Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

List of awards and nominations received by Fawad Khan

2023-10-09T13:46:00Z

Grandposh: New page

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox actor awards
| name = Fawad Khan
| image = Fawad Khan at Vogue Beauty awards.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Khan at Vogue Beauty Awards in 2016
| wins = 18
| nominations = 23
|award1='''[[Hum Awards]]'''
|award1W='''6'''
|award1N='''7'''
|award2='''[[Lux Style Awards]]'''
|award2W='''4'''
|award2N='''5'''
|award3='''[[Pakistan Media Awards]]'''
|award3W='''1'''
|award3N='''1'''
|award4='''[[Filmfare Awards]]'''
|award4W='''1'''
|award4N='''2'''
|award5='''[[ARY Film Awards]]'''
|award5W='''1'''
|award5N='''1'''
|award6='''[[BIG Star Entertainment Awards]]'''
|award6W='''1'''
|award6N='''1'''
|award7='''[[Star Guild Awards]]'''
|award7W='''0'''
|award7N='''1'''
|award8='''[[Indian Film Festival of Melbourne]]'''
|award8W='''1'''
|award8N='''1'''
|award9 ='''Masala Awards'''
|award9W='''1'''
|award9N='''1'''
}}

[[Fawad Khan|Fawad Afzal Khan]] (born 29 November 1981) is a Pakistani [[actor]], [[Film producer|producer]], [[screenwriter]] and singer having received several awards including a [[Filmfare Award]], two [[Lux Style Awards]] and six [[Hum Awards]]. Khan played a lead role in the Pakistani serials ''[[Humsafar]]'' (2011) and ''[[Zindagi Gulzar Hai]]'' (2012). For both performances, he received the Lux Style Award for Best Actor - Satellite. Khan made his [[Bollywood]] film debut with ''[[Khoobsurat (2014 film)|Khoobsurat]]'' (2014), for which he received the [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut]]. He further starred in ''[[Kapoor & Sons]]'' (2016), which earned him a nomination for the [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://aaj.tv/2016/04/i-am-on-a-mission-to-loosen-up-fawad-khan/|title=I am on a mission to loosen up: Fawad Khan|work=[[Aaj News]]|last=Afshan|first=Zahra|date=27 April 2018|access-date=25 June 2018|url-status=live|archive-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531221721/https://aaj.tv/2016/04/i-am-on-a-mission-to-loosen-up-fawad-khan/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://arynews.tv/en/some-interesting-facts-about-fawad-khan/|title=Things you might not know about Fawad Khan!|publisher=[[ARY News]]|date=6 April 2015|last=Shahjahan|first=Khurram|access-date=24 June 2018|url-status=live|archive-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025130702/https://arynews.tv/en/some-interesting-facts-about-fawad-khan/}}</ref>

== Awards and nominations ==
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Award
!scope="col"| Category
!scope="col"| Work
!scope="col"| Result
!scope="col" class="unsortable"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2011
|[[Pakistan Media Awards]]
| Best Actor – Satellite
!scope="row" rowspan="2" | ''[[Dastaan (2010 TV series)|Dastaan]]''
| {{won}}
|<ref name="PMA">{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/628793|title=Pakistan Media Awards: And the stars come out to play|work=Dawn|date=14 May 2011|access-date=29 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929135843/https://www.dawn.com/news/628793|archive-date=29 September 2017}}</ref>
|-
|[[10th Lux Style Awards]]
|Best TV Actor - Satellite
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|title=Lux Style Award Nominations|url=http://www.rewaj.com/fashion/lux-style-awards-2011-nominations.html|publisher=Rewaj|accessdate=13 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108022835/http://www.rewaj.com/fashion/lux-style-awards-2011-nominations.html|archive-date=2011-11-08|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="6"| 2013
| rowspan="2" | [[1st Hum Awards]]
| [[Hum Award for Best Onscreen Couple|Best Onscreen Couple]] (with [[Mahira Khan]])
!scope="row" rowspan="4"| ''[[Humsafar]]''
| {{won}}
| rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2013/03/15/hum-awards-celebrate-showbiz-achievements/|title=Hum Awards celebrate showbiz achievements|work=Pakistan Today|date=15 March 2013|access-date=17 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017094132/https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2013/03/15/hum-awards-celebrate-showbiz-achievements/|archive-date=17 October 2017}}</ref>
|-
| [[Hum Honorary Phenomenal Serial Award]]
| {{won}}
|-
|[[12th Lux Style Awards]]
| Best TV Actor – Satellite
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nation.com.pk/15-May-2013/12th-annual-lux-style-awards-nominations|title=12th Annual LUX Style Awards nominations|date=15 May 2013|publisher=[[The Nation (Pakistani newspaper)]]|access-date=14 March 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[Pakistan Media Awards]]
| Best Actor – Satellite
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|title=PMA to be held in Karachi|url=http://eventsinkarachi.com/4th-pakistan-media-awards-public-poll/|work= admin work|publisher=events in Karachi|date=19 December 2013|access-date=8 December 2013}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | Tarang Housefull Awards
| Best Actor
!scope="row" rowspan="2" |''[[Armaan (2013 film)|Armaan]]''
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Humsafar-is-a-good-nasha-to-have-Fawad-Khan-Mahira-Khan/articleshow/44802218.cms|title=Humsafar is a good nasha to have: Fawad Khan-Mahira Khan|last=Roshni|first=Olivera|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=4 December 2014|access-date=23 June 2018|archive-date=26 June 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626132904/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Humsafar-is-a-good-nasha-to-have-Fawad-Khan-Mahira-Khan/articleshow/44802218.cms}}</ref>
|-
| Best Couple (with [[Aamina Sheikh]])
|{{won}}
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2014
| rowspan="4" | [[2nd Hum Awards]]
| [[Hum Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] – Jury
!scope="row" rowspan="5" |''[[Zindagi Gulzar Hai]]''
| {{nom}}
|rowspan="4"|<ref>{{cite web|last=THR Staff |title=Hum Awards: Winners List |url=http://www.web.pk/2013/first-hum-tv-awards-red-carpet-winners-list/ |accessdate=2013-06-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718185340/http://www.web.pk/2013/first-hum-tv-awards-red-carpet-winners-list/ |archivedate=18 July 2013 |url-status=live |df=dmy }}</ref>
|-
| [[Hum Award for Best Actor Popular|Best Actor – Popular]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Hum Award for Best Onscreen Couple|Best Onscreen Couple]] – Jury (with [[Sanam Saeed]])
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Hum Award for Best Onscreen Couple Popular|Best Onscreen Couple – Popular]] (with [[Sanam Saeed]])
| {{won}}
|-
| [[13th Lux Style Awards]]
| Best Actor – Satellite
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1148962|title=Winners announced for 2014 Lux Style Awards|last=Mahjabeen|first=Makhani|work=Dawn|date=5 December 2014|access-date=29 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728160153/https://www.dawn.com/news/1148962|archive-date=28 July 2017}}</ref>
|-
| Masala! Awards
| Best Bollywood Debut
!scope="row" rowspan="5" |''[[Khoobsurat (2014 film)|Khoobsurat]]''
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1147289|title=Fawad Khan wins 'Best Bollywood Debut' at Masala Awards 2014|work=Dawn|date=29 November 2014|access-date=29 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929135603/https://www.dawn.com/news/1147289|archive-date=29 September 2017}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2" |[[BIG Star Entertainment Awards]]
| Most Entertaining Actor (Film) Debut – Male
| {{won}}
|rowspan="2" |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/big-star-entertainment-awards-2014-live-streaming-information-complete-winners-list-618806|title=Big Star Entertainment Awards 2014: Live Streaming Information and Complete Winners List|work=IBT India|date=31 December 2014|access-date=23 June 2018|url-status=live|archive-date=13 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213050705/https://www.ibtimes.co.in/big-star-entertainment-awards-2014-live-streaming-information-complete-winners-list-618806}}</ref>
|-
| Most Entertaining Actor in a Romantic Film
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2015
| [[Producers Guild Film Awards|Star Guild Awards]]
| Most Promising Debut (Male)
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news|publisher=NDTV|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/star-guild-awards-2015-queen-pk-lead-nominations-724735|title=Star Guild Awards 2015: Queen, PK Lead Nominations|date=9 January 2015|access-date=24 June 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310010157/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/star-guild-awards-2015-queen-pk-lead-nominations-724735|archive-date=10 March 2018}}</ref>
|-
| [[Filmfare Awards]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut|Best Male Debut]]
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1160740|title=Fawad Khan wins Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut|work=Dawn|date=1 February 2015|access-date=29 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116042312/http://www.dawn.com/news/1160740|archive-date=16 January 2017}}</ref>
|-
| 2016
| [[Indian Film Festival of Melbourne]]
| Diversity Award
!scope="row" rowspan="2"|''[[Kapoor & Sons]]''
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://arynews.tv/en/fawad-khan-wins-award-film-festival-melbourne/|title=Fawad Khan wins award at film festival in Melbourne|publisher=ARY News|date=13 August 2016|access-date=1 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001081041/https://arynews.tv/en/fawad-khan-wins-award-film-festival-melbourne/|archive-date=1 October 2017}}</ref>
|-
| 2017
| Filmfare Awards
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1289971/p|title=Pakistani stars make their presence felt in Filmfare nominations|access-date=26 June 2018|date=10 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126033658/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1289971/pakistani-stars-make-presence-felt-filmfare-nominations/|archive-date=26 January 2017|work=The Express Tribune}}</ref>
|}

== Other recognitions ==
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Award
!scope="col"| Category
!scope="col"| Result
!scope="col" class="unsortable"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|2015
| [[3rd Hum Awards|Hum Awards]]
| International Icon of The Year
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1175086|title=HUM TV Awards 2015: 'Sadqay Tumhare' a clear winner|work=Dawn|date=10 April 2015|access-date=29 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907080048/https://www.dawn.com/news/1175086|archive-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>
|-
| [[Vogue India|Vogue Beauty Awards]]
| Most Beautiful Man
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.vogue.in/content/vogue-beauty-awards-2015-winners-faces|title=Vogue Beauty Awards 2015 Winners: The faces|work=Vogue India|access-date=17 August 2020|archive-date=24 July 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724175325/https://www.vogue.in/content/vogue-beauty-awards-2015-winners-faces}}</ref>
|-
| 2016
|[[ARY Film Awards]]
| [[ARY Film Award for International Icon of the Year|International Icon of The Year]]
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1086498/7|title=7 best moments from ARY Film Awards 2016|work=The Express Tribune|date=17 April 2016|access-date=24 June 2018|archive-date=24 June 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624175325/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1086498/7-best-moments-from-ary-film-awards-2016/}}</ref>
|-
| 2018
| Filmfare Middle East
| Best Cinematic Icon
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1673907/4|title=Fawad Khan named Best Cinematic Icon at 'Filmfare' relaunch in Dubai|work=The Express Tribune|date=31 March 2018|access-date=23 June 2018|url-status=live|archive-date=1 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601091837/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1673907/4-fawad-khan-named-best-cinematic-icon-filmfare-relaunch-dubai/}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://m.imdb.com/name/nm2717565/awards/?ref_=nm_awd List of awards and nominations received by Fawad Khan]

{{Uncategorized|date=October 2023}}

SonyLIV

2023-09-30T14:24:26Z

Grandposh: Screenshot caption del.

{{short description|Indian video streaming service}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=June 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox website
| name = Sony Liv
| logo = Sony LIV2020.png
| logo_caption = SonyLIV logo
| logo_size = 150px
| company_type = [[Subsidiary]]
| owner = [[Sony]]
| country = [[Mumbai, India]]
| parent = [[Culver Max Entertainment]]
| url = {{URL|sonyliv.com|Sony Liv}}
| language =
*[[English language|English]]
*[[Hindi language|Hindi]]
*[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
*[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
*[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
*[[Kannada language|Kannada]]
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
*[[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
*[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| launch_date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2013|01|22}}
| industry = {{hlist|[[Entertainment]]|[[mass media]]}}
| collapsible = Yes
| type = [[Over-the-top media service|OTT platform]]
| products = {{flatlist|
* [[Streaming media]]
* [[video on demand]]
* [[digital distribution]]
}}
| services = {{flatlist|
* Film production
* film distribution
* television production
}}
| country_of_origin = India
| area_served = [[Indo-Pacific]], [[Middle East]], [[Europe]], [[Canada]], and [[United States]] (via [[Sling TV]])
| registration = Required{{efn|Optional in India, but monthly subscription is required to access additional content.}}
| current_status = Active
| num_users = {{increase}} 32.7 million (paid)<ref name=":5"/> {{increase}} 118 million monthly active users<ref name=":5">{{cite news|url=https://gadgets.ndtv.com/entertainment/news/disney-plus-hotstar-paid-subscribers-8-million-netflix-amazon-eros-sony-balaji-zee-voot-2208730|title=Disney+ Hotstar Has Around 8 Million Paid Subscribers, Disney Claims|publisher=[[NDTV]]|date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
}}

'''SonyLIV''' is an [[Over-the-top media services|over-the-top]] [[Streaming media|streaming platform]] owned by [[Culver Max Entertainment]]. SonyLIV was introduced in 2013<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/sony-launches-digital-entertainment-platform-sony-liv-113012200570_1.html |date=2013|title=Sony Launches Video on Demand|newspaper=Business Standard India|last1=Laghate|first1=Gaurav}}</ref> as the first [[Over-the-top media services in India|OTT]] service in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.gravatar.com/Avatar|title=avatar - Gravatar Profile|website=En.gravatar.com|access-date=22 July 2022}}</ref> As a streaming service, it provides [[Sony Pictures Sports Network|live sports]], [[List Of SonyLIV Original Programming|original titles]], other content titles from its own networks and content titles in India licensed from third-parties such as [[Lionsgate]] and [[ITV Studios|ITV]] among others. The Sony Liv content library includes [[Film|films]], [[Television show|TV shows]], [[Web series|series]], and [[Sony Pictures Sports Network| sports]].
==History==
SonyLIV was launched on 23 January 2013,<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|last=Deb|first=Debabrata|date=2018-07-15|title=The ultimate SonyLIV review: Everything you need to know|url=https://www.finder.com/in/sonyliv|access-date=2020-07-02|website=finder India|language=en-in}}</ref> by [[Culver Max Entertainment]].
=== LIV Sports ===
'''LIV Sports''' was launched on 1 June 2014 by [[Culver Max Entertainment]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/multi-screen-media-launches-liv-sports/article6074608.ece|title=Multiscreen Media Launches Liv Sports|date=2 June 2014|website=The Hindu Business Line}}</ref> (as a new sports streaming service exclusively for sports properties).
LIV Sports was the official mobile and internet broadcaster for the [[2014 FIFA World Cup]] starting 12 June 2014. LIV Sports aired both live and video-on-demand match content with statistics and analysis.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.indiantvinfo.com/2018-fifa-world-cup-india-telecast-rights/|title= 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Live Online Streaming Available Through Sony LIV Application|website=Indiantvinfo.com|access-date= 2018-02-14|date= 2018-02-14}}</ref> However, this service was integrated into SonyLIV. Since then, [[LIV Sports]] has been a part of Sony LIV.
===Sony LIV first revamp (2018)===
[[File:Sony LIV2017.jpg|200px|thumb|SonyLIV logo from 2016 to 2020]]
Sony LIV underwent its first revamp and started to stream live television channels. Since then, Sony LIV has added many shows and movies to its portfolio. On 1 November 2018, Sony LIV and [[Lionsgate]] entered a multi-year content<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/sonyliv-lionsgate-india-partner-to-offer-premium-content/articleshow/66465575.cms?from=mdr|title=Sony LIV, Lionsgate India partner to offer premium content|date=1 November 2018|website=economic times|last1=Laghate|first1=Gaurav}}</ref> deal. As part of the deal, Sony LIV will offer an embedded Lionsgate Play with over 500 hours of premium-original series on its platform.

In 2019, Sony LIV started to stream live channels of other networks, including news channels.

===Sony LIV second revamp (2020)===
[[File:Sony LIV2020.png|200px|thumb|SonyLIV logo from 2020 to present]]
Sony LIV revamped its content and interface in May 2020 using [[Amazon Web Services|AWS Cloud]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aws.amazon.com/solutions/case-studies/sonyliv/|title=Sony LIV Grows Subscriber Base Tenfold and Enhances Streaming Platform Supported by AWS}}</ref> Sony LIV uses Amazon ElastiCache to support real-time, in-memory caching at scale, Amazon CloudFront as a low-latency content delivery network, and Amazon Simple Queue Service (Amazon SQS) as a highly available message queuing service.

In June 2020, Sony LIV underwent a revamp for the second time, and this time they started to stream content from [[Sony Pictures Entertainment]], [[Sony Pictures Television|Sony Pictures Television Studios]], [[ITV Studios|ITV]] and [[Reliance Entertainment]]. Also, SonyLIV started to stream its own original movies and series. Since 2020, SonyLIV has taken more of an active role as a producer and distributor for both [[Film|films]] and [[Web series|series]], offering original programming content through its online library.

SonyLIV was launched as a streaming service in the United States on [[Sling TV]], streaming all the shows available in India on the app.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Watch Live Indian TV Channels - Shows and Movies Online {{!}} Sling TV|url=https://www.sling.com/international/pm/sonyliv|access-date=2020-06-04|website=Sling.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Palermo|first=Philip|date=2020-05-31|title=Sling TV Adds Sony Pictures Networks India's SonyLIV VOD Service|url=https://www.cordcuttersnews.com/sling-tv-adds-sony-pictures-networks-indias-sonyliv-vod-service/|access-date=2020-06-04|website=Cord Cutters News|language=en-US}}</ref>

On 15 January 2021, [[WWE Network]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dua|first=Priyanka|date=2021-01-16|title=SonyLIV Launches WWE Pack At Rs. 299; Offering Five Profiles And Offline Content Download|url=https://www.gizbot.com/home-entertainment/news/sonyliv-launches-wwe-pack-at-rs-299-offering-five-profiles-and-offline-content-download-072124.html|access-date=2021-01-16|website=Gizbot.com|language=en}}</ref> was launched in India through Sony LIV.

Sony LIV was launched in [[Canada]] on 14 October 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramachandran |first1=Naman |title=Indian Streamer SonyLIV Launches in Canada with Family Saga 'Tabbar' (EXCLUSIVE) |url=https://variety.com/2021/streaming/news/sonyliv-canada-launch-tabbar-1235088876/ |access-date=18 February 2023 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=14 October 2021}}</ref> It was launched in Australia, New Zealand, and Singapore on 25 February 2021. On 12 June 2021, as part of Europe Phase-1, Sony LIV was launched in Germany, Switzerland, Norway, Netherlands, Spain, France, and the UK (9 April 2021). On 1 October 2021, as part of Europe Phase-2, Sony LIV was launched in Italy, Portugal, Ireland, Austria, Sweden, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Greece, and Poland.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramachandran |first1=Naman |title=Indian Streamer SonyLIV Sets Global Expansion Plans With 40-Strong Slate (EXCLUSIVE) |url=https://variety.com/2021/streaming/news/sonyliv-india-global-expansion-scam-1992-huma-qureshi-1235000217/ |access-date=14 April 2023 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=18 June 2021}}</ref>
== Content ==
===Current broadcasting rights===
* [[2022 Asian Games]] (2023)<ref>https://olympics.com/en/news/asian-games-hangzhou-preview-schedule--how-to-watch-live</ref>
* [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] (2022-24)<ref name="usopen.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.usopen.org/en_US/news/articles/2022-08-25/sony_pictures_networks_india_to_air_us_open_in_india_through_2024.html |title=Sony Pictures Networks India to air US Open in India through 2024}}</ref>
===Past broadcasting rights===
* [[2018 Asian Games]]
* [[2014 FIFA World Cup]]
===Current content partners===
* [[ITV (TV network)]]
* [[Lionsgate]]
* [[Sky Studios]]
* [[WWE Network]]
===Overview===
SonyLIV's core library consists of 18+ years of content from [[Culver Max Entertainment]]'s channels including [[Sony Entertainment Television (India)|Sony TV]], [[Sony SAB]], [[Sony Aath]] and [[Sony Marathi]]; and more than 700+ movies, which means a total of 40,000+ hours of television show coverage in Hindi and English.<ref name="auto"/>

Since its launch, SonyLIV has streamed live sports events.

It also features content titles in India licensed from third-parties such as [[Lionsgate]] and [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] among others.
===History===
After [[Sony Pictures Networks India]]'s acquisition of [[TEN Sports|Ten Sports Network]], all TEN Sports live programs became part of its broadcast. Since then, SonyLIV has been streaming [[WWE Raw]], [[WWE SmackDown]] and other [[WWE]] [[WWE Pay-Per-Views|pay-per-view events]], and [[Ultimate Fighting Championship|UFC]].

SonyLIV is the first Indian OTT media service platform to produce music content for a Hollywood feature film – producing music for the Hindi version of the blockbuster titled [[Passengers (2016 film)|Passengers]], starring [[Chris Pratt]] and [[Jennifer Lawrence]]. The singers for the original soundtrack titled Aadat included [[Jubin Nautiyal]], [[Shirley Setia]] and [[Raftaar]]. Since then SonyLIV has produced more than 100 songs which are now available on the app, [[YouTube]], [[JioSaavn]] and many other online music service platforms worldwide.

Varieties of anime originals from [[Animax (Asian TV channel)|Animax]] were available on SonyLIV to stream. After shutting down a linear TV channel on 18 April 2017, [[Animax (Indian TV channel)|Animax]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/television/tv-channels/kids/sony-to-shift-animax-channel-to-sonyliv-170413|title=Sony to shift Animax channel to SonyLiv|date=2017-04-13|website=Indian Television Dot Com|language=en|access-date=2019-12-05}}</ref> was made available exclusively as a digital streaming channel in India from 7 July 2017 to 7 May 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2020-05-17/animax-asia-channel-removed-from-sony-liv-streaming-app/.159617|title=Animax Asia Channel Removed from 'Sony LIV' Streaming App|date=17 May 2020|website=Animenewsnetwork.com}}</ref>

SonyLIV also streamed cricket matches played by [[Pakistan Cricket Board|Pakistan]],<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-01-31|title=Cricket Archives PSL 2021 Live Streaming & TV Channels, Pakistan Super League 2021|url= http://www.cricketzine.com/psl-2021-live-streaming-tv-channels-pakistan-super-league-2021/ |website=Cricketzine.com|language=en}}</ref> [[Cricket Australia|Australia]], [[Sri Lanka Cricket|Sri Lanka]], [[Cricket South Africa|South Africa]], [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]] and [[Zimbabwe Cricket|Zimbabwe]], and [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing]].

Until early 2021, it also streamed the [[National Basketball Association]].

Beginning with the 2022 [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]], Sony Pictures Networks India will have the exclusive live television and digital rights to the US Open in India through 2024. As of August 2023, US Open would livestream on SonyLIV.<ref name="usopen.org"/>

=== Sony LIV Originals ===
{{Main|List of SonyLIV original programming}}Sony LIV has streamed a number of original [[streaming television]] series. The first-ever original was a Gujarati web series titled ''[[Kacho Papad Pako Papad]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/specials/year-enders/2017-the-year-otts-went-regional-in-india-180104|title=2017: The year OTTs went regional in India|date=4 January 2018|website=Indian Television Dot Com}}</ref> and it is streaming since 2017.

Sony LIV underwent a revamp in its appearance in June 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sonyliv.com/|title=SonyLIV|website=Sonyliv.com|access-date=22 July 2022|archive-date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006082126/https://www.sonyliv.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since then, Sony LIV provides their original shows in 5–7 languages. Other than Hindi, Sony LIV releases originals in the other languages after 1–2 weeks from the release date.

''[[Rocket Boys (web series)|Rocket Boys]]'', ''[[Scam 1992]]'', ''[[Maharani (web series)|Maharani]]'', ''[[Avrodh: The Siege Within]]'', ''[[Chutzpah (web series)|Chutzpah]]'', ''[[Undekhi]]'', and ''[[Tanaav]]'' are some of the popular Sony LIV original shows.
=== Genres ===
Sony LIV features content in the following key genres: comedy, crime, drama, horror and action.<ref name="faq">{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.sonyliv.com/faqs#accordion9 |website=sonyliv.com |access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>

== Interface and features ==
=== Livestreaming===
Select ongoing sports and related events to which the network or its partners have acquired rights, are also made available for livestreaming.

Sony LIV also livestreamed its own and partnered TV channels on the platform. As of August 2023, Sony LIV communicated to the subscribers that their Live TV Channels will be discontinued from Sony LIV from August 30th 2023.
===Play Along===
Option to register for and then play certain games is available in the app. This includes games such as ''QOTY'' (QUIZZER OF THE YEAR) and ''KBC'' Play Along.
===Profiles===
Up to 5 user profiles are available each with its own watchlist, play progress and watch history. Optional common PIN protection can be set for 'Adults' profiles. 'Kids' profile can be set without an option of setting any PIN.
== Availability and access ==
Sony LIV is available based on location, subscription, and device hardware & software.
===Locations supported ===
Sony LIV is available in [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[UAE]], [[Qatar]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Oman]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Maldives]], [[Bhutan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Norway]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[France]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Italy]], [[Portugal]], [[Ireland]], [[Austria]], [[Sweden]], [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Greece]], [[Poland]] and [[Canada]]. It's also available in the [[United States]] via [[Sling TV]].
===Subscriptions===
As of August 2023, multiple subscription options are available based on screen size, devices, stream quality and duration.
Apart from full featured 'LIV Premium'; a 'mobile only' subscription option is available.
=== Hardware supported ===
List of Sony LIV-ready devices:
* [[Sony]] [[Bravia (brand)|Bravia]] smart TVs and [[Sony Xperia]] smartphones
* [[Android TV]] devices
* [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]] smart TVs
* [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]] [[Amazon Fire TV|Fire TV]] and [[Fire HD]] devices
* [[Roku]] devices
* [[Apple TV]]
* [[Chromecast]] devices
=== Software supported ===
Supported web browsers by platform:
* KaiOS: Available in JioPhone, installable through JioStore.
* [[OS X]]: An Intel-based or Apple Silicone Mac with OS 10.4.8 or later. Browsers supported are [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] 4 (or higher), [[Firefox]] 5 (or higher) and [[Google Chrome]].
* [[Microsoft Windows]]: [[Windows XP]] Service Pack 2, [[Windows Vista]], [[Windows 7]] running [[Internet Explorer]] 8 (or higher), Firefox 2 (or higher) or [[Google Chrome]] 6 (or higher), and [[Windows 8.1]] through a web browser.
===Other software options===
* [[Android (operating system)|Android]] version 2.2 and above
* [[iOS (Apple)|iOS]], [[iPad]], [[iPhone]] and [[iPod Touch]]
* [[Windows Phone]]
== Viewership ==
SonyLIV has reached about 25 million views on a monthly basis on its website, app and YouTube channel.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/internet/sony-to-move-its-video-streaming-service-sony-liv-to-a-fee-based-model/48739192 |title=Sony to move its video streaming service SonyLIV to a fee-based model|access-date= 2015-08-31 |date=2015-09-11 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150903031309/http://tech.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/internet/sony-to-move-its-video-streaming-service-sony-liv-to-a-fee-based-model/48739192 |archive-date=3 September 2015}}</ref>
== Sony LIV security flaw ==
On 20 December 2019, [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]]-based security researcher Ehraz Ahmed discovered a [[Security vulnerability|security flaw]] in the Sony LIV app, that allowed to fetch sensitive user information such as profile picture, email address, date of birth, name and phone number of its registered users.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gadgets.ndtv.com/apps/news/sonyliv-api-flaw-fix-user-information-attack-app-update-2151958|title=SonyLIV Fixes Flaw That Could Allow Attackers to Fetch User Information|website=NDTV Gadgets 360|date=20 December 2019 |language=en|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Culver Max Entertainment]]
* [[List Of SonyLIV Original Programming|List of SonyLIV original programming]]
* [[ZEE5]]
* [[Crunchyroll]]
* [[Funimation]]
* [[Wakanim]]
* [[VRV (streaming service)|VRV]]
* [[Anime on Demand]]
* [[Crackle (service)|Crackle]]
* [[Hooq]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{official website}}

{{Sony}}

[[Category:Sony Pictures Entertainment]]
[[Category:Sony Pictures Television]]
[[Category:Subscription video on demand services]]
[[Category:Video on demand services]]
[[Category:Indian entertainment websites]]
[[Category:Internet television channels]]
[[Category:Sony Pictures Networks India]]
[[Category:2013 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Mass media companies established in 2013]]

List of festivals in Bihar

2023-09-17T02:13:47Z

Grandposh: Introduced a fresh page.

This is a list of Festivals and fairs celebrated in the Indian state of Bihar.

== Official festivals ==

* [[Bihar Day]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bihar Diwas 2023 : जानें क्यों मनाते हैं बिहार दिवस पीएम मोदी ने की बिहार के लोगों की मेहनत व लगन की तारीफ |url=https://www.inextlive.com/bihar-diwas-2023-see-its-history-and-origin-pm-narendra-modi-greets-people-of-bihar-1679468519 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=inextlive |language=hi}}</ref>
* Sheikhpura Diwas<ref>{{Cite web |title=जिला स्थापना दिवस रजत जयंती समारोह |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/shiekhpura-foundation-day-of-district-19447089.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>
* Kishanganj Diwas<ref>{{Cite web |title=हिमालय पर्वत का पड़ोसी 32 साल का जवान जिला किशनगंज, आज ही के दिन वजूद में आया था बिहार का 'चेरापूंजी' |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/bihar/kishanganj/bihar-kishanganj-district-foundation-day-know-the-complete-story-of-district/articleshow/96985708.cms |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref>
* Araria Diwas<ref>{{Cite web |title=धूमधाम से मनाया गया अररिया जिले का 28वां स्थापना दिवस |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/bihar/araria-28th-foundation-day-of-araria-district-celebrated-with-pomp-1233096.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref>
* Lakhisarai Diwas<ref>{{Cite web |title=तीन जुलाई को हुई थी लखीसराय की स्थापना |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/lakhisarai/story-on-july-3-the-establishment-of-lakhisarai-2607614.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Hindustan |language=hi}}</ref>
* Anga Mahotsav<ref>{{Cite web |title=अंग महोत्सव का आगाज आज, सुबह में दौड़ेगा मुंगेर |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/munger-ang-mahotsav-22558028.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>

== Hindu Festivals ==

* [[Durga Puja]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=बिहार में दुर्गा पूजा की शुरुआत की रोचक है कहानी, पटना के बंगाली अखाड़े में अनोखी परंपराएं - Shardiya Navratri 2022 story of Durga Puja in Bihar is interesting unique traditions in Bengali Akhara of Patna |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/patna-city-shardiya-navratri-2022-story-of-durga-puja-in-bihar-is-interesting-unique-traditions-in-bengali-akhara-of-patna-23101618.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Chhath]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chhath Puja 2022 in Bihar: बिहार में क्यों प्रसिद्ध है छठ पूजा का महापर्व, महाभारत से जुड़े हैं इसके तार |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/dharm/chhath-puja-2022-why-chhath-puja-important-in-bihar-mahabharat-mythology-in-hindi-4745191.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Ganesh Chaturthi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ganesh Chaturthi 2023: बिहार में यहां 12 दिन तक सजता है 'लाल बादशाह' का दरबार |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/dharm/ganesh-chaturthi-lal-badshah-is-worshiped-for-12-days-in-bihar-this-is-125-year-old-tradition-7527845.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Hanuman Jayanti]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hanuman Jayanti 2022: बिहार में हनुमान जन्‍मोत्‍सव की धूम; जानिए शुभ मुहूर्त, पूजा विधि व मंत्र - Hanuman Jayanti 2022: Hanuman Janmotsav celebrations in Bihar today; Know auspicious time, Worship method and Mantras |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/patna-city-hanuman-janmotsav-2022-hanuman-janmotsav-celebration-in-bihar-know-auspicious-time-worship-method-and-mantras-22629606.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Dussehra]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=बिहार : इस गांव में नहीं जलाया जाता रावण का पुतला, मंदिर बनाकर करते हैं पूजा |url=https://ndtv.in/india/bihar-dussehra-is-not-celebrated-in-this-village-worship-is-done-instead-of-burning-the-effigy-of-ravana-3405091 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=NDTVIndia}}</ref>
* [[Jitiya]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jivitputrika Vrat 2022: बिहार में जितिया व्रत कब है, 17 या 18 सितंबर को, यहां करें अपनी कन्फ्यूजन दूर |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/bihar/patna/jivitputrika-vrat-2022-date-shubh-muhurat-puja-vrat-paran-vidhi-katha-when-is-jitiya-vrat-in-bihar-rdy |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Saraswati Puja]]
* [[Teej]]
* [[Buddha Purnima]]
* [[Jur Sital]]
* [[Diwali]]
* [[Holi]]

== Muslim festivals ==

* [[Eid-ul-Fitr]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bihar Eid Ul Fitr 2023: बिहार में कल मनाई जाएगी ईद, राजधानी पटना में हाई अलर्ट, 48 कंपनी अतिरिक्त बल तैनात - Eid Ul Fitr 2023 will be celebrated in bihar high alert in Patna 48 company additional force deployed |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/patna-city-eid-ul-fitr-2023-will-be-celebrated-in-bihar-high-alert-in-patna-48-company-additional-force-deployed-23391919.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Eid al-Adha|Eid-ul-Zuha]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eid-Ul-Adha In Bihar& Jharkahnd: बिहार और झारखंड में बकरीब की धूम; CM नीतीश-हेमंत ने दी मुबारकबाद |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/zeesalaam/muslim-news/eid-ul-adha-bihar-and-jharkhnad-celebration-bihar-cm-nitish-kumar-congratulated-eid/1759388 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Zee News |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Eid-e Ghadeer|Eid-e-Ghadeer]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=पटना सिटी में ईद-ए-गदीर पर निकला जुलूस |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/patna/story-procession-on-eid-e-ghadir-in-patna-city-8410418.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Hindustan |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Mawlid|Eid-ul-Milad-un-Nabi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=मिलाद उन नबी पर आज निकलेगा जुलूस |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/buxar/story-procession-will-be-taken-out-on-milad-un-nabi-today-7190953.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Hindustan |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Urs-e-Makhdoom-e-Jahan]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Urs of Yehya Maneri begins |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/urs-of-yehya-maneri-begins/articleshow/21812691.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-09-15 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Cultural festivals ==

* [[Sufi Festival, Kako]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Salma Agha regales music lovers at Sufi festival in Jehanabad |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/salma-agha-regales-music-lovers-at-sufi-festival-in-jehanabad/articleshow/41898127.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-09-15 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* [[Sufi Festival, Maner]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sufi Festival 2023: मनेरशरीफ में सूफी महोत्सव 2023 का आयोजन, बॉलीवुड के सूफी गायकों ने बांधा समां |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/bihar/state/patna/sufi-festival-2023-organized-in-maner-sharif-patna/bh20230605092443310310297 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Patna Sahib Mahotsav]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=पटना साहिब महोत्सव आज से, सूरों की तान से यादगार बनेगी शाम, गायकी से पंजाबी तड़का लगायेंगे कंवर ग्रेवाल |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/bihar/patna/kanwar-grewal-going-to-perform-today-at-patna-sahib-mahotsav-axs |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Bihar Utsav]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=दिल्ली |first=निशांत चतुर्वेदी |title=दिल्ली में 16 दिनों तक चलने वाले बिहार उत्सव की शुरुआत, इस बार क्या है खास? |url=https://www.abplive.com/states/delhi-ncr/bihar-utsav-2023-started-in-delhi-haat-ina-from-16-march-to-31-march-ann-2359823 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=www.abplive.com |language=hi}}</ref>

== Film festivals ==

* [[Patna Film Festival]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Patna Film Festival: वाह, पटना में 3 दिन तक फ्री में फिल्म देखने का मौका |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/bihar/patna-three-day-film-festival-held-in-patna-5074239.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref>
* [[Bodhisattava International Film Festival]]

== Dancing festivals ==

* [[Patliputra Natya Mahotsav]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=45 theatre artists take part in Patliputra Natya Mahotsav |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/45-theatre-artists-take-part-in-patliputra-natya-mahotsav/articleshow/67822574.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-09-15 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* [[Rajgir Mahotsav]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Travel Articles {{!}} Travel Blogs {{!}} Travel News & Information {{!}} Travel Guide {{!}} India.comRajgir Mahotsav 2022: A Celebration Of Bihar's Art And Heritage To Begin Soon! All You Need To Know |url=https://www.india.com/travel/articles/rajgir-mahotsav-2022-a-celebration-of-bihars-art-and-heritage-to-begin-soon-all-you-need-to-know-5754870/ |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=www.india.com |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Festivals in Bihar]]

Rezaul Karim (lawyer)

2023-09-10T06:57:29Z

Grandposh: Just completed a fresh chapter.

{{Short description|Bengali lawyer}}
{{other people||Rezaul Karim (disambiguation)}}
{{infobox person
| name = Rezaul Karim
| native_name = রেজাউল করিম
| native_name_lang = bn
| birth_date = 1902
| birth_place = Birbhum, [[Bengal Presidency]], [[Colonial India]]<ref name="Khosa2022">{{cite web |last1=Salim |first1=Saquib |last2=Khosa |first2=Aasha |title=Rezaul Karim fought against the Partition of India |url=https://www.awazthevoice.in/culture-news/rezaul-karim-fought-against-the-partition-of-india-12875.html |publisher=Awaz The Voice |language=en |date=2022}}</ref>
| occupation = Lawyer
| nationality =
| death_date =
| death_place =
}}
'''Rezaul Karim''' (born 1902) was a [[Bengali Muslims|Bengali Muslim]] lawyer and member of the [[Indian National Congress]]. During the Indian independence movement, he was a champion of [[composite nationalism]] and a [[opposition to the partition of India|united India]].<ref name="QasmiRobb2017">{{cite book |last1=Qasmi |first1=Ali Usman |last2=Robb |first2=Megan Eaton |title=Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-108-62123-6 |page=339 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Khosa2022"/>

== Early life and education ==
Rezaul Karim was born in 1902 in [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[Colonial India]].<ref name="QasmiRobb2017"/>

Rezaul Karim received his education in the [[Aliah University|Calcutta Madrasa]] and in the [[University of Calcutta]] during the 1920s and 1930s.<ref name="QasmiRobb2017"/> He "studied law and inherited a traditional Muslim education in Arabic and Persian", having "access to Bengali literary and cultural traditions in Calcutta".<ref name="QasmiRobb2017"/>

Karim was acquainted with [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]] and [[Muzaffar Ahmad]], with whom he had contact.<ref name="QasmiRobb2017"/>

== Career ==
At the time of the [[Indian independence movement]], Rezaul Karim championed [[Hindu-Muslim unity]] and thus [[opposition to the partition of India|opposed the partition of India]].<ref name="Salim2022">{{cite web |last1=Salim |first1=Saquib |title=Muslims against the Partition of India |url=https://www.awazthevoice.in/india-news/muslims-against-the-partition-of-india-14638.html |publisher=Awaz The Voice |language=en }}</ref><ref name="Khosa2022"/> He wrote a text called ''Pakisthan Examined'' in which he stated that it is "strange to say that all those persons who have always supported British imperialism in India, have become now the advocates of the Pakistan movement. But those Muslims who always supported the freedom movement of the country are almost to a man stoutly against this movement."<ref name="Salim2022"/> As a nationalist Indian Muslim, Karim said that “our position in India is just the same as it is with the Hindus of the land. We belong to India, and we are one nation with the people of the land.” <ref name="Salim2022"/> He advocated for [[composite nationalism]], with historian Neilesh Bose of the [[University of Victoria]] stating that “Rezaul Karim developed a Bengali Muslim composite nationalism that aimed to connect religion, region and nation in the context of a subjunctive, possible future India.”<ref name="Khosa2022"/> Rezaul Karim called for Indian Muslims to support a united India and firmly rejected the [[two-nation theory]]:<ref name="Khosa2022"/>
{{quotation|I take pride in India in all her past glories and honours. Robbed in splendour and dignity let our common mother regain once more her former freedom and majesty. Let India be our motherland in the truest sense of the term. All that grew on its broad bosom is our inheritance. Its Vedas, its Upanishads, its Rama, Sita, its Ramayana, and Mahabharat, its Krishna and Gita, its Asoka and Akbar, its Kalidas and Amir Khusru, its Aurangzeb and Dara, its Rana Pratap and Sitaram—all are our own inheritance. None of them is alien to us—Muslims, — or alien to our civilization and culture. Whatever is bad in it or whatever is good in it — all belongs to me. Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Parsis, Sikhs whatever community resides in India are brothers to me. With them I form one undivided nation and with them I fall and with them I rise. My fate has been linked up inseparably with the rest of India. Therefore we the Hindus and Moslims and other communities should stand before our Mother India in love and veneration and show respect to her. Our unhappy mother is in bondage and we should liberate her and make her free, happy and contented. Let us welcome the New India that is coming—the New India that is emerging out of the debris of one hundred and fifty years of foreign domination. Let us all salute our noble Mother India—not southern India and northern India, not Hindu India and Moslim India, but India as a whole, undivided India in its entirety—India the Universal mother of all civilization, and culture. Let us not partition our Motherland India, and cut to pieces the nerve-centre of her very existence. Let her remain one and undivided, and a single whole, so that we may call her children our own brothers, the bone of our bone and flesh of our flesh. And there lies our salvation.<ref name="Khosa2022"/>}}

== Works ==
*''Naya Bharater Bhitti'' [Foundations for a New India] (1935)<ref name="QasmiRobb2017"/>
*''For India and Islam'' (1937)<ref name="QasmiRobb2017"/>
*''Pakisthan Examined with the Partition Schemes'' (1941)<ref name="More2008">{{cite book |last1=More |first1=J. B. Prashant |title=Partition of India: Players and Partners |page=422 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sm4MAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Rezaul+Karim%22+Pakisthan+Examined+born&dq=%22Rezaul+Karim%22+Pakisthan+Examined+born&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjPorWn3paBAxVahIkEHecTD_AQ6AF6BAgKEAI |language=English}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rezaul, Karim}}
[[Category:1902 births]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslims]]

[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century Bengalis]]
[[Category:People from Birbhum district]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from Bengal]]

Kudumbasametham

2023-07-20T06:44:13Z

Grandposh: Created a captivating write-up.

{{more citations needed}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kudumbasametham
| image =
| caption =
| director =[[Jayaraj]]
| producer = Mumthaz Basheer
| writer =
| screenplay =[[Kaloor Dennis]]
| story = Ilanjimuttam Rajasekharan Nair
| starring =[[Manoj K. Jayan]] [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] [[Monisha]]
| music = [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]]
| cinematography = [[S. Kumar]]
| editing = [[B. Lenin]] [[V. T. Vijayan]]
| studio = Simple Productions
| distributor = Simple Release
| released = 1992
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Malayalam Language|Malayalam]]
}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Kudumbasametham''}}
'''''Kudumbasametham''''' is a 1992 [[Malayalam]] film written by [[Kaloor Dennis]] and directed by [[Jayaraj]]. The film was produced by Mumthaz Basheer under the banner of Simple Productions. It stars [[Manoj K. Jayan]], [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]], [[Monisha]] and [[Kaviyoor Ponnamma]] in the lead roles. This film won the 1992 [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Screenplay]]

==Cast==
*[[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] as Raghavan Kurup
*[[Manoj K. Jayan]] as Sivashankaran Kurup
*[[Monisha]] as Thulasi
*[[Kaviyoor Ponnamma]] as Kochukutty
*[[Narendra Prasad]] as Adv. Mahendran Kurup
*[[Srividya]] as Radhalakshmi
*[[Babu Namboothiri]] as Prabhakaran Kurup
*[[Maniyanpilla Raju]] as Sreedharan Kurup
*[[V. K. Sreeraman]] as Divakaran Kurup

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Kudumbasametham<ref>{{cite web | url=http://msidb.org/m.php?4053 | title=Kudumbasametham (1992)- MalayalaSangeethamInfo | publisher=msidb.org | access-date=2013-06-27}}</ref>
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Johnson (composer)|Johnson]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1992
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = [[Tharangini Music]]
| producer = Simple Productions
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

All the songs in the movie were well received. The music was composed by [[Johnson]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Track !! Song Title !! Singer(s) !! Lyrics !! [[Raga]]
|-
| 1 || "Entharomahanu" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] || Traditional (Thyaharajan) || Sree Ragam
|-
| 2 || "Gokulamthannil" || [[P. Madhuri]] || [[Kaithapram]] ||
|-
| 3 || "Jagadananda" || Neyveli Santhanagopalan, [[Bombay Jayashree]], Sreemathi Soundaram Krishnan, Sreemathi Bindra|| Traditional (Thyagarajan) || Naata
|-
| 4 || "Kamalambhike" || [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[Bombay Jayashree]] || [[Kaithapram]] || Keeravani
|-
| 5 || "Ne Nendhu" || Madhurai G. S. Mani|| Traditional (Thyagarajan) || Karnataka Bihag
|-
| 6 || "Neelaravil" || [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[Minmini]] || [[Kaithapram]] || Sree Ragam
|-
| 7 || "Paahimam" || [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[Bombay Jayashree]] || Traditional (Maha Vaidyanathaiyer) || Jana Ranjini
|-
| 8 || "Oonjalirangi" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] || [[Kaithapram]] || Ragamalika
|-
| 9 || "Oonjalurangi - Female" || [[Minmini]] || [[Kaithapram]] || Ragamalika
|-
| 10 || "Parthasarathim" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] || [[Kaithapram]] || Chakravaakam
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|0353643}}

[[Category:1990s Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1992 films]]

{{1990s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Rashidun Caliphate

2022-11-16T02:05:53Z

Grandposh: Article generated.

{{Short description|First Islamic Caliphate (632–661 CE)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Rashidun Caliphate
| common_name = Rashidun
| government_type = [[Caliphate]]
| event_start = [[Succession to Muhammad]]
| year_start = 632
| event1 = [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Conquest of Persia]]
| date_event1 = 633–654
| event2 = Ascension of Umar
| date_event2 = 634
| event3 = [[Umar#Assassination|Assassination of Umar]] and Ascension of Uthman
| date_event3 = 644
| event4 = [[Siege of Uthman|Assassination of Uthman]] and Ascension of Ali
| date_event4 = 656
| event5 = [[Assassination of Ali]]
| date_event5 = 661
| event_end = [[First Fitna]] (internal conflict) ends after Hasan's abdication
| year_end = 661
| p1 = Muhammad in Medina{{!}}Islamic Medina
| p2 = Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty{{!}}Byzantine Empire
| p3 = Sasanian Empire
| p4 = Ghassanids
| s1 = Umayyad Caliphate
| image_map = Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG
| image_map_caption = The Rashidun Caliphate reached its greatest extent under Caliph [[Uthman]] in {{circa|654}}
| title_leader = [[Caliph]]
| leader1 = [[Abu Bakr]] (first)
| year_leader1 = 632–634
| leader2 = [[Umar]]
| year_leader2 = 634–644
| leader3 = [[Uthman]]
| year_leader3 = 644–656
| leader4 = [[Ali]] (last)
| year_leader4 = 656–661
| capital = [[Medina]] (632–656) [[Kufa]] (656–661)
| common_languages = [[Classical Arabic]] (official);<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fischer |first=Wolfdietrich |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-04-14473-6 |editor-last=Versteegh |editor-first=Kees |language=en |chapter=Classical Arabic |editor-last2=Eid |editor-first2=Mushira |editor-last3=Elgibali |editor-first3=Alaa |editor-last4=Woidich |editor-first4=Manfred |editor-last5=Zaborski |editor-first5=Andrzej}}</ref>
 various regional languages<ref>{{Cite book |last=Versteegh |first=Kees |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RiarBgAAQBAJ |title=The Arabic Language |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7486-4529-9 |pages=126–132 |language=en}}</ref>
| religion = [[Islam]]
| currency = {{plainlist|
*[[Dirham]] (Silver coin)
*[[Fals]] (Copper coin)
*[[Gold dinar|Dinar]] (Gold coin)}}
| stat_year1 = 655
| ref_area1 = <ref>{{cite journal|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=495|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|author-link=Rein Taagepera|jstor=2600793|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807}}</ref>
| stat_area1 = 6400000
| footnotes =
}}
{{Caliphate}}
The '''Rashidun Caliphate''' ({{lang-ar|اَلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ|al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah}}; 632 {{Endash}} 661) was the first [[caliphate]] to succeed the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE (11 [[Hijri year|AH]]). During its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in [[Western Asia|West Asia]].

The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s passing in June 632 and the subsequent debate over the [[Succession to Muhammad|succession to his leadership]]. Muhammad's close companion [[Abu Bakr]] ({{Reign|632|634}}), of the [[Banu Taym]] clan, was elected the first caliph in [[Medina]] and he began the [[Early Muslim conquests|conquest of the Arabian Peninsula]]. His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by [[Umar]] ({{Reign|634|644}}), his appointed successor from the [[Banu Adi]] clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and nearly the entire [[Sasanian Empire]]. Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by [[Uthman]] ({{Reign|644|656}}), a member of the [[Umayyad dynasty|Banu Umayya]] clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. Uthman's nepotistic policies earned him vehement opposition from some Muslim generals and he was eventually assassinated by rebels in June 656.

He was subsequently succeeded by [[Ali]] ({{Reign|656|661}}), a member of Muhammad's [[Banu Hashim]] clan, who transferred the capital to [[Kufa]]. Ali presided over the civil war called the [[First Fitna]] as his [[suzerainty]] was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor [[Mu'awiya I]] ({{Reign|661|680}}), who believed that Uthman was unlawfully killed and his murderers should be punished. Additionally, a third faction known as [[Kharijites]], who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the [[Battle of Siffin]]. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imam]] after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad.<ref name="Triana 159">{{Cite book |last=Triana |first=María |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 |title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781317423683 |pages=159 |language=en}}</ref>

The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a twenty-five-year period of rapid [[Early Muslim conquests|military expansion]] followed by a five-year period of [[First Fitna|internal strife]]. The [[Rashidun Army]] numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the [[Arabian Peninsula]], the caliphate had subjugated the [[Levant]] to the [[Transcaucasus]] in the north; [[North Africa]] from [[Egypt]] to present-day [[Tunisia]] in the west; and the [[Iranian Plateau]] to parts of [[Central Asia]] and [[South Asia]] in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the [[Quraysh]] tribal confederation called {{transliteration|ar|[[shura|shūrā]]}} ({{lang-ar|شُـوْرَى}}, {{lit|consultation}}).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Bosworth|first1=C.E.|author1-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|last2=Marín|first2=Manuela|last3=Ayalon|first3=A.|title=Shūrā|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1063}}</ref>

[[File:Rashidun coin Pseudo-Byzantine types.jpg|thumb|250px|Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. (Byzantine imitation circa 647–670). With Byzantine figure (Constans II holding the Crusader scepter and globe)]]

==Origin==
[[File:Rashidun Caliphate (greatest extent).svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Rashidun Caliphate at greatest extent ([[orthographic projection]])]]

After [[Muhammad]]'s death in 632 CE, his [[Medina]]n [[Ansar (Islam)|companions]] debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the [[Muslim]]s while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. [[Umar]] and [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]] pledged their loyalty to [[Abu Bakr]], with the Ansar and the [[Quraysh]] soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of ''Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh'' ({{lang|ar|خَـلِـيْـفَـةُ رَسُـوْلِ اللهِ}}, "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph.{{Sfn|McHugo|2017|p=93}} Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon [[Meritocracy|merit]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Azyumardi Azra|title=Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context|publisher=[[Equinox Publishing (London)]]|isbn=9789799988812|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=C. T. R. Hewer|author2=Allan Anderson|title=Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=9780334040323|page=37|edition=illustrated}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Anheier|editor1-first=Helmut K.|editor2-last=Juergensmeyer|editor2-first=Mark|title=Encyclopedia of Global Studies|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=9781412994224|page=151}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Claire Alkouatli|title=Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000alko|url-access=registration|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=9780761421207|page=[https://archive.org/details/islam0000alko/page/44 44]|edition=illustrated, annotated}}</ref>

Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam,<ref>Catharina Raudvere, ''Islam: An Introduction'' (I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54.</ref> were among [[Hadith of the ten promised paradise|ten who were explicitly promised paradise]], were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community. These caliphs are collectively known in [[Sunni Islam]] as the ''[[Rashidun]]'', or "Rightly Guided" caliphs ({{lang|ar|اَلْخُلَفَاءُ ٱلرَّاشِدُونَ}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn}}''). According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous<ref>{{cite book|author1=Asma Afsaruddin|title=The first Muslims: history and memory|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781851684977|url-access=registration|publisher=Oneworld|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781851684977/page/55 55]}}</ref> [[hadith]] of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years<ref>{{cite book|author1=Safia Amir|title=Muslim Nationhood in India: Perceptions of Seven Eminent Thinkers|publisher=Kanishka Publishers, Distributors|isbn=9788173913358|page=173}}</ref> (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate was a hereditary monarchy).<ref>{{cite book|author1=Heather N. Keaney|title=Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion|publisher=Routledge|location=Sira: Companion- versus Caliph-Oriented History|isbn=9781134081066|quote=He also foretold that there would be a caliphate for thirty years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) that would be followed by kingship.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|author2=Johannes Hendrik Kramers|author3=Bernard Lewis|author4=Charles Pellat|author5=Joseph Schacht|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam|journal=The Encyclopaedia of Islam|volume=3 (Parts 57–58)|page=1164|publisher=Brill}}</ref> Furthermore, according to other hadiths in [[Sunan Abu Dawood]] and [[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Aqidah.Com|title=The Khilaafah Lasted for 30 Years Then There Was Kingship Which Allaah Gives To Whomever He Pleases|url=http://www.aqidah.com/creed/articles/kyvik-the-khilaafah-lasted-for-30-years-then-there-was-kingship.cfm|website=Aqidah.Com|publisher=Aqidah.Com|access-date=16 August 2014}}</ref> However, this term is not used in [[Shia Islam]], as most Shia Muslims do not consider the rule of the first three caliphs legitimate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sowerwine |first=James E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9A2X9fB6NOEC&pg=PA5 |title=Caliph and Caliphate: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199806003 |pages=5 |language=en}}</ref> On the other hand, the [[Zaydism|Zaydi Shia Muslims]] believe the first three caliphs to be legitimate leaders.{{Sfn|Rane|2010|p=83}}

==History==

=== Abu Bakr's reign (632–634) ===
{{main|Succession to Muhammad|Saqifah}}

==== Accession to Caliphate ====
After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] ({{literally|Helpers}}), the natives of Medina, took place in the ''Saqifah'' (courtyard) of the [[Banu Sa'ida]] clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the [[Ummah|Muslim community]] among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the [[Muhajirun]] (migrants from [[Mecca]]), though this has later become the subject of debate.<ref>{{harvnb|Madelung|1997}}, p. [https://archive.org/details/TheSuccessionToMuhammadByWilferdMadelung/page/n50 31].</ref>

Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the [[Quraysh]], would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]], by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men.<ref name=MandelungP32>{{harvtxt|Madelung|1997|page=32}}</ref>

Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], initially refused to acknowledge his authority.<ref name="FitzpatrickWalkerP3">Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2014), p. 3 [https://books.google.com/books?id=2AtvBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186]</ref> Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad.<ref>Valerie J. Hoffman, ''The Essentials of Ibadi Islam'' (2012), p. 6</ref> The theologian [[Ibrahim al-Nakha'i]] stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely.<ref>{{harvtxt|Madelung|1997|pages=32–33}}</ref> Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance, resulting in [[Attack on Fatima's house|an altercation]] which may have involved violence.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|page=186}}</ref> However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fitzpatrick|Walker|2014|page=4}}</ref>

[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|left|[[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquests]] 622–750:
{{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632}}
{{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661}}
{{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}
]]

==== Conquest of Arabia ====
Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Apostasy spread to every tribe in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] with the exception of the people in [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]], the [[Banu Thaqif]] in [[Ta'if]] and the Bani Abdul Qais of [[Oman]]. In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld [[zakat]], the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of [[apostasy]] was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet [[Aswad Ansi]] arose and invaded [[South Arabia]];<ref>Balazuri: p. 113.</ref> he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim.<ref>Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 467.</ref> The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of [[al-Yamama]] was led by another supposed prophet, [[Musaylimah]],<ref name="Parolin52">Gianluca Paolo Parolin, ''Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state'' (Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 52.</ref> who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the [[Najd]], [[Eastern Arabia]] (known then as ''al-Bahrayn'') and [[South Arabia]] (known as ''al-Yaman'' and including the ''Mahra''). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended.<ref name="Parolin52" /> Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ''[[ummah]]'' ({{lang|ar|أُمَّـة}}, community) of which he was the new head.<ref name="Parolin52" /> The result of this situation was the [[Ridda wars]].<ref name="Parolin52" />
[[File:Tombstone of Umar (r.a) by mohammad adil rais.JPG|thumb|right|Tombstone of caliphs: Abu Bakr and Umar (right), Medina, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]]

Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]]. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle [[Malik ibn Nuwayrah]] and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the [[Battle of Yamama]].<ref>Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518</ref> The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina. {{citation needed}}

==== Expeditions to Persia and Syria ====
After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Sasanian Empire]]. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]]. Abu Bakr began with [[Iraq]], the richest province of the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref name="Zarrinkub5-6">''The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath'', 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub, '''The Cambridge History of Iran''', Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5–6.</ref> He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633.<ref name="Zarrinkub5-6" /> He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]],<ref>''Battle of Yarmouk River'', Spencer Tucker, ''Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict'' (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92.</ref> but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634.<ref>''Khalid ibn Walid'', Timothy May, ''Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia'', Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458.</ref>

=== Umar's reign (634–644) ===
Before dying in August 634 from an illness, Abu Bakr appointed [[Umar]] ({{Reign|634|644}}) as his successor. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title {{Transliteration|ar|[[Amir al-Mu'minin|amir al-mu'minin]]}}, which later became the standard title of caliphs.{{Sfn|Madelung|1997|p=49}} The new caliph continued the [[Early Muslim conquests|war of conquests]] begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Sassanian Empire]], north into [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Byzantine]] territory, and went into [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]]. These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but the long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643.

While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the [[Divan|Diwan]], a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor (''[[Emir|amir]]'') and a financial officer called an ''amil''. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire.

With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the [[Sahaba|companions of Muhammad]] were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; it is lunar-like the Arabian calendar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra when Muhammad emigrated to [[Medina]].

While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]].<ref name="عصام محمد شبارو 1995">{{cite book |last=شبارو |first=عصام محمد |version=3 |title=First Islamic Arab State (1–41 AH/ 623–661 CE) |year=1995 |publisher=Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon |page=370}}</ref>{{sfn|Madelung|1997}}{{page needed}} He appointed [[Suhayb|Suhayb ibn Sinan]] to lead the prayers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=El-Hibri |first=Tayeb |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ouwL4dGrTN8C&dq=umar+suhayb&pg=PA319 |title=Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-52165-9 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Uthman's reign (644–656) ===

==== Election of Uthman ====
{{Main|Election of Uthman}}

Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.

The committee narrowed down the choices to two: [[Uthman]] and [[Ali]]. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraish tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the [[Umayyad]] clan of the Quraish. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.

Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the [[Rashidun]]s, while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph.

Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The [[Rashidun army]] conquered [[North Africa]] from the [[Byzantine]]s and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], as well as the islands of [[Rhodes]] and [[Cyprus]].{{Citation needed}} Also, coastal [[Sicily]] was raided in 652.<ref>{{citation | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan |editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan | title = Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | page = 1892| title-link = Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium }}</ref> The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the [[Indus|lower Indus River]].<ref name="middle east">{{cite book |last1=Ochsenweld |first1=William |title=The Middle East: A History |last2=Fisher |first2=Sydney Nettleton |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-244233-5 |edition=6th |location=New York |author-link2=Sydney Nettleton Fisher}}</ref>

Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an.

==== Siege of Uthman ====
{{Main|Siege of Uthman}}
After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution.{{Citation needed}} After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house and killed him while he was reading the [[Qur'an]].<ref name="عصام محمد شبارو 1995"/>{{sfn|Madelung|1997}}{{page needed}} It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him.{{Citation needed}} In June 656, a group of rebels climbed from the back of Uthman's house and murdered the caliph.{{Sfn|Hinds|1972|p=457}}

=== Ali's reign (656–661) ===

==== Crisis and fragmentation ====
{{Main|First Fitna}}
[[File:Muhammad's widow, Aisha, battling the fourth caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel.jpg|thumb|Muhammad's widow, [[Aisha]], battling the fourth caliph [[Ali]] in the [[Battle of the Camel]] (16th-century miniature from a copy of the ''[[Siyer-i Nebi]]'')]]

Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin [[Ali]] ({{Reign|656|661}}) was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of [[Medina]].{{sfn|Donner|2010|pp=157–159}} He transferred the capital to [[Kufa]], a garrison city in Iraq.{{Sfn|Netton|2013|p=358}} Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as [[Malik al-Ashtar]] and [[Salman the Persian]].

Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by [[Zubayr ibn al-Awam|Zubayr]], [[Talha]] and the widow of Muhammad, [[Aisha]], set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached Basra and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met the rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies. It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the [[Battle of the Camel]]. Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son [[Hasan ibn Ali]] to escort Aisha back to Medina.

Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiya]], a kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the [[Battle of Siffin]], and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter, [['Amr ibn al-'As]], pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the [[Battle of Nahrawan]] against the rebellious [[Kharijites]], a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as [[Sicily]], [[North Africa]], the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in [[Anatolia]]—were also lost to outside empires.
[[File:Balami - Tarikhnama - Battle of Siffin (cropped).jpg|thumb|Illustration of the [[Battle of Siffin]], from a 14th-century manuscript of the ''[[Tarikh-i Bal'ami]]'']]

In 661, Ali was assassinated by [[Ibn Muljam]] as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As.

Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, briefly assumed the caliphate and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world choose the next leader (this treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor). Hasan was assassinated,<ref>* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Wilferd |last=Madelung |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |title=ḤASAN B. ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |year=2003 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation]] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117041057/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali |archive-date=17 November 2013}}</ref> and Mu'awiya founded the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate.<ref name="عصام محمد شبارو 1995"/>{{sfn|Madelung|1997}}{{page needed}}

===Military expansion===
The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]], parts of [[Anatolia]], and most of the [[Sasanian Empire]].

Unlike the Sasanian [[Persians]], the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost [[Egypt]] to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the [[Byzantine Empire]] to recover.

====Conquest of the Sasanian Empire====
{{Further|Muslim conquest of Persia}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Khalid's conquest of Iraq.PNG|thumb|upright=1.15|Map detailing the route of [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]]'s conquest of [[Iraq (region)|Iraq]]]]
[[File:Islamic coin, Time of the Rashidun. Khosrau type. AH 31-41 AD 651-661.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Imitation of [[Sasanid Empire]] ruler [[Khosrau II]] type. BYS ([[Bishapur]]) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating [[Khosrau II]] right; [[Basmala|bismillah]] in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.]]

The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer [[Mesopotamia]] after the [[Ridda wars]]. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the [[Battle of Chains]], fought in April 633; the [[Battle of River]], fought in the third week of April 633; the [[Battle of Walaja]], fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a [[pincer movement]]), and the [[Battle of Ullais]], fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the [[Battle of Hira]].

After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards [[Anbar (town)|Anbar]], which resisted and [[Battle of Al-Anbar|was defeated]], and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and [[Battle of ein-ul-tamr|conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr]] in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Daumat-ul-jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general, [[Iyad ibn Ghanm]], was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated the rebels in the [[Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal]] in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and [[Christians|Christian]] Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh.

In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the [[Battle of Muzieh]], then the [[Battle of Sanni]], and finally the [[Battle of Zumail]]. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the [[Military of the Sasanian Empire|Sasanian Persians]], [[Byzantine army|Byzantines]] and Christian Arabs in the [[Battle of Firaz]]. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq.<ref>{{cite book|author=A. I. Alkram|title=Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns|publisher=The Sword of Allah|page=1|chapter=Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains – Chapter 26: The Last Opposition}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter19page1.htm|title=Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020126033021/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter19page1.htm|archive-date=Jan 26, 2002}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter20page1.htm|title=Chapter 20: The Battle of the River|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020306075434/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter20page1.htm|archive-date=2002-03-06|access-date=2007-08-21|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter21page1.htm|title=Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020306075749/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter21page1.htm|archive-date=2002-03-06|access-date=2007-08-21|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter22page1.htm|title=Chapter 22: The River of Blood|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020822060455/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter22page1.htm|archive-date=2002-08-22|access-date=2007-08-21|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter23page1.htm|title=Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020306122542/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter23page1.htm|archive-date=2002-03-06|access-date=2007-08-21|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter24page1.htm|title=Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020306122409/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter24page1.htm|archive-date=2002-03-06|access-date=2007-08-21|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter25page1.htm|title=Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020306122404/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter25page1.htm|archive-date=2002-03-06|access-date=2007-08-21|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter26page1.htm|title=Chapter 26: The Last Opposition|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020306122853/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter26page1.htm|archive-date=2002-03-06|access-date=2007-08-21|url-status=dead}}
</ref>

Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain [[Mesopotamia]], while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the [[Arabian desert]] to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of [[Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi]]. This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at the [[Battle of the Bridge]] in which Abu Ubaid was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the [[Levant]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of [[Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas|Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās]] against the Persian army. The [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general [[Rostam Farrokhzād]] was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men.

Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of [[Ctesiphon]] (also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a [[Siege of Ctesiphon (637)|brief siege]]. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counter-attack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at [[Qasr-e Shirin]], and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of [[Khuzestan]]. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the [[Zagros mountains]] and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the [[Battle of Nihawānd]], some forty miles south of [[Hamadan]] in modern [[Iran]]. The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]], shattering the last strongest Sasanian army.

[[Yazdegerd III|Yazdegerd]] was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the [[Persian Empire]]. The entirety of present-day [[Iran]] was conquered, followed by [[Greater Khorasan]] (which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern [[Afghanistan]]), [[Transoxania]], [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] and [[Makran]] (part of modern-day Pakistan), [[Azerbaijan]], [[Dagestan]] (Russia), [[Armenia]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the [[Indus|lower river Indus]] and north to the [[Amu Darya|Oxus River]].

====Wars against the Byzantine Empire====
=====Conquest of Byzantine Syria=====
{{Further|Muslim conquest of the Levant}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslims Invasion of Syria.PNG|thumb|upright=0.9|Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the [[Levant]]]]

After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders: [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] (acting as their supreme commander), [[Amr ibn al-As]], [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]] and [[Shurhabil ibn Hasana]]. However, their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack [[Ctesiphon]], to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through [[Mesopotamia]] and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the [[Syrian Desert]], and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria.

The border forts of [[Sawa, Syria|Sawa]], [[Arak, Syria|Arak]], [[Tadmur]], [[Al-Sukhnah, Syria|Sukhnah]], [[al-Qaryatayn]] and [[Hawarin]] were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to [[Bosra]] via the [[Damascus]] road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after a brief siege in July 634 ('''see''' [[Battle of Bosra]]), effectively ending the dynasty of the [[Ghassanids]].
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslim invasion of Syria-2.PNG|thumb|upright=0.9|Map detailing the route of [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]]'s invasion of [[Syria (region)|Syria]]]]

From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000)<ref>D. Nicolle, ''Yarmuk 636 AD – The Muslim Conquest of Syria'', p. 43: gives 9,000–10,000</ref> was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the [[Battle of Ajnadayn]]. It was the first major [[pitched battle]] between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria. [[Damascus]], the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed, the Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the [[battle of Maraj-al-Debaj]].{{Citation needed}}
[[File:Al aqsa moschee.jpg|thumb|Al-[[Qibli Mosque|Jami'a Al-Aqsa]] in Al-[[Haram Ash-Sharif]], [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] of [[Jerusalem]], [[Ash-Sham]], 1982]]
[[File:Tile panel from Damascus, c. 1600, Boston Museum of Fine Arts.jpg|thumb|Syrian tile panel (c. 1600) with the names of the four Rashidun Caliphs]]

On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter31page1.htm|title=Chapter 31: The Unkind Cut|work=The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns|author=A.I. Akram|page=1|access-date=16 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030105071312/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter31page1.htm|archive-date=January 5, 2003}}</ref>
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslim invasion of Syria-3.PNG|thumb|upright=0.9|Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of central Syria]]

The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the [[Battle of Fahl]] on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards [[Emesa]]; Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine.<ref name=autogenerated1 />
While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, [[Heraclius|Emperor Heraclius]] sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategic town of [[Chalcis]] made peace with the Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid [[Siege of Emesa|siege to it]] and eventually captured the city in March 636.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter32page1.htm|title=Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl|work=Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns|publisher=The Sword of Allah|page=1|access-date=16 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030110034004/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter32page1.htm|archive-date=January 10, 2003}}</ref>
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslim invasion of Syria-4.PNG|thumb|upright=0.9|Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of northern Syria]]

The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle.

Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter34page1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070402221553/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter34page1.htm |archive-date=April 2, 2007 |website = Khalid bin Al-Waleed|title = The Eve of Yarmuk}}</ref> Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter33page1.htm|website = Khalid bin Al-Waleed|title = The Conquest of Emessa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306021010/http://www.swordofallah.com/html/bookchapter33page1.htm |archive-date=March 6, 2007 }}</ref> Khalid's [[mobile guard]] defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a [[skirmish]].

Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests, settling on [[Jerusalem]]. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar.

Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and [[Siege of Jerusalem (637)|Jerusalem surrendered]] in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.

Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Hazir]] and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against [[Aleppo]], with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the [[Siege of Aleppo (637)|Battle of Aleppo]] the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.

=====Occupation of Anatolia=====
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-Invasion of Anatolia and Armenia.PNG|thumb|upright=1.1|Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn al-Walid's invasion of [[Eastern Anatolia]] and [[Armenia]]]]

Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards [[Anatolia]] taking the fort of [[Azaz]] to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the [[Battle of the Iron Bridge]]. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and [[Antioch]] surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of [[Upper Mesopotamia|Jazira]], most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, [[Edessa]] and the area up to the [[Ararat plain]]. Other columns were sent to [[Anatolia]] as far west as the [[Taurus Mountains]], the important city of [[Marash]], and [[Malatya]], which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many [[Fortification|forts]] in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647 [[Muawiyah I|Muawiyah]], the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading [[Cappadocia]] and sacking [[Caesarea Mazaca]]. In 648 the Rashidun army raided [[Phrygia]]. A major offensive into [[Cilicia]] and [[Isauria]] in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor [[Constans II]] to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah.
The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of [[Armenia]]. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack [[Constantinople]], but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656.

The [[Taurus Mountains]] in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign.

=====Conquest of Egypt=====
{{Further|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}
[[File:Mohammad adil-Muslim conquest of Egypt.PNG|thumb|upright=1.15|Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of Egypt]]
[[File:A side view of the front gate of Al Azhar mosque..jpg|thumb|upright|[[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], 2013]]

In 639, Egypt was a prefecture of the Byzantine Empire. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]] (616 to 629 [[Common Era|CE]]). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. In 639 some 4000 Rashidun troops led by [[Amr ibn al-As]] were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient [[pharaoh]]s. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the [[Nile Delta]]. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. However, the Muslims sent for reinforcements, and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Heliopolis]]. Amr next proceeded in the direction of [[Alexandria]], which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The [[Thebaid]] seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.

The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of [[Cyrus of Alexandria|Cyrus]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324042607/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm|url-status=dead|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Cyrus of Alexandria|archive-date=March 24, 2011|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> prefect of Egypt and [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Patriarch of Alexandria]], and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Christians]]. He was one of the authors of [[monothelism]], a seventh-century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam.

In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by [[Constans II (Byzantine Empire)|Constans II]] was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these, some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupation troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109164225/http://tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm|url-status=dead|title=John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation|archive-date=January 9, 2011|website=www.tertullian.org}}</ref> During the reign of [[Ali|Caliph Ali]], Egypt was captured by rebel troops under the command of former Rashidun army general [[Amr ibn al-As]], who killed [[Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr]], the governor of Egypt appointed by [[Ali]].

=====Conquest of the Maghreb=====
[[File:Sbeitla capitole.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|The Roman ruins of [[Sbeitla]] (Sufetula)]]

After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the [[Exarchate of Africa]] declared its independence. Under its exarch, [[Gregory the Patrician]], its dominions extended from the borders of Egypt to [[Morocco]]. [[Abdullah ibn Sa'ad]] sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate.

Uthman gave him permission after considering it in the Majlis al-Shura. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in [[Barqa]] in [[Cyrenaica]], and from there they marched west, captured [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], and then advanced to [[Sbeitla|Sufetula]], Gregory's capital. In the [[Battle of Sufetula (647)|ensuing battle]], the Exarchate was defeated and Gregory was killed due to the superior tactics of [[Abdullah ibn Zubayr]]. Afterward, the people of [[North Africa]] sued for peace, agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing [[North Africa]], the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a [[vassal state]]. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the [[First Fitna]], the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdrew from north Africa to Egypt. The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] would later re-invade North Africa in 664.

===== Campaign against Nubia (Sudan) =====
[[File:Khartoum Mosque.jpg|thumb|The Grand Mosque of [[Khartoum]], Sudan, 2013]]

A campaign was undertaken against [[Nubia]] during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the [[Kingdom of Makuria|Makurians]] won the [[First Battle of Dongola]]. The Muslim army pulled out of Nubia with nothing to show for it. Ten years later, Uthman's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of [[Dongola]]. The Muslims damaged the [[cathedral]] in the center of the city, but Makuria also won this [[Second Battle of Dongola|battle]]. As the Muslims were unable to overpower Makuria, they negotiated a mutual non-aggression treaty with their king, Qaladurut. Each side also agreed to afford free passage to each other through their respective territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses, and textiles to Nubia according to demand.

=====Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea=====
{{Further|History of Islam in southern Italy}}
During Umar's reign, the governor of Syria, [[Muawiyah I]], sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk to the soldiers. Once Uthman became caliph, however, he approved Muawiyah's request. In 650, Muawiyah attacked [[Cyprus]], conquering the capital, [[Salamis, Cyprus|Constantia]], after a brief siege, but signed a treaty with the local rulers. During this expedition, a relative of Muhammad, Umm-Haram, fell from her mule near the [[Larnaca Salt Lake|Salt Lake]] at [[Larnaca]] and was killed. She was buried in that same spot, which became a holy site for many local Muslims and Christians and, in 1816, the [[Hala Sultan Tekke]] was built there by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence.<ref>Nadvi (2000), p. 522{{full citation needed}}</ref> After leaving Cyprus, the Muslim fleet headed towards [[Crete]] and then [[Rhodes]] and conquered them without much resistance. From 652 to 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against [[Sicily]] and captured a large part of the island. Soon after this, Uthman was murdered, ending his expansionist policy, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor [[Constans II (Byzantine Empire)|Constans II]] led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at [[Finike|Phoinike]] (off [[Lycia]]) but it was defeated: both sides suffered heavy losses in the [[Battle of the Masts|battle]], and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death.

====Treatment of conquered peoples====
{{See also|Dhimmi}}
[[File:Rashidun coin Pseudo-Byzantine types.jpg|thumb|Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Pseudo-Byzantine types. Struck circa 647–670. Imperial Byzantine figure ([[Constans II]]) standing facing, holding cross-tipped staff and globus cruciger.]]

The non-Muslim monotheists—Jews, [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], and Christians—in conquered lands were called ''dhimmis'' (the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner to other Muslims and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law.

''Dhimmis'' were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Bernard|title=The Jews of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0EbKFRxrT4C|year=1984|publisher= Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00807-3 |pages= 10, 20}}</ref> ''Dhimmis'' were also required to pay the ''[[jizya]]''.<ref name="Cahen">Cl. Cahen in [[Encyclopedia of Islam]] – Jizya</ref>

The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the ''dhimmis'', which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims, ''dhimmis'' were given important positions in the government.

==Political administration==
[[File:Outsideofmasjedolnabi6.JPG|thumb|[[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]] at [[Medina]]h, the empire's first capital, in the [[Hijaz]], [[Arabian Peninsula]] (present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]), 2008]]
[[File:Kufa Mosque (4).jpg|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Kufa]], the empire's second capital, in [[Iraq]], 2016]]

The basic administrative system of the Dar al-Islamiyyah (The House of Islam) was laid down in the days of Muhammad. Caliph Abu Bakr stated in his sermon when he was elected: "If I order any thing that would go against the order of Allah and his Messenger; then do not obey me". This is considered to be the foundation stone of the Caliphate.
Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: "O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong", and at that instance, a Muslim man stood up and said, "O Amir al-Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers) if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you!". Hearing this Caliph Umar said "Alhamdulillah (Praise be to Allah) I have such followers."{{Citation needed}}

===Districts or provinces===
Under Abu Bakr, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.

Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of [[province]]s which were as follows:
# [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] was divided into two provinces, [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].
# [[Iraq]] was divided into two provinces, [[Basra]] and [[Kufa]].
# [[Al-Jazira (caliphal province)|Jazira]] was divided into two provinces, the [[Tigris]] and the [[Euphrates]].
# [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]] was a province.
# [[Jund Filastin|Palestine]] was divided in two provinces: Aylya and [[Ramla]]h.
# [[Egypt]] was divided into two provinces: [[Upper Egypt]] and [[Lower Egypt]].
# [[Iran|Persia]] was divided into three provinces: [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Fars Province|Fars]].

In his [[Will (law)|testament]] Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising [[North Africa]]. He also consolidated Syria, previously divided into two provinces, into one.{{citation needed}}

During Uthman's reign the caliphate was divided into twelve provinces. These were:
# [[Medina]]
# [[Mecca]]
# [[Yemen]]
# [[Kufa]]
# [[Basra]]
# [[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
# [[Fars Province|Fars]]
# [[Azerbaijan]]
# [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]
# [[Syria (region)|Syria]]
# [[Egypt]]
# [[Maghreb]]

During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under [[Muawiyah I]]'s control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of [['Amr ibn al-'As|Amr ibn Al-A'as]]), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organization.

The provinces were further divided into [[district]]s. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a [[governor]] (''[[Wāli]]''). Other officers at the provincial level were:
# ''Katib'', the Chief [[Secretary]].
# ''Katib-ud-Diwan'', the [[Military]] [[Secretary]].
# ''Sahib-ul-Kharaj'', the [[Revenue]] Collector.
# ''Sahib-ul-Ahdath'', the [[Police chief]].
# ''Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal'', the [[Treasury]] Officer.
# ''Qadi'', the [[Chief Judge]].

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the [[commander-in-chief]] of the army quartered in the province.

The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main [[mosque]], and read the instrument of instructions before them.<ref>The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, [[Cambridge]] 1970</ref>

Umar's general instructions to his officers were:
{{blockquote|Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.}}

During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of an increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary to treat the officers strictly, in order to prevent corruption. During his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to swear an oath:
# That he would not ride a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] horse (''which was a symbol of pride'').
# That he would not wear fine clothes.
# That he would not eat sifted flour.
# That he would not keep a porter at his door.
# That he would always keep his door open to the public.

Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath.

At the time of an officer's appointment, a complete inventory of all his possessions was prepared and kept on record. If there was later an unusual increase in his possessions, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property confiscated by the State. The principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the [[Hajj]], during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand [[dirham]]s annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander-in-chief of the army of their sector).

===Judicial administration===
The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to the [[Shariah|principles of Islam]].

Accordingly, ''[[Qadi]]s'' (judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The ''Qadis'' were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The ''Qadis'' also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.

===Electing or appointing a caliph===
The four [[Rashidun]] caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the [[Quraysh]] called {{transliteration|ar|[[shura|shūrā]]}} ({{lang-ar|شُـوْرَى}}, {{lit|consultation}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Bosworth|Marín|Ayalon|1960–2007}}.</ref>

[[Fred Donner]], in his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'' (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this [[shura]], or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.

This argument is advanced by Sunni Muslims that Muhammad's companion Abu Bakr was elected by the community, and this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus. The caliphate became a hereditary office or the prize of the strongest general after the Rashidun caliphate. However, Sunni Muslims believe this was after the 'rightly guided' Rashidun caliphate ended.

[[Al-Baqillani|Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani]] has said that the leader of the Muslims should simply be from the majority. [[Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man]] also wrote that the leader must come from the majority.<ref name=2muslims>{{Cite web|url=http://www.2muslims.com/directory/Detailed/225505.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707062249/http://www.2muslims.com/directory/Detailed/225505.shtml|url-status=dead|title=The Muslims Internet Directory: e Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa|archive-date=July 7, 2011|website=www.2muslims.com}}</ref>

===Sunni belief===
Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at [[Saqifah]]. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (''viz.'', the rules of life set by Allah in the Qur'an). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to [[Ijtihad|Islamic lawyers]], judiciary, or specialists individually termed as [[Mujtahid]]s and collectively named the [[Ulema]]. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the [[sunnah]] (example) of Muhammad in all things.

===Accountability of rulers===

Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, [[Impeachment|impeach]] or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.

Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura. [[Al-Juwayni]] argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that [[oppression]] by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, [[Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani]] obliged [[rebellion]] upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is ''[[haraam]]'', and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two [[ayah]]s from the Qur'an to justify this:

{{blockquote|And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great curse"...{{cite quran|33|67|end=68|expand=no}}}}

Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a [[revolution]] against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.<ref name=2muslims/>

===Rule of law===
{{See also|Sharia|Islamic ethics}}

The following [[hadith]] establishes the principle of [[rule of law]] in relation to [[nepotism]] and accountability:<ref>Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681</ref>

{{blockquote|Narrated ‘[[Aisha]]: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from [[Banu Makhzum|Bani Makhzum]] who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case connected with Allah’s Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if [[Fatimah|Fatima]], the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand."}}

Various Islamic lawyers do, however, place multiple conditions, and stipulations—e.g., the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty—before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known that, during a time of drought during the Rashidun caliphate, [[capital punishment]]s were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzCvE-P75CAC&q=rashidun+drought+capital+punishment&pg=PA61|title=Islam Today: An Introduction|last=Geaves|first=Ron|year=2010|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=9781847064783|pages=61|language=en}}</ref>

[[Ulema|Islamic jurists]] later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land. A [[Qadi]] (Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender, [[Human skin color|colour]], kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to deliver their verdict.<ref>{{Harvard citation|Weeramantry|1997|pp=132 & 135}}</ref>

According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at [[Harvard University]], the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the [[rule of law]] were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the [[Codification (law)|codification]] of Sharia by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the early 19th century.<ref name=Feldman>{{cite news|author=Noah Feldman|title=Why Shariah?|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all|access-date=2008-10-05}}</ref>

==Economy==

===Bait-ul-Maal===
{{main|Bayt al-mal}}

''Bait-ul-Maal'' (lit., ''the house of money'') was the department that dealt with the revenues and all other economic matters of the state. In the time of Muhammad, there was no permanent Bait-ul-Mal or public [[treasury]]. Whatever revenues or other amounts were received were distributed immediately. There were no salaries to be paid, and there was no state expenditure, thereby making a public treasury unnecessary.

[[Abu Bakr]] (632–634) established a house where all money was kept on receipt. As all money was distributed immediately, the treasury generally remained locked up; at the time of Abu Bakr's death, there was only one dirham in the public treasury.

===Establishment of Bait-ul-Maal===
{{main|Bayt al-mal}}

In the time of Umar, things changed. With each conquest, revenue increased. Umar also granted salaries to the army. [[Abu Huraira]], the Governor of [[Bahrain]], sent his revenue to Umar, amounting to five hundred thousand dirhams. Umar summoned a meeting of his Consultative Assembly and sought the opinion of the Companions about the disposal of the money. [[Uthman ibn Affan]] advised that the amount should be kept for future needs. Walid bin Hisham suggested that, like the Byzantines, separate departments of treasury and accounts should be set up.

After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by [[Abdur Rahman bin Awf]] and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records.
Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.

A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the ''bait ul maal'', which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards.
[[File:First Islamic coins by caliph Uthman-mohammad adil rais.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Rashidun caliphs used the symbols of the Sassanids symbols (crescent-star, fire temple, the picture of the last emperor Khosrau II) by adding the phrase Bismillah on their coins, instead of designing a new money.<ref>As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins.https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-</ref>]]

Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.

[[Welfare (financial aid)|Social welfare]] and [[pension]]s were introduced in early [[Sharia|Islamic law]] as forms of ''zakāt'' (charity), one of the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], since the time of Umar. The [[tax]]es (including ''zakāt'' and ''jizya'') collected in the [[treasury]] of an Islamic [[government]] were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist [[Al-Ghazali]] (Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a [[disaster]] or [[famine]] occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest [[welfare state]]s.<ref name="Crone 2005 308–9">{{citation|title=Medieval Islamic Political Thought|first=Patricia|last=Crone|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7486-2194-1|pages=308–309}}</ref><ref name=Hamid>{{citation|title=An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar|author=Shadi Hamid|journal=Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal|volume=13|issue=8}} (see [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/Augvipo2y3.html online]) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825064646/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/Augvipo2y3.html }}</ref>

===Economic resources of the State===
The economic resources of the State were:
# ''Zakāt''
# ''Ushr''
# ''Jizya''
# ''Fay''
# ''Khums''
# ''Kharaj''

====Zakat====
{{Main|Zakat}}
''Zakāt'' ({{lang|ar|زكاة}}) is the Islamic equivalent of a luxury tax. It was taken from the Muslims in the amount of 2.5% of their dormant wealth (''viz.'', that over a certain amount unused for a year) to give to the poor. All and only those persons whose annual wealth exceeded a minimum level ([[nisab]]) were collected from. The ''nisab'' did not include one's primary residence, primary transportation, a moderate amount of woven jewelry, etc. ''Zakāt'' is one of the [[Five Pillars of Islam]].

====Jizya====
{{Main|Jizya}}
''Jizya'' or ''jizyah'' ({{lang|ar|جزْية}}; [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]: cizye). It was a [[per capita]] [[tax]] imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt. Slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick,<ref>Shahid Alam, Articulating Group Differences: A Variety of Autocentrisms, Journal of Science and Society, 2003</ref> hermits and the poor were all exempt.<ref name="Ali 1990, pg. 507">Ali (1990), p. 507</ref> In addition to the exemptions, some needy non-Muslims were given stipends by the state.<ref name="Ali 1990, pg. 507"/>

====Fay====
''Fay'' was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural [[mineral]] reserves.

====Khums====
{{Main|Khums}}
''Ghanimah'' or ''Khums'' represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.

====Kharaj====
{{Main|Kharaj}}
''Kharaj'' was a tax on agricultural land.

Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the seventh century, ''kharaj'' usually denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects, [[dhimmi]]s. At that time, ''kharaj'' was synonymous with ''jizyah'', which later emerged as a [[Tax per head|poll tax]] paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only '''ushr''', a religious [[tithe]], which carried a much lower rate of taxation.<ref name="lewis1">Lewis (2002), p. 72</ref>

====Ushr====
''Ushr'' was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy ''ushr''. Umar issued instructions that ''ushr'' should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, so as not to affect trade within the Caliphate. The tax was levied only on merchandise meant for sale; goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. Merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed. Imports by citizens for trade purposes were subject to the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the ''dhimmis'', the rate was 5% and, in the case of the Muslims, 2.5%, the same as that of ''zakāt''. The levy was thus regarded as a part of ''zakāt'' rather than a separate tax.

===Allowance===
====Beginning of the allowance====
After the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] and [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]] the Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly, a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens.

The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils.

On the amount of the [[allowance (money)|allowance]] there were two opinions. Some held that it should be the same for all Muslims. Umar, on the other hand, believed that the allowance should be graduated according to one's merit with reference to Islam.

Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Some suggested that the Caliph should first get the highest allowance, with the remaining allowances graduating downward from that. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.

Umar set up a committee to compile a list of persons by nearness to Muhammad. The committee produced the list clan-wise. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan, then the clan of Abu Bakr, and then the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but relegated his clan lower on the relationship scale.

The main provisions of the final scale of allowance approved by Umar were:{{Citation needed}}

# [[Muhammad's wives|The widows of Muhammad]] received 12,000 dirhams each;
# [[`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib]], the uncle of Muhammad, received an annual allowance of 7,000 dirhams;
# The grandsons of Muhammad, [[Hasan ibn Ali]] and [[Hussain ibn Ali]] received 5,000 dirhams each;
# The veterans of the [[Battle of Badr]] got an allowance of 6,000 dirhams each;
# Those who had become Muslims by the time of the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]] got 4,000 dirhams each;
# Those who became Muslims at the time of the [[Conquest of Mecca]] received 3,000 dirhams each;
# The veterans of the [[Ridda Wars|Apostasy wars]] received 3,000 dirhams each.
# The veterans of the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] and the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyyah]] received 2,000 dirhams each.

Under this scale, Umar's son [[Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab|Abdullah ibn Umar]] received an allowance of 3,000 dirhams, while [[Usama ibn Zaid]] got 4,000. The ordinary Muslim citizens were given allowances of between 2,000 and 2,500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population because they formed the backbone of the state's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the state's affairs, and making no contributions to development, were nevertheless often given stipends. On assuming office, Uthman increased these stipends by 25%.{{Citation needed}}

====Evaluation====
The evaluation greatly contributed to the prosperity of the citizens as trade increased, and their contributions to the ''bait al maal'' increased accordingly.

==Public works==
The mosques were not merely places for offering prayers, but also community centers where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar, as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the west. Al-[[Masjid an-Nabawi]] and [[Masjid al-Haram]] were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan, who not only expanded them but also beautified them on a large scale.

During the caliphate of Umar, many new cities were founded. These included [[Kufa]], [[Basra]], and [[Fustat]]. These cities were laid out according to the principles of urban planning. All streets in these cities led to the [[Friday mosque]], which was sited in the center of the city. Markets were established at convenient points, which were overseen by market officers charged with ensuring the quality of goods. The cities were divided into quarters, and each quarter was reserved for particular tribes. During the reign of Umar, there were restrictions on the construction of palatial buildings by the rich and elites—symbolic of the egalitarian society of Islam, where all were equal—although the restrictions were later revoked by Uthman because of the rise in the overall standard of living, and the construction of two-story buildings were permitted. As a result, many palatial buildings were constructed throughout the empire, including Uthman's huge palace in Medina, ''Al-Zawar'', constructed from his personal resources.

Many buildings were built for administrative purposes. In the ''Dar-ul-Amarat'' quarters, government offices and residences for officers were sited. '''Diwans''' were constructed to house official records. '''Bait-ul-Mal''' was used to house royal treasuries. [[Jail]]s were constructed for the first time in [[Muslim history]]. In important cities, guest houses were constructed to serve traders and merchants coming from faraway places. Roads and bridges were constructed for public use. On the road from Medina to Mecca, shelters, wells, and meal houses were constructed at every stage for the convenience of the people who came for hajj.

Military cantonments were constructed at strategic points. Special stables were provided for cavalry, which could accommodate as many as 4,000 horses. Special pasture grounds were provided and maintained for ''Bait-ul-Mal'' animals.

[[Canal]]s were dug to irrigate fields as well as provide drinking water. The Abu Musa canal, named for the [[Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari|governor of Basra]], was a nine-mile (14 km) long canal which brought water from the Tigris to Basra. The Maqal canal was also dug from the Tigris. The Amir al-Mu'minin canal, named for a [[Amir al-Mu'minin|title created by Umar]], was dug to join the [[Nile]] to the [[Red Sea]]. During the famine of 639, grain was brought from Egypt to Arabia through this canal, which saved the lives of millions. The Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas canal, named for the [[Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas|governor of Kufa]], brought water to Anbar from the Euphrates. [['Amr ibn al-'As]], the governor of Egypt during the reign of Umar, even proposed the digging of a canal to join the [[Mediterranean]] to the [[Red Sea]]. This proposal, however, did not materialize due to unknown reasons, and it was 1200 years later that such a canal was dug—the modern [[Suez Canal]]. Shuaibia was the port for Mecca, but it was inconvenient, so Uthman had a new seaport built at [[Jeddah]]. Uthman also reformed the city's police departments.

== Legacy ==
{{see also|Shia view of Abu Bakr}}
Some secular scholars have questioned the traditional [[Sunni]] view of the Rashidun. [[Robert G. Hoyland]] states that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. It is only with the fifth caliph", [[Muawiyah I]] (661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media."<ref name="RGHIGP2015:98">[[#RGHIGP2015|Hoyland, ''In God's Path'', 2015]]: p. 98</ref> However, there do exist inscriptions dating to the period, one of which for instance mentions [[Umar]] by name and the date of his death, and there were also coins struck during his rule (although as Hoyland notes, they do not bear his name, simply "In the name of God,")<ref>Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1. ''Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy'', 19(2), pp. 210–237.</ref>

Hoyland also questions the alleged moral superiority of the Rashidun (or at least of Uthman and Ali) to their Umayyad successors, noting Ali was involved in the first civil war ([[First Fitna]]) and Uthman had "already inaugurated a nepotistic style of government",<ref name="RGHIGP2015:134">[[#RGHIGP2015|Hoyland, ''In God's Path'', 2015]]: p. 134</ref> for which later Caliphs were condemned, and wonders if the idea of a divinely guided "golden age" of early Islam came from a need by late Umayyad and Abbasid religious scholars to differentiate the first caliphs (who had more power in law making) and the contemporary Caliphs who they wanted to defer to them (the ulama) in religious matters. Consequently, the companions were "given a makeover" as "model's of piety and beyond reproach".<ref name="RGHIGP2015:227">[[#RGHIGP2015|Hoyland, ''In God's Path'', 2015]]: p. 227</ref>

This is in-line with [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite views]] of the companions, including the Rashidun Caliphs. Many of the Shi'a do not share the Sunni view that the companions were all models of piety, instead accusing many them of conspiring after the Prophet's death to dispossess [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and his descendants of the divinely ordained right to leadership. In this Shi'ite perspective, many of the companions and their successors were usurpers, even hypocrites, who never ceased to subvert the religion for their own interests.<ref>Zaman, M.Q., 1998. Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi ‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), p. 691.</ref>

The stark differences in these two views has led to sectarian tension that has even culminated in violence.

==Military==
The Rashidun Military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the seventh century, serving alongside the [[Early Caliphate navy|Rashidun navy]]. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/muslimwars/articles/yarmuk.aspx|title=The Battle Of Yarmuk, 636|last=Fratini|first=Dan|publisher=Military History Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516193813/http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/muslimwars/articles/yarmuk.aspx|archive-date=2011-05-16|url-status=live|access-date=2014-11-29}}</ref>

=== Rashidun army ===
{{Main|Rashidun Army}}
[[File:Mohammad Adil Rais-Muslim warrior during rashidun caliphate.PNG|170px|thumb|upright=0.9|Rashidun soldier wears an iron-bronze helmet, a [[hauberk]] and [[lamellar]] leather armour. His sword is hung from a [[baldric]], and he carries a leather shield.]]
The Rashidun army was divided into [[infantry]] and [[light cavalry]]. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date.<ref name="Kennedy2001">{{cite book|title=The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State|author=Hugh Kennedy|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=2001|page=168|chapter-url=https://www.questia.com/reader/action/gotoDocId/102802943|chapter=Chapter Seven: Weapons and equipment in early Muslim armies|author-link=Hugh N. Kennedy}}</ref> The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh|title=The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State|chapter-url=https://www.questia.com/reader/action/gotoDocId/102802958|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|page=183|chapter= Chapter Eight: Fortification and siege warfare }}</ref>

The standard form of body armor was [[chainmail]]. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (''dir’ayn''), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. [[Hauberk]]s and large wooden or [[wickerwork]] shields were also used as protection in combat.<ref name="Kennedy2001"/> The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a [[baldric]]. They also possessed spears and daggers.<ref>Augus Mcbride</ref>{{Page needed}} Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraish and the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]] and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.

The basic strategy of early Muslim armies on the campaign was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels, the latter used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert (''e.g.'', Khalid ibn al-Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus). The cavalry was the army's main strike force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged. Once fully engaged, the enemy reserves were held by the infantry and archers, while the cavalry executed a pincer movement (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to assault their base camps.{{citation needed}}

The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies.{{citation needed}}

Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and resources for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Umar, in the latter part of his Caliphate, adopted a more hands-on approach, directing his generals where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right-wing of the army in each particular battle. This made conquests comparatively slower but made the campaigns well-organized. Uthman and Ali reverted to Abu Bakr's method, giving missions to their generals and leaving the details to them.{{citation needed}}

=== Rashidun navy ===
{{Main|Early Caliphate navy}}
The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of [[Cyprus]], the famous [[Battle of the Masts]]{{sfn|Bosworth|1996|pp=157–158}} up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]],{{sfn|Frastuti |2020 |p=122}} naval cove of privateer in [[La Garde-Freinet]] by [[Emirate of Córdoba|Cordoban Emirate]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fromherz |first1=Allen |title=Islam and the Sea |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/focus/essay1009_islam_and_sea.html |website=Oxford Islamic studies |publisher=Oxford |access-date=31 October 2021}}</ref> and the [[Arab raid against Rome|Sack of Rome]] by the [[Aghlabids]] in later era{{sfn|Vasiliev|1935|p=131-207}}{{sfn|Treadgold|1988|pp=285–286}}{{sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=55–58}}

==List of Rashidun caliphs==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Period
!Caliph
!Calligraphic
!Relationship with [[Muhammad]]
!Parents
![[Banu (Arabic)|House]]
!Notable events
|-
|8 June 632 – 22 August 634
|'''[[Abu Bakr]]''' ('''{{lang|ar|أبو بكر}}''')
{{Transliteration|ar|Al-Siddiq}}
|[[File:20131203 Istanbul 091.jpg|100px]]
|
* Father of [[Aisha]], Muhammad's wife.
|
* [[Abu Quhafa]]
* [[Umm Khayr]]
|[[Banu Taym]]
|
* On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and he developed a high fever.
|-
|23 August 634 – 3 November 644
|'''[[Umar|<nowiki/>Umar]]''' ('''{{lang|ar|عمر}}''')
''{{Transliteration|ar|Al-Faruq}}''
|[[File:20131203 Istanbul 118.jpg|100px]]
|
* Father of [[Hafsa bint Umar|Hafsa]], Muhammad's wife.
|
* [[Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl]]
* [[Hantamah bint Hisham|Hantama bint Hisham]]
|[[Banu 'Adiy|Banu Adi]]
|
* Assassinated by a Persian slave<ref name="عصام محمد شبارو 1995"/>{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=68–69}}
|-
|11 November 644 – 20 June 656
|'''[[Uthman|<nowiki/>Uthman]]''' ('''{{lang|ar|عثمان}}''') ''{{Transliteration|ar|Al-Ghani}}''
|[[File:Ayasofya 13 (cropped).JPG|100px]]
|
* Husband of [[Ruqayyah bint Muhammad|Ruqayya]] and later [[Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad|Umm Kulthum]], Muhammad's daughters.
* Grandson of [[Umm Hakim bint Abdul Muttalib|Umm Hakim bint Abd al-Muttalib]], Muhammad's paternal aunt
|
* [[Affan ibn Abi al-As]]
* [[Arwa bint Kurayz]]
|[[Umayyad dynasty|Banu Umayyad]]
|
* Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house<ref name="عصام محمد شبارو 1995"/>{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=139}}
|-
|20 June 656 – 29 January 661
|'''[[Ali|<nowiki/>Ali]]''' ('''{{lang|ar|علي}}''')
'''[[Ali|<nowiki/>]]'''''{{Transliteration|ar|Al-Haydar}}''
|[[File:Istanbul - Santa Sofia - Medalló (cropped).JPG|100px]]
|
* Muhammad's first cousin.
* Husband of [[Fatimah]], Muhammad's daughter.
* Husband of [[Umamah bint Abi al-As|Umama bint Abi al-As]], Muhammad's granddaughter.
|
* [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib]]
* [[Fatimah bint Asad]]
|[[Banu Hashim]]
|
* Assassinated during Fajr prayer in the [[Great Mosque of Kufa]]h<ref name="عصام محمد شبارو 1995"/>{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=308}}
* After his death he was succeeded by [[Hasan ibn Ali|Al-Hasan]] in 661. He ruled for five to six months and then abdicated for [[Mu'awiya I|Mu'awiya]]
|}

==See also==
{{columns-list|
* [[The Four Companions]]
* [[Islamic Golden Age]]
* [[Talut]]
* [[The ten to whom Paradise was promised]]
* [[Timeline of Medina]]
}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin|2}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Hinds |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Hinds |year=1972 |title=The Murder of the Caliph Uthman |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=450–469 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800025216 |jstor=162492|s2cid=159763369 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hoyland |first1=Robert G. |title=In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=RGHIGP2015}}
* {{cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=0521646960 |location=Cambridge, England}}
* {{Cite book |last=McHugo |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ze5aDwAAQBAJ |title=A Concise History of Sunnis & Shi'is |publisher=Georgetown University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-62-616587-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Netton |first1=Ian Richard |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-17960-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bYtmAgAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rane |first=Halim |title=Islam and Contemporary Civilisation |year=2010 |publisher=Academic Monographs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOHb6MCGuVQC |isbn=9780522857283}}
* {{The Byzantine Revival, 780–842 | page = 268}}
* {{Byzance et les Arabes|volume=1|page=90}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weeramantry |first=Judge Christopher G. |title=Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights |year=1997 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=90-411-0241-8}}
{{refend}}
{{Rashidun Caliphs}}
{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Empires}}

[[Category:Rashidun Caliphate| ]]
[[Category:Caliphates]]
[[Category:Former countries in West Asia]]
[[Category:Countries in medieval Africa]]
[[Category:7th-century Islam]]
[[Category:Early Muslim conquests]]
[[Category:History of Central Asia]]
[[Category:History of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:7th century in Egypt]]
[[Category:Medieval Iraq]]
[[Category:Medieval Jordan]]
[[Category:Medieval Palestine]]
[[Category:7th century in Iran]]
[[Category:Medieval Syria]]
[[Category:Muslim conquest of Egypt]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 630s]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 7th century]]
[[Category:632 establishments]]
[[Category:661 disestablishments]]
[[Category:7th-century disestablishments in Africa]]
[[Category:Historical transcontinental empires]]
[[Category:7th-century disestablishments in Asia]]

Committee on Public Undertakings

2022-10-23T01:55:57Z

Grandposh: Created an influential work.

{{Update|date=June 2023|reason=Numbers and party composition are all from the previous election and the previous session, the infobox in particular}}{{Short description|Indian Parliamentary financial committee}}
{{Infobox
| title = Committee on Public Undertakings
| abovestyle = background:#ccf; color:black;
| subheaderstyle =
| above = Financial Standing Committee
| headerstyle = background:#ccf;
| labelstyle =
| datastyle =
| data2 =
| subheader = '''<big>[[16th Lok Sabha]]</big>'''
| label3 = [[Date of establishment|Founded]]
| data3 = {{start date and age|df=yes|1964|5|1}}
| label4 = Country
| data4 = {{flag|India}}
| header5 = Leadership
| label6 = Chaiperson
| data6 = [[Santosh Gangwar]]
| label7 = Chairperson party
| data7 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| label8 = Appointer
| data8 = [[Lok sabha Speaker]]
| header9 = Structure
| label10 = Seats
| data10 = 22 [[Lok Sabha]] : 15 [[Rajya Sabha]] : 7
| label11 = Party composition
| data11 = {{legend2|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (11)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} 
{{legend2|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} 
{{legend2|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|AIADMK]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} 
{{legend2|{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} 
{{legend2|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|[[Biju Janata Dal|BJD]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} 
{{legend2|{{party color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}|[[Shiromani Akali Dal|SAD]] (1)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} 
{{legend2|{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (1)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} 
{{legend2|{{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}|[[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]] (1)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
| label12 = Election criteria
| data12 = The members are elected every year from amongst its members of respective houses according to the principle of proportional representation.
| label13 = Tenure
| data13 = 1 Year
| header14 = Jurisdiction
| label15 = Purpose
| data15 = Examining the reports and accounts of the [[Public sector undertakings in India|Public sector undertakings]](PSUs)
| header16 = Rules & Procedure
| data17 = {{bulleted list|list_style=text-align:left|RULES OF PROCEDURE AND CONDUCT OF BUSINESS IN LOK SABHA[https://loksabha.nic.in/rules/rules.pdf]}}
| label18 = Applicable rules
| data18 = Rule 312A & 312B (page 115 - 116) 
Fourth Schedule (page 156)
}}

The '''Committee on Public Undertakings''' (COPU) is one of three financial standing committees within the [[Parliament of India]], composed of selected [[Member of Parliament (India)|members of Parliament]] with the stated purpose of examining the reports and accounts of [[Public sector undertakings in India|public sector undertakings]] (PSUs). The duties and responsibilities of the COPU are specified in the [[Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Fourth Schedule]] of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://loksabha.nic.in/rules/rules.pdf |title=RULES OF PROCEDURE AND CONDUCT OF BUSINESS IN LOK SABHA |publisher=M/s Jainco Art India |edition=16th |location=New Delhi |pages=150–151 |language=en}}</ref> This committee, alongside the [[Public Accounts Committee (India)|Public Accounts Committee]] (PAC) and the [[Estimates Committee]] (EC), are the three [[List of Indian parliamentary committees|financial standing committees]] of the [[Parliament of India]].

The COPU consists of 22 members, 15 elected by the [[Lok Sabha]], and not more than 7 members by the upper house, the [[Rajya Sabha]].<ref name=":0" /> Committee members are elected annually from among members of both houses by means of [[proportional representation]] through the [[single transferable vote]]. The chairperson of the COPU is appointed by the [[Speaker of the Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha speaker]]. The term of the office of the members is one year. Ministers are not eligible to become a member of the committee. If a member, after being elected to the committee, becomes a Minister, the member ceases to be a member, from the date of such appointment.<ref name=":0" />

== History ==
The first proposal for a separate [[Public sector undertakings in India|public sector undertakings]] committee was made by [[Lanka Sundaram]] in December 1953, stating the inadequacies of both the [[Public Accounts Committee (India)|Public Accounts Committee]] and the [[Estimates Committee]] regarding public undertakings.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Arora |first1=Ramesh K |title=Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues |last2=Goyal |first2=Rajni |publisher=New Age International |year=1996 |isbn=9788173280689 |edition=Revised 2nd |location=New Delhi |pages=522 |language=En}}</ref> In May 1956, [[Asoka Mehta|Ashok Mehta]] also proposed a separate committee for public undertakings, however the then finance minister held the view that the PAC and the EC were sufficient to handle the work load. By 1957, the government had agreed to form a standing sub-committee of the EC on public undertakings. In 1958, the congress formed the [[V. K. Krishna Menon]] committee. which put forward a number of recommendations intended to reconcile the accountability of public undertakings to parliament while keeping their autonomy on one hand and also ensuring efficiency on the other.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/155542/4/04_chapter%202.pdf|title=A Committee is Born}}</ref>{{Dead link}}

In September 1963, Minister of Commerce and Industry [[Nityanand Kanungo]], put forward a motion in the Lok Sabha proposing the formation of a separate Parliamentary Committee on Public Undertakings. In pursuance of this motion, the Committee on Public Undertakings was formed in effect from May 1 1964.

== Scope and Working ==
The responsibilities of the Committee on Public Undertakings are:<ref name=":0" />

* To examine the reports and accounts of public undertakings specified in the fourth Schedule to the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.
* To examine the reports, if any, of the [[Comptroller and Auditor General of India]] on the Public Undertakings.
* To examine, in the context of the autonomy and efficiency of the Public Undertakings whether the affairs of the Public Undertakings are being managed in accordance with sound business principles and prudent commercial practices.

The committee from time to time takes up for examination as such any PSU or subjects related to them as they may deem fit and which are within their terms of reference. The depth or Undertaking concerned is asked to furnish necessary material relating to those subjects for information of the Members of the Committee. The Committee may from time to time appoint one or more Study Groups for carrying out detailed examination of various subjects.<ref name=":0" />

== Current composition{{Needs update|reason=Previous membership is listed}} ==

'''Key: '''{{legend2|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (11)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} {{legend2|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} {{legend2|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|AIADMK]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} {{legend2|{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} {{legend2|{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}|[[Biju Janata Dal|BJD]] (2)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} {{legend2|{{party color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}|[[Shiromani Akali Dal|SAD]] (1)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} {{legend2|{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}|[[Telangana Rashtra Samithi|TRS]] (1)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} {{legend2|{{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}|[[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]] (1)|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}} = 22 members{{Pie chart|caption=Composition of the Committee on Public Undertakings by party|other=|label1=BJD|value1=9.09|label2=AIADMK|value2=9.09|label3=AITC|value3=4.55|label4=TDP|value4=9.09|label5=TRS|value5=4.55|label6=INC|label7=SAD|value6=9.09|value7=4.55|label8=BJP|value8=50}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+15 Members from [[16th Lok Sabha]]; tenure{{Snd}}May 2018-19
!Sr. No.
!Name
!Constituency, state
! colspan="2" |Party
|- align="center"
|1
|[[Shanta Kumar]]{{Efn|Chairperson of the committee for the current year.}}
|[[Kangra (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kangra, Himachal Pradesh]]
| rowspan="9" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" rowspan=9|
|- align="center"
|2
|[[L. K. Advani|Lal Krishna Advani]]
|[[Gandhinagar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Gandhinagar, Gujarat]]
|- align="center"
|3
|[[Ramesh Bais]]
|[[Raipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Raipur, Madhya Pradesh]]
|- align="center"
|4
|[[Kambhampati Hari Babu|Haribabu Kambhampati]]
|[[Visakhapatnam (Lok Sabha constituency)|Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh]]
|- align="center"
|5
|[[Ajay Nishad]]
|[[Muzaffarpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Muzaffarpur, Bihar]]
|- align="center"
|6
|[[Prahlad Singh Patel]]
|[[Damoh (Lok Sabha constituency)|Damoh, Madhya Pradesh]]
|- align="center"
|7
|[[Narendra Keshav Sawaikar]]
|[[South Goa (Lok Sabha constituency)|South Goa, Goa]]
|- align="center"
|8
|[[Sushil Kumar Singh (politician)|Sushil Kumar Singh]]
|[[Aurangabad (Bihar Lok Sabha constituency)|Aurangabad, Bihar]]
|- align="center"
|9
|[[Rameswar Teli|Rameshwar Teli]]
|[[Dibrugarh (Lok Sabha constituency)|Dibrugarh, Assam]]
|- align="center"
|10
|[[Konakalla Narayana Rao]]
|[[Machilipatnam (Lok Sabha constituency)|Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh]]
|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|11
|[[Saugata Roy]]
|[[Dum Dum (Lok Sabha constituency)|Dum Dum, West Bengal]]
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|12
|[[G. Hari|G Hari]]
|[[Arakkonam (Lok Sabha constituency)|Arakkonam, Tamil Nadu]]
|[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|AIADMK]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}" |
|- align="center"
|13
|[[Ravneet Singh Bittu|Ravneet Singh]]
|[[Ludhiana (Lok Sabha constituency)|Ludhiana, Punjab]]
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|14
|[[B. Vinod Kumar|Vinod Kumar Boianapalli]]
|[[Karimnagar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Karimnagar, Telangana]]
|[[Telangana Rashtra Samithi|TRS]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}" |
|- align="center"
|15
|[[Nagendra Kumar Pradhan|Nagendra Pradhan]]
|[[Sambalpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sambalpur, Odisha]]
|[[Biju Janata Dal|BJD]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}" |
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+7 Members from the Rajya Sabha
!Sr. No.
!Name
!State Legislature
! colspan="2" |Party
|- align="center"
|1
|[[Shamsheer Singh Manhas|Samsheer Singh Manhas]]
|Jammu & Kashmir
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|2
|[[Ramvichar Netam]]
|Chattishgarh
|- align="center"
|3
|[[Mohd. Ali Khan]]
|Andhra Pradesh
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|4
|[[Pratap Keshari Deb]]
|Odisha
|[[Biju Janata Dal|BJD]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Biju Janata Dal}}" |
|- align="center"
|5
|[[Naresh Gujral]]
|Punjab
|[[Shiromani Akali Dal|SAD]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiromani Akali Dal}}" |
|- align="center"
|6
|[[C. M. Ramesh]]
|Andhra Pradesh
|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|7
|[[A. Selvaraj|A. K. Selvaraj]]
|Tamil Nadu
|[[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|AIADMK]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}" |
|}

== List of Public Undertakings ==
The scope of COPU is limited to the undertakings specified in the fourth Schedule to the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha. They are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Public Undertakings specified in 2019 edition<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://loksabha.nic.in/rules/rules.pdf |title=RULES OF PROCEDURE AND CONDUCT OF BUSINESS IN LOK SABHA |publisher=M/s Jainco Art India |edition=16th |location=New Delhi |pages=195–196 |language=En}}</ref>
!Part I
!Part II
!Part III
|-
|'''Public Undertakings established by Central Acts'''
*[[Damodar Valley Corporation]]
*[[Life Insurance Corporation|Life Insurance Corporation of India]]
*[[Central Warehousing Corporation]]
*[[Food Corporation of India]]
*[[Airports Authority of India]]
*[[National Highways Authority of India]]
|Every Government Company whose annual report is placed before the Houses of Parliament under sub-section (1) of Section 619A of the Companies Act, 1956
|
*[[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited|Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd]]
*[[Bharat Electronics|Bharat Electronics Ltd]]
*[[Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders|Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd]]
*[[Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers|Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers Ltd]]
|}

== Notable probes (2014-present) ==

=== BSNL Salary ratio (2014) ===
The Committee on Public Undertakings noted in its report: "The staff cost was about ₹ 13,406 crore in 2011-12, that is almost 50 per cent of its revenue, which is abnormally on the higher side as compared to private companies whose expenditure is stated to be in the range of 5-10 per cent."<ref>{{Cite web |title=BSNL's salary outgo rises to ₹ 13,406 crore |url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/bsnls-salary-outgo-rises-to-rs-13-406-crore-321821 |access-date=June 4, 2023 |website=NDTV}}</ref>

=== ONGC Videsh Ltd (2014) ===
Based on the performance audit done by C&AG presented in report no. 28 for the year 2010-11, the COPU had the following findings: "Due to unrealistic estimation of reserves/production, OVL has suffered a huge loss of Rs.1182.14 crore during the period 2008-09 and 2009-10. Since OVL did not chose to farm-out part of its stake to a local partner, the entire loss has been borne out by it,"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary panel seeks review of ONGC Videsh's Imperial Energy acquisition |url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/parliamentary-panel-seeks-review-of-ongc-videshs-imperial-energy-acquisition-379859 |access-date=June 4, 2023 |website=NDTV}}</ref> Following up in August 2015, COPU stated; "Except reiterating its earlier reply OVL has not offered any justification for its ill-conceived decision not to farm-out part of its stake in IEC to local Russian firms/ entities and its unrealistic estimation of oil reserves and production targets."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliament Panel Raps OVL for Imperial Energy acquisition |url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/parliament-panel-raps-ovl-for-imperial-energy-acquisition-1205886 |url-status=live |access-date=June 4, 2023 |website=NDTV}}</ref>

== Chairpersons ==

=== Chairpersons of the committee till date{{Citation needed}} ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Sr. No.
!Name
!Term of office
!Terms
! colspan="2" |Political party
(Alliance)
|- align="center"
|1
|[[Panampilly Govinda Menon|P. Govinda Menon]]
|1964-66
|2
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|2
|[[Dwarka Nath Tiwary|Dwarka N. Tiwary]]
|1966-67
|1
|[[Janata Party|JNP]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|3
|[[Surendranath Dwivedy|Surindra Nath Dwivedy]]
|1967-68
|1
|[[Praja Socialist Party|PSP]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Praja Socialist Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|4
|[[Gurdial Singh Dhillon|G. S. Dhillon]]
|1968-69
|1
| rowspan="6" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| rowspan="6" width="px" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|5
|Mansinhji Rana
|1969-72
|3
|- align="center"
|6
|[[Subhadra Joshi]]
|1972-73
|1
|- align="center"
|7
|[[Amrit Nahata]]
|1973
|<1
|- align="center"
|8
|[[Nawal Kishore Sharma]]
|1973-76
|3
|- align="center"
|9
|[[Darbara Singh]]
|1976-77
|1
|- align="center"
|10
|[[Jyotirmoy Basu]]
|1977-79
|2
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}"|
|- align="center"
|11
|[[Bapu Kaldate]]
|1979-80
|1
|[[Janata Dal|JD]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Janata Dal}}"|
|- align="center"
|12
|[[Bansi Lal]]
|1980-82
|2
| rowspan="4" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| rowspan="4" width="px" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|13
|Madhusudan Vairale
|1982-85
|3
|- align="center"
|14
|[[Vazhappady K. Ramamurthy]]
|1985-87
|2
|- align="center"
|15
|[[Vakkom Purushothaman]]
|1987-90
|3
|- align="center"
|16
|[[Basudeb Acharia]]
|1990-91
|1
| rowspan="1" |[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}"|
|- align="center"
|17
|[[A. R. Antulay]]
|1991-93
|2
| rowspan="4" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| rowspan="4" width="px" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|18
|[[Vilas Muttemwar]]
|1993-95
|2
|- align="center"
|19
|[[Kamal Chaudhry|Kamal Chaudhary]]
|1995-96
|1
|- align="center"
|20
|[[G. Venkatswamy]]
|1996-98
|2
|- align="center"
|21
|[[Manabendra Shah|Manbendra Shah]]
|1998-99
|1
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| rowspan="2" width="px" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|22
|[[Vijay Kumar Malhotra]]
|1999-2004
|5
|- align="center"
|23
|[[Rupchand Pal]]
|2004-09
|5
| rowspan="1" |[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| width="3px" bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}"|
|- align="center"
|24
|[[Kishore Chandra Deo|V. Kishore Chandra Deo]]
|2009-11
|2
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|- align="center"
|25
|[[Jagdambika Pal]]
|2011-14
|3
|- align="center"
|26
|[[Shanta Kumar]]
|2014-19
|5
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| rowspan="2" width="px" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|27
|[[Meenakshi Lekhi]]
|2019-21
|6
|- align="center
|28
|[[Santosh Gangwar]]
|2021-incumbent
|
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| rowspan="2" width="px" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|}

=== Longest serving chairpersons of COPU ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Sr. No.
!Name
!Terms
!Years
! colspan="2" |Party
|- align="center"
|1
|[[Vijay Kumar Malhotra]]
|5
|1999-2004
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| width="3px" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|- align="center"
|2
|[[Rupchand Pal]]
|5
|2004-09
| rowspan="1" |[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| width="3px" bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}"|
|- align="center"
|3
|[[Shanta Kumar]]
|5
|2014-19
| rowspan="1" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| width="3px" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|}

== Reports ==
Since the inception of the COPU, it has presented 604 reports till date. Of these, 301 are original reports, and 303 are reports on actions taken by the Government in response the original reports made by the COPU. Out of those 301 original reports, 37 are horizontal studies on various aspects of working of the public undertakings.{{Citation needed}}

== See also ==
{{portal|India}}
*[[17th Lok Sabha]]
*[[Estimates Committee]]
*[[Public Accounts Committee (India)]]
*[[Standing Committee on Defence (India)]]
*[[Standing Committee on Finance|Standing Committee on Finance (India)]]
*[[List of Indian parliamentary committees]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Public%20Undertakings/pr_files/PR%20(NHAI).pdf National Highway Authority of India report - Aug 2018]
*[http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Public%20Undertakings/15_Public_Undertakings_24.pdf BSNL report - Apr 2014]
*[http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Public%20Undertakings/15_Public_Undertakings_27.pdf ONGC Videsh Limited report - Feb 2014]

[[Category:Committees of the Parliament of India]]