chinese is substantial, states Xiangdong Shi.<ref name="WangSun2015p5"/>}} This process likely started about 200 CE and continued through about 1400 CE, with the efforts of monks such as Yuezhi, Anxi, Kangju, Tianzhu, Yan Fodiao, Faxian, Xuanzang and [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]].<ref name="WangSun2015p5" />

Further, as the Chinese languages and culture influenced the rest of East Asia, the ideas in Sanskrit texts and some of its linguistic elements migrated further.<ref name="OrzechSørensen2011">{{cite book |author1=Charles Orzech |author2=Henrik Sørensen |author3=Richard Payne |title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia |year=2011 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-18491-6 |pages=985–996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=William S.-Y. Wang |author2=Chaofen Sun |title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985633-6 |pages=5–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ}}</ref>

Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. Chinese words like {{lang|zh|剎那}} ''chànà'' ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|क्षण}} {{IAST|kṣaṇa}} 'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings, the [[Tengyur]].

Sanskrit has also influenced the religious register of Japanese mostly through transliterations. These were borrowed from Chinese transliterations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nichiren Buddhism Library|url=https://www.nichirenlibrary.org/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222074700/http://www.nichirenlibrary.org/|archive-date=22 February 2015|website=nichirenlibrary.org}}</ref> In particular, the [[Shingon]] ({{Literal translation|True Words}}) sect of esoteric Buddhism has been relying on Sanskrit and original Sanskrit [[mantra]]s and writings, as a means of realizing Buddhahood.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Orzech|first1=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC&pg=PA985|title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia|last2=Sørensen|first2=Henrik|last3=Payne|first3=Richard|date=2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004184916|page=985}}</ref>

==== Southeast Asia ====
{{further|Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Sanskrit n Thai.jpg
| image2 = Cambodia-2742 (3621496153).jpg
| footer = [i] the Thai script [ii] a Sanskrit inscription in Cambodia
}}

A large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit across Southeast Asia testify the influence the language held in these regions.{{sfn|Burrow|2001|pp=63, 64}}

Languages such as [[Indonesia language|Indonesian]], [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Lao language|Lao]] contain many [[loanword]]s from Sanskrit, as does [[Khmer language|Khmer]]. Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in [[Austronesian languages]], such as [[Javanese language|Javanese]], particularly the [[Old Javanese|older form]] in which nearly half the vocabulary is borrowed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zoetmulder |first=P.J. |title=Old Javanese-English Dictionary |year=1982 |url=http://sealang.net/ojed/ |access-date=29 October 2014 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601111918/http://sealang.net/ojed/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other Austronesian languages, such as [[Malay language|Malay]] (descended into modern [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] standards) also derive [[List of loanwords in Indonesian#From Sanskrit|much of their vocabulary]] from Sanskrit. Similarly, [[Philippine languages]] such as [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] have [[List of loanwords in Tagalog#Sanskrit|some Sanskrit loanwords]].

A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word ''[[Bahasa|bhāṣā]]'', or spoken language, which is used to refer to the names of many languages.<ref>{{cite book |title=Passport India |edition=3rd |type=eBook |page=15 |first=Manoj |last=Joshi |publisher=World Trade Press}}</ref>

To this day, Southeast Asian languages such as Thai are known to draw upon Sanskrit for technical vocabulary.{{sfn|Burrow|2001|p=64}}

=====Indonesia=====
{{further|List of Indic loanwords in Indonesian}}
[[Image:kutai Prasasti of Mulawarman.JPG|thumb|upright|The ancient [[Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia|Yūpa]] inscription (one of the earliest and oldest Sanskrit texts written in ancient Indonesia) dating back to the [[4th century CE]] written by [[Brahmin]]s under the rule of King [[Mulavarman]] of the [[Kutai#History|Kutai Martadipura Kingdom]] located in [[East Kalimantan|eastern Borneo]]]]
The earliest Sanskrit text which was founded in the [[Indonesian Archipelago]] was at [[East Kalimantan|Eastern Borneo]] dating back to 400 CE known as the [[Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia|Mulavarman inscription]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kulke |first=Hermann |title=A History of India |year=1998 |page=145 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780415154826 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223185234/https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC |url-status=live }}</ref> This is one of the reason of strong influence of Indian culture that entered the [[Malay Archipelago]] during the [[Greater India|Indianization era]], and since then, Indian culture has been absorbed towards Indonesian culture and language. Thus, the Sanskrit culture in Indonesia exists not as a religious aspect but more towards a cultural aspect that has been present for generations, resulting in a more cultural rather than Hinduistic value of the [[Indonesian people]]. As a result, it is common to find Muslim or Christian Indonesians with names that have Indian or Sanskrit nuances. Unlike names derived from Sanskrit in [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Khmer language|Khmer]], the pronunciation of Sanskrit names in Indonesia is more similar to the original Indian pronunciation, except that "v" is changed to "w", for example, "Vishnu" in India will be spelled "Wisnu" in Indonesia.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

==== Rest of the world ====
In ancient and medieval times, several Sanskrit words in the field of food and spices made their way into European languages including Greek, Latin and later English. Some of these are ''pepper'', ''ginger'' and ''sugar''. English today has several [[List of English words of Sanskrit origin|words of Sanskrit origin]], most of them borrowed during the [[British Raj]] or later. Some of these words have in turn been borrowed by other European or world languages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yule |first1=Henry |last2=Burnell |first2=Arthur Coke |title=Hobson-Jobson |date=2010 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139197922.002 |isbn=978-1-108-01839-5 |chapter=Introductory Remarks |pages=xiii–xxiv |quote-page=xvii |quote=The words with which we have to do, taking the most extensive view of the field, are in fact organic remains deposited under the various currents of external influence that have washed the shores of India during twenty centuries and more. }}</ref>

== Modern era ==

=== Liturgy, ceremonies and meditation ===
Sanskrit is the sacred language of various Hindu, Buddhist, and [[Jain]] traditions. It is used during worship in [[Hindu temple]]s. In [[Newar Buddhism]], it is used in all monasteries. Sanskrit mantras and Sanskrit as a ritual language was commonplace among Jains throughout their medieval history.<ref>{{cite book |author=Paul Dundas |author-link=Paul Dundas |editor=Jan E. M. Houben |title=Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language |year=1996 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10613-0 |pages=152–155 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many Hindu rituals and rites-of-passage such as the "giving away the bride" and mutual vows at weddings, a baby's naming or first solid food ceremony and the goodbye during a cremation invoke and chant Sanskrit hymns.<ref>{{cite book |author=Swami Veda Bharati |title=Ritual Songs and Folk Songs of the Hindus of Surinam: Proefschrift |year=1968 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=11–22 |id=GGKEY:GJ0YGRH08YW |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cyIVAAAAIAAJ |access-date=13 August 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145026/https://books.google.com/books?id=cyIVAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Major festivals such as the ''[[Durga Puja]]'' ritually recite entire Sanskrit texts such as the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'' every year particularly among the numerous communities of eastern India.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Stratton Hawley |title=Devi: Goddesses of India |year=1996 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20058-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/devi00john/page/42 42]–44 |url=https://archive.org/details/devi00john |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=John Stratton Hawley |title=Devi: Goddesses of India |year=1996 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20058-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/devi00john/page/187 187]–188 |url=https://archive.org/details/devi00john |url-access=registration}}</ref> In the south, Sanskrit texts are recited at many major Hindu temples such as the [[Meenakshi Temple]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Christopher John Fuller |title=The Renewal of the Priesthood: Modernity and Traditionalism in a South Indian Temple |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11658-7 |pages=49–53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEFuDcK7i44C |access-date=13 August 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145206/https://books.google.com/books?id=GEFuDcK7i44C |url-status=live }}</ref> In India and beyond, recitations of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' occur in diverse settings, including "simple private household readings, to family and neighborhood recitation sessions, to holy men reciting in temples or at pilgrimage places for passersby, to public Gita discourses held almost nightly at halls and auditoriums in every Indian city".<ref>{{cite book |author=Richard H. Davis |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Biography |year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5197-3 |page=179 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA179 |access-date=13 August 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145025/https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Literature and arts ===
{{See also|List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Sanskrit}}
More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since India's independence in 1947.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prajapati |first1=Manibhai |title=Post-independence Sanskrit literature: a critical survey |date=2005 |publisher=Standard publishers India |location=New Delhi |edition=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtZjAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ranganath |first1=S. |title=Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka |year=2009 |edition=1st |page=7 |publisher=Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-86111-21-5 |url=http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/digitalbook/m/mswk.pdf |access-date=28 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501072906/http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/DigitalBook/M/Mswk.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2012 |quote=Contrary to popular belief, there is an astonishing quality of creative upsurge of writing in Sanskrit today. Modern Sanskrit writing is qualitatively of such high order that it can easily be treated on par with the best of Classical Sanskrit literature, It can also easily compete with the writings in other Indian languages.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Adhunika Sanskrit Sahitya Pustakalaya |publisher=Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan |url=http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/ASSP/Index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113021104/http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/ASSP/INDEX.html |access-date=28 October 2014 |archive-date=13 January 2013 |quote=The latter half of the nineteenth century marks the beginning of a new era in Sanskrit literature. Many of the modern Sanskrit writings are qualitatively of such high order that they can easily be treated at par with the best of classical Sanskrit works, and they can also be judged in contrast to the contemporary literature in other languages.}}</ref> In 2009, [[Satya Vrat Shastri]] became the first Sanskrit author to win the [[Jnanpith Award]], India's highest literary award.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Indian Express|title=Sanskrit's first Jnanpith winner is a 'poet by instinct'|date=14 January 2009|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/sanskrits-first-jnanpith-winner-is-a-poet-by-instinct/410480/0|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-date=7 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090607005229/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/sanskrits-first-jnanpith-winner-is-a-poet-by-instinct/410480/0|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sanskrit is used extensively in the [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] and [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] branches of classical music. [[Kirtan]]as, [[bhajan]]s, [[stotra]]s, and [[shloka]]s of Sanskrit are popular throughout India. The [[Samaveda]] uses musical notations in several of its recessions.<ref name="brit samveda">{{cite web |title=Samveda |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624383/Veda#ref942524 |access-date=5 May 2015 |archive-date=29 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429181056/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/624383/Veda#ref942524 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In [[Mainland China]], musicians such as [[Sa Dingding]] have written [[popular music|pop songs]] in Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite web |title=Awards for World Music 2008 |work=[[BBC Radio 3]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/worldmusic/a4wm2008/2008_sa_ding_ding.shtml |access-date=24 March 2011 |archive-date=24 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424011748/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/worldmusic/a4wm2008/2008_sa_ding_ding.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>

Numerous loan Sanskrit words are found in other major Asian languages. For example, [[List of loanwords in Tagalog#Sanskrit|Filipino]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Haspelmath |first=Martin |year=2009 |title=Loanwords in the World's Languages: A comparative handbook |page=724 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3110218435}}</ref> [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]],<ref name="kuizon">{{cite journal|first=Jose G.|last=Kuizon|year=1964|title=The Sanskrit Loan-words in the Cebuano-Bisayan Language|journal=Asian Folklore Studies|volume=23|issue=1|pages=111–158|url=https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/646|doi=10.2307/1177640|jstor=1177640|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401020118/https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/646|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Lao language|Lao]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]],<ref name="Sak">Sak-{{cite journal |last=Humphry |first=Channy |year=1993 |title=The syntax of nouns and noun phrases in dated pre-Angkorian inscriptions |journal=[[Mon-Khmer Studies]] |volume=22 |pages=1–26 |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/sak-humphry1993syntax.pdf |access-date=15 March 2018 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011131725/http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/sak-humphry1993syntax.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[List of loanwords in Thai|Thai]] and its [[Thai alphabet#Sanskrit and Pali|alphabets]], [[List of loanwords in Malay|Malay]] (including [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[List of loanwords in Indonesian#From Sanskrit|Indonesian]]), [[Javanese language|Javanese]] (old Javanese-English dictionary by [[P.J. Zoetmulder]] contains over 25,500 entries), and even in [[List of English words of Sanskrit origin|English]].

===Media===

Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on [[All India Radio]].<ref name="Mint2012">{{cite news |author=Mayank Austen Soofi |author-link=Mayank Austen Soofi |url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/rQ6mXnvWNS0UYv8lz4h12O/Delhis-Belly%E2%80%94Sanskritvanskrit.html |title=Delhi's Belly | Sanskrit-vanskrit |publisher=Livemint |date=23 November 2012 |access-date=6 December 2012 |archive-date=3 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403134925/http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/rQ6mXnvWNS0UYv8lz4h12O/Delhis-Belly%E2%80%94Sanskritvanskrit.html |url-status=live }}</ref> These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR's website.<ref>{{cite web |title=News on Air |publisher=News on Air |date=15 August 2012 |url=http://www.newsonair.com/nsd_schedule.asp |access-date=6 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905194622/http://www.newsonair.com/nsd_schedule.asp |archive-date=5 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=News archive search |publisher=Newsonair |date=15 August 2012 |url=http://www.newsonair.com/archive.asp |url-status=dead |access-date=6 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115062354/http://newsonair.com/archive.asp |archive-date=15 January 2013}}</ref> Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet through the DD National channel.<ref>{{cite web |title=Doordarshan News Live webcast |work=Webcast.gov.in |url=http://webcast.gov.in/live |access-date=6 December 2012 |archive-date=15 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215160147/http://webcast.gov.in/live/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. ''[[Sudharma]]'', a daily printed newspaper in Sanskrit, has been published out of [[Mysore]], India, since 1970. It was started by K.N. Varadaraja Iyengar, a Sanskrit scholar from [[Mysore]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-01-07 |title=Sanskrit daily still hits stands 40 years on |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/sanskrit-daily-still-hits-stands-40-years-on/articleshow/7233145.cms |access-date=2025-06-23 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

=== Schools and contemporary status ===
{{see also|Sanskrit revival}} 
[[File:Sanskrit festival at Pramati School, Mysore.jpg|thumb|Sanskrit festival at [[Pramati Hillview Academy]], [[Mysore]], India]]
Sanskrit has been taught in schools from time immemorial in India. In modern times, the first Sanskrit University was [[Sampurnanand Sanskrit University]], established in 1791 in the Indian city of [[Varanasi]]. Sanskrit is taught in 5,000 traditional schools (Pathashalas), and 14,000 schools<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vision and Roadmap of the Sanskrit Development |url=http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/data/Vision_and_Road_Map.pdf |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807000915/http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/data/Vision_and_Road_Map.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> in India. Sanskrit is one of the 22 [[Languages with official status in India#Scheduled languages of the Indian Constitution|scheduled languages of India]].{{sfn|Daniels|1996|pp=371–372}} Despite it being a studied school subject in contemporary India, Sanskrit has not been spoken as a native language in centuries.<ref name=patrick-mccartney-5-10-20 /><ref name=patrick-mccartney-5-11-20 /><ref name=sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit />

In India, Sanskrit is offered as a language in central and several state education board schools and is also taught in traditional [[gurukula]]s across the country.<ref>{{cite news |title=In 2013, UPA to CBSE: Make Sanskrit a must |date=4 December 2014 |newspaper=The Indian Express |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/in-2013-upa-to-cbse-make-sanskrit-a-must/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226170651/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/in-2013-upa-to-cbse-make-sanskrit-a-must/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A number of [[List of Sanskrit universities in India|colleges and universities]] in India have dedicated departments for Sanskrit studies. In March 2020, the [[Indian Parliament]] passed the ''Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020'' which upgraded three universities, [[National Sanskrit University]], [[Central Sanskrit University]] and [[Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University]], from the [[deemed to be university]] status to a [[Central university (India)|central university]] status.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sanskrit.nic.in/uploads/2020_05_09_VC/The_Central_Sanskrit_Universities_Act_2020.pdf|access-date=22 November 2020|title=Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020|date=25 March 2020|publisher=[[Government of India]]|work=[[The Gazette of India]]|archive-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022201528/http://sanskrit.nic.in/uploads/2020_05_09_VC/The_Central_Sanskrit_Universities_Act_2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Dmitri Mendeleev]] used the Sanskrit numbers of one, two and three (''eka-'', ''dvi-'' or ''dwi-'', and ''tri-'' respectively) to give provisional names to his predicted elements, like eka-boron being [[Gallium]] or eka-[[Francium]] being [[Ununennium]].

In the province of [[Bali]] in Indonesia, a number of educational and scholarly institutions have also been conducting Sanskrit lessons for Hindu locals.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJ3B5C0lxeE| title = A Sanskrit class being conducted in a village in Bali, Indonesia| website = YouTube| date = 3 March 2019| access-date = 26 August 2021| archive-date = 26 August 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210826075148/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJ3B5C0lxeE| url-status = live}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=User generated content, no context, no notability asserted|date=July 2023}}

==== In the West ====
{{see also|Sanskrit revival#Revival outside India}}

[[St James Independent Schools|St James Junior School]] and [[Avanti Schools Trust]] in London, England, offer Sanskrit as part of the curriculum.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sanskrit @ St James |website=Sanskrit @ St James |access-date=8 October 2017 |url=http://www.sanskritatstjames.org.uk/about-us/st-james-schools/ |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009042112/http://www.sanskritatstjames.org.uk/about-us/st-james-schools/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since September 2009, US high school students have been able to receive credits as Independent Study or toward Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit as part of the "SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign Language" program coordinated by [[Samskrita Bharati]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Why SAFL? |author=Varija Yelagalawadi |website=Samskrita Bharati USA |url=http://www.samskritabharatiusa.org/index.php/safl-why.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512170117/http://www.samskritabharatiusa.org/index.php/safl-why.html |archive-date=12 May 2015}}</ref> In Australia, the private boys' high school [[Sydney Grammar School]] offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12, including for the [[Higher School Certificate (New South Wales)|Higher School Certificate]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Headmaster's Introduction |author=Sydney Grammar School |url=http://www.sydgram.nsw.edu.au/headmaster/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315001425/http://www.sydgram.nsw.edu.au/headmaster/ |archive-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> Other schools that offer Sanskrit include the Ficino School in Auckland, New Zealand; St James Preparatory Schools in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg, South Africa; John Colet School, Sydney, Australia; Erasmus School, Melbourne, Australia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Home |website=John Scottus School |url=https://www.johnscottus.ie/ |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902010646/https://www.johnscottus.ie/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sanskrit script opens the path to spirituality and helps improve focus |series=Saturday Star |website=Independent Online |place=South Africa |url=https://www.iol.co.za/saturday-star/sanskrit-script-opens-the-path-to-spirituality-and-helps-improve-focus-13127550 |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404061051/https://www.iol.co.za/saturday-star/sanskrit-script-opens-the-path-to-spirituality-and-helps-improve-focus-13127550 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Barrett |first=David V. |year=1996 |title=Sects, Cults, and Alternative Religions: A world survey and sourcebook |publisher=Blandford |isbn=0713725672 |location=London, UK |oclc=36909325 |url=https://archive.org/details/sectscultsaltern00barr}}</ref>

=== European studies and discourse ===
{{See also|Sanskrit studies}}

While European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by [[Heinrich Roth]] (1620–1668) and [[Johann Ernst Hanxleden]] (1681–1731), is considered responsible for the discovery of an Indo-European language family by [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]] (1746–1794) (with this research playing an important role in the development of Western [[philology]], or historical linguistics),<ref name="Müller1859">{{cite book |author=Friedrich Max Müller |year=1859 |title=A history of ancient Sanskrit literature so far as it illustrates the primitive religion of the Brahmans |publisher=Williams and Norgate |page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistoryancient00mlgoog/page/n24 1] |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryancient00mlgoog}}</ref> the first scholar to suggest this was the Delhi-based [[Mughal Empire]] scholar [[Siraj-ud-Din Ali Khan Arzu]] (1687-1756) in his Persian-language [[philology|philological]] treatise ''Muzmir'' ("Fruitful").<ref name="Truschke2025_p19">{{cite book | author=Truschke, Audrey | date= 2025 | title=India: 5,000 Years of History on the Subcontinent | publisher=Princeton University Press | location=Princeton | page=19 | isbn= 978-0691221229 }}</ref><ref name="Musmir">{{cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=Saifuddin |title=Crafting an Imaginative Style: Sirajuddin Ali Khan-i Arzu and the Development of Linguistics and Philology in the Eighteenth Century |journal=Urdu Studies |volume=4 |year=2022 |url=https://www.academia.edu/97905312 |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>

The 18th- and 19th-century speculations about the possible links of Sanskrit to ancient Egyptian language were later proven to be wrong, but it fed an orientalist discourse both in the form Indophobia and Indophilia, states Trautmann.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thomas R. Trautmann |title=Aryans and British India | year=2004 |publisher=Yoda Press |isbn=978-81-902272-1-6 |pages=73–84, 62–87 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhbwDFfE9J8C&pg=PA161}}</ref> Sanskrit writings, when first discovered, were imagined by Indophiles to potentially be "repositories of the primitive experiences and religion of the human race, and as such confirmatory of the truth of Christian scripture", as well as a key to "universal ethnological narrative".<ref name=Tautmann-2004>{{cite book |first=Thomas R. |last=Trautmann |year=2004 |title=Aryans and British India |publisher=Yoda Press |isbn=978-81-902272-1-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhbwDFfE9J8C&pg=PA161}}</ref>{{rp|pages=96–97}} The Indophobes imagined the opposite, making the counterclaim that there is little of any value in Sanskrit, portraying it as "a language fabricated by artful [Brahmin] priests", with little original thought, possibly copied from the Greeks who came with Alexander or perhaps the Persians.<ref name=Tautmann-2004/>{{rp|pages=124–126}}

Scholars such as William Jones and his colleagues felt the need for systematic studies of Sanskrit language and literature. This launched [[the Asiatic Society]], an idea that was soon transplanted to Europe starting with the efforts of [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke]] in Britain, then [[Alexander Hamilton (linguist)|Alexander Hamilton]] who helped expand its studies to Paris and thereafter his student Friedrich Schlegel who introduced Sanskrit to the universities of Germany. Schlegel nurtured his own students into influential European Sanskrit scholars, particularly through [[Franz Bopp]] and [[Max Müller|Friedrich Max Müller]]. As these scholars translated the Sanskrit manuscripts, the enthusiasm for Sanskrit grew rapidly among European scholars, states Trautmann, and chairs for Sanskrit "were established in the universities of nearly every German statelet" creating a competition for Sanskrit experts.<ref name=Tautmann-2004/>{{rp|pages=133–142}}

=== Symbolic usage ===
{{See also|Indian_honorifics#Influence_on_other_cultures|l1=Sanskrit honorifics in Southeast Asia|Indian_name#Global_Indian_influence_in_names|l2=Sanskritised naming of people across the world|Place_names_in_India#Global_Indian_influence_in_place_name|l3=Sanskritised naming of places across the world}}

In India, [[Indonesia]], Nepal, [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], and Southeast Asia, Sanskrit phrases are widely used as [[motto]]es for various national, educational and social organisations:
* India: ''[[Satyameva Jayate]]'' (सत्यमेव जयते), meaning 'truth alone triumphs'.<ref>{{cite journal|pages=2277–4106|last1=Upadhyay|first1=Pankaj|last2=Jaiswal|first2=Umesh Chandra|last3=Ashish|first3=Kumar|title=TranSish: Translator from Sanskrit to English-A Rule based Machine Translation|journal=International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology|year=2014}}</ref>
* [[Nepal]]: ''[[Janani Janmabhumishcha Swargadapi Gariyasi|Janani Janmabhūmischa Swargādapi Garīyasī]]'' (जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी), meaning 'mother and motherland are superior to heaven'.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}
* [[Indonesia]]: In Indonesia, Sanskrit is widely used as terms and mottoes of the armed forces and other national organizations ''(See: [[List of military unit mottoes by country#Indonesia|Indonesian Armed Forces mottoes]])''. ''Rastra Sewakottama'' (राष्ट्र सेवकोत्तम, {{translation|'people's main servants'}}) is the official motto of the [[Indonesian National Police]], ''Tri Dharma Eka Karma'' (त्रिधर्म एक कर्म) is the official motto of the [[Indonesian Military]], ''Kartika Eka Paksi'' (कार्तिक एक पक्षी, {{translation|'unmatchable bird with noble goals'}}) is the official motto of the [[Indonesian Army]],<ref>[https://tniad.mil.id/2012/07/kartika-eka-paksi/ ''TNI Angkatan Darat''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626032150/https://tniad.mil.id/2012/07/kartika-eka-paksi/ |date=26 June 2019 }}. Official website of the Indonesian Army.</ref> ''Adhitakarya Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti'' (अधीतकार्य महत्ववीर्य नगरभक्ति, {{translation|'hard-working knights serving bravery as nations hero'}}) is the official motto of the [[Indonesian Military Academy]],<ref>[https://www.akmil.ac.id/lambang ''Akademi Militer''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423173327/https://www.akmil.ac.id/lambang |date=23 April 2019 }}. Official website of the Indonesian Military Academy.</ref> ''Upakriya Labdha Prayojana Balottama'' (उपक्रिया लब्ध प्रयोजन बालोत्तम, {{translation|'purpose of the unit is to give the best service to the nation by finding the perfect soldier'}}) is the official motto of the Army Psychological Corps, ''Karmanye Vadikaraste Mafalesu Kadatjana'' (कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन, {{translation|'working without counting the profit and loss'}}) is the official motto of the Air-Force Special Forces ([[Paskhas]]),<ref>[https://paskhas.mil.id/sejarah ''Sejarah''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922191026/http://paskhas.mil.id/sejarah |date=22 September 2018 }}. Official website of the Air-Force Special Forces (Paskhas).</ref> ''Jalesu Bhumyamca Jayamahe'' (जलेषु भूम्यां च जयामहे, {{translation|'on the sea and land we are glorious'}}) is the official motto of the [[Indonesian Marine Corps]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://marinir.tnial.mil.id/ |title=Korps Marinir |quote=Official website of the Indonesian Marine Corps. |access-date=26 June 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231230503/https://marinir.tnial.mil.id/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and there are more units and organizations in Indonesia either Armed Forces or civil which use the Sanskrit language respectively as their mottoes and other purposes.
* Many of India's and Nepal's scientific and administrative terms use Sanskrit. The [[Integrated Guided Missile Development Program|Indian guided missile program]] that was commenced in 1983 by the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]] has named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it developed [[Prithvi (missile)|Prithvi]], [[Agni (missile)|Agni]], [[Akash (missile)|Akash]], [[Nag (missile)|Nag]] and the [[Integrated Guided Missile Development Program#Trishul missile system|Trishul missile system]]. India's first modern fighter aircraft is named [[HAL Tejas]].{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

In November 2020, [[Gaurav Sharma (politician)|Gaurav Sharma]], a New Zealand politician of Indian origin swore into [[New Zealand Parliament|parliament]] using Sanskrit alongside [[Māori language|Māori]]; the decision was made as a "homage to all Indian languages" compromising between his native [[Pahari language|Pahari]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=25 November 2020|title=Indian-origin New Zealand MP takes the oath in Sanskrit|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/indian-origin-new-zealand-mp-takes-the-oath-in-sanskrit/article33176793.ece|access-date=27 December 2020|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=17 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217012702/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/indian-origin-new-zealand-mp-takes-the-oath-in-sanskrit/article33176793.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== In popular culture ===
The song ''[[My Sweet Lord]]'' by [[George Harrison]] includes The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the Maha Mantra, a 16-word Vaishnava mantra which is mentioned in the Kali-Santarana Upanishad. ''[[Satyagraha (opera)|Satyagraha]]'', an opera by [[Philip Glass]], uses texts from the ''Bhagavad Gita'', sung in Sanskrit.<ref>{{cite news |author=Vibhuti Patel |date=18 December 2011 |title=Gandhi as operatic hero |newspaper=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/gandhi-as-operatic-hero/article2725141.ece |access-date=31 October 2014 |archive-date=17 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017155223/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/gandhi-as-operatic-hero/article2725141.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Rahim |first=Sameer |date=4 December 2013 |title=The opera novice: Satyagraha by Philip Glass |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |location=London, UK |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/10491171/The-opera-novice-Satyagraha-by-Philip-Glass.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/10491171/The-opera-novice-Satyagraha-by-Philip-Glass.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 1996, English [[psychedelic rock]] band [[Kula Shaker]] released ''[[Govinda (Kula Shaker song)|Govinda]]'', a song entirely sung in Sanskrit. The closing credits of ''[[The Matrix Revolutions]]'' has a prayer from the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]''. The song "Cyber-raga" from [[Madonna]]'s album ''[[Music (Madonna album)|Music]]'' includes Sanskrit chants,<ref name="Morgan 2011">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Les |title=Croaking frogs: a guide to Sanskrit metrics and figures of speech |publisher=Mahodara Press|location=Los Angeles |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4637-2562-4 |page=1}}</ref> and ''Shanti/Ashtangi'' from her 1998 album ''[[Ray of Light]]'', which won a Grammy, is the [[ashtanga vinyasa yoga]] chant.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Doval |first=Nikita |date=24 June 2013 |title=Classic conversations |journal=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]] |url=http://week.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/theWeekContent.do?contentId=14371440&programId=1073755753&tabId=2&BV_ID=@@@&categoryId=-203181 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031153553/http://week.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/theWeekContent.do?contentId=14371440&programId=1073755753&tabId=2&BV_ID=%40%40%40&categoryId=-203181 |archive-date=31 October 2014}}</ref> The lyrics include the mantra ''Om shanti''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yoga and Music |work=Yoga Journal |date=26 July 2012 |url=http://www.yogajournal.com/article/lifestyle/sounds-divine/ |access-date=31 October 2014 |archive-date=31 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031153647/http://www.yogajournal.com/article/lifestyle/sounds-divine/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Composer [[John Williams]] featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'' and in ''[[Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (John Williams) |publisher=Filmtracks |date=11 November 2008 |url=http://www.filmtracks.com/titles/temple_doom.html |access-date=5 April 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118153841/http://filmtracks.com/titles/temple_doom.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Episode I FAQ |website=Star Wars FAQ |url=http://www.starwarsfaq.com/e1faq03.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031011014523/http://www.starwarsfaq.com/e1faq03.html |archive-date=11 October 2003 }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=citation is a fan website, there must be more scholarly/journalistic sources for this|date=April 2016}} The theme song of ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)|Battlestar Galactica 2004]]'' is the [[Gayatri Mantra]], taken from the [[Rigveda]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Casey |first1=Jim |editor1-last=Marshall |editor1-first=C. W. |editor2-last=Potter |editor2-first=Tiffany |title=Cylons in America: critical studies in Battlestar Galactica |year=2008 |publisher=Continuum |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8264-2848-6 |page=238 |chapter="All This Has Happened Before": Repetition, Reimagination, and Eternal Return}}</ref> The lyrics of "The Child in Us" by [[Enigma (German band)|Enigma]] also contain Sanskrit verses.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Child in Us Lyrics – Enigma |publisher=Lyricsfreak.com |url=http://www.lyricsfreak.com/e/enigma/the+child+in+us_20050416.html |access-date=27 January 2013 |archive-date=22 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522182513/http://www.lyricsfreak.com/e/enigma/the+child+in+us_20050416.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2014}} In 2006, Mexican singer [[Paulina Rubio]] was influenced in Sanskrit for her concept album ''[[Ananda (album)|Ananda]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paulina Rubio (Ananda Review) |website=mixup.com.mx |date=7 January 2007 |language=es |url=http://www.mixup.com.mx/mixup/product.asp?sku=602517055070&dept_id=1&subdept_id=801 |access-date=30 May 2020 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107221442/http://www.mixup.com.mx/mixup/product.asp?sku=602517055070&dept_id=1&subdept_id=801 |archive-date=7 January 2007}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Arsha prayoga]]
* [[Āryabhaṭa numeration]]
* [[List of Sanskrit-related topics]]
* [[Spitzer Manuscript]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Aryan language|Proto-Indo-Aryan]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|25em}}

== References ==
{{reflist|25em}}

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*{{cite book |author=Sheldon Pollock |title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7owDwAAQBAJ |year=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-26003-0 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150648/https://books.google.com/books?id=U7owDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pollock |first1=Sheldon |title=The Death of Sanskrit |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |date=April 2001 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=392–426 |doi=10.1017/s001041750100353x |jstor=2696659 }}
*{{cite book|author1=Louis Renou|author2=Jagbans Kishore Balbir|title=A history of Sanskrit language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Ajanta|isbn=978-8-1202-05291|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150712/https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|author=A. M. Ruppel|title=The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ|year=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-08828-3|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Salomon|first=Richard|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3|access-date=16 July 2018|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132352/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Salomon|first1=Richard|title=On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1995|volume=115|issue=2|pages=271–279|doi=10.2307/604670|jstor=604670}}
*{{cite book |last=Seth |first=Sanjay |year=2007 |title=Subject lessons: the Western education of colonial India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QU9glkC4ceMC&pg=PA172 |location=Durham, NC |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-4105-5 }}
*{{Citation|last1=Staal|first1=Frits|author-link=Frits Staal|year=1986|title=The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science|publisher=Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Staal |first1=J. F. |title=Sanskrit and Sanskritization |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=May 1963 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=261–275 |doi=10.2307/2050186 |jstor=2050186 }}
*{{cite book
|author1=Angus Stevenson
|author2=Maurice Waite
|title=Concise Oxford English Dictionary
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ
|year=2011
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-960110-3
|access-date=16 July 2018
|archive-date=14 April 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414031013/https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ
|url-status=live
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Southworth
|first=Franklin
|year=2004
|title=Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-134-31777-6
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTwuFUW5aEgC
}}
*{{cite book|author=Philipp Strazny|title=Encyclopedia of Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27JOMobauYAC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45522-4|access-date=18 July 2018|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329151130/https://books.google.com/books?id=27JOMobauYAC|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book
|last=Umāsvāti
|first=Umaswami
|title=That Which Is
|translator=Nathmal Tatia
|year=1994
|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield
|isbn=978-0-06-068985-8
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rw4RwN9Q1kC
|access-date=20 July 2018
|archive-date=29 March 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rw4RwN9Q1kC
|url-status=live
}}
* {{cite journal
|last1=Wayman |first1=Alex
|year=1965
|title=The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society
|volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=111–115
| doi=10.2307/597713 |jstor=597713}}
* {{cite book
|author1=Annette Wilke
|author2=Oliver Moebus
|year=2011
|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0
|access-date=16 July 2018
|archive-date=29 March 2024
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329151211/https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC
|url-status=live
}}
*{{cite book
|last1=Witzel
|first1=M.
|title=Inside the texts, beyond the texts: New approaches to the study of the Vedas
|date=1997
|publisher=Harvard University Press
|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts
|url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/intro.pdf
|access-date=28 October 2014
|archive-date=19 November 2021
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119022723/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/intro.pdf
|url-status=live
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Iyengar
|first=V. Gopala
|title=A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature
|url=https://archive.org/details/AConciseHistoryOfClassicalSanskritLiterature
|date=1965
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Parpola
|first1=Asko
|title=Deciphering the Indus Script
|date=1994
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|location=Great Britain
|isbn=0-521-43079-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Bloomfield
|first1=Maurice
|last2=Edgerton
|first2=Franklin
|year=1932
|title=Vedic Variants - Part II - Phonetics
|publisher=Linguistic Society of America
}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bahadur |first1=P. |last2=Jain |first2=A. |last3=Chauhan |first3=D. S. |title=Proceedings of the International Conference & Workshop on Emerging Trends in Technology - ICWET '11 |chapter=English to Sanskrit machine translation |date=2011 |page=641 |doi=10.1145/1980022.1980161 |isbn=978-1-4503-0449-8}}
*{{cite journal |last=Bailey |first=H. W. |year=1955 |title=Buddhist Sanskrit |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=87 |pages=13–24 |number=1/2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |jstor=25581326 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00106975}}
*{{cite book |last=Beekes |first=Robert S.P. |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An introduction |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC |year=2011 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-8500-3 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145028/https://books.google.com/books?id=W-HXnIG75PYC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Benware |first=Wilbur |title=The Study of Indo-European Vocalism in the 19th Century: From the Beginnings to Whitney and Scherer: A Critical-Historical Account |publisher=Benjamins |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-272-0894-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Bloomfield |first=Leonard |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1984 |title=Language |isbn=0226060675 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87BCDVsmFE4C |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150106/https://books.google.com/books?id=87BCDVsmFE4C |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bowern |first1=Claire |last2=Evans |first2=Bethwyn |title=The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wu4ABAAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-74324-8 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329145206/https://books.google.com/books?id=wu4ABAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Briggs |first1=Rick |title=Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence |journal=AI Magazine |date=15 March 1985 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=32–32 |doi=10.1609/aimag.v6i1.466}}
* {{cite conference |title=Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: The Original Language |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst |year=1993 |book-title=Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Language of Sanskrit Buddhist Texts, 1–5 Oct. 1991 |publisher=Sarnath |pages=396–423 |isbn=978-81-900149-1-5}}
*{{cite journal |last=Chatterji |first=Suniti Kumar |year=1957 |title=Indianism and Sanskrit |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=38 |number=1/2 |pages=1–33 |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |jstor=44082791}}
*{{cite book |last=Clackson |first=James |title=Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJDjNp6wODoC |date=18 October 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46734-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Coulson |first=Michael |title=Sanskrit : an introduction to the classical language |editor1=Richard Gombrich |editor2=James Benson |edition=2nd, revised by Gombrich and Benson |publisher=Random House |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-340-56867-5 |oclc=26550827}}
*{{cite journal |title=Sanskrit as Language of Communication |last=Filliozat |first=J. |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=36 |number=3/4 |year=1955 |pages=179–189 |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |jstor=44082954}}
*{{cite book |last=Filliozat |first=Pierre-Sylvain |title=The Sanskrit Language: An Overview : History and Structure, Linguistic and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ij1jAAAAMAAJ |year=2000 |publisher=Indica |isbn=978-81-86569-17-7 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150103/https://books.google.com/books?id=ij1jAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W. IV |title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5968-8 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423121418/https://books.google.com/books?id=bSxHgej4tKMC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Gamkrelidze |first1=Thomas V. |last2=Ivanov |first2=Vjaceslav V. |title=Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC |year=2010 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-081503-0 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150101/https://books.google.com/books?id=M2aqp2n2mKkC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |title=The Early History of Indo-European Languages |last1=Gamkrelidze |first1=Thomas V. |last2=Ivanov |first2=V. V. |journal=Scientific American |volume=262 |pages=110–117 |number=3 |year=1990 |publisher=Nature America |jstor=24996796 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110 |bibcode=1990SciAm.262c.110G}}
*{{cite book |last=Grünendahl |first=Reinhold |title=South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints: Grantha Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApAn2YZIz6wC |year=2001 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-04504-9 |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150240/https://books.google.com/books?id=ApAn2YZIz6wC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |title=A functional toolkit for morphological and phonological processing, application to a Sanskrit tagger |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S0956796804005416 |journal=Journal of Functional Programming |volume=15 |issue=4 |first=Gerard |last=Huet |year=2005 |pages=573–614 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book |last=Lehmann |first=Winfred Philipp |title=Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9Ls1Gwmx5cC |year=1996 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-13850-5 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150149/https://books.google.com/books?id=i9Ls1Gwmx5cC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last1=Keown |first1=Damien |last2=Prebish |first2=Charles S. |title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1pcAgAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-136-98595-9 |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329160106/https://books.google.com/books?id=D1pcAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |journal=International Journal of Approximate Reasoning |last=Kak |first=Subhash C. |title=The Paninian approach to natural language processing |doi=10.1016/0888-613X(87)90007-7 |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=1987 |pages=117–130}}
* {{cite book |last=Kessler-Persaud |first=Anne |editor=Knut A. Jacobsen |display-editors=etal |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism: Sacred texts, ritual traditions, arts, concepts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnVQSAAACAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Brill Academic |isbn=978-90-04-17893-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Mahadevan |first=Iravatham |title=Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01227-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Malhotra |first=Rajiv |title=The Battle for Sanskrit: Is Sanskrit Political or Sacred, Oppressive or Liberating, Dead or Alive? |publisher=Harper Collins |year=2016 |isbn=978-9351775386 |title-link=The Battle for Sanskrit}}
*{{cite journal |last=Mallory |first=J. P. |title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans / Language, Archaeology and Myth |journal=Praehistorische Zeitschrift |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH |volume=67 |issue=1 |year=1992 |issn=1613-0804 |doi=10.1515/pz-1992-0118}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mallory |first1=J. P. |last2=Adams |first2=Douglas Q. |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC |year=1997 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-884964-98-5 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219032618/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Matilal |first=Bimal |title=The word and the world : India's contribution to the study of language |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi, India Oxford |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-565512-4 |oclc=59319758}}
*{{cite book |last=Maurer |first=Walter |title=The Sanskrit language: an introductory grammar and reader |publisher=Curzon |location=Surrey, England |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7007-1382-0}}
*{{cite book |author=Michael Meier-Brügger |title=Indo-European Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt4fAAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-089514-8 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150645/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nt4fAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Tim |title=Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA115 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-186-1 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150646/https://books.google.com/books?id=EZ7Gj2ocIEsC&pg=PA115 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Nedi︠a︡lkov |first=V. P. |title=Reciprocal constructions |publisher=J. Benjamins Pub. Co |location=Amsterdam Philadelphia |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-272-2983-0}}
* {{cite journal |last=Petersen |first=Walter |title=Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |publisher=American Oriental Society |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=414–428 |year=1912 |issn=0003-0279 |doi=10.2307/3087594 |jstor=3087594}}
* {{cite book |author=Ooi |first=Keat Gin |author-link=Keat Gin Ooi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |page=643 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |archive-date=16 January 2023 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |title=Sanskrit: Flow of Studies |last=Raghavan |first=V. |journal=Indian Literature |volume=11 |number=4 |year=1968 |pages=82–87 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |jstor=24157111}}
*{{cite journal |title=Sanskrit |last=Raghavan |first=V. |journal=Indian Literature |volume=8 |number=2 |year=1965 |pages=110–115 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |jstor=23329146}}
*{{cite book |last=Renfrew |first=Colin |title=Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R645AAAAIAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-38675-3 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150730/https://books.google.com/books?id=R645AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite conference |book-title=Proceedings of the Third International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing: Volume-II |year=2008 |last1=Sanyal |first1=Ratna |last2=Pappu |first2=Aasish |conference=International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (IJCNLP) |url=https://aclanthology.org/I08-2075 |title=Vaakkriti: Sanskrit Tokenizer |access-date=20 September 2021 |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921112001/https://aclanthology.org/I08-2075/ |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book |last=Shendge |first=Malati J. |title=The Language of the Harappans: From Akkadian to Sanskrit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynEWVCLMQY4C |year=1997 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-325-0 |access-date=17 July 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329151206/https://books.google.com/books?id=ynEWVCLMQY4C |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |last=Thieme |first=Paul |year=1958 |title=The Indo-European Language |journal=Scientific American |volume=199 |pages=63–78 |number=4 |jstor=24944793 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1058-63 |bibcode=1958SciAm.199d..63T}}
*{{cite journal |title=Does Sanskrit Knowledge Exist? |last=van der Veer |first=Peter |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=36 |number=5/6 |year=2008 |pages=633–641 |jstor=23497502 |doi=10.1007/s10781-008-9038-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Whitney |first=W.D. |year=1885 |title=The Roots of the Sanskrit Language |journal=Transactions of the American Philological Association |volume=16 |pages=5–29 |publisher=JSTOR |issn=0271-4442 |doi=10.2307/2935779 |jstor=2935779}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web
|url=http://dia.eu5.org/
|title=INDICORPUS-31
}} 31 Sanskrit and Dravidian dictionaries for Lingvo.
* {{cite web
|title=Ancient Sanskrit Online
|author1=Karen Thomson
|author2=Jonathan Slocum
|url=https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/vedol
}} free online lessons from the {{cite web
|url=https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc
|title=Linguistics Research Center
|publisher=[[University of Texas at Austin]]
}}
* {{cite web
|title=Samskrita Bharati
|url=http://www.samskritabharati.org/
}} an organisation promoting the usage of Sanskrit
* {{cite web
|url=http://sanskritdocuments.org/home.html
|title=Sanskrit Documents
}} — Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
* {{cite web
|title=Sanskrit texts
|website=Sacred Text Archive
|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm
}}
* {{cite web
|title=Sanskrit Manuscripts
|publisher=[[Cambridge Digital Library]]
|url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/sanskrit
}}
* {{cite web
|title=Lexilogos Devanagari Sanskrit Keyboard
|url=https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/sanskrit_devanagari.htm
}} for typing Sanskrit in the Devanagari script.
* {{cite web |title=Online Sanskrit Dictionary |url=https://www.sanskritdictionary.com/}} — sources results from Monier Williams etc.
* {{cite web |title=The Sanskrit Grammarian |url=https://sanskrit.inria.fr/DICO/grammar.html}} — dynamic online declension and conjugation tool
* {{cite web |title=Online Sanskrit Dictionary |url=https://learnsanskrit.cc/}} — Sanskrit hypertext dictionary
* {{cite web |title=Translation of Sanskrit texts |url=https://sansai.pro/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241206163702/https://sansai.pro/ |archive-date=2024-12-06}} — AI based translation of Sanskrit texts into English and vice versa.

* {{cite web |title=Sanskrit Shlokas collection |url=https://www.sanatansanskrit.in/2021/05/sanskrit-shlok.html}} — Collection of Sanskrit Shlokas from Various Sanskrit Texts

{{Sister bar|auto=1|wikt=Category:Sanskrit language|q=Sanskrit|commonscat=y |b=Sanskrit |voy=Sanskrit phrasebook|iw=sa}}
{{Sanskrit language topics}}
{{Old and Middle Indo-Aryan}}
{{Languages of India}}
{{Languages of South Asia}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sanskrit| ]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 2nd millennium BC]]
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]
[[Category:Classical Language in India]]
[[Category:Official languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Nepal]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages written in Brahmic scripts]]
[[Category:Sacred languages]]

Gandhidham

2026-03-15T14:21:15Z

GrettaDumaresq4:

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}{{Infobox settlement
| name = Gandhidham
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = Gandhidham_Gate.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Dadi Nirmala Gajwani Market Gate
| nickname = Sardar Ganj
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Gujarat, India
| coordinates = {{coord|23.08|N|70.13|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_type3 = Municipal Corporation
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kutch]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder = [[Bhai Pratap]]
| named_for =
| government_type = Municipal Corporation
| governing_body = Gandhidham Municipal Corporation
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 63.49
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 27
| population_total = 248705
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank = 181
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| demographics1_title2 = Regional
| demographics1_info2 = [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 370201, 370203, 370205, 370230, 370240
| area_code = 02836
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = GJ-39
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 0.879 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website = https://www.gandhidhamnagarpalika.org/
| footnotes =
| blank2_name_sec1 = Distance from [[Bhuj]]
| blank2_info_sec1 = {{convert|60|km|mi}}
| blank3_name_sec1 = Distance from [[Gandhinagar]]
| blank3_info_sec1 = {{convert|365|km|mi}}
| official_name =
}}

'''Gandhidham''', initially known as '''Sardarganj''', located in the eastern part of Kutch district, in the state of Gujarat. It is the largest and most populous city in (Kachchh) [[Kachchh District|Kutch District]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Postal Code Information |first=India TV |title=Gandhidham Pin Code, Postal Code (Zip Code) of Gandhidham, Kachchh, Gujarat, India |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/pincode/gujarat/kachchh/gandhidham |access-date= |website=www.indiatvnews.com}}</ref> It was created in the early 1950s for the resettlement of [[Sindhi Hindu]] refugees from [[Sindh, Pakistan]], in the aftermath of the [[partition of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-01-11 |title=Gandhidham – City – Gujarat Updates |url=https://www.gujaratupdates.com/gandhidham-city/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |language=en-US}}</ref> The city was named after [[M K Gandhi]]. An [[economic capital]] of [[Kutch]], Gandhidham is a growing area for families and retirees. According to the 2011 Census, Gandhidham is Gujarat's 8th<ref>[[List of cities in Gujarat by population]]</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gujarat Population Census data 2011|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/gujarat.html|website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref> most populous city. It is a popular destination for conventions, business, and meetings.

==History==
[[File: Bhai Pratap. Cotton Khadi Movement.jpg|thumb|left|Bhai Pratap spinning cotton yarn]]
Soon after the [[Partition of India]], in 1947, a large group of [[Sindhi Hindus]] refugees from [[Sindh]] of Pakistan migrated to India. The maharaja of Kutch [[Vijayaraji]] donated {{convert|15000|acre|km2}} of land to Bhai Pratap, who founded the Sindhu Resettlement Corporation Ltd. (SRC) to rehabilitate [[Sindhi Hindus]] that migrated from [[Sindh]] in [[Pakistan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sindhology.org/sindhiyat.asp |title=Welcome to Indian Institute of Sindhology |access-date=2010-08-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107184623/http://www.sindhology.org/sindhiyat.asp |archive-date=2010-01-07 }}</ref>

The Sindhu Resettlement Corporation Ltd was formed with [[Jivatram Kripalani|Acharya Kriplani]] as chairman and [[Bhai Pratap Dialdas]] as managing director. The corporation's primary goal was to help displaced people find new dwellings by building a new township. The original plan was prepared by a team of planners headed by [[Otto Königsberger|Otto H. Königsberger]], director of the division of housing in the Government of India. Later, the plan was revised by Adams, Howard and Greeley Company in 1952. The foundation stone of the town was laid with the blessings of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] in 1947. Hence, the town was named Gandhidham. To clean the desert where it was built, Pratap gave an incentive of 25 paise to kill [[Scorpion|scorpions]] and 50 paise to kill snakes.<ref name=src_web>
{{cite web|access-date=2007-09-28|archive-date=2009-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217014300/http://www.sindhu-src.org/aboutbhai.html|page=1|publisher=The Sindhu Resettlement Corporation, Gandhidham, India|quote=To clean the desert where it was built, Bhai Pratap gave an incentive of 25 paise to kill scorpions and 50 paise to kill snakes|title=Bhai Pratap|url=http://www.sindhu-src.org/aboutbhai.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The original plan envisaged 400,000 as of the ultimate population of the town, expecting half of it to be reached in the mid-1970s. A revised plan envisaged three stages of town development with the mid-stage lasting longer with a population of around 150,000.

==Geography and climate==
Gandhidham is located at latitude 23.08° N longitude 70.13° E.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Gandhidham, Gandhidham Information, Gandhidham Facts |url=https://www.gandhidhamonline.in/city-guide/about-gandhidham |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=www.gandhidhamonline.in}}</ref> The main city is constructed in accordance with the principles of
[[Vastu shastra|Vastu-Shastra]] (Hindu belief of construction), i.e., the main city has its face directed to the East.

Due to the very high [[potential evapotranspiration]], Gandhidham has a [[semi-arid climate#Hot semi-arid climates|hot semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''BSh'') receiving around {{convert|385|mm|in|0|disp=or}} of rainfall per year.

Almost all rainfall occurs during the monsoon season from June to September — outside this period, Gandhidham averages just {{convert|15|mm|in|2|disp=or}} of rain in eight months. Gandhidham's amount of rainfall, although not especially low on paper, is amongst the most erratic anywhere in the world with a [[coefficient of variation]] of around sixty percent <ref>Van Etten, Eddie J.B.; ‘Inter-annual Rainfall Variability of Arid Australia: greater than elsewhere?’; ''[[Australian Geographer]]''; 40 (2009), pp. 109-120</ref> – among the few comparably variable climates in the world being the [[Line Islands]] of Kiribati, the [[Pilbara]] coast of Western Australia, the [[sertão]] of Northeastern Brazil, and the [[Cape Verde]] islands.<ref>Dewar, Robert E. and Wallis, James R; ‘Geographical patterning of interannual rainfall variability in the tropics and near tropics: An L-moments approach’; in ''[[Journal of Climate]]'', 12; pp. 3457-3466</ref>

During the "cool" season from October to March, temperatures range from very warm to hot during the afternoon and are cool to pleasant in the mornings. Whilst during the hot season, afternoon temperatures become sweltering and extremely unpleasant, especially when, with the approach of the monsoon, humidity increases.
{{Weather box
|width=auto
|metric first=yes
|single line=yes
|location=Gandhidham
|Jan high C=26.8
|Feb high C=30.0
|Mar high C=34.8
|Apr high C=38.5
|May high C=39.8
|Jun high C=38.0
|Jul high C=33.9
|Aug high C=32.6
|Sep high C=33.8
|Oct high C=36.1
|Nov high C=33.1
|Dec high C=28.6
|Jan mean C=18.2
|Feb mean C=21.2
|Mar mean C=26.1
|Apr mean C=30.2
|May mean C=32.7
|Jun mean C=32.7
|Jul mean C=30.1
|Aug mean C=29.0
|Sep mean C=29.0
|Oct mean C=28.7
|Nov mean C=24.2
|Dec mean C=19.8

|Jan low C=9.7
|Feb low C=12.4
|Mar low C=17.5
|Apr low C=21.9
|May low C=25.6
|Jun low C=27.5
|Jul low C=26.4
|Aug low C=25.5
|Sep low C=24.2
|Oct low C=21.3
|Nov low C=15.3
|Dec low C=11.0

|precipitation colour=green
|Jan precipitation mm=2
|Feb precipitation mm=1
|Mar precipitation mm=0
|Apr precipitation mm=0
|May precipitation mm=0
|Jun precipitation mm=51
|Jul precipitation mm=184
|Aug precipitation mm=96
|Sep precipitation mm=49
|Oct precipitation mm=7
|Nov precipitation mm=14
|Dec precipitation mm=1
|source 1= ''Climate-Data.org'' (altitude: 19m)<ref name="Climate-Data.org">{{cite web |url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/6166/ |title=Climate: Gandhidham – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table |publisher=Climate-Data.org |access-date=2013-12-04 }}</ref>
}}

==Governance==
The city is represented by a [[Gandhidham (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|constituency]] in the [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]. It forms part of the [[Kachchh (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kachchh Lok Sabha constituency]].

==2001 Earthquake Calamity==
[[File:Lilashah statue at Gandhidham Kutch Gujarat.jpg|thumb|Lilashah statue at Gandhidham]]
The [[2001 Gujarat earthquake|Gujarat earthquake of 2001]] majorly affected the city of Gandhidham along with many nearby towns like Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau and more. The shock, which measured 7.7 on the moment [[Seismic magnitude scales|magnitude scale]] and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme''), killed 13,805–20,023, left roughly 166,800 injured, and many were left homeless including Gandhidham. The death toll in the Kutch region was 12,300. Bhuj, which was situated only 50  km away from the Gandhidham, was devastated. Considerable damage also occurred in City Gandhidham and Bhachau and Anjar with hundreds of villages flattened in Taluka of Anjar, Bhuj and [[Bhachau]].

==Land of Adipur and Gandhidham==
Gandhidham was the dream of Pratap Dialdas. He requested great Leaders of India for the procurement of land in the Kachchh region. They requested [[Vijayarajaji|Maharao Vijayraj]] Ji of Kachchh for granting of land for re-settlement of Sindhi community people migrated from Sindh. Maharao, without any delay, granted 15000 acres of land for the purpose. Bhai Pratap said this is too big land and cannot be developed by SRC Ltd, therefore, he desired to keep with him only 2,600 acres, and the rest of the land was given to KPT and GDA for management. Today Adipur and Gandhidham townships are the townships of pride in the District of Kachchh only with the grace of Rajput Kshatriya ancestors – Provided by Ram Amarnani.

Distance between twin-townships of Adipur and Gandhidham is 5 km developed fully. The airport road dividing wards 5 and 7 divides this city, whereas Municipality is one, known as Gandhidham Municipal Corporation (from 2023). These towns are divided in two parts wherein land is recognized as Wards & Sectors. They have six wards each 1 to 6 in Adipur and 7 to 12 in Gandhidham. These wards consist of commercial, industrial and residential plots of land. The land which is owned and managed by SRC (The Sindhu Resettlement Corporation Ltd) is known as 'Wards' and The land which is owned and managed by KPT (Kandla Port Trust) is known as 'Sectors'. There are 13 such sectors in Gandhidham. Apart from this, there is vast land managed by GDA (Gandhidham Development Authority) which is known as "NU". For the construction of any permanent structure in these townships, the permission of GDA is a must.

The Authority was constituted by the [[Government of Gujarat|State Government]] under their Resolution No. TPS-3858(a) dated 08.08.1958 published in the Bombay Government Gazette part IVB, Extraordinary issue dated 11.08.1958. The GDA was created on 08.08.1958.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Approval For City |first=State Cabinet Accepted |date=29 June 2023 |title=About the conversation of the town into the city. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/state-cabinet-gives-approval-for-five-new-municipal-corporations/articleshow/101353416.cms |archive-url= |website=Times of India}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Rotary_Circle.jpg|Rotary Circle
File:Tagore_Road.jpg|Tagore Road
File:SRI_GURUNANAK_DEV_JI_MARG.jpg|Sri Gurunanak Dev ji Marg
</gallery>

==Demographics==
In 2011 the population of Gandhidham was 247,992, which consisted of 131,484 males and 116,508 females.<ref name=census>{{cite web
| title = Census of India
| publisher = The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India
| date = 2007-06-26
| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/Houselisting-housing-Gujarat.html
| access-date = 2015-09-03
}}</ref>

===Language===
According to the 2011 Census, Gujarati speakers are a majority in Bhuj, followed by Hindi, Kachchhi, Sindhi and others.<ref name="language">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Gujarat |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10203/download/13315/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2400.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Languages of Kutch district (2011)<ref name="language"/>
| label1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] | value1 = 46.54 | color1 = orange
| label2 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]] | value2 = 18.08 | color2 = springgreen
| label3 = [[Kutchi language|Kachchhi]] | value3 = 12.50 | color3 = gold
| label4 = [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] | value4 = 8.89 | color4 = blue
| label5 = others | value5 = 13.99 | color5 = grey
}}

==Education==
{{laundry|section|date=January 2024}}
{{unreferenced|section|date=January 2024}}

Schools in the area include

'''CBSE SCHOOLS'''

* [[Sixth star pre school & day care Center]]
* [[D.A.V. Public School]]
* [[Delhi Public School Society|Delhi Public High School (D.P.S)]]
* [[Podar Group of Schools|Poddar International School]]

* [[Kendriya Vidyalaya at IFFCO colony]]
* [[Kendriya Vidyalaya at Railway colony]]
* [[Kakubhai Parikh School]] (K.P.S)
* [[Amarchand Singhvi School]]
* [[Savvy International School]]
* [[The Fusion School]]
* [[St. Thomas School ]]
* [[Atmiya Vidyapeeth School]]
* [[Welspun Vidya Mandir]](W. V. M)
* [[Mount Litera Zee School]]
* [[Academic Heights Public School]]

'''STATE BOARD ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOLS'''

* Mount Carmel High School
* [[Saint Xavier's at Adipur]]
* [[Modern School, Gandhidham]]
* [[P.N. Amersey High School]]
* [[St. Mary's School at Kandla]]
* [[Guru Nanak Public School, Adipur]]
* [[Shree Swaminarayan Vidyalaya]]
* [[Ananda Marga High School]] in DC-2, Rambaug road (English Medium)
* [[Ananda Marga Primary school]] in Sector-7
* [[Guru Nanak School for Excellence]]
* [[Sadhu Vaswani International School]]
* [[Excelsior Model School, Adipur]]
* [[Kairali English School]]
* [[Cambridge School, Gandhidham]]
* [[Shri Krishna Public School]].
* [[Aum Vidya Mandir]] at [[Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative|IFFCO colony]]

'''GUJARATI MEDIUM SCHOOLS'''

* [[Sardar Vallabh bhai Patel High School]]
* [[Saint Xavier's at Adipur]]
* [[RP Patel High School]]
* [[Shri Saraswati Vidyalaya]]
* [[Shri Sahyog Saraswati Vidhya Mandir]]
* [[Ambe Bhavnath High School]]
* [[M.P. Patel Kanya Vidyalaya]]

'''HINDI MEDIUM SCHOOLS'''

* [[Dr. C. G. High School]]
* [[Maitri School at Adipur]]
* [[Maitri Kanya Maha Vidyalaya at Adipur]]
* [[Adarsh Maha Vidyalaya ]]

For professional courses like [[Chartered Accountancy]] and [[Cost accounting|Cost & Management Accountancy]] the national professional accounting body of India like [[Institute of Chartered Accountants of India]] and [[Institute of Cost Accountants of India]] have opened an examination centre at Adipur.

==College and graduation==
Colleges for graduation and higher studies are Tolani College of Science & Arts, Tolani Commerce College, Pharmacy college and Diploma in Engineering, Management Institute situated nearby in [[Adipur]]. DNV International Educational College is situated in Bharat Nagar; the courses provided are BCA and [[Bachelor of Business Administration|BBA]]. Gandhidham Institution of Medical Sciences (GIMS) has been started for aspiring Medical/ Pharmacy students/

==Transport==
[[File: Gandhidham Junction main entrance.jpg|thumb|Gandhidham Junction main entrance]]
[[File:19132 Kutch Express at Gandhidham Bg Railway Station.jpg|thumb|Kutch Express at Gandhidham Railway Station]]
[[File:(Gandhidham - Kamakhya) Express route map.png|thumb|(Gandhidham - Kamakhya) Express route map]]
Gandhidham is connected by road and rail to the rest of India. Transport Nagar, on the outskirts of Gandhidham, is the hub of all major transport activity. There are trains to, [[Ahmedabad]], [[Allahabad]], [[Varanasi]], [[Kanpur]], [[Agra]], [[Lucknow]], [[Faizabad]], [[Patna]],
[[Jodhpur]], [[Ajmer]], [[Alwar]], [[Abu Road]], [[Jaipur]], [[Mumbai]], [[Vadodara]], [[Surat]], [[Yesvantpur]], [[Kalyan]], [[Bhiwandi]], [[Pune]], [[Kolkata]], [[Ahmedabad]], [[Indore]], [[Bangalore]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kochi]], [[Kollam]], [[Kota, Rajasthan|Kota]], [[Delhi]], [[Durg]], [[Guwahati]], [[Puri]], [[Chengannur]], [[Jalgaon]], [[Bhusaval]], [[Raipur]], [[Vizag]], [[Nagercoil]], [[Vijayawada]], [[Warangal]], [[Rajahmundry]] and several other cities. Many private companies operate bus services to major cities in Gujarat like Ahmedabad and Rajkot. India's largest port, [[Kandla]] is around 13.8 km from the city. It also has connectivity to Kandla Airport near village Galpadar. From August 2016 Air connect has started its daily services for Ahmedabad and Surat. They announced one flight from Mumbai to Kandla Airport (Gandhidham).

===Trains===

{{unreferenced|section|date=January 2024}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Train {{abbr|No.|number}}
! Train name
! Runs from source
! Destination
! Departure days
! Arrival days
|-
| 20803/20804
| [[Visakhapatnam–Gandhidham Express]]
| Gandhidham
| [[Visakhapatnam]]
| Friday
| Sunday
|-
| 22973/22974
| [[Gandhidham–Puri Weekly Express]]
| Gandhidham
| [[Puri]]
| Wednesday
| Friday
|-
| 16335/16336
| Nagarcoil Express
| Gandhidham
| [[Nagercoil]]
| Friday
| Thursday
|-
| 16505/16506
| [[Gandhidham–Bangalore City Express]]
| Gandhidham
| [[Bangalore]]
| Tuesday
| Monday
|-
| 11091/11092
| [[Ahimsa Express]]
| [[Bhuj]]
| [[Pune]]
| Wednesday
| Tuesday
|-
| 15667/15668
| [[Kamakhya–Gandhidham Express]]
| Gandhidham
| [[Kamakhya, Guwahati|Kamakhya]]
| Saturday
| Saturday
|-
| 14312/14311 via [[Ahmedabad]] & 14322/14321 via [[Bhildi]]
| [[Ala Hazrat Express (via Ahmedabad)]] [[Ala Hazrat Express (via Bhildi)]]
| [[Bhuj]]
| [[Bareilly]]
| Tuesday, Thursday & Sunday For 14312. Monday, Wednesday, Friday & Saturday For 14322.
| Friday, Saturday, Monday For 14311. Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday & Sunday For 14321.
|-
| 22829/22830
| [[Shalimar–Bhuj Weekly Superfast Express]]
| [[Bhuj]]
| [[Shalimar railway station|Shalimar]]
| Tuesday
| Monday
|-
| 22904/22903
| Bandra Terminus–Bhuj AC Superfast Express
| [[Bhuj]]
| [[Bandra]]
| Monday, Thursday, Saturday
| Thursday, Saturday, Monday
|-
| 12937/12938
| [[Garbha Express]]
| Gandhidham
| [[Howrah]]
| Saturday
| Wednesday
|-
| 12960/12959
| [[Dadar–Bhuj Superfast Express]]
| [[Bhuj]]
| [[Dadar]]
| Monday, Thursday
| Wednesday, Saturday
|-
| 14802/14801
| [[Gandhidham–Jodhpur Express]]
| Gandhidham
| [[Jodhpur]]
| Monday, Wednesday, Saturday
| Monday, Wednesday, Saturday
|-
| 22955/22956
| [[Kutch Express]]
| [[Bhuj]]
| [[Bandra]], [[Mumbai]]
| Daily
| Daily
|-
| 12993/12994
| [[Gandhidham–Puri Weekly Superfast Express]]
| Gandhidham
| [[Puri]]
| Monday
| Wednesday
|-
| 19116/19115
| [[Sayajinagari Express]]
| [[Bhuj]]
| [[Bandra]]
| Daily
| Daily
|}

===Airport===
The area is served by Kandla airport near Galpadar town. Daily service is available to Mumbai. SpiceJet announced one more flight for Mumbai from 11 July 2017 onward.

==See also==
*[[Kandla]]
*[[Adipur]]
*[[Galpadar]]

==References==
<references/>

==Further reading==
*Kripalani, J. B. 1951. Gandhidham. Bombay: [Mangharam N. Thadani for the Sindhu Resettlement Corp.]
*Adams, Howard & Greely. 1952. Report on a revised plan for the town and region of Gandhidham, Anjar Taluka, Kutch India, prepared for the Government of India Ministry of Transport, and the United States Department of State. [Boston: Adams, Howard & Greely].

==External links==
*[http://www.kasez.com Kandla Special Economic Zone]
*[https://www.deendayalport.gov.in Deendayal Port Authority]
*[http://www.aryagan.org Arya Samaj, Gandhidham]
*[http://www.tolani.org Tolani Foundation]
*[http://www.kutchforever.com KutchForever.com – The First Internet Gateway of Kutch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100118170507/http://www.kutchforever.com/ |date=18 January 2010 }}
*[http://www.sindhu-src.org Sindhu Resettlement Corporation Limited (SRC Limited), Adipur]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100107184623/http://www.sindhology.org/sindhiyat.asp www.sindhology.org]

[[Category:Gandhidham| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Kutch district]]

Khodiyar

2026-03-13T14:32:37Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Revised and enhanced article content

{{short description|Hindu goddess}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = Khodiyar
| image = Khodiyaar_Ji.jpg
| affiliation = [[Devi]], [[Shakti]]
| mantra =
| mount = Crocodile
| weapon = Trident
| other_names =
| parents = Mamadiya Gadhvi
| siblings =
| birth_place =
| caption = Modern depiction of Khodiyar
}}

'''Khoḍiyār''' is a Hindu [[Kuladevata|folk goddess]] worshiped in [[Gujarat]] and [[Rajasthan]] states in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title=Khodiyar Mata: The goddess rules a stepwell|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/khodiyar-mata-the-goddess-rules-a-stepwell/articleshow/66209330.cms|access-date=4 March 2020}}</ref>

==Legends==

=== ''Śrī Khoḍiyārmātā Ākhyan'' ===
In the late [[8th century]] in the [[Maitraka dynasty|Maitraka kingdom]], a [[Charan|Cāraṇ]] named Mamadiya Gaḍhvī lived near the capital of [[Vallabhi]]. He had close relations to the king but no children. The merchants of the kingdom were jealous of Mamadiya, so they told the royal priest ([[Purohita|purohit]]) to tell the queen that to look upon an infertile man runs the risk of becoming infertile oneself. The queen thus convinced the king to banish the bard from the royal court.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Tambs-Lyche |first=Harald |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online |publisher=Brill |year=2020 |editor-last=Knut |editor-first=A. Jacobsen |chapter=Goddesses of Western India |editor-last2=Basu |editor-first2=Helene |editor-last3=Malinar |editor-first3=Angelika |editor-last4=Narayanan |editor-first4=Vasudha}}</ref>

Mamadiya then went to a Śiva temple in the wilderness to fast and pray for children. On the 8th day Śiva appeared and granted Gaḍhvī seven daughters and a son. Several years later the girls were playing on a hill when they suddenly had a thirst for the blood and hunger for the flesh of buffaloes, which happened to be at the bottom of the hill. The girls raced down and tore the largest buffalo apart and ate his flesh and blood. The girls become infamous as they ate more and more buffaloes.<ref name=":1" />

The king of Vallabhi did not practice buffalo sacrifice but instead used buffaloes to fight in sport with other kings with the stakes being land. Once the king's finest buffalo was missing, and the king and his soldiers eventually found the seven sisters gorging themselves on the buffalo. The king ordered the girls to be burned alive, but a voice from heaven said "'You unjustly chased our father for his barrenness: now, your own line will have no issue'". The king begged for mercy and he was given the option of having children if he "'married among the people'".<ref name=":1" />

When the girls grew up they left home together, but the youngest named Khoḍiyār was lame and could not keep up with the others. She fell upon the ground and prayed to the goddess [[Jagdamba|Jagdambā]] to take her to her realm. However, goddesses told her from heaven that she was given a limp for a purpose, and they she had all the goddess' divine powers and would become the greatest of the sisters.<ref name=":1" />

=== Chudasama Dynasty ===
Rā Dāyas of the [[Chudasama dynasty]] ruling at [[Junagadh|Junāgaḍh]] and his wife Somāldī were childless, and as a result of Somāldī's prayers to Khoḍiyār, they were granted a son. Soon the king of [[Gujarat]] invaded Junāgaḍh, killed Dāyas, and appointed a governor. Somāldī entrusted the care of her baby son, Navghaṇ, to her maidservant and then committed [[satī]].<ref name=":1" />

The maidservant took Navghaṇ to an [[Ahir|Ahīr]] chief in southern [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurāṣṭra]], who raised Navghaṇ amongst his own children, including his daughter Jāsal. However, the governor of Junāgaḍh suspected that Dāyas' son was still alive and ordered his death. The Ahīr chief admitted he had the boy, but sent his own son to be killed instead of Navghaṇ, and eventually became close with the governor.<ref name=":1" />

When the time for Jāsal's marriage came in 1025 CE, her marriage was celebrated at Junāgaḍh and the governor's soldiers became drunk. The Ahīr chief had a dream in which Khoḍiyār had told him the location of buried treasure. The chief used the treasure to buy weapons to overthrow the governor while his soldiers were drunk at Jāsal's wedding feast. The Ahīr chief then placed Navghaṇ on the throne, with Jāsal placing the [[Tilaka|tikā]] on his forehead with her own finger blood. Thus Khoḍiyār became the clan goddess ([[Kuldevi|kuldevī]]) of the Cuḍāsamas.<ref name=":1" />

Years later when Navghaṇ was on campaign in Sindh, he met a Cāraṇ girl who was the incarnation of Khoḍiyār. She caused the waters of the [[Rann of Cutch|Rann of Kachh]] to part to let Navghaṇ's army pass. After defeating the Sūmrās of Sindh, Navghaṇ built a temple to Khoḍiyār in [[Junagadh|Jūnāgaḍh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sheikh |first=Samira |title=Forging a Region: Sultans, Traders, and Pilgrims in Gujarat, 1200-1500 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010}}</ref>

=== Gohil dynasty ===
In Saurāṣṭra the chief of [[Sihor]] was Gohil Śādulsīnhjī; one day a Cāraṇ visited him and sang in praise of Khoḍiyār, who he said was a form of [[Ambika (goddess)|Ambikā]]-[[Bhavani|Bhavānī]]. The next day Śādulsīnhjī went to Khoḍiyār's birthplace hoping to get a darśan of her. At her birthplace he met an old woman who he realized was the goddess, and after pressing her she revealed herself in her form as a young woman standing on a crocodile with a trident in hand. She told him to build a temple to her nearby on a small hill near a spring marked with a hand in red. Thus forth she became the kuldevī of the [[Gohil dynasty]].<ref name=":1" />

==Temples==
In 1875, [[Monier Williams]] visited a shrine to Khoḍiyār in a village in rural Gujarat. He noted that when the disease broke out in the village, Khoḍiyār was propitiated with many offerings, including those of animal meat and blood.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monier-Williams |title=Religious Thought and Life in India: An Account of the Religions of the Indian Peoples, Based on a Life's Study of their Literature and on Personal Investigations in their Own Country, Part 1: Vedism, Brāhmanism, and Hindūism |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |year=1883 |pages=225–227}}</ref>

In recent years Khoḍiyār, along with other goddesses of western India, had become vegetarian and thus less fierce in character. Animal sacrifice was banned in Gujarat in 1971.<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
*[[Khodaldham]]
*[[Nartiang Durga Temple]]
*[[Hinglaj Mata mandir]]
*[[Hanuman temple, Salangpur]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Mahetā |first=Ramaṇikalāla Ratilāla |date=1977–79 |title=Āī Khoḍīyāra Mā, Śrī Rāṁdala Mā, Śrī Harṣada Mātā : traṇe śakti svarūpā mātājīnāṁ ākhyānone ādhāre tyāra karelī caritrakathāo ; paracāo, caritra, bhajana, āratī, thāḷa ane "Jaya khoḍiyara Mā" philmanāṁ gīto sāthe|script-title=gu:આઈ ખોડીયાર મા, શ્રી રાંદલ મા, શ્રી હર્ષદ માતા : ત્રણે શક્તિ સ્વરૂપા માતાજીનાં આખ્યાનોને આધારે ત્યાર કરેલી ચરિત્રકથાઓ ; પરચાઓ, ચરિત્ર, ભજન, આરતી, થાળ અને "જય ખોડિયર મા" ફિલ્મનાં ગીતો સાથે |url= |location=Sūrata |publisher=Śrī Harihara Pustakālaya |page= |isbn= |access-date=|language=gu}}
*{{cite book |last=Solanki |first=P.|title=Jay Khodiyar Akhyan|publisher=Mahavir Book Depot|location=Ahmedabad|language=gu}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Hindu goddesses]]
[[Category:Hindu folk deities]]
[[Category:Mother goddesses]]
[[Category:Charan]]
[[Category:Cāraṇa Sagatī]]
[[Category:Folk deities of Rajasthan]]

List of international prime ministerial trips made by Jawaharlal Nehru

2026-03-12T13:22:47Z

GrettaDumaresq4:

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Jawaharlal Nehru series}}

The following is a '''list of international prime ministerial trips''' made by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] during his tenure as the [[Prime Minister of India]] from August 1947 to May 1964. The first overseas visit was to the United States in October 1949.

[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru prime ministerial trips.svg|500px|thumb|center|Map of international trips made by Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister.]]

==Summary of international trips==
{{Further|Foreign relations of India}}

In his sixteen-year long tenure as the Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru made 35 international trips, visiting 43 countries, including visits to the United States to attend the United Nations General Assembly.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's visits by country
|-
!Number of visits
!Country
|-
|1 visit (27)
|[[Austria]], [[Bhutan]], [[British Hong Kong]], [[Cambodia]], [[Canada]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Greece]], [[Iran]], [[Japan]], [[Laos]], [[Federation of Malaya|Malaya]], [[Mexico]], [[Netherlands]], [[North Vietnam]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim]], [[South Vietnam]], [[Sudan]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]], [[West Germany]]
|-
|2 visits (12)
|[[Burma]], [[China]], [[France]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Lebanon]], [[Nepal]], [[Nigeria]], [[Pakistan]], [[Soviet Union]], [[Syria]], [[Yugoslavia]]
|-
|3 visits (2)
|[[Ceylon]], [[Indonesia]]
|-
|4 visits (1)
|[[United States]]
|-
|7 visits (1)
|[[Egypt]]
|}

==1949==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!1
|{{flag|United States|1912}}
|[[Washington, D.C.]], [[New York City]], [[Chicago]], [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]], [[San Francisco]], [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]]
| 11–15 October 1949
| [[State visit]]
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = India - Visits by Foreign Leaders - Department History - Office of the Historian|url = https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/visits/india|website = history.state.gov|access-date = 2015-12-15}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!2
|{{flag|Canada|1921}}
|[[Vancouver]]
|22–26 October 1949
|[[State visit]], [[Joint address (Canada)|addressed]] the [[Parliament of Canada]]
|<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voiceonline.com/indias-first-prime-minister-jawaharlal-nehru-and-his-daughter-indira-gandhi-visited-vancouver-in-1949/|title=India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, and his daughter, Indira Gandhi, visited Vancouver in 1949 (PHOTOS)}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!3
|{{flag|Ireland}}
|[[Curragh Racecourse]]
|1949
|
|<ref>{{Cite web|title = Narendra Modi in Ireland: Why a small European country is important to India|url = http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/modi-in-ireland-why-a-small-european-country-is-important-to-india/|website = The Indian Express|date = 2015-09-23|access-date = 2015-12-15}}</ref>
|}

==1950==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!4
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|[[Jakarta]]
|June 1950
|
|
|}

==1951==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!5
|{{flag|Kingdom of Nepal|name=Nepal}}
|
|16-18 June 1951
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought">{{cite book|last1=Misra|first1=O. P.|title=Economic Thought of Gandhi and Nehru: A Comparative Analysis|date=1 Jan 1995|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|location=India|pages=60–61|isbn=9788185880716|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IxGDqOU03h4C|access-date=2015-12-15}}</ref>
|}

==1952==
Prime Minister Nehru did not make any international trips in 1952.

==1953==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!6
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|[[London]]
|May 1953
|[[Coronation of Elizabeth II]]
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!7
|{{flag|Egypt|1952}}
|
|23–25 June 1953
|
|
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!8
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|[[Karachi]]
|25–27 July 1953
|
|<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = Visits to Pakistan by Indian Prime Ministers|url = http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/visits-to-pakistan-by-indian-prime-ministers-115071100853_1.html|access-date = 2015-12-15}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!rowspan="2"|9
|{{flag|Italy}}
|
|1953
|
|
|-
|{{flag|Switzerland}}
|[[Bürgenstock]]
|1953
|
|
|}

==1954==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!10
|{{flag|Ceylon|1951}}
|[[Colombo]]
|28 April 1954
|Colombo Powers' Conference
|
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!rowspan="6"|11
|{{flag|North Vietnam}}
|[[Hanoi]]
|October 1954
|
|<ref name="Indochina">{{cite web|url=http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/121651.pdf?v=c96ac8cb8bb4aa67ae68eab0aea70971|title=Jawaharlal Nehru, 'Note on Visit to China and Indo-China'|date=15 November 1954}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|South Vietnam}}
|[[Saigon]]
|October 1954
|
|<ref name="Indochina" />
|-
|{{flag|Laos|1952}}
|[[Vientiane]]
|October 1954
|
|<ref name="Indochina" />
|-
|{{flag|Cambodia}}
|[[Phnom Penh]], [[Angkor Wat]]
|October 1954
|
|<ref name="Indochina" />
|-
|{{flag|China}}
|[[Beijing]], [[Shanghai]], [[Nanjing]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Anshan]], [[Hankow]], [[Mukden]], [[Dairen]]<ref name="Hong Kong University Press">{{cite book|last1=Grantham|first1=Alexander|title=Via ports : from Hong Kong to Hong Kong|date=2012|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=9789888083855|pages=176|edition=New}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" |19−31 October 1954
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |<ref name="Economic Thought"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/404874/photos-when-indias-first-prime-minister-visited-china-in-1954/|title=When India's First Prime Minister Visited China in 1954}}</ref><ref name="Hong Kong University Press"/>
|-
|{{flag|British Hong Kong|name=British Hong Kong}}
|[[Hong Kong]]
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!rowspan="4"|12
|{{flagcountry|Union of Burma|name=Burma}}
|
|December 1954
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|
|December 1954
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Malaya}}
|
|December 1954
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|[[Bogor]]
|29 December 1954
|Bogor Conference
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/42851059|title=Colombo Powers Conference}}</ref>
|}

==1955==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!rowspan="2"|13
|{{flag|Egypt|1952}}
|[[Cairo]]
|February 1955
|
|
|-
|{{flag|France}}
|[[Paris]]
|February 1955
|
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/18443980?searchTerm=Nehru%20visit&searchLimits=|title=Nehru to Visit Paris}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!14
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|[[Bandung]]
|18−24 April 1955
|[[Bandung Conference]]
|
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!rowspan="8"|15
|{{flag|Soviet Union}}
|[[Moscow]], [[Yekaterinburg]], [[Almaty]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], [[Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic|Turkmen SSR]]
|7–23 June 1955
|[[State visit]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|title = Nehru's Soviet sojourn|url = http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/nehrus-soviet-sojourn/article7407454.ece|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 2015-07-11|access-date = 2015-12-15|issn = 0971-751X|language = en-IN}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Poland|1928}}
|[[Warsaw]]
|25–28 June 1955
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/91203978|title=Nehru On Visit To Poland}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Yugoslavia}}
|[[Zenica]], [[Jablanica, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Jablanica]], [[Belgrade]], [[Sarajevo]], [[Dubrovnik]]
|June–July 1955
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Czechoslovakia}}
|
|July 1955
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Austria}}
|
|July 1955
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Italy}}
|[[Rome]]
|July 1955
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Egypt|1952}}
|
|July 1955
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia|1938}}
|
|July 1955
|[[State visit]]
|<ref name="Saudis roll out red carpet to Manmohan">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article123588.ece|title=Saudis roll out red carpet to Manmohan|date=28 February 2010|access-date=2010-02-28|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
|}

==1956==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!rowspan="8"|16
|{{flag|Ireland}}
|
|June–July 1956
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|France}}
|
|June–July 1956
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Yugoslavia}}
|
|June–July 1956
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Greece}}
|
|June–July 1956
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Egypt|1952}}
|
|June–July 1956
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Lebanon}}
|
|June–July 1956
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Syrian Republic|name=Syria}}
|
|July 1956
|
|
|-
|{{flag|West Germany}}
|[[Bonn]]
|14 July 1956
|
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/79266520?searchTerm=Nehru%20visit&searchLimits=|title=Nehru Visit}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!17
|{{flag|United States|1912}}
|[[Washington, D.C.]], [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania|Gettysburg]]
| 16–20 December 1956
|[[State visit]]
|<ref name=":0" />
|}

==1957==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!18
|{{flag|Ceylon|1951}}
|
|May 1957
|
|
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!rowspan="8"|19
|{{flag|Syrian Republic|name=Syria}}
|
|June 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Denmark}}
|
|June 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Finland}}
|[[Helsinki]], [[Mänttä]]
|June 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Norway}}
|
|June 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Sweden}}
|
|June 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Egypt|1952}}
|
|July 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|
|July 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
|{{flag|Sudan|1956}}
|[[Khartoum]]
|July 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!20
|{{flag|Japan|1870}}
|[[Tokyo]], [[Hiroshima]], [[Osaka]]
|October 1957
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!21
|{{flagcountry|Union of Burma}}
|[[Rangoon]]
|16−17 October 1957
|
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist//RTV/1957/10/16/502230139/?s=landmark|title=Burma: Nehru In Rangoon}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!22
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|
|1957
|
|<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Economic Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru|author1=Thakur, A.K.|author2=Mukhopadhayay, D.|date=2010|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=9788184502725|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qH4FFyi4-i4C&pg=PA201|page=201|access-date=2016-12-04}}</ref>
|}

==1958==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!rowspan="2"|23
|{{flag|Kingdom of Sikkim|1914|name=Sikkim}}
|[[Gangtok]], [[Nathu La]]
|16 September 1958
|
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indebo.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Nehrus-visit-to-Bhutan.pdf|title=Nehru's Visit to Bhutan}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Bhutan|1956}}
|
|September 1958
|
|<ref>{{Cite web|title = PM's foreign visits may be a record of sorts|url = http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/pm-s-foreign-visits-may-be-a-record-of-sorts-114110700012_1.html|access-date = 2015-12-15}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!24
|{{flagcountry|China}}
|[[Yatung]]
|October 1958
|
|
|}

==1959==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!25
|{{flagcountry|Kingdom of Nepal}}
|
|11-14 June 1959
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!26
|{{flagcountry|Pahlavi dynasty}}
|[[Tehran]]
|September 1959
|
|<ref>{{Cite web | title=Sorry for the inconvenience. | url=http://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India_Iran_Bilateral_brief.pdf | access-date=2025-08-30 | website=mea.gov.in}}</ref>
|}

==1960==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!rowspan="2"|27
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|[[Istanbul]]
|20–24 May 1960
|
|<ref name="Med">{{cite web|url=http://www.frontline.in/world-affairs/nehru-in-beirut/article5389770.ece|title=Nehru in Beirut}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Lebanon}}
|[[Beirut]]
|24 May 1960
|
|<ref name="Med" />
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!28
|{{flag|United Arab Republic|name=Egypt}}
|[[Cairo]]
|17 June 1960
|
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-jawaharlal-nehru-with-gamal-abdel-nasser-on-his-visit-to-cairo-69369481.html|title=Jawaharlal Nehru with Gamal Abdel Nasser on his Visit to Cairo}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!29
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|[[Karachi]], [[Murree]], [[Karachi|Nathiagali]], [[Rawalpindi]], [[Lahore]]
|19–23 September 1960
|
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!30
|{{flag|United States}}
|[[New York City]]
|26 September 1960
|UN General Assembly
|<ref name=":0" />
|}

==1961==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!31
|{{flag|Soviet Union}}
|
|1961
|
|<ref name="Economic Thought"/>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!32
|{{flagcountry|United States}}
|[[Newport, Rhode Island|Newport]], [[New York City]], [[Los Angeles]]
|6–10, 17 November 1961
|[[State visit]]
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!rowspan="2"|33
|{{flag|Mexico|1934}}
|
|14–17 November 1961
|[[State visit]]
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
| {{flag|United Arab Republic|name=Egypt}}
| [[Cairo]]
|18 November 1961
|Meeting with [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] and [[Josip Broz Tito]]
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1961/11/19/page/10/article/tito-in-cairo-for-talk-with-nehru-nasser#text|title=Tito in Cairo for Talk with Nehru, Nasser}}</ref>
|}

==1962==
{| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! Country
! Areas visited
! Date(s)
! Purpose
! Notes
|-
!34
|{{flag|Ceylon|1951}}
|
|1962
|[[State visit]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|title = Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Two Day State Visit to Sri Lanka Arrives in Colombo on Friday the Thirteenth.|url = http://dbsjeyaraj.com/dbsj/archives/39459|website = dbsjeyaraj.com|access-date = 2015-12-15|language = en-US}}</ref>
|-
!colspan="6"|
|-
!35
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|
|23–26 September 1962
|
|
|}

==See also==
* [[List of international trips made by prime ministers of India]]
* [[History of Indian foreign relations]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.mea.gov.in/outgoing-visits.htm?2/outgoing_visits Outgoing Visits] – by [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]]
* [https://academic.oup.com/isq/article/69/1/sqae144/7921924 Nonresident Prime Ministers? Measuring India’s Foreign Policy Orientation via Leadership Travel] by Sumitha Narayanan Kutty and Walter C. Ladwig III

{{Jawaharlal Nehru}}
{{Foreign relations of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nehru, Jawaharlal}}
[[Category:Nehru administration]]
[[Category:Indian prime ministerial visits]]
[[Category:Lists of diplomatic visits by heads of government]]
[[Category:Lists of 20th-century diplomatic visits]]

Mallayan Palaniandvar

2026-03-10T20:16:00Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Starting Initial Entry First Draft...

{{Short description|Indian bioinorganic chemist (born 1951)}}
{{orphan|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Mallayan Palaniandavar
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1951|6|5}}
| fields = Bioinorganic chemistry
| alma_mater = Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai
| known_for = Metal–DNA interactions; biomimetic models of metalloenzymes
| awards = {{UBL|Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy (INSA) | Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences (FASc) | Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC) }}
| workplaces = Bharathidasan University
}}

'''Mallayan Palaniandavar''' (born 5 June 1951) is an Indian chemist specializing in [[bioinorganic chemistry]] who has worked on metal–DNA interactions and biomimetic models of metalloenzymes. He is a Fellow of the [[Indian National Science Academy]] (INSA), the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] (FASc), and the [[Royal Society of Chemistry]] (FRSC).

He served as a professor at [[Bharathidasan University]], Tiruchirappalli, India, and continues his research as Professor of Eminence and INSA Senior Scientist.

== Early life and education ==
Palaniandavar completed his undergraduate and postgraduate studies at [[Madurai Kamaraj University]], earning his B.Sc. (1971), M.Sc. (1973), and Ph.D. (1981) in chemistry.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karvembu |first1=R. |last2=Mayilmurugan |first2=R. |year=2021 |title=Inorganic compounds of biological interest – Dedicated to Professor Mallayan Palaniandavar |journal=Inorganica Chimica Acta |publisher=Elsevier |volume=526 |article-number=120503 |doi=10.1016/j.ica.2021.120503}}</ref>

== Career and research ==
Palaniandavar's research focuses on bioinorganic chemistry, particularly metal–DNA interactions, biomimetic models of copper and iron enzymes, and bioinspired oxidation catalysis. His studies on mixed-ligand copper(II) and ruthenium(II) complexes have contributed to understanding DNA binding, cleavage, and protein interactions of transition-metal complexes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rajendiran |first1=V. |last2=Karthik |first2=R. |last3=Palaniandavar |first3=M. |last4=Stoeckli-Evans |first4=H. |year=2007 |title=Mixed-ligand copper(II)-phenolate complexes: effect of coligand on enhanced DNA and protein binding, DNA cleavage, and anticancer activity |journal=Inorganic Chemistry |publisher=American Chemical Society |volume=46 |issue=20 |pages=8208–8221 |doi=10.1021/ic700755p}}</ref> He has also developed functional models for non-heme iron enzymes relevant to catechol dioxygenases and related metalloenzymes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Velusamy |first1=M. |last2=Palaniandavar |first2=M. |last3=Gopalan |first3=R. S. |last4=Kulkarni |first4=G. U. |year=2003 |title=Novel iron(III) complexes of tripodal and linear tetradentate bis(phenolate) ligands: close relevance to intradiol-cleaving catechol dioxygenases |journal=Inorganic Chemistry |publisher=American Chemical Society |volume=42 |issue=25 |pages=8283–8293 |doi=10.1021/ic020569w}}</ref>

== Honours ==
He is a Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy (INSA), the Indian Academy of Sciences (FASc), and the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC).<ref>{{cite web |title=Fellow Detail – Professor Mallayan Palaniandavar |url=https://insajournal.in/intranetinsa/fellow_detail.php?id=P14-1656 |access-date=23 December 2025 |website=Indian National Science Academy |quote=Professor Mallayan Palaniandavar — INSA Senior Scientist & Professor of Eminence, Department of Chemistry, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli; specializes in bioinorganic chemistry of DNA, copper and iron, activation of molecular oxygen, functional models for metalloproteins, interaction of metal complexes with DNA and proteins, metal-based anticancer drugs.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Prof. Mallayan Palaniandavar – Fellow Profile |url=https://fellows.ias.ac.in/profile/v/FL2004014 |access-date=23 December 2025 |website=Indian Academy of Sciences}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Palaniandvar, Mallayan}}
[[Category:Indian chemists]]
[[Category:Bioinorganic chemists]]
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Kuttettan

2026-03-03T21:24:29Z

GrettaDumaresq4: minor adjust details based on references further and updated info

{{short description|1990 Malayalam movie}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kuttettan
| image = Kuttettan 1990.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Joshiy]]
| producer = K. V. Abraham (Thomsun Babu) for Thomsun Films
| writer = [[A. K. Lohithadas]]
| narrator =
| starring = [[Mammootty]] [[Saritha]] [[Maathu]] [[Lizy (actress)|Lizy]] [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]]
| music = [[Raveendran]] [[S. P. Venkatesh]] (score)
| cinematography = [[Jayanan Vincent]]
| editing = Sankunni
| studio = Thomsun Films
| distributor = Thomsun Release
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1990|09|29}}
| runtime = 133 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Kuttettan''''' is a 1990 [[Malayalam film|Malayalam]] [[romantic comedy]] movie, directed by [[Joshiy]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2005/09/02/stories/2005090201660100.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913150239/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2005/09/02/stories/2005090201660100.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=13 September 2006
|title=No super hero role this
|date=2 September 2005
|work=[[The Hindu]]
|accessdate=10 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/1990.htm
|title=List of Malayalam films released during the year 1990
|publisher=[[Government of Kerala]]
|accessdate=10 January 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316165440/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/1990.htm
|archive-date=16 March 2012
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> and written by [[A. K. Lohithadas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2009/jun/29/a-k-lohithadas-tribute-to-a-legend.htm|title=A K Lohithadas (1955-2009): Tribute to a legend|date=29 June 2009|work=[[Rediff.com]]|accessdate=10 January 2010}}</ref> The film stars [[Mammootty]], [[Saritha]], [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]], [[Lizy (actress)|Lizy]], [[Maathu]], [[Sukumari]], [[Jagadish]], [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]] and [[Jagannatha Varma]].<ref name=":0" />

==Plot==
Vishnu is a rich businessman, married to innocent Seetha. Vishnu is a flirt and always interested in having affairs with multiple partners. However, most of his plans were unsuccessful. He pretends to love Ragini and assures her to marry her. But his intentions are different. He starts having affair with a young and beautiful Revathi. He also gets infatuated by the newly appointed steno Rose Mary at his office. But every time, he fails to reach his target. He is so lascivious and a womanizer who even gets attracted to a teenage girl. The situation gets worsened after he joins team with Thomas Chacko and Nair. Nair introduces Vishnu to a new girl Indhu, who is an orphan. Indu is childlike and innocent and she blindly believes Murali. She went off with Vishnu to his house. Vishnu, eagerly waiting for sexual intercourse, gets distracted and disappointed by Indhu's genuine nature. The climax is reached when Vishnu's mother, Malathi and her father arrive at Vishnu's bungalow. Vishnu manages to make his family believe that Indhu is his illegitimate daughter. But he had to face the dangerous consequences that awaited him. Vishnu's family accepted Indhu as his daughter and took her to the ancestral home. Vishnu is completely bewildered and disappointed as he needs to return Indhu to Murali. Vishnu changes his mind and determines not to give Indhu back to them. The rest of the story deals with the complex situations.

==Cast==
* [[Mammootty]] as Vishnu Narayanan/Kuttetan
* [[Saritha]] as Seetha Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife
* [[Maathu]] as Indhu
* [[Lizy (actress)|Lizy]] as Revathy
* [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]] as Rosemary
* [[Shyama (Malayalam actress)|Syama]] as Ragini
* Suma Jayaram as Jaya
* [[Suchitra Murali|Suchitra]] as Nurse, cameo appearance
* [[Sukumari]] as Vishnu's Mother
* [[Jagadish]] as Gopalakrishnan
* [[Oduvil Unnikrishnan]] as Nanu Nair
* [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]] as Nair
* [[Thilakan]] as Thomas Chacko
* [[Jagannatha Varma]] as Narayanan Menon, Vishnu's father-in-law
* [[Babu Namboothiri]] as Vishnu's friend
* [[Valsala Menon]] as Hostel Matron
* [[Renuka (actress)|Renuka]] as Thomas Chacko's girlfriend

==Release==
The film was released on 29 September 1990. The film was a commercial failure.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/mobile/movies-music/movie-news/mamootty-joshiy-join-hands-again-after-a-decade-1.3437449|title=Mamootty, Joshiy join hands again after a decade|work=[[Mathrubhumi]]|date=30 December 2018}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/mammootty-manju-warrier-pair-joshiy-movie-614414|title=Mammootty and Manju Warrier to Pair Up in Joshiy Movie?|work=[[International Business Times]]|date=18 November 2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0271607|Kuttettan}}
{{Joshiy}}
{{A. K. Lohithadas}}

[[Category:1990 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by A. K. Lohithadas]]
[[Category:Films scored by Raveendran]]
[[Category:Films scored by S. P. Venkatesh]]
[[Category:Films directed by Joshiy]]

Dvandva

2026-02-19T20:46:08Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Post

{{Short description|Type of linguistic compound}}
{{No footnotes|date=September 2015}}

A '''dvandva''' ('pair' in [[Sanskrit]]) is a [[compound (linguistics)|linguistic compound]] in which multiple individual nouns are concatenated to form a compound word to form a new word with a distinct meaning. For instance, the individual words 'brother' and 'sister' may in some languages be agglomerated to 'brothersister' to express "siblings". The grammatical number of such constructs is often plural or [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]].

The term dvandva was borrowed from Sanskrit, a language in which these compounds are common. Dvandvas also exist in [[Avestan]], the [[Iranian languages|Old Iranian language]] related to Sanskrit, as well as in numerous [[Indo-Aryan languages]] descended from the [[Prakrit]]s. Several far-eastern languages such as [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Atong language (Sino-Tibetan)|Atong]] (a Tibeto-Burman language of India and Bangladesh) and [[Korean language|Korean]] also have dvandvas. Dvandvas may also be found occasionally in European languages, but are relatively rare.

Examples include:
* [[Atong language (Sino-Tibetan)|Atong]] ''achu-ambi'' ("grandfather-grandmother") for "ancestors".
* [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] ''ər-arvad'' ("husband-wife") for "married couple".
* [[Basque language|Basque]] ''anai-arrebak'' ("brothers and sisters").
* {{zh|c=山川|p=shānchuān}} and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] {{nihongo|''yamakawa''|山川}}, for "landscape, scenery" (lit. "mountains and rivers").
* [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] ''maailma'', ''maailm'' ("land-air") for "world".
* [[Friulian language|Friulian]] ''marimont'' ("sea-world") for "the entire world, the universe".
* [[Georgian language|Georgian]]: {{lang|ka|დედ-მამა}} (ded-mama) (lit. mother-father) for ''parents'', {{lang|ka|და-ძმა}} (da-ʒma) (lit. sister-brother) for ''siblings''
* [[Modern Greek]] {{lang|grc|μαχαιροπήρουνο}} {{IPA|/maçeɾoˈpiɾuno/}} for "cutlery" (lit. "fork-knife"), {{lang|grc|ανδρόγυνο}} {{IPA|/anˈðɾoʝino/}} for "married couple" (lit. "husband-wife").
* [[Leti language#Lexical_parallelism|Leti]] ''leli masa'' (lit. 'ivory gold') for "treasure"
* [[Sanskrit]] ''mātāpitarau'' "parents" (lit. 'mother-father').
* [[Nahuatl#Stylistics|Nahuatl]] ''in xochitl in cuicatl'' (lit. 'the flower, the song') for "poetry"
* [[Yiddish]] {{lang|yi|טאַטעמאַמע}} ''tatemame'' (papa-mama) for "parents".

''Dvandva''s should not be confused with [[agglutination]], which also concatenates words but is a different process.

==Sanskrit==
There are two or three kinds of dvandva [[Sanskrit compound|compounds in Sanskrit]], depending on classification.

===Itaretara dvandva===
The first, and most common kind, the ''itaretara (<''itara-itara'') dvandva'', is an enumerative compound word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] or plural depending on the total number of described individuals. It takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples:
* ''rāma-lakṣmaṇau'' (dual) "[[Rama]] and [[Lakshmana]]"
* ''[[Harihara]]u'' (dual) "[[Hari]] and Hara ([[Shiva]])"
* ''ācārya-śiṣyau'' (dual) 'teacher and student'
* ''rāma-lakṣmaṇa-bharata-śatrughnāh'' (plural) "Rama, Lakshmana, [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]] and [[Shatrughna]]"
* ''nar-āśva-ratha-dantinaḥ'' (plural) "men, horses, chariots, and elephants"
* ''deva-manuṣyāḥ'' (plural) "gods and humans"

Compare Greek Αβαρόσλαβοι {{IPA|/avaˈɾoslavi/}} "the Avars and the Slavs (two distinct tribes acting as a unit)", similarly with case and number marking displayed only on the last part of the compound, the first having the form of the word root)

Itaretaras formed from two kinship terms behave differently, in that the first word is not in the compound form but in the nominative (singular).
* ''māt'''ā'''-pitarau'' "mother and father"

===Samāhāra dvandva===
The second, rarer kind is called samāhāra dvandva and is a collective compound word, the meaning of which refers to the collection of its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the singular number and is always neuter in gender. Examples:
* ''pāṇipādam'' 'limbs', literally 'hands and feet', from ''pāṇi'' 'hand' and ''pāda'' 'foot'

Compare Modern Greek ανδρόγυνο {{IPA|/anˈðɾoʝino/}} "husband and wife" or μαχαιροπίρουνο {{IPA|/maçeɾoˈpiɾuno/}} "cutlery" (literally "knife-forks"), similarly always in the neuter singular (plural marking would refer to several couples or cutlery sets).

===Ekaśeṣa dvandva===
According to some grammarians, there is a third kind called ''ekaśeṣa dvandva'' "residual compound". It is formed like an itaretara, but the first constituent is omitted. The remaining final constituent still takes the dual (or plural) number. According to other grammarians, however, the ekaśeṣa is not properly a compound at all. An example:
* ''pitarau'' 'parents', from ''mātā'' 'mother' + ''pitā'' 'father'

== In Japanese ==
[[Japanese language|Japanese]] has a number of dvandva compounds, such as native Japonic 親子 (''oyako'', "parent and child") and 乗り降り (''noriori'', "getting in and out, e.g., of a vehicle"), and Chinese-derived 天地 (''tenchi'', "heaven and earth").<ref>{{Cite web |title=天地 |url=https://jisho.org/word/%E5%A4%A9%E5%9C%B0 |url-status=live |access-date=25 January 2026 |website=jisho.org}}</ref> While most Japanese compounds are composed of one element modifying another element, dvandva compounds are composed of elements that coordinate to refer to a concept.

Dvandva compounds differ from other Japanese compounds because they often do not undergo [[rendaku]] when the compound meets the normal phonological and morphological conditions for it. For example, while 親子 (''oyako'') has the correct composition for a rendaku sound change, and does not fall under the [[Lyman's Law]] exception, the onset of the second element is not voiced.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tsujimura |first=Natsuko |title=An Introduction To Japanese Linguistics |date=2014 |publisher=Blackwell Publishers Ltd |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4443-3773-0 |edition=3rd |pages=153-154}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Bahuvrihi]]
* [[Difrasismo]]
* [[Merism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book|title={{IAST|Devavāṇīpraveśikā}}: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language|first=Robert P.|last=Goldman|publisher=U C Regents|edition=3rd|date=6 February 1999|isbn=0-944613-40-3}}
* {{cite book|title=A Sanskrit Grammar for Students|first=Arthur A.|last=MacDonell|publisher=DK Printworld|date=2 February 2004|isbn=81-246-0095-3}}

==External links==
*{{wti}}

[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Sanskrit grammar]]

Na-Pukhuri Shiva Dol

2026-01-23T14:49:22Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Starting A Post Basic Info...

{{Short description|18th century Hindu temple}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox temple
|name=Rudrasagar Shiva Dol Na-Pukhuri Shiva Dol
|religious_affiliation=[[Hinduism]]
|deity=[[Shiva]]
|creator=[[Lakshmi Singha]]
|year_completed={{start date and age|1773}}
|height_max=
|elevation_m=25.95
|district=[[Sibsagar district]]
|state=[[Assam]]
|architecture_type=Tri-Ratha
|image=Rudrasagar Siva dol.jpg
|caption=Shiva dol}}

'''Na-Pukhuri Shiva Dol''' or '''Rudrasagar Shiva Dol''' in an 18th-century Hindu temple constructed during the reign of king [[Lakshmi Singha]] (1769-1780). This temple is 8 km away from [[Sivasagar]] town. This is the last temple built during the [[Ahom dynasty|Ahom era]] which represents grandeur before its overall decline in temple building and architectural building.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Das |first=Bhaijan |title=Historical Tourism: A case study of Sivasagar |url=https://www.academia.edu/33791525}}</ref> This temple is located on the south bank of [[Rudrasagar Pukhuri]] (tank) which was excavated in honor of [[Rudra Singha]]. As Rudrasagar Pukhuri was excavated on the opposite of Athaisagar Pukhuri, it is also known as Na Pukhuri (New-Tank) and Athaisagar Pukhuri which was originally excavated during the reign of [[Jayadhwaj Singha]] as Purani Pukhuri (Old-tank).<ref>{{harvcol|Konwar|2018|p=52}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Soulful Sivasagar |url=http://indianculture.gov.in/stories/soulful-sivasagar |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=INDIAN CULTURE |language=en}}</ref>

This temple dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 1773 and was consecrated during the reign of [[Gaurinath Singha]] (1780-1794).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Protected Archaeological Sites and Monuments {{!}} Department of Cultural Affairs {{!}} Government Of Assam, India |url=https://culturalaffairs.assam.gov.in/portlet-innerpage/protected-archaeological-sites-and-monuments |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=culturalaffairs.assam.gov.in }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> It's a [[Ratha (architecture)|Tri-Ratha]] type temple raised on an octagonal base. The height of the temple is 25.95 metere (85.13 feet). The construction of the temple was supervised by one Madan Darika Hajarika.<ref>{{harvcol|Konwar|2018|p=53}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Rudrasagar (Na-Pukhuri) Tank.jpg|Na-Pukhuri or Rudrasagar
File:Shiva Doul Rudrasagar (Napukhuri), Sivasagar 03.jpg|Shiva Dol front view
File:Rudrasagar dol (Na-Pukhuri dol) front side.jpg|Close view of the temple
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External sources ==

* {{Citation |last1=Konwar |first1=Nirmal Jyoti |title=History And Management Of The Temples Of Upper Assam From The 16th To The 20th Century A D |date=2018}}

{{Hindu Temples in Assam}}

{{coord|26.9527|94.5855|type:landmark_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Assam]]
[[Category:Shiva temples in Assam]]
[[Category:Sivasagar]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Assam]]
[[Category:Tourism in Assam]]
[[Category:18th-century Hindu temples]]

Aaromale

2026-01-19T10:39:14Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new basic page first draft

{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Aaromale
| cover =
| alt =
| caption = Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa album cover
| type =
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]] (Composer) & [[Alphons Joseph|Alphonse]] (Singer)
| album = [[Ekk Deewana Tha (soundtrack)]], [[Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa (soundtrack)]] and [[Ye Maaya Chesave (soundtrack)]]
| released = 6 January 2010 (original version) 1 December 2010 (female version) 21 December 2011 (hindi version)
| recorded = 2009; [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios]], [[Chennai, India]]
| studio =
| venue =
| genre =
| length = 5:46
| label = [[Sony Music]]
| writer = [[A.R. Rahman]] [[Kaithapram Damodaran Namboothiri|Kaithapram]]
| producer =
}}

"'''Aaromale'''" ({{translation|''O Beloved''}}) is a song from the 2010 [[Tamil film]] ''[[Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa]]'' and [[Telugu film]] ''[[Ye Maaya Chesave]]'' composed by [[A. R. Rahman]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arrahman.com/v2/discography/films-tamil-vinnaithaandivaruvaaya.html |title=Vinnaithaandi Varuvaaya |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719021517/http://www.arrahman.com/v2/discography/films-tamil-vinnaithaandivaruvaaya.html |archivedate=19 July 2013 |url-status=dead |accessdate=27 September 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> featuring lyrics by [[Kaithapram Damodaran Namboothiri|Kaithapram]] and the word Aaromale frequently used in the 2012 Hindi version of the song in the film [[Ekk Deewana Tha]] with lyrics by [[Javed Akhtar]]. The song is sung by [[Malayalam]] composer [[Alphons Joseph]].<ref name="alphons">{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-26/news-and-interviews/28129817_1_song-rahman-sir-music|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106111039/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-26/news-and-interviews/28129817_1_song-rahman-sir-music|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 January 2012|title=The allure of Aaromale...|work=[[The Times of India]]|accessdate=26 April 2010|date=26 April 2010}}</ref> The song was well received upon release<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sify.com/movies/gautham-to-shoot-aaromale-news-tamil-kkfraMifhjc.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001070721/http://www.sify.com/movies/gautham-to-shoot-aaromale-news-tamil-kkfraMifhjc.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 October 2012 |title=Gautham to shoot Aaromale... |website=[[Sify]]|date=20 January 2010 |accessdate=3 September 2011}}</ref> and was a chart topper.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news-1/jan-10-03/gautham-menon-vinnaithandi-varuvaayaa-20-01-10.html |title=Gautham's plans for VTV|website=Behindwoods.com |date=20 January 2010 |accessdate=3 September 2011}}</ref>

==Background==
[[A. R. Rahman]] was asked to score only six songs for the soundtrack, but later he suggested including a song with Malayalam lyrics that was apt for the script. He himself suggested lyricist [[Kaithapram Damodaran Namboothiri|Kaithapram]] and the singer [[Alphons Joseph|Alphons]]<ref name="alphons"/> with whom he made an acquaintance during the audio launch of Alphons' debut album ''[[Vellithira (2003 film)|Vellithira]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/feb/08/slide-show-1-south-interview-with-alphons-joseph.htm |title=Singing Aaromale for Rahman – Rediff.com Movies |publisher=Movies.rediff.com |date=8 February 2010 |accessdate=3 September 2011}}</ref>

==About the song==
The chorus portion is based on the [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] [[raga]] [[Bageshri]].<ref name="alphons"/> Penned by [[Kaithapram Damodaran Namboothiri|Kaithapram]], the song is high in instrumentation and quick changing rhythms. The song starts slow but goes on to pick speed slightly. The song has guitar scores that give the feel of country music. The rendition of Alphonse got high appreciations from fans and critics and Rahman invited him to participate in his world tour.<ref name="alphons" />

==Female version==
A female version of the song, sung by [[Shreya Ghoshal]], was released on 1 December 2010. This track was released as part of the collector's edition of the soundtrack, titled ''A. R. Rahman Collectors' Edition Pack of Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa''. Shreya Ghoshal had also performed the song when it was used in the background score of the film.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Shreya Ghoshal}}
{{authority control}}
[[Category:Songs with music by A. R. Rahman]]
[[Category:2010 singles]]
[[Category:Songs in Malayalam]]
[[Category:Shreya Ghoshal songs]]
[[Category:2009 songs]]

List of Bengali films of 1990

2026-01-14T09:57:37Z

GrettaDumaresq4: redirect fix

#Redirect [[List of Bengali films]]

New Shillong

2026-01-11T19:51:05Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new new post nd citations...

{{short description|Planned twin city and urban development project adjacent to Shillong, Meghalaya, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = New Shillong
| settlement_type = Planned city / Township
| pushpin_map = India Meghalaya#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of New Shillong in Meghalaya
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Meghalaya]]
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = [[East Khasi Hills district|East Khasi Hills]]
| established_title = Laid out
| established_date = 2025
| governing_body = New Shillong Township Development Authority
| unit_pref = Metric
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = PIN
| area_code = 0364
| registration_plate = ML‑05
}}

'''New Shillong''' is a planned twin city and urban development project adjacent to [[Shillong]], the capital of [[Meghalaya]], India. It is envisioned as a modern administrative and knowledge city designed to decongest Shillong and support sustainable urban growth with strategic infrastructure, public services, and institutional zones. The project includes areas such as Umsawli, Mawpdang, and Mawkhanu and has been designated by the state government as a major growth centre for governance, education, innovation and economic activity.<ref name="auto">{{cite news |title=Conrad Sangma: New Shillong With 'futuristic' Design On Anvil, Says Meghalaya CM |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shillong/new-shillong-with-futuristic-design-on-anvil-says-conrad/articleshow/99022101.cms |access-date=12 December 2025}}</ref>

==History and vision==
The concept of New Shillong emerged as part of state government efforts to manage rapid urbanisation of the Shillong metropolitan area and plan for future growth. The Government of Meghalaya, led by Chief Minister [[Conrad Sangma]], announced the development of New Shillong as a twin city to provide planned infrastructure, amenities and opportunities for residents and businesses, aiming to transform it into a sustainable and integrated urban hub.<ref name="auto"/>

In '''January 2025''', the foundation stone for a new '''Secretariat complex''' in Umsawli within New Shillong Township was laid by the chief minister on the occasion of Meghalaya's 53rd Statehood Day. The project, estimated at ₹1,188 crore, will be built on a 53‑acre plot and executed in phases to house government offices, staff facilities and auditoriums, marking a key milestone in the planned development of New Shillong. The chief minister described the project as part of the city's expansion and a symbol of aspirations for a broader growth centre for the state.<ref name="auto2">{{cite news |title=Meghalaya CM lays foundation stone for new Rs 1188 crore secretariat building |work=India Today NE |url=https://www.indiatodayne.in/meghalaya/story/meghalaya-cm-lays-foundation-stone-for-new-rs-1188-crore-secretariat-building-1158346-2025-01-21 |access-date=12 December 2025}}</ref>

==Urban planning and infrastructure==
New Shillong's master plan focuses on two major zones:

* The '''Administrative City''', centred on the new Secretariat complex and related government facilities, aimed at relocating administrative functions currently spread across Shillong to a planned environment.
* The '''Knowledge City''', involving the development of approximately 807 acres at Mawpdang and Mawkhanu to host educational institutions, research facilities, cultural hubs and associated infrastructure.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |title=Development of the New Shillong Knowledge City at the additional 807 acres of land acquired in Mawpdang-Mawkhanu |website=meghalaya.gov.in |url=https://meghalaya.gov.in/node/48056 |access-date=12 December 2025}}</ref>

In November 2025, the Meghalaya Cabinet approved acquisition of an additional 35 acres of land at Tynring in New Shillong Township to develop a corridor linking the Administrative City and the Knowledge City. This corridor will also support relocation of the central jail from its current site to the New Shillong area, facilitating smoother connectivity and integrated planning within the township.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meghalaya cabinet approves land acquisition for New Shillong Corridor |work=The Sentinel Assam |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/meghalaya-news/meghalaya-cabinet-approves-land-acquisition-for-new-shillong-corridor/ |access-date=12 December 2025}}</ref>

==Major projects==
===New Secretariat Complex===
The '''New Secretariat Complex''' at Umsawli is a flagship development of New Shillong. Spread across 53 acres, it is designed to include administrative offices, auditoriums and facilities for multiple staff members. Upon completion, it will serve as the primary seat of government operations in New Shillong and play a central role in decongesting administrative functions from old Shillong.<ref name="auto2"/>

===Security and civic infrastructure===
A '''police assistance booth''' was established at the [[North Eastern Indira Gandhi Regional Institute of Health and Medical Sciences]] (NEIGRIHMS) in New Shillong to enhance safety and law enforcement support within the medical institute campus, reflecting efforts to improve public services as part of the township's development.<ref>{{cite news |title=Police assistance booth set up at NEIGRIHMS in New Shillong |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/police-assistance-booth-set-up-at-neigrihms-in-new-shillong/articleshow/125794170.cms |access-date=12 December 2025}}</ref>

==Governance and administration==
The development and management of New Shillong are overseen by the '''New Shillong Township Development Authority (NSTDA)''', an agency under the Government of Meghalaya's Urban Affairs Department responsible for land allocation, infrastructure planning and coordination with central and state government entities for implementation of the township's development plans.<ref name="auto1"/>

==Economy and demographics==
As a planned urban hub, New Shillong is projected to drive economic activity through sectors such as public administration, education, research, cultural industries and civic services. Large‑scale investment initiatives and infrastructure projects aim to attract professionals, institutions and businesses, with expectations of future population growth as facilities and services expand.

==See also==
* [[Shillong]]
* [[Mawkhanu Football Stadium]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{North East India}}{{Meghalaya}}

[[Category:Shillong| ]]
[[Category:Geography of Meghalaya]]
[[Category:Hill stations in Meghalaya]]
[[Category:East Khasi Hills district| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in East Khasi Hills district]]
[[Category:Tourism in Northeast India]]

Srinisha Jayaseelan

2026-01-08T00:29:08Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Entry...

{{short description|Indian playback singer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Srinisha Jayaseelan
| image = Srinisha Jeyaseelan.jpg
| caption = Srinisha in 2021
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1999|09|26}}
| birth_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| education = [[Ethiraj College for Women]]
| occupation = Singer
| years_active = 2016 {{endash}} present
| notable_works = Kanna Veesi • Adi Penne • Kannoram
| father = Jayaseelan
}}

'''Srinisha Jayaseelan'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kollywood Singer Srinisha Jayaseelan Biography, News, Photos, Videos |url=https://nettv4u.com/celebrity/tamil/singer/srinisha-jayaseelan |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=nettv4u |language=en}}</ref> (born 26 September 1999) is an Indian [[playback singer]]. In 2009-2010, she participated in the reality show [[Airtel Super Singer Junior (season 2)|Airtel Super Singer Junior 2]] as a contestant, which was telecasted on [[Star Vijay]]. She made her debut as a playback singer in the movie [[Amma Kanakku]] under the music composition of [[Ilaiyaraaja]] in 2016, and participated in the reality show [[Super Singer (Tamil reality show)|''Super Singer'']] Champion of Champions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title=Contestants from the previous seasons of Super Singer...Samvishal, Srinisha, Sudhan Kumar... - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/music-reality-show-super-singer-champion-of-champions-to-premiere-soon/articleshow/77505275.cms|access-date=2021-06-15|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Srinisha was born in [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]] to Selvaraj Jayaseelan and Sujatha Jayaseelan. She did her schooling in TST Rajah Girls Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Chennai and later completed her bachelor's degree in commerce at [[Ethiraj College for Women]]. <ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AE_AaHFtB2Y |title=Untold Story about Super Singer Srinisha {{!}}{{!}} Biography in Tamil |date=2021-05-30 |last=Cine Samugam |access-date=2024-09-23 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

== Career ==

=== Television ===
Srinisha debuted on television in the second season of [[Super Singer Junior (season 2)|''Super Singer Junior'']]. She was eliminated from the competition as a semi-finalist. She later appeared as a guest performer and backing vocalist in subsequent seasons of the show, and competed in other [[Star Vijay|Vijay TV]] music competitions. Srinisha was also a part of the team 'Chennai Rockstars' in the first season and team 'White Devils' in the second season of the ''[[Super Singer T20]]''. 'White Devils' team was crowned the title winner of the competition after delivering outstanding performances during the finals and throughout the competition.

In the year 2020, she gained popularity through her performances when she participated in the reality show ''Super Singer Champion of Champions''<ref name=":0" /> featuring the Super Singer Stars, where she performed along with her team 'Bachelor Band' that included playback singer [[Sam Vishal]] and ''DJ Sudhan'' aka ''DJ Black''. According to sources, Bachelor Band was the first ever team to use a DJ in a musical show in the south. With this unique combo of musicians, they made their way into the finals as a direct finalist along with the ''Nighty Boys'' (Srinivasan Raghunathan'', [[Diwakar]] and ''Manoj'') and the Ooo Team''' (''Maalavika Sundar'', [[Santhosh Hariharan]] and ''Rangapriya'').<ref>{{Cite news|title=Samvishal, Srinisha, Sudhan Kumar... were featured in the show - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/super-singer-champion-of-champions-grand-finale-to-premiere-on-november-1/articleshow/78947823.cms|access-date=2021-06-15|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

=== As playback singer ===
Srinisha's debut as a playback singer was in the year 2016 when she sang the song 'Maths Tough' for Music Director [[Ilaiyaraaja]] in the movie [[Amma Kanakku]]. She had earlier sung a song for Music Director [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] for the film [[Avan Ivan]] in the year 2011.

''Vilambara Idaiveli'' from [[Imaikkaa Nodigal]].

=== As an Independent singer ===
''Kanna Veesi'' from Kadhal Ondru Kanden and ''Adi Penne, Kannoram and Vaa En Uyire'' by [[Stephen Zechariah]] from the Naam series are few of her notable works.

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Name of Television Show
!Role
!Network
|-
|2024
|[[Super Singer 10|Super Singer Season 10]]
|Guest performer
|[[Star Vijay]]
|}

== Discography ==
=== Film songs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Song
!Film
!Composer
!Language
!Co-singers
!Ref.
|-
|2014
|'Oru Malayoram'
Pullanguzhal
|''[[Avan Ivan]]''
Gugan
|[[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
Guru Kalyan
|Tamil
Tamil
|[[Vijay Yesudas]], Priyanka & Nithyashree
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2016
|'Maths Tough'
|''[[Amma Kanakku]]''
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Paravai Parandhuchu'
|''[[Kadhalum Kadandhu Pogum]]''
|[[Santhosh Narayanan]]
|Tamil
|[[Pragathi Guruprasad]]
|
|-
|2017
|'Chilaka Chilaka'
|[[Oru Naal Koothu|''Pelli Roju'']]
|[[Justin Prabhakaran]]
|Telugu
|[[Saisharan]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|title='Chilaka Chilaka' is sung by Sai Sharan, Srinisha and music of the song is given by Justin Prabhakaran|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/telugu/pelliroju-song-chilaka-chilaka/videoshow/66987840.cms|access-date=2021-06-16|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |2018
|'Vilambara Idaiveli'
|''[[Imaikkaa Nodigal]]''
|[[Hiphop Tamizha]]
|Tamil
|[[Hiphop Tamizha]], Christopher Stanley & Sudarshan Ashok
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-08-10|title=The song is crooned by Srinisha Jayaseelan, Christopher Stanley, Sudarshan Ashok and Hiphop Tamizha|url=https://www.bollywoodlife.com/news-gossip/imaikkaa-nodigal-song-vilambara-idaiveli-atharvaa-and-raashi-khannas-college-romance-looks-super-cute-watch-video-1256468/|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Bollywood Life|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|'Mohini Rage'
|[[Mohini (2018 film)|''Mohini'']]
|[[Vivek–Mervin]]
|Telugu
|Prashanthi, Vignesh Natarajan
|
|-
|'Phoenix Paravai'
|''[[Tamizh Padam 2]]''
|[[Kannan (music director)]]
|Tamil
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2019
|'Modern Muniyamma'
|''[[Vantha Rajavathaan Varuven]]''
| rowspan="2" |[[Hiphop Tamizha]]
|Tamil
|Anthakudi Ilayaraja
|<ref>{{Cite news|title=Modern Muniyamma is sung by Anthakudi Ilayaraja, Srinisha Jayaseelan and music of the song is given by Hiphop Tamizha|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/tamil/vantha-rajavathaan-varuven-song-modern-muniyamma-lyrical/videoshow/67789126.cms|access-date=2021-08-05|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|'Nee Sirichalum'
|[[Action (2019 film)|''Action'']]
|Tamil
|[[Sadhana Sargam]] & [[Jonita Gandhi]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|last2=|last3=|first3=|title=The song has been crooned by Sadhana Sargam in association with Jonita Gandhi and Srinisha|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/vishals-action-nee-sirichalum-lyrical-video-unveiled/articleshow/71721244.cms|access-date=2021-06-16|website=The Times of India|date=23 October 2019|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2020
|'Kanna Veesi'
|''Kadhal Ondru Kanden (Short Film)''
|Siddhu Kumar
|Tamil
|Rahul Hariharan
|
|-
| rowspan="9" |2021
|'Sollamathan'
|''[[Pulikkuthi Pandi]]''
|N.R.Raghunanthan
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Yedanu Veenaga'
|''Vikram Rathode''
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|Telugu
|[[Sri Krishna (singer)|Sri Krishna]]
|
|-
|'Ayyo Enakkulle'
|''Kuzhali''
|DM Udhayakumar
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Yedhuvo Yedhuvo'
|''Murungakkai''
|Premkumar Sivaperuman
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Vaa Vengaiye'
|''[[99 Songs]]''
|[[A. R. Rahman]]
|Tamil
|Sarthak Kalyani, Swagat Rathod & Shiv
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-04-16|title=Srinisha Jayaseelan comes on board in the Tamil version along with Sarthak Kalyani, Swagat Rathod|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/99-songs-tamil/99-songs-tamil-review.html|access-date=2021-06-16|website=Behindwoods}}</ref>
|-
|'No Mattum Solladha'
|''Login''
|Vibin R
|Tamil
|[[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2021-05-21|title=No Mattum Solladha from Login sung by GV Prakash and Srinisha Jayaseelan|url=https://thenewstrace.com/watch-no-mattum-solladha-tune-from-login/153927/|access-date=2021-06-15|website=TheNewsTrace|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|'Cruella De Vil'
|[[Cruella (film)|''Cruella'']]
|[[Nicholas Britell]]
|Telugu
|
|
|-
|'Seruvom Seruvom'
|''[[Laabam]]''
|[[D. Imman]]
|Tamil
|Cleo VII
|<ref>{{Cite news|title=Srinisha croons an energetic track in Laabam - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/srinisha-croons-a-energetic-track-in-laabam/articleshow/78587030.cms|access-date=2021-09-07|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|'Mayakkathe Maaya Kanna'
|''[[Sabhaapathy]]''
|[[Sam C. S.]]
|Tamil
|
|<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|title=Latest Tamil Music Video Song 'Maraiyadha Kanneer Illai' Sung By Srinisha Jayaseelan - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/tamil/watch-latest-tamil-music-video-song-maraiyadha-kanneer-illai-sung-by-srinisha-jayaseelan/videoshow/78443808.cms|access-date=2022-01-05|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="15" |2022
|'Ready Steady Go'
| rowspan="2" |''[[Anbarivu]]''
| rowspan="2" |[[Hiphop Tamizha]]
| rowspan="2" |Tamil
|[[Santhosh Narayanan]], [[Chinna Ponnu]]
|
|-
|'Kanavugal'
|[[Benny Dayal]], [[Sam Vishal]], [[Bamba Bakya]] Sridhar Sena, Shilvi & Maanasi.K
|
|-
|"Theera Nadhi"
|''[[Nadhi]]''
|[[Dhibu Ninan Thomas]]
|Tamil
|[[Kapil Kapilan]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|title=The song has been sung by Adiye singer Kapil Kapilan and Srinisha Jayaseelan - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/i-am-so-glad-that-thamarai-maam-came-on-board-says-sam-jones/articleshow/89503467.cms|access-date=2022-02-13|website=The Times of India|language=en|last1=Cr |first1=Sharanya }}</ref>
|-
|'Vandhaale Vandhaale'
|''Irumban''
|[[Srikanth Deva]]
|Tamil
|[[Anthony Daasan]]
|
|-
|'Thedi Thedi'
|[[Maayon (film)|''Maayon'']]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|Tamil
|T. K. Karthikeyan
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |'Whistle'
| rowspan="2" |[[The Warriorr (2022 film)|''The Warriorr'']]
| rowspan="2" |[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|Tamil
| rowspan="2" |[[Anthony Daasan]]
|
|-
|Telugu
|
|-
|'Yennadiye Yennadiye'
|''Yenni Thuniga''
|[[Sam C. S.]]
|Tamil
|[[Haricharan]]
|
|-
|'Manniley'
|[[Poikkal Kudhirai (2022 film)|''Poikkal Kudhirai'']]
|[[D. Imman]]
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Ranga Ranga Vaibhavanga'
|''Ranga Ranga Vaibhavanga''
|[[Devi Sri Prasad]]
|Telugu
|[[Sagar (singer)|Sagar]]
|
|-
|'Seenu Dolu'
|''Title''
|Anal Akash
|Tamil
|[[Anthony Daasan]], Anal Akash
|
|-
|'Kylaa'
|[[Captain (2022 film)|''Captain'']]
|[[D. Imman]]
|Telugu
|[[Yazin Nizar]]
|
|-
|'Veadanae'
|''Alluri''
|Harshavardhan Rameshwar
|Telugu
|
|
|-
|'Jillu Jakkamma'
|''Vallan''
|[[Santhosh Dhayanidhi]]
|Tamil
|[[Andrea Jeremiah]]
|
|-
|'Nijamaai Nigazhum'
|''Dear Death''
|Navin Annamalai
|Tamil
|Sabari Darshan
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2024
|"Life Is This Beautiful"
|''[[Siddharth Roy]]''
|[[Radhan]]
|Telugu
|[[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
|
|-
|'Achacho'
|''[[Aranmanai 4]]''
|[[Hiphop Tamizha|Hiphop Thamizha]]
|Tamil
|[[Kharesma Ravichandran]]
|
|-
|'Kulukku Kulukku'
|''[[Inga Naan Thaan Kingu]]''
|[[D. Imman]]
|Tamil
|[[D. Imman]]
|
|-
|2025
|'Madhuvaramae'
|[[Dragon (2025 film)|Dragon]]
|[[Leon James (composer)]]
|Telugu
|Sarath Santosh
|
|}

=== Non-film songs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Song
!Album
!Composer
!Language
!Co-singers
!Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020
|'Kuyavane Kuyavane'
|
|Gnani
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Maraiyadha Kanneer Illai'
|
|Jen Martin
|Tamil
|
|<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|title=Latest Tamil Music Video Song 'Maraiyadha Kanneer Illai' Sung By Srinisha Jayaseelan - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/tamil/watch-latest-tamil-music-video-song-maraiyadha-kanneer-illai-sung-by-srinisha-jayaseelan/videoshow/78443808.cms|access-date=2022-01-05|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="17" |2021
|'Kanavil Naane '
|
|Vinoth Chandar
|Tamil
|[[Nikhil Mathew|Nikhil mathew]]
|
|-
|'Imai Visiri'
|
|Amal Manohar
|Tamil
|[[Haricharan]]
|
|-
|'Unne Nenachaen'
| rowspan="3" |Naam
| rowspan="3" |Stephen Zechariah
| rowspan="3" |Tamil
| rowspan="3" |Stephen Zechariah
|
|-
|'En Anbe'
|
|-
|'Adi Penne’
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-07|title="Adi Penne" from NAAM hits 60 million views on YouTube|url=https://madrastribune.com/adi-penne-from-naam-hits-60-million-views-on-youtube/|access-date=2021-08-17|website=The Madras Tribune|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|'Criminal Crush'
|
|Godson Rudolph
|Tamil
|[[Anirudh Ravichander]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|title='Criminal Crush' sung by Anirudh Ravichander and Srinisha Jayaseelan|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/tamil/watch-latest-tamil-music-video-song-criminal-crush-sung-by-anirudh-ravichander-and-srinisha-jayaseelan-featuring-ashwin-kumar-and-taniya-ravichandran/videoshow/82127451.cms|access-date=2021-06-15|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|'Pani Kaatraai'
|
|Velayutham Rajendran
|Tamil
|
|<ref>{{Cite news|title=Latest Tamil song 'Pani Kaatraai' sung by Srinisha Jayaseelan|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/tamil/check-out-latest-tamil-official-music-video-song-pani-kaatraai-sung-by-srinisha-jayaseelan-featuring-balaji-thiyagarajan-dayalan-and-apoorva-sharma/videoshow/83255316.cms|access-date=2021-06-15|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|'En Kadhala'
|Naatpadu Theral
|N.R.Raghunanthan
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Samayapurathale'
|
|Godson Vardha
|Tamil
|Godson Vardha
|
|-
|'Harane'
|
|Godson Vardha
|Tamil
|Godson Vardha
|
|-
|'Un Vizhigalai'
|
|Dhivakar Satish
|Tamil
|Ratsun
|
|-
|'Doctorate Kadhal'
|Single
|Rashaanth Arwin
|Tamil
|Ajay Krishna
|
|-
|'Kadhalai Dhinamum Thedudhey'
|
|Sharran Surya
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'U & Me'
|
|Godson Rudolph
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Kadhal Meera'
|
|Ashwath
|Tamil
|MK Balaji
|
|-
|'Ennaiye Uyarthi'
|
|Dr. Jijo C John
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Nee Thedum Bhodhu'
|
|Srikanth Deva
|Tamil
|Srikanth Deva
|
|-
| rowspan="17" |2022
|'Thaaragaiye - The Spark of Love
|Meghna
|Shameshan Mani Maran
|Tamil
|JC Joe
|
|-
|'Nam Desamay'
|
|BK Kannagi
|Tamil
|[[Anuradha Sriram]], [[Sam Vishal]], Vikram Sai Prasad, Yogi Sekar, BK Kannagi
|<ref>{{Citation|title=Nam Desamay {{!}} Full Song {{!}} Republic Day Song| date=25 January 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WstSo4aW5g|language=en|access-date=2022-01-26}}</ref>
|-
|'Theenda Thiruda'
|
|Manimaran
|Tamil
|
|
|-
|'Paaththaane Oru Paarvai'
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|'Enakkaka Oru Idhayam'
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|M. A. Jaikumar
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|'Adhimalai Swamimalai'
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|Kanmani Raja
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|'Yasagane'
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|Sagishna Xavier
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|[[Haricharan]]
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|'Yaar Aval'
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|A. K. Sasidaran
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|'Yaen Marandhaai'
|[[Suzhal: The Vortex]]
|[[Sam C. S.]]
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|'Mayangiyatho Enthan Manamey'
|Enna Solla Pogirai
|Dr. Jijo C John
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|'Ma Poo Magizham Poo'
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|'Vaanam Pozhiya'
|Insta - 1 Min Music
|D Sathyaprakash
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|’Athisayangal Seibavare’
|Vincy Productions
|Vinny Alegro
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| rowspan="2" |Naam 2
| rowspan="2" |Stephen Zechariah
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|[[M. M. Manasi|M.M. Manasi]]
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|'Kannoram'
|[[Deri Lorus]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-18 |title=Naam 2 - Kannoram Official Video [4K] - T Suriavelan {{!}} Stephen Zechariah ft Srinisha Jayaseelan - The Madras Tribune |work=The Madras Tribune |url=https://madrastribune.com/2024/01/18/naam-2-kannoram-official-video-4k-t-suriavelan-stephen-zechariah-ft-srinisha-jayaseelan/ |access-date=2024-01-18 |language=en-US}}</ref>
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|2023
|'Mazhai Thuligal'
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|Kaushik Ganesan
|Tamil
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|2024
|Kadhal Kadamaye
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== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
{{Instagram|id=srinisha_jayaseelan|name=Srinisha Jayaseelan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jayaseelan, Srinisha}}
[[Category:Indian musicians]]
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[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
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[[Category:Indian women playback singers]]
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R. N. Manickam

2026-01-05T19:49:20Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new some stub w/ refs...

{{notability|1=Biographies|date=August 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Annotated image|caption='''R. N. Manickam''', official photograph as Principal Director, DGS|image=R. N. Manickam.jpg|align=right}}
'''Rishiyur Nataraja Manickam''' (1 July 1919 – 11 September 2015) was an [[Indian Police Service]] officer in the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]] and the [[Research and Analysis Wing]], and retired as Principal Director in R&AW's co-agency, [[Directorate General of Security (India)|Directorate General of Security]]. He was Director of the [[Aviation Research Centre]] during the [[Bangladesh War]].

==Early life==

Born in Rishiyur<ref>[https://www.forevermissed.com/rnmanickam/lifestory R. N. Manickam in ''Forever Missed'']</ref> in the then [[Madras Presidency]], he was educated in Board High Schools, Erode and Bhavani; [[Government Arts College, Coimbatore]] and [[St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli]].

==State service in Madras==

Manickam initially joined the State Police Service, Madras, but was promoted to the Indian Police Service on 3 December 1950 with retrospective allotment year of 1943.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.102328/page/n69/mode/2up | title=History of Services of Indian Police Service as on 1st January 1960 | publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India | year=1961 | page=64}}</ref> He served as S.P. of Madurai and S.P. in the C.I.D.

==Central service==

Manickam went on central deputation on 1 December 1957 and joined the Ministry of External Affairs. Initially he was posted as First Secretary in the Indian Embassy in Washington.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=h0COPALYcikC&pg=RA5-PA23 Diplomatic List, 1958], Department of State, U.S.A.</ref> He was thereafter posted as Director in MEA, New Delhi, from which he was transferred to the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]] on 31 August 1963<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.1963.143/page/n1/mode/2up Gazette of India, 1963, No. 143]</ref> and posted as deputy director.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.1963.192/page/n1/mode/2up Gazette of India, 1963, No. 192]</ref> He was repatriated to Madras cadre on 15 December 1965<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.1966.421/page/n13/mode/2up Gazette of India notification]</ref> and subsequently became Inspector General of Police in the state. During this time, he also became honorary president of the [[Madras Gymkhana Club]] in 1967–68.<ref>[http://www.madrasgymkhana.com/comm_ListOfPresidents2018.html List of Presidents, Madras Gymkhana Club]</ref> On subsequent central deputation, Manickam became Director of the [[Aviation Research Centre]] in the early 1969. As Director ARC, he was involved in technical and aerial intelligence during the [[Bangladesh War]].<ref>[https://ur.booksc.eu/book/39026599/9f151b Unraveling India's Foreign Intelligence: The Origins and Evolution of the Research and Analysis Wing], Ryan Shaffer, ''International Journal of Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence'', April 2015</ref> He became Principal Director, DGS on 30 November 1974, with oversight on [[Sashastra Seema Bal|SSB]], [[Special Frontier Force|SFF]] and ARC. Manickam retired as PD on 30 June 1977. Much later, in 1993–94, he worked as Member, Tamil Nadu State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission.<ref>[http://www.biblioasia.com/showbookdetail.asp?bookid=763 Author profile for ''Security, Espionage and Counter Intelligence'']</ref><ref>[https://www.lawyerservices.in/Nandakumar-R-Dave-and-Others-Versus-Ms-Dhanalakshmi-Consolidated-Industries-Ltd-and-Others-1993-05-12 Court case with R. N. Manickam as judge, 1993]</ref><ref>[https://www.lawyerservices.in/Ms-KKE-Amalgamations-Versus-The-Post-Master-General-and-Others-1994-06-07 Court case with R. N. Manickam as judge, 1994]</ref>

==Awards==

He had received the ''Police and Fire Services Medal for Distinguished Service'' in 1967 and ''Police Medal for Meritorious Service'' in 1958.<ref>[https://policeservicemedals.gov.in/pmaquery/default.aspx Police Medal Awardees List] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303202937/https://policeservicemedals.gov.in/pmaquery/default.aspx |date=3 March 2022 }}, search by Manickam and Manikam.</ref>

==Memoirs==

Post-retirement, Manickam wrote his memoirs of 36 years of service, titled ''Security, Espionage and Counter Intelligence'', published in 2000.<ref>[https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/security-espionage-and-counter-intelligence Book review at National Criminal Justice Reference Service], Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice</ref>

==Controversy==

In March 1981, in a seven-page affidavit, Manickam alleged that his relatives had paid Rs. 10.75 lakh to the relatives of [[M. G. Ramachandran]], chief minister of Tamil Nadu, as bribe for liquor distribution license, but they did not get the license. So, Manickam demanded the money back. This became a political sensation of the time, being used for political purposes by the opposition parties, [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] and the Congress, and resulted into three inquiry commissions.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2mclDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT280 MGR: A Life], R. Kannan, 2017, pages 280-281</ref><ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19830731-liquor-scandal-may-cost-tamil-nadu-cm-much-of-his-political-credibility-770865-2013-07-19 Liquor scandal may cost Tamil Nadu CM much of his political credibility], ''India Today'', 31 July 1983</ref><ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19840415-liquor-licences-corruption-case-mgr-and-other-cabinet-ministers-get-clean-chit-802942-1984-04-15 Liquor licences corruption case: MGR and other cabinet ministers get clean chit], ''India Today'', 15 April 1984</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manickam, R. N.}}
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:2015 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian Police Service officers]]
[[Category:People of the Research & Analysis Wing]]
[[Category:Spymasters]]
[[Category:Intelligence Bureau (India)]]

Jyotsna Dhawan

2025-12-22T09:42:43Z

GrettaDumaresq4: small correct intro based on references and added references for consistency

{{short description|Indian Cell and Developmental Biologist}}
[[File:Dr. Jyotsna Dhawan.tif|thumb|Jyotsna Dhawan]]
'''Jyotsna Dhawan''' is an Indian Cell and Developmental Biologist, Emeritus Scientist at [[Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology]]<ref name="ccmb">{{cite web |url=https://www.ccmb.res.in/People/Research-Group/Jyotsna-Dhawan |title=Jyotsna Dhawan |website=CCMB |accessdate=14 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="frontiers">{{cite web |url=https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/125221/bio|title=Jyotsna Dhawan |website=Loop - Frontiers |accessdate=14 July 2020}}</ref> and Visiting Professor, Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine (inStem).<ref name="ccmb" /><ref name="lab">{{cite web |title=Prof. Jyotsna Dhawan |url=https://quiescentmusclab.weebly.com/people.html |website=Muscle stem cell Lab |accessdate=14 July 2020}}</ref> Dhawan's research has focused on adult stem cell function and skeletal muscle regeneration.<ref name="ccmb" /><ref name="frontiers" /><ref name="lab" /><ref name="tdu">{{cite web |title=Dr. Jyotsna Dhawan |url=http://tdu.edu.in/governance/jyotsna-dhawan/ |website=The University of Trans-Disciplinary Health Sciences and Technology |accessdate=24 July 2020 |archive-date=21 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621110210/http://tdu.edu.in/governance/jyotsna-dhawan/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dhawan is the current (2019-2021) President of the Indian Society for Cell Biology<ref name="frontiers"/><ref name="ISCB">{{cite web |title=Executive Committee Members of the Society |url=http://iscb.org.in/homepage.htm |website=ISCB |accessdate=24 July 2020}}</ref> and the Indian Society of Developmental Biologists (2017–2020).<ref name="frontiers" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Office Bearers |url=http://www.devbioindia.org/index.php?page=office_bearers&lid=130 |website=InSDB: Indian Society for Developmental Biologists |accessdate=24 July 2020 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725001658/http://www.devbioindia.org/index.php?page=office_bearers&lid=130 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dhawan was elected as a fellow to the [[Indian National Science Academy]] in 2019.<ref name="frontiers" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Fellow |url=http://www.insaindia.res.in/detail/P20-1835 |website=Indian National Science Academy |accessdate=24 July 2020}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Dhawan's father [[Satish Dhawan]] was a faculty at the [[Indian Institute of Science]]<ref name="family">{{cite web |last1=S |first1=Deepika |last2=Ramaswamy |first2=Karthik |title=My Father, Satish Dhawan |url=https://connect.iisc.ac.in/2017/08/father-satish-dhawan/ |website=Connect with IISc |accessdate=24 July 2020}}</ref> and Dhawan's mother Nalini, was a cytogeneticist.<ref name="family" /> She completed her master's in botany from [[Delhi University]] in 1983.<ref name="ccmb" /><ref name="interview">{{cite web |last1=Jayaraj |first1=Nandita |last2=Dogra |first2=Aashima |title=Flexing muscle (stem cells) with Jyotsna |url=https://thelifeofscience.com/tm/2017/02/27/flexing-muscle-stem-cells-with-jyotsna/ |website=The Life of Science|date=27 February 2017 }}</ref> She contemplated quitting her master's degree however, a summer internship in yeast genetics at the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]], convinced her to pursue a PhD.<ref name="interview" /> She completed her PhD from [[Boston University]] in 1991.<ref name="ccmb" /><ref name="lab" /> She completed her postdoctoral training at [[Stanford University]] studying muscle stem cells and [[gene therapy]] in 1995.<ref name="ccmb" /><ref name="lab" />

== Career ==
Dhawan joined [[Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology]] as faculty in 1996<ref name="lab" /> and started her lab studying the biology of muscle stem cells and muscle repair. From 2009–2014, she helped set up the Institute for Stem Cell Science and Regenerative Medicine (inStem) in Bangalore and served as Senior Professor and Dean.<ref name="ccmb" /><ref name="lab" /> In 2014, she returned to [[Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology]] and retained ties to InStem as a visiting professor and member of the advisory board.<ref name="ccmb" /><ref name="lab" /><ref name="tdu" />

Dhawan has been an active advocate for establishing India as a leader in biomedical research.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dhawan |first1=Jyotsna |last2=Gokhale |first2=Rajesh S. |last3=Verma |first3=Inder M. |title=Bioscience in India: Times Are Changing |journal=Cell |date=December 2005 |volume=123 |issue=5 |pages=743–745 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2005.11.018 |pmid=16325565 |doi-access=free }}</ref> She serves as the Scientist In Charge of [[Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology]]’s iHub, an innovation space with an incubation center for biomedical startups<ref name="lab" /> and has served on several scientific review committees, scientific task forces and advisory boards at the national and institutional level.<ref name="frontiers" /> She has also been a part on the editorial board of Physiological Genomics, BBRC and [[Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology]].<ref name="frontiers" />

== Selected publications ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Cheedipudi |first1=Sirisha |last2=Puri |first2=Deepika |last3=Saleh |first3=Amena |last4=Gala |first4=Hardik P. |last5=Rumman |first5=Mohammed |last6=Pillai |first6=Malini S. |last7=Sreenivas |first7=Prethish |last8=Arora |first8=Reety |last9=Sellathurai |first9=Jeeva |last10=Schrøder |first10=Henrik Daa |last11=Mishra |first11=Rakesh K. |last12=Dhawan |first12=Jyotsna |title=A fine balance: epigenetic control of cellular quiescence by the tumor suppressor PRDM2/RIZ at a bivalent domain in the cyclin a gene |journal=Nucleic Acids Research |date=27 July 2015 |volume=43 |issue=13 |pages=6236–6256 |doi=10.1093/nar/gkv567 |pmid=26040698 |pmc=4513853 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Krishna |first1=Srikar |last2=Nair |first2=Aparna |last3=Cheedipudi |first3=Sirisha |last4=Poduval |first4=Deepak |last5=Dhawan |first5=Jyotsna |last6=Palakodeti |first6=Dasaradhi |last7=Ghanekar |first7=Yashoda |title=Deep sequencing reveals unique small RNA repertoire that is regulated during head regeneration in Hydra magnipapillata |journal=Nucleic Acids Research |date=1 January 2013 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=599–616 |doi=10.1093/nar/gks1020 |pmid=23166307 |pmc=3592418 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sebastian |first1=S. |last2=Sreenivas |first2=P. |last3=Sambasivan |first3=R. |last4=Cheedipudi |first4=S. |last5=Kandalla |first5=P. |last6=Pavlath |first6=G. K. |last7=Dhawan |first7=J. |title=MLL5, a trithorax homolog, indirectly regulates H3K4 methylation, represses cyclin A2 expression, and promotes myogenic differentiation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=24 March 2009 |volume=106 |issue=12 |pages=4719–4724 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807136106 |pmid=19264965 |pmc=2651835 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.4719S |doi-access=free }}

==References==
<references />

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dhawan, Jyotsna}}
[[Category:Indian women molecular biologists]]
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Indian National Congress (O)

2025-12-18T21:31:48Z

GrettaDumaresq4: creating new article

#REDIRECT [[Syndicate Congress]]

Forgotten Refugees (book)

2025-12-17T11:10:51Z

GrettaDumaresq4: New

{{Short description|2022 book by Nandita Haksar}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Forgotten Refugees — Two Iraqi Brothers in India
| author = [[Nandita Haksar]]
| language = English
| country = India
| genre =
| publisher = [[Speaking Tiger Books]]
| media_type =
| cover_artist =
| isbn =
| image = Forgotten Refugees — Two Iraqi Brothers in India.jpg
| caption =
| series =
| release_date = 25 April 2022
| pages =
| awards =
}}
'''''Forgotten Refugees: Two Iraqi Brothers in India''''' is a book which is written by human rights lawyer [[Nandita Haksar]] The book was published in 25 April 2022 by [[Speaking Tiger Books]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Saurabh |date=2022-05-09 |title=Book Review: 'Forgotten Refugees: Two Iraqi Brothers in India' By Nandita Haksar |url=https://feminisminindia.com/2022/05/10/while-leaving-their-country-the-brothers-placed-their-trust-in-india-which-their-aunt-said-is-a-place-where-people-of-all-faith-live-happily-and-that-the-brothers-would-not-face-any-problems-on-acc/ |access-date=2022-09-25 |website=Feminism in India |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Reception==
''[[The Hindu|The Hindu Review]]'' wrote about the book "In the appendices, Haksar traces the history of refugee protection in India and calls for better processes to be put in place".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Krithika |first=R. |date=2022-08-26 |title=Review of Nandita Haksar's Forgotten Refugees — Two Iraqi Brothers in India: Not just a number |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/iraq-war-refugees-india-justice-brothers/article65797300.ece |access-date=2022-09-25 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

''[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]'' said "She points out the need to move away from “patronizing narratives rooted in the politics of pity” so that we can hear what refugees want to tell us about the racism and the discrimination they face in countries where they seek refuge".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Far from home |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/books/far-from-home-forgotten-refugees-two-iraqi-brothers-in-india-by-nandita-haksar/cid/1879691 |access-date=2022-09-25 |website=Telegraph India}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Forgotten Refugees - Two Iraqi Brothers in India}}
[[Category:2022 non-fiction books]]

{{India-book-stub}}

Rabindra Kumar Sethy

2025-11-30T09:12:47Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new some bio w/ infobox...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder|
| image =
| name = Rabindra Kumar Sethy
| office = [[Government of Odisha|Minister of State for Co-operatives]]: [[Government of Odisha]]
| successor =
| predecessor =
| term_start = 21 March 1995
| term_end = 17 February 1999
| office1 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly|Member]] of [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency1 = [[Nimapara Assembly constituency|Nimapara]]
| term_start1 = 1995
| term_end1 = 2000
| successor1 = Govinda Chandra Sethi
| predecessor1 = Benudhara Sethy
| constituency2 = [[Nimapara Assembly constituency|Nimapara]]
| term_start2 = 1980
| term_end2 = 1990
| successor2 = Benudhara Sethy
| predecessor2 = Baidhar Mallick
| education = PhD, MA, BA, LLB
| alma_mater = [[Utkal University]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1954|10|10}}
| spouse = Bijaylaxmi Sethy
| children = 2
| parents =
}}

'''Rabindra Kumar Sethy''' (born 10 October 1954) is an Indian politician and a veteran leader in the [[Indian National Congress]]. He was the [[Government of Odisha|Minister of State for Co-operatives]] from 1995 to 1999 and a member of the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]], elected three times from [[Nimapara Assembly constituency|Nimapara]].<ref name="Rabindra Kumar Sethy">{{cite web|url=https://odishaassembly.nic.in/memberprofile.aspx?img=155|title=Shri Rabindra Kumar Sethy|website=odishaassembly.nic.in|publisher=Odisha Assembly|accessdate=20 March 2021}}</ref> He has a doctorate and is an alumnus of [[Utkal University]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://myneta.info/odisha2014/candidate.php?candidate_id=1348 | title=Rabindra Kumar Sethy(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- KAKATPUR(PURI) - Affidavit Information of Candidate }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sethy, Rabindra Kumar}}
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Odisha]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Orissa MLAs 1980–1985]]
[[Category:Orissa MLAs 1985–1990]]
[[Category:Orissa MLAs 1995–2000]]

{{improve categories|date=May 2024}}

Ranabir Samaddar

2025-11-13T07:19:06Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new new stub needs work

{{short description|Indian political scientist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox academic
| name = Ranabir Samaddar
| image = Ranabir Samaddar - 2018.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1949|09|28}}
| citizenship = Indian
| education = B.A, M.A, PhD
| thesis_title = Economics, Politics and The Age of Electronics - A Case Study of Automation in the Indian Newspaper Industry
| discipline = [[Political Science]]
| sub_discipline = Migration, Refugee Studies, Peace Studies, Nationalism, Post-colonial Statehood, Labour Studies
| alma_mater = [[Calcutta University]]
}}

'''Ranabir Samaddar''' is an Indian [[political scientist]]. He holds the Distinguished Chair in Migration and Forced Migration Studies at the Mahanirban Calcutta Research Group. He was a [[Peace Research Institute Oslo|PRIO]] Global Fellow from 2014–2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ranabir Samaddar |url=https://www.iwm.at/fellow/ranabir-samaddar |access-date=2022-09-19 |website=IWM WEBSITE |date=31 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prio.org/People/Person/?x=4359|title=Ranabir Samaddar|last=Oslo (PRIO)|first=Peace Pesearch Institute|website=www.prio.org|language=en|access-date=2020-02-07}}</ref>

== Studies and early career ==
He completed his B.A. in political science from Presidency College (now [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency University]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://corpora.tufts.edu/catalog/tufts:45/?transcript|title=Ranabir Samaddar - Corpora|website=corpora.tufts.edu|access-date=2020-02-07}}</ref> Thereafter, he proceeded to his M.A. and Ph.D from [[University of Calcutta|Calcutta University]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mcrg.ac.in/rs.asp|title=Prof. Ranabir Samaddar|website=www.mcrg.ac.in|access-date=2020-02-07}}</ref>

Between 1977 and 1980, he served as a school teacher at the Kishore Bharati Dum Dum School, [[24 Parganas|24 Paraganas]] (West Bengal).

He is the founder-editor of the journal, ''Refugee Watch''.

== Books ==

* ''Karl Marx and the Postcolonial Age'' (New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2017)
* ''A Postcolonial Enquiry into Europe’s Debt and Migration Crisis'' (Singapore: Springer, 2016)
* ''The Crisis of 1974: The Railway Strike and the Rank and File'' (Delhi: Primus, 2016)
* ''Ideas and Frameworks of Governing India'' (London and New York: Routledge, 2016)
* ''Neo-liberal Strategies of Governing India'' (London and New York: Routledge, 2016)
* ''Krishna Living with Alzheimer’s'' (Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2015)
* ''Passive Revolution in West Bengal – 1977-2011'' (New Delhi: Sage, 2013)
* ''The Nation Form'' (New Delhi: Sage, 2012)
* ''Emergence of the Political Subject'' (New Delhi: Sage, 2010)
* ''Politics of Dialogue – Living Under the Geopolitical Histories of War and Peace (''Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004)
* ''In the Time of Nationalism – Political Essays on Bangladesh'' (Dhaka: University Press Limited, 2002)
* ''A Biography of the Indian Nation, 1947-1997'' (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2001)
* ''Marginal Nation – Trans-border Migration from Bangladesh to India'' (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1999)
* ''Memory, Power, Identity – Politics in Jungle Mahals, West Bengal 1890-1950 (''Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1997; revised edition, 2013))
* ''Whose Asia Is It Anyway -- Region and the Nation in South Asia'' (Calcutta: MaulanaAbulKalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies and Pearl Publishers, 1996)
* ''Workers and Automation -- The Impact of New Technology on the Newspaper Industry'' (New Delhi: Sage Publications)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Samaddar, Ranabir}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian political scientists]]
[[Category:Presidency University, Kolkata alumni]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Indian schoolteachers]]
[[Category:Indian editors]]
[[Category:20th-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:Bengali educators]]
[[Category:Educators from West Bengal]]

Royapuram fire temple

2025-10-07T22:57:14Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new a place first draft...

{{Short description|Temple in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox religious building
| building_name = Royapuram fire temple
| native_name = Jal Phiroj Clubwala Dar E Meher
| infobox_width =
| image = PARSI TEMPLE @ FIRE TEMPLE, Dar-e-Meher - panoramio.jpg
| image_upright = 1.1
| caption = Entrance of the Royapuram Fire Temple
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| location = Arathoon Road, [[Royapuram]], [[Chennai]], [[India]]
| geo =
| latitude =
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| religious_affiliation =
| rite =
| region = [[Royapuram]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| province =
| territory =
| prefecture =
| sector =
| district = [[Chennai]]
| cercle =
| municipality =
| consecration_year = 1910
| status =
| functional_status = Functional
| heritage_designation =
| leadership =
| website =
| architecture =
| architect = Hormusji Nowroji
| architecture_type =
| architecture_style =
| general_contractor =
| facade_direction =
| groundbreaking = 9 February 1909
| year_completed = 1909
| construction_cost = {{INR}}30,000 (Initial)
| specifications =
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}}

'''Jal Phiroj Clubwala Dar E Meher''', popularly known as the '''Royapuram fire temple''', is a [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[fire temple]] at [[Royapuram]], [[Chennai]], [[India]]. It was built in 1910 and donated to the Madras Parsi Zarthosti Anjuman by philanthropist Phiroj M. Clubwala. The temple is one of the 177 odd fire temples in the world, of which some 150 are in India.<ref name="TOI_ParsisToCelebrateMilestone"/> It is the only Parsi fire temple in [[Tamil Nadu]] and surrounding region, including [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] and [[Kerala]].<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple"/> The flame in the temple is burning continuously ever since the temple was built and is stoked five times a day by the priest.<ref name="TOI_ParsisToCelebrateMilestone">{{cite news
| last = Mathai
| first = Kamini
| title = Parsis go all out to celebrate milestone in Chennai
| newspaper = The Times of India
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Times Group
| date = 12 July 2010
| url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Parsis-go-all-out-to-celebrate-milestone-in-Chennai/articleshow/6156672.cms
| access-date = 24 Apr 2014}}</ref>

==History==
Although [[Parsis]] first arrived in Madras between 1795 and 1809, when a group of six Parsis and two priests from [[Coorg]] landed in the city and bought land at Royapuram opposite the Catholic Church, there was no official priest in the community for over 100 years till 1906, and there was no place of worship until the fire temple was built.<ref name="Hindu_100YearsOfFireTemple"/> A Parsi panchayat was formed in 1876.<ref name="Muthiah_2014"/> From 1887, the Madras Parsi Panchayat started collecting monthly contributions from members in the region for a Mobed Fund, chiefly intended to maintain a ''[[Mobad|mobed]]'' (priest) and to eventually establish a place of worship, for which a significant contribution was made by Sir Dinshaw Petit of [[Bombay]] in 1896. The community then purchased a plot of land in Royapuram, where the community by then had established itself to a significant extent. However, plans to build a temple in this plot were delayed.<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple">{{cite news
| last = Muthiah
| first = S.
| title = Madras Miscellany: The century-old Parsi temple
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 4 July 2010
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/madras-miscellany-the-centuryold-parsi-temple/article499975.ece
| access-date = 27 Apr 2014}}</ref>

When Phiroj Muncherji Clubwala, a benefactor of the Parsi community in Madras, lost his 14-year-old son Jal<ref name="MM_ParsisOfMadras2"/> in February 1906, he found it difficult to perform the prayers and rituals the Parsi way as there was no fire temple in the city.<ref name="TOI_ParsiAssnMarksTempleAnniv"/> He soon created a corpus to enable the Parsi community in Madras to avail the services of a mobed. The first mobed was Ervad Dosabhai Pavri. In 1907, Clubwala decided to gift the Madras Parsi Zarthosti Anjuman (the successor of the Panchayat<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/the-royapuram-parsi-fire-temple-turns-110/article27069615.ece|title=Chennai's Parsi community looks back on its ties with the metropolis|last=Alexander|first=Deepa|date=2019-05-08|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-05-18|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>) a piece of land that he bought opposite his house on West Mada Church Street in Royapuram, after noting the slow progress of collections for the Mobed Fund and for a new fund that a committee of six was making efforts to swell. The new land was located near the site earmarked earlier.<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple"/> On 9 February 1909, the foundation stone for a fully equipped Agiari was laid by Hormusji Nowroji,<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple"/> a civil engineer and president of the Parsi Anjuman for almost 45 years,<ref name="Hindu_100YearsOfFireTemple">{{cite news
| title = Parsi community celebrates 100 years of fire temple
| location = Chennai
| date = 11 July 2010
| url = http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/11/stories/2010071162800500.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100714233635/http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/11/stories/2010071162800500.htm
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 14 July 2010
| newspaper = [[The Hindu]]
| access-date = 24 Apr 2014}}</ref> and an amount of {{INR}} 30,000 raised by the community was provided to maintain the temple. With the community raising the money in short order, Clubwala built the temple and the Anjuman named the temple after Clubwala's son.<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple"/><ref name="TOI_ParsiAssnMarksTempleAnniv"/> Nowroji also designed the temple and supervised its building.<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple"/>

On 7 August 1910, the temple was consecrated as the Jal Phiroj Clubwala Dar-e-Meher. Dosabhai Pavri had retired shortly before the consecration, and Ervad Hormasji Adarji Gai was appointed the new priest. With the consecration of the new temple, he became its first pathank (priest-in-charge). Clubwala also donated the Anjuman a block of land adjacent to the temple and built an accommodation for the priests.<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple"/> Clubwala also built a block in the Anjuman Bagh and donated a large tract of land near his house to St. Kevin's Presentation Convent and School, a school for girls in North Madras.<ref name="MM_ParsisOfMadras2">{{cite journal
| last = Zarin
| first = Mistry
| title = The Parsis of Madras – 2
| journal = Madras Musings
| volume = XVIII
| issue = 14
| date = 1–15 November 2008
| url = http://madrasmusings.com/Vol%2018%20No%2014/the_parsis_of_madras_2.html
| access-date = 24 Apr 2014}}</ref>

After Clubwala died in August 1927, the Phiroj Clubwala Memorial Hall was built to honour his memory, which was inaugurated by his widow Srinibai on 14 August 1930.<ref name="Hindu_CenturyOldParsiTemple"/> The Parsi Club was also built in 1930 to honour Clubwala.<ref name="TOI_ParsiAssnMarksTempleAnniv">{{cite news
| last = TNN
| title = Parsi assn marks Fire Temple anniversary
| newspaper = The Times of India
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Times Group
| date = 11 July 2010
| url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Parsi-assn-marks-Fire-Temple-anniversary/articleshow/6152865.cms
| access-date = 24 Apr 2014}}</ref>

The Parsis' ecclesiastical head in Madras, Ervad Peshotan Daji, affectionately called "Pesi", was associated with the fire temple for over 60 years. The fire temple was earlier managed by his grandfather (from 1913 to 1938) and later by his father (from 1938 to 1968). Peshotan Daji started as an assistant priest in 1924 at the age of 12 and continued to serve the community till 1983. During [[World War I]], when the German warship [[SMS Emden]] bombed the [[Madras High Court]] premises, Royapuram was evacuated. Peshotan Daji, however, refused to leave the fire temple and stayed on alone to keep the fire burning.<ref name="Hindu_100YearsOfFireTemple"/><ref name="MM_ParsisOfMadras2"/>

In 1985, a housing unit for the chief priest, styled in sympathy with the fire temple, was built within the temple campus.<ref name="Muthiah_2014"/> The nearby choultry, which is the regular gathering place for the Parsis in the city, was restored in 2011.<ref name="Muthiah_2014">{{cite book | last = Muthiah| first = S. | author-link = S. Muthiah | title = Madras Rediscovered| publisher = EastWest | date = 2014 | location = Chennai | pages = 335 | isbn = 978-93-84030-28-5}}</ref>

==The temple today==
The temple is located on Arathoon Road, a street that also has a Hindu temple, a mosque, a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church.<ref name="Muthiah_2014"/> Only Parsis and [[Zoroastrians in Iran|Zoroastrian Iranis]] are admitted into the sanctum sanctorum. The fire at the temple has never been extinguished since the construction of the temple. Priests tend to the fire five times a day during prayers.<ref name="Hindu_100YearsOfFireTemple"/>

==Centenary celebrations==
In July 2010, the Madras Parsi Association and the members of The Madras Parsi Zarthosti Anjuman jointly marked the centenary celebrations with a three-day function and a medley of rituals and entertainment with a performance by musician [[Gary Lawyer]]. The function was inaugurated by former president [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]].<ref name="TOI_ParsiAssnMarksTempleAnniv"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Religion}}
* [[Religion in Chennai]]
* [[List of fire temples in India]]
* [[Zoroastrianism in India]]
* [[Heritage structures in Chennai]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Chennai Topics}}
{{Places of worship in Chennai}}

{{coords|13|6|40|N|80|17|40|E|display=title}}

[[Category:1910 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Fire temples in India]]
[[Category:Parsi temples in Chennai]]

Mangalore Institute of Technology and Engineering

2025-08-14T15:10:59Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Starting Some Post First Draft...

{{more footnotes|date=March 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
| native_name =
| latin_name =
| image_name = MITE_Logo.jpg
| image_size = 125px
| motto =
| established = 2007
| type = Private, Un-aided
| endowment =
| staff =
| faculty =
| president = Rajesh Chowta
| provost =
| principal = Dr. Prashanth C M
| rector =
| chancellor =
| vice_chancellor =
| dean =
| head_label =
| head =
| students =
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| doctoral =
| profess =
| city = [[Moodabidri]], [[Mangaluru]]
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| country = [[India]]
| coor = {{Coord|13|3|7|N|74|57|53|E|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| campus = Residential
| free_label =
| free =
| colors =
| colours =
| mascot =
| nickname = MITE
| affiliations = [[Visveswaraiah Technological University]]
| website =
}}
'''Mangalore Institute of Technology and Engineering''' ('''MITE''') is an [[engineering]] and [[management]] institution located in [[Mangaluru]] established by the Rajalaxmi Education Trust under the leadership of Rajesh Chouta in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mite.ac.in/|title=MITE - Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering | Best Engineering College in Mangalore|website=Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering|accessdate=23 February 2025}}</ref> The institute is affiliated to the [[Visvesvaraya Technological University]], Belgaum, and approved by the All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi. MITE, established in 2007, today has 3000+ students, 180+ Faculty, offering 9 Undergraduate Programs in Engineering, 1 Post Graduate Program in Engineering, Masters of Computer Applications, Master of Business Administration (MBA) and 7 research programs.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mite.ac.in/admissions/ | title=Admissions }}</ref>

== Campus ==
MITE is on the Mangaluru - Solapur Highway, about 30 km from Mangalore and about 4 km short of the town of [[Moodabidri]].

== Courses ==
Institute offers 4-year bachelor's degree and 2-year masters's degree programmes

'''B.E. Degree courses:'''
*Computer Science & Engineerin
*Information Science & Engineering
*Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning
*Computer Sc. & Engg (IoT & Cybersecurity with Blockchain technology)
*Electronics & Communications Engineering
*Mechatronics Engineering
*Mechanical Engineering
*Aeronautical Engineering
*Civil Engineering

'''Postgraduate level:'''
*M Tech in Computer Science
*MCA-Master of Computer Applications
*MBA-Masters in Business Administration
The course is spread over four semesters with the following Dual specialization in the Management sector
#Human Resource Management
#Marketing
#Finance

== References ==
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.ravisblognet.com/2011/06/karnataka-top-100-engineering-colleges.html|title=Karnataka Top 100 Engineering Colleges List 2011 Times Group Nielsen Ranking Survey|website=news.ravisblognet.com|accessdate=2 September 2018}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://southcanaraengineering.blogspot.com/2011/06/ranking-based-on-2010-2011-overall.html|title=Engineering Colleges in South Canara: Ranking based on the 2010-2011 overall performance|last=Nachiketha|date=8 June 2011|publisher=|accessdate=2 September 2018}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-05/mangalore/28123899_1_training-centre-regional-centre-mba-students |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905124108/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-05/mangalore/28123899_1_training-centre-regional-centre-mba-students |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-09-05 |title=MITE, Bosch to set up unique training centre |date=2010-03-05 |work=[[The Times of India]] |accessdate=2018-09-02}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-others/tp-states/article1569093.ece|title=Bosch Rexroth to open automation tech centre|publisher=|accessdate=2 September 2018}}</ref>
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mangalore Institute of Technology and Engineering}}
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2007]]
[[Category:Engineering colleges in Mangalore]]
[[Category:Affiliates of Visvesvaraya Technological University]]
[[Category:2007 establishments in Karnataka]]

Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates

2025-05-18T05:51:50Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Done...

{{Short description|Tea gardens in West Bengal, India}}
{{Infobox park
| name = Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates
| alt_name =
| photo =
| photo_width =
| photo_caption =
| type =
| location = [[Jalpaiguri district]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| nearest_city = [[Chalsa, India|Chalsa]]
| map =
| area =
| open = late 1800s and early 1900s
| elevation = {{convert|1500|ft}}
| owner = Goodricke
| operator =
| visitation_num =
| status =
| website =
}}
'''Chalouni Tea Estate''', '''Aibheel Tea Estate''' and '''Chalsa Tea Estate''' are [[Tea garden (cultivation)|tea gardens]], located near each other in the [[Matiali (community development block)|Matiali]] [[Community development blocks in India|CD block]] in the [[Malbazar subdivision]] of the [[Jalpaiguri district]] in the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]]. All the three tea estates are located in the north-western section of the [[Dooars]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=410| height=350| zoom=10
| coord={{coord|26|50|0|N|88|44|0|E}}| float=left|caption='''Places and tea estates in Malbabazar subdivision (including Mal, Nagrakata and Matiali CD blocks) in Jalpaiguri district''' CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre, N: neighbourhood, NP: national park/ wildlife sanctuary, TE: tea estate Abbreviations used in names – TG for Tea Garden (town/village), TE for Tea Estate, JRS: junction railway station Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1={{coord|26|52|30|N|88|44|10|E}}| label-pos1=top|label1= Malbazar| numbered1=CT| mark-title1= [[Malbazar]] (CT)|label-color1= #800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #A40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|26|53|1|N|88|47|53|E}}| label-pos2=top|label2=Chalsa| numbered2=CT| mark-title2= [[Chalsa, India]] (CT)
|mark-coord3={{coord|26|52|6|N|88|48|16|E}}| label-pos3=bottom|label3= Mangalbari| numbered3=CT| mark-title3= [[Mangalbari]] (CT)
|mark-coord4={{coord|26|43|6|N|88|45|57|E}}| label-pos4=bottom|label4= Lataguri| numbered4=CT| mark-title4= [[Lataguri]] (CT)
|mark-coord5={{coord|26|56|49|N|88|48|44|E}}| label-pos5=right|label5= Matelli| numbered5=CT| mark-title5= [[Matialihat]] (CT)
|mark-coord6={{coord|26|52|20|N|88|37|17|E}}| label-pos6=left|label6= Odlabari| numbered6=CT| mark-title6= [[Odlabari]] (CT)
|mark-coord7={{coord|26|50|20|N|88|37|1|E}}| label-pos7=right|label7= Dakshin Odlabari| numbered7=CT| mark-title7= [[Dakshin Odlabari]] (CT)
|mark-coord8={{coord|26|53|57|N|88|35|4|E}}| label-pos8=left|label8=Bagrakote| numbered8=R| mark-title8= [[Bagrakote]] (R)|shape-color8= #A42222
|mark-coord9={{coord|26|50|20|N|88|47|43|E}}| label-pos9=bottom|label9=Batabari TG| numbered9=R| mark-title9= [[Batabari Tea Garden]] (R)|shape-color9= #A42222
|mark-coord10={{coord|26|52|10|N|88|40|1|E}}| label-pos10=top|label10=Dam Dim| numbered10=R| mark-title10= [[Dam Dim]] (R)|shape-color10= #A42222
|mark-coord11={{coord|26|45|5|N|88|35|8|E}}| label-pos11=left|label11=Gajoldoba| numbered11=R| mark-title11= [[Gajoldoba]] (R)|shape-color11= #A42222
|mark-coord12={{coord|26|54|33|N|88|43|39|E}}| label-pos12=left|label12=Gurjangjhora TG| numbered12=R| mark-title12= [[Gurjangjhora Tea Garden]] (R)|shape-color12= #A42222
|mark-coord13={{coord|26|50|15|N|88|49|31|E}}| label-pos13=right|label13=Murti| numbered13=R| mark-title13= [[Murti, Jalpaiguri]] (R)|shape-color13= #A42222
|mark-coord14= {{coord|26|53|12|N|88|54|55|E}}| label-pos14=right|label14=Nagrakata| numbered14=R| mark-title14= [[Nagrakata]] (R)|shape-color14= #A42222
|mark-coord15={{coord|26|59|24|N|88|48|42|E}}| label-pos15=left|label15=Samsing| numbered15=R| mark-title15= [[Samsing]] (R)|shape-color15= #A42222
|mark-coord16={{coord|26|51|52|N|88|54|23|E}}| label-pos16=right|label16=Sulkapara| numbered16=R| mark-title16= [[Sulkapara]] (R)|shape-color16= #A42222
|mark-coord17={{coord|26|56|30|N|88|46|14|E}}| label-pos17=left|label17=Zurantee TG| numbered17=R| mark-title17= [[Zurantee Tea Garden]] (R)|shape-color17= #A42222
|mark-coord18={{coord|26|55|13|N|88|41|3|E}}| label-pos18= left |label18= Meenglas TE | numbered18=TE| mark-title18= [[Meenglas and Leesh River Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color18=#87A96B
|mark-coord19={{coord|26|51|34|N|88|35|21|E}}| label-pos19= left |label19= Leesh River TE | numbered19=TE| mark-title19= [[Meenglas and Leesh River Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color19=#87A96B
|mark-coord20={{coord|26|58|0|N|88|55|10|E}}| label-pos20= bottom |label20= Hope TE | numbered20=TE| mark-title20= [[Hope and Jiti Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color20=#87A96B
|mark-coord21={{coord|26|58|54|N|88|55|39|E}}| label-pos21= right |label21= Jiti TE | numbered21=TE| mark-title21= [[Hope and Jiti Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color21=#87A96B
|mark-coord22={{coord|26|57|47|N|88|46|59|E}}| label-pos22= left |label22= Chalouni TE | numbered22=TE| mark-title22= Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates (TE)|shape-color22=black| label-size22=13|label-color22=black 
|mark-coord23={{coord|26|55|0|N|88|47|10|E}}| label-pos23= right |label23= Aibheeli TE | numbered23=TE| mark-title23= Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates (TE)| shape-color23=black| label-size23=13|label-color23=black 
|mark-coord24={{coord|26|56|3|N|88|50|15|E}}| label-pos24= right |label24= Chalsa TE | numbered24=TE| mark-title24= Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates (TE)| shape-color24=black| label-size24=13|label-color24=black 
|mark-coord25={{coord|26|46|20|N|88|48|0|E}}| label-pos25=bottom|label25=Gorumara |labela25= National| labelb25= Park| numbered25=NP| mark-title25= [[Gorumara National Park]] (NP)| shape-color25=#228B22
|mark-coord26={{coord|26|54|20|N|88|51|18|E}}| label-pos26=bottom|label26=Chapramari |labela26= Wildlife| labelb26= Sanctuary| numbered26=NP| mark-title26= [[Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary]] (NP)| shape-color26=#228B22
|mark-coord27={{coord|26|39|40|N|88|38|40|E}}|label27= Teesta River| label-color27 = #77A1CB| label-angle27=60| label-pos27=top| label-size27=10| mark-size27=0| mark-title27=none
|mark-coord28={{coord|26|49|0|N|88|57|0|E}}|label28= Gatia River| label-color28 = #77A1CB| label-angle28=-45| label-pos28=top| label-size28=10| mark-size28=0| mark-title28=none
|mark-coord29={{coord|26|41|0|N|88|53|0|E}}|label29= Jaldhaka River| label-color29 = #77A1CB| label-angle29=80| label-pos29=top| label-size29=10| mark-size29=0| mark-title29=none
|arc-coordA={{coord|27|1|0|N|88|55|0|E}}|arc-textA= BHUTAN| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=20| arc-gapA=3.5| arc-radiusA=0.4}}

===Location===
Chalouni Tea Estate is located at {{coord|26.9631|N|88.7832|E||display=inline}}.

Chalouni Tea Estate lies at an altitude of 1,500 feet, at the foot of a lower sub-Himalayan range.“Chalouni is scenically resplendent. To its north lies the Kalimpong Sub-Division reserve forest. The hills rise above into a chain of mountain ranges adding to the beauty of the garden. There are a number of rain-fed streamlets flowing north-south, which lace its body meandering and dancing to produce a musical symphony to add to its sylvan beauty and charm.”<ref name="tea1">{{cite web | url = http://www.goodricke.com/tea-garden/dooars/chalouni | title = Chalouni | publisher = Goodricke |accessdate = 4 July 2020}}</ref> Chalouni has a common boundary with five tea gardens namely [[Samsing]], Matelli, Nagaisuree, Engo and [[Zurantee Tea Garden|Zurantee]].<ref name="diary1">{{cite web | url = https://www.goodricketea.com/garden-diaries-dooars | title = Garden Diaries | work= Chalouni| publisher = Goodricke |accessdate = 4 July 2020}}</ref>

Aibheel Tea Estate is located at {{coord|26.9133|N|88.7861|E||display=inline}}

Aibheel Tea Estate is located in the foothills of Kalimpong-Bhutan range.<ref name="tea2">{{cite web | url = http://www.goodricke.com/tea-garden/dooars/aibheel | title = Aibheel | publisher = Goodricke |accessdate = 4 July 2020}}</ref>

Chalsa Tea Estate is located at {{coord|26.9481|N|88.8377|E||display=inline}}

Chalsa Tea Estate is located on the picturesque Chalsa Hill. On the east, the Murti River separates the tea estate from the Upper Tondu Forest. On the west is [[Matialihat|Matelli]].<ref name="tea3">{{cite web | url = http://www.goodricke.com/tea-garden/dooars/chulsa | title = Chulsa | publisher = Goodricke |accessdate = 4 July 2020}}</ref> The tea estate has undulating topography intercepted by mountain streams.<ref name="diary3">{{cite web | url = https://www.goodricketea.com/garden-diaries-dooars | title = Garden Diaries | work= Chulsa| publisher = Goodricke |accessdate = 4 July 2020}}</ref>

===Area overview===
[[Gorumara National Park]] has overtaken traditionally popular [[Jaldapara National Park]] in footfall and [[Malbazar]] has emerged as one of the most important towns in the [[Dooars]]. Malbazar subdivision is presented in the map alongside.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://northbengaltourism.com/malbazar/ |title = Malbazar |publisher= North Bengal Tourism | accessdate = 13 July 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.north-bengal.com/dooars.html |title = Dooars Tour |publisher= North Bengal Tourism | accessdate = 13 July 2020 }}</ref> It is a predominantly rural area with 88.62% of the population living in rural areas and 11.32% living in the urban areas.<ref name="admin">{{cite web | url = http://jalpaiguri.gov.in/district-profile| title = Jalpaiguri | work =District Profile | publisher = District administration |accessdate = 13 July 2020 }}</ref><ref name="handbook">{{cite web |url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Jalpaiguri |work = Tables 2.2, 2.4b |publisher = Department of Planning and Statistics, Government of West Bengal |accessdate = 13 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |archive-date = 21 January 2019 |url-status = dead }}</ref> Tea gardens in the [[Dooars]] and [[Terai]] regions produce 226 million kg or over a quarter of India's total tea crop.<ref>{{cite web| url =https://www.indiatea.org/tea_growing_regions |title = Tea Growing Regions | work= Dooars and Terai|publisher= Indian Tea Association | accessdate = 13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.teaboard.gov.in/TEABOARDCSM/MTA=|title = Dooars-Terai |publisher= Tea Board India | accessdate = 13 July 2020}}</ref> Some tea gardens were identified in the 2011 census as [[census town]]s or villages.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/pcadata/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = 2011 Census – Primary Census Abstract Data Tables | work= West Bengal – District-wise |publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | accessdate = 13 July 2020 }}</ref> Such places are marked in the map as CT (census town) or R (rural/ urban centre). Specific tea estate pages are marked TE.

Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in the subdivision. All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map.

==Etymology==
Chalouni Tea Estate was named after the chilloune tree that was quite common in the area.<ref name="tea1"/>

Aibheel Tea Estate was earlier known as Sonapani as the natural spring waters appeared to be gold coloured.<ref name="tea2"/>

==The gardens==
Chalouni Tea Garden was established in 1885.<ref name="tea1"/>

When the British took over the Dooars from Bhutan, Aibheel Tea Estate was leased out around 1890 to Sir Benjamin Simpson, who was medical officer of Sir Ashlay Eden's mission in Bhutan. His son, P.A.Simpson, managed the property from the earliest days to around 1920. The estate now is divided in to four divisions: Naya Kaman, Gunty Side, Sathkya and Dangee.<ref name="tea2"/>

Duncan Brothers planted the Chalsa Tea Estate around 1910. It was subsequently taken over by Goodricke. It now has two divisions namely Gandrab and Main Division. The new factory commissioned in 1994 is amongst the best in the tea industry. The factory was HACCP certified in 2008 and upgraded in 2009.<ref name="diary3"/>

==Goodricke==
Established in 1977, Goodricke owns 18 tea estates in India, all inherited from sterling tea companies, who operated from the late 1800s. Goodricke has 12 gardens in the [[Dooars]]. With its rich agro climate the area produces CTC tea. Goodricke's tea gardens in the Dooars are: [[Danguajhar Tea Estate|Danguajhar]], [[Meenglas and Leesh River Tea Estates|Leesh River]], [[Meenglas and Leesh River Tea Estates|Meenglas]], [[Hope and Jiti Tea Estates|Hope]], Aibheel, Chulsa, Chalouni, [[Hope and Jiti Tea Estates|Jiti]], [[Kumargram and Sankos Tea Estates|Sankos]], [[Gandrapara and Lakhipara Tea Estates|Gandrapara]], [[Gandrapara and Lakhipara Tea Estates|Lakhipara]] and [[Kumargram and Sankos Tea Estates|Kumargram]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.goodricke.com/about | title = Overview| publisher = Goodricke |accessdate = 4 July 2020}}</ref>

Eight sterling tea companies viz., The Assam-Doors Tea Co. Ltd., Hope Tea Co. Ltd., The Lebong Chulsa Tea Co. Ltd., The British Darjeeling Tea Co. Ltd., The Chulsa Tea Co. Ltd., The Leesh River Tea Co. Ltd., The Danguajhar Tea Co. Ltd., and The Meenglas Tea Co. Ltd., were amalgamated with Goodricke in 1977.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.goodreturns.in/company/goodricke-group/history.html | title = Goodricke Group Limited – Company history and annual growth details| publisher = |accessdate = 4 July 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

{{Jalpaiguri district}}

[[Category:Tea estates in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Jalpaiguri district]]

Kesar Jawalga

2025-05-15T01:39:01Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Creating the post initial version

{{Short description|Village in Maharashtra, India}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2025}}

'''Kesar Jawalga''' is a village in Maharashtra, India. It is located in [[Umarga]] Taluka in [[Osmanabad]] district.<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=2011 |title=Basic Population Figures of India, States, Districts, Sub-District and Village, 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] |access-date=May 10, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711042331/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=2022-07-11}}</ref> The village resides in the [[Marathwada]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}} region, and falls under the supervision of the [[Aurangabad]] division. Located 81 km towards south from the district headquarters Osmanabad, the village is also 25 km from Umarga{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}} and 477 km from the state capital [[Mumbai]].

== Demographics ==
According to the 2011 Indian census, the village of Kesar Jawalga had a population of 4818, with an average literacy rate of 47.75%. With male literacy being 67.1%, with female literacy being 28.4%. The main language spoken here is [[Marathi language|Marathi]].
And secondary language is [[Kannada And Hindi]].

== Nearby villages ==

* [[Belamb]] is 5 km away
*[[Kothali, Maharashtra|Kothali]] is 7 km away
* Varnalwadi is 7 km away
* Achaler is 9 km away
* [[Ambarnagar]] is 9 km away

Kesar Jawalga is surrounded by Umarga Taluka towards north, [[Lohara, Akola|Lohara]] taluka towards north, [[Akkalkot]] taluka towards west, [[Tuljapur Tahsil|Tuljapur]] taluka towards west.

== Nearby cities ==
The cities near to Kesar Jawalga are Umarga, Tuljapur, Nilanga, Gulbarga.

== Postal details ==
The postal head office for Kesar Jawalga is [[Murum, Osmanabad|Murum]]. The pin code of Kesar Jawalga is 413605.

== Politics ==
The National Congress Party (NCP), [[Shiv Sena]], SHS and INC are the major political parties in Kesar Jawalga.

=== Polling stations near Kesar Jawalga ===

# Lokmanya Tilak Vidyalaya
# Z.P.P.S Kesar Jawalga Central side
# Z.P.P.S Kesar Jawalga East side
# Z.P.P.S Kavatha south side
# Z.P.P.S Girls Achaler west side

== Education ==
The colleges near Kesar Jawalga are:

# Shri Sharadchandraji Pawar Junior college Naichakur
# National Backward Agriculture Education Information Technology Osmanabad
# Sevagram college
# Sevagram college, Kavatha

The schools near Kesar Jawalga are:

# Mahatma Gandhi Vidyalaya
# Z.P.C.P school

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Geography of Maharashtra]]

John Wardle Houlton

2025-03-02T04:27:04Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Creating first bio v1

Sir '''John Wardle Houlton''' was a British civil servant in the [[Foreign Office]] who emigrated to [[Swaziland]] and served as the [[President of the Senate of Eswatini|President of the Senate]]<ref name="histdict">{{cite book |last1=Grotpeter |first1=John J. |title=Historical dictionary of Swaziland |date=1975 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Metuchen, N.J |isbn=0-8108-0805-6}}</ref> from 1967 to 1973.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8lBAAAAYAAJ |title = The story of Swaziland|last1 = Scutt|first1 = Joan Frances|year = 1980| publisher=Websters |isbn = 9780797800069}}</ref>

Houlton was born in 1892.<ref name="kelly">{{cite web |title=Debrett's Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage |url=https://www.google.fi/books/edition/Debrett_s_Peerage_Baronetage_Knightage_a/0SIMAQAAMAAJ |publisher=Kelly's Directories |language=en |date=1973}}</ref> His family was from [[Middlesex]] and he was educated at [[the Perse School]], and [[Christ's College, Cambridge]].<ref name="kelly" /> He worked in the [[Indian Civil Service]], in the [[government of Bihar]], from 1933.<ref name="kelly" />

Houlton emigrated to South Africa in 1950, and then to Swaziland, where he was made a legal secretary.<ref name="histdict" /> In 1965, he became speaker of the [[Legislative Council of Swaziland]], and two years later he became Speaker of the Senate.<ref name="histdict" /> He retired from that position in May 1973.<ref name="histdict" />

Houlton was the author of ''Bihar, the Heart of India'' (1949).<ref>{{cite web |author=East-West Center Library |title=Select List of Recent Publications |url=https://www.google.fi/books/edition/Select_List_of_Recent_Publications/9e61xpPeKXkC |publisher=East-West Center Library. |language=en |date=1963}}</ref> For years he wrote editorials in the [[Times of Swaziland]].<ref name="histdict" /> He died on 9 November 1973.<ref name="histdict" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Eswatini-politician-stub}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Houlton, John}}
[[Category:Presidents of the Senate of Eswatini]]
[[Category:1892 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:British emigrants to South Africa]]
[[Category:Swazi people of British descent]]
[[Category:British civil servants]]
[[Category:Civil servants in the Foreign Office]]
[[Category:People from Middlesex (before 1965)]]
[[Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge]]

SHE Teams

2025-02-15T22:44:43Z

GrettaDumaresq4: new initial post v1...

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox law enforcement agency
|agencyname = SHE Teams
|logo =
|motto = For you..With you..Always!
|formedyear = {{Start date and years ago|df=yes|2014|10|24}}
|legaljuris = [[Telangana State]]
|divtype = State
|divname = [[Telangana]]
|subdivtype = City
|subdivname = [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]
|country =
|headquarters = [[Hyderabad, Telangana]]
|dmap =
|stationtype = Station
|stations =
|chief1name = Shika Goel, IPS 
|chief1position = Addl. Commissioner of Police (Crimes & SIT)
|sworn =
|unsworn =
|website = {{Official website|http://www.hyderabadpolice.gov.in/SheTeams.html}}
|parentagency = [[Telangana State Police]]
}}
[[File:Swati_Lakra_in_Maha_Bathukamma_Celebrations_at_LB_Stadium_(08.10.2016).jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of a man and a policewoman sitting on a white bench at a celebration. The policewoman, Swati Lakra, is wearing a Hyperabad Police uniform. The man beside her is holding a phone.|Swati Lakra, head of SHE Teams, at the [[Bathukamma|Maha Bathukamma]] celebrations held at [[Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium, Hyderabad|LB Stadium]] on 8 October 2016.]]
'''SHE Teams''' is a division of [[Telangana Police]] for enhanced safety and security of women. They also work to prevent [[child marriages]] in [[Telangana State]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hyderabad-Tab/2018-03-07/SHE-teams-celebrate-womens-day/364223|title=SHE teams celebrate women's day|last=India|first=The Hans|date=2018-03-08|website=www.thehansindia.com|language=en|access-date=2019-12-02}}</ref> The teams work in small groups to arrest [[Eve teasing|eve teasers]], stalkers and harassers. They operate mainly in busy public areas in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hyderabad-Tab/2018-03-08/SHE-Teams-Workshop-at-TWG-International/364285|title=SHE Teams Workshop at TWG International|last=India|first=The Hans|date=2018-03-08|website=www.thehansindia.com|language=en|access-date=2019-12-02}}</ref>
They respond to complaints delivered by WhatsApp and through social media.<ref>{{cite news |title=Thanks, SHE Teams! Crimes against women drop in Telangana |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2019/jan/05/thanks-she-teams-crimes-against-women-drop-in-ts-1920902.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105092927/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2019/jan/05/thanks-she-teams-crimes-against-women-drop-in-ts-1920902.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 January 2019 |work=The New Indian Express |date=5 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sameer |title=The success story of SHE Teams in three years |url=https://archive.siasat.com/news/success-story-teams-three-years-1246822/ |accessdate=10 August 2019 |work=The Siasat Daily |date=25 October 2017}}</ref>

==History==
SHE Teams stands for Safety, Health and Environment. The division was started on 24 October 2014,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyderabadpolice.gov.in/SheTeams.html|title=Official Website of Hyderabad City Police|accessdate=2 December 2019}}</ref> is a brainchild of [[Chief Minister of Telangana]], [[K. Chandrashekar Rao]] who was impressed by a similar initiative in [[Singapore]]. Additional Commissioner, Hyderabad, Swathi Lakra heading the division ever since its inception.

==The Teams==
A team comprises an Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI), who acts as a lead with four to five male and female constables in each Zone, they all work under Assistant DCP rank woman police officer. They work [[undercover]].

The cases related to harassment of women under [[Rachakonda commissionerate]] had come down by 85 percent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://telanganatoday.com/eve-teasing-declined-by-85-percent-says-mahesh-bhagwat|title=Eve-teasing declined by 85 percent, says Mahesh Bhagwat|last=TelanganaToday|website=Telangana Today|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-02}}</ref> The 24×7 monitoring by the teams, conducting decoy operations, SHE Shuttles, Margadarshak and counselling sessions are proving to be effective in curbing the crime rate.

==Case lodging==
As a deterrent, the first time offenders are mostly booked under petty cases like Sec 290 IPC and Sec 70 (c) of the Hyderabad city police act.

More serious and repeat offenders are likely to be booked under 509 IPC (word act or gesture intended to insult the modesty of a woman), section 354IPC (assault or criminal force on a woman with the intent to outrage her modesty), could potentially lead to an offence under section 376 (rape).

==Expansion==
In Hyderabad, there are 100 teams in operation by March 2018. The division is present in Adilabad, Nizamabad. It is being expanded to other districts in Telangana State.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.hyderabadpolice.gov.in/SheTeams.html Official site]

[[Category:Telangana Police]]
[[Category:Government of Telangana]]
[[Category:KCR Government initiatives]]
[[Category:Specialist law enforcement agencies of India]]
[[Category:2014 establishments in Telangana]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 2014]]

Rupsa River

2024-12-21T10:58:59Z

GrettaDumaresq4: cleaned up content for consistency and improved wording

{{Short description|River in Bangladesh}}
{{about|the river|the town in India|Rupsa, India|the town in Nepal|Rupsa}}
[[File:Wooden ship on the Rupsa River (Bangladesh).jpg|right|thumb|Ship on the Rupsa River]]
The '''Rupsa''' is a river in southwestern [[Bangladesh]] and a [[distributary]] of the [[Ganges]]. The Rupsa is one of the most famous rivers of Bangladesh.

==Description==
It forms the confluence of the [[Bhairab River|Bhairab]] and [[Madhumati River|Madhumati]] rivers, and flows into the [[Pasur River]].<ref name=Banglapedia>{{cite book |last=Chowdhury |first=Masud Hasan |year=2012 |chapter=Rupsa-Pasur River |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Rupsa-Pasur_River |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref> Its entire length is affected by tides.<ref name=Banglapedia/>

[[File:Rupsha river.jpg|thumb|Rupsa river, Khulna]]
The Rupsa flows by [[Khulna]], and connects to the Bay of Bengal through Poshur river at Mongla channel. Near Chalna, it changes its name to Pasur River and flows into the [[Bay of Bengal]].

A significant number of fisheries, dockyards, shipyards and factories are situated along the banks of this river. A considerable population depends on catching fish in the river. A bridge over the river, named [[Khan Jahan Ali Bridge]], connects the [[Khulna District|Khulna]] and [[Bagerhat District|Bagerhat]] districts.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{commons category-inline}}
{{Rivers in and around Bengal}}

{{coord|22|45|N|89|33|E|display=title|region:BD_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Rupsha River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Khulna]]
[[Category:Rivers of Khulna Division]]

{{Bangladesh-river-stub}}

Sundar K. Vijayan

2024-07-24T17:12:52Z

GrettaDumaresq4: Data...

{{short description|Indian film director}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sundar K. Vijayan
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1960|08|16}}
| birth_place = [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|Film director|screenwriter}}
| years_active = 1986–present
| known_for =
| parents = [[K. Vijayan]] (father)
|spouse =Kamini<ref name=su />
}}

'''Sundar K. Vijayan''' is an Indian film and television series director, who has directed [[Tamil language]] content. The son of director [[K. Vijayan]], Sundar began his career in films in the late 1980s, before prioritising television commitments in the 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://profile.tamilstar.com/director/sundar-k.-vijayan/biography-full/1498|title=Profile of Director Sundar K. Vijayan - Tamil Movie Data Base of Tamilstar.com|website=profile.tamilstar.com|access-date=2021-06-17|archive-date=2021-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195600/https://profile.tamilstar.com/director/sundar-k.-vijayan/biography-full/1498|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Career==

In the 1980s, Sundar assisted his father K. Vijayan at the age of 16 in films like ''[[Sattam]]'', ''[[Vidhi (1984 film)|Vidhi]]'', ''[[Mangamma Sabadham (1985 film)|Mangamma Sabadham]]'' and ''[[Osai]]''. He worked as a co-director for ''[[Viduthalai (1986 film)|Viduthalai]]'' directing the portions of Rajinikanth and Vishnuvardhan. Producer K. Balaji who was impressed with his work in ''Bandham'' offered him to direct a film for his production company.<ref name="an">{{cite web |date=1 August 2021 |title=மாமியார் மருமகள் கதைகளை உடைக்க வேண்டும்! |url=https://www.andhimazhai.com/special-section/special-pages/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95-%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231031160527/https://www.andhimazhai.com/special-section/special-pages/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95-%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D |archive-date=31 October 2023 |access-date=31 October 2023 |work=Andhimazhai |language=ta}}</ref> He made his directorial debut with ''[[Revathi (1986 film)|Revathi]]'' at the age of 18.<ref name="su">{{cite web |date=13 July 2018 |title=18 வயதில் இயக்குனர் ஆனேன்! |url=http://www.kungumam.co.in/Articalinnerdetail.aspx?id=13909&id1=3&issue=20180713 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231031160256/http://www.kungumam.co.in/Articalinnerdetail.aspx?id=13909&id1=3&issue=20180713 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |access-date=31 October 2023 |work=Kungumam |language=ta}}</ref> Since ''Revathi'' was well received, he then directed ''Velicham'' with Karthik which did averagely at box-office. He was closely associated with actress [[Ranjini (actress)|Ranjini]] in the late 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Satya |first=Valliyoor |title=Why Bharathiraja's En Uyir Thozhan is so special |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-column/why-bharathirajas-kollywood-movie-en-uyir-thozhan-is-so-special.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703212259/https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-column/why-bharathirajas-kollywood-movie-en-uyir-thozhan-is-so-special.html |archive-date=2022-07-03 |access-date=2021-06-17 |website=Behindwoods.com}}</ref> His father Vijayan died during the making of ''[[En Rathathin Rathame]]'', so Sundar had to step in as director and completed the remaining portions of the film.<ref name=su /> After making ''[[Ennarugil Nee Irundhal]]'', Vijayan did not receive further opportunities to direct films.<ref name=su /> With the advice of his relative, he shifted to television and made his first television series ''Paarvaigal '' starring Silk Smitha for Sun TV.<ref name=su /> His serial ''Madisar Mami'' did well which led to further opportunities for Sundar to direct many serials in television.<ref name=an /> He made many successful serials such as ''Jannal'', ''Alaigal'', ''Annamalai'', ''Selvi'' and ''Arasi''.<ref name=su />

Vijayan also played a pivotal role in introducing actor [[Samuthirakani]] into Tamil cinema, by hiring him on as a copywriter during the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://telanganatoday.com/samuthirakani-finds-his-ground-finally|title=Samuthirakani finds his ground finally|first=Prakash|last=Pecheti|website=Telangana Today|date=25 January 2021|access-date=17 June 2021|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126074243/https://telanganatoday.com/samuthirakani-finds-his-ground-finally|url-status=live}}</ref> A number of directors, including [[Venu Arvind]] and [[Premsai]], apprenticed under him during their period of training.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=5 February 2011 |title=On a different track |newspaper=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/On-a-different-track/article15129044.ece |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231031161820/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/On-a-different-track/article15129044.ece |archive-date=31 October 2023}}</ref>

In the 2000s, Vijayan collaborated with a number of lead actresses including [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Khushboo Sundar|Khushboo]], [[Amala Akkineni|Amala]], [[Devayani (actress)|Devayani]] and [[Meena (actress)|Meena]] for primetime television serials.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 October 2019 |title=Superhit Tamil director joins Radhika's Chithi 2! |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/radhikas-chithi-2-gets-a-superhit-director-onboard-tamil-news-245757 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200820/https://www.indiaglitz.com/radhikas-chithi-2-gets-a-superhit-director-onboard-tamil-news-245757 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |access-date=17 June 2021 |website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 July 2007 |title=Many biggies for Kalaignar TV |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/many-biggies-for-kalaignar-tv-malayalam-news-32372 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195943/https://www.indiaglitz.com/many-biggies-for-kalaignar-tv-malayalam-news-32372 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |access-date=17 June 2021 |website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref> By 2005, he had directed over 1500 episodes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/61817722@N08/6079079376/|title=Sundar K.Vijayan|date=5 October 2010|via=Flickr}}</ref><ref name=an /> He was awarded a [[Kalaimamani]] award in 2009 for his work on Tamil television.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uyir Meiy – The first ever medical drama in a new timeslot on Zee Tamizh |url=https://www.zee.com/in-the-news/uyir-meiy-the-first-ever-medical-drama-in-a-new-timeslot-on-zee-tamizh/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200128/https://www.zee.com/in-the-news/uyir-meiy-the-first-ever-medical-drama-in-a-new-timeslot-on-zee-tamizh/ |archive-date=2021-06-24 |access-date=2021-06-17 |website=Zee.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2009/kalaimamani-awards-250209.html|title=Kalaimamani awards distributed|first=Settu|last=Shankar|date=25 February 2009|website=filmibeat.com|access-date=17 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201432/https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2009/kalaimamani-awards-250209.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Notes
|-
| 1986 || ''[[Revathi (1986 film)|Revathi]]'' ||
|-
| 1987 || ''[[Velicham]]'' ||
|-
| 1989 || ''[[En Rathathin Rathame]]''||
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Ennarukil Nee Irunthal]]'' ||
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Serial !! Channel
|-
|1998||''Jannal - Adutha Veetu Kavithaigal''||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]/[[Raj TV]]
|-
|1999||''Guhan''||[[Raj TV]]
|-
|2000||''Kadavulukku Kobam Vandhadhu''||[[DD Podhigai]]
|-
| 2001 || ''Oonjal'' ||[[Vijay TV]]
|-
| 2001–2003 || ''[[Alaigal (TV series)|Alaigal]]'' ||rowspan=5|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
| 2003–2005 || ''[[Annamalai (2002 TV series)|Annamalai]]''
|-
| 2003–2004 || ''Kungumam''
|-
| 2005–2006 || ''Selvi''
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Lakshmi (2006 TV series)|Lakshmi]]''
|-
| 2008–2009 || ''Namma Kudumbam'' ||[[Kalaignar TV]]
|-
|2009||''Thangamma Purushan''||[[Kalaignar TV]]
|-
| 2012–2013 || ''[[Muthaaram]]''
|-
| 2014-2015 || ''[[Uyirmei]]'' ||[[Zee Tamil]]
|-
| 2015–2016 || ''[[Yazhini]]'' ||[[IBC Tamil]]
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa (TV series)|Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa]]'' ||[[Vijay TV]]
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Lakshmi Stores]]'' ||rowspan=2|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Chithi 2]]''
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|11262114}}

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[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Film directors from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Tamil screenwriters]]
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Tamil television directors]]

United Front (Punjab, India)

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Indira Nair

2023-06-10T08:15:49Z

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{{Short description|Indian Canadian painter (1938–2018)}}

'''Indira Nair''' (1938, in [[Guruvayur]] – 2018, in [[Val-David]]) was an Indian Canadian painter, [[printmaker]], and sculptor, who specialised in [[Acrylic paint|acrylic painting]]. Educated in [[Mumbai]], at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] at the [[Beaux-Arts de Paris]], and at the [[Université du Québec à Montréal]], her works are in the collections of the [[Montreal Museum of Fine Arts]], the [[Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec]], and the [[Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NAIR, Indira (1938) |url=https://dictionnaire.espaceartactuel.com/en/artistes/nair-indira-1938/ |website=Dictionnaire historique de la sculpture québécoise au XXe siècle |access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fisette |first1=Serge |title=Indira Nair: Le proche, le lointain, une échappée |journal=Espace Sculpture |date=2002 |volume=59 |pages=41–42 |publisher=Le Centre de diffusion 3D |language=fr |issn=0821-9222}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Avis de décès - NAIR, Indira |url=https://www.domainefuneraire.com/avis-de-deces/Indira-NAIR-233731 |website=La Corporation des thanatologues du Québec |access-date=9 June 2023 |language=fr-CA}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Nair, Indira}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:2018 deaths]]
[[Category:Canadian women painters]]
[[Category:Indian women painters]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Indian descent]]

{{Canada-painter-stub}}

Soro (Vidhan Sabha constituency)

2022-05-12T08:42:25Z

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Raichur (Karnataka Assembly constituency)

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