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Right to silence

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{{Short description|Right to refuse to answer questions}}
{{Redirect|Right to remain silent|other uses|You Have the Right to Remain Silent (disambiguation){{!}}You Have the Right to Remain Silent}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
The '''right to silence''' is a legal principle which guarantees any individual the right to refuse to [[confession (law)|answer questions]] from law enforcement officers or court officials. It is a legal right recognised, explicitly or by convention, in many of the world's legal systems.

The right covers a number of issues centered on the right of the accused or the defendant to refuse to comment or provide an answer when questioned, either prior to or during legal proceedings in a court of law. This can be the right to avoid [[self-incrimination]] or the right to remain silent when questioned. The right may include the provision that adverse inferences cannot be made by the judge or jury regarding the refusal by a [[defendant]] to answer questions before or during a trial, hearing or any other legal proceeding. This right constitutes only a small part of the defendant's rights as a whole.

The origin of the right to silence is attributed to Sir [[Edward Coke]]'s challenge to the [[ecclesiastical court]]s and their ''ex officio'' oath. In the late 17th century, it became established in the law of England as a reaction to the excesses of the royal inquisitions in these courts. In the United States, informing suspects of their right to remain silent and of the consequences for giving up that right forms a key part of the [[Miranda warning]].

==History==
[[File:Edward coke.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of English judge Sir [[Edward Coke]]]]
Neither the reasons nor the history behind the right to silence are entirely clear. The Latin [[Brocard (law)|brocard]] ''nemo tenetur se ipsum accusare'' ('no man is bound to accuse himself') became a rallying cry for religious and political dissidents who were prosecuted in the [[Star Chamber]] and [[High Commission]] of 16th-century England. People coming before these tribunals were forced to make the [[ex officio oath|''ex officio'' oath]] by which they swore to truthfully answer the questions to be put before them without knowing what they were being accused of. This created what has been termed the [[cruel trilemma]] whereby these accused were forced to choose between committing the [[mortal sin]] of [[perjury]] (if they lied under oath to protect themselves), harsh punishment for [[contempt of court]] (if they refused to answer), or betraying their "natural" duty of self-preservation (if they told the truth to honour their oath). Sir [[Edward Coke]]'s challenge to the ecclesiastical courts and their ''ex officio'' oath is seen as the origin of the right to silence. With his decision that common law courts could issue writs of prohibition against such oaths and his arguments that such oaths were contrary to the common law (as found in his ''Reports'' and ''Institutes''), Coke "dealt the crucial blow to the oath ''ex officio'' and to the High Commission".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Randall |first1=Stephen H. |title=Sir Edward Coke and the Privilege against Self-Incrimination |journal=South Carolina Law Quarterly. |date=1955 |volume= |issue= |pages=444 |doi= |pmid= |url= |access-date= |publisher=University of South Carolina School of Law |language= |format= |issn=}}</ref>

After the parliamentary revolutions of the late 17th century, according to some historical accounts, the right to silence became established in the law as a reaction to the excesses of the royal inquisitions in these courts. The rejection of the procedures of the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission eventually resulted in the emergence of the principle, according to US jurist and law of evidence expert [[John Henry Wigmore]], "that no man is bound to incriminate himself, on any charge (no matter how properly instituted), or in any Court (not merely in the ecclesiastical or Star Chamber tribunals)". It was extended during the [[English Restoration]] (from 1660 on) to include "an ordinary witness, and not merely the party charged".

However, the right to silence was not always a practical reality for all accused in the English courts for some period afterwards. With limited access to legal counsel (often depending on the social status of the accused), a shifting standard of proof, and a system generally distrustful of silent defendants, a criminal accused who remained silent was often believed to be guilty and was sentenced. Nevertheless, it remained a basic right available to the accused and has been an accepted practice over the past few centuries. In England, the practice of judicial questioning of accused persons at trial (as distinct from questioning prior to trial), did not really disappear until well into the 18th century, but by the 19th century, the accused were not allowed to give evidence on oath even if they wanted to – also said to be a reaction to the inequities of the Star Chamber and High Commission.

In countries formerly part of the [[British Empire]] (such as [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations, the United States and Ireland) the right to silence has remained enshrined in the [[common-law]] tradition inherited from England. The two different but diverging paths along which these rights evolved and operate in Anglo-American jurisprudence (one through rights expressed in an entrenched constitution, the other in Acts of Parliament specifying rights or protections at common law) can be seen today in Commonwealth nations like New Zealand, where police officers are still required at common law to issue "Miranda-style" warnings (but which are completely unrelated to the US [[Miranda warning|''Miranda'' warning]] ruling) and inform arrested persons that they do not have to answer any questions but that whatever they do say (or do) can be used in court as evidence. The police must also determine whether the arrested persons understand these rights. Any failure to do so can jeopardise a criminal prosecution. While differing slightly from the wording used in the US, the intent is identical and comes from the inherited tradition of law. However, in Australia for instance, anything said by the accused under police questioning while in custody will generally not be accepted into evidence unless it is corroborated, generally by audio or video record. Australian police all wear chest cams as part of their standard issue, and turn them on with every interaction, so that they record and provide such evidence.

As in the US, suspects in some Commonwealth countries are also entitled to have counsel present during questioning. In England and Wales, laws introduced in 1994 have the suspects told they have the right to remain silent, but are now also cautioned that anything they do not reveal in questioning, but later rely upon in court may harm their defence. In other words, in some cases inferences can be drawn.<ref>{{cite news |first=Hugh|last=McFaul|title=Staying silent during a police interview: some comments on “no comment” |url=https://university.open.ac.uk/open-justice/blog/staying-silent-during-police-interview |access-date=9 April 2026 |work=Open University}}</ref> The [[right to counsel]], which also became increasingly entrenched in the US following the American Revolution, gave defendants a practical method of mounting a defence while remaining silent, and the development of the modern police force in the early 19th century opened up the question of pretrial silence for the first time. The key American case of ''[[Bram v. United States]]''<ref>{{cite web |last1= |first1= |title=Bram v. United States |url=http://www.vlex.us/caselaw/U-S-Supreme-Court/Bram-v-United-States-168-U-S-532-1897/2100-20060675%2C01.html |website= |publisher= |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205232656/http://www.vlex.us/caselaw/U-S-Supreme-Court/Bram-v-United-States-168-U-S-532-1897/2100-20060675%2C01.html |archive-date=5 February 2007 |location= |pages= |language= |doi= |date= |url-status=}}</ref> paved the way for the right to be extended to pretrial questioning, and the practice of "''Miranda'' warnings" became established in the US and elsewhere following the case of ''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'' in 1966.

While initially alien to [[inquisitorial]] justice systems, the right to silence spread across continental Europe, in some form, throughout the late 20th century, due to developments in international law which had an increasing universalisation of certain [[due process]] protections.

==Worldwide==

Warnings of a right to remain silent are given in approximately 108 nations around the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Miranda Warning Equivalents Abroad|url=https://www.loc.gov/law/help/miranda-warning-equivalents-abroad/index.php|website=Library of Congress|access-date=27 July 2017}}</ref>

===Australia===
{{See also|Right to silence in Australia}}
Australia has no constitutional protection for the right to silence,<ref>{{cite AustLII |litigants=Azzopardi v R |court=HCA |year=2001 |num=25 |access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> but it is broadly recognised by State and Federal Crimes Acts and Codes and is regarded by the courts as an important common law right and a part of the privilege against self-incrimination.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Traditional Rights and Freedoms -Encroachments by Commonwealth Law |journal=ALRC Interim Report |date=July 2015 |issue=127 |pages= |doi= |pmid= |url=https://www.alrc.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/alrc_127_interim_report.pdf |access-date=19 June 2021 |publisher=Australian Law Reform Commission |isbn= 978-0-9943202-0-9}}</ref> In general, criminal suspects in Australia have the right to refuse to answer questions posed to them by police before trial and to refuse to give evidence at trial. As a general rule judges cannot direct juries to draw [[adverse inference]]s from a defendant's silence (''Petty v R'') but there are exceptions to this rule, most notably in cases which rely entirely on [[circumstantial evidence]] which it is only possible for the defendant to testify about (''Weissensteiner v R''). This exception has been abolished in Victoria by sections 42 and 44 of the ''Jury Directions Act 2015''. The right does not apply to corporations (''EPA v Caltex'').

Within Australia, the right to silence derives from [[common law|common law's]] [[Companion rule (Australian Criminal law)|Companion rule]]. The basic position is [[adverse inference]] may not be drawn about the defendant's culpability, where he/she does not answer police questions. While this is the common law position, it is buttressed by various legislative provisions. Some investigations can strip the right, such as those undertaken by the [[Independent Commission Against Corruption (New South Wales)|Independent Commission Against Corruption]].

===Bangladesh===
[[Constitution of Bangladesh#Amendments|Article 33]] of the [[Constitution of Bangladesh]] discusses the rights of the arrested and detained; no right to silence is mentioned either in the Constitution<ref name=bd1>{{cite web|title=Constitution of Bangladesh: Chapter III|url=http://www.pmo.gov.bd/pmolib/constitution/part3.htm|publisher=Prime Minister's Office|access-date=2 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524221035/http://www.pmo.gov.bd/pmolib/constitution/part3.htm|archive-date=24 May 2013}}</ref> or the [[Bangladesh Penal Code]],<ref name=bd2>{{cite web|title=The State of Human Rights in Eleven Asian Nations – 2007|url=http://www.ahrchk.net/pub/pdf/TheStateofHRin11AsianNations2007.pdf|publisher=Asian Human Rights Commission|access-date=2 October 2011}}</ref> except in Article 35(4) of the Constitution, which protects individuals from self-implication.<ref name=bd1 /><ref name=bd3 /> To facilitate protection from self-implication, Bangladesh Penal Code makes an exception in cases of confessions, in which case, the Magistrate obtaining a confession under Section 164 ''must'' explain the confessor's right to silence, and must attest to the fact that the rights of the confessor were read out to him and explained, and the confessor waived his right of silence.<ref name=bd3>{{cite news|last=Azad|first=Mak|title=Do citizens get the protection provided by the constitution?|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2007/10/03/index.htm|access-date=2 October 2011|newspaper=The Daily Star|date=3 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029053147/http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2007/10/03/index.htm|archive-date=29 October 2007}}</ref>

Article 33 of the [[Constitution of Bangladesh]] compels arresting authorities to inform the accused of the accusations brought against him before he is detained,<ref name=bd>{{cite web|title=Constitution of Bangladesh: Chapter III |url=http://www.pmo.gov.bd/pmolib/constitution/part3.htm |publisher=Prime Minister's Office |access-date=2 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524221035/http://www.pmo.gov.bd/pmolib/constitution/part3.htm |archive-date=24 May 2013 }}</ref> and that the detained must be presented to the nearest court within 24 hours.<ref name=bd /> Exceptions to this rule include preventive detention and the arrest of an [[enemy alien]].<ref name=bd /> Right to counsel is an inalienable right, but the arresting officer need not explicitly state it to the detained.

Article 35(4) of the Constitution protects individuals from self-implication.<ref name=bd /> Therefore, warnings ''must'' be read out to the detained person if he wants to voluntarily confess to the charges; in this case, a Magistrate must read and explain the confessor's right to silence and protection from self-implication, and attest to the fact that the rights of the confessor were read out to him and explained, and the confessor waived his right of silence.<ref name=bd4>{{cite news|last=Azad |first=Mak |title=Do citizens get the protection provided by the constitution? |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2007/10/03/index.htm |access-date=2 October 2011 |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=3 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725090324/http://thedailystar.net/law/2007/10/03/index.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008 }}</ref>

===Canada===
In Canada, the right to silence is protected under the common law confessions rule, and [[Section Seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|section 7]] and [[Section Eleven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|section 11(c)]] of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. The accused may not be compelled as a witness against himself in [[criminal proceedings]], and therefore only [[Voluntariness|voluntary]] statements made to [[policing in Canada|police]] are [[Admissible evidence|admissible]] as [[Evidence (law)|evidence]]. Prior to an accused being informed of their right to [[legal counsel]], any statements they make to police are considered involuntarily compelled and are inadmissible as evidence. After being informed of the right to counsel, the accused may choose to voluntarily answer questions and those statements would be admissible.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Dufraimont|first=Lisa|date=2008|title=The Common Law Confessions Rule in the Charter Era: Current Law and Future Directions|url=https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1116&context=sclr |access-date=14 November 2021 |publisher=Osgoode Hall Law School Digital Commons}}</ref>

These rights to silence exist only when the suspect is knowingly dealing with a person in authority. When the subject is unaware he is dealing with the police, such as in the case of an undercover operation, these protections do not exist unless the authority figure actively elicits a statement. Statements made to police officers during undercover operations almost always comply with the confessions rule unless the conduct of the police was deemed so egregious that it would "shock the community." However, section 7 rights might still become implicated in the case of elicitation, after which a court could only admit the statement [[Section 24 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|if it is satisfied that it would not bring the administration of justice into disrepute]].<ref name=":1" />

Under the Charter, an arrested person has the right:

* To be informed promptly of the reasons therefor.
* To retain and instruct counsel without delay and be informed of that right.
* To have the validity of the detention determined by way of [[habeas corpus]] and to be released if the detention is not lawful.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 1999|title=Charterpedia - Section 10(a) – Right to be informed of reasons for detention or arrest|url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/check/art10a.html|access-date=14 November 2021 |publisher=Department of Justice, Government of Canada}}</ref>

The Canadian Charter warning reads (varies by police service):

<blockquote>"You are under arrest for _________ (charge); do you understand? You have the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay. We will provide you with a toll-free telephone lawyer referral service, if you do not have your own lawyer. Anything you do say can and will be used in court as evidence. Do you understand? Would you like to speak to a lawyer?"</blockquote>

A more detailed version:

<blockquote>I am arresting you for (charge). It is my duty to inform you that you have the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay. You may call any lawyer you want. There is a 24-hour telephone service available which provides a legal aid [[duty lawyer]] who can give you legal advice in private. This advice is given without charge and the lawyer can explain the legal aid plan to you. If you wish to contact a legal aid duty lawyer, I can provide you with a telephone number. Do you understand? Do you want to call a lawyer? You are not obliged to say anything, but anything you do say may be given in evidence in court.</blockquote>

Section 14 of the Charter further provides that a translator must be made available so that the person can understand the proceedings against them. This right to a translator extends to the deaf. In [[Quebec]], the Charter warning is read in [[Canadian French]]. In [[New Brunswick]] and [[Ottawa]], the warning is read in either English or French, and the officer is required to ask the person's language of preference before issuing the warning.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 1999 |title=Charterpedia - Section 14 – Right to an interpreter |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/check/art14.html |access-date=14 November 2021 |publisher=Department of Justice, Government of Canada}}</ref> In the rest of Canada, the Charter warning is read in [[Canadian English]].

While [[Section 10 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Section 10(b)]] of the Charter guarantees the right to be provided legal counsel, Canadian law only entitles criminal suspects under the age of 18 to have counsel actually be present throughout the entire interrogation. Once an adult suspect has asserted their right to counsel, the police are obliged to hold off in attempting to obtain evidence until the suspect has had a reasonable opportunity to contact legal counsel. However, after that opportunity has been exhausted, there is no guarantee of further access until the interrogation is over. Additionally, even if the suspect directly asserts his decision to remain silent, the police may continue the interrogation. There is no automatic exclusion of evidence obtained after such an assertion, however it risks breaching the confessions rule if a court finds that it created reasonable doubt to whether the confession was obtained under "oppressive conditions," a determination which is made upon the totality of evidence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 1999|title=Charterpedia - Section 10(b) – Right to counsel|url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/check/art10b.html|access-date=14 November 2021 |publisher=Department of Justice, Government of Canada}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

A leading case on the right to silence in Canada is ''[[R v Singh|R. v. Singh]]'', where a person in police custody invoked his right to silence 18 times yet was continually questioned. In a 5–4 majority, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled that there was no ancillary right under section 7 to have the police stop questioning a suspect after the asserted their right to silence. The court did, however, acknowledge that repeated police questioning after a defendant has asserted their right to silence raises doubts regarding the admissibility of further evidence under the confessions rule, though that was not the finding in the case.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 2001|title=Supreme Court of Canada - SCC Case Information - Search |url=https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/2390/index.do |access-date=14 November 2021 |publisher=Supreme Court of Canada}}</ref> Another Supreme Court case, ''R. v. Hodgson'', clarified that the right to silence only applied to the state and could not be used to exclude confessions made to private actors.

Although an accused has the right to remain silent and may not be compelled to testify against themselves, where an accused freely chooses to take the [[witness box]] and testify, there is no further right to silence and no general restriction on what kinds of questions they may be required to answer. [[Section Thirteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Section 13]] of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] guarantees that witnesses may not have any incriminating evidence they gave as testimony used against them in separate proceedings. In effect, a person can be compelled to give involuntary self-incriminating evidence, but only where that evidence is to be used against a third party.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 1999|title=Charterpedia - Section 13 – Protection against self-incrimination |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/rfc-dlc/ccrf-ccdl/check/art13.html|access-date=14 November 2021 |publisher=Department of Justice, Government of Canada}}</ref>

In the past, most cases, except for certain sex offences or where the victims were children, spouses could not be compelled to testify against each other. However, after Bill C-32, The Victim's Bill of Rights Act, this is no longer the case. Spouses retain the right to assert privilege, and to refuse to answer questions about communications during the marriage.

=== China ===
The right of silence is not guaranteed by law in [[China]]. Article 93 of the Criminal Procedure Law states that "The criminal suspect shall answer the investigators' questions truthfully, but he shall have the right to refuse to answer any questions that are irrelevant to the case."<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 February 2004 |title=Criminal Procedure Law of China |url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/huiyi/lfzt/xsssfxg/2004-02/25/content_1666668.htm}}</ref> But since the 1996 amendments to the Criminal Procedure Law, Article 52 states that "It shall be strictly prohibited to extort confessions by torture, gather evidence by threat, enticement, deceit, or other illegal means, or force anyone to commit self-incrimination."<ref>{{cite web|date=27 October 2018|title=Criminal Procedure Law of China|url=https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2018-10/27/content_5334920.htm#5|access-date=14 May 2025|archive-date=22 April 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250422002948/https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2018-10/27/content_5334920.htm#5|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2012 the law was also re-amended to include clauses that protect human rights.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/china-amendment-of-criminal-procedure-law/|title= China: Amendment of Criminal Procedure Law |date=9 April 2012|website=www.loc.gov}}</ref> China has recognised the right against self-incrimination and forced confessions are prohibited by law. The signing of the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] in 1998, also guarantees Chinese citizens the right against self-incrimination, however the treaty has not been ratified in China.

=== Czech Republic ===
The [[Czech Republic]] protects the right to silence by two clauses in the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms]]. Article 37, clause 1 states that "everyone has the right to refuse a statement if he/she would cause risk of prosecution of himself/herself or a close person". In Article 40, clause 4, it is stated that "an accused person has the right to refuse a statement; he/she must not be deprived of this right in any way".<ref>[http://www.psp.cz/docs/laws/listina.html Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms] (cs)</ref>

===European Union===

Within the [[European Union]], a gradual process of [[Harmonisation of law|harmonising]] the laws of all the states of the Union has resulted in the adoption a common letter of rights that will apply to everyone across the European Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/justice-and-fundamental-rights/criminal-justice/rights-suspects-and-accused_en|title=Rights of suspects and accused|website=European Commission|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref> The agreed law—also known as "the Reding Rights" taking the name of the EU Justice Commissioner [[Viviane Reding]], who has proposed and negotiated the measure to become law across the entire European Union—will mean that suspects in the European Union will once detained receive a "Letter of Rights listing their basic rights during criminal proceedings".<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/12/575&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en |title= EU-wide right to information at arrest is now law |publisher= Europa.eu |access-date= 21 April 2013 |id= ([http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:142:0001:0010:EN:PDF link PDF])}}</ref>

The European law ensures that people suspected of a criminal offence receive adequate information about their basic rights during criminal proceedings. These are the right to a lawyer; to be informed of the charge; to interpretation and translation for those who do not understand the language of the proceedings; the right to remain silent and to be brought promptly before a court following arrest.

In particular, the law includes five innovations:

<blockquote><poem>Suspects will be informed of their rights following the arrest;
They will be given a "letter of rights" spelling out their rights in writing;
The letter of rights will be easy to understand, without legal jargon;
It will be made available in a language the suspect understands;
It will contain practical details about the person's rights.</poem></blockquote>

These rights are contained in a ''letter of rights''—"the Reding Rights"—a printed document given to suspects after they are detained and before interrogation.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Commission Press Release – Fair trial rights: Suspects to receive a 'letter of rights' in criminal proceedings following European Parliament vote|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-11-1534_en.htm?locale=en|work=European Commission|access-date=15 February 2014|date=13 December 2011}}</ref> The European Union law, proposed in July 2010 by the [[European Commission]], was adopted by the [[European Parliament]] and Council in December 2011. The European Union Directive was published officially on 1 June 2012 in the Official Journal of the European Union L 142, 1 June 2012.<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:142:SOM:EN:HTML Official Journal of the European Union L 142, 1.6.2012.].</ref> It became operational across the European Union by 2 June 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=See Article 11 in Official Journal of the European Union L 142/1: DIRECTIVE 2012/13/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 22 May 2012 on the right to information in criminal proceedings|work=Official Journal of the European Union|access-date=15 February 2014|date=1 June 2012|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:142:0001:0010:EN:PDF}}</ref>

=== European Convention on Human Rights ===
The concept of right to silence is not specifically mentioned in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] but the [[European Court of Human Rights]] has held that
<blockquote> the right to remain silent under police questioning and the privilege against self-incrimination are generally recognised international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under [[Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights|Article 6]].<ref>{{cite court
|litigants=Murray v. UK
|pinpoint=(1996) 22 EHRR 29, at para. [45]
|court=ECtHR
|year=1973
|url=http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=695857&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=F69A27FD8FB86142BF01C1166DEA398649 }}
</ref>
</blockquote>

===France===
{{See also|French criminal law}}
In France, any person brought in police custody (''[[Glossary of French criminal law#garde à vue|garde à vue]]'') must be informed of the maximal duration of the custody, and a number of rights, in a language that this person understands. Among these rights are: the possibility of warning a relative or employer of the custody, that of asking to be examined by a physician, and that of discussing the case with a lawyer.

The [[French Code of Criminal Procedure]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/cppsomA.htm|title=Legifrance - Le service public de l'accès au droit|date=22 April 2003|access-date=17 February 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030422150953/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/cppsomA.htm|archive-date=22 April 2003}}</ref> (art. L116) makes it compulsory that when an [[investigating judge (France)|investigating judge]] hears a suspect, he must warn him that he has the right to remain silent, to make a statement, or to answer questions. A person against which suspicions lay cannot legally be interrogated by justice as an ordinary witness.

At the actual trial, a defendant can be compelled to make a statement. However, the code also prohibits hearing a suspect under oath; thus, a suspect may say whatever he feels fit for his defence, without fear of sanction for [[perjury]]. This prohibition is extended to the suspect's spouse and members of his close family (this extension of the prohibition may be waived if both the [[prosecution]] and the [[Defense (legal)|defence]] [[counsel]] agree to the waiver).

Since 15 April 2011,<ref>[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000023860729 Loi n° 2011-392 du 14 avril 2011 relative à la garde à vue].</ref> any person held by the police has new rights:

* The person is immediately informed by a police officer, or in the presence of one, in a language that he can understand, that (Article 3):
** he has the right to ask assistance of a lawyer (63-3-1 to 63-4-3 of Penal Procedure code);
** he has the right, after answering questions about his identity, to answer other questions or to remain silent.
* From the beginning of custody, the person can ask for the assistance of a lawyer (Article 6).
* The conversation with the lawyer has to remain confidential (Article 7).
* The lawyer has the right to access some of the documents related to the procedure and to be present at any police interview of the suspect made by the police (Article 8).

Witnesses under indictment (or who are cited as suspects) cannot be heard under oath, and thus do not risk prosecution for [[perjury]]. Such witnesses must be assisted by an attorney, and must be informed of these rights when heard by the judiciary. Suspects brought before a Juge d'instruction must be informed of their right to remain silent, to make statements, or to answer questions. In all cases, an attorney can be designated by the head of the [[bar (law)|bar]] if necessary.

===Germany===
According to § 136 {{ill|Strafprozessordnung (Germany)|lt=Strafprozessordnung|de|Strafprozessordnung (Deutschland)}} (StPO, i.e. [[Criminal Procedure Code]]) a suspect, arrested or not, has to be informed before any interrogation about their right to remain silent. Though the police and courts may not draw inference from the complete silence of the accused in any stage of criminal proceedings, inference may be drawn if the accused is selectively silent. Suspects cannot be heard under oath.

Before any interrogation begins a suspect, arrested or not, must be informed:

* Of the crime for which he is charged
* About his right to remain silent
* About his right to consult an attorney before the interview
* About his right to name any evidence in his favour

Foreign suspects have the following additional rights:

* Translation assistance, and
* Consular assistance

A person against which exist plausible causes of suspicion can be interrogated as an ordinary witness in criminal proceedings against another person. However, in this case according to § 55 StPO, the witness can refuse to answer questions which could incriminate themselves (or one of their relatives). The suspicious witness also must be cautioned about the right to remain silent. Suspicious witnesses cannot be heard under oath.

However, the German constitutional court has decided that the much more strict UK laws, in which complete silence of the accused can be used against him depending on additional evidence, are compatible with the German constitution. Thus, Germany may extradite persons to the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lawblog.de/index.php/archives/2016/09/14/bis-aufs-stuetzgeruest/|title=Bis aufs Stützgerüst|date=14 September 2016 |access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> It also implies that changing the German laws towards those of the UK would not violate the German constitution.

=== Hong Kong ===
The right to silence is protected according to the [[Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance]] and [[common law]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legco.gov.hk/yr05-06/english/panels/se/papers/se0103cb2-754-04-e.pdf|title=Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Taking of Statements: Caution Statement|access-date=22 November 2019}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong Legal Information Institute (HKLII) |url=https://www.hklii.hk/en/legis/ord/383/s8 |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=www.hklii.hk}}</ref> The "Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Taking of Statements" (Rules and Directions), promulgated by the then [[Secretary for Security]] in 1992, stipulate that the caution to be used to remind a suspect of his right to remain silent when he is questioned. The statement can be read in English, [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] or [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]:<ref>{{cite web|author=Department of Justice (Hong Kong) |author2=Security Bureau (Hong Kong) |title=Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Taking of Statements: Caution Statement |date=December 2005 |page=5 |access-date=17 May 2011 |ref=CB(2)754/05-06(04) |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr05-06/english/panels/se/papers/se0103cb2-754-04-e.pdf|author-link=Department of Justice (Hong Kong) |author2-link=Security Bureau (Hong Kong) }}</ref>

<blockquote> English: "You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but what you say may be put into writing and given in evidence."</blockquote>

<blockquote> Cantonese: 「唔係勢必要你講嘅，除非你自己想講喇，但係你所講嘅野，可能用筆寫低及用嚟做證供嘅。」</blockquote>

<blockquote> Mandarin: 「你不一定要說話，除非你有話要說。但是，你說的話可能會寫下來及用作證據。」</blockquote>
This is similar to the caution given in England and Wales prior to the passage of the [[Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Loh, Christine|url=https://www.scmp.com/article/100317/we-must-keep-our-right-silence|title=We must keep our right to silence|work=[[South China Morning Post]]|date=19 December 1994|access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref>

The Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance states that all persons accused of a crime cannot be compelled to testify against themselves nor admit guilt.<ref name=":3" />

According to Jessica Wing-kay Chiu ({{Langx|zh|趙穎琦}}), then a PhD candidate of the [[University of Hong Kong]], the law does not codify the exact procedure for law enforcement to serve a notice to the right to silence.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chiu, Jessica Wing Kay|title=Criminal Interrogation and the Right to Remain Silent – A Study of the Hong Kong Customs Service |journal=[[International Journal of Police Science & Management]]|volume=11|issue=2|year=2009|pages=217–235 |doi=10.1350/ijps.2009.11.2.127|hdl=10722/193572|s2cid=146426913 |hdl-access=free}} - [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1350/ijps.2009.11.2.127 PDF file]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=HKU Scholars Hub: Browsing DSpace |url=https://hub.hku.hk/browse?type=author&value=Chiu,+Wing-kay,+Jessica. |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=hub.hku.hk}}</ref>

===India===
The [[Constitution of India]] guarantees every person the right against self incrimination under Article 20 (3): "No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself".
It is well established that the Right against self incrimination has been granted to the accused by virtue of the pronouncement in the case of Nandini Sathpathy vs P. L. Dani, no one can forcibly extract statements from the accused, who has the right against self incrimination, not only in the court of law but also during interrogation.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://legalfly.in/nandini-satpathy-v-pldani-case-right-to-silence/#:~:text=P.L.%20Dani-,Nandini%20Satpathy%20v.,her%20position%20while%20in%20office | title=Nandini Satpathy V. P.L. Dani: Battle for Right to Silence | date=8 March 2024 }}</ref> In 2010, the Supreme court found that forced narco-analysis, [[brain mapping]] and lie detector tests violate Article 20(3).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Forced-narco-tests-illegal-Supreme-Court/articleshow/5895005.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717034037/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-06/india/28298738_1_narco-analysis-sc-ruling-move-court |url-status=live |archive-date=2012-07-17 |title=Forced narco tests illegal: Supreme Court |date= 6 May 2010|newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=21 December 2011}}</ref>

===Israel===
In [[Israel]], according to Sections 28 (Hearing arguments of the detainee) and Section 31 (Explanation of rights to the detainee) of the Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authority—Arrests) 1996, an officer interrogating/arresting a suspect must duly warn him first that he does not have to say any thing that may incriminate him, and that any thing he will say may be used against him. According to Israeli law, the exercise of the right to remain silent may be considered as supplemental evidence in most cases, and this fact also needs to be explained to the suspect.<ref>Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authority—Arrests) 1996 section 28 [http://www.nevo.co.il/law_html/law01/055_103.htm#Seif17] (in Hebrew).</ref> Also the officer needs to inform the suspect that he has the right to notify a family member or acquaintance and a lawyer of his arrest, his right for counsel, and the duration he can be held before he is released or brought before a judge.<ref>Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authority—Arrests) 1996 section 31 [http://www.nevo.co.il/law_html/law01/055_103.htm#Seif21] (in Hebrew).</ref>

Israeli law has not adopted the "[[Fruit of the poisonous tree|Fruits of the Poisoned Tree]]" doctrine, and flaws in the process of collecting it affect only the weight of tainted evidence. However, in Criminal Appeal 5121/98, ''Issaharov v. The Military Prosecutor'', a court of nine ruled that the defendant's confession, given without proper warning regarding the right of representation, was not considered as given with consent and free will, and was not accepted by the court.

===Japan===
{{Expand Japanese|黙秘権#日本|date=June 2022|section=yes}}
According to the [[Constitution of Japan]] under Article 38(1), no person is forced to testify against themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=George, Jr. |first=B. |date=1 June 1968 |title=The "Right of Silence" in Japanese Law |url=https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wlr/vol43/iss5/14 |journal=Washington Law Review |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=1147}}</ref>

===Latvia===
In Latvia, the [[Criminal procedure law]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=107820|title=Kriminālprocesa likums|website=LIKUMI.LV|access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> ({{Lang|lv|Kriminālprocesa likums}}) (sections 60.2, 150, 265, and more) sets out a right for anyone against whom criminal proceedings has been initiated or suspicions raised to remain silent. Upon arrest and before first interrogation of a person against whom any (official or unofficial) suspicion has been raised in a criminal case, such person must be warned of his or her right to remain silent, and that everything such person says may be used against that person in a criminal proceedings. Witnesses, victims and persons whose property rights has been affected by criminal proceedings has a right not to incriminate oneself and his or her relatives and not to give any information that is directly or indirectly self-incriminating or may incriminate such persons' relatives. Refusal to testify or answer all or any questions on the basis of right against self-incrimination cannot be used against such person in any way or be used as evidence of guilt. No judge, prosecutor, investigator or any other public body may draw adverse inferences about a person from exercising a right against self-incrimination. Outside criminal proceedings right against self-incrimination is honoured as long-standing unwritten general principle of law in all quasi-criminal (such as administrative offence law) and public proceedings, which has been repeatedly upheld by legal precedent and case law.

===Netherlands===
In the Netherlands, each accused suspect has the right to remain silent to questions of the police and the prosecutor, during interrogation or investigation at the hearing. According to Dutch law, only the police officer will read the rights of the suspect in the police station. Security guards have the right to put somebody under arrest, but they have to hand over the suspect immediately to the police officer who will read the rights of the suspect later in the station. The rights are: to remain silent, the right to have an attorney, the right to have access to some files coming from the criminal dossier, and the right to make contact to an attorney.

The accused must co-operate in providing material which exists independent of the will of a suspect. For example, a suspect must co-operate in giving a blood, breath, or DNA sample. A suspect can also be compelled to provide biometric access to electronic devices.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A pragmatic attitude: The right to silence in the Netherlands - Peggy ter Vrugt, 2021|journal=New Journal of European Criminal Law |date=September 2021 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=389–407 |doi=10.1177/20322844211028312 |last1=Ter Vrugt |first1=Peggy |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== New Zealand ===
In New Zealand, the right of persons arrested to refrain from making a statement and to be informed of that right is contained in the [[New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990|Bill of Rights Act 1990]], as further reflected in a practice note on police questioning issued in 2006, by then [[Chief Justice of New Zealand|Chief Justice]] [[Sian Elias]]. The [[Evidence Act 2006]] explicitly prohibits the inference of guilt in a criminal proceeding from a defendant exercising their right to silence.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Evidence Act 2006 No 69 (as at 11 October 2013), Public Act Contents – New Zealand Legislation|url = http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2006/0069/latest/DLM393463.html|website = www.legislation.govt.nz|access-date = 27 September 2015}}</ref> At common law the leading case is ''[[Taylor v New Zealand Poultry Board]]'' where [[Robin Cooke, Baron Cooke of Thorndon|Justice Cooke]] held, "The starting point ... [is], unless an [[Act of Parliament]] imposes or authorises the imposition of a duty to the contrary, every citizen has in general a right to refuse to answer questions from anyone, including an official."<ref name="ReferenceC">''Taylor v New Zealand Poultry Board'' [1984] 1 NZLR 394 at 398.</ref>

The obligation to caution arises when:

* a suspect is in custody;
* when police have enough evidence to believe the person has committed an offence;
* when detained, such as for the execution of a statutory or common law power of search or in the execution of drink driving investigations;
* other situations as dictated by statute or case law.

The caution to be given to adults is as follows:<ref>New Zealand Police Cautions Rights version 9</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Multilingual Rights Caution |url=https://www.police.govt.nz/sites/default/files/publications/police-multilingual-rights-cautions.pdf |access-date=6 April 2024 |website=New Zealand Police}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|I am speaking to you about/You have been detained for/You have been arrested for [offence]. You have the right to remain silent. You do not have to make any statement. Anything you say will be recorded and may be given in evidence in court. You have the right to speak with a lawyer without delay and in private before deciding to answer any questions. Police have a list of lawyers you may speak to for free.}}

The caution in [[Māori language|Māori]] is as follows:<ref name=":2" />

{{Blockquote|Kei te kōrero au ki a koe mō te/Kua mau koe e te ture mō te/Kua hopu koe e te ture mō te ''[offence]''. He tika tāu ki te noho wahangū. Kāore he here i runga i a koe ki te whakaputa kōrero. Ka hopukina ō kōrero, ā, tērā pea ka whakaputahia hei taunakitanga i te kōti. He tika tāu ki te kōrero wawe ki tētahi rōia i roto i te tapu i mua i te whakarite ki te whakautu pātai. He rārangi rōia tā ngā pirihimana hei kōrerotanga māu mō te kore utu. }}

===Norway===

According to Straffeprosessloven (Criminal Procedures Code), a defendant cannot be obliged to testify(§90). Further; no promises, inaccurate information, threats or coercion can be used. The same applies to any means which reduces the defendants consciousness or his ability to [[self-determination]]. Any interrogation must not have as a goal to wear out the defendant(§92). However, if the defendant decides not to testify, the judge may advise him that it may in certain circumstances be held against him(§93).

In general, anyone is required to appear before the courts and give testimony, except dictated otherwise by the law(§108) 
There are some notable exceptions: 
§119: The court may not hear evidence from a priest in the Norwegian Church, or indeed any priest or similar in any registered faith, lawyers, defence attorneys, arbitrators in marriage affairs, medical doctors, psychologists, nurses, midwives or apothecaries, except with the explicit permission of the person entitled to silence, concerning anything they have learnt during the performance of their function. The above does not apply if testimony is required to prevent someone from being wrongfully convicted(§119). Catholic priests have refused to testify about information obtained in confession even in these cases, and the Supreme Court has not sanctioned this. 
§121: Even if the relationship is not regulated by §119, the courts may relieve a witness of the duty to testify concerning information obtained in counselling, social work, medical care, judicial assistance "or similar". 
§122: A defendants spouse, relatives in directly ascending or descending order, siblings and their spouses are not required to give testimony. The same applies to separated or divorced spouses, or people living in a "marriage like" relationship, e.g. common-law marriages. The court may extend this right to fiancees, foster-parents/children/siblings. 
§123: A witness may refuse to answer questions leading to self-incrimination either for the witness itself, or for anyone related to the witness as described by §122. 
§124: A witness may refuse to answer questions relating to business secrets. The court may oblige the witness to testify after consideration. 
§125: The editor of a printed magazine/newspaper may refuse to divulge the writer of any articles in his journal, or sources for its content. 

===Pakistan===
Article 13 of the 1973 [[Constitution of Pakistan]] protects a person, when accused of an offence, from self-incrimination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paksearch.com/Government/LAWS/CONSTITUTION/COPII.html |title=The Constitution of PakiStan |publisher=PakSearch.com |access-date=21 December 2011}}</ref>

===Philippines===
The [[1987 Constitution of the Philippines]], in section 12(1) of Article 3 (Bill of Rights), states:<ref name="silent">{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/|title=The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines {{!}} Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|date=17 June 2016|access-date=22 November 2019|archive-date=5 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105085906/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and independent counsel preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence of counsel.|}}

This was expanded into a caution during arrest under [[List of Philippine laws|Republic Act]] 7438.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1992/ra_7438_1992.html|title=R.A. 7438|date=22 April 1992|work=The LawPhil Project|access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref> Previously, informing arrested persons of their rights occurred long after arrest, if it ever occurred at all.
{{Blockquote|text=Any public officer or employee, or anyone acting under his order or his place, who arrests, detains or investigates any person for the commission of an offense shall inform the latter, in a language known to and understood by him, of his rights to remain silent and to have competent and independent counsel, preferably of his own choice, who shall at all times be allowed to confer privately with the person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation. If such person cannot afford the services of his own counsel, he must be provided with a competent and independent counsel by the investigating officer.|source=Section 2(b), RA7438}}

Section 17 of the Bill of Rights further states that "[n]o person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself",<ref name="silent"/> meaning a person has the right not to serve as a witness in cases in which they are the [[defendant]] so as to avoid [[self-incrimination]].

Punishments for law enforcement officers who fail to read suspects their rights, under RA7438, are severe: besides a fine of 6,000 Philippine pesos, officials may be jailed for between eight and ten years.

In the 1999 case People vs Mahinay, G.R. No. 122485,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sc.judiciary.gov.ph/jurisprudence/1999/feb99/122485.htm|title=People vs Mahinay : 122485 : February 1, 1999 : Per Curiam: En Banc|date=1 February 1999|website=sc.judiciary.gov.ph|publisher=Supreme Court of the Philippines|access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref> the [[Supreme Court of the Philippines]] was asked to consider the case of Larry Mahinay y Amparado, a man [[Conviction|convicted]] of the [[rape]] and [[murder]] of a 12-year-old girl, the neighbour of his employer. Mahinay [[Confession|confessed]] but later retracted his confession, claiming that he made it due to [[fear]] surrounding his imprisonment and not actual [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]]. Mahinay claimed that the police officers attacked him and threatened to kill him if he would not confess, and they did not inform him of his right to remain silent until after he had already confessed and all that remained was to sign the confession.

There was no physical evidence to back up Mahinay's claims, and his attorney claimed that Mahinay was read his rights before he confessed. In its decision to affirm Mahinay's conviction, the court declared:

{{Blockquote|text=There being no evidence presented to show that said confession were obtained as a result of violence, torture, maltreatment, intimidation, threat or promise of reward or leniency nor that the investigating officer could have been motivated to concoct the facts narrated in said affidavit; the confession of the accused is held to be true, correct and freely or voluntarily given.|}}

But the court also declared the following, which has since become a landmark decision in the [[rights of the accused]] in the Philippines, and is sometimes referred to as the ''Mahinay doctrine'':

{{Blockquote|text=It is high-time to educate our law-enforcement agencies who neglect either by ignorance or indifference the so-called [[Miranda rights]] which had become insufficient and which the Court must update in the light of new legal developments:

# The person arrested, detained, invited or under custodial investigation must be informed in a language known to and understood by him of the reason for the arrest and he must be shown the warrant of arrest, if any; Every other warnings, information or communication must be in a language known to and understood by said person;
# He must be warned that he has a right to remain silent and that any statement he makes may be used as evidence against him;
# He must be informed that he has the right to be assisted at all times and have the presence of an independent and competent lawyer, preferably of his own choice;
# He must be informed that if he has no lawyer or cannot afford the services of a lawyer, one will be provided for him; and that a lawyer may also be engaged by any person in his behalf, or may be appointed by the court upon petition of the person arrested or one acting in his behalf;
# ...|}}

No court or legislature has as yet determined the exact wording of the caution to be presented to arrested persons. As such, the [[Philippine National Police]] has created their own version. According to the 2010 edition of the official PNP manual, "''every police officer, either on board a mobile car, motorcycle or on foot patrol must always carry with him a police notebook, a pen and the Miranda Warning card. The notebook, which is approximately pocket-sized, will be used to inscribe important events that transpire during his tour of duty.''"<ref>{{Cite book|title=Philippine National Police Operational Procedures|last=CARO II|first=ANDRES G|publisher=Philippine National Police|year=2010|location=Quezon City|pages=19|url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/Philippines/Philippine%20National%20Police%20Manual%202010.pdf}}</ref>

The version in use by the PNP reads:<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bartolome|first1=Tin|title=OPINION: Miranda warning|url=https://www.abs-cbn.com/blogs/opinions/08/25/16/opinion-miranda-warning|access-date=23 September 2016|work=[[ABS-CBN News]]|issue=25 August 2016|publisher=[[ABS-CBN Corporation|ABS-CB]]}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://pro13.pnp.gov.ph/?p=1281|title=Reminders on the Recital of Miranda Warning and Anti-Torture Warning|last=MILAN|first=JUDE CRES GIDO|date=24 February 2016|publisher=Philippine National Police Regional Office 13 Camp Rafael C Rodriguez}}</ref>

{{Translation table|lang1code=en|lang2code=tl|'''Miranda warning''' You are arrested for the crime of _________ (or by virtue of Warrant of Arrest, showing him the warrant as it is practicable) You have the right to remain silent. Any statement you make may be used for or against you in a court of law . You have the right to have a competent and independent counsel preferably of your own choice, and if you cannot afford the services of a counsel, the government will provide you one. Do you understand these rights?|Ikaw ay inaaresto sa salang _________ (o sa pamamagitan ng kautusan ng pag-aresto, ipakita ito kung nararapat). Ikaw ay may karapatang manahimik o magsawalang kibo. Anuman ang iyong sabihin ay maaring gamitin pabor o laban sa iyo sa anumang hukuman. Ikaw ay mayroon ding karapatang kumuha ng tagapagtanggol na iyong pinili at kung wala kang kakayahan, ito ay ipagkakaloob sa iyo ng pamahalaan. Nauunawaan mo ba ito?|'''Anti-torture warning<ref>{{cite web|title=PNP on Twitter: Anti-torture warning|url=https://twitter.com/pnphotline/status/509988167718428672|website=Twitter|publisher=Official account of Philippine National Police on Twitter|access-date=24 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=PURISIMA|first1=ALAN LA MADRID|title=PNP GUIDEBOOK ON HUMAN RIGHTS BASED-POLICING|publisher=Philippine National Police|location=Quezon City|pages=69–70|edition=2013|url=http://www.hss.de/fileadmin/suedostasien/philippines/downloads/2014/141022-PNP-Guidebook-on-human-rights-based-policing-2013.pdf|access-date=24 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020095358/http://www.hss.de/fileadmin/suedostasien/philippines/downloads/2014/141022-PNP-Guidebook-on-human-rights-based-policing-2013.pdf|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>''' You have the right to demand physical examination by an independent and competent doctor of your choice. If you cannot afford the services of a doctor, the state shall provide one for you.|Ikaw ay may karapatang magpatingin sa isang mapagkakatiwalaang doktor na sarili mong pinili. Kung wala kang kakayahang kumuha ng iyong doktor, ikaw ay pagkakalooban ng libre ng estado o pamahalaan.}}

Various regional offices of the PNP use translations in other [[Languages of the Philippines|languages spoken in the Philippines]] depending on the [[jurisdiction]] of the office. In 2012, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] [[Donation|donated]] 15,000 cards to the PNP, and commissioned the [[translation]] of the warning into two more languages, [[Visayan languages|Visaya]] and [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], shown on the front of the card along with the Filipino version above.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abs-cbn.com/nation/metro-manila/02/09/12/miranda-rights-cards-be-distributed-cops|title=Miranda rights cards to be distributed to cops|newspaper=Abs-CBN News |publisher=ABS-CBN|language=en-US|access-date=24 September 2016}}</ref>

Due to the increasing numbers of [[arrest]]s of [[foreign national]]s during [[Rodrigo Duterte|President Rodrigo Duterte]]'s [[Oplan Double Barrel]], the [[Human Rights Affairs Office]] (PNP-HRAO) of the Philippine National Police in [[Camp Crame|Camp Crame, Quezon City]] has further translated the Miranda warning into four foreign languages: [[Standard Chinese|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hrao.pnp.gov.ph/index.php/latest-news/38-hrao-to-translate-miranda-warning-and-anti-torture-act-in-four-foreign-languages|title=HRAO to translate Miranda Warning and Anti-Torture Act in Four Foreign Languages|last=Nagrampa|first=Hershey B|website=hrao.pnp.gov.ph|access-date=24 September 2016}}</ref> Distribution of the translated warnings to law enforcement officers will occur via a publicly available mobile app, according to the officer-in-charge of PNP-HRAO, [[Police rank#Philippines|Sr. Supt.]] Dennis Siervo.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2015/08/27/1492692/pnp-translating-miranda-rights-4-foreign-languages|title=PNP translating Miranda Rights into 4 foreign languages|last=Felipe|first=Cecille Suerte|date=27 August 2015|work=The Philippine STAR}}</ref>

According to the website of the [[Philippine National Police]] Regional Office 13, at [[Camp Rafael C Rodriguez]] in [[Butuan]], failure to recite either the Miranda or anti-torture warnings above can result in "dismissal of the case against the suspect and filing of administrative case for the arresting police [officer]."<ref name=":0" />

=== Republic of Ireland ===
In the Republic of Ireland, the Supreme Court held that the right was not only a common law right but also a constitutional right which might however be validly limited by legislation (O'Leary v AG [1995] 1 IR 254).

In this jurisdiction, a number of statutory measures have re-interpreted the right to silence, such as the Criminal Justice Act 1984, the Criminal Justice (Drug Trafficking) Act, 1998, the Offences Against the State (Amendment) Act, 1998 and the Criminal Justice Act 2006, as amended. The general effect of some of these measures is to provide for adverse inferences to be drawn against a suspect who declines to answer certain questions or mention certain matters while being questioned in [[Garda Síochána|Garda]] custody.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Daly | first1=Yvonne M. | title=Ireland: Curtailment of the right to silence through statutory adverse inferences | journal=New Journal of European Criminal Law | date=2021 | volume=12 | issue=3 | pages=347–364 | doi=10.1177/20322844211028308 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/20322844211028308 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Russian Federation===
Clause 1 of the article 51<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.ru/10003000/10003000-4.htm|title=Глава 2. Права и свободы человека и гражданина - Конституция Российской Федерации|website=www.constitution.ru|access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> of the [[Constitution of Russia|Russian Constitution]] grants everyone the right to not witness against either themselves or against their spouses and close relatives. As the decision whether or not an answer to a particular question would lead to (self)incrimination is left to the discretion of the person being questioned, this clause allows to remain silent at any time.

===South Africa===
The [[Constitution of South Africa]] requires that any arrested person be informed of their right to remain silent and the consequences of not remaining silent, their right to choose and consult with a legal practitioner, and their right to have a legal practitioner assigned to the detained person by the state and at state expense if substantial injustice would otherwise result.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-2-bill-rights#35|title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, section 35|website=www.gov.za}}</ref> The [[South African Police Service]] rules prescribe that arrested people be given a Form 14A "Notice of Rights in Terms of the Constitution" which describes these and other rights of arrested people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.daggacouple.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Notice-of-rights-SAPS14A.jpg |title=SAPS 14A |access-date=27 July 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817123511/https://www.daggacouple.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Notice-of-rights-SAPS14A.jpg |url-status=dead }}</ref>

According to [[Chapter 2 of the Constitution of South Africa#Arrested.2C detained and accused persons|Section 35]] of the [[Constitution of South Africa|Constitution of 1996]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#35 |title=Section 35 of the South African constitution |publisher=Info.gov.za |date=19 August 2009 |access-date=21 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm |archive-date=17 November 2013 }}</ref> ("Arrested, detained and accused persons") states:

<blockquote>
# Everyone who is arrested for allegedly committing an offence has the right
#* to remain silent;
#* to be informed promptly
#** of the right to remain silent; and
#** of the consequences of not remaining silent;
#* not to be compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against that person;
</blockquote>

and later in the section:

<blockquote>
* Every accused person has a right to a fair trial, which includes the right
** . ...
** not to be compelled to give self-incriminating evidence;
</blockquote>

===Spain===
In Spain, according to the ''Ley de Enjuiciamiento Criminal'' (Penal procedure code) article 520.2, the suspect must be informed of the charges leading to his/her detention, as well as the reasons for being deprived of his/her freedom. Additionally, the individual must be advised of the following rights:

* Right to remain silent, to answer only questions of his/her choosing, or to express their desire to make a statement only in front of a judge.
* Right not to give evidence against him/herself, as well as not to confess his/her guilt.
* Right to legal representation by a private or state-funded attorney, which will assist him during hearings and procedures.
* Right to inform a member of his/her family or a person of his/her choosing regarding the detention as well as their location, at any moment of the proceedings. Foreigners have the right to contact their consulate in Spain.
* Right to request the services of an interpreter, at no cost, when the foreign national does not speak Spanish.
* Right to undergo a medical examination by the forensic doctor.

===Switzerland===
Article 158 of the unified Swiss code of [[criminal procedure]], which entered into force in 2011,<ref>[http://www.bj.admin.ch/bj/de/home/dokumentation/medieninformationen/2008/ref_2008-09-100.html Medienmitteilung EJDP, 10.09.2008] {{webarchive|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20140714223915/https://www.bj.admin.ch//bj/de/home/dokumentation/medieninformationen/2008/ref_2008-09-100.html |date=14 July 2014 }}.</ref> establishes that the results of an interrogation may not be used unless the accused has been informed that:

* he/she is the subject of a criminal investigation for some specific infractions,
* he/she has the right to remain silent and not to cooperate with police,
* he/she has the right to legal representation by a private or state-funded attorney, and
* he/she has the right to request the services of an interpreter.

The [[Swiss cantons|cantonal]] codes of procedure, which remain in force until 2011, generally contain similar provisions.

===Thailand===
Sections 83 and 84 of the Thai Code of Criminal Procedure, which have been amended by the Act Amending the Criminal Procedure Code (No. 22), BE 2547 (2004), require the police officers who conduct the arrests to inform the arrestees of their right against self-incrimination.

Paragraph two of section 83 reads:<ref>"ในกรณีที่เจ้าพนักงานเป็นผู้จับ ต้องแจ้งข้อกล่าวหาให้ผู้ถูกจับทราบ หากมีหมายจับให้แสดงต่อผู้ถูกจับ พร้อมทั้งแจ้งด้วยว่า ผู้ถูกจับมีสิทธิที่จะไม่ให้การหรือให้การก็ได้และถ้อยคำของผู้ถูกจับนั้นอาจใช้เป็นพยานหลักฐานในการพิจารณาคดีได้และผู้ถูกจับมีสิทธิที่จะพบและปรึกษาทนายความ หรือผู้ซึ่งจะเป็นทนายความ ถ้าผู้ถูกจับประสงค์จะแจ้งให้ญาติหรือผู้ซึ่งตนไว้วางใจทราบถึงการจับกุมที่สามารถดำเนินการได้โดยสะดวกและไม่เป็นการขัดขวางการจับหรือการควบคุมผู้ถูกจับหรือทำให้เกิดความไม่ปลอดภัยแก่บุคคลหนึ่งบุคคลใด ก็ให้เจ้าพนักงานอนุญาตให้ผู้ถูกจับดำเนินการได้ตามสมควรแก่กรณี ในการนี้ให้เจ้าพนักงานผู้จับนั้นบันทึกการจับดังกล่าวไว้ด้วย</ref>

<blockquote>In cases an arrest is conducted by an officer, the officer must inform the arrestee of the charge, produce to him a warrant of arrest, if any, and enlighten him that ''he has the right to remain silent, that anything he says can and will be used as evidence in a trial, and that he also has the right to meet and confer with a counsel or person to become his counsel.'' If the arrestee wishes to inform his relative or intimate of his arrest and the fulfillment of his wish would not be difficult and not be disruptive to his arrest or restraint or detrimental to any person, the officer shall allow the arrestee to so fulfill to the extent reasonable according to the circumstances. In this respect, the arresting officer shall also draw up a record of arrest.</blockquote>

While paragraph one of section 84 prescribes:<ref>"เจ้าพนักงานหรือราษฎรผู้ทำการจับต้องเอาตัวผู้ถูกจับไปยังที่ทำการของพนักงานสอบสวนตามมาตรา ๘๓ โดยทันที และเมื่อถึงที่นั้นแล้ว ให้ส่งตัวผู้ถูกจับแก่พนักงานฝ่ายปกครองหรือตำรวจของที่ทำการของพนักงานสอบสวนดังกล่าว เพื่อดำเนินการดังต่อไปนี้ 

(๑) ในกรณีที่เจ้าพนักงานเป็นผู้จับให้เจ้าพนักงานผู้จับนั้นแจ้งข้อกล่าวหา และรายละเอียดเกี่ยวกับเหตุแห่งการจับให้ผู้ถูกจับทราบ ถ้ามีหมายจับให้แจ้งให้ผู้ถูกจับทราบและอ่านให้ฟังและมอบสำเนาบันทึกการจับแก่ผู้ถูกจับนั้น 
(๒) ในกรณีที่ราษฎรเป็นผู้จับ ให้พนักงานฝ่ายปกครองหรือตำรวจซึ่งรับมอบตัวบันทึกชื่อ อาชีพ ที่อยู่ของผู้จับ อีกทั้งข้อความและพฤติการณ์แห่งการจับนั้นไว้ และให้ผู้จับลงลายมือชื่อกำกับไว้เป็นสำคัญเพื่อดำเนินการแจ้งข้อกล่าวหาและรายละเอียดแห่งการจับให้ผู้ถูกจับทราบและแจ้งให้ผู้ถูกจับทราบด้วยว่าผู้ถูกจับมีสิทธิที่จะไม่ให้การหรือให้การก็ได้ และถ้อยคำของผู้ถูกจับอาจใช้เป็นพยานหลักฐานในการพิจารณาคดีได้"</ref>

{{Blockquote|An officer or private citizen conducting an arrest must without delay bring the arrestee to the judicial police office under section 83. Upon arriving there, the arrestee must be delivered to an administrative or police officer thereof to further be dealt with as follows:

(2) In cases the arrest is conducted by a private citizen, the administrative or police officer receiving the arrestee shall draw up a record of the name, occupation and address of the citizen, including the information and circumstances as to the arrest as well, and require the citizen to sign such record. The officer shall then inform the male arrestee of the charge and detailed grounds for his arrest, and enlighten him that ''he has the right to remain silent and anything he says can and will be used as evidence in a trial.''}}

===Turkey===
The right to remain silent in Turkey has been fundamentally protected under Article 38 of Chapter 13 of the [[Constitution of Turkey]]:
<blockquote>No one shall be compelled to make a statement that would incriminate himself/herself or his/her legal next of kin, or to present such incriminating evidence.<ref>{{ws|[[s:Constitution of the Republic of Turkey (2017)|Constitution of the Republic of Turkey (2017)]]}}
</ref></blockquote>

This right has also been noted in
the [[:tr:Ceza Muhakemesi Kanunu|Law on Criminal Procedure]].

===Ukraine===
Section 4 of Article 29 of [[Constitution of Ukraine]]<ref>[[:s:Constitution of Ukraine, 2004|Constitution of Ukraine]] – [[Wikisource]]</ref> reads:

<blockquote>Everyone arrested or detained shall be informed without delay of the reasons for his or her arrest or detention, apprised of his or her rights, and from the moment of detention shall be given the opportunity to personally defend himself or herself, or to have the legal assistance of a defender.</blockquote>

Article 63 of Constitution of Ukraine reads:

{{Blockquote|A person shall not bear responsibility for refusing to testify or to explain anything about himself or herself, members of his or her family or close relatives in the degree determined by law.

A suspect, an accused, or a defendant has the right to a defense.

A convicted person enjoys all human and citizens' rights, with the exception of restrictions determined by law and established by a court verdict.}}

The Criminal Process Code of Ukraine has some regulations on how the rights of suspects and accused. Section 2 of Article 21<ref name="cpc-ua">[http://legislationline.org/documents/action/popup/id/16259/preview Criminal Process Code of Ukraine] (unofficial translation)</ref> reads:

<blockquote>Inquirer, investigator, prosecutor, judge, and court, before the first examination of the suspect, accused, and defendant, are required to advise them of the right to have a defense counsel and draw up an appropriate record thereon, as well as provide the suspect, accused, and defendant the possibility to defend themselves with legal remedies from the charge brought and ensure protection of their personal and property rights.</blockquote>

Article 43–1, Section 1 gives the following definition of "suspect":<ref name="cpc-ua" />

{{Blockquote|The following person is considered to be a suspect:

1) a person apprehended on the suspicion of having committed a crime;

2) a person in whose respect a measure of restraint has been imposed before the decision to prosecute him/her has been made.}}

Consequently, the list of suspect's rights follows:<ref name="cpc-ua" />

<blockquote>The suspect has the right to: know what he/she is suspected of; give testimonies or refuse testifying and answering questions; have a defence counsel and meet him/her before the first examination; produce evidence; submit motions and propose disqualifications; request that the court or prosecutor verify legality of the apprehension; submit complaints against actions and decisions of the officer who conducts operational-detective activities, inquirer, investigator, and prosecutor, and, with appropriate grounds present, have his/her security ensured.
The fact that the suspect was advised of his/her rights is entered into the record of apprehension or decision to impose a measure of restraint.</blockquote>

Article 53 contains the following regulation:<ref name="cpc-ua" />

<blockquote>Court, prosecutor, investigator and the inquirer are required to advise participants to the case of their rights and to ensure the possibility to enjoy such rights.</blockquote>

However, there are no clear regulations on how the rights should be announced. This is commonly made by reading them out when announcing the decision on instituting criminal proceedings or arrest and then requiring a suspect or arrestee to sign the list of these rights.

===United Kingdom===
The right to silence is different depending on which UK jurisdiction the suspect is questioned. In [[England and Wales]] it is possible for an adverse inference to be drawn from an accused person's silence during questioning.<ref name="EnglandLawInference">{{cite web|title=Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1994/33/part/III/crossheading/inferences-from-accuseds-silence|website=The National Archives|access-date=15 March 2017|at=Section 34|date=3 November 1994}}</ref><ref name="CPSInference">{{cite web | title=Adverse Inferences | url=http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/adverse_inferences/ | publisher=[[Crown Prosecution Service]] | access-date=15 March 2017 | quote=A court can draw an adverse inference from a defendant's silence in circumstances as set out in sections 34 to 37 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994. Section 34 allows an inference to be drawn when a suspect is silent when questioned under caution prior to charge (section 34(1)(a)). | archive-date=24 November 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124072144/http://cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/adverse_inferences/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> The same is true for Northern Ireland under the ''Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1988'',<ref name="NI1988Order">{{cite web| title=Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1988| url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisi/1988/1987/article/3 |at=Section 3| access-date=15 March 2017| date=14 November 1988|website=The National Archives}}</ref> but no adverse inference may be drawn in Scotland under Scots law.<ref name="ScotsLaw" />

====England and Wales====
{{Main|Right to silence in England and Wales}}

The right to silence has a long history in England and Wales, first having been codified in the [[Judges' Rules]] in 1912. A defendant in a [[criminal trial]] has a choice whether or not to give [[Evidence (law)|evidence]] in the [[proceedings]]. Further, there is no general duty to assist the police with their inquiries.

At common law, and particularly following the passing of the [[Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994]],<ref>See also Home Office policy paper [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/pace-code-c-2008 PACE Code C] (1998)</ref> adverse inferences may be drawn in certain circumstances where the accused:

* fails to mention any fact which he later relies upon and which in the circumstances at the time the accused could reasonably be expected to mention;
* fails to give evidence at trial or answer any question;
* fails to account on arrest for objects, substances or marks on his person, clothing or footwear, in his possession, or in the place where he is arrested; or
* fails to account on arrest for his presence at a place.

There may be no conviction based wholly on silence.<ref name="EnglandLawInference" /><ref name="CPSInference" /> Where inferences may be drawn from silence, the court must direct the jury as to the limits to the inferences which may properly be drawn from silence.<ref>See the [http://www.jsboard.co.uk/criminal_law/cbb/index.htm specimen direction] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016051149/http://www.jsboard.co.uk/criminal_law/cbb/index.htm |date=16 October 2007 }} of the [[Judicial Studies Board]].</ref>

In respect of those questioned by the [[Serious Fraud Office (UK)|Serious Fraud Office]], the right to silence has been reduced by virtue of Section 2 of the Criminal Justice Act 1987.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1987/38/section/2|title=Criminal Justice Act 1987|website=www.legislation.gov.uk|access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> The right has also been reduced for those accused of terrorist offences.

The UK has some of the strictest [[key disclosure law#United Kingdom|key disclosure laws]] of the western world. Under Section 49<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/ukpga_20000023_en_8#pt3-pb1-l1g49 |title=Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 49 |publisher=Opsi.gov.uk |access-date=21 December 2011}}</ref> and Section 53<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/ukpga_20000023_en_8#pt3-pb3-l1g53 |title=Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, s. 53 |publisher=Opsi.gov.uk |access-date=21 December 2011}}</ref> of the [[Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000]] (RIPA), it is an offence to fail to disclose when requested the key to encrypted data (with a penalty of two years in prison, or five years with regards to child sex abuse cases). Schedule 7 of the [[Terrorism Act 2000]] has been used to convict people who have refused to disclose their password to customs.

=====History=====
Warnings regarding the right against self-incrimination may have originated in [[England and Wales]]. In 1912, the judges of the [[King's Bench Division|King's Bench]] issued the [[Judges' Rules]]. These provided that, when a police member had admissible evidence to suspect a person of an offence and wished to question that suspect about an offence, the officer should first caution the person that he was entitled to remain silent. However, the warning about the possibility of anything the male suspect said being potentially used against him predates even that.

The pre-trial operation of the privilege against self-incrimination was further buttressed by the decision in ''Ibrahim v R'' [1914] AC 599 that an admission or confession made by the accused to the police would only be admissible in evidence if the prosecution could establish that it had been voluntary. An admission or confession is only voluntary if made in the exercise of a free choice about whether to speak or remain silent:

In ''R v Leckey'' (1943) CAR 128 the Court of Criminal Appeal said:

{{Blockquote|... an innocent person might well, either from excessive caution or for some other reason, decline to say anything when charged and cautioned, and if it were possible to hold that out to a jury as a ground on which they might find a man guilty, it is obvious that innocent persons might be in great peril.}}

Therefore, a caution of the form of:

{{Blockquote|You have the right to remain silent, but anything you do say will be taken down and may be used in evidence.}}

was used. Major reform to the questioning and treatment of suspected offenders occurred in 1984 when the [[Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984|Police and Criminal Evidence Act]] came into force. Under Code C the right to silence was amended by allowing adverse inferences to be drawn at a court hearing in cases where a suspect refuses to explain something, and then later produces an explanation (see [[right to silence in England and Wales]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/police/operational-policing/pace-codes/pace-code-c |title=PACE Code C 2008 |publisher=Homeoffice.gov.uk |date=17 May 2010 |access-date=9 July 2014}}</ref> In other words, the jury is entitled to infer that the accused fabricated the explanation at a later date, as he refused to provide the explanation during police questioning. The jury is also free to make no such inference. The new caution is:

<blockquote>You do not have to say anything, but it may harm your defence if you do not mention, when questioned, something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.</blockquote>

If questioning is forthcoming, "when questioned" may be replaced with "now". In cases in which the suspect has clearly nothing to gain by failing to remain silent:

<blockquote>Anything you do say may, and will, be given in evidence.</blockquote>

or:

<blockquote>You do not have to say anything unless you wish to do so, but I must warn you that if you fail to mention any fact which you rely on in your defence in court, your failure to take this opportunity to mention it may be treated in court as supporting any relevant evidence against you. If you do wish to say anything, what you say may be given in evidence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oshitokunbo|first=Oshisanya, 'lai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xMvOBAAAQBAJ&q=You+do+not+have+to+say+anything+unless+you+wish+to+do+so,+but+I+must+warn+you+that+if+you+fail+to+mention+any+fact+which+you+rely+on+in+your+defence+in+court,+your+failure+to+take+this+opportunity+to+mention+it+may+be+treated+in+court+as+supporting+any+relevant+evidence+against+you.+If+you+do+wish+to+say+anything,+what+you+say+may+be+given+in+evidence&pg=PA269|title=An Almanac of Contemporary and Comparative Judicial Restatements (ACCJR Supp. ii Public Law): ACCJR Supplement ii|date=2020-01-02|publisher=Almanac Foundation|isbn=978-978-51200-5-9|language=en}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}</blockquote>

or even (in circumstances where no adverse inference can be drawn from silence):

<blockquote>You do not have to say anything, but anything you do say may be given in evidence.</blockquote>

====Northern Ireland====
The Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1988<ref name="NI1988Order" /> provided for adverse inferences being drawn for failure to mention something prior to being charged to an offence. The Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Rules 2009/2087 which came into effect on 5 October 2009, and replaced the Criminal Procedure Rules 2005, Pt 24 provides for post-charge questioning. This can be applied for failure to mention facts after a suspect has been charged with an offence.

The scope of emergency legislation in Northern Ireland includes limitations on the right to silence, extended police detention powers and limitations on a suspect's right to legal counsel at time of arrest which can all impact upon a suspect's [[right to a fair trial]]. In ''[[John Murray v United Kingdom]]'', the [[European Court of Human Rights|ECHR]] declared that the fair trial guarantee encompassed the entire legal process from the moment of arrest through to conviction. The ECHR addressed this issue in a limited context in ''Murray v UK'' (1996);
"To deny access to a lawyer for the first 48 hours of police questioning, in a situation where the rights of the defense may well be irretrievably prejudiced, is – whatever the justification for such denial – incompatible with the rights of the accused under [[Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights|Article 6]]."

====Scotland====
The right to silence in [[Scots law]] has been enshrined in statute by section 34 of the [[Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2016]]. Previously, the right to silence, as with much of [[Scots criminal law]], was held under common law.

The common law caution given by police to inform a person of their right to silence in Scotland is:
<blockquote>"You are not obliged to say anything but anything you do say will be noted down and may be used in evidence. Do you understand?"</blockquote>

The only exception to this rule is that a person must state, upon being required to do so, their name, address, date of birth, place of birth (in such detail as a constable considers necessary or expedient for the purpose of establishing the person's identity), and nationality. The requirement to give personal details also exists in Scots law under section 13 of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995, which provides that a person suspected to have committed, or suspected of having been witness to, an offence must provide the aforementioned details to a constable upon being required to do so. Failure to provide said details under section 13 is a criminal offence.

No [[adverse inference]] can be drawn by an accused person's silence when they are interviewed under caution.<ref name="ScotsLaw">{{cite web|last1=Lord Carloway|first1=Colin|title=Carloway Review|url=http://www.gov.scot/About/Review/CarlowayReview/CRconsInfFromSilence|website=Scottish Government|publisher=Carloway Review|access-date=15 March 2017|location=Adverse Inference|date=17 November 2011|quote=No adverse inference can be drawn at trial from a suspect's silence when questioned or charged by the police. Inferences from silence during police interview are prohibited, especially where a suspect has been cautioned. The terms of the caution deprive a failure to respond of any evidential value.}}</ref>

===United States===
{{Main|Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution}}

{{Further|Miranda warning}}
The [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] provides that no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against themself.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Bill of Rights: A Transcription|url=https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/bill-of-rights-transcript|website=America's Founding Documents|date=4 November 2015 |publisher=National Archive|access-date=17 September 2017}}</ref> At trial, the prosecution can neither call the defendant as a witness, nor comment on the defendant's failure to testify.<ref>''Griffin v. California'', 380 U.S. 609 (1965).</ref> Whether to testify or not is exclusively the privilege of the defendant,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tague|first1=Peter W.|title=The Fifth Amendment: If an Aid to the Guilty Defendant, an Impediment to the Innocent One|journal=Georgetown Law Journal |date=1989 |volume=78 |pages=1–70 |url=http://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1701&context=facpub|access-date=17 September 2017}}</ref><ref>''Harris v. N.Y.'', 401 U.S. 222, 225 (1971).</ref> although defendants were originally not allowed to testify on their own behalf at all.<ref name="silencepenalty">{{Cite journal |last=Bellin |first=Jeffrey |title=The Silence Penalty |url=https://ilr.law.uiowa.edu/print/volume-103-issue-2/the-silence-penalty/ |journal=Iowa Law Review}}</ref> An 1864 appropriations act allowed defendants to do so while removing race restrictions,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://legisworks.org/congress/38/session-1/chap-210.pdf |title=Statutes at Large Volume 13 (1863-1865): 38th Congress |website=Legisworks |page=351|url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017100838/http://legisworks.org/congress/38/session-1/chap-210.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2015}}</ref> and the 1987 [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] case ''[[Rock v. Arkansas]]'' established a constitutional "right to take the witness stand."<ref name="silencepenalty"/>

Outside the context of lawful detention or arrest, a person has no duty to answer any questions of the police.<ref>{{cite web|title=Your Rights if Questioned, Stopped or Arrested by the Police|url=https://www.ohiobar.org/ForPublic/Resources/LawFactsPamphlets/Pages/LawFactsPamphlet-21.aspx|website=Ohio State Bar|access-date=17 September 2017|date=23 February 2015}}</ref> A witness or litigant may assert a Fifth Amendment right to silence in civil litigation, although there are potential consequences to litigants who exercise that right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tubach |first1=Michael |last2=Pletcher |first2=Anna |last3=Parikh |first3=Trisha |title=When Silence Is Not Golden: Real World Implications of Non-Parties "Taking the Fifth" in Civil Proceedings |journal=Antitrust |date=2020 |volume=35 |page=82}}</ref> Only if granted immunity by the state, in a formal proceeding, from having any testimony or evidence derived from the testimony used against them, can a person be compelled to answer over an assertion of this right.<ref>''[[Kastigar v. United States]]'', 406 U.S. 441, 462 (1972).</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Henning|first1=Peter J.|title=Fifth Amendment Makes it Hard to Build a Case Against Flynn|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/23/business/dealbook/fifth-amendment-makes-it-hard-to-build-a-case-against-flynn.html|access-date=17 September 2017|newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 May 2017}}</ref> If police detain (or arrest) a person, they must advise them that they have a right to remain silent, and the right to an attorney, among other rights. (This is known as the [[Miranda warning|''Miranda'' warning]].) If the detained person invokes these rights, all interrogation must cease, and ordinarily nothing said by the defendant in violation of this rule may be admitted against them at trial.<ref>''[[Miranda v. Arizona]]'', 384 US 436, 448–50, 455 (1966).</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Joest|first1=D.|title=The Impeachment Exception: Decline of the Exclusionary Rule|journal=Indiana Law Review |date=1974 |volume=8 |page=865 |url=https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/inlawrev/article/viewFile/2161/2046|access-date=17 September 2017}}</ref>

The form of the Miranda warning varies based on jurisdiction, but it usually follows this pattern:
<blockquote> You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to consult an attorney before speaking to the police and to have an attorney present during questioning now or in the future. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you before any questioning if you wish. If you decide to answer questions now without an attorney present, you have the right to stop answering at any time. Knowing and understanding your rights as I have explained them to you, are you willing to answer my questions without an attorney present? </blockquote>

On 17 June 2013, the US Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Salinas v. Texas]]'' that, prior to being arrested, an individual must specifically invoke the Fifth Amendment right to "remain silent", otherwise selective silence can be used against him or her in court.<ref>{{cite web|title=Salinas v. Texas, 133 S. Ct. 2174, 186 L. Ed. 2d 376 (2013)|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15276354638064615661|website=Google Scholar|access-date=17 September 2017}}</ref>

====Uniform Code of Military Justice====
Members of the [[United States Armed Forces]] are covered by the [[Uniform Code of Military Justice]] (UCMJ). Under the UCMJ, sworn military personnel, whether of enlisted, warrant or commissioned rank, have a right to remain silent that was established 16 years before the ''Miranda v. Arizona'' ruling.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web |url=http://usmilitary.about.com/od/justicelawlegislation/l/aa31rights.htm |title=Military Justice 101 – Part 5, Right to Remain Silent (Article 31 Rights) |publisher=Usmilitary.about.com |date=19 June 2010 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115523/http://usmilitary.about.com/od/justicelawlegislation/l/aa31rights.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are significant protections against coercive self incrimination in Article 31, UCMJ,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/ucmj/blart-31.htm |title=Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) – ART. 31. COMPULSORY SELF-INCRIMINATION PROHIBITED |publisher=Usmilitary.about.com |date=19 June 2010 |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063507/http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/ucmj/blart-31.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> but it does differ somewhat from the ''Miranda'' warning, and in essence provides greater protections.<ref name=autogenerated1 />{{how|date=February 2022}} This is one difference between civilian and military justice in the United States, and many other nations have similar corollary rules regarding military justice vs. civilian justice.<ref>Military Judicial Rules of Procedure, Uniform Code of Military Justice – 1951 as amended</ref>

==See also==
* [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (Article 14)
* [[Miranda warning]]
* [[Presumption of innocence]]
* [[Privilege (evidence)]]
* [[Right to counsel]]
* [[Self-incrimination]]
* [[Burden of proof (law)]]
* [[Reverse onus]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last1=Duane |first1=James J. |author1-link=James Joseph Duane |editor1-last= |editor1-first= |title=You Have the Right to Remain Innocent |date=2016 |publisher= |location=New York |isbn=978-1503933392 |pages= |edition= |url= |access-date= |language= |format= |chapter= |quote=}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-7o9xYp7eE Don't Talk to the Police] — lecture by law professor [[James Joseph Duane]] of the [[Regent University School of Law]] and Officer George Bruch from the Virginia Beach police department.

{{Criminal procedure}}
{{Portal bar|Law}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Right to silence}}
[[Category:Australian criminal law]]
[[Category:Canadian criminal law]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Criminal law of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Criminal procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence law]]
[[Category:French criminal law]]
[[Category:German criminal law]]
[[Category:Indian criminal law]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Law of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Law of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Law of the United States]]
[[Category:Legal communication]]
[[Category:Pakistani criminal law]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Silence]]
[[Category:South African criminal law]]

Micro miniature

2026-04-28T08:48:49Z

Google updates 22: Created

{{Short description|Microscopic artworks}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}

[[File:Grasshoper.jpg|thumbnail|'''Micro miniature''': [[grasshopper]] playing on the violin]]
[[File:Проделки "левши".jpg|thumb|Microminiature sculpture by Vladimir Aniskin]]
[[File:Micro miniature by Edward Ter-Ghazarian 1.jpg|thumb|Micro miniature in the eye of a needle by Edward Ter-Ghazarian]]
'''Micro miniature''' (also called '''micro art''' or '''micro sculpture''') is a fine art form. Micro [[figurine|miniatures]] are made with the assistance of [[microscope]]s, or eye surgeon tools.<ref name="PRI" /> It originated at the end of 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dissercat.com/content/khudozhestvennaya-mikrominiatyura-kak-sredstvo-postroeniya-mikrokosma-kultury|title=Определение из диссертации Станислава Коненко "Художественная микроминиатюра как средство построения микрокосма культуры"}}</ref>

==Museums==

The [[National Museum of Toys and Miniatures]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]] has micro-miniatures in their permanent collection and in their exhibit titled ''Micro Curiosities'', a permanent exhibit displaying the work of several fine-scale miniature artists.

The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City holds a micro-miniature basket made by a [[Pomo]] Native American artist around 1910.<ref name="MET">{{cite web |title=Micro-miniature one-rod coiled basket |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/848983 |website=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>

The [[Museum of Jurassic Technology]] in [[Culver City, California]] has a collection of the microminiatures of the Armenian artist Hagop Sandaldjian in their permanent exhibition, ''The Eye of the Needle''.<ref name="MJT">{{cite web |title=The Eye of the Needle: The Microminiatures of Hagop Sandaldjian |url=https://www.mjt.org/exhibits/hagop/hagop2.html |publisher=Museum of Jurassic Technology |access-date=30 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="Weschler">{{cite book |last1=Weschler |first1=Lawrence |title=Mr. Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder |date=2013 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |location=New York |isbn=9780307833983 |pages=59–60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qi0KXWvM8HIC |access-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>

The [[Museum of Miniatures in Prague|Museum of Miniatures]] located in Prague focuses on works of microminiature art. It features the work of Edward Ter Ghazarian, Anatoly Konenko, Nikolai Aldunin among others.<ref name="PRI">{{cite web |title=Small is beautiful: Prague museum focuses on micro miniature art |url=https://english.radio.cz/small-beautiful-prague-museum-focuses-micro-miniature-art-8685983 |website=Prague Radio International |date=17 July 2020 |access-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>

The [[Museum of Microminiatures]] in St. Petersburg includes micro-miniature work by Vladimir Aniskin of Novosibirsk, Siberia, as well as Nikolai Aldunin of Moscow.<ref name="BBC" />

==Artists==
* [[Nikolai Aldunin]]
* [[Vladimir Aniskin]]
* [[Anatoly Konenko]]<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |last1=McDonnell |first1=Sharon |title=The men who shoe fleas |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20170331-where-fleas-wear-shoes |access-date=30 June 2022 |publisher=BBC |date=7 April 2017}}</ref>
* [[Mallikarjuna Reddy]]
* [[Hagop Sandaldjian]]<ref name="Apollo">{{cite journal |last1=House |first1=Arthur |title=A wacky Wunderkammer in Los Angeles |journal=Apollo Magazine of International Art |date=25 February 2019 |url=https://www.apollo-magazine.com/a-wacky-wunderkammer-in-los-angeles/ |access-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>
* [[Graham Short]]
* [[Willard Wigan]]<ref name="ES">{{cite news |title=The man who makes millions from miniature art |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/the-man-who-makes-millions-from-miniature-art-6749854.html |access-date=30 June 2022 |publisher=Evening Standard |date=10 April 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
Ermann, Lynn. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/style/1999/02/14/they-have-jobs-on-the-slide-microscopic-art/1652e49b-d80c-4612-9cf4-6965bf8afeb2/ ''They have jobs on the slide: Microscopic art''], The Washington Post, February 14, 1999

[[Category:Sculpture]]
[[Category:Microscopy]]

Dwivedi Surendra Narayan

2026-04-27T07:10:41Z

Google updates 22: entry.

{{Short description|Indian Judge}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = S.N. Dwivedi
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| office1 = Judge of [[Supreme Court of India]]
| term_start1 =
| term_end1 =
| nominator1 =
| appointer1 = [[President of India|President]]
| successor1 =
| birth_date = 1st October 1913
| birth_place =
| death_date = 1974
| death_place =
| parents =
| alma_mater =
| spouse =
}}

''' Justice S. N. Dwivedi''' (Born, 1 October 1913) was a judge of the [[Supreme Court of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.sci.gov.in/judge/justice-s-n-dwivedi|title = S N Dwivedi Profile}}</ref>

== Life and work ==

He completed his matriculation from a Government High School, [[Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur]], pursued BA, and then LLB, and studied at [[Ewing Christian College]], Allahabad, and the [[University of Lucknow]]. He was enrolled as a pleader in 1937, and as an advocate in October 1943. He had a substantial civil practice.

Justice S N Dwivedi worked as junior standing council from November 1954 to December 1955. He served at the High Court of Judicature at Allahabad (Allahabad High Court) from May 2, 1959, to August 14 1972.

He was elevated as a judge of the Supreme Court on 14 August 1972 and served until 8 December 1974.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.sci.gov.in/judge/justice-s-n-dwivedi|title = Justice S N Dwivedi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.allahabadhighcourt.in/Judges/ex-judge1900-1990.htm|title = List of Former Judges at Allahabad Court}}</ref> He died of cancer while in office in 1974.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/82249771.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst |title = S C Judge Snatanagoudar Loses Prolonged Fight Against Cancer| work=The Times of India | date=26 April 2021 }}</ref>

His son Rakesh Dwivedi, practices as a senior lawyer for the [[Supreme Court of India]]<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/hindutva-and-the-academy-a-conversation-with-divya-dwivedi|title = Hindutva and the Academy: A Conversation with Divya Dwivedi| date=8 January 2020 }}</ref> and his granddaughter, [[Divya Dwivedi]] is a professor at the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://english.mathrubhumi.com/features/specials/two-philosophers-and-a-political-theorist-an-allegory-of-indian-public-sphere-1.8048901|title = Two philosophers and a political theorist: An allegory of Indian public sphere| date=15 November 2022 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:S N Dwivedi}}
[[Category:1974 deaths]]
[[Category:Justices of the Supreme Court of India]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian judges]]
[[Category:University of Lucknow alumni]]
[[Category:1913 births]]

{{India-law-bio-stub}}

C. Shivappa

2026-04-24T19:59:39Z

Google updates 22: entry.

{{Short description|Indian jurist (born 1938)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{lead too long|date=January 2024}}
{{Orphan|date=December 2023}}
}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Judge of the Madras High Court
| name = Justice C. Shivappa
| image = Justice C. Shivappa.jpg
| caption = Justice C. Shivappa
| country = India
| term_start = 28-04-1994
| term_end = 26-10-1999
| office2 = Advocate General of Karnataka
| term_start2 = 10-05-1989
| term_end2 = 04-08-1991
| nominator2 = Ramaswamy Venkataraman
| office1 = Judge of the Karnataka High Court
| term_start1 = 05-08-1991
| term_end1 = 28-04-1994
}}

'''C. Shivappa''' is a former judge and legal scholar who presided over the Criminal and Writ rosters at the [[High Court of Madras|High Courts of Madras]] and [[High Court of Karnataka|Karnataka]].

He sentenced the then Chief Minister of the state of Tamil Nadu to jail for corruption. As a practicing senior counsel, he had handled the 'Murder of Advocate [[M.A. Rasheed]]' where Cabinet Minister Jalappa was directly involved as the accused.<ref>{{Cite web |title=R.L. Jalappa vs Delhi Police Establishment on 12 May, 1988 |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/191510/ |website=indiankanoon}}</ref>

He was appointed as a Government Advocate at the age of 30. Subsequently he was appointed the Public Prosecutor for the Government of Karnataka. In 1985 he was appointed as Special Counsel to the [[CBI (India)|CBI]] and later as the Central Government Senior Standing Counsel,<ref>{{Cite web |title=SHREE DHARMA S I PVT LTD v. REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES BANGALORE |url=https://www.the-laws.com/Encyclopedia/Browse/Case?caseId=017891862000&title=shree-dharma-s-i-pvt-ltd-vs-registrar-of-companies-bangalore |website=The Laws}}</ref> He was appointed as the Advocate General of Karnataka in 1989 and held office for two consecutive terms. In 1991, he was appointed as the Judge of the High Court of Karnataka and was transferred to the High Court of Madras in 1994.

== Biography ==
He was born on 11 December 1938, in Chitnahalli village, Pandavpura Taluk, [[Mandya]], Karnataka in a wealthy family of landlords. His higher education was done in [[Mysore]]. He obtained his law degree, as well as a master's degree from [[Sarada Vilas Law College]], Mysore.

In 1989 he was appointed as the Advocate General for the State of Karnataka<ref>{{Cite web |title=Previous Advocate Generals of Karnataka |url=https://advgen.kar.nic.in/previous_ag.asp |website=Advocate General of Karnataka}}</ref> during the Government of S. Bangarappa. He served two consecutive terms and was succeeded by Shri. [[B.V. Acharya]]. He was elevated as a Judge of the Karnataka High Court on 05.08. 1991.

He was a judge of the High Court of Karnataka for three years,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Former Judges of High Court of Karnataka Page 16 |url=https://karnatakajudiciary.kar.nic.in/HCKFormerJudges.php |website=High Court of Karnataka}}</ref> after which he was transferred to the High Court of Madras.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Former Judges of the Madras High Court |url=https://www.hcmadras.tn.nic.in/formerjudges.pdf |website=High Court of Madras}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shivappa, C.}}
[[Category:Indian judges]]
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Guru Nanak College, Chennai

2026-04-22T00:34:19Z

Google updates 22: stub.

{{Short description|Post graduate institute in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Guru Nanak College
| native_name =
| image_name =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption =
| latin_name =
| motto = Pro Bono Publico
| motto_lang =
| mottoeng = Benefit of All
| established = 1971
| founder = Lt. Col. G.S. Gill
| parent = Guru Nanak Educational Society
| type = Autonomous (Government aided)
| chairman = Sardar Manjit Singh Nayar
| principal = Dr. T.K. Avvai Kothai
| city = [[Velachery]], [[Chennai]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| country = [[India]]
| campus = 25 acres
| affiliations = [[University of Madras]]
| website = https://gurunanakcollege.edu.in/
}}

'''Guru Nanak College''' is an autonomous institution affiliated to [[University of Madras]] located in [[Velachery]], [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].

==History ==
Guru Nanak college was established in 1971 by Lt. Col. G.S. Gill as a part of the Guru Nanak Educational Society to commemorate the 500th birth anniversary of [[Guru Nanak]], founder of [[Sikhism]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gurunanakcollege.edu.in/about-us|title=Guru Nanak College, about us|publisher=Guru Nanak college|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mediaindia.eu/freestyle/indian-president-charts-success-at-guru-nanak-college-in-chennai/|title=Indian President charts success at Guru Nanak College in Chennai|date=8 May 2018|publisher=Medianama|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> It is affiliated to [[University of Madras]], [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/guru-nanak-college-ties-up-with-european-institutions-to-train-students/article66986795.ece|title=Guru Nanak College ties up with European institutions to train students|date=19 June 2023|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> It is a co-educational grant-in-aid institution managed by the Guru Nanak Educational Society.<ref name="AL">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/a-college-that-grooms-sporting-talents/articleshow/61177476.cms|title=A college that grooms sporting talents|newspaper=[[Times of India]]|date=23 October 2017|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref>

== Campus ==
The college is situated on a 25-acre campus located between Raj Bhavan and IIT-Madras, facing Guru Nanak Salai. The campus includes several academic blocks with classrooms, lecture halls, a library, laboratories, and faculty offices.

The college has an auditorium with audio-visual facilities to host seminars, conferences, cultural events, and other functions. It also has a cafeteria for students and staff.

The college has implemented eco-friendly initiatives, such as rainwater harvesting, solar power installations, and maintaining green cover with landscaped gardens and tree plantations.

== Hostel ==
Guru Nanak College provides hostel facilities for both boys and girls, with wi-fi, study rooms and mess facilities.

== Langar kitchen ==
Guru Nanak College houses a Gurdwara (worship place for Sikhs) with an attached Langar kitchen, constructed by the General Secretary and Correspondent, Mr. Manjit Singh Nayar. Since 2014, the Langar kitchen has been serving free meals to the college community. The Langar kitchen operates every working day of the college, providing around 700 meals daily to students and staff.

==Courses==
The college offer 32 under graduate programmes, 10 post graduate programmes and doctoral programme.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gurunanakcollege.edu.in/about-us|title=Guru Nanak college, courses offered|publisher=Guru Nanak college|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> The college was ranked 62nd in science category and 94th in arts by [[India Today]] in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bestcolleges.indiatoday.in/rankings/bachelor-of-arts-ba|title=Best college rankings, Arts|publisher=[[India Today]]|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bestcolleges.indiatoday.in/rankings/bachelor-of-science-bsc|title=Best college rankings, Science|publisher=[[India Today]]|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref>

==Ranking==
The college is ranked 89th among colleges in India by the [[National Institutional Ranking Framework]] (NIRF) in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 NIRF Ranking |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/nirfpdfcdn/2024/pdf/Report/IR2024_Report.pdf}}</ref>

India university ranking

== Sports facilities ==
The college has sports facilities, including a playground for outdoor sports such as cricket, football, and athletics. There are also courts for basketball, volleyball, and tennis. Indoor sports facilities include a gymnasium and spaces for table tennis and other indoor games.

==Cricket ground==
The college is home to [[Guru Nanak College Ground]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58001.html |title=Guru Nanak College Ground|publisher=[[ESPNCricinfo]]|access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref> The cricket ground has hosted [[first class cricket|domestic]] matches for [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] since 1978.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/957.html| title=India Cement Limited Guru Nanak College Ground|publisher=Cricket Archive|access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref> It has hosted [[Ranji Trophy]] matches since 1996 for [[Tamil Nadu cricket team|Tamil Nadu]], a [[Women's One Day International cricket|Women's One Day International]] in 2002 and warm-up matches for the [[2016 ICC Women's World Twenty20]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/957_f.html|title=First Class Matches Played At Guru Nanak College, Chennai|publisher=Cricket Archive|access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/957_wo.html|title=Woman's One Day Internationals Played At Guru Nanak College, Chennai|publisher=Cricket Archive|access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cricket.com/world-t20/fixtures/women-warmup|title=ICC Women's World Twenty20 Warm-up Matches|publisher=ICC|access-date=2 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307002326/http://www.icc-cricket.com/world-t20/fixtures/women-warmup |archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Notable alumni==
Notable alumni include [[India national cricket team|Indian]] international cricketers [[Sadagoppan Ramesh]], [[Subramaniam Badrinath]], [[Vidyut Sivaramakrishnan]], domestic cricketers [[Baba Indrajith]], [[Ragupathy Silambarasan]], [[Baba Aparajith]] and squash player [[Abhay Singh (squash player)|Abhay Singh]].<ref name="AL"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mediaindia.eu/society/asian-games-champion-abhay-singh-felicitation/|title=Asian Games Champion Abhay Singh felicitated by alma mater Guru Nanak College|date=20 October 2023|publisher=Media India|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Authority control}}

== External links ==

* {{official website|https://www.gurunanakcollege.edu.in/}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Chennai]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1971]]
[[Category:1971 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to University of Madras]]

Polladhavan (2007 film)

2026-04-21T09:38:18Z

Google updates 22: created a pg

{{Short description|2007 Indian Tamil film by Vetrimaaran}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Polladhavan 2007 poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Vetrimaaran]]
| producer = [[S. Kathiresan]]
| writer = Vetrimaaran
| starring = {{indented plainlist|
* [[Dhanush]]
* [[Ramya (actress)|Ramya]]
* [[Daniel Balaji]]
* [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]]
}}
| cinematography = [[R. Velraj]]
| editing = [[V. T. Vijayan]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2007|11|08}}
| runtime = 160 minutes
| language = Tamil
| country = India
| music = {{indented plainlist|
* [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
* [[Dhina]] (1 song)
* [[Yogi B]] (1 song)
}}
| studio = Group Company
| distributor = Five Star Films
}}

'''''Polladhavan''''' ({{translation|Ruthless Man}})<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iffr.com/en/iffr/2018/films/ruthless-man|title=Ruthless Man|website=[[International Film Festival Rotterdam]]|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401160505/https://iffr.com/en/iffr/2018/films/ruthless-man|url-status=live}}</ref> is a 2007 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action drama film]] written and directed by [[Vetrimaaran]] in his directorial debut. Starring [[Dhanush]] and [[Ramya (actress)|Ramya]], the film revolves around a man whose life improves after buying a bike, and turns upside down after it is stolen.

Three songs and the background score were composed by [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]], while [[Yogi B]] and [[Dhina]] composed one song each. [[Velraj]] was the cinematographer, [[V. T. Vijayan]] edited the film and [[Rambo Rajkumar]] choreographed the stunts. The film was released on 8 November 2007 and received a positive response. It was remade in a number of languages owing to its success.

==Plot==
Prabhu Shankar is a happy-go-lucky middle-class man who spends time playing [[carrom]] in the streets with his friends Sathish and Kumar among others. He and his father keep falling into minor misunderstandings. He falls in love with a girl named Hema, whom he meets at a bus stop. When he is caught in the act of stealing a pittance from his father during his friend's sister's wedding, Prabhu questions his father's responsibility as his parent. Hurt by these words, his father gives Prabhu some of his savings and tells him to do something with his life and he purchases a black [[Bajaj Pulsar]] bike with the money.

While his family initially berates him for buying the motorcycle, he soon secures a job at a bank due to his bike, earning respect at home. He forms an interminable attachment with his bike since it became his streak of luck, from getting a job to Hema eventually reciprocating his feelings. The bike eventually saves his life from a freak incident. However it is stolen during his outing with Hema, subjecting Prabhu to unfathomable anguish as he searches for his bike with his friends. When his family asks him about his bike, he tells them that he has given it to a dealer for servicing. Prabhu comes into conflict with the underworld when he witnesses a brutal murder by a gang in Kasimedu in North Chennai by a smuggling don named Selvam and his accomplices.

Prabhu finds out that his bike was stolen by a petty thief who turns out to be in connection with Selvam's egoistical younger brother Ravi. Prabhu traces the culprit and hands him over to the local police station. A formal complaint is lodged on the culprit on the same night. Later that night, Prabhu confesses to his family that his bike was stolen. His family is very upset, but Prabhu's father assures them that the bike will be found in no time, having developed respect for Prabhu after he had become responsible by being employed. The next morning, Ravi visits Prabhu's locality and threatens him to withdraw the complaint against the culprit. When Prabhu refuses, Ravi pushes Prabhu's father during the argument, which prompts Prabhu to hit Ravi.

Ravi's accomplices arrive at the scene, and Prabhu manages to fight them all, leaving Ravi beaten and embarrassed in public. Selvam returns home on bail from a murder charge. When he finds out what happened to Ravi, he is furious and sends his henchmen to attack Prabhu without knowing the reason for his brother's embarrassment. Prabhu, along with Kumar, meets Selvam at his own residence in Kasimedu while Ravi is not home. Prabhu tells the truth to Selvam, but the latter refuses to believe that Ravi and his men stole his bike. After hearing from his close ally Out, Selvam believes Prabhu, apologising and promises Prabhu that he will do whatever he can to get his bike back. However, it is too late for Prabhu's father, who is attacked by Ravi's men. He is admitted to a hospital, and Prabhu breaks down after learning that his father would never walk again as his right leg was paralysed by the attack.

Selvam, Ravi, and their men visit Prabhu to condole and apologise for what happened this time. Prabhu turns down the apology, and again, an immediate fight is about to break out between Prabhu and Ravi before Selvam separates them both, blaming Ravi for the ordeal caused. The attack on his father makes Prabhu realise how much he loves his father and swears to protect his family at any cost. Although he wants to stay away, Prabhu invariably gets dragged into rubbing shoulders, caused by Ravi's antics, who now targets his family to seek revenge. Prabhu's bike is caught by the [[Narcotics Control Bureau|NCB]] and they nab him, suspecting him of drug smuggling using his bike. They release him after Prabhu tells them that his bike was stolen and shows them his FIR copy, but he does not tell them about Ravi or Selvam.

Prabhu learns that his bike was stolen by Selvam's men to escape the scene of a murder, but it was Ravi who smuggled drugs in his bike's petrol tank. Prabhu loses his job as his bike was a source of transportation, and as he was remanded to police custody for one night. Prabhu also gets despair from Hema's father (Boys Rajan) for being involved unwillingly with Selvam's men. Meanwhile, Ravi makes one more attempt on Prabhu's life, but he is subdued again by Prabhu. Selvam becomes unhappy about this and warns him to quit smuggling if he ever gets in Prabhu's business anymore. Ravi accuses Selvam of being a non-caring brother, and Out intervenes and warns Ravi to mind his language. Surprisingly, Selvam himself comes in support of his brother to lash out at Out.

Out separates briefly from Selvam after this conflict. The next day, Selvam and Ravi get attacked by unknown gangsters when they are travelling in their car outside the city. Selvam asks his brother to stay inside the car and handles the killers on his own. He gets brutally injured only to find out that he has been stabbed by his own brother Ravi. The attack was arranged by Ravi himself to kill Selvam. Ravi delivers the killer blow before telling that Selvam is too complacent of Prabhu and he is going to kill him, after which Selvam dies. Ravi creates a scene among Selvam's family and henchmen. Out, who is not aware of the mastermind behind the assault on Selvam, is furious and vows to kill every enemy of his mentor Selvam, including Prabhu.

Prabhu eventually gets his bike back, but is disheartened when he finds it vandalized, so he takes it to the [[service centre]] for restoration. While there, he learns that Ravi is after him and his family. He first goes to save Hema. After securing her, he goes to save his family. He thinks that the only way to stop this is to confront Ravi himself. He takes down all the men sent by Ravi, who comes in his way.

Meanwhile, Prabhu's family is chased down in Kumar's [[auto rickshaw]] by Ravi's men. Prabhu finds Ravi hiding in an ice factory and engages in a fight with him. Prabhu overpowers Ravi during the fight; the latter tries to escape from him but Prabhu manages to subdue Ravi under the knife, threatening him to ask his men to leave Prabhu's family, which he does, and his men spare Prabhu's family and Kumar.

When Prabhu is about to leave, Ravi provokes him to continue the fight until death. Prabhu manages to dodge Ravi's swing of his knife and gets a steel rod to fatally knock him down. Out arrives at the scene after having learnt that it was Ravi who orchestrated Selvam's death. Out smiles at Prabhu and lets him go while he stares down at Ravi's corpse, satisfied that Prabhu had done his job for him, avenging Selvam's death and remembering his words of Prabhu: "He is fearless and should be spared." A smiling Prabhu quietly leaves the scene on his beloved Pulsar.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*[[Dhanush]] as Prabhu Shankar
*[[Divya Spandana|Ramya]] as Hema
*[[Daniel Balaji]] as Ravi
*[[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] as Selvam
*[[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]] as Shankar, Prabhu's father
*[[Bhanupriya]] as Thilaga, Prabhu's mother
*[[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]] as Sathish
*[[Karunas]] as Kumar
*[[Pawan (actor)|Pawan]] as Out
*Boys Rajan as Hema's father
*[[Chetan (actor)|Chetan]] as Prabhu's manager
*Akila as Uma, Prabhu's sister
*[[Sendrayan]] as Bike Thief
*[[Anju (actress)|Anju]] as Selvam's wife
*[[Manobala]] as Bike Showroom Manager
*[[Daniel Annie Pope]] as Prabhu's friend
*[[Srimurugan Rajendran]] as Prabhu's friend
*[[Munnar Ramesh]] as Police Inspector
*[[Vikram Sugumaran]] as Selvam's henchmen (Uncredited)
*[[Poonam Bajwa]] in a [[item number|special appearance]]
*[[Brinda Parekh]] in the song "Alibaba Thangam"
*[[Yogi B]] in the song "Engeyum Eppothum"
}}

==Production==
Vetrimaaran, who earlier worked as an assistant to [[Balu Mahendra]], prepared a script for [[Dhanush]], who was the lead hero of the films he worked in, and Dhanush immediately accepted the offer after hearing the story. The film titled ''Desiya Nedunchalai 47'' was initially launched with [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] as the music director and [[N. K. Ekambaram]] as the cinematographer.{{citation needed|date=December 2025}} After he found trouble finding producers with [[A. M. Rathnam]] and Salem Chandrasekhar leaving the project after initial interest, Dhanush's sister Dr. Vimala Geetha agreed to produce the film, but she also dropped the film. Dhanush's father [[Kasthuri Raja]] finally agreed to produce the film, and [[Kirat Bhattal]] was signed as heroine, while [[Harris Jayaraj]] was selected as music director. However, after two days of shoot, the film was shelved, and Dhanush opted to pursue other films after the [[Sleeper hit|surprise success]] of his ''[[Thiruvilayadal Arambam]]''.<ref name="bwd">{{cite web |title=Vetrimaran — Tamil Cinema Director Interview |url=http://www.videos.behindwoods.com/videos-q1-09/director-interview/vetrimaran.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709014242/http://www.videos.behindwoods.com/videos-q1-09/director-interview/vetrimaran.html |archive-date=9 July 2013 |access-date=21 May 2013 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> The film's collapse saw Vetrimaaran approach [[S. Kathiresan]], of Five Star Films, and narrated to him the stories he had prepared. However, Kathiresan did not like ''Desiya Nedunchaalai 47'', but agreed to bankroll the story of ''Polladhavan''.{{citation needed|date=December 2025}}

Vetrimaaran has since described that he had "ample time" for his production works of ''Polladhavan'' as "Dhanush had confidence in him". Production designer Durai helped him rope in Deva to score the film's music, while Dhanush also recommended cinematographer Velraj to Vetrimaaran after the pair had worked together in ''[[Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram]]''.<ref name=bwd/> Vetrimaaran chose Kannada language actor [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] to make his Tamil film debut after his assistant gave him rave reviews of the actor's performance in the unfinished [[Prashanth]]-starrer ''Petrol''. The team held test shoots with both [[Kajal Aggarwal]] and [[Poonam Bajwa]] for the film and released the stills to the media, but Kajal Aggarwal had scheduling issues with her telugu film ''[[Chandamama (2007 film)|Chandamama]]''. Vetrimaaran had finished two schedules before finalising on [[Ramya (actress)|Ramya]]. The director revealed that there was initially an issue with the actress after she got offended by his words and did not come for the shoot for three days, before Durai intervened.<ref name=bwd/> The film's story was inspired partly by the lost bike of his friend Andrew and the variety of experiences he had tracking down his vehicle. Vetrimaaran revealed that when he wrote the script, he made many changes to suit the visual medium and for Dhanush on his physical attributes while playing an action hero.<ref name=bwd/> When questioned about its relevance to ''[[Bicycle Thieves]]'', he stated that it "is a disgrace to ''Bicycle Thieves'' if it is compared with ''Polladhavan''".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-02-15 |title=Two stories of success |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/Two-stories-of-success/article15445489.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20251216003207/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/Two-stories-of-success/article15445489.ece |archive-date=2025-12-16 |access-date=2025-12-16 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="bwd" />

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Polladhavan
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 15 June 2007
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Film soundtrack
| length = {{Duration|m=26|s=53}}
| label = Five Star Audio
| producer = G. V. Prakash
| prev_title = [[Kireedam (2007 film)|Kireedam]]
| prev_year = 2007
| next_title = [[Evano Oruvan]]
| next_year = 2007
}}

The soundtrack consisted of five songs, three of them composed by [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]], while rapper Yogi B and [[Dhina]] composed each one track. The song "Engeyum Eppodhum" is a remix of the same-titled song from the 1979 film ''[[Ninaithale Inikkum (1979 film)|Ninaithale Inikkum]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2007 |title=Polladhavan: An arresting album from G V Prakash |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/oct/09polla.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118123312/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/oct/09polla.htm |archive-date=18 November 2008 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> Responding to allegations that the song "Minnalgall Koothadum" was a rip-off of [[Akon]]'s "[[Smack That]]", Prakash Kumar stated "I may have been inspired, but I did not just copy that song".<ref>{{cite news |date=21 March 2014 |title=Destiny's child |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/destinys-child/article1715099.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531080616/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/destinys-child/article1715099.ece |archive-date=31 May 2014 |access-date=13 June 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
! Title !! Singers !! Composer !! Lyricist
!Length
|-
| "Alibaba Thangam" || [[Suchitra]] || [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]] || [[Yugabharathi]]
|4:59
|-
| "Neeye Sol" || [[Benny Dayal]], [[Sunitha Sarathy]] || G. V. Prakash Kumar || [[Vairamuthu]]
|5:54
|-
| "Engeyum Eppothum" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Yogi B]], [[Sunitha Sarathy]] || Yogi B || [[Kannadasan]], Rap by Yogi B, [[Yugabharathi]]
|4:49
|-
| "Minnalgall Koothadum" || [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Nakul (actor)|Nakkhul]], [[Bombay Jayashri]] || G. V. Prakash Kumar ||[[Na. Muthukumar]]
|6:50
|-
| "Padichu Pathen Yeravilla" || [[Shankar Mahadevan]] || [[Dhina]] || [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]]
|4:21
|}

==Release and reception==
The film was released on 8 November 2007 on Diwali day alongside ''[[Azhagiya Tamil Magan]]'', ''[[Machakaaran]]'', ''[[Vel (film)|Vel]]'' and ''[[Kannamoochi Yenada]]''.<ref>{{cite web|work=Chennai Online|access-date=31 May 2024|url=http://chennaionline.com/Film/News/Nov07/11article18.asp|title=Deepavali releases for 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109194516/http://chennaionline.com/Film/News/Nov07/11article18.asp|archive-date=9 January 2008}}</ref>

The critic from Sify.com stating that "Vetri has made his mentor proud, and his style of narration and takings are very similar to the ace director "[[Balu Mahendra]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=Polladhavan |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/polladhavan-review-tamil-14558540.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312060134/http://www.sify.com/movies/polladhavan-review-tamil-14558540.html |archive-date=12 March 2013 |access-date=21 May 2013 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> The reviewer from [[The Hindu]] stated that "at no point does ''Polladhavan'' sag and that writer-director Vetrimaran has slogged through his screenplay and the result shows."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/article3023987.ece|location=Chennai, India|work=The Hindu|title=Never a dull moment|date=16 November 2007|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref> [[Kalki (magazine)|''Kalki'']] praised the acting of Dhanush and other actors, Karunas's humour, Prakash's music, Velraj's cinematography, Vijayan's editing, Rajkumar's stunts and also praised Vetrimaaran for narrating old plot differently but panned the violence and song placements as speed breakers.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=Kalki|language=ta|url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2007-11-25/page/64/mode/2up|page=65|access-date=31 May 2024|date=25 November 2007|title=பொல்லாதவன் }}</ref> Malini Mannath of ''Chennai Online'' wrote "With a script that is cleverly etched, its racy narration, some well-defined characters, suitably cast actors, and a realistic backdrop to the scenes, whether it's the middle-class ambience or the underworld, 'Polladhavan' turns out be a slickly packaged entertainer from debutant director Vettrimaran".<ref>{{cite web|first=Malini|last=Mannath|website=Chennai Online|access-date=4 August 2024|title=Polladhavan|date=21 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124095953/http://www.chennaionline.com/Film/Moviereviews/Nov07/11polladhavan.asp|archive-date=24 November 2007|url=http://www.chennaionline.com/Film/Moviereviews/Nov07/11polladhavan.asp}}</ref>

==Controversies==
The administrators of the Thyagaraya College opposed a dialogue spoken by the character Prabhu questioning his father for making him study [[Bachelor of Arts|B. A.]] in the college.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 November 2007 |title=Case against 'Pollathavan' |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/26112007-1.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128134852/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/26112007-1.shtml |archive-date=28 November 2007 |access-date=13 December 2024 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref>

==Awards==
*The movie received four Vijay Awards,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/parties/chennai/Of-grandeur-glitz-and-glamour/articleshow/3009730.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103182324/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-05-05/chennai/27778149_1_glitz-tamil-cinema-nominees|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title= Of grandeur, glitz and glamour |access-date=21 January 2009|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=5 May 2008}}</ref> including one for Best Director.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.starboxoffice.com/kollywood/vijayawards/about.html |title=Star Vijay Awards 2007 |work=Star Box Office |access-date=22 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726022319/http://www.starboxoffice.com/kollywood/vijayawards/about.html |archive-date=26 July 2008 }}</ref>

==Remakes==
''Polladhavan'' was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Kurradu]]'' (2009),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://entertainment.in.msn.com/southcinema/article.aspx?cp-documentid=1779659 |title=Varun Sandesh in Telugu 'Polladhavan' |access-date=21 January 2009 |work=MSN |date=16 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121194353/http://entertainment.in.msn.com/southcinema/article.aspx?cp-documentid=1779659 |archive-date=21 January 2009 }}</ref> in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Punda (film)|Punda]]'' (2010),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2010/jun/18/movie-masala-124397.amp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902065714/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2010/jun/18/movie-masala-124397.amp|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 September 2022|title=Punda to hit silver screen today|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=18 June 2010}}</ref> in Bengali as ''[[Borbaad (Indian film)|Borbaad]]'' (2014)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-09-05 |title=Borbaad (Bengali) Good action, weak performances |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/borbaad-bengali-good-action-weak-performances/ |access-date=2024-12-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> in [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] as ''[[Pravegeya]]'' (2015),<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 June 2015 |title=Pravegaya |url=https://www.timeout.com/movies/pravegaya |access-date=2024-12-14 |work=Time Out |language=en-GB}}</ref> and in Hindi as ''[[Guns of Banaras]]'' (2020).<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2020 |title=First look of Polladhavan's Hindi remake is out |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/hindi/2020/jan/15/first-look-of-polladhavans-hindi-remake-is-out-2089582.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116151831/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/hindi/2020/jan/15/first-look-of-polladhavans-hindi-remake-is-out-2089582.html |archive-date=16 January 2020 |access-date=15 May 2020 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
*{{Rotten Tomatoes}}
{{Vetrimaaran}}

[[Category:2007 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2007 action drama films]]
[[Category:2007 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2007 films]]
[[Category:2007 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films about automobiles]]
[[Category:Films about brothers]]
[[Category:Films about organised crime in India]]
[[Category:Films about theft]]
[[Category:Films directed by Vetrimaaran]]
[[Category:Films produced by S. Kathiresan]]
[[Category:Films scored by G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
[[Category:Films set in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Outlaw biker films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language action drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Self Employed Women's Association

2026-04-19T22:38:55Z

Google updates 22: Started Details

{{Short description|Indian non-governmental organisation}}
{{Redirect|SEWA|other uses|Sewa (disambiguation){{!}}Sewa}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox organization
|name = SEWA
|location = [[India]]
|affiliations = [[International Trade Union Confederation|ITUC]]
|num_members = 1,916,676 (2013)
|full_name = Self-Employed Women's Association of India
|native_name =
|image =
|founded = 1972
|dissolved =
|merged_into =
|headquarters = [[Ahmedabad]]
|key_people = [[Ela Bhatt]], Founder
|website = {{url|http://www.sewa.org}}
|footnotes =
}}
[[File:Secretary Clinton Visits SEWA's Hansiba Store (3731851941).jpg|thumb|U.S. Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary Rodham Clinton]] and SEWA Executive Director [[Reema Nanavati|Reema Nanavaty]] listen as women artisans share stories of their involvement with SEWA at the Hansiba Store in Mumbai, India, 18 July 2009.]]
[[File:Ela Bhatt at the Qalandia Women's Cooperative.jpg|thumb|Ela Bhatt, founder and past president of SEWA, appreciating the fabrics at Qalandia Women's Cooperative]]
'''Self Employed Women's Association''' ('''SEWA'''), meaning "service" in several [[Languages of India|Indian languages]], is a [[trade union]] based in Ahmedabad, [[India]], that promotes the rights of [[Poverty|low-income]], independently employed female workers.<ref name="Spodek">{{Cite journal |author=Howard Spodek |title=Review: The Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) in India: Feminist, Gandhian Power in Development |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=October 1994 |volume=43 |number=1 |pages=193–202 |jstor=1154338 |doi=10.1086/452141|s2cid=155233844 }}</ref> Nearly 2 million workers are members of SEWA across eight states in India. Self-employed women are defined as those who do not have a fixed employer–employee relationship and do not receive a fixed salary and social protection like that of formally-employed workers and therefore have a more precarious income and life.<ref name="Datta">{{Cite journal|date=Spring 2003|title=From Development to Empowerment: The Self-Employed Women's Association in India|journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society|volume=16 |pages=351–368|doi=10.1023/A:1022352227601|jstor=20020171|author=Rekha Datta|number=3|s2cid=140446037 }}</ref> SEWA organises around the goal of full employment in which a woman secures work, income, food, and social security like health care, child care, insurance, pension and shelter.<ref name="Sewa About Us">{{Cite web |url=http://www.sewa.org/About_Us.asp |title=About Us: Introduction |publisher=Self Employed Women's Association |access-date=17 October 2016 |archive-date=26 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126015007/http://www.sewa.org/About_Us.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> The principles behind accomplishing these goals are struggle and development, meaning negotiating with stakeholders and providing services, respectively.<ref name="Chen Bonner Carre">{{Cite journal |author=Martha Chen |author2=Chris Bonner |author3=Françoise Carré |year=2015 |title=Organizing Informal Workers: Benefits, Challenges and Successes |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/organizing-informal-workers-benefits-challenges-and-successes |journal=UNDP Human Development Report |publisher=2015 UNDP Human Development Report Office |page=13}}</ref><ref name="Sewa About Us" />

SEWA was founded in 1972 by labor lawyer and organiser [[Ela Bhatt]]. It emerged from the Women's Wing of the [[Textile manufacturing|Textile]] Labour Association (TLA), a [[Trade union|labour union]] founded by [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] in 1918.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ahmedabad: Shock city of the twentieth century India |url=https://archive.org/details/ahmedabadshockci00spod |url-access=limited |last=Spodek |first=Howard |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0253355874 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahmedabadshockci00spod/page/n279 253]}}</ref> The organisation grew very quickly, with 30,000 members in 1996, to 318,527 in 2000, to 1,919,676 in 2013.,<ref name="Datta" /><ref>{{Cite report|url=http://www.sewa.org/pdf/Sewa_Annual_Report.pdf|title=Annual Report|publisher=Self Employed Women's Association|page=4|year=2013|archive-date=17 July 2018|access-date=17 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717183938/http://www.sewa.org/pdf/Sewa_Annual_Report.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and nearly 2 million in 2023.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Making of Neoliberal India|last=Oza|first=Rupal|pages=21–44}}</ref> Even before the [[2008 financial crisis]], over 90% of India's working population was in the informal sector (Shakuntala 2015), and 94% of working women in 2009 worked in the informal sector (Bhatt 2009).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Das|first=Shakuntala|year=2015|title=Growing Informality, Gender Equality and the Role of Fiscal Policy in the Face of the Current Economic Crisis: Evidence from the Indian Economy|journal=International Journal of Political Economy|volume=44|issue=4|pages=277–295|doi=10.1080/08911916.2015.1129846|s2cid=155891885 }}</ref><ref name=":3" /> India's history and patriarchal systems also contributes to this disparity because traditional gender roles exclude women from regular, secure forms of labour.<ref name="Webster">{{Cite journal |author=Edward Webster |title=Organizing in the Informal Economy: Ela Bhatt and the Self-Employed Women's Association of India |journal=Labour, Capital and Society |volume=44 |number=1 |year=2011 |pages=99–125 |url=http://www.lcs-tcs.com/PDFs/44_1/5%20Webster.pdf }}</ref>

==History==
=== TLA and Gandhian roots ===
SEWA originated in 1972 as the Association's Women's Wing of Textile Labour Association (TLA), which was established by Gandhi in 1918.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/ahmedabad-textile-laborers-win-strike-economic-justice-1918 |title=Ahmedabad textile laborers win strike for economic justice, 1918 |work=Global Nonviolent Action Database}}</ref> SEWA is located in [[Ahmedabad|Ahmedabad, India]], the city where [[Sabarmati Ashram|Gandhi's ashram]] still exists and once served to facilitate much of the Mahatma's work. Gandhi's ethos of collective mobilization led to the founding of TLA, which is a labour union generally concerned with textile labourers in the formal sector. Around the era of SEWA's establishment, Ahmedabad youths were enthusiastic to interact with the poor because of Gandhi's legacy in the city.<ref name="Webster" /> While not explicitly stated, low-income labourers in the formal sector are more likely to be men because of cultural practice putting men in positions of security and higher status.<ref name="Webster" /> There were no unions protecting individuals who worked outside the formal sector, which tended to be women.<ref name="Spodek" /> As a young lawyer for TLA in the 1970s, Bhatt saw these women outside textile factories and created a department within the Women's Wing of TLA specifically devoted to women in the informal economy.<ref name="Webster" />

Gender discrimination was apparent in TLA, whose leading figures were all male during the time of SEWA's involvement in the organization.

Despite the rift between TLA and SEWA, there are clear influences of the Mahatma in SEWA's principles of truth, non-violence, and integration of all people that shape the organization to be so successful.<ref name="Sewa About Us" /> Driving SEWA's every decision are satya (truth), ahimsa ([[Nonviolence|non-violence]]), sarvadharma (integrating all faiths, all people) and khadi (propagation of local employment and self reliance), which all helped Gandhi organize poor people in the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sewa.org/About_Us.asp|title=About Us|access-date=16 November 2016|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801221211/http://www.sewa.org/About_Us.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Ela Bhatt ===
In 1972, SEWA materialized first as a collective of women that worked outside the textile mills and other formalized sources of income—individuals not targeted by TLA.<ref name="Spodek" /> An early survey of SEWA members found that 97% lived in slums, 93% were [[Literacy|illiterate]], the average member had four children, and one in three were the primary bread-winner.<ref name="Spodek" /> Its first large project was the SEWA Cooperative Bank, established in 1974 to provide loans to low-income members.<ref name="Spodek" />[[File:Behind the Scenes- SEWA Hansiba Store (3732371999).jpg|thumb|Products at the SEWA Hansiba Store in Mumbai]]Behind all these accomplishments was SEWA's founder Ela Bhatt. Bhatt was born in Ahmedabad on 7 September 1933 to a [[Brahmin|Brahman]] [[Caste system in India|caste]] family of lawyers and was, herself, a lawyer for TLA beginning in the early 1950s.<ref name="Webster" /> Bhatt found that poor women in Ahmedabad were not just domestic workers, but conducted a variety of businesses at home—as hawkers, street vendors, construction labourers—and were not being represented in India's economy.<ref name="Webster" /> Incredibly enough, 94% of Indian working women were self-employed in 2009, yet it took until 1972 for any sort of informal labour union to form.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |url=http://www.india-seminar.com/2010/605/605_ela_r_bhatt.htm |title=Citizenship of Marginals |last=Bhatt |first=Ela |date=23 July 2009 |publisher=Seminar Publications}} Based on the Third R.K. Talwar Memorial Lecture delivered at the Indian Institute of Banking and Finance, Mumbai, 23 July 2009.</ref> The former US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton saw Elaben Bhatt as one of her role models. Hillary visited SEWA first in 1995. In one of her speeches, she described Elaben as soft-spoken and a visionary leader.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-04 |title=Hillary Clinton and Elaben Bhatt: Why the former US First Lady saw the late founder of SEWA as a role model |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/us-hillary-clinton-elaben-bhatt-meet-8424343/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Recent history ==
In June 2024 a one-of-its-kind insurance policy has started making payouts to tens of thousands of women across India to help them cope with the impact of extreme heat. This policy covers 50,000 women in 22 districts across the states of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.{{cn|date=January 2026}}

== Tools for struggle and development ==

=== Organizing model ===
SEWA goes beyond being a labour union and additionally acts as a meeting point for poor, Indian women who are regularly [[Social exclusion|marginalized]] across [[Rural area|rural]] landscapes and isolated to [[Urban area|urban]] [[slum]]s. The model has spread from Ahmedabad to other parts of Gujarat as well as to other Indian states as part of the larger federation SEWA Bharat.<ref>{{Cite report|author=((World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia))|date=2008|title=Tackling social and economic determinants of health through women's empowerment: the SEWA case study|publisher=WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia |url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/205960|language=en}}</ref> SEWA's organizing model brings together women across castes and class who share experiences of labour [[Exploitation of labour|exploitation]]. A survey of SEWA members show that its women achieve the goals of full employment and self-reliance through interpersonal recognition that also has been shown to increase productivity within the organization.<ref name="Keating" /> SEWA also connects workers in the same business within over 50 [[cooperative]]s.<ref name="Mehra">{{Cite journal |author=Rekha Mehra |title=Women, Empowerment, and Economic Development |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |date=November 1997 |volume=554 |number=1 |pages=136–149 |doi=10.1177/0002716297554001009|s2cid=154974352 }}</ref> SEWA serves as a model for successful [[Top-down and bottom-up design|bottom-up]] [[Democracy|democratic]] organizations by emphasizing an organizational model.<ref name="Keating" />

Steps to organizing such a large union are outlined as follows:
# Recruit members and assess needs of this unique cohort
# Group members by trade, cooperative, region, etc.
# Foster leadership within groups
# Train leaders to promote SEWA programs either locally or within their profession
# Elect members to positions of SEWA leadership councils<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Martha|year=2006|title=Self-Employed Women: A Profile of SEWA's Membership|journal=SEWA Academy}}</ref>

=== Economic tools ===
SEWA established its own bank in 1974 called the Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or SEWA Cooperative Bank, as a way to circumvent corrupt banks, moneylenders, and other middlemen.<ref name="Datta" /> Everything about the bank is determined by SEWA members—the bankers and board members are organization members, the [[loan]] rates are set by members, the funds are entirely from members.<ref name="Datta" /> SEWA Bank's philosophy is centered around [[saving]] and [[entrepreneurship]], especially considering SEWA members have stock in the bank.<ref name="Datta" /> SEWA gives [[microcredit]], or [[microfinance]], to members through its bank, which is considered by many to increase micro and macro productivity by lending to individuals to pursue a business, finance a home, and various other ways to establish one's self.<ref name="Datta" /> Women have become a central demographic within microfinance because they are understood to be the most [[Social vulnerability|socially vulnerable]] population within poverty-stricken communities and also tend to generate wealth for the whole family rather than as an individual.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|year=2011|title=Can Microcredit Worsen Poverty|journal=Development in Practice}}</ref>

A large body of literature exists that critiques the merits of microcredit. Many (Keating, Rasmussen, Rishi 2015) argue that microcredits are indeed effective in bringing women into a liberated economy; however, the capitalist system women are introduced to is deeply violent and institutionally sexist.<ref name="Keating">{{Cite journal |author=Christine Keating |author2=Claire Rasmussen |author3=Pooja Rishi |title=The Rationality of Empowerment: Microcredit, Accumulation by Dispossession, and the Gendered Economy |journal=Signs |date=Autumn 2010 |volume=36 |number=1 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |pages=153–176 |doi=10.1086/652911 |jstor=10.1086/652911|s2cid=144395130 }} ''Feminists Theorize International Political Economy'' Special Issue. Editors: Shirin M. Rai and Kate Bedford.</ref> Mahajan (2005) argues that microcredit does nothing to promote economic growth for a nation as a whole for reasons that Surowiecki (2008) such as microloans stifling innovation and prohibiting job production—in otherwords stagnating business growth at "micro" level instead of "small" business level.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Vijay Mahajan |title=From Microcredit to Livelihood Finance |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=40 |number=41 |date=8 October 2005 |pages=4416–4419 |url=http://www.epw.in/journal/2005/41/perspectives/microcredit-livelihood-finance.html |jstor=4417256}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/03/17/what-microloans-miss|title=What Microloans Miss|last=Surowiecki|first=James|date=2008}}</ref> Often, microloans simply have a crippling effect on the individual. A study by Jahiruddin (2011) of Bangladeshi microloan benefactors found that the poorest entrepreneurs (i.e. women) tend to be the most susceptible to business failure and increased debt because they have fewer resources as a safety net. The same study also found that entrepreneurs who reported worsening poverty also are the most dependent on microloans.<ref name=":1" />

Research specific to SEWA Bank complicates the above narrative. A 1999 study by Chen and Snodgrass found that SEWA members using the microloan program experienced an increase in income and could more easily find [[gainful employment]].<ref>{{Cite journal|year=1999|title=An Assessment of the Impact of SEWA Bank in India: Baseline Findings|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnacg038.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930202439/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACG038.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 September 2006|journal=Harvard Institute for International Development}}</ref> Another study by Bhatt and Bhatt (2016) found that women in the program also find more [[self-esteem]] and confidence to conduct business.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Microfinancing with SEWA Bank: Bringing Women to the Mainstream Economy|journal=Amity Business Review}}</ref> One reason for these differing experiences could be that SEWA provides both monetary support and financial guidance that other microloan programs do not.<ref name=":2" /> These individual experiences, however, do not speak to the deleterious macroeconomic implications of microloans.

Other economic tools used by SEWA include guidance in savings, [[insurance]], housing, [[social security]], [[pension]]s, fundamentals of personal finance, and counseling.<ref name=":2" />

=== Governmental tools ===
As one of the largest organizations in India, SEWA uses its huge political influence in [[lobbying]] for various causes. They fight to incorporate the informal sector into national economic statistics and economic policies, as well as the provision of social securities, because their members do not have employers to provide insurance, [[Health in India|healthcare]], [[Child care|childcare]], etc.<ref name="Hill">{{Cite journal |author=Elizabeth Hill |title=Women in the Indian Informal Economy: Collective Strategies for Work Life Improvement and Development |journal=Work, Employment & Society |date=September 2001 |volume=15 |number=3 |pages=443–464 |doi=10.1177/09500170122119101|s2cid=154714208 }}</ref> In fact, women who work in the informal economy are often subject to [[Police misconduct|police harassment]] because street vending is illegal, which provokes unnecessary force from law enforcement. SEWA educates street vendors on how to apply for permits and work within the justice system.<ref name="Mehra" /> In addition to protecting the rights of its members, SEWA is a loud voice in human rights for India in general. During the peak of [[Violence against Muslims in independent India|Muslim–Hindu tension]] in the early 21st century, SEWA acted as a peacekeeper because of its nature as a bridge between the two religions, between castes, and between classes.<ref name="Spodek" />

=== Action oriented research ===
SEWA Academy is a branch that conducts credible research on a range of subjects from childcare, to health reform, to professional experiences, and many other issues of importance to the organization.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sewaresearch.org/aboutus.htm|title=About Us}}</ref> The method of research is variegated, too, from self-evaluation to surveys.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sewaresearch.org/researches.htm|title=Researches}}</ref> In doing so, SEWA can assess its programming efficacy and determine what issues are most pressing for members. As a [[grassroots]] organization, SEWA researchers are members that undergo research training that thus provides another skill and connects women to education.<ref name=":02" /> [[WIEGO|Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO)]], a sister group co-founded by Elaban Bhatt, produces extensive research on self-employed women at the global scale. WIEGO is within the [[Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations|Hauser Center for Non-Profit Organizations]], a department of [[Harvard University]]'s [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]]. Several studies are co-authored by SEWA and WIEGO.

=== Social platform ===
To counter the perception that Indian women are most useful in the household, SEWA makes visible the crafts, skills, and value of female labour to the Indian economy.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Hill" /> More than the Indian economy, self-employed women have a role in social hemispheres with few outlets to participate—SEWA works to bridge that gap by acting as a platform for [[civic engagement]] in local communities.

== Goals ==
SEWA's main goals are to organize women workers for full employment and self-reliance. SEWA aims to mainstream marginalized, poor women in the informal sector and lift them out of their poverty. Their members have the possibility to take care of their children and their elderly while they can generate earnings for the family unit. Also, they produce low cost goods for the domestic and global markets. So, they allow low-income people to have the chance to purchase low cost goods and services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00429|title=Enabling Home-Based Producers. [Social Impact]. ICP. Inclusive Cities Project (2008–2014).|website=SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository|access-date=5 September 2017|archive-date=5 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905234624/http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00429|url-status=dead}}</ref>

SEWA has interacted and has been advised by many law firms like HSA.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 August 2011 |url=http://barandbench.com/conversation-hemant-sahai-managing-partner-hsa-advocates/ |publisher=Bar & Bench |title=Conversation with Hemant Sahai Managing Partner HSA Advocates}}{{subscription required}}</ref>

=== Employment ===
SEWA Mahila Housing Trust, founded by [[Renana Jhabvala]] among others, created the Karmika School for Construction Workers in 2003 to help train women in the construction trades. Women made up 51 percent of employees in construction trades in India in 2003, but most women in the construction industry had been unskilled labourers. After training at Karmika, according to a 2007 survey of graduates, 40 percent reported working 21–30 days per month as opposed to 26 percent who reported similar work days before training. 30 percent became helpers to masons, and 20 percent became masons themselves. These increases come mostly from small private construction projects, such as housing, but there was very little success placing women in the more profitable public sector infrastructure projects.<ref name="Baruah">{{cite journal |last=Baruah |first=Bipasha |title=Women and Globalisation: Challenges and Opportunities Facing Construction Workers in Contemporary India |journal=Development in Practice |date=February 2010 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=31–44 |doi=10.1080/09614520903436935|s2cid=154543664 }}</ref> SEWA's childcare cooperatives in Sangini and Shaishav, have helped more than 400 women get regular work as providers of childcare.<ref name="Chatterjee">{{cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=Mirai |title=Decentralised Childcare Services: The SEWA Experience |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |date=26 August – 1 September 2006 |volume=41 |issue=34 |pages=3660–3664 |jstor=4418612}}</ref>

=== Income ===
In 1994, members' earnings were [[Rupee|Rs]] 39 million for 32,794 women (about Rs 1200 average). By 1998, members' average earnings had risen to Rs 304.5 million for 49,398 women (about Rs 6164 average). This is from aggregate numbers including urban and rural workers. Most of this increase occurred in urban areas.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Datta |first=Rekha |title=Development to Empowerment: The Self-Employed Women's Association in India |journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=351–368 |date=Spring 2003 |doi=10.1023/A:1022352227601 |jstor=20020171|s2cid=140446037 }}</ref> SEWA has had more difficulty pushing for higher wages in rural areas, due to the excess supply of labour in those regions, which weakens the bargaining position of women.<ref name="Datta" /><ref name="Horn">{{cite journal |last=Horn |first=Pat |title=Global Interests of Informal Sector Workers under the Spotlight |journal=Agenda |year=2001 |volume=16 |issue=48 |pages=44–50 |doi=10.2307/4066513|jstor=4066513 |s2cid=142880412 }}</ref> In the construction trades, skilled women workers earn comparable salaries to their male counterparts. Mahila Housing SEWA Trust's Karmika School helps women in the construction trades in India to gain those skills.<ref name="Baruah" /> Providing childcare has led to income increases of 50% in [[Kheda]] and [[Surendranagar]].<ref name="Chatterjee" />

=== Food and nutrition ===
SEWA's push for food security brought about programs to deliver food grain in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Eaton" /> The child care centers established by SEWA have acted during natural disasters such as floods and droughts to provide necessary food as well as other emergency supplies and assistance. The two districts of [[Surendranagar]] and [[Patan district|Patan]] in particular have 25 childcare centers in their communities, which were able to respond to droughts, epidemics, cyclones, floods and the [[2001 Gujarat earthquake|earthquake in 2001]] not only with childcare but also food, water, and shelter.<ref name="Chatterjee" />

=== Health ===
In 1984, SEWA began offering health insurance, which cost their member Rs 85 annually. Health care has become one of their largest projects.<ref name="Eaton">{{cite journal |last=Eaton |first=Lynn |title=Improving Health through Wealth| journal=British Medical Journal |date=15 September 2007 |volume=335 |issue=7619 |pages=538–539 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39282.431100.ad|pmc=1976513 |pmid=17855319}}</ref> Since 1992, Vimo SEWA has provided life and hospitalization insurance for its members and their families for as little as Rs 100 per person. Enrollment topped 130,000 people in 2005.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ranson |first=M. Kent |author2=Tara Sinha |author3=Saul S Morris |author4=Anne J Mills |title=CRTs – Cluster Randomized Trials or 'Courting Real Troubles': Challenges of Running a CRT in Rural Gujarat, India |journal=Canadian Journal of Public Health |date=January–February 2006| volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=72–75 |pmid=16512334 |jstor=41994683 |pmc=1791008 |doi=10.1007/bf03405220}}</ref>

SEWA found that the very poor used this access to health care less than those slightly less poor. Some of the factors include distance to care providers and facilities and the "ex-post reimbursement" nature of health insurance, in which patients must pay upfront and then claim reimbursement. They continue studying the issue of how to bring access to all.<ref name="de Allegri">{{cite journal |last=de Allegri |first=Manuela |author2=Rainer Sauerborn |title=Community Based Health Insurance in Developing Countries |journal=British Medical Journal |date=23 June 2007 |volume=334 |issue=7607 |pages=1282–1283 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39240.632963.80|pmc=1895675 |pmid=17585121}}</ref>

SEWA also has programs to improve water quality by training some of their members to repair pumps for wells and campaigning for underground water tanks for drought-prone areas.<ref name="Eaton" />

=== Childcare ===
In studies in the [[Kheda]] and [[Surendranagar city|Surendranagar]] districts before 2006, poor women with access to child care earned 50 percent more. Childcare also encourages going to school for the entire community by improving the view of the value of education, as well as freeing older siblings from childcare responsibility, allowing them to continue their education. It removes social barriers by helping to alleviate the caste distinctions as children of all castes learn and play together. It aids poverty alleviation by allowing mothers to work and earn more. SEWA has childcare cooperatives in Sangini and Shaishav.<ref name="Chatterjee" />

=== Housing ===
As of 1989, SEWA bank had 11,000 members. Nearly 40 percent of their loans were for purchasing or improving housing. One requirement of the borrower was purchasing shares in the bank worth 5 percent of the loan. However, most low-income households do not qualify for loans from the bank and still must seek other options.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mehta |first=Meera |author2=Dinesh Mehta |title=Housing Finance System and Urban Poor |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |date=27 April 1991 |volume=26 |issue=17 |pages=1109–1110 |jstor=4397994 |url=http://www.epw.in/journal/1991/17/special-articles/housing-finance-system-and-urban-poor.html}}</ref> Also, SEWA has pushed for women to put their names on titles for property, in order to improve women's property rights.<ref name="Unni">{{cite journal |last=Unni |first=Jeemol |title=Property Rights for Women: Case for Joint Titles to Agricultural Land and Urban Housing |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |date=22–28 May 1999 |volume=34 |issue=21 |pages=1281–1286 |jstor=4407989 }}</ref>

=== Assets ===
The Shri Mahila Sewa Sahakari Bank, or SEWA bank, was created to help self-employed women gain access to financial resources. It began with 4000 women each contributing Rs 10.<ref name="Datta" /> The bank encourages saving and has adapted the traditional banking approach to assist the mostly illiterate members, such as issuing ID cards with pictures and fingerprints, since many women cannot sign their name, as well as institute "mobile banks" that visit the rural areas and slums in order to provide banking services, since it is difficult for the women to come to the bank.<ref name="Datta" /> The bank grew from 6,631 members in 1975 to 20,657 in 1997 and from 1,660,431 working capital to 167,331,000.<ref name="Datta" /> SEWA Bank formed savings and credit groups in the 1990s. They began lending to [[rural women]] and encouraged these women to have their names included on title deeds to the lands purchased.<ref name="Unni" />

=== Workers' organizational strength ===
The Surendranagar child care cooperative, which is run locally, inspired the creation of the "Women and Children's Development Mandal". It consists of over 20,000 women and provides services such as finance, employment support, housing services, as well as childcare.<ref name="Chatterjee" /> SEWA's membership in Ahmedabad had grown to 55,000 workers in 1995, far outpacing the membership of the Textile Labour Association, SEWA's original parent organization, in that city.<ref name="Baruah" /> By organizing and collective action, the women of SEWA were able to achieve a voice in the government that did not listen to them individually. They were able to pool small amounts of money to form the SEWA Bank. They were able to draw attention to the unorganized sector of the economy, those who were self-employed or temporary workers without an explicit employer.<ref name="Nayak">{{cite journal |last=Nayak |first=Nalini |title=Organizing the Unorganized Workers: Lessons from SEWA Experiences |journal=The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations |date=January 2013 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=402–414 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-325698256/organizing-the-unorganized-workers-lessons-from-sewa}}</ref>

=== Workers' leadership ===
In a 2007 survey of Karmika School graduates, 68 percent report more confidence in their work and higher status within the family.<ref name="Baruah" /> SEWA's organization and leaders have directly created or indirectly iwomen'sed other organizations within India, in other countries and worldwide, including [[WIEGO]] Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing and SEWU Self-Employed Women's Union,<ref name="Horn" /> Participation in SEWA's programs and their models has increased women's participation in community affairs, reduced domestic violence, and raised their feeling of empowerment overall.<ref name="Datta" /> SEWA was recognized as a [[Trade unions in India|Central trade union]] in 2009. SEWA assisted in passing India's Act on the Unorganized Sector, which establishes some welfare and social security for non-traditional employees. They continue to work for a better share of social security and the rights of labour standards enjoyed by traditional employees.<ref name="Nayak" />

=== Self-reliance ===
According to personal interviews in July 1998, women who have worked with SEWA in their communities feel more confident and gain more respect from the men. They have managed co-operative businesses, in one case in the village of Baldana, better than the men who had managed that same business. The cooperative had been operating at a loss. SEWA helped convert it to women management. The men of the village "forcibly ousted women on renewed profitability. Soon, corruption led to huge losses again and women's and SEWA's intervention."<ref name="Datta" />

=== Literacy ===
Many of SEWA's members are illiterate, leading to problems in understanding laws, conducting business and daily life (for example, according to a SEWA member, "We cannot read the bus numbers, often we miss our bus". In 1992, SEWA began offering literacy classes in May 1992 for Rs 5 per month).<ref name="Datta" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Self Employed Women’s Association}}
* {{Official website|http://www.sewa.org/}}
* [https://search.iisg.amsterdam/Record/COLL00296 Textile Labour Association Collection] at the [[International Institute of Social History]]

{{Authority control}}

{{Trade unions in India navbox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Self Employed Women's Association}}
[[Category:Women's organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Trade unions in India]]
[[Category:Trade unions established in 1972]]
[[Category:Microfinance organizations]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:Precarious workers' trade unions]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Women and employment]]

Nathdwara Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:32:03Z

Google updates 22: Made A Stub

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Rajasthan State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Nathdwara
| state = [[Rajasthan]]
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 176
| map_image = Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan-176-Nathdwara.svg
| district = [[Rajsamand district|Rajsamand]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Rajsamand Lok Sabha constituency|Rajsamand]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = None
| mla = [[Vishvaraj Singh Mewar]]
| incumbent_image = Vishvaraj Singh Mewar (cropped).jpg
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| electors = {{formatnum:238585}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/all_files/full-statistical-reports/rajasthan/2023/Detailed_Results.pdf |title=State Election,2023 to the legislative assembly of Rajasthan |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 12 February 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{update after|2029|1}}
}}
'''Nathdwara Assembly constituency''' is one of the 200 [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Rajasthan]] state in [[India]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3931-delimitation-of-parliamentary-assembly-constituencies-order-2008/ |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies Order - 2008 |website=Election Commission of India |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name=ceomap>{{cite web |url=https://ceorajasthan.nic.in/map/RAJASTHAN_ACS_MAP/RAJASTHAN_ACS_MAP.pdf |title=New Assembly Constituencies |website=ceorajasthan.nic.in |date=25 January 2006| access-date=12 February 2021}}</ref>

It is part of [[Rajsamand district|Rajsamand]] district.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Election
!Name
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[1957 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| Master Kishan Lal Sharma
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1962 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| Vije Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
|[[1967 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| Master Kishan Lal Sharma
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1972 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| Manohar Kothari
|-
|[[1977 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| Navneet Kumar
|-
|[[1980 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|rowspan=2| [[C. P. Joshi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1985 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1990 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|rowspan=2| [[Shivdan Singh Chauhan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1993 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|-
|[[1998 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|rowspan=2| [[C. P. Joshi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2003 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|-
|[[2008 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<ref name=election2008/>
|rowspan=2| [[Kalyan Singh Chauhan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2013 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2013]]<ref name=election2013>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 to the Legislative Assembly of Rajasthan |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/RajAE_2013_stat_report.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718173444/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/RajAE_2013_stat_report.pdf |archive-date=2014-07-18 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|[[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
| [[C. P. Joshi]]<ref name=election2018/>
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=1}}
|-
|[[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| [[Vishvaraj Singh Mewar]]<ref name=election2023 name="election2023-1">{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/all_files/full-statistical-reports/rajasthan/2023/Detailed_Results.pdf |title=State Election,2023 to the legislative assembly of Rajasthan |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 12 February 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|}

== Election results =={{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Election, 2023]]: Nathdwara<ref name="election2023"/>}}{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Vishvaraj Singh Mewar]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 94,950
|percentage = 50.24
|change =
}}{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[C.P. Joshi|Dr. C. P. Joshi]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 87,446
|percentage = 46.27
|change =
}}{{Election box majority|
|votes = 7,504
|percentage = 3.97
|change =
}}{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 189,003
|percentage = ''N/A''
|change =
}}{{Election box gain with party link|winner=Bharatiya Janata Party|loser=Indian National Congress|swing=}}{{Election box end}}{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Election, 2018]]: Nathdwara<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2018/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan LA 2018 |website=Election Commission of India |date= |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref>}}{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[C. P. Joshi]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 88388
|percentage = 50.99
|change =
}}{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Mahesh Pratap Singh
|party = BJP
|votes = 71,444
|percentage = 41.22
|change =}}{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 4248
|percentage = 2.45
|change =
}}{{Election box majority|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}{{Election box turnout|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}{{Election box gain with party link|winner=Indian National Congress|loser=BJP|swing=}}{{Election box end}}
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Nathdwara<ref name="election2023"/>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Vishvaraj Singh Mewar
|votes = {{formatnum:94950}}
|percentage = 50.24
|change = +9.02
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = C. P. Joshi
|votes = {{formatnum:87446}}
|percentage = 46.27
|change = -4.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Jitendra Kumar Khatik
|votes = {{formatnum:2001}}
|percentage = 1.06
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Babulal Salvi
|votes = {{formatnum:1762}}
|percentage = 0.93
|change = -0.36
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2163}}
|percentage = 1.14
|change = -1.31
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:7504}}
|percentage = 3.97
|change = -5.8
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:189003}}
|percentage = 79.22
|change = +2.83
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Nathdwara<ref name="election2018"/>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = C. P. Joshi
|votes = {{formatnum:88384}}
|percentage = 50.99
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Mahesh Pratap Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:71444}}
|percentage = 41.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Laxmi Lal Mali
|votes = {{formatnum:2531}}
|percentage = 1.46
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Babu Lal Salvi
|votes = {{formatnum:2235}}
|percentage = 1.29
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Raghunandan
|votes = {{formatnum:2015}}
|percentage = 1.16
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4248}}
|percentage = 2.45
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:16940}}
|percentage = 9.77
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:173336}}
|percentage = 76.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2008===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2008 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Election, 2008]]: Nathdwara<ref name=election2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2008/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan LA 2008 |website=Election Commission of India |date= |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="delimitation2008"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Kalyan Singh Chouhan
|party = BJP
|votes = 62216
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[C.P. Joshi]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 62,215
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes = 1
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 124431
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = BJP
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Rajsamand district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan}}

{{coord|24.93|73.82|display=title}}

[[Category:Rajsamand district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Politics of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Data centre industry in India

2026-04-19T16:25:27Z

Google updates 22: stub.

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
'''[[India]]''' has a growing '''[[Data center|data centre industry]]'''. Data centres are used for national security, internet infrastructure, and economic output. As of 2024, India's data centre capacity is at 950 MW, which is expected to be 1800 MW by 2026.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/technology/tech-news/india-set-to-cross-1800-mw-in-data-centre-capacity-by-2026-cbre-report-124051501256_1.html|title=India set to cross 1800MW data centre capacity by 2026|date=May 15, 2024}}</ref> The data centre industry is valued at US$1.2 billion in 2021, a 216% growth from $385 million in 2014. The number of data centres in India is 138, as of March 2022. India ranks 13th globally in terms of highest number of data centres.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/data-stories/visually/stellar-growth-in-indias-data-centre-capacity/article66116916.ece|title=Stellar growth in India's data centre capacity|first=Ram Narayan|last=Murthy|date=November 9, 2022|website=www.thehindubusinessline.com}}</ref>

As of 2021, Indian data centres occupy over 8 million sq ft area. 60% of total data centres are in [[Navi Mumbai]], [[Chennai]],[[Noida]], [[Gurgaon]], [[Bangalore]] and [[Hyderabad]].<ref name="yotta">{{cite web|url=https://www.yotta.com/lp/downloads/evolving-landscape-of-data-center-delivery-in-india.pdf|date=2022-04-28|title=Evolving Landscape of Data Center Delivery in India |access-date=2023-02-04}}</ref>

India's data centre capacity is projected to experience significant growth, doubling from 0.9 GW in 2023 to approximately 2 GW by 2026.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mishra |first1=Ashish |title=India's data centre capacity to double in three years: CareEdge Ratings |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/real-estate/indias-data-centre-capacity-to-double-in-three-years-careedge-ratings-12531061.html |access-date=17 June 2024 |publisher=Money Control |date=27 March 2024}}</ref> This expansion is driven by the increasing digitisation and data localisation trends within the country. Despite generating 20% of the global data, India currently holds only a 3% share of global data centre capacity, highlighting substantial under-penetration in this sector. The estimated capital expenditure required for this capacity addition is around Rs 50,000 [[crore]] over the next three years. The cost of setting up data centres has also risen, with the average cost per MW increasing from Rs 40-45 crore to Rs 60-70 crore. The absorption levels in the industry have improved from 82% in 2019 to 93% in 2023, with revenue for industry players growing at a CAGR of nearly 25% from FY17 to FY23. [[CareEdge Group|CareEdge Ratings]] projects a 32% CAGR growth in revenue during FY24–26, with stable EBITDA margins expected over the next three years. The industry is also anticipated to see the entry of new players, which will help diversify the market share currently dominated by the top five players. The shift towards edge data centres is expected to meet the growing demand from tier II and tier III cities, ensuring lower latency and better service delivery.

[[File:TIER - IV Data Centre, GIFT City.svg|thumb|TIER - IV Data Centre by [[Tata Communications]] at [[GIFT City]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=TIER IV Data Centre |url=https://giftsez.com/tier-iv-data-center.aspx |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=giftsez.com}}</ref>]]

==Industry statistics==
Data centres in India are used for [[Information technology in India|information technology]], submarine cable connectivity, economic output, personal data protection legislation and investment incentives etc. As per JLL, Indian data centre industry is expected to add more 681 MW capacity by the end of 2024 leading to a doubling of existing capacity to 1,318 MW with 7.8 million sq ft of real estate space. [[Mumbai]] is expected to account for 57 percent of the new supply, followed by [[Chennai]] at 25 percent. The 5G rollout also has enhanced the need of data centre capacity, since it will increase data download speeds in India 10 times. Also [[Over-the-top media services in India]], video streaming, online gaming, [[augmented reality]] and digital commerce are major factors of the developing industry.<ref name="moneycontrol">{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/real-estate/indias-data-centre-industrys-capacity-set-to-grow-2x-by-2024-says-jones-lang-lasalle-9767091.html|website=moneycontrol.com|title=India's data centre industry's capacity to double by 2024, says Jones Lang LaSalle|date=26 December 2022 |access-date=2023-02-04}}</ref>

==Major data centre hubs==
===Navi Mumbai===
[[Navi Mumbai]] holds the largest data centre market with 44% of the market share alone. The total capacity is 289 MW, with 3.6 million sq ft in its functional area. In 2020, REIT Equinix signed a deal to invest $161 million to facilitate a 19 MW local operations of GPX. [https://www.sifytechnologies.com/data-center/mumbai-data-center/ Sify Technologies Limited], [https://yotta.com/ Yotta Data Services Private Limited], [https://www.capitaland.com/en/lease/data-centres.html CapitaLand], AdaniConneX venture have their major data centre projects in Navi Mumbai.<ref name="auto2">https://cw-gbl-gws-prod.azureedge.net/-/media/cw/apac/india/insights/india-data-center-report_7_8_2021.pdf?rev=5650ff7f9818410a82688da6ed32bbb4</ref>

[[Google]] has planned to set up an 8-storey 381,000 sq ft data centre in [[Navi Mumbai]] by 2025 with an investment of ₹1144 crore in first 10 years. In addition, [[Microsoft]] has plans to build a data centre in Mumbai. CtrlS Datacenters Ltd, which had eight data centres (as of 2023) aims to have about 25 data centres by 2024–25 in India. It plans to expand 5 million sq ft after its existing 1.2 million sq ft, in which a 2 million sq ft hyperscale data centre is under construction in [[Navi Mumbai]].<ref name="wap.business-standard.com">{{cite web|url=https://wap.business-standard.com/article-amp/technology/google-to-come-up-with-381-000-sq-ft-data-centre-in-navi-mumbai-by-2025-123011700200_1.html|author=BS Web Team|title=Google to come up with 381,000 sq ft data centre in Navi Mumbai by 2025|website=Business Standard News|date=17 January 2023 |access-date=2023-02-04}}</ref> Ctrl-S is to establish 4 big data centers in Airoli, MIDC Industrial area.<ref>https://www.business-standard.com/companies/news/ctrls-datacenters-ltd-to-ramp-up-its-capacity-to-over-1-gigawatt-in-4-yrs-124042800146_1.html</ref>

Navi Mumbai has emerged as the third-biggest data centre market in the Asia-Pacific region, with a total capacity at 2,337 MW and breaching the 2GW mark, in 2023, behind Shanghai and Tokyo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETCIO.com |title=Mumbai 3rd biggest data centre market in Asia-Pacific, breaches 2GW mark - ET CIO |url=https://cio.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/corporate-news/mumbai-3rd-biggest-data-centre-market-in-asia-pacific-breaches-2gw-mark/100435040 |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=ETCIO.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Hyderabad===
Due to its IT presence, Hyderabad consists 6% of the market share in the data centre industry, with a capacity of 38 MW and 0.71 million sq ft area. [https://www.sifytechnologies.com/data-center/hyderabad-data-center/ Sify], STT, CapitaLand, and CtrlS are key players in the city.<ref name="auto2"/>

===Bangalore===
[[Bangalore]], known as the ''Silicon Valley of India'', has a major data centre presence due to its large IT infrastructure. As of 2020 Bangalore has a total capacity of 162 MW having 1.74 Million sq ft used for data centre. It possesses a 25% of the market share. [https://www.sifytechnologies.com/data-center/bangalore-data-center/ Sify], ESDS, Sungard, Whitefield Nxtra Data, CapitaLand, Evoque, STT, NTT etc. have their data centres here.<ref name="auto2"/>

===Noida (Delhi-NCR)===
[[Noida]], which falls under the [[National Capital Region|Delhi-NCR]] has a significant data centre industry. It is the only data centre hub in [[North India]]. Delhi has a capacity of 72 MW and a total of 1.05 million sq ft with 11% market share.<ref name="auto2"/>

[[Google]] has acquired a 464,000 sq ft facility at Adani Centre in Noida in 2022.<ref name="wap.business-standard.com"/>

===Pune===
Having IT industry in its main economy, [[Pune]]'s data centres have a total capacity of 32 MW and 0.44 million sq ft with a 5% market share. National companies like Nxtra, STT, Web Werks and Microsoft Azure have set up their campuses in Pune.<ref name="auto2"/>

===Chennai===
[[Chennai]] has a major presence of data centre since it has the market with the second-highest number of undersea cables after Mumbai. Total capacity is 57 MW with 8% market share and a total of 0.92 million sq ft. Chennai is projected to overtake other markets to become the second-largest up to 2030. [https://www.sifytechnologies.com/data-center/chennai-data-center/ Sify], Yotta, CtrlS, Princeton Digital, [[CapitaLand#Data_centre|CapitaLand]], STT, and NxtGen have more than one campus adding to local capacity.<ref name="auto2"/>
The Adani enterprises has signed an MoU with the [[Tamil Nadu]] government to set up a data centre in Chennai, with an investment of Rs 2,500 crore.<ref name="indiatimes">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/51-8-acres-in-kolkata-tech-hub-for-adani-hyperscale-data-centre/articleshow/92047983.cms|title=51.8 acres in Kolkata tech hub for Adani hyperscale data centre {{pipe}} Kolkata News - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=7 June 2022 }}</ref>

===Kolkata===
[[Kolkata]] is the only data centre hub in the [[East India]] and second biggest in Indian subcontinent region with a total capacity of 67 MW and 1.2 million sq ft with a significant market share. Major players are NTT(40MW), [https://www.sifytechnologies.com/data-center/kolkata-data-center/ Sify] and STT.<ref name="auto2"/> STT has a data centre of 34 MW.

Multiple data centre projects are under construction. As of 2021, Kolkata comes second in terms of land earmarked for data centres, with 195 acres in its foray.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/calcutta-among-top-three-cities-in-data-centre-potential/cid/1891086|title=Calcutta among top three cities in data centre potential|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref> Reliance Jio has acquired a 40-acre plot for a data centre. The Adani Enterprise has taken a 51.8 acre plot in the Silicon Valley Hub, [[New Town, Kolkata|New Town]] to build a hyperscale data centre with [[Rupees|₹]]10,000 crore investment.<ref name="indiatimes"/>
Also [[Bharti Airtel]] Nxtra Data, has acquired plot to build a hyper-scale data centre of 25 MW (150,000 sq ft) in Kolkata with an investment of [[Rupees|₹]]600 crore, which is under construction as of 2022.
[[Hiranandani Group]] is also planning six data centres at [[Hind Motor]], [[Uttarpara]], [[West Bengal]]. The group acquired a 100-acre plot at Uttarpara, Hooghly, to set up six data centres (total 250 MW) with an investment of 8,500 crore.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/hiranandani-group-build-six-hyperscale-data-centers-bengal/|title=Hiranandani Group to build six hyperscale data centers in Bengal|first=Dan Swinhoe|last=Comment|website=www.datacenterdynamics.com}}</ref>

==Future growth==
{{AI-generated|section=Future|date=October 2025}}
In 2024, India's data centre industry is experiencing rapid growth, driven by increased digitalisation, rising internet penetration, and the government's push towards digital initiatives. The industry is expected to reach a market size of $5 billion by the end of 2024, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 25% over the past few years. Significant investments from both domestic and international players are enhancing the country's data infrastructure to meet the growing demand for storage and processing capabilities. Major global tech companies like [[Amazon Web Services]], Microsoft, and Google are collectively investing over $2 billion in expanding their data centre footprints in India, contributing to the industry's rapid expansion.

The Indian government's role in fostering this growth is pivotal. By introducing favourable policies and incentives, such as the [[Digital India]] program and data localisation mandates, the government is creating a conducive environment for investment. The data localisation policies alone are projected to drive the construction of over 100 new data centres by 2025. This is further supported by the proliferation of smartphones, e-commerce, and digital services, which has led to an exponential increase in data generation, with the total data consumption in India expected to surpass 25 exabytes per month by 2025. Businesses across various sectors are adopting cloud services, AI, and big data analytics, driving the need for robust data centre infrastructure.

Looking ahead, the data centre industry in India is expected to continue its rapid expansion. The market is projected to grow to $8 billion by 2026. Companies will likely invest heavily in modernising existing facilities and constructing new ones to keep pace with technological advancements and growing demand. Additionally, there will be a stronger emphasis on sustainability, with data centres increasingly adopting green technologies and practices to minimise their environmental impact. This focus on sustainable development will be crucial as the industry scales up to meet the future digital needs of the country, with renewable energy sources expected to power at least 50% of data centres by 2030.

==See also==
*[[Information technology in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Data centers]]
[[Category:Internet in India]]
[[Category:Industry in India]]

Bhaba Valley

2026-04-19T16:24:29Z

Google updates 22: Added The Details W/ Sources.

{{short description|Valley in Himachal Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox valley
| name = Bhaba Valley
| other_name =
| etymology =
| nickname =
| photo = Bhaba Valley.jpg
| region = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| district = [[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]]
| parent =
| range = [[Himalaya]] & [[Zanskar Range]]
| border = [[Satluj Valley]]
| border1 = [[Spiti Valley]]
| city =
| landmark =
| river = [[Wangyur River]]
| location =
| elevation_m = 2200 - 6000
| capital_coordinates =
| mouth_coordinates =
| height_imperial =
| depth_ft =
| area_mi2 =
| population =
| orogeny =
| period =
| map =
| map_caption =
| map_background =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Bhaba Valley''' (also known as '''Wangpo''' in the local [[Kinnauri language]]) is a [[valley]] in the northern Indian state of [[Himachal Pradesh]]. It is formed by the Wangyur river in the district of [[Kinnaur]], which originates near [[Bhaba Pass]]. The [[Wangtu]] bridge is the gateway to the valley. Kinnaur district, 235 km from Shimla, is surrounded by Tibet in the east.<ref>{{Cite web |title=District Kinnaur, Government of Himachal Pradesh {{!}} The Land of Gods {{!}} India |url=https://hpkinnaur.nic.in/ |access-date=2025-06-10 |language=en-US}}</ref>

There are 17 villages within the valley. These villages are in turn divided into five Panchayats: Katgaon, Yangpa 1, Yangpa 2, Kraba and Kafnu. Most of the valley's inhabitation is in Katgaon village.

The [[Bhaba Pass]] connects the Bhaba Valley on the Kinnaur side with the [[Pin Valley National Park|Pin valley]] on the [[Spiti Valley|Spiti]] side.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Complete Guide to Pin Bhaba Pass Trek in Himachal Pradesh |url=https://himalayashelter.com/trek/pin-bhaba-pass-trek |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=himalayashelter.com}}</ref> Another tourist attraction is Shivalinga, situated on the peak of Mount Kinnar Kailash.

Occasional avalanche, landslides and blizzards occur in the Bhaba Valley area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Video: Landslide in Himachal's Kinnaur Takes A Chunk Of Road Along |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/video-landslide-in-himachals-kinnaur-takes-a-chunk-of-road-along-3991835 |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=www.ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref> In March 2024, three labourers from Jharkhand were killed in an avalanche.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-11 |title=3 labourers from Jharkhand killed in avalanche in Himachal Pradesh’s Kinnaur |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/3-labourers-from-jharkhand-killed-in-avalanche-in-himachal-pradeshs-kinnaur-9208553/ |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In July 2017, Himachal Pradesh chief Minister Vidarbha Singh said that he would initiate a Kaza-Mudh-Bhaba road through Pin Valley connecting Spiti to reduce the distance from Shimla to about 90 km.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-07-25 |title=Kaza-Mudh-Bhaba road to be constructed: Himachal Pradesh CM |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/59746722.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst |access-date=2025-06-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The cost of the proposed project was estimated to cost Rs. 80 crore in 2015.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-08-06 |title=HP proposes new road to Pin valley |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shimla/hp-proposes-new-road-to-pin-valley/articleshow/48368812.cms |access-date=2025-06-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Ammunition depot ==
In November 2024, the state government has identified 50 acres at Mulling in the Bhaba valley of Kinnaur to relocate Army’s ammunition depot and obtained 'no objection certificates' from five panchayats. As such the construction of the silt flush tunnel of 450 MW Shong Tong Hydroelectric Project was halted after the Indian Army has moved court against the construction. The Works of Army Act, 1903, does not permit any other activity within a 1,000 metre distance of the ammunition depots.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Govt identifies 50 hectares in Kinnaur to relocate Army’s ammunition depot |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/govt-identifies-50-hectares-in-kinnaur-to-relocate-armys-ammunition-depot/ |access-date=2025-06-10 |website=The Tribune |language=en}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Avalanche site.jpg|Avalanche site
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170321150301/http://www.himachaltouristguide.com/index.php/kinnaur/places-of-interest-kinnaur/121-bhabha-valley Bhabha Valley]}}
*[https://www.snnehh.com/travel-and-cuisine/bhabha-valley-trek-kinnaur Bhaba Valley Trek, Kinnaur]
*[https://indiahikes.com/pin-bhaba-pass-trek Pin Bhaba Pass-A high-altitude crossover trek in Himachal Pradesh]

{{coord missing|Himachal Pradesh}}

[[Category:Geography of Kinnaur district]]
[[Category:Kinnaur district]]
[[Category:Valleys of Himachal Pradesh]]

{{HimachalPradesh-geo-stub}}

Spirit (2012 film)

2026-04-19T12:46:11Z

Google updates 22: Started New Stub - done

{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Spirit
| image = Poster of malayalam film Spirit.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]
| writer = Ranjith
| producer = [[Antony Perumbavoor]]
| starring = [[Mohanlal]] [[Nandu (Malayalam actor)|Nandu]] [[Kanika (actress)|Kaniha]] [[Shankar Ramakrishnan]] [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] [[Lena (actress)|Lena]] [[Kalpana (Malayalam actress)|Kalpana]] [[Govindankutty (actor)|Govindankutty]] [[Thilakan]]
| narrator = [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]] Ranjith
| music = [[Shahabaz Aman]]
| editing = Sandeep Nandakumar
| cinematography = [[Venu (cinematographer)|Venu]]
| studio = [[Aashirvad Cinemas]]
| distributor = [[Maxlab Cinemas and Entertainments|Maxlab Entertainments]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2012|6|14}}
| runtime = 145 minutes
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Spirit''''' is a 2012 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[satirical film|satirical]] [[black comedy]] film written and directed by [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]. The film primarily focuses on the increasing habits of [[alcoholism]] in [[Kerala]]. It was produced by [[Antony Perumbavoor]] under the company [[Aashirvad Cinemas]]. The film stars [[Mohanlal]] in the lead role, while [[Kanika (actress)|Kaniha]], [[Shankar Ramakrishnan]], [[Nandu (Malayalam actor)|Nandu]], [[Kalpana (Malayalam actress)|Kalpana]], [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]], [[Lena (actress)|Lena]] and [[Thilakan]] plays supporting roles. The film features music composed by [[Shahabaz Aman]].

According to Ranjith, "the movie does not, in any way, advocate or proscribe alcohol. ''Spirit'' discusses the subject and examines what happens when a person, however intelligent, falls prey to an addiction, any addiction for that matter."<ref name=TheHindu>[http://www.thehindu.com/arts/article3527915.ece "In the right spirit"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617033122/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/article3527915.ece |date=17 June 2012 }}. ''The Hindu''. Retrieved 15 June 2012.</ref> The film released on 14 June 2012 to overwhelming positive reviews from critics. It also performed well at the box office and completed 125 days theatrical run in Kerala.<ref name="BO1"/><ref name=Sifybo>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=15004289&cid=14625530|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807162616/http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=15004289&cid=14625530|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 August 2012|title=Kerala Box-Office (June–July 2012)|date=1 August 2012|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=18 August 2012}}</ref> The film won the [[National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues]] and two [[Kerala State Film Awards]] for music. This Movie is also noted as the last film of [[Thilakan]] released before his death on 24 September 2012

==Plot==
Raghunandan is an ex-banking executive of [[Bank of England]] who resigned his lucrative job because he was bored with the rather sedentary and mundane nature of his work. Having lived in different parts of the world as a banker, he chose journalism as his next career and worked in different cities in [[India]]. He now works for a famous Television News channel as the host in a popular widely viewed show named "Show the Spirit". In the meantime, he is in the process of writing an English novel too. He has a great reputation among people for being an intellect, a [[polyglot ]] and for his shrewd journalistic tactics but he is infact a loner, a vain [[narcissist]] and a compulsive alcoholic with an expensive collection of vintage drinks at home.

It was his excessive drinking that resulted in his divorce some years back, but he shares a healthy friendship with his ex-wife Meera and her current husband Alexy. The couple has custody of Raghunandan's and Meera's son Aditya a.k.a. Sunny, who is deaf and mute. [[Captain]] Nambiar is his jovial next door neighbour. Raghunandan, however, is not really bothered about relationships, friendships or the norms of society and prefers to live life on his own terms. He rubs off some powerful politicians, who come to his TV show threatening dire consequences and offering bribes, the wrong way and does not regret it.

Raghunandan's fatal addiction towards alcohol takes a heavy toll on his personal and professional life. However, good sense dawns, albeit late, when he comes across a man who is worse than him because of his drinking problem. That is plumber Mani who is so drunk that he cannot distinguish between what is real and unreal. His character manifests all the worst characteristics of an alcoholic, including abusing his wife. Mani changes everything, bringing some meaning to Raghunandan's life.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Mohanlal]] as Raghunandan, a popular television host, an alcoholic.
* [[Nandu (Malayalam actor)|Nandu]] as Maniyan, an alcoholic plumber.
* [[Kanika (actress)|Kaniha]] as Meera, Raghu's ex-wife.
* [[Shankar Ramakrishnan]] as Alexy, Meera's current husband and a close friend of Raghu.
* [[Kalpana (Malayalam actress)|Kalpana]] as Pankajam, Maniyan's wife.
* [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] as Captain Nambiar, Raghu's neighbour.
* [[Govindankutty (Actor)|Govindankutty]] as Benoy, News TV cameraman.
* [[Lena (actress)|Lena]] as ASP Supriya Raghavan.
* [[Thilakan]] as Mesthiri, Master of Maniyan
* [[Siddharth (Malayalam actor)|Siddharth]] as Sameer, an alcoholic poet.
* [[Tini Tom]] as Johnson, the bartender.
* [[Suraj Venjaramoodu]] as Muralikrishnan, Minister for Tourism and Cultural Affairs (cameo appearance).
* [[K. B. Ganesh Kumar|Ganesh Kumar]] as Ashraf, CEO, News TV
* [[Jayaraj Warrier]]
* [[Vijay Menon]]
* Prajwal Prasad as Adithya / Sunny
* [[Jis Joy]]
}}

==Production==
[[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]] has scripted some of the finest films in [[Mohanlal]]'s career like ''[[Devasuram]]'', ''[[Aaraam Thampuran]]'' and ''[[Narasimham (film)|Narasimham]]''. But the two were not in good terms for a while, perhaps after the dud called ''[[Rock & Roll (film)|Rock N' Roll]]''. The two are now coming together, after a brief hiatus through ''Spirit''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131016083605/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-14/previews/32234271_1_mohanlal-spirit-urumi "Spirit"]. ''Times of India''. Retrieved 15 June 2012.</ref> Ranjith makes it clear that he opted for Mohanlal as he felt he was the best for this character.<ref name=TheHindu/>

Talking about the film, Ranjith explains: "I believe there are two kinds of people in Kerala. On one hand, you have intelligent, successful people who become slaves to alcohol. They cannot function without it. As a result of it, their families suffer. Many of these alcoholics have marital problems and often, physically and emotionally, abuse their spouse. On the other, there are many others who are not teetotallers but they don't need booze 24X7 to keep them in good spirits," says Ranjith.<ref name=TheHindu/>

After the success of ''[[Indian Rupee (film)|Indian Rupee]]'', Ranjith announced his new film ''Leela'' which was an adaptation of Unni. R's short story of the same name. But the project was postponed and Ranjith began the works of ''Spirit''.<ref name="Shankar">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article3497129.ece|title=Spirited approach|first=Saraswathy|last=Nagarajan|date=6 June 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=26 June 2012|archive-date=14 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614144744/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article3497129.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Shankar Ramakrishnan, who was to play the lead in ''Leela'', "''Leela'' has a landscape and a mindscape and the film was postponed as it requires us [the crew] to travel from Kottayam to Wayanad."<ref name="Shankar"/> Ranjith completed the film's script in a short time and the whole film, including post-production works, was completed in about a month.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-04-19/news-interviews/31367131_1_spirit-mohanlal-entertainer|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103073540/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-04-19/news-interviews/31367131_1_spirit-mohanlal-entertainer|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Renjith creates history with Spirit|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=18 April 2012|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref> The [[principal photography]] of the film started in March 2012 and was completed by mid-April.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/article/81011.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420232832/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/article/81011.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 April 2012|title='Spirit' completed in 31 days|work=Indiaglitz.com|date=18 April 2012|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref> The film was shot mainly from [[Kochi]] and the "Casa Rosa resort" in the film was set in Choice house in Kochi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/article3285474.ece|title=Triumph of the human spirit|first=Vijay|last=George|date=6 April 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=26 June 2012|archive-date=22 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422134553/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/article3285474.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> It was produced by [[Antony Perumbavoor]] under the banner [[Aashirvad Cinemas]]. [[Prakash Raj]] was initially cast for the role of Alexy but he opted out reportedly due to payment issues.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranjith: Prakash Raj is unprofessional|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-malayalam-film-snippets/20120328.htm|access-date=29 March 2012|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=28 March 2012|archive-date=31 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331005434/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-malayalam-film-snippets/20120328.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> He was replaced by [[Shankar Ramakrishnan]] who makes his debut as an actor.<ref>{{cite web|title=It's Shankar instead of Prakashraj|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/article/79585.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321194522/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/article/79585.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 March 2012|access-date=29 March 2012|work=Indiaglitz|date=19 March 2012}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Spirit
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Shahabaz Aman
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2012
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Film
| length = 13:35
| label = Satyam Audios
| producer = [[Shahabaz Aman]]
| prev_title = [[Indian Rupee (film)|Indian Rupee]]
| prev_year =
| next_title = [[Bavuttiyude Namathil]]
| next_year =
}}

The film features songs composed by Shahabaz Aman and written by [[Rafeeq Ahammed]]. The audio released on 12 June 2012. [[Mathrubhumi]] managing director [[M. P. Veerendra Kumar]] released the CD by handing over the CD to actor [[Mammootty]]. Mathrubhumi Music and Sathyam Audios were jointly released the music.<ref>{{cite news|title='Spirit' audio CD released|newspaper=[[Mathrubhumi]]|date=13 June 2012|access-date=26 June 2012|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/english/movies/malayalam/124856/|archive-date=18 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618203014/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/english/movies/malayalam/124856/|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Track listing

| extra_column = Artist(s)

| all_lyrics = [[Rafeeq Ahamed]]
| all_music = [[Shahabaz Aman]]

| title1 = Ee Chillayil
| extra1 = [[K. J. Yesudas]]
| length1 = {{Duration|3:43}}

| title2 = Mazhakondu Mathram
| extra2 = [[Vijay Yesudas]]
| length2 = {{Duration|3:34}}

| title3 = Maranamethunna
| extra3 = [[Unni Menon]]
| length3 = {{Duration|3:25}}

| title4 = Mazhakondu Mathram
| extra4 = [[Gayatri Asokan]]
| length4 = {{Duration|3:33}}

}}

==Release==
A premiere show was held on 10 June 2012 in [[Chennai]] where it garnered good responses. Noted filmmakers and writers such as [[Priyadarshan]], [[M. P. Virendra Kumar]] and [[Anjali Menon]] were all praise for the film with special mention to Mohanlal's performance.<ref>[http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/0/278299/ "പ്രതീക്ഷകളുടെ ഉയരത്തില്‍ സ്പിരിറ്റ്‌"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611043427/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/0/278299/ |date=11 June 2012 }}. (in Malayalam). ''Mathrubhumi''. Retrieved 15 June 2012.</ref>

Originally set to release on 7 June 2012,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-04/news-and-interviews/32030497_1_release-spirit-film|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103102540/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-04/news-and-interviews/32030497_1_release-spirit-film|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Spirit is set to release on June 7|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=4 June 2012|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref> ''Spirit'' opened in more than 100 theatres a week later, on 14 June 2012 with good results. The film was screened in 84 centres in Kerala while the [[Chennai]], [[Mumbai]] and [[Bangalore]] sector had the film in around 20 centres. The movie was reportedly well received by the audiences who opined that it is a class affair with a fine script from the director.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spirit opens in 100 plus centers|work=Indiaglitz|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/article/82893.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616083542/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/malayalam/article/82893.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 June 2012|date=15 June 2012|access-date=16 June 2012}}</ref> Most of them suggested that it gives a good message to the youth who is addicted to alcohol.

The film was screened in front of several politicians and ministers such as [[K. Babu]], [[Ramesh Chennithala]], N. Sakthan, [[Mullakkara Ratnakaran]], [[A. P. Abdullakutty]], [[P. C. Vishnunath]] and [[Dominic Presentation]] on 21 June 2012 at Sreekumar Theatre, [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. The show was presided over by about fifty legislative assembly members and other politicians who were all praise for the film.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/malayalam/281057/|title='സ്‌പിരിറ്റ്' കാണാന്‍ രാഷ്ട്രീയഭേദം മറന്ന്|language=ml|date=22 June 2012|access-date=22 June 2012|newspaper=[[Mathrubhumi]]|archive-date=22 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622190541/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/malayalam/281057/|url-status=live}}</ref> P. C. Vishnunath suggested the Ministry of Entertainment exempt the film from entertainment taxes stating that the film carries a good message. In late-June, the decision to exempt the film from the tax was announced in the assembly by Minister for Panchayats and Social Welfare [[M. K. Muneer]]. "The film created an awareness on social issues faced by the society due to increase in liquor consumption," M. K. Muneer said. The Minister also congratulated the film's crew including Mohanlal and Ranjith for presenting a value oriented film to Malayalam film industry.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/regional/mohanlal-s-film-spirit-exempted-from-tax-236008|title=Mohanlal's film Spirit exempted from tax|publisher=[[NDTV]]|work=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=26 June 2012|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/malayalam-film-spirit-exempted-from-tax/267983-71-210.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701085126/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/malayalam-film-spirit-exempted-from-tax/267983-71-210.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2012|title=Malayalam film 'Spirit' exempted from tax|publisher=[[IBN Live]]|work=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=26 June 2012|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref> Central minister [[Vayalar Ravi]] has written to the Ministry of Broadcasting to screen the film all over India through [[Doordarshan]] television channels.

===Accusation of plagiarism===
Abdul Azeez, a short filmmaker and assistant director, has accused that ''Spirit'' is plagiarised from his short film ''My Hero But Big Zero''. He adds that Plumber Maniyan, the character played by [[Nandu (Malayalam actor)|Nandu]] in ''Spirit'', was entirely based on the protagonist of his film.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://veekshanam.com/content/view/17668/39/|title=സ്പിരിറ്റ് കോപ്പിയടിച്ചതോ ?|language=ml|newspaper=Veekshanam|access-date=2 July 2012|archive-date=6 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006023323/http://veekshanam.com/content/view/17668/39/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Critical reception===
Performance of Nandu as Plumber Maniyan was particularly praised.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/web_special/280995/|title=നന്ദു: രഞ്ജിത്ത് തിരിച്ചറിഞ്ഞ താരം|language=ml|first=Aswathi|last=Krishna|newspaper=[[Mathrubhumi]]|date=22 June 2012|access-date=22 June 2012|archive-date=22 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622190505/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/web_special/280995/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Paresh C Palicha of [[Rediff.com]] gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5 stars and said, "''Spirit'' is not flawless but is recommended for the sincere effort by the cast and the crew." In regards to Mohanlal's performance, the critic said: "''Spirit'' belongs to Mohanlal who brings to the table a kind of vulnerability hidden behind the arrogant exterior. There are occasions when the mask of arrogance falls away and Mohanlal has the expertise to handle such situations with élan."<ref>[http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-review-mohanlal-shines-in-spirit/20120615.htm "Review: Mohanlal shines in Spirit"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617154736/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-review-mohanlal-shines-in-spirit/20120615.htm |date=17 June 2012 }}. [[Rediff.com]]. Retrieved 16 June 2012.</ref>

A review by [[Sify.com]] said, "If you are not expecting a high voltage drama stuffed with the usual share of emotions, ''Spirit'' can turn out to be a nice experience. It may not bowl you over like some of Ranjith's brilliant movies and seems to be a bit too long, at nearly two hours and thirty minutes. Still, this one has been made with noble intentions."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141109233605/http://www.sify.com/movies/spirit-review-malayalam-15000985.html "Movie Review: Spirit"]. [[Sify.com]]. Retrieved 15 June 2012.</ref>

The film received negative reviews as well. Parvathy Anoop of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' stated, "There are too many characters and side stories, some of which are not relevant at all. Also, it [the film] has too many disconnects. Some ideas are introduced and left incomplete, which is a shame. All the drinking, smoking and swearing in this movie seem to have gone waste as it does not drive the message strongly. Mohanlal, as always, has done his part well, but Ranjith had set his own bar high with movies like Pranchiyettan and Indian Rupee and this one does not come anywhere close to that league."<ref>{{cite news|last=Anoop|first=Parvathy|title='Spirit' has a message, but elicits no cheers|newspaper=[[Deccan Herald]]|date=16 June 2012|access-date=16 June 2012|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/257310/spirit-has-message-elicits-no.html|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124758/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/257310/spirit-has-message-elicits-no.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Dalton L, in his review for ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'', criticised Mohanlal's acting: "Mohanlal acts like he's never really been sloshed in his entire life; the only indications to the contrary being his trembling fingers, the clichéd dazed look, and an occasional stagger. He should learn a thing or two from Thilakan's sterling performance. Kalpana and Nandu too get real." He gave the film a rating of three in a scale of five.<ref>{{cite news|last=L|first=Dalton|title=Spirit review: A diseased spirit|newspaper=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|date=18 June 2012|access-date=21 June 2012|url=http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/120617/entertainment-movie-reviews/article/spirit-review-diseased-spirit|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150420163642/http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/120617/entertainment-movie-reviews/article/spirit-review-diseased-spirit|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 April 2015}}</ref>

Sreenath Nair of ''[[The Hindu]]'' said that the film "lacks punch and kick". He praised the film's art direction and acting by Mohanlal and Nandu but was critical about the film's cinematography, dialogues and background score. He particularly criticised the statements about fashionable drinking and the attributes of the rich, saying, "these could have avoided by an intelligent director." He also criticised the slow pace of the film, saying, "as the film moves towards the climax comes the spoilsport device, a television show."<ref>{{cite news|first=Sreenath|last=Nair|date=17 June 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|title=This film lacks punch and kick|access-date=26 June 2012|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article3538511.ece}}</ref>

===Box office===
Sify called it a box office super hit.<ref name=Sifybo/> It completed a theatrical run of more than 125 days in Kerala.<ref name=BO1>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121213171852/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/spirit-completes-100-day-run-on-box-office/293536-71-210.html "Spirit: Completed 100 day run in all centre Box office"]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/spirit-completes-100-day-run-on-box-office-509793.html|title=Spirit: Completes 100 day run on Box office|work=[[News18]]|date=20 September 2012|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301225550/https://www.news18.com/news/india/spirit-completes-100-day-run-on-box-office-509793.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Awards==
;[[60th National Film Awards]]
* [[National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues|Best Film on Social Issues]]

;[[Kerala State Film Awards]]
* [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Lyrics|Best Lyricist]] – [[Rafeeq Ahammed]] (''Mazhakondu Mathram'')
* [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Singer|Best Male Singer]] – [[Vijay Yesudas]]

; [[2nd South Indian International Movie Awards]]
* [[SIIMA Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] - Mohanlal
* [[SIIMA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role|Best Actor in a Supporting Role]] – [[Nandu (Malayalam actor)|Nandu]]
* [[SIIMA Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] – [[Vijay Yesudas]] for "Mazhakondu Mathram"
* Nominated—[[SIIMA Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
* Nominated—[[SIIMA Award for Best Cinematographer|Best Cinematographer]] - Venu
* Nominated—[[SIIMA Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]] - Shahabaz Aman
* Nominated—[[SIIMA Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]] – Rafeeq Ahmad for "Mazha Kondu"
* Nominated—[[SIIMA Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] – [[K. J. Yesudas]] for "Ee Chillayil"
* Nominated—[[SIIMA Award for Best Male Debutant|Best Male Debutant]] – [[Shankar Ramakrishnan]]

;[[60th Filmfare Awards South]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Malayalam|Best Lyricist]] – Rafeeq Ahmed for "Maranamethunna Nerathu"
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Malayalam|Best Playback Singer – Male]] – [[Vijay Yesudas]] for "Mazhakondu Mathram"

; [[Asianet Film Awards]]
* Best Actor – [[Mohanlal]]
* Best Supporting Actor - Male - [[Shankar Ramakrishnan]]
* Best Supporting Actor - Female - [[Lena (actress)|Lena]]
* Best Scriptwriter – [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]

; Asiavision Movie Awards<ref>[http://gulftoday.ae/portal/f3754c79-d7b7-4b23-84ba-efe67894c301.aspx "South Indian movie stars honoured in a run-up to awards ceremony "] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110024028/http://gulftoday.ae/portal/f3754c79-d7b7-4b23-84ba-efe67894c301.aspx |date=10 November 2012 }}. ''[[The Gulf Today]]''. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2012.</ref>
* Best Actor – [[Mohanlal]]
* Best Director – [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web|url=http://www.thecompleteactor.in/2012/06/spirit-malayalam-movie-box-office.html/|title=Box Office Reports|publisher=The Complete Actor|date=17 June 2012}}
* {{IMDb title|2175672|Spirit}}
* {{cite video|url=http://www.manoramanews.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/mmtvContentView.do?BV_ID=@@@&programId=9958870&contentId=11842995|title=Interview with Mohanlal and Ranjith|publisher=[[Manorama News]]|date=22 June 2012}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.metrovaartha.com/2012/06/13061618/spirit.html|title=സ്പിരിറ്റൊഴുകുന്നു....|publisher=Metrovaartha|date=13 June 2012|language=ml}}
* {{cite news|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/malayalam/279008/|title='സ്‌പിരിറ്റ്' മദ്യത്തില്‍ മുങ്ങിത്താണവരുടെ കഥ-രഞ്ജിത്ത്‌ |newspaper=Mathrubhumi|date=14 June 2012|language=ml}}

{{National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues}}
{{Aashirvad Cinemas}}
{{Ranjith (director)}}
{{Ranjith}}

[[Category:2012 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian satirical films]]
[[Category:Films about alcoholism]]
[[Category:Films involved in plagiarism controversies]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ranjith (director)]]
[[Category:Films scored by Shahabaz Aman]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kochi]]
[[Category:Best Film on Other Social Issues National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Aashirvad Cinemas films]]

Gaganachari

2026-04-19T10:50:40Z

Google updates 22: stub.

{{Short description|2024 Indian film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Gaganachari poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Arun Chandu
| writer = Siva Sai Arun Chandu
| producer = Vinayaka Ajith
| starring =[[K. B. Ganesh Kumar]] [[Gokul Suresh]] [[Aju Varghese]] [[Anarkali Marikar]]
| cinematography = Surjith S. Pai
| editing = Aravind Manmadhan
| music = Sankar Sharma
| studio = Ajith Vinayaka Films Krishand Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2024|06|21}}
| country = India
|runtime = 115 minutes
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Gaganachari''''' ({{Translation|Celestial traveller}}) is a 2024 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[science fiction]] [[mockumentary]] film directed by Arun Chandu, who wrote the screenplay with Siva Sai.<ref>{{cite web |title=Interview {{!}} Actor Aju Varghese: The success of 'Gaganachari' has been overwhelming |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/actor-aju-varghese-on-the-success-of-gaganachari-and-his-future-projects/article68373974.ece|website=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=12 July 2024 |date=6 July 2024}}</ref> It is set in 2050s Kerala where three bachelors meet a mysterious alien. The film stars [[K. B. Ganesh Kumar]], [[Gokul Suresh]], [[Aju Varghese]] and [[Anarkali Marikar]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/gaganachari-trailer-anarkali-marikar-plays-an-alien-in-aju-varghese-gokul-sureshs-sci-fi-film/article67089889.ece|title='Gaganachari' trailer: Anarkali Marikar plays an alien in Aju Varghese, Gokul Suresh's sci-fi mockumentary|work=The Hindu|date=17 July 2023|access-date=17 June 2024|archive-date=17 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240617025713/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/gaganachari-trailer-anarkali-marikar-plays-an-alien-in-aju-varghese-gokul-sureshs-sci-fi-film/article67089889.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

The film was theatrically released on 21 June 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/malayalam-film-gaganachari-gets-a-massive-success-at-international-film-festivals-6542059.html|title=Malayalam Film Gaganachari Gets A Massive Success At International Film Festivals|date=5 December 2022|publisher=News18|access-date=17 June 2024|archive-date=9 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609211726/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/malayalam-film-gaganachari-gets-a-massive-success-at-international-film-festivals-6542059.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Plot==
In 2050, global society has collapsed due to environmental and political disasters. Alien megastructures now loom over Earth's surface, and global authorities are aggressively hunting extraterrestrials. In [[Kerala]], a local political outfit named Ajayya Sena claims to protect the public from alien threats while acting as moral police. A team of documentary filmmakers travel to interview Major Victor Vasudevan, a retired soldier known as the "alien hunter" for surviving an alleged alien attack in 2030. He now lives in a bunker on a remote island with his nephew Alan John Valamparambil and their cook, Vaibhav "Vibe".

Victor tries to follow traditional Kerala values and dreams of migrating to the moon, now a human colony. He is assisted by an AI named Raghavan. Victor spends his time painting nude portraits of women, and sleeps in a preservation pod to maintain his youth. Vibe leads a playboy lifestyle, while Alan longs for romantic connection. Two corrupt police officers, Rage Kurup and Potti Ambu Madathil, regularly visit to extort them, abusing their unchecked authority.

One night, Vibe returns from a party with no memory of how he got home. The group discovers a mute, blue-haired woman inside their bunker, who has eaten Victor's cat, Bhavani. She is a humanoid alien fugitive, misled by Vibe into thinking he would help her reach a station. Her emotional responses cause electromagnetic pulses, which trigger flickering lights and can expose her location to the authorities. The men choose to hide her and call her "Alieamma" (alien + ''[[wikt:അമ്മ|amma]]'').

The group tries to care for Alieamma, feeding her cat food and letting her watch old Malayalam films. Alan develops feelings for her. Alieamma gives Alan a damaged device to help her communicate. Vibe repairs it but gives her a voice with maternal cadence, to Alan's dismay. Alieamma tells them her species is peaceful and explains how human theories about their origins are wrong. Long ago, humans and her kind coexisted as sibling species on another planet. After draining their planet, humans had fled to Earth. Now, her species has repeated humans' mistake and come to Earth in search of refuge.

Once, Vibe tries to lead Alieamma to the authorities. Alieamma erases his memory with a touch, but restores it out of pity. Later, Alan becomes heartbroken when he discovers she posed nude for Victor, but Victor explains that he never looks at the actual bodies of his muses. Instead, he always imagines and paints his wife's body from memory.

Kurup and Potti eventually kidnap Alieamma, and Potti begins a ritual to "cleanse" her. Alan finds her in distress and knocks the officers unconscious with a wooden log. The Ajayya Sena arrives wearing alien costumes. Posing as protectors, they were the real troublemakers, dressing up as aliens to create fear. Alieamma defends herself and the group by flying into the sky, and overpowers the Sena reinforcements at their residence. She asks the men to help her reach a spacecraft visible in the sky. They agree, and she thanks them before departing Earth.

Victor finally achieves his dream of going to the moon. Alan, heartbroken, sends hundreds of messages to Alieamma through Raghavan. On her home planet, inhabited by giant cats, Alieamma receives Alan’s first message and smiles when she hears that he misses her.

==Cast==
*[[K. B. Ganesh Kumar]] as Major. Victor Vasudevan
*[[Gokul Suresh]] as Allen Jose
*[[Aju Varghese]] as Vaibhav Vidyanathan aka Vibe
*[[Anarkali Marikar]] as Alien Aliyamma (voiced by [[Mallika Sukumaran]])<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-11 |title=ആ സിനിമയില്‍ ശബ്ദം കൊടുത്തത് ഞാനാണ്, പലരും എനിക്ക് മെസേജയച്ചപ്പോള്‍ സന്തോഷം തോന്നി: മല്ലിക സുകുമാരന്‍|url=https://www.doolnews.com/mallika-sukumaran-about-dubbing-in-gaganachari-64-144.html|access-date=2024-10-26 |website=Dool News |language=ml}}</ref>
*Abraham Evangeline Joseph as voice for Raghavan, the [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]]{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}
*Anantharaman Ajay as Documentary Host
*John Kaippallil as Rage
*[[Suresh Gopi]] as Maniyan Chittappan (photo presence)

==Release==
The film was premiered on 7 January 2024 at the PVR Cinemas at Lulu Mall Kochi in association with Kerala Pop Con 2024.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |date=2024-01-05 |title=Arun Chandu's 'Gaganachari' To Premiere At The Kerala Pop Con |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/arun-chandus-gaganachari-to-premiere-at-the-kerala-pop-con/articleshow/106564800.cms |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=The Times Of India |language=en |archive-date=19 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619074945/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/arun-chandus-gaganachari-to-premiere-at-the-kerala-pop-con/articleshow/106564800.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-05 |title=Gaganachari to premiere at Kerala Pop Con |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jan/05/gaganacharito-premiere-at-kerala-pop-con-50984.html |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=19 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619080209/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jan/05/gaganacharito-premiere-at-kerala-pop-con-50984.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The film was released worldwide on 21 June 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/gaganachari-movie-final-trailer-and-release-date-out-1.9649665|title=ഡിസ്ടോപ്പിയൻ ഏലിയൻ കോമഡി 'ഗഗനചാരി'യുടെ ട്രെയിലർ പുറത്ത്; ചിത്രം ജൂൺ 21-ന്|work=Mathrubhumi News|date=18 June 2024|access-date=19 June 2024|archive-date=19 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619055750/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/gaganachari-movie-final-trailer-and-release-date-out-1.9649665|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-24 |title=Box Office report: Parvathy's 'Ullozhukku' continues strong run, weak start for 'Gaganachari' |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/box-office-collection-ullozhukku-nadanna-sambhavam-gaganachari-guruvayoor-ambalanadayil-1.9664165 |access-date=2024-06-30 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |language=en |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630033629/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/box-office-collection-ullozhukku-nadanna-sambhavam-gaganachari-guruvayoor-ambalanadayil-1.9664165 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-06-11 |title=Gaganachari gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Jun/11/gaganachari-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2024-06-11 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>

===Home media===
The film began streaming on [[Amazon Prime Video]] from 26 October 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-26 |title='Gaganachari' silently makes its OTT debut; here's where you can watch it |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2024/10/26/gaganachari-movie-ott-release-malayalam-movie.html |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=[[Onmanorama]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Accolades==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|+ {{Screen reader-only|Accolades received by ''Avatar'' (2009 film)}}
|-
! scope="col" | Award / Film festival
! scope="col" | Date of ceremony
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Recipient(s)
! scope="col" | Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"| {{Ref heading}}
|-

|Art Blocks International Film Festival
|October - November 2022
|Best Feature Film
|Gaganachari
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Award |url=http://abiff.tilda.ws/awards |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=abiff.tilda.ws}}</ref>
|-

|[[54th Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala State Film Awards]]
|August 16, 2024
|Special Mentions - Direction
|Arun Chandu
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala State Film Awards 2024: Prithviraj wins Best Actor, 'Kaathal' takes Best Film {{!}} LIVE |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2024/08/16/kerala-state-film-awards-2024-live.html |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.onmanorama.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-16 |title=Kerala State Film Awards 2024 winners list: Aadujeevitham wins big; Prithviraj, Urvashi, Beena Chandran take top honours |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/kerala-state-film-awards-2024-winners-list-aadujeevitham-wins-big-prithviraj-urvashi-beena-chandran-take-top-honours-9517307/lite/ |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala State Film Awards 2024: Aadujeevitham Secures 9 Awards, Prithviraj Sukumaran Wins Big |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/kerala-state-film-awards-2024-check-out-full-list-of-awards-6356129 |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Reception==
===Box office===
The film opened with a collection of {{INR}}4 lakhs on opening day and {{INR}}12 lakhs on second day<ref>{{cite web |title='Gaganachari' Box Office Collections Day 2: Sci-Fi Comedy Film Mints Rs 18 Lakhs |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-2-sci-fi-comedy-film-mints-rs-18-lakhs/articleshow/111204557.cms |website=[[The Times Of India]] |access-date=12 July 2024 |date=23 June 2024 |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712151036/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-2-sci-fi-comedy-film-mints-rs-18-lakhs/articleshow/111204557.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> and as of 27 June 2024, film collected {{INR}}92 lakhs worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |title='Gaganachari' Box Office Collections Day 6: Gokul Suresh Starrer Maintains Steady Momentum With Rs 92 Lakhs Worldwide |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-6-gokul-suresh-starrer-maintains-steady-momentum-with-rs-92-lakhs-worldwide/articleshow/111307829.cms |website=[[The Times Of India]] |access-date=12 July 2024 |date=27 June 2024 |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712151036/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-6-gokul-suresh-starrer-maintains-steady-momentum-with-rs-92-lakhs-worldwide/articleshow/111307829.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-3-anarkali-marikar-starrer-gathers-rs-24-lakhs/articleshow/111225073.cms | title='Gaganachari' box office collections day 3: Anarkali Marikar starrer gathers Rs 24 lakhs | newspaper=The Times of India | date=24 June 2024 | access-date=25 June 2024 | archive-date=25 June 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240625153603/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-3-anarkali-marikar-starrer-gathers-rs-24-lakhs/articleshow/111225073.cms | url-status=live }}</ref> As of 3 July 2024, film collected {{INR}}1.53 crore<ref>{{cite web |title='Gaganachari' Box Office Collections Day 12: Arun Vijay Directorial Sci-Fi Mints Rs 1.53 Crore |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-12-arun-vijay-directorial-sci-fi-mints-rs-1-53-crore/articleshow/111459247.cms |website=[[The Times Of India]] |access-date=12 July 2024 |date=3 July 2024 |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712151037/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-12-arun-vijay-directorial-sci-fi-mints-rs-1-53-crore/articleshow/111459247.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> and as of 10 July 2024 the film collected worldwide gross of {{INR}}2.2 crore.<ref>{{cite web |title='Gaganachari' Box Office Collections Day 19: Sci-Fi Comedy Surpasses Rs 2.2 Crore Worldwide |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-19-sci-fi-comedy-surpasses-rs-2-2-crore-worldwide/articleshow/111638163.cms |website=[[The Times Of India]] |access-date=12 July 2024 |date=10 July 2024 |archive-date=11 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711101916/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/gaganachari-box-office-collections-day-19-sci-fi-comedy-surpasses-rs-2-2-crore-worldwide/articleshow/111638163.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=.2>{{cite web |title=നേടിയ വന്‍ അഭിപ്രായം ബോക്സ് ഓഫീസില്‍ പ്രതിഫലിച്ചോ? ഗോകുല്‍ സുരേഷ് ചിത്രം 'ഗഗനചാരി' 19 ദിവസം കൊണ്ട് നേടിയത് |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment/box-office/gaganachari-box-office-collection-report-arun-chandu-aju-varghese-gokul-suresh-anarkali-marikar-kb-ganesh-kumar-sggqr6 |website=[[Asianet News]] |access-date=12 July 2024 |date=11 July 2024}}</ref>

===Critical response===
''[[The Hindu]]'' gave positive review calling it a fun-filled science fiction film.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Praveen |first=S. R. |date=2024-06-22 |title='Gaganachari' movie review: A fun-filled sci-fi film which celebrates yesteryear Malayalam cinema |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/gaganachari-movie-review-a-fun-filled-sci-fi-film-which-celebrates-yesteryear-malayalam-cinema/article68320259.ece |access-date=2024-06-30 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Future ==
Director Arun Chandu and the team behind Gaganachari are planning to expand the Gaganachari universe with their next feature, starring actor [[Suresh Gopi]] and allen Jose Perrera in the lead role within the same storyline.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-06-27 |title='Maniyan Chittappan': Suresh Gopi joins 'Gaganachari' universe with director Arun Chandu's next |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/maniyan-chittappan-suresh-gopi-joins-gaganachari-universe-with-director-arun-chandus-next/article68339613.ece |access-date=2024-06-30 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=30 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630035530/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/maniyan-chittappan-suresh-gopi-joins-gaganachari-universe-with-director-arun-chandus-next/article68339613.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{IMDb title|15437820}}

[[Category:Indian dystopian films]]
[[Category:Indian post-apocalyptic films]]
[[Category:Indian satirical films]]
[[Category:2024 Malayalam-language films]]

Karol Bagh Assembly constituency

2026-04-18T23:43:40Z

Google updates 22: data

{{Short description|Constituency of the Delhi legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Karol Bagh
| state = [[Delhi]]
| district = [[New Delhi]]
| loksabha_cons = [[New Delhi (Lok Sabha constituency)|New Delhi]]
| reservation = SC
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 23
| mla = [[Vishesh Ravi]]
| party = [[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]]
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
}}
'''Karol Bagh''' is one of the 70 [[Delhi Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] constituencies of [[Delhi]] in northern India. The Karol Bagh assembly constituency is a part of [[New Delhi (Lok Sabha constituency)]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi Assembly Election 2020 - State Wise and Party Wise Results |url=https://www.elections.in/delhi/assembly-constituencies/karol-bagh.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
!colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1993 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
| [[Surendra Pal Ratawal]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1998 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
| Moti Lal Bokolia
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2003 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Surendra Pal Ratawal]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=2|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2008 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
|-
| [[2013 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
| rowspan="4" | [[Vishesh Ravi]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=4|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|-
| [[2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
|-
| [[2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
|-
|[[2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|-
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2025 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2020"/>
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2025]]: [[Karol Bagh]]<ref name="Karol Bagh Constituency Election Results 2025">{{cite news |title=Karol Bagh Constituency Election Results 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/delhi/constituency-show/karol-bagh |access-date=12 March 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=8 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250312044109/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/delhi/constituency-show/karol-bagh |archive-date=12 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Delhi Assembly Elections Results 2025 - Karol Bagh">{{cite news |title=Delhi Assembly Elections Results 2025 - Karol Bagh |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenFeb2025/candidateswise-U0523.htm |access-date=12 March 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=8 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250312044228/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenFeb2025/candidateswise-U0523.htm |archive-date=12 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = Aam Aadmi Party
| candidate = [[Vishesh Ravi]]
| votes = 52297
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate=[[Dushyant Kumar Gautam]]
|votes= 44867|percentage=
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate= Rahul Dhanak|votes=4252|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Ranjeet Kumar Gangwal
| votes = 626
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=NOTA|candidate=None of the above|votes=548|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=7430|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
| winner =
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2020"/>

=== 2020 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2020"/>
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2020]]: [[Karol Bagh]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = Aam Aadmi Party
| candidate = [[Vishesh Ravi]]
| votes = 67,494
| percentage = 62.23
| change = +2.43
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Yogender Chandoliya]]|votes=35,734|percentage=32.95|change=+2.31}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Gourav Kumar|votes=3,365|percentage=3.10|change=-5.01}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Lekhraj Jatav|votes=783|percentage=0.72|change=+0.22}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=447|percentage=0.41|change=+0.05}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Shiv Sena|candidate=Gaurav|votes=192|percentage=0.18|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=31,760|percentage=29.28|change=+0.12}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,08,514|percentage=61.16|change=-7.28}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
| winner = Aam Aadmi Party
| swing = +2.43
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2020"/>

=== 2015 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2015"/>
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2015]]: [[Karol Bagh]]}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Aam Aadmi Party
| candidate = [[Vishesh Ravi]]
| votes = 67,429
| percentage = 59.80
| change = +24.74
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Yogender Chandoliya
| votes = 34,549
| percentage = 30.64
| change = -2.70
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Madan Khorwal
| votes = 9,144
| percentage = 8.10
| change = -20.63
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Yogesh
| votes = 559
| percentage = 0.50
| change = -0.67
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = None of the above
| candidate = None of the above
| votes = 411
| percentage = 0.36
| change = -0.49
}}
{{Election box majority|
| votes = 32,880
| percentage = 29.16
| change = +27.45
}}
{{Election box turnout|
| votes = 1,12,819
| percentage =68.48
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
| winner = Aam Aadmi Party
| swing = +13.72
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2015"/>

=== 2013 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2013"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2013 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2013]]: [[Karol Bagh]]<ref>[http://eciresults.ap.nic.in/ConstituencywiseU0567.htm?ac=23 Assembly Elections December 2013 Results, Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Aam Aadmi Party
| candidate = [[Vishesh Ravi]]
| votes = 35,818
| percentage = 35.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = [[Surender Pal Ratawal]]
| votes = 34,068
| percentage = 33.34
| change = -12.37
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Madan Khorwal
| votes = 29,358
| percentage = 28.73
| change = -12.96
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Jawahar Singh
| votes = 1,200
| percentage = 1.17
| change = -7.74
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Samajwadi Party
| candidate = Ranjan Khatumaria
| votes = 491
| percentage = 0.48
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Lok Janshakti Party
| candidate = Gyan Chand
| votes = 171
| percentage = 0.17
| change = -0.20
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Parveen Kumar
| votes = 119
| percentage = 0.12
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Manoj Kumar
| votes = 110
| percentage = 0.11
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Kiran
| votes = 66
| percentage = 0.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = None of the above
| candidate = None
| votes = 768
| percentage = 0.75
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 1,750
| percentage = 1.71
| change = -2.31
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,02,316
| percentage = 67.34
| change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Aam Aadmi Party
| loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2013"/>

=== 2008 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2008"/> <section end="Assembly Election 2008"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2008 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2008]]: Karol Bagh<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2008/stats_DL_2008.pdf 2008 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Surender Pal Rathawal
| votes = 38,746
| percentage = 45.71
| change = -1.14
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Madan Khorwal
| votes = 35,338
| percentage = 41.69
| change = -3.31
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Veena Singh
| votes = 7,555
| percentage = 8.91
| change = +3.45
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
| candidate = Nathu Prasad
| votes = 1,496
| percentage = 1.77
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Ram Babu
| votes = 429
| percentage = 0.51
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Nationalist Congress Party
| candidate = Rajesh Kumar Gihara
| votes = 375
| percentage = 0.44
| change = +0.02
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Lok Janshakti Party
| candidate = Gyan Chand
| votes = 312
| percentage = 0.37
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = All India Minorities Front
| candidate = Vijay Kumar
| votes = 208
| percentage = 0.25
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Yogesh
| votes = 167
| percentage = 0.20
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Madan Lal Suryawanshi
| votes = 130
| percentage = 0.15
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 3,408
| percentage = 4.02
| change = +2.17
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 84,756
| percentage = 59.6
| change = +5.30
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing = -1.14
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2003===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2003"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2003 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2003]]: Karol Bagh<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_NOV_2003/StatisticalReports_DEL_Nov2003.pdf 2003 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Surender Pal Ratawal
| votes = 21,812
| percentage = 46.85
| change = +0.39
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Durgesh Mohanpura
| votes = 20,953
| percentage = 45.00
| change = -5.91
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Y R Dhuriya
| votes = 2,544
| percentage = 5.46
| change = +4.33
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Shiv Sena
| candidate = Yogesh Narayan
| votes = 293
| percentage = 0.63
| change = +0.57
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = All India Trinamool Congress
| candidate = Dev Dass
| votes = 289
| percentage = 0.62
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Nationalist Congress Party
| candidate = Sunil Kumar Alias Sunil Sawaria
| votes = 197
| percentage = 0.42
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Raju
| votes = 165
| percentage = 0.35
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Suresh Kumar
| votes = 164
| percentage = 0.35
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Mahender Kumar
| votes = 58
| percentage = 0.12
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Mohan Kumar
| votes = 49
| percentage = 0.38
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Narender Kumar
| votes = 38
| percentage = 0.08
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 859
| percentage = 1.85
| change = +2.60
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 46,562
| percentage = 54.30
| change = +1.86
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = +0.39
}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2003"/>

===1998===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 1998"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[1998 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 1998]]: Karol Bagh<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-DEL98.pdf 1998 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Moti Lal Bokolia
| votes = 26,466
| percentage = 50.91
| change = +21.17
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Surender Pal Ratawal
| votes = 24,154
| percentage = 46.46
| change = -5.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Rohtash
| votes = 588
| percentage = 1.13
| change = +0.35
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Dal
| candidate = Ajay Harit
| votes = 300
| percentage = 0.58
| change = -12.28
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Krishan Kumar Rajora
| votes = 262
| percentage = 0.50
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Lok Shakti
| candidate = Partap Singh
| votes = 117
| percentage = 0.23
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Jitendra Kumar
| votes = 59
| percentage = 0.11
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Shiv Sena
| candidate = Madan Lal Suryavanshi
| votes = 29
| percentage = 0.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Harish Chandra
| votes = 15
| percentage = 0.03
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 2,312
| percentage = 4.45
| change = -17.54
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 51,990
| percentage = 52.44
| change = +0.71
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing = +21.17
}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 1998"/>

===1993===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 1993"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[1993 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 1993]]: Karol Bagh<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/StatRep_DL_93.pdf 1993 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Surender Pal Ratawal
| votes = 26,794
| percentage = 51.73
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Sunderwati Naval Prabhakar
| votes = 15,405
| percentage = 29.74
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Dal
| candidate = Shyam Babu
| votes = 7,182
| percentage = 13.86
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Karan Singh Tanwar
| votes = 665
| percentage = 1.28
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Trilok Chand Sanwariya
| votes = 590
| percentage = 1.14
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Kamal Kishore
| votes = 403
| percentage = 0.78
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Partap Singh
| votes = 203
| percentage = 0.39
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Roop Kishore
| votes = 100
| percentage = 0.19
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Desh Raj
| votes = 97
| percentage = 0.19
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Chain Sukh
| votes = 96
| percentage = 0.19
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Sarwan Kumar
| votes = 63
| percentage = 0.12
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Lakshman Kumar
| votes = 50
| percentage = 0.10
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Vinod Kumar
| votes = 43
| percentage = 0.08
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Puran Chand
| votes = 42
| percentage = 0.08
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Kishan Bharti
| votes = 37
| percentage = 0.07
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Vijay Kumar
| votes = 30
| percentage = 0.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 11,389
| percentage = 21.99
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 51,800
| percentage = 62.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 1993"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of New Delhi}}
{{coord|28.65|77.19|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Delhi]]
[[Category:Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Politics of Delhi]]
[[Category:New Delhi district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1993]]
[[Category:1993 establishments in Delhi]]

P. Achutha Menon

2026-04-18T15:07:04Z

Google updates 22: created stub

{{Short description|Indian civil servant and diplomat (1905–1975)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Parakat Achutha Menon
| native_name =
| image =
| office2 = Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Portugal
| 1blankname2 =
| 1namedata2 =
| term_start2 = 19 November 1949
| term_end2 = 1 August 1951
| predecessor2 = ''Embassy established''
| successor2 =
| office3 = Ambassador of India to Belgium and Luxembourg<ref name="Embassy of India: Belgium, Luxembourg, EU">{{cite web|title=Embassy of India: Belgium, Luxembourg & the European Union|url=https://indianembassybrussels.gov.in/history.php|website=Embassy of India: Belgium, Luxembourg & the European Union|accessdate=8 September 2024}}</ref>
| 1blankname3 =
| 1namedata3 =
| term_start3 = 11 October 1951
| term_end3 = 1953
| predecessor3 = Nedyam Raghavan
| successor3 = [[K. K. Chettur]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1905|01|02|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{death date and age|1975|08|10|1905|01|02|df=y}}<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Lal |editor-first1=Sham|date=1977|chapter=General Compendium: Deaths|title=The Times of India Directory and Yearbook, Including Who's Who |location=Bombay |publisher=The Times of India Press |page=262}}</ref>
| death_place = Madras (now [[Chennai]]), [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| party =
| spouse =
| alma_mater =
| awards =
| signature =
}}

'''Parakat Achutha Menon''' (2 January 1905 – 10 August 1975) was an Indian civil servant and diplomat who served as [[India]]'s first minister to Portugal, and subsequently served as an ambassador to Belgium, Luxembourg and West Germany.

==Career==
Educated at the [[University of Madras]] and [[New College, Oxford]], Menon subsequently sat the [[Indian Civil Service]] exams and passed into the batch of 1929 with effect from 9 October.<ref name="IOBOL_47"/> Among his fellow batchmates were [[Bhagwan Sahay]], later Governor of Jammu and Kashmir, and [[Humphrey Trevelyan]], who also became a diplomat.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=33549 |date=5 November 1929|page=7078 |supp=y |nolink=y}}</ref> Arriving in India in November 1929,<ref name="IOBOL_47">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.211481/page/n277/mode/2up|pages=273|title=The India Office and Burma Office List: 1947|publisher=Harrison & Sons, Ltd.|year=1947}}</ref> Menon initially served in the [[Madras Presidency]], and was appointed a sub-collector in May 1931 and an under-secretary in the provincial Public Works Department in January 1934.<ref name="IOBOL_47"/> In April 1937, he was appointed under-secretary in the Home Department of the central government.<ref name="IOBOL_47"/> In July 1943, he was posted to the [[United States]] as a deputy secretary and later [[Secretary to the Government of India|secretary]] with the Indian Supply Mission.<ref name="IOBOL_47"/>

On 19 November 1949, Menon was appointed India's first [[Envoy (title)|minister]] to [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Portugal]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 2 |page=116 |date=21 January 1950|url=https://egazette.gov.in/WriteReadData/1950/O-2343-1950-0000-108639.pdf |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]]}}</ref> On 1 August 1951, he was appointed ''[[chargé d'affaires]]'' at the embassy in Italy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 2 |page=251 |date=18 August 1951|url=https://egazette.gov.in/WriteReadData/1951/O-2307-1951-0033-107853.pdf |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]]}}</ref> On 11 October 1951, he was appointed ambassador to [[Belgium]], and [[Luxembourg]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Part I-Section 2 |page=349 |date=24 November 1951|url=https://egazette.gov.in/WriteReadData/1951/O-2308-1951-0047-107989.pdf|publisher=[[The Gazette of India]]}}</ref> He later served as ambassador to [[West Germany]] before his retirement in 1964.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Menon, P. Achutha}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian civil servants]]
[[Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of India to Luxembourg]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of India to Germany]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of India to Portugal]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of India to Belgium]]
[[Category:1905 births]]
[[Category:1975 deaths]]

Rainka Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T22:38:07Z

Google updates 22: created data!

{{Short description|Constituency of the Himachal Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Rainka
|type= SLA
|state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
|established = 1952
|abolished = 2007
|electors = 52,812
|mla = Dr. Prem Singh
|party = {{Party index link|Indian National Congress}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[2007 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation =
}}
'''Rainka '''was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
|-
| rowspan="2"|[[1952 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Dharam Singh || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| Partap Singh ||{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}

|-
| [[1967 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || Yashwant Singh Parmar || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1972 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Yeshwant Singh Parmar
|-
| [[1977 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]] || Roop Singh || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1982 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1982]] || rowspan=2 | [[Prem Singh (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Prem Singh]]|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1985 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|-
| [[1990 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]] || Roop Singh || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[1993 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]] || rowspan=2 | [[Prem Singh (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Prem Singh]]|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[1998 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|-
| [[2003 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2003]] || rowspan=2 | [[Prem Singh (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Dr. Prem Singh]]
|-
| [[2007 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly By-election 2011 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2011 elections in India#Himachal Pradesh|2011 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly by-election]]: Rainka}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Hirdaya Ram |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=20,804 |percentage=53.13% |change={{increase}}9.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vinay Kumar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,278 |percentage=44.12% |change={{decrease}}7.94 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sunder Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,075 |percentage=2.75% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,526 |percentage=9.00% |change= {{increase}}0.78 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=39,157 |percentage=74.62% |change= {{decrease}}0.86 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 52,473 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}0.64 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}1.06 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2007 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Prem Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=20,756 |percentage=52.07% |change={{decrease}}2.88 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Balbir Singh |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=17,477 |percentage=43.84% |change={{increase}}6.34 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prithvi Singh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,609 |percentage=4.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,279 |percentage=8.23% |change= {{decrease}}9.22 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=39,863 |percentage=75.48% |change= {{decrease}}1.90 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 52,812 |ref = |change= {{increase}}12.57 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}2.88 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2003 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2003 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111191922/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Prem Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=19,948 |percentage=54.95% |change={{decrease}}11.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Balbir Singh |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=13,614 |percentage=37.50% |change={{increase}}7.38 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Madhu Ram |party=Himachal Vikas Congress |votes=1,079 |percentage=2.97% |change={{increase}}0.94 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gorkh Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=969 |percentage=2.67% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohan Lal Azad |party=Lok Jan Shakti Party |votes=692 |percentage=1.91% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,334 |percentage=17.45% |change= {{decrease}}18.75 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=36,302 |percentage=77.41% |change= {{increase}}5.64 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 46,915 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.40 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}11.36 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1998 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1998 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111191922/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Prem Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=20,590 |percentage=66.31% |change={{increase}}10.79 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Roop Singh |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=9,352 |percentage=30.12% |change={{decrease}}12.10 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chander Sain |party=Himachal Vikas Congress |votes=632 |percentage=2.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gorkhu Ram |party=Janata Dal |votes=475 |percentage=1.53% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=11,238 |percentage=36.19% |change= {{increase}}22.89 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=31,049 |percentage=73.93% |change= {{increase}}1.46 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 43,280 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.95 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}10.79 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1993 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1993 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1993 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111133700/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Prem Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=15,500 |percentage=55.52% |change={{increase}}11.74 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohan Lal Azad |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=11,786 |percentage=42.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rati Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=371 |percentage=1.33% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chet Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=182 |percentage=0.65% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,714 |percentage=13.30% |change= {{increase}}2.74 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=27,917 |percentage=70.94% |change= {{increase}}3.72 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 39,724 |ref = |change= {{increase}}3.85 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Janata Dal |swing= {{increase}}1.18 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1990 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1990 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statisticall%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114181905/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statisticall%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Roop Singh |party=Janata Dal |votes=13,836 |percentage=54.34% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prem Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,147 |percentage=43.78% |change={{decrease}}25.68 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rati Ram Sirmauri |party=Independent politician |votes=477 |percentage=1.87% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,689 |percentage=10.56% |change= {{decrease}}31.23 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=25,460 |percentage=67.25% |change= {{increase}}5.11 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 38,253 |ref = |change= {{increase}}16.89 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Janata Dal |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1985 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/StatisticalReport%201985%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114090530/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/StatisticalReport%201985%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Prem Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,968 |percentage=69.46% |change={{increase}}10.99 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohan Lal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=5,564 |percentage=27.67% |change={{increase}}15.55 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Atma Ram |party=Janata Party |votes=577 |percentage=2.87% |change={{decrease}}24.56 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,404 |percentage=41.79% |change= {{increase}}10.75 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=20,109 |percentage=62.27% |change= {{increase}}5.36 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 32,726 |ref = |change= {{increase}}2.54 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1982 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1982 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1982 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1982/Statistical%20Report%201982%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117041754/eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1982/Statistical%20Report%201982%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Prem Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,466 |percentage=58.47% |change={{increase}}26.85 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohan Lal |party=Janata Party |votes=4,910 |percentage=27.43% |change={{decrease}}33.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gorakh Ram |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,170 |percentage=12.12% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ratti Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=237 |percentage=1.32% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kehar Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=117 |percentage=0.65% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,556 |percentage=31.04% |change= {{increase}}1.31 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=17,900 |percentage=56.89% |change= {{increase}}8.47 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 31,916 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.82 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}2.89 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1977 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319174923/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=19 March 2016|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Roop Singh |party=Janata Party |votes=8,568 |percentage=61.36% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nain Singh Tomar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,416 |percentage=31.62% |change={{decrease}}61.76 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pratap Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=980 |percentage=7.02% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,152 |percentage=29.73% |change= {{decrease}}57.04 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=13,964 |percentage=48.32% |change= {{decrease}}1.78 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 29,328 |ref = |change= {{increase}}11.44 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3802-himachal-pradesh-1972/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=10 February 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Yeshwant Singh Parmar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,140 |percentage=93.38% |change={{increase}}12.67 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narain Singh |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=860 |percentage=6.62% |change={{decrease}}12.67 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=11,280 |percentage=86.77% |change= {{increase}}25.34 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=13,000 |percentage=50.72% |change= {{increase}}6.59 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 26,317 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}9.17 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117081612/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201967.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Yashwant Singh Parmar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,010 |percentage=80.71% |change={{increase}}34.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=N. Singh |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=2,392 |percentage=19.29% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,618 |percentage=61.43% |change= {{increase}}53.76 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=12,402 |percentage=44.62% |change= {{increase}}22.46 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 28,973 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}2.87 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}26.88 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1952 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Rainka<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HP.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114191147/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HP.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Dharam Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=3,267 |percentage=53.83% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Yashwant Singh Parmar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,802 |percentage=46.17% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Partap Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes= |percentage= |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=465 |percentage=7.66% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,069 |percentage=20.35% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 29,828 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Independent politician |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh}}
{{coord|32.751|75.93|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1952]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2007]]
[[Category:2007 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Long stubs with short prose]]

{{HimachalPradesh-geo-stub}}

Devkhel

2026-04-07T05:34:21Z

Google updates 22:

{{Infobox television
| native_name = देवखेळ
| image = Devkhel.jpg
| caption =
| genre = {{ubl|Psychological thriller|Crime|Mystery}}
| creator =
| writer = {{ubl|Chandrakant Lata Gaikwad|Nikhil Ashok Palande}}
| director = Chandrakant Lata Gaikwad
| starring = {{ubl|[[Ankush Chaudhari]]|[[Prajakta Mali]]|[[Yatin Karyekar]]|[[Arun Nalawade]]|Mangesh Desai|Veena Jamkar}}
| country = India
| language = Marathi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer = Cine Masters Production Pvt Ltd
| runtime =
| network = [[ZEE5]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2026|01|30}}
| last_aired = present
}}

'''''Devkhel''''' (Marathi: देवखेळ) is a 2026 Indian [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-language [[Psychological fiction|psychological]] [[Crime fiction|crime thriller]] series which premiered on the OTT platform [[ZEE5]] on 30 January 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kulkarni |first=Apurva |date=2026-01-10 |title=पाप करणाऱ्यांचा हिशोब होणार! प्राजक्ताची नवी वेबसीरिज 'देवखेळ' लवकरच येणार प्रेक्षकांच्या भेटीला, नवी पोस्ट चर्चेत |url=https://www.esakal.com/premier/prajakta-mali-announces-new-web-series-devkhel-with-ankush-chaudhari-amk08 |access-date=2026-01-29 |website=Marathi News Esakal |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-11 |title=Devkhel OTT release: Stunning Mythology Thriller Set to Shake ZEE5 |url=https://punemirror.com/entertainment/devkhel-ott-release-mythology-thriller-zee5/ |access-date=2026-01-29 |language=en-US}}</ref> Directed by Chandrakant Lata Gaikwad, the series is inspired by the regional folklore of the [[Konkan]] region and explores the intersection of traditional superstition and modern criminal investigation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Devkhel OTT release date: Here's when and where you can stream Marathi psychological crime thriller series |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/devkhel-ott-release-date-when-where-stream-marathi-psychological-crime-thriller-series/468d3ff90a310 |access-date=2026-01-29 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-21 |title=Devkhel Trailer: अंकुश चौधरीची थरारक वेब सिरीज; ‘देवखेळ’चा ट्रेलर रिलीज, 30 जानेवारीला प्रेक्षकांच्या भेटीला |url=https://www.mymahanagar.com/entertainment/devkhel-trailer-ankush-chaudharis-thrilling-web-series-the-trailer-of-devkhel-has-been-released-coming-to-audiences-on-january-30/957077/ |access-date=2026-01-29 |website=My Mahanagar |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=हर साल एक मौत… गांव चुप क्यों है? 30 जनवरी को खुलेंगे ‘देवखेल’ के राज |url=https://www.patrika.com/ott-news/devkhel-ott-release-date-confirmed-when-where-to-watch-prajakta-mali-ankush-chaudharys-crime-thriller-marathi-web-series-20284091 |access-date=2026-01-29 |website=Patrika News |language=hi}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
The narrative is set in the fictional coastal village of Devtali in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The story follows a chilling recurring pattern: every year, on the night of ''Holi Pournima'' (during the Shimga festival), a villager dies under mysterious circumstances.

The local community attributes these deaths to Shankasur, a mythical folk figure worshipped as a divine enforcer of justice. According to local belief, these deaths are divine punishments rather than crimes. The series centers on Inspector Vishwas Saranjame, a rationalist law enforcement officer who arrives in the village to investigate the latest death. Saranjame attempts to debunk the supernatural explanations and uncover the human hand behind the serial killings, leading to a central conflict between faith and reason.

== Cast and characters ==

* [[Ankush Chaudhari]] as Inspector Vishwas Saranjame
* [[Prajakta Mali]] as Sarika Nimkar
* [[Yatin Karyekar]] as Vishwanath Nimkar
* [[Arun Nalawade]] as Balkrushna Saranjme
* Mangesh Desai as SP Rangane
* Veena Jamkar as Lakshmi
* [[Lagnachi Bedi|Sayali Deodhar]]
* Angad Mhaskar
* Ambarish Deshpande
* Rohan Surve
* [[Onkar Bhojane]]
* Uma Sardeshmukh
* Prib Surywanshi as Shankasur Kid (Undrya)

== Release ==
The official trailer was unveiled by ZEE5 on January 23, 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-22 |title=Marathi ZEE5 unveils the trailer of its upcoming original series Devkhel - where myth, crime and justice collide - The Live Nagpur |url=https://thelivenagpur.com/2026/01/22/marathi-zee5-unveils-the-trailer-of-its-upcoming-original-series-devkhel-where-myth-crime-and-justice-collide/ |access-date=2026-01-29 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=पाप करणारा शिमग्याच्या दिवशी शंकासुराच्या हिटलिस्टवर! देवतळी गावची परंपरा की मोकाट सुटलेला सीरियल किलर? |url=https://maharashtratimes.com/entertainment/web-series/devkhel-trailer-release-starring-prajakta-mali-ankush-chaudhari-onkar-bhojane-story-of-shankasur-and-serial-killer-in-devtali/articleshow/127002568.cms |access-date=2026-01-29 |website=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref> The series premiered on the platform on January 30, 2026.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-22 |title=ZEE5 Marathi’s Devkhel Trailer Unleashes A Chilling Mystery Starring Ankush Chaudhari, Prajaktta Mali |url=https://glamsham.com/ott/web-news/zee5-marathi-devkhel-trailer-mystery-ankush-chaudhari-prajaktta-mali/ |access-date=2026-01-29 |website=glamsham.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Reception ==
''Devkhel'' received mixed reviews from critics following its release.

Writing for ''[[Scroll.in]]'', the reviewer noted that while the series is built around an intriguing premise, much of the narrative follows a predictable trajectory. The review highlighted [[Ankush Chaudhari]]'s performance as Inspector Vishwas Saranjame as a key strength, describing him as a disruptive and engaging presence within an otherwise formulaic plot.<ref>{{cite web |title=Devkhel review: Ankush Chaudhari is a welcome unruly element in a predictable plot|url=https://scroll.in/reel/1090305/devkhel-review-ankush-chaudhari-is-a-welcome-unruly-element-in-a-predictable-plot|website=Scroll.in|access-date=}}</ref>

A review by ''[[HT Media|OTTplay]]'' rated the series 3 out of 5 stars, stating that although ''Devkhel'' shows promise through its themes and performances, it struggles with uneven pacing and familiar tropes. The review observed that several moments with emotional and dramatic potential are undercut by conventional storytelling, resulting in an overall mixed viewing experience.<ref>{{cite web |title=Devkhel review: This Marathi series shows potential but gets lost in translation|url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/devkhel-review-this-marathi-series-shows-potential-but-gets-lost-in-translation/d9a99d2649783|website=OTTplay|access-date=}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{IMDb title|id=tt39299519}}
* ''[https://www.zee5.com/web-series/details/devkhel/0-6-4z5892762 Devkhel]'' on [[ZEE5]]

[[Category:2026 web series debuts]]
[[Category:Marathi-language television]]
[[Category:ZEE5 original programming]]
[[Category:Indian thriller television series]]
[[Category:Indian crime television series]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Marathi-language television shows]]

Benjamin Robertson

2026-04-01T12:54:54Z

Google updates 22: Added New Stub More To Come

{{Use British English|date=January 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
'''Sir Benjamin Robertson''', KCSI, KCMG, CIE (16 October 1864 – 14 April 1953) was an administrator in British India. He was [[List of governors of the Central Provinces and Berar|Chief Commissioner of the Central Provinces]] from 1912 to 1920.<ref>{{Cite news|date=16 April 1953|title=Sir Benjamin Robertson|page=10|work=[[The Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Robertson |first1=Benjamin |title=Report by Sir Benjamin Robertson, Dated 4th August 1920, Regarding the Proposed Settlement of Indian Agriculturists in Tanganyika Territory and Letter from the Government of India to the Secretary of State for India, Dated 10th February 1921 |date=1921 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jp20swEACAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Robertson, Benjamin}}
[[Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers]]
[[Category:1864 births]]
[[Category:1953 deaths]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:British civil servants in British India]]
[[Category:20th-century British civil servants]]
[[Category:Knights_Commander_of_the_Order_of_St_Michael_and_St_George]]

{{UK-gov-bio-stub}}

Hyderabad State

2026-03-29T14:06:17Z

Google updates 22: rework details and cleaned formatting for consistency

{{Short description|Princely state in southern India (1724–1948)}}
{{About|this princely state in India from 1724–1948|the superseding Indian State from 1948–1956|Hyderabad State (1948–1956)|the modern state|Telangana}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Hyderabad State
| common_name = Hyderabad
| native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|te|హైదరాబాద్ రాష్ట్రం}}|{{small|{{transliteration|te|Hydarābād Rāstram}}}}|{{native name|ur|{{Nastaliq|ریاست حیدرآباد}}}}|{{small|{{transliteration|fa|Riyāsat-e-Haydarābād}}}}|{{native name|fa|{{Nastaliq|ایالت حیدرآباد}}}}|{{small|{{transliteration|fa|Eyālat-e-Haydarābād}}}}}}
| religion = {{tree list}}
* 13% [[Islam]] ([[State religion|official]])<ref>Mi{{citation|last=O'Dwyer|first=Michael|title=India as I Knew it: 1885–1925|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dW4yLJNw5oC&pg=PA137|year=1988|publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=137–|id=GGKEY:DB7YTGYWP7W}}</ref>
** [[Sunni Islam]]
** [[Shia Islam]]
** [[Non-denominational Muslim|Non-denominational Islam]]
* 81% [[Hinduism]]
* 6% [[Christianity]]{{efn|(spread among [[Anglo-Indian]] population expanding to [[Secunderabad]] and [[Hyderabad]]){{Sfn|Smith|1950|pp=27–28}}}} and [[Hyderabad State#Demographics|others]]
{{tree list/end}}
| status = [[Vassal state]] of the [[Mughal Empire]] {{small|(''de jure'', 1724–1748)}} [[Protectorate]] of the [[Maratha Empire]] (1748–1818) [[Company rule in India|Semi-independent under British protection]] {{small|(1798–1858)}} [[Princely state]] of [[British Raj|India]] {{small|(1858–1947)}} [[List of historical unrecognized states|Unrecognised independent state]] {{small|(1947–1948)}}
| era = .
| government_type = [[Absolute monarchy]]
| event_start =
| date_start = 31 July
| year_start = 1724
| event_end = [[Annexation of Hyderabad|Annexation by India]]{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|loc=Chapter 7|ps=: "'Operation Polo', the code name for the armed invasion of Hyderabad"}}
| date_end = 18 September
| year_end = 1948
| event1 = [[Telangana Rebellion]]
| date_event1 = 1946
| p1 = Hyderabad Subah{{!}}Hyderabad Subah, Mughal Empire
| p2 =
| flag_p1 =
| border_p1 = no
| s1 = Hyderabad State (1948–1956)
| flag_s1 = Flag of India.svg
| image_flag = Asafia flag of Hyderabad State.svg
| flag_type = {{ubl|[[#Flag|Flag]]|(1947–1948)}}
| image_coat = State emblem of Hyderabad.svg
| symbol_type = {{ubl|[[Coat of arms of Hyderabad State|Emblem]]|(1947–1948)}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Joppen1907India1805a-21.jpg|frameless]]|Map of [[South Asia]] in 1805 with the state shown as "[[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam's]] [[Dominions]]"|[[File:Hyderabad princely state 1909.svg|frameless]]|Hyderabad (dark green) and [[Berar Province]], not a part of Hyderabad State but also the Nizam's Dominion between 1853 and 1903 (light green)}}
| image_map_caption =
| national_motto = ''Al-ʿAẓmatu Lillāh'' ("Greatness belongs to God") ''Ya Osman'' ("Oh Osman")
| capital = [[Aurangabad]] (1724–1763) [[Hyderabad]] (1763–1948)
| today = [[India]]
| common_languages = [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (48.2%) [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (26.4%) [[Kannada]] (12.3%) [[Deccani language|Deccani Urdu]] (10.3%){{sfn|Beverley, Hyderabad, British India, and the World|2015|p=110}}{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|p=20}}
| stat_year1 = 1941
| stat_area1 = {{convert|82,698|mi2|km2|0|disp=number}}
| ref_area1 = <ref name="1941Census">{{Cite book|last=Husain|first=Mazhar|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.101551/page/n11/mode/2up|title=Census Of India 1941 Vol-xxi H.e.h. The Nizams Dominions (hyd State)|date=1947}}</ref>
| stat_pop1 = 16,338,534
| ref_pop1 = <ref name="1941Census" />
| currency = [[Hyderabadi rupee]]
| representative1 = Iwaz Khan (first)
| representative2 = [[Mir Laiq Ali]] (last)
| year_representative1 = 1724–1730
| year_representative2 = 1947–1948
| title_representative = [[List of prime ministers of Hyderabad State|Prime Minister]]
| leader1 = [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Asaf Jah I]] (first)
| leader2 = [[Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII|Asaf Jah VII]] (last)
| year_leader1 = 1724–1748
| year_leader2 = 1911–1948
| title_leader = [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]]
| footnotes =
| official_languages = [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (administration and court; dynastic) [[Persian language|Persian]] (Court and revenue 1724–1886) and [[Urdu]] (dynastic)<ref>{{cite book |quote=The Nizams from Mīr Qamruíd-Dīn Khān (1724-48) until the sixth ruler of the house Mīr Maḥbūb ʿAlī Khān (1869-1911) used Persian as their court language, in common with the prevailing fashion of their times, though they spoke Urdu at home.|title=Urdu In hyderabad|author=Tariqh Rahman |date=2008 |publisher=Department of Languages and cultures in Asia|page=36 |oclc=733407091 }}</ref>
 Urdu (For Court and revenue from 1886–1948)
}}
{{Princely States topics}}
'''Hyderabad State''' ({{audio|Hyderabad.ogg|pronunciation}})<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFgoAAAAYAAJ&q=hyderabad+state+hyderabad+deccan|title=Hyderabad (Deccan) Under Sir Salar Jung|last=Ali|first=Cherágh|date=1886|publisher=Printed at the Education Society's Press|language=en}}</ref> was a [[princely state]] in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan region]] of south-central [[India]] with its capital at the city of [[Hyderabad]]. It is now divided into the present-day state of [[Telangana]], the [[Kalyana-Karnataka]] region of [[Karnataka]], and the [[Marathwada|Marathwada region]] of [[Maharashtra]] in India.

The state was ruled from 1724 to 1948 by the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]], who was initially a [[viceroy]] of the [[Mughal Empire]] in the [[Deccan]]. Hyderabad gradually became the first princely state to come under [[British paramountcy]] signing a [[subsidiary alliance]] agreement. At the time of the British Indian Empire in 1901, the state had a revenue of {{Indian Rupee}}4,17,00,000.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V13_283.gif |title = Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 13, page 277 – Imperial Gazetteer of India – Digital South Asia Library}}</ref> The native inhabitants of Hyderabad State, regardless of ethnic origin, are called "Mulki" (countryman), a term still used today.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQCvgavbQjgC&q=mulki+deccan&pg=PA12 |title=Locating Home: India's Hyderabadis Abroad |last=Leonard |first=Karen Isaksen |date=2007 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5442-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reddy |first=Deepika |date=4 March 2019 |title=The 1952 Mulki agitation |url=https://telanganatoday.com/the-1952-mulki-agitation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211010850/https://telanganatoday.com/the-1952-mulki-agitation |archive-date=11 December 2019 |access-date=11 December 2019 |website=[[Telangana Today]]}}</ref>

The dynasty declared itself an independent monarchy during the final years of the [[British Raj]]. After the [[Partition of India]], Hyderabad signed a [[Standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] with the new [[dominion of India]], continuing all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the state. Hyderabad's location in the middle of the Indian Union, as well as its diverse cultural heritage led to [[Annexation of Hyderabad|India's invasion and annexation]] of the state in 1948.<ref>{{citation |last=Sherman |first=Taylor C. |title=The integration of the princely state of Hyderabad and the making of the postcolonial state in India, 1948–56 |journal=The Indian Economic and Social History Review |volume=44 |pages=489–516 |number=4 |year=2007 |doi=10.1177/001946460704400404 |s2cid=145000228 |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/32805/1/Sherman_Integration_princely_state_2007.pdf}}</ref> Subsequently, [[Mir Osman Ali Khan]], the seventh Nizam, signed an [[instrument of accession]], joining India.{{sfn|Chandra|Mukherjee|Mukherjee|2008|p=96}}

[[File:Asaf Jah I.jpg|thumb|220px|''Painting of First Nizam ul Mulk'']]
[[File:NezamHaydarabad.jpg|thumb|220px|On 22 February 1937, a cover story by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' called [[Osman Ali Khan, Asif Jah VII]] the wealthiest man in the world]]

==History==
===Early history===
Hyderabad State was founded by [[Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asif Jah I|Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan]] who was the governor of Deccan under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] from 1713 to 1721. In 1724, following the [[Battle of Shakar Kheda]], he resumed rule from the Mughal provincial capital of Aurangabad, under the title of ''Asaf Jah'' (granted by Mughal Emperor [[Muhammad Shah]]). His other title, ''Nizam ul-Mulk'' (Order of the Realm), became the title of his position "Nizam of Hyderabad". By the end of his rule, the Nizam had become independent from the Mughals, and had founded the [[Asaf Jahi dynasty]].<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |title=Hyderabad |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hyderabad-historical-state-India |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Britannica |access-date=8 October 2016 |archive-date=10 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410171525/https://www.britannica.com/place/Hyderabad-historical-state-India |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Heitzman |first=James |title=Emporiums, empire, and the early colonial presence |date=31 March 2008 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203483282-9 |work=The City in South Asia |pages=102 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203483282-9 |isbn=9780203483282 |access-date=30 December 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207081658/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203483282-9/emporiums-empire-early-colonial-presence-james-heitzman |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following the decline of the Mughal power, the region of Deccan saw the rise of the [[Maratha Confederacy|Maratha Empire]]. The Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas in the 1720s, which resulted in the Nizam paying a regular ''[[Chauth]]'' (tax) to the Marathas. The major battles fought between the Marathas and the Nizam include [[Battle of Palkhed|Palkhed]], Rakshasbhuvan, and [[Battle of Kharda|Kharda]], all which the Nizam lost.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&pg=PA1049 |title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: P-Z |isbn=9780313335396 |last1=Jaques |first1=Tony |year=2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&pg=PA64 |title=The State at War in South Asia |isbn=978-0803213449 |last1=Barua |first1=Pradeep |year=2005 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press }}</ref> Following the conquest of Deccan by [[Bajirao I]] and the imposition of ''Chauth'' by him, Nizam remained a tributary of the Marathas for all intent and purposes.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-kanqrtVhYC&q=anglo+maratha+treaty+1790&pg=PA198 |title=Anglo-Maratha Relations, 1785–96, Volume 2 |first=Sailendra |last=Nath Sen |isbn=9788171547890 |year=1994 |publisher=Popular Prakashan }}</ref>

In 1763, the Nizam shifted the capital to the city of [[Hyderabad]].<ref name=":0" /> From 1778, a British [[East India Company]] (EIC) resident and EIC soldiers were installed in his dominions. In 1795, the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]] lost some of his territories to the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]]. The territorial gains of the Nizam from [[Mysore]] as a British ally were ceded to the East India Company to meet the cost of maintaining the EIC garrison.<ref name="Britannica" />

===British suzerainty===
{{See also|Northern Circars}}
In 1768, the Nizam signed the ''Treaty of Masulipatam''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/facts/Treaty-of-Masulipatam|publisher=Britannica, The Information Architects of Encyclopaedia, Encyclopedia Britannica|title="Treaty of Masulipatam"|access-date=3 December 2024}}</ref> ceding the [[Northern Circars]] to British. Later in 1779, the Nizams along with Marathas and Hyder Ali Mysore came together and formed an alliance against the British. This resulted in British defeating the alliance and subsequently Nizam in 1788 had to cede [[Guntur]] to British. Subsequently the Nizams had to sign various treaties, the most important of this was the signing of Treaty of Subsidiary Alliance under which Nizams had ceded most of the power to the British. Gradually the entire coastal areas were lost to the British and Hyderabad became a landlocked kingdom.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.siasat.com/masulipatnam-a-forgotten-hook-in-shaping-hyderabads-destiny-2428927/|newspaper=[[Siasat Daily]]|title=Masulipatnam–A forgotten hook in shaping Hyderabad's destiny|first=Salma|last=Ahmed Farooqui|date=6 October 2022|access-date=3 December 2024}}</ref>

In 1798, [[Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II|Nizam ʿĀlī Khan]] (Asaf {{nowrap|Jah II}}) was forced to enter into an agreement that put Hyderabad under British protection. He was the first Indian prince to sign such an agreement. (Consequently, the ruler of Hyderabad rated a 23-gun [[salute state|salute]] during the period of [[British India]].){{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} The Crown retained the right to intervene in case of misrule.<ref name="Britannica" />

Hyderabad under [[Asaf Jah II]] was a British ally in the second and third [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Maratha Wars]] (1803–05, 1817–19), [[Anglo-Mysore wars]], and would remain loyal to the British during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] (1857–58).<ref name="Britannica" />{{sfn|Briggs|1861|pp=79}}

His son, [[Asaf Jah III|Asaf Jah III Mir Akbar Ali Khan]] (known as ''Sikandar Jah'') ruled from 1803 to 1829. During his rule, a British cantonment was built in Hyderabad and the area was named in his honour, [[Secunderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/h/hyderabad.html | title=The University of Queensland Homepage | access-date=28 June 2018 | archive-date=7 January 2003 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030107054442/http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/h/hyderabad.html | url-status=live }}</ref> The British Residency at [[Koti, Hyderabad|Koti]] was also built during his reign by the then British Resident [[James Achilles Kirkpatrick]].{{sfnp|Dalrymple|2003|p=xxxv}}

Sikander Jah was succeeded by [[Asaf Jah IV]], who ruled from 1829 to 1857 and was succeeded by his son [[Asaf Jah V]].{{sfn|Briggs|1861|pp=104–115}}

==== Asaf Jah V ====
[[Asaf Jah V]]'s reign from 1857 to 1869 was marked by reforms by his [[Prime Minister of Hyderabad|Prime Minister]] [[Salar Jung I]]. Before this time, there was no regular or systematic form of administration, and the duties were in the hands of the ''Diwan'' (Prime Minister), and corruption was thus widespread.{{sfn|Briggs|1861|pp=155–158}}

In 1867, the State was divided into five divisions and seventeen districts, and subedars (governors) were appointed for the five Divisions and ''talukdars'' and ''tehsildars'' for the districts. The judicial, public works, medical, educational, municipal, and police departments were re-organised.{{sfn|Law|1914|pp=31–37}} In 1868, ''sadr-i-mahrams'' (Assistant Ministers) were appointed for the Judicial, Revenue, Police, and Miscellaneous Departments.{{Sfn|Law|1914|pp=140–143}}

Later on, Asaf Jah VI succeeded the position.

==== Asaf Jah VI ====
[[Asaf Jah VI|Asaf Jah VI Mir Mahbub Ali Khan]] became the Nizam at the age of three years. His [[regent]]s were [[Salar Jung I]] and Shams-ul-Umra III and later on [[Asman Jah]] and [[Viqar-ul-Umra]]. He assumed full rule at the age of 17 and ruled until he died in 1911.{{sfn|Law|1914|pp=26–28}}<ref>[https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0A1EFD3A5517738DDDA90B94D0405B818DF1D3 "Nizam of Hyderabad Dead"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029223303/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0A1EFD3A5517738DDDA90B94D0405B818DF1D3 |date=29 October 2013 }}, ''New York Times'', 30 August 1911</ref>{{sfn|Lynton, Days of the Beloved|1987|pp=13–19}} His reign saw the official language of Hyderabad State shift from Persian to Urdu, a change implemented in the 1880s during the short tenure of Prime Minister [[Salar Jung II]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |last=Tariq |first=Rahman |title=Urdu in Hyderabad State |date=10 September 2008 |publisher=Department of Languages and Cultures of Asia, UW-Madison |pages=36 & 46 |oclc=733407091 }}</ref>

The [[Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway]] was established during his reign to connect Hyderabad State to the rest of [[British India]]. It was headquartered at [[Secunderabad Railway Station]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://steamindex.com/people/inspoff.htm#pringle |title=Inspecting Officers (Railways) |at=Pringle, [Sir] John Wallace |website=steamindex.com |access-date=10 July 2011}}</ref><ref>Nayeem, M. A.; ''The Splendour of Hyderabad''; Hyderabad ²2002 [Orig.: Bombay ¹1987]; {{ISBN|81-85492-20-4}}; S. 221</ref> The [[Rail transport|railway]] marked the beginning of industry in Hyderabad, and factories were built in Hyderabad city.{{sfn|Law|1914|pp=26–28}}{{sfn|Lynton, Days of the Beloved|1987|pp=56–57}}

During his rule, the [[Great Musi Flood of 1908]] struck the city of Hyderabad, which killed an estimated 50,000 people. The Nizam opened all his palaces for public asylum.{{sfn|Law|1914|pp=84–86}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://archive.siasat.com/news/hyderabad-observe-104th-anniversary-musi-flood-349446/ |title=Hyderabad to observe 104th anniversary of Musi flood |newspaper=The Siasat Daily |date=20 September 2012 |access-date=31 July 2018 |archive-date=25 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240625061137/https://archive.siasat.com/news/hyderabad-observe-104th-anniversary-musi-flood-349446/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Lynton, Days of the Beloved|1987|pp=13–15}}

He also abolished [[Sati (practice)|Sati]] where women used to jump into their husband's burning pyre, by issuing a royal [[firman]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/100618/letters-leave-a-rich-legacy-of-rulers.html |title=Letters leave a rich legacy of rulers |first=CR Gowri |last=Shanker |newspaper=Deccan Chronicle |date=10 June 2018 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |access-date=23 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920132535/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/100618/letters-leave-a-rich-legacy-of-rulers.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Asaf Jah VII ====
The last [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] [[Mir Osman Ali Khan]] ruled the state from 1911 until 1948. He was given the title "Faithful Ally of the British Empire".<ref name="Britannica" /> After Operation Polo, he continued to rule the state until January 1950, but in name only.<ref name="TimesInd1"/>

The Nizam established the [[Hyderabad State Bank]]. Hyderabad was the only independent state in the [[Indian subcontinent]] that had its own currency, the [[Hyderabadi rupee]].<ref>Pagdi, Raghavendra Rao (1987) Short History of Banking in Hyderabad District, 1879–1950. In M. Radhakrishna Sarma, K.D. Abhyankar, and V.G. Bilolikar, eds. ''History of Hyderabad District, 1879-1950AD (Yugabda 4981–5052)''. (Hyderabad : Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samiti), Vol. 2, pp.85–87.</ref> The [[Begumpet Airport]] was established in the 1930s with formation of [[Hyderabad Aero Club]] by the Nizam. Initially, it was used as a domestic and international airport for Nizam's [[Deccan Airways Limited|Deccan Airways]], the earliest airline in British India. The terminal building was created in 1937.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Museum/Begumpet.html |title=Begumpeet Airport History |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051221081504/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Museum/Begumpet.html |archive-date=21 December 2005}}</ref>

To prevent another [[Great Musi Flood of 1908|great flood]], the Nizam also constructed two lakes, namely the [[Osman Sagar]] and [[Himayath Sagar]]. The [[Osmania General Hospital]], [[Jubilee Hall, Hyderabad|Jubilee Hall]], [[State Central Library, Hyderabad|State Library]] (then known as ''Asifia Kutubkhana'') and [[Public Gardens, Hyderabad|Public Gardens]] (then known as ''Bagh e Aam'') were constructed during this period.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://spaceandculture.in/index.php/spaceandculture/article/view/121/78 |title=View of Changing Facets of Hyderabadi Tehzeeb: Are we missing anything? |journal=Space and Culture, India |date=18 June 2015 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=17–29 |doi=10.20896/saci.v3i1.121 |access-date=12 December 2018 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/h/hyderabad.html |title=Changing Facets of Hyderabadi Tehzeeb: Are We Missing Anything? |last=Pandey |first=Dr. Vinita |access-date=28 June 2018 |archive-date=7 January 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030107054442/http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/h/hyderabad.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===After Indian Independence (1947–1948)===
{{Main|Operation Polo}}

In 1947 [[Dominion of India|India]] gained independence and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] came into existence. The British left the local rulers of the [[princely states]] the choice of whether to join one or the other or to remain independent. On 11 June 1947, the Nizam issued a declaration to the effect that he had decided not to participate in the Constituent Assembly of either Pakistan or India.

However, the Nizams were Muslim ruling over a predominantly Hindu population.<ref name="Britannica" />
India insisted that the great majority of residents wanted to join India.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Purushotham |first1 = Sunil |year = 2015 |title = Internal Violence: The "Police Action" in Hyderabad |journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume = 57 |issue = 2 |pages = 435–466 |doi=10.1017/s0010417515000092 |s2cid = 145147551 }}</ref>

The Nizam was in a weak position as his army numbered only 24,000 men, of whom only some 6,000 were fully trained and equipped.{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|p=229}}

On 21 August 1948, the Secretary-General of the Hyderabad Department of External Affairs requested the President of the United Nations Security Council, under Article 35(2) of the [[United Nations Charter]], to consider the "grave dispute, which, unless settled by [[international law]] and justice, is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hyderabad Question |url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/46-51/Chapter%208/46-51_08-19-The%20Hyderabad%20question.pdf |website=United Nations |access-date=23 September 2014 |archive-date=2 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160902193432/http://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/46-51/Chapter%208/46-51_08-19-The%20Hyderabad%20question.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{primary source inline |date=October 2016}}

On 4 September the Prime Minister of Hyderabad [[Mir Laiq Ali]] announced to the Hyderabad Assembly that a delegation was about to leave for [[Lake Success, New York|Lake Success]], headed by [[Moin Nawaz Jung]].{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|p=230}} The Nizam also appealed, without success, to the British [[Labour Government 1945–1951|Labour Government]] and to [[George VI of the United Kingdom|the King]] for assistance, to fulfil their obligations and promises to Hyderabad by "immediate intervention". Hyderabad only had the support of [[Winston Churchill]] and the British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]].{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|p=231}}
[[File:OsmanNehruJN.jpg|thumb|220px|(From left to right): Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Osman Ali Khan|Nizam VII]] and army chief [[Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri]] after Hyderabad's accession to India]]
[[File:Hyderabad State reorganization 1956.png|thumb|right|220px|[[Hyderabad state]] in 1956 (in yellowish-green). After the reorganisation in 1956, Regions of the state west of Red and Blue lines merged with [[Bombay State|Bombay]] and [[Mysore state]]s respectively and the rest of the state ([[Telangana]]) was merged with [[Andhra State]] to form the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]].]]

At 4 a.m. on 13 September 1948, India's Hyderabad Campaign, code-named "[[Operation Polo]]" by the [[Indian Army]], began. Indian troops invaded Hyderabad from all points of the compass. On 13 September 1948, the Secretary-General of the Hyderabad Department of External Affairs in a cablegram informed the United Nations Security Council that Hyderabad was being invaded by Indian forces and that hostilities had broken out. The Security Council took notice of it on 16 September in Paris. The representative of Hyderabad called for immediate action by the Security Council under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter. The Hyderabad representative responded to India's excuse for the intervention by pointing out that the Stand-still Agreement between the two countries had expressly provided that nothing in it should give India the right to send in troops to assist in the maintenance of internal order.<ref>United Nations Document S/986</ref>{{primary source inline|date=October 2016}}

At 5 p.m. on 17 September, the Nizam's army surrendered. The Government of Hyderabad resigned, and military [[governor]]s and chief ministers were appointed by the Nizam at India's direction.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/pakistan-v-prince-muffakham-jah-judgment-021019-1.pdf |page=66 |quote="On 17 September 1948, the troops of Hyderabad surrendered and the Government of Hyderabad administration headed by Laik Ali (and including Moin) resigned." |title=High Commissioner of Pakistan v Natwest Bank |access-date=6 October 2021 |archive-date=6 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006201114/https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/pakistan-v-prince-muffakham-jah-judgment-021019-1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/pakistan-v-prince-muffakham-jah-judgment-021019-1.pdf |page=69 |quote="... Government of India had purposely avoided any question of accession and maintained until that date Nizam’s authority as source from which military Governors' and chief Ministers' powers were derived." |title=High Commissioner of Pakistan v Natwest Bank }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The new military government was headed by [[Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri|Major General J. N. Chaudhuri]] who had led Operation Polo. A ''[[firman]]'' issued by the Nizam on November 24, 1949, accepted that the Indian Constitution applied to the State of Hyderabad.<ref name="TimesInd1">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/nizam-writ-ran-after-police-action-till-1950-accession/articleshow/103486501.cms|title=Nizam writ ran after police action till 1950 accession|publisher=[[Times of India]]|first=Syded|last=Akbar|date=2023-09-08|access-date=2025-10-29}}</ref>

The Nizam signed an [[Instrument of Accession]] to India on January 25, 1950. The next day, India became a [[Republic Day (India)|Republic]], and the Nizam was given the new title of ''[[Rajpramukh]]''.<ref name="TimesInd1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/pakistan-v-prince-muffakham-jah-judgment-021019-1.pdf |page=66 |quote="Further, on 26 January 1950 there came into being the Union of India and a new State of the Union of India, the Union State of Hyderabad." |title=High Commissioner of Pakistan v Natwest Bank }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/pakistan-v-prince-muffakham-jah-judgment-021019-1.pdf |page=697 |quote="... Firman issued by Nizam on 24 November 1949…which suggests that accession became effective on 26 January 1950." |title=High Commissioner of Pakistan v Natwest Bank }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> India formally incorporated the state of Hyderabad into the Union of India and ended the rule of the Nizams.{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|p=232}}

=== Hyderabad State (1948–1956) ===
{{main|Hyderabad State (1948–1956)}}

After the incorporation of Hyderabad State into India, [[M. K. Vellodi]] was appointed as Chief Minister of the state. The Rajpramukh now had little power and the administration of the state was with the help of bureaucrats from [[Madras state]] and [[Bombay state]].<ref>[http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html APonline – History and Culture – History-Post-Independence Era] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220113947/http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html |date=20 December 2013}}</ref>

In the [[1952 Hyderabad Legislative Assembly election|1952 Legislative Assembly election]], [[Burgula Ramakrishna Rao]] was elected Chief Minister of Hyderabad State. During this time there were violent agitations by some [[Telangana|Telanganites]] to send back bureaucrats from Madras state, and to strictly implement 'Mulki-rules' (local jobs for locals only), which was part of Hyderabad state law since 1919.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/09/06/stories/2002090603210900.htm |title=Mulki agitation in Hyderabad state |publisher=Hinduonnet.com |access-date=9 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826122139/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/09/06/stories/2002090603210900.htm |archive-date=26 August 2010 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

===Dissolution===
In 1956 during the [[States Reorganisation Act|reorganisation of the Indian States]] based along linguistic lines, the state of Hyderabad was split up among [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Bombay state]] (later [[Maharashtra]]) and [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/10/01/stories/2005100100040900.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060301045415/http://www.hindu.com/2005/10/01/stories/2005100100040900.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 March 2006 |title=SRC submits report |date= 1 October 2005 |access-date=9 October 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai}}</ref>

On 2 June 2014, the state of [[Telangana]] was formed splitting from the rest of [[Andhra Pradesh]] state and formed the 29th state of India, with [[Hyderabad]] as its capital.

==Government and politics==
===Government===
[[File:Hyderabad State 1901.jpg|thumb|Hyderabad State 1901 with districts]]
[[File:Hyderabad state from the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909.jpg|thumb|Hyderabad State in 1909 with divisions and new districts]]
[[Wilfred Cantwell Smith]] states that Hyderabad was an area where the political and social structure from medieval Muslim rule had been preserved more or less intact into modern times.{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=28}} The last Nizam was reputed to be the wealthiest man in the world.{{sfn|Guha|2008|p=51}} He was supported by an [[aristocracy (class)|aristocracy]] of 1,100 feudal lords who owned a further 30% of the state's land, with some 4 million tenant farmers. The state also owned 50% or more of the capital in all the major enterprises, allowing the Nizam to earn further profits and control their affairs.{{sfn|Smith|1950|p=29}}

Next in the social structure were the administrative and official classes, comprising about 1,500 officials. A number of them were recruited from outside the state. The lower-level government employees were also predominantly Muslim. Effectively, the Muslims of Hyderabad represented an 'upper caste' of the social structure.{{sfn|Smith|1950|pp=29–30}}{{efn|However some Hindus served in high government posts such as [[Prime Minister of Hyderabad]] {{mdash}} Raja Ragunath Das, [[Vitthal Sundar|Vitthal Sundar Parshurami]], [[Renuka Das Bhalerao|Raja Sham Raj Rai Rayan]], [[Maharaja Chandu Lal]], Ram Baksh, Ganesh Rao, [[Maharaja Sir Kishen Pershad]]; [[Kotwal]] of Hyderabad ([[Venkatarama Reddy]]); and [[Sham Raj II|Raja Shamraj Rajwant Bahadur]], member of [[His Exalted Highness|H. E. H]] the [[Nizam]]'s Executive Council.}}

All power was vested in the Nizam. He ruled with the help of an Executive Council or Cabinet, established in 1893, whose members he was free to appoint and dismiss. The government of the Nizam recruited heavily from the North Indian Hindu [[Kayastha]] caste for administrative posts.<ref>Leonard, K.I., 1994. Social History of an Indian Caste: The Kayasths of Hyderabad. Orient Blackswan.[https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1980.82.1.02a00990] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127031004/https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1980.82.1.02a00990|date=27 January 2020}}</ref> There was also an Assembly, whose role was mostly advisory. More than half of its members were appointed by the Nizam and the rest were elected from a carefully limited franchise. There were representatives of Hindus, [[Parsi]]s, Christians and Depressed Classes in the Assembly. Their influence was however limited due to their small numbers.{{sfn|Smith|1950|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|loc=Chapter 2}}

The state government also had a large number of outsiders (called ''non-mulkhis'') – 46,800 of them in 1933, including all the members of the Nizam's Executive Council. Hindus and Muslims united in protesting against the practice which robbed the locals of government employment. The movement, however, fizzled out after the Hindu members raised the issue of 'responsible government', which was of no interest to the Muslim members and led to their resignation.{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|pp=39–40}}

Various properties and wealth owned by the Nizam as part of Hyderabad State are now succeeded by his descendants, including his grandsons Prince Mukarram Jah, Prince Mufakkam Jah & Prince Shahmat Jah and his great-grandson Himayat Ali Mirza among others.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |author=Syed Akbar|date=30 July 2020 |title=Nizam's case: Great-grandson claims Rs 121 crore |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/nizams-case-great-grandson-claims-rs-121-crore/articleshow/77250515.cms |access-date=4 March 2022 |newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Himayat Ali Mirza raises voice against negligence, illegal encroachments towards Nizam's properties |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=875626 |access-date=4 March 2022 |website=www.daijiworld.com |archive-date=18 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118194107/https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=875626 |url-status=live }}</ref> Himayat Ali Mirza, great-grandson of the Nizam, remarked that his stake in the English state sums up to 36% of the total amount.<ref name=":1" /> For claiming the total share of £35 million, Nizam's great-grandson, Himayat Ali Mirza, reached the London High Court.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nizam set to get possession of £35 million after London court rules in favour |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/692002-london-court-rules-in-favour-of-nizam-set-to-get-possession-of-35-million |access-date=4 March 2022 |website=www.thenews.com.pk |date=25 July 2020 }}</ref>

===Political movements===
Up to 1920, there was no political organisation of any kind in Hyderabad. In that year, following British pressure, the Nizam issued a ''firman'' appointing a special officer to investigate constitutional reforms. It was welcomed enthusiastically by a section of the populace, who formed the Hyderabad State Reforms Association. However, the Nizam and the Special Officer ignored all their demands for consultation. Meanwhile, the Nizam banned the [[Khilafat movement]] in the State as well as all political meetings and the entry of "political outsiders". Nevertheless, some political activity did take place and witnessed cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. The abolition of the Sultanate in Turkey and Gandhi's suspension of the [[Non-co-operation movement]] in British India ended this period of cooperation.{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|loc=Chapter 2}}

An organisation called [[Andhra Jana Sangham]] (later renamed ''Andhra Mahasabha'') was formed in November 1921 and focused on educating the masses of [[Telangana]] in political awareness. With leading members such as [[Madapati Hanumantha Rao]], [[Burgula Ramakrishna Rao]] and M. Narsing Rao, its activities included urging merchants to resist offering freebies to government officials and encouraging labourers to resist the system of ''[[begar]]'' (free labour requested at the behest of state). Alarmed by its activities, the Nizam passed a powerful gagging order in 1929, requiring all public meetings to obtain prior permission. But the organisation persisted by mobilising on social issues such as the protection of ''ryots'', women's rights, abolition of the [[devadasi]] system and [[purdah]], uplifting of [[Dalit]]s etc. It turned to politics again in 1937, passing a resolution calling for responsible government. Soon afterwards, it split along the moderate–extremist lines. The Andhra Mahasabha's move towards politics also inspired similar movements in [[Marathwada]] and [[Karnataka]] in 1937, giving rise to the ''Maharashtra Parishad'' and ''Karnataka Parishad'' respectively.{{sfn|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000|loc=Chapter 2}}

==Military==
{{main|Hyderabad State Forces}}

Hyderabad's first ruler, [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Asaf Jah I]] (r. 1724–1748) was a talented commander and assembled a powerful army that allowed Hyderabad to become one of the preeminent states in southern India.{{sfnp|Dalrymple|2003|p=86}} After his death, the military was crippled by the succession wars of his sons. It was restored under [[Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II|Asaf Jah II]] (r. 1762–1803) who modernised the army.{{sfnp|Dalrymple|2003|p=87}} Notable units during his reign included [[East India Company|British]]-trained battalions,{{sfnp|Dalrymple|2003|p=129}} the French-trained ''Corps Français de Raymond'' which was led by [[Michel Joachim Marie Raymond]] and fought under the [[Flag of France|French ''Tricolour'']], and the Victorious Battalion, an elite infantry unit entirely composed of women.{{sfnp|Dalrymple|2003|p=94}}

== Culture ==
=== Symbols ===
==== Coat of arms ====
<gallery>
File:CoA Nizam 1893.png|Coat of arms of Nizam of Hyderabad (1869–1911)
File:In-hyderabad47.png|Coat of arms of Nizam of Hyderabad (1911–1947)
File:The Royal arms of Hyderabad State.svg|Coat of arms of Nizam of Hyderabad (1947–1948)
File:State Emblem of Hyderabad.jpg|State Emblem of Hyderabad (1947–1948)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Andhra Pradesh |url=http://www.hubert-herald.nl/BhaAndhraP.htm |access-date=2021-07-13 |website=www.hubert-herald.nl |archive-date=11 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911074413/http://www.hubert-herald.nl/BhaAndhraP.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
</gallery>The coat of arms features the full titles of the Nizam at the bottom, and a [[dastar]]{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

==== Flag ====
<gallery>
File:Flag of the State of Hyderabad (18th century-1900).svg|Flag of State of Hyderabad (18th century–1900)
File:Flag of Hyderabad (1900–1947).svg|Flag of State of Hyderabad (1900–1947)<ref>{{cite web|title=British Princely States Flags|url=http://tmg110.tripod.com/braj_flags.htm}}</ref>
File:Asafia flag of Hyderabad State.svg|Flag of State of Hyderabad (1947–1948)
</gallery>
Under the leadership of [[Asaf Jah V]] the state changed its traditional heraldic flag.
The Asafia flag of Hyderabad. The script along the top reads ''Al Azmatulillah'' meaning "All greatness is for God". The bottom script reads ''Ya Uthman'' which translates to "Oh [[Mir Osman Ali Khan|Osman]]". The writing in the middle reads "Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah"

==== Stamps ====
[[File:1937_Hyderabad_State_stamp_featuring_the_Osmania_General_Hospital.jpg|thumb|275px|1937 Hyderabad State stamp featuring the [[Osmania General Hospital]].]]
The stamps of the Hyderabad State featured the [[Golconda fort|Golconda Fort]], [[Ajanta Caves]], and the [[Charminar]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/delhi/2019/mar/06/a-stamp-of-history-from-the-nizams-era-1947452.html |title=A stamp of history from the Nizam's era |newspaper=The New Indian Express |date=6 March 2019 |access-date=2 September 2019}}</ref>

==== Orders and decorations ====
The [[Hilal-i-Osmania]], [[Tamgha-i-Khusrow-i-Deccan]], and [[Tamgha-i-Asafia]] were orders and decorations conferred by the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_YvAQAAIAAJ |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: Princely States in colonial India |date=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 |pages=99–100 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McClenaghan |first=Tony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQdZlHJ2WTAC |title=Indian Princely Medals: A Record of the Orders, Decorations, and Medals of the Indian Princely States |date=1996 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=978-1-897829-19-6 |pages=135 |language=en}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
=== Mulki ===
Mulkis, or Mulkhis, are the native inhabitants of the erstwhile Hyderabad State, regardless of ethnic differences.<ref name="auto" /> The term was popularly used during the [[1952 Mulkhi Agitation (Telangana)]], which saw protests demanding job reservations for Mulki people, and demanding non-Mulkis to leave.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d8Ydxc66NrIC&q=agitation+mulkhi&pg=PA84 |title=Public Administration, Steel Or Plastic Frame |last=Rao |first=V. Bhaskara |date=2008 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |isbn=978-81-7835-617-4}}</ref>

{{Pie chart|
| caption = Languages in Hyderabad State<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qw3UBwAAQBAJ |title=Hyderabad, British India, and the World |first=Eric Lewis |last=Beverley |date=10 June 2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107091191 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
| label1 =Telugu
| value1 =48.2
| color1 =steelblue
| label2 =Marathi
| value2 =26.4
| color2 =red
| label3 =Kannada
| value3 =12.3
| color3 =darkslateblue
| label4 =Urdu
| value4 =10.3
| color4 =green
| label5 =Others
| value5 =2.8
| color5 =grey
}}
As per the 1941 Hyderabad State Census, 2,187,005 people spoke [[Urdu]], 7,529,229 people spoke [[Telugu language|Telugu]], 3,947,089 people spoke [[Marathi language|Marathi]], 1,724,180 people spoke Kanarese ([[Kannada]]) as native languages.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.101551 |title=Census Of India 1941 Vol-xxi H.e.h. The Nizams Dominions (hyd State) |last=Mazhar_hussain_m.a__b.sc |date=1947}}</ref> The [[Hyderabadi Muslim]] population, including the ruling [[Asaf Jahi dynasty]] numbered around 2,097,475 people, while Hindus numbered around 9,171,318 people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.101551 |title=Census Of India 1941 Vol-xxi H.e.h. The Nizams Dominions (hyd State) |date=10 April 1947 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

== Architecture ==

The architecture of Hyderabad State is very cosmopolitan, and heavily influenced by European and Islamic styles. The Nizam's palaces and several public buildings were built in a distinctive style. The earliest surviving buildings are purely European, examples being the [[Neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] [[British Residency, Hyderabad|British Residency]] (1798) and [[Falaknuma Palace]] (1893). In the early 20th century, the [[Osmania General Hospital]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/osmania-general-hospital-gasps-for-attention-heritage-building-crumbling-roofs-caving-in/articleshow/56846559.cms |title=Osmania general hospital gasps for attention: Heritage building crumbling, roofs caving in | Hyderabad News – Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 January 2017 |archive-date=31 August 2024 |access-date=21 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240831072723/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/osmania-general-hospital-gasps-for-attention-heritage-building-crumbling-roofs-caving-in/articleshow/56846559.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[City College Hyderabad|City College]], [[Telangana High Court|High Court]], and [[Kacheguda railway station|Kacheguda Railway station]] were designed in the [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]] style by [[Vincent Esch]]. The [[Moazzam Jahi Market]] was also built in a similar style.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/once-pride-nizam-hyderabads-iconic-osmania-hospital-now-lies-shambles-56184 |title=Once the pride of the Nizam, Hyderabad's iconic Osmania hospital now lies in shambles |date=24 January 2017 |website=The News Minute |access-date=18 June 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202120825/http://www.thenewsminute.com/article/once-pride-nizam-hyderabads-iconic-osmania-hospital-now-lies-shambles-56184 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<gallery class="center" widths="180" heights="180">
File:Falaknuma Palace 01.jpg|''Falaknuma Palace''
File:Falaknuma Palace - Entrance - 2.jpg|''The entrance to the Palace''
File:Interiors, Falaknuma Palace - 1.jpg|''The reception room of the Falaknuma Palace''
British Residency of Hyderabad 3.jpg|''British Residency of Hyderabad''
</gallery>

==Industries==
[[File:Secbad Stn hist.jpg|thumb|200px|A locomotive at the Secunderabad Station (circa 1928)]]
Various major industries emerged in various parts of the State of Hyderabad before its incorporation into the Union of India, especially during the first half of the twentieth century. Hyderabad city had a separate power plant for electricity. However, the Nizams focused on industrial development in the region of [[Sanathnagar]], housing several industries there with transportation facilities by both road and rail.<ref name="Kaleidoscopic view of Deccan">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/br/2009/08/25/stories/2009082550041600.htm |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=Kaleidoscopic view of Deccan |date=25 August 2009 |access-date=4 August 2010 |archive-date=30 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930134719/http://www.hindu.com/br/2009/08/25/stories/2009082550041600.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Industries in pre-Independence Hyderabad<ref name="Kaleidoscopic view of Deccan" />
! Company!!Year
|-
| [[Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway]] || 1875
|-
| [[Karkhana Zinda Tilismat]] || 1920
|-
| [[Singareni Collieries Company|Singareni Collieries]] || 1920
|-
| [[Hussain Sagar Thermal Power Station]] || 1920
|-
| [[Hyderabad Deccan Cigarette Factory]] || 1930
|-
| [[VST Industries|Vazir Sultan Tobacco Company, Charminar cigarette factory]] || 1930
|-
| [[Azam Jahi Mills Warangal]] || 1934
|-
| [[Nizam Sugar Factory]] || 1937
|-
|-
| [[Sirpur Paper Mills]] || 1938
|-
| [[Hyderabad Allwyn|Allwyn Metal Works]] || 1942
|-
|[[Praga Tools]]|| 1943
|-
| [[Deccan Airways Limited]] || 1945
|-
|Hyderabad Asbestos || 1946
|-
|[[Kagaznagar, Telengana|Sirsilk]] || 1946
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Hyderabad}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* [[Hyderabad State (1948–1956)]]
* Regions of former Nizam's Dominion on linguistic basis:
**[[Telangana]]
**[[Marathwada]]
**[[Kalyana-Karnataka]]
* [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] for a list of Nizams and other information
* [[Hyderabad State Forces]], the armed forces of Hyderabad State
* [[Hyderabadi Muslim]]
* [[Hyderabadi Urdu]], the local dialect of Urdu
* [[Dakhini]]
* [[Hyderabad]], India, the Indian city that served as capital of Hyderabad State
* [[Hyderabad Police Action]], the military invasion that resulted in the annexation of Hyderabad state into India
* [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb]]
* [[Sawānih-i-Deccan]]
* [[Rajamundry Sarkar]]
}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |first=Lucien D. |last=Benichou |title=From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Loiq3YrFy40C |date=2000 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-1847-6 |ref={{sfnref|Benichou, Autocracy to Integration|2000}} }}
* {{citation |last=Beverley |first=Eric Lewis |title=Hyderabad, British India, and the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qw3UBwAAQBAJ |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-09119-1 |ref={{sfnref|Beverley, Hyderabad, British India, and the World|2015}} }}
* {{citation |last1=Chandra |first1=Bipan |author-link=Bipan Chandra |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Aditya |last3=Mukherjee |first3=Mridula |title=India Since Independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dE9qEg-NgHMC |year=2008 |orig-year=first published 1999 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-310409-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Faruqi |first=Munis D. |chapter=At Empire's End: The Nizam, Hyderabad and Eighteenth-century India |editor1=Richard M. Eaton |editor2=Munis D. Faruqui |editor3=David Gilmartin |editor4=Sunil Kumar |title=Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History: Essays in Honour of John F. Richards |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h0_xhdCScQkC&pg=PA1 |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-03428-0 |pages=1–38 }}
*{{cite book |last=Noorani |first=A. G. |title=The Destruction of Hyderabad |publisher=Hurst & Co |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-84904-439-4 }}
* {{citation |first=Ramachandra |last=Guha |title=India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy |publisher=Pan Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-330-39611-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29lXtwoeA44C }}
* {{citation |first=Wilfred Cantwell |last=Smith |author-link=Wilfred Cantwell Smith |title=Hyderabad: Muslim Tragedy |journal=Middle East Journal |volume=4 |pages=27–51 |number=1 |date=January 1950 |jstor=4322137}}
* {{citation|author=Ram Narayan Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WD9uAAAAMAAJ|title=The Sikh unrest and the Indian state: politics, personalities, and historical retrospective|date=1 April 1997|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|isbn=978-81-202-0453-9|page=99|ref={{sfnref|Ram Narayan Kuma|1997}}}}
* {{citation |author=Jayanta Kumar Ray|title=Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World|date=2007|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-0834-7|page=206}}
*{{citation |last=Law |first=John |title=Modern Hyderabad (Deccan) |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Modern_Hyderabad_(Deccan) |year=1914 |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Company |access-date=19 October 2018 |archive-date=25 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240625061709/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Modern_Hyderabad_(Deccan) |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=Lynton |first=Harriet Ronken |title=Days of the Beloved |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5w9_mkaCYkC |year=1987 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-0863112690 |ref={{sfnref|Lynton, Days of the Beloved|1987}} }}
* {{citation |last=Briggs |first=Henry George |title=The Nizam, his history and relations with the British Government |url=https://archive.org/details/nizamhishistoryr01brig/page/n25 |year=1861 }}
* {{cite book| last = Dalrymple| first = William| author-link = William Dalrymple (historian)| title = White Mughals: love and betrayal in eighteenth-century India| publisher = Flamingo (HarperCollins)| date = 2003| orig-year = 1st pub. 2002| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=W1b5h0NlnL8C| isbn = 978-0-14-200412-8}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |title=Hyderabad State |series=Imperial Gazetteer of India Provincial Series |publisher=Atlantic Publishers |location=New Delhi |year=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zXBB1nZYoLIC}}
*{{cite book |last=Iyengar |first=Kesava |title=Economic Investigations in the Hyderabad State 1939–1930 |volume=1 |publisher=Read Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4067-6435-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZfFJn3UQqsC}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Leonard |first1=Karen |year=1971 |title=The Hyderabad Political System and its Participants |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=569–582 |jstor=2052461 |doi=10.2307/2052461 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/454191gp |archive-date=25 January 2020 |access-date=30 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125040952/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/454191gp |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}
*{{cite book |last=Pernau |first=Margrit |title=The Passing of Patrimonialism: Politics and Political Culture in Hyderabad, 1911–1948 |year=2000 |publisher=Manohar |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-7304-362-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnJuAAAAMAAJ |ref=Pernau00}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Purushotham |first1=Sunil |year=2015 |title=Internal Violence: The "Police Action" in Hyderabad |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=435–466 |doi=10.1017/S0010417515000092 |s2cid=145147551}}
* Sherman, Taylor C. "Migration, citizenship and belonging in Hyderabad (Deccan), 1946–1956." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 45#1 (2011): 81–107.
* Sherman, Taylor C. "The integration of the princely state of Hyderabad and the making of the postcolonial state in India, 1948–56." ''Indian Economic & Social History Review'' 44#4 (2007): 489–516.
*{{cite book |last=Various |title=Hyderabad State List of Leading Officials, Nobles and Personages |publisher=Read Books |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UM-HUdTLTWAC |isbn=978-1-4067-3137-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Zubrzycki |first=John |title=The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback |publisher=[[Pan Macmillan]] |location=Australia |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-330-42321-2}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hyderabad State}}
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20090112003648/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fline/fl1805/18051140.htm From the Sundarlal Report – Muslim Genocide in 1948]}} (archived 12 January 2009)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7DZmJfVx8Ws Old Hyderabad video]
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/wiaMXm4QVuM Nizam of Hyderabad]

{{Hyderabad topics}}
{{Telangana}}
{{Salute states}}
{{Authority control}}

{{coord|17|00|N|78|50|E|type:country_source:kolossus-cawiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Hyderabad State|*]]
[[Category:Princely states of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:1948 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:1724 establishments in India]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1724]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1948]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of India]]
[[Category:Vassal and tributary states of the Mughal Empire]]

Jipuna Nanna Ganda

2026-03-28T19:04:30Z

Google updates 22: put up

{{short description|Indian Kannada-language comedy drama film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Jipuna Nanna Ganda
| image = Jipuna Nanna Ganda.jpg
| alt =
| caption = VCD cover
| native_name = 
| director = J. G. Krishna
| writer = Srichandru (dialogue)
| screenplay = J. G. Krishna
| story =
| based_on = ''[[Budget Padmanabhan]]'' (Tamil)
| producer = N Srinivas
| starring = [[Jaggesh]] [[Ravali]] Kruthika
| narrator =
| cinematography = J. G. Krishna
| editing = Rajashekhar Reddy
| music = [[Sadhu Kokila]]
| studio = Sushma Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2001|5|9|df=yes}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Jipuna Nanna Ganda''''' ({{Translation|My husband is a cheapstake}}) is a 2001 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[comedy drama film]] directed by J. G. Krishna and starring [[Jaggesh]], [[Ravali]] and Kruthika. The film was a remake of the Tamil film ''[[Budget Padmanabhan]]'' (2000).<ref name="C"/>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Jaggesh]] as Padmanabh
*[[Ravali]]
*Kruthika
*[[Umashree]]
*Ashalatha
*[[M. N. Lakshmi Devi]]
*[[Mukhyamantri Chandru]]
*[[Shivaram]]
*[[Shani Mahadevappa]]
*[[Ashok (Kannada actor)|Ashok]]
*[[Sadhu Kokila]] as Vikram
*[[Bank Janardhan]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/kn/!entertainment/veteran-actor-bank-janardhan-passes-away-celebrities-and-politicians-condoles-karnataka-news-kas25041401293|title=ಬ್ಯಾಂಕ್ ಜನಾರ್ಧನ್ ನಿಧನಕ್ಕೆ ಹೆಚ್‌ಡಿಕೆ, ಬೊಮ್ಮಾಯಿ, ಉಪೇಂದ್ರ ಸೇರಿ ಗಣ್ಯರ ಸಂತಾಪ|trans-title=HDK, Bommai, Upendra, and other dignitaries mourn the death of Bank Janardhan|work=[[ETV Network|ETV Bharat]]|language=kn|date=14 April 2025|access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.varthabharati.in/bangalore-city/veteran-film-actor-bank-janardhan-is-no-more-2062576|title=ಹಿರಿಯ ಚಿತ್ರನಟ ಬ್ಯಾಂಕ್ ಜನಾರ್ದನ್ ಇನ್ನಿಲ್ಲ|language=kn|date=14 April 2025|work=[[Vartha Bharati]]|access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>
*[[Vaijanath Biradar]]
*Yathiraj Jaggesh
*[[Komal Kumar]]
}}

== Production ==
This film marked [[Jaggesh]]'s third collaboration with his classmate J. G. Krishna after ''[[Drona (1999 film)|Drona]]'' and ''[[Nannaseya Hoove]]'' (both 1999).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vijaykarnataka.com/entertainment/news/actor-and-mp-jaggesh-and-parimala-jaggesh-celebrate-39th-wedding-anniversary/articleshow/98902318.cms|title=Jaggesh: ವಿವಾಹ ವಾರ್ಷಿಕೋತ್ಸವದಂದು ಹಳೇ ಘಟನೆಗಳನ್ನು ನೆನಪು ಮಾಡಿಕೊಂಡ ನಟ ಜಗ್ಗೇಶ್|last=ಅವಿನಾಶ್ ಜಿ. ರಾಮ್|date=22 March 2023|work=[[Vijaya Karnataka]]|language=kn|access-date=27 April 2023|archive-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322133537/https://vijaykarnataka.com/entertainment/news/actor-and-mp-jaggesh-and-parimala-jaggesh-celebrate-39th-wedding-anniversary/articleshow/98902318.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kannada.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/actor-jaggesh-relives-the-old-days-on-the-occasion-of-his-wedding-anniversary-181679541674218.html|title=Jaggesh wedding Anniversary: ದಾರಿ ಕಾಣದೆ ಕುಳಿತಾಗ ಕಣ್ಣಿಗೆ ಬಿದ್ದಳು ಪರಿಮಳಾ!; ಮದುವೆ ಆ್ಯನಿವರ್ಸರಿ ದಿನ ಹಳೇ ನೆನಪಿಗೆ ಜಾರಿದ ಜಗ್ಗೇಶ್|author=Manjunath B Kotagunasi|date=23 March 2023|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|language=kn|access-date=27 April 2023|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427170345/https://kannada.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/actor-jaggesh-relives-the-old-days-on-the-occasion-of-his-wedding-anniversary-181679541674218.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This was the first time he worked with J. G. Krishna as a director as Krishna previously worked with him as a cinematographer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chiloka.com/movie/jipuna-nanna-ganda-2001|title=Jipuna Nanna Ganda (2001) Kannada movie: Cast & Crew|website=Chiloka.com|access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>

== Music ==
The music was composed by [[Sadhu Kokila]].
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Budgetettu Budgettu
| length1 =
| lyrics1 = Srichandru
| extra1 = Manu
| title2 = Kanasina Hakki
| length2 =
| lyrics2 = Srichandru
| extra2 = [[Unni Krishnan]]
| title3 = Manase Manase
| length3 =
| lyrics3 = [[V. Manohar]]
| extra3 = [[Nanditha (singer)|Nanditha]], [[Rajesh Krishnan]]
| title4 = O Santhoshada
| length4 =
| lyrics4 = Srichandru
| extra4 = [[Jaggesh]], Nanditha, [[Sadhu Kokila]]
| title5 = Dham Are Dham
| length5 =
| lyrics5 = V. Manohar
| extra5 = [[Anuradha Sriram]], Rajesh Krishnan
| title6 = Yellello Swartha
| length6 =
| lyrics6 = Srichandru
| extra6 = [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]]
| total_length =
}}

== Box office ==
The film was a box office success and ran for a hundred days, thereby becoming the first [[Jaggesh]] film to do so in his nearly twenty-year-old career.<ref name="C">{{cite web |date=2001-12-28 |title=2001 Year Round Up |url=https://www.chitraloka.com/flash-back/2898-2001-year-round-up.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319190708/https://www.chitraloka.com/flash-back/2898-2001-year-round-up.html |archive-date=19 March 2022 |accessdate=2022-08-23 |website=[[Chitraloka.com]] |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/jaggeshs-new-venture-in-rustum/articleshow/1026899483.cms|title=Jaggesh's new venture in Rustum|date=24 August 2001|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=19 October 2023|archive-date=27 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027184739/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/jaggeshs-new-venture-in-rustum/articleshow/1026899483.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|14728396}}

[[Category:2001 films]]
[[Category:2001 Indian films]]
[[Category:2001 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Sadhu Kokila]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Kannada remakes of Tamil films]]
[[Category:Kannada-language comedy films]]
[[Category:2000 comedy films]]

Secular state

2026-03-28T14:07:23Z

Google updates 22: add content additionally and cleaned formatting based on references

{{short description|State or country without a state religion}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
[[File:Map of secular states.svg|thumb|500x500px|{{legend|#0093AF|States with no state religion}}{{legend|#EB151C|States with [[state religion]]}}{{legend|#dedede|Ambiguous states or no data}}]]
{{Status of religious freedom|expanded=concept}}

{{nowrap|A '''secular state'''}} is an idea pertaining to [[secularity]], whereby a [[State (polity)|state]] is or purports to be officially [[Separation of church and state|neutral in matters of religion]], supporting neither religion nor [[irreligion]].<ref name="MadeleyEnyedi2003">{{cite book|author-first1=John T. S.|author-last1=Madeley|author-first2=Zsolt|author-last2=Enyedi|title=Church and State in Contemporary Europe: The Chimera of Neutrality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5Brda6FmswC|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7146-5394-5|page=14}}</ref> A secular state claims to [[Social equality|treat all its citizens equally regardless of religion]], and claims to avoid [[Religious discrimination|preferential treatment for a citizen based on their religious beliefs, affiliation or lack of either over those with other profiles]].<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Secularism? |url=https://www.secularism.org.uk/what-is-secularism.html |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=www.secularism.org.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Although secular states have no [[state religion]], the absence of an established state religion does not mean that a state is completely secular or [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]]. For example, some states that describe themselves as secular have [[Religion in national symbols|religious references in their national anthems and flags]], [[Equality before the law|laws that benefit one religion or another]], or are [[Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] and of the [[International Religious Freedom or Belief Alliance]].

==Origin and practice==
Secularity can be established at a state's creation (e.g., the [[Soviet Union]], the [[United States]]) or by it later [[Secularization|secularizing]] (e.g., [[France]] or [[Nepal]]). Movements for [[Secularism in France|''laïcité'' in France]] and [[Freedom of religion in the United States|separation of church and state in the United States]] have defined modern concepts of secularism, the United States of America being the first explicitly secular government in history. Historically, the process of secularisation typically involves granting [[religious freedom]], disestablishing state religions, stopping public funds being used for religion, freeing the legal system from religious control, [[Secular education|freeing up the education system]], tolerating citizens [[Apostasy|who change religion]] or [[Irreligion|abstain from religion]], and allowing political leaders to come to power regardless of their religious beliefs.<ref>Jean Baubérot [http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/secular.asp The secular principle] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222013645/http://www.ambafrance-us.org/atoz/secular.asp |date=22 February 2008 }}</ref>

In [[France]], [[Italy]], and [[Spain]], for example, [[Public holiday|official holidays]] for the [[public administration]] tend to be [[Calendar of saints|Christian feast days]]. Any private school in France that contracts with [[Ministry of National Education (France)|''Éducation nationale'']] means its [[teacher]]s are salaried by the state—most of the [[Catholic school]]s are in this situation and, because of history, they are the majority; however, any other religious or non-religious schools also contract this way.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Teese |first1=Richard |title=Private Schools in France: Evolution of a System |journal=Comparative Education Review |date=1986 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=247–259 |doi=10.1086/446591 |jstor=1188531 |s2cid=144698211 }}</ref> In some [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe|European states]] where secularism confronts [[Monoculturalism|monoculturalist]] [[philanthropy]], some of the main [[Christian denomination]]s and [[List of religions and spiritual traditions|sects of other religions]] depend on the state for some of the financial resources for their religious [[Charitable organization|charities]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Twinch|first=Emily|title=Religious charities: Faith, funding and the state|url=http://www.thirdsector.co.uk/news/Article/914534/religious-charities-faith-funding-state/|work=Article dated 22 June 2009|publisher=Third Sector – a UK Charity Periodical|access-date=3 June 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510221443/http://www.thirdsector.co.uk/news/Article/914534/religious-charities-faith-funding-state/|archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref> It is common in [[corporate law]] and [[charity law]] to prohibit [[organized religion]] from using those funds to organize religious worship in a separate [[place of worship]] or for [[Religious conversion|conversion]]; the religious body itself must provide the religious content, educated [[clergy]] and [[Lay preacher|laypersons]] to exercise its own functions and may choose to devote part of their time to the separate charities. To that effect, some of those charities establish secular organizations that manage part of or all of the donations from the main religious bodies.

Many states that are nowadays secular in practice may have legal vestiges of an earlier [[State religion|established religion]]. Secularism also has various guises that may coincide with some degree of official [[religiosity]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[head of state]] is still required to take the [[Coronation Oath Act 1688|Coronation Oath enacted in 1688]], swearing to maintain the [[Reformed Christianity|Protestant Reformed religion]] and to preserve the established [[Church of England]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/royaleventsandceremonies/coronation/coronation.aspx|title=Coronation Oath|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> The UK also maintains seats in the [[House of Lords]] for 26 senior clergymen of the Church of England, known as the [[Lords Spiritual]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/lords/whos-in-the-house-of-lords/members-and-their-roles/how-members-are-appointed/#jump-link-3|title=How members are appointed|work=UK Parliament|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> In [[Canada]] the ''[[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]'' affords secular freedoms of conscience and religion, thought, belief, opinion and expression, including communication, assembly and association yet the [[Preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter's preamble]] maintains the concept of "the supremacy of God" which would appear to disadvantage those who hold [[Nontheism|nontheistic]] or [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] beliefs, including [[Atheism]] and [[Buddhism]].<ref name="Hogg, Peter W. 1982">Hogg, Peter W. ''Canada Act 1982 Annotated''. Toronto, Canada: The Carswell Company Limited, 1982.</ref><ref name="Paul Russell">[http://www.academia.edu/16378297/_The_supremacy_of_God_does_not_belong_in_the_Constitution_ ''Paul Russell''], "The supremacy of God" does not belong in the Constitution": The Globe & Mail, June 11, 1999</ref> Italy has been a secular state since the enactment of the [[Constitution of Italy|Constitution]] in 1948 (stressed by a [[Constitutional Court of Italy|Constitutional court]]'s decision in 1989),<ref>Articles 3, 7, 8, 19, 20 of the Constitution of Italy; Constitutional Court's Decision n. 203/1989</ref> but still recognizes a special status for the [[Catholic Church]]. The reverse progression can also occur, however; a state can go from being secular to being a [[State religion|religious state]], as in the case of [[Iran]] where the secularized [[Pahlavi Iran|Imperial State of Iran]] was replaced by an [[Islamic Republic]]. Nonetheless, the last 250 years has seen a trend towards secularism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131 |title=Harris Interactive: Resource Not Found |access-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723125147/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131 |archive-date=23 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=300|title=A Portrait of "Generation Next"|date=9 January 2007|work=Pew Research Center for the People and the Press|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=24 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524055917/http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=300|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==List of secular states by continent==
{{See also|Constitutional references to God}}
This is the list of countries that are explicitly described as secular in their [[constitution]]s or other official state documents.

===Africa===
{{colbegin|colwidth=22em}}
* {{flag|Angola|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ao00000_.html#A008_|title=ICL - Angola Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}, Article 8: "The Republic of Angola shall be a secular State..."</ref>
* {{flag|Benin|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trazibule.fr/anglais/BENIN.txt|title=Article 2 of Constitution}}: "The Republic of Benin shall be one - indivisible, secular, and democratic."</ref>
* {{flag|Botswana|size=23px}}<ref>[http://www.mmegi.bw/2004/July/Tuesday13/404641223950.html Leaders say Botswana is a secular state] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050210190537/http://www.mmegi.bw/2004/July/Tuesday13/404641223950.html |date=10 February 2005 }}</ref>
* {{flag|Burkina Faso|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/Burkina%20FasoC%20(englishsummary)(rev).doc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009112408/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/Burkina%20FasoC%20(englishsummary)(rev).doc|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 October 2006|title=Article 31 of Constitution}}: "Burkina Faso is a democratic, unitary and secular state."</ref>
* {{flag|Burundi|size=23px}}<ref>[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN004624.pdf Article 4 of Constitution] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007195330/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN004624.pdf |date=7 October 2006 }}: "Le Burundi est une République unitaire, indépendante et souveraine, laïque et démocratique."</ref>
* {{flag|Cameroon|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf|title=Preamble of Constitution|access-date=1 March 2007|archive-date=15 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215062653/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf|url-status=dead}}: "... the State shall be secular."</ref>
* {{flag|Central African Republic|size=23px}}<ref>Article 24 of the [https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Central_African_Republic_2016.pdf?lang=en Central African Republic's Constitution of 2016], constituteproject.org: "The Central African Republic is a State of law, unitary, sovereign, indivisible, secular and democratic."</ref>
* {{flag|Chad|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ChadC%20(english%20summary)(rev).doc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009114533/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ChadC%20(english%20summary)(rev).doc|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 October 2006|title=Article 1 of Constitution}}: "Chad is a sovereign, independent, secular, social, and indivisible ..."</ref>
*{{flag|Comoros|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Comoros_2018 | title=Comoros 2018 Constitution - Constitute }}</ref>
* {{flag|Côte d'Ivoire|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cote_DIvoire_2000.pdf?lang=en|title=Côte d'Ivoire's Constitution of 2000}}, Article 30: "The Republic of Côte d’Ivoire is one and indivisible, secular, democratic and social."</ref>
* {{flag|Congo DR|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_de_la_R%C3%A9publique_d%C3%A9mocratique_du_Congo#Article_1er|title=Constitution de la République démocratique du Congo|access-date=18 March 2015}}, article 1er: "République Démocratique du Congo est, dans ses frontières du 30 juin 1960, un État de droit, indépendant, souverain, uni et indivisible, social, démocratique et laïc."</ref>
* {{flag|Congo|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/cf00000_.html#A001_|title=ICL - Congo-Brazzaville - Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}, Article 1: "The Republic of the Congo is a sovereign and independent State, decentralized, indivisible, secular, democratic, and social."</ref>
* {{flag|Equatorial Guinea|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/equatorial-guinea/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Equatorial Guinea|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Eritrea|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/eritre/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Eritrea|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Eswatini|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/eswatini/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Eswatini|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Ethiopia|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/ethiopia/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Ethiopia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Gabon|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/gabon/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Gabon|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Gambia|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/gambia/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Gambia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Ghana|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/ghana/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Ghana|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Guinea|size=23px}}<ref>[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/cafrad/unpan002994.pdf Article 1 of Constitution] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040913180737/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/cafrad/unpan002994.pdf |date=13 September 2004 }}: "La Guinée est une République unitaire, indivisible, laïque, démocratique et sociale."</ref>
* {{flag|Guinea-Bissau|size=23px}}<ref>[http://www.cicr.org/ihl-nat.nsf/162d151af444ded44125673e00508141/8ff8cad34667b579c1257083002a6fa8/$FILE/Constitution%20Guinea%20Bissau.doc Article 1 of Constitution] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105121916/http://www.cicr.org/ihl-nat.nsf/162d151af444ded44125673e00508141/8ff8cad34667b579c1257083002a6fa8/$FILE/Constitution%20Guinea%20Bissau.doc |date=5 November 2013 }}: "Guinea-Bissau is a sovereign, democratic, secular and unitary republic."</ref>
* {{flag|Kenya}}<ref name="constKenya">{{cite web | url=http://www.kenyalaw.org:8181/exist/rest//db/kenyalex/Kenya/The%20Constitution%20of%20Kenya/docs/ConstitutionofKenya%202010.pdf | title=The Constitution of Kenya | access-date=14 March 2022 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221100933/http://www.kenyalaw.org:8181/exist/rest//db/kenyalex/Kenya/The%20Constitution%20of%20Kenya/docs/ConstitutionofKenya%202010.pdf | archivedate=21 December 2013 }}</ref>
* {{flag|Lesotho|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lesotho/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lesotho|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Liberia|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/liberia/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Liberia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Madagascar|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Madagascar_2010.pdf?lang=en|title=Madagascar's Constitution of 2010}}, Article 1: "The Malagasy People constitute a nation organized as a sovereign, unitary, republican and secular State."</ref>
* {{flag|Malawi|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/malawi/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Malawi|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Mali|size=23px}}<ref>[http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf Constitution] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912141413/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Mali.pdf |date=12 September 2012 }}, Article 25: "Mali is an independent, sovereign, indivisible, democratic, secular, social Republic."</ref>
* {{flag|Mozambique|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/mozambique/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Mozambique|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Namibia|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/wa00000_.html|title=ICL - Namibia - Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}, Article 1: "The Republic of Namibia is hereby established as a sovereign, secular, democratic and unitary State ..."</ref>
* {{flag|Niger|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/niger/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Niger|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Nigeria|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/nigeria/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Nigeria|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Rwanda|size=23px}}<ref>Article 4 of the [https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Rwanda_2015.pdf?lang=en Rwanda's Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015], constituteproject.org, Article 4: "The Rwandan State is an independent, sovereign, democratic, social and secular Republic."</ref>
* {{flag|Sao Tome and Principe|size=23px}}<ref>Article 154 of the [https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Sao_Tome_and_Principe_2003.pdf?lang=en Sao Tome and Principe's Constitution of 1975 with Amendments through 2003], constituteproject.org, "The following may not be the subject of a revision to the Constitution: [...] b. The secular status of the State;"</ref>
* {{flag|Senegal|size=23px}}<ref>Article 1 of the [https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Senegal_2016.pdf?lang=en Senegal's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2016], constituteproject.org, "The Republic of Senegal is secular, democratic, and social."</ref>
* {{flag|Sierra Leone|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sierra-leone/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sierra Leone|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|South Africa|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/south-africa/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: South Africa|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|South Sudan|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/south-sudan/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: South Sudan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Sudan|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sudan/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Tanzania|size=23px}}<ref>Article 3 of the [https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Tanzania_2005.pdf?lang=en Tanzania (United Republic of)'s Constitution of 1977 with Amendments through 2005], constituteproject.org, "The United Republic is a democratic, secular and socialist state which adheres to multi-party democracy"</ref>
* {{flag|Togo|size=23px}}<ref>Article 1 of the [https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Togo_2007.pdf?lang=en Togo's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2007], constituteproject.org, "The Togolese Republic is a State of law, secular, democratic and social."</ref>
* {{flag|Tunisia|size=23px}}<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://groundreport.in/why-tunisia-abandoning-islam-as-a-state-religion/|title=Why Tunisia abandoning Islam as a state religion?|website=GR}}</ref>
* {{flag|Uganda|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/uganda/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Uganda|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Zimbabwe|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/zimbabwe/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Zimbabwe|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
{{colend}}

===Americas===
{{colbegin|colwidth=22em}}
* {{flagicon|Antigua and Barbuda}} [[Antigua and Barbuda]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/antigua-and-barbuda/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Antigua and Barbuda|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Argentina]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/argentina/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Argentina|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Bahamas}} [[Bahamas]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bahamas/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bahamas|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Barbados}} [[Barbados]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/barbados/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Barbados|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Belize}} [[Belize]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/belize/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Belize|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Bolivia}} [[Bolivia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bolivia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bolivia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Brazil]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/brazil/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Brazil|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Canada]]<ref>{{multiref2
| {{cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Bramadat |first2=David |last2=Seljak |title=Religion and Ethnicity in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VymssyK1Hs0C&pg=PA3 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1018-7 |page=3 |ref=none}}
| {{cite book |first=Kurt |last=Bowen |title=Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__38sGZLrvYC&pg=PA174 |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7194-5 |page=174 |ref=none}}
| {{cite book |first1=Derek |last1=Gregory |first2=Ron |last2=Johnston |first3=Geraldine |last3=Pratt |first4=Michael |last4=Watts |first5=Sarah |last5=Whatmore |title=The Dictionary of Human Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5liCbG4J9LYC&pg=PT672 |year=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-1056-6 |page=672 |ref=none}}
|{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/canada/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Canada|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023 |ref=none}}
}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Chile}} [[Chile]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/chile/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Chile|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Colombia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/colombia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Colombia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Cuba}} [[Cuba]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/cuba/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Cuba|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Dominica}} [[Dominica]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/dominica/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Dominica|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Dominican Republic}} [[Dominican Republic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/dominican-republic/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Dominican Republic|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Ecuador}} [[Ecuador]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/ecuador/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Ecuador|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|El Salvador}} [[El Salvador]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/el-salvador/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: El Salvador|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Grenada}} [[Grenada]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/grenada/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Grenada|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Guatemala}} [[Guatemala]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/guatemala/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Guatemala|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Guyana}} [[Guyana]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/guyana/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Guyana|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Haiti}} [[Haiti]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/haiti/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Haiti|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Honduras}} [[Honduras]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/honduras/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Honduras|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Jamaica|size=23px}} [[Jamaica]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/jamaica/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Jamaica|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} [[Mexico]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/mexico/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Mexico|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Nicaragua}} [[Nicaragua]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/nicaragua/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Nicaragua|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Paraguay}} [[Paraguay]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/paraguay/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Paraguay|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Panama}} [[Panama]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/panama/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Panama|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Peru}} [[Peru]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/peru/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Peru|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/saint-kitts-and-nevis/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saint Kitts and Nevis|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Saint Lucia}} [[Saint Lucia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/saint-lucia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saint Lucia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}} [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/saint-vincent-and-the-grenadines/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Suriname}} [[Suriname]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/suriname/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Suriname|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Trinidad and Tobago}} [[Trinidad and Tobago]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/trinidad-and-tobago/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Trinidad and Tobago|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|United States}} [[United States]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/religion_and_the_constitution|title=Religion and the US Constitution: The First Amendment|publisher=[[Cornell Law School]]|access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Uruguay]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/uruguay/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Uruguay|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Venezuela}} [[Venezuela]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/venezuela/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Venezuela|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref>
{{colend}}

===Asia===
{{colbegin|colwidth=18em}}
* {{Flag|China|size=23px}} ([[Atheist country]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: China|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=24 October 2023}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Cyprus}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/cyprus/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Cyprus|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
*{{flag|Indonesia|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/indonesia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Indonesia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref>
* {{Flag|India|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend42.htm|title=The Constitution (Amendment)|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328040620/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend42.htm|archive-date=28 March 2015}}, "We, The People of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its..."</ref>
* {{Flag|Japan|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/japan/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Japan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Kyrgyzstan|size=23px}}<ref>[http://www.coe.int/T/E/Legal_Affairs/Legal_co-operation/Foreigners_and_citizens/Nationality/Documents/National_legislation/Kyrgyzstan%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Kyrghyz%20Republic.asp Article 1 of Constitution] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204064819/http://www.coe.int/T/E/Legal_Affairs/Legal_co-operation/Foreigners_and_citizens/Nationality/Documents/National_legislation/Kyrgyzstan%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Kyrghyz%20Republic.asp |date=4 February 2007 }}, Article 1: "The Kyrghyz Republic (Kyrghyzstan) shall be a sovereign unitary democratic republic created on the basis of a legal secular state."</ref>
* {{Flag|Laos|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/laos/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Laos|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Mongolia|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/mongolia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Mongolia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Nepal|size=23px}}<ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2003|p=571|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wImNYmmgcA0C&pg=PT571 The rough guide to Nepal]}}: "After 2005, the Marxist-Leninist government of reunified Nepal declared the state atheist while theoretically allowing people the right to practice their religion under the constitution."</ref>
* {{flag|Northern Cyprus}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ombudsman.gov.ct.tr/Portals/20/Constitution%20of%20TRNC.pdf|title=Northern Cyprus Constitution|access-date=29 January 2022}}</ref>{{efn|name=fn1}}
* {{Flag|North Korea|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/democraticpeople'srepublicofkorea/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: North Korea|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=24 October 2023}}</ref> ([[Juche]] doctrine)
* {{Flag|Philippines|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/|title=Article II Section 6 of the Constitution of the Philippines|access-date=12 March 2021|archive-date=5 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105085906/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/|url-status=dead}}, "The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable."</ref>
* {{Flag|Singapore|size=23px}}<ref>See [[Declaration of Religious Harmony]], which explicitly states the secular nature of society</ref>
* {{Flag|Republic of Korea|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/south-korea/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: South Korea|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flag|Syria|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sana.sy/?p=2198312|title=Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic|publisher=[[Syrian Arab News Agency]]|access-date=13 March 2025}}</ref>
* {{flag|Taiwan|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/taiwan/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Taiwan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>{{efn|name=fn1|State with limited recognition.<ref name="autogenerated2011">{{Citation |title=Introduction: Secular State and Pious Muslims |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137010643.0003 |work=Secular State and Religious Society |year=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |doi=10.1057/9781137010643.0003 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |isbn=9781137010643 |access-date=2022-04-11|url-access=subscription }}</ref>}}
* {{Flag|Tajikistan|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Tajikistan_2003.pdf?lang=en|title=Tajikistan's Constitution of 1994 with Amendments through 2003}}, Article 1: "The Republic of Tajikistan is a sovereign, democratic, law-governed, secular, and unitary State."</ref>
* {{Flag|Timor-Leste|size=23px}}<ref>[https://constituteproject.org/constitution/East_Timor_2002.pdf?lang=en Preamble to the Constitution], "The elaboration and adoption of the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor is the culmination of the secular resistance of the Timorese People ..."</ref>
* {{Flag|Turkmenistan|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/TURKCON.htm|title=Constitution of Turkmenistan|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=14 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414030847/http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/TURKCON.htm|url-status=dead}}, Article 1: "Turkmenistan is a democratic secular state ..."</ref>
* {{flag|Uzbekistan|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/uzbekistan/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Uzbekistan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Vietnam|size=23px}} ([[Atheist country]])<ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2003|p=571|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wImNYmmgcA0C&pg=PT571 The rough guide to Vietnam]}}: "After 1975, the Marxist-Leninist government of reunified Vietnam declared the state atheist while theoretically allowing people the right to practice their religion under the constitution."</ref>
{{colend}}

===Europe===
{{colbegin|colwidth=22em}}
* {{flag|Albania}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/al00000_.html#A007_|title=ICL - Albania - Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Andorra}}<ref>{{cite web | title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom:Andorra| website=United States Department of State | date=12 May 2021 | url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/andorra/ | access-date=29 December 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Austria}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/au00000_.html|title=ICL - Austria Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Belarus}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia5AAQAAQBAJ|title=Yearbook of Muslims in Europe|first1=Jørgen|last1=Nielsen|first2=Samim|last2=Akgönül|first3=Ahmet|last3=Alibašić|first4=Egdunas|last4=Racius|date=19 September 2013|publisher=BRILL|via=Google Books|isbn=9789004255869}}</ref>
* {{flag|Belgium}}<ref>In Belgium, Article 20 of the Constitution provides: No one can be obliged to contribute in any way whatsoever to the acts and ceremonies of religion, nor to observe the days of rest. {{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/be00000_.html|title=ICL - Belgium - Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}<ref name="USDS B&H 2021">{{cite web | title=United States Department of State | website=United States Department of State | date=12 May 2021 | url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/bosnia-and-herzegovina/ | access-date=10 Feb 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Bulgaria}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.bg/?page=const&lng=en|title=National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria - Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=10 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110001510/http://www.parliament.bg/?page=const&lng=en|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flag|Croatia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usud.hr/sites/default/files/dokumenti/The_consolidated_text_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Croatia_as_of_15_January_2014.pdf|title=The consolidated text of the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia as of 15 January 2014|access-date=7 July 2020}}</ref>
* {{flag|Czechia}}<ref>[http://angl.concourt.cz/angl_verze/rights.php Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430034320/http://angl.concourt.cz/angl_verze/rights.php |date=30 April 2008 }}</ref>
* {{flag|Estonia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/en00000_.html#A040_|title=ICL - Estonia - Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Finland}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/finland/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Finland|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|France}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/fr00000_.html#A002_|title=ICL - France Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Germany}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/germany/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Germany|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Hungary}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/hungary/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Hungary|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Ireland}}<ref>[[Fifth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|Fifth Amendment of the Constitution Act, 1972]].</ref>
* {{flag|Italy}}<ref>Articles 3, 7, 8, 19, 20 of Constitution; Constitutional Court's Decision n. 203/1989</ref>
* {{flag|Kosovo}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1vU9p9ftlsC&q=kosovo+constitution+article+7&pg=PA235|title=Legislating for Equality: A Multinational Collection of Non-Discrimination Norms. Volume I: Europe|first1=Talia|last1=Naamat|first2=Dina|last2=Porat|first3=Nina|last3=Osin|date=19 July 2012|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|via=Google Books|isbn=978-9004226128}}</ref>{{efn|name=fn1}}
* {{flag|Latvia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/lg00000_.html#A099_|title=ICL - Latvia - Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Lithuania}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lithuania/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lithuania|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Luxembourg}}
* {{Flag|Moldova}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/moldova/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Moldova|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Kingdom of the Netherlands|name=Netherlands|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/netherlands/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Netherlands|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Norway}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/norway/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Norway|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Poland}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/poland/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Poland|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Portugal}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dre.pt/part-i|title=Constitution|work=Diário da República Eletrónico |access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Romania}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/romania/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Romania|work=United States Department of State |publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Serbia}}<ref>[http://www.srbija.gov.rs/cinjenice_o_srbiji/ustav_odredbe.php?id=217 Article 11 of the Constitution] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616134133/http://www.srbija.gov.rs/cinjenice_o_srbiji/ustav_odredbe.php?id=217 |date=16 June 2013 }}</ref>
* {{flag|Slovakia}}<ref name="concourt1">{{cite web|url=http://www.concourt.sk/en/A_ustava/ustava_a.pdf|title=Article 1 of Constitution}}</ref>
* {{flag|Slovenia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.us-rs.si/en/about-the-court/legal-basis/constitution/|title=Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=21 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221092416/http://www.us-rs.si/en/about-the-court/legal-basis/constitution/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flag|Spain}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.congreso.es/portal/page/portal/Congreso/Congreso/Hist_Normas/Norm/const_espa_texto_ingles_0.pdf|title=Article 16 of Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
* {{flag|Sweden}}<ref>The Swedish head of state must according to the [[Swedish Act of Succession]] adhere to the [[Augsburg Confession]]</ref>
* {{Flag|Switzerland}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/switzerland/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Switzerland|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Ukraine}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Ukraine_2016.pdf?lang=en|title=Constitution|publisher=constituteproject.org|access-date=4 October 2020}}, article 35: "The Church and religious organisations in Ukraine are separated from the State, and
the school - from the Church."</ref>
{{colend}}

===Oceania===
{{colbegin|colwidth=22em}}
* {{flag|Australia|size=23px}}<ref name="f234">{{cite web | last=Barker | first=Renae | title=Is Australia a secular country? It depends what you mean | website=The Conversation | date=October 9, 2024 | url=https://theconversation.com/is-australia-a-secular-country-it-depends-what-you-mean-38222 | access-date=November 3, 2024}}</ref>{{efn|Section 116 of the [[Constitution of Australia]] provides, "the Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/as00000_.html#S116_|title=ICL - Australia Constitution|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> However, the states retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1998/6.pdf|journal=Federal Law Review|last=Puls|first=Joshua|year=1998|title=The Wall of Separation: Section 116, the First Amendment and Constitutional Religious Guarantees|page=160}}</ref>}}
* {{flag|Fiji|size=23px}}<ref>Article 4 of the [[2013 Constitution of Fiji]] explicitly provides that Fiji is a secular state. It guarantees religious liberty, while stating, "religious belief is personal", and, "[[Separation of church and state|religion and the State are separate]]." [http://www.fiji.gov.fj/getattachment/8e981ca2-1757-4e27-88e0-f87e3b3b844e/Click-here-to-download-the-Fiji-Constitution.aspx Constitution of the Republic of Fiji] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206063023/http://www.fiji.gov.fj/getattachment/8e981ca2-1757-4e27-88e0-f87e3b3b844e/Click-here-to-download-the-Fiji-Constitution.aspx |date=6 February 2016 }}, 2013</ref>
* {{Flag|Kiribati|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kiribati/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kiribati|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Marshall Islands|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/marshall-islands/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Marshall Islands|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{flag|Micronesia|size=23px}}<ref>Section 2 of Article IV of the [[2002 Micronesian constitutional referendum|Micronesian constitution]] provides, "no law may be passed respecting an establishment of religion or impairing the free exercise of religion, except that assistance may be provided to parochial schools for non-religious purposes." {{cite web|url=http://www.fsmlaw.org/fsm/constitution/constitution.htm|title=Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Nauru|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/nauru/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Nauru|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|New Zealand|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/new-zealand/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: New Zealand|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Palau|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/palau/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Palau|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Vanuatu|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/vanuatu/|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Vanuatu|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref>
{{colend}}

===Transcontinental countries===
{{colbegin|colwidth=22em}}
* {{flag|Armenia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/armenia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Armenia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flag|Azerbaijan}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/azerbaijan/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Azerbaijan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flag|Georgia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/georgia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Georgia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{flag|Kazakhstan}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/|title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=18 September 2023}}</ref>
* {{flag|Russia}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Russia|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Turkey|size=23px}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/turkey/|title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Turkey|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=9 March 2023}}</ref>{{efn|"[[Secularism in Turkey]]" is disputed by some scholars.<ref>Orhan, Özgüç. "[https://archive.org/download/the-paradox-of-turkish-secularism/The_Paradox_of_Turkish_Secularism.pdf The Paradox of Turkish Secularism]." Turkish Journal of Politics 4.1 (2013)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10767-011-9114-z | doi=10.1007/s10767-011-9114-z | title=Everybody Wants Secularism—But Which One? Contesting Definitions of Secularism in Contemporary Turkey | date=2012 | last1=Topal | first1=Semiha | journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society | volume=25 | issue=1–3 | pages=1–14 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Davison, Andrew. "[https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/4/article/43708/summary Turkey, a "secular" state?: The challenge of description]." The South Atlantic Quarterly 102.2 (2003): 333-350.</ref><ref>Kaymakcan, Recep, and İbrahim Aşlamacı. "[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-33998-1_9 Understanding of Turkish secularism in terms of freedom of religion: Example of compulsory religious education in schools]." Human Rights and the Separation of State and Religion: International Case Studies. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2023. 179-198.
</ref>}}
{{colend}}

==Formerly secular states==
* {{flag|Bangladesh|1972|size=23px}} (1972–1977)
** Bangladesh was founded as a secular state by [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] following the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Liberation War]]. In 1977, secularism was removed from the constitution by a [[martial law]] directive during the [[Ziaur Rahman]] government. In 1988, the [[Parliament of Bangladesh]] declared [[Islam]] as the [[state religion]] during the presidency of [[Hussain Muhammad Ershad]]. In 2010, the [[Bangladesh Supreme Court]] ruled that the removal of secularism in 1977 was illegal because it was done by an unconstitutional martial law regime. The current [[Constitution of Bangladesh]] declares Islam as the state religion,<ref>[https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Bangladesh/Part_1 Article 2A]: The state religion of the Republic is Islam, but the State shall ensure equal status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and other religions.</ref> but also accepts the secularism as one of the fundamental principles of state policy.<ref>[https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Bangladesh/Part_2 Article 8]: (1) The principles of nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism, together with the principles derived from those as set out in this Part, shall constitute the fundamental principles of state policy. (2) The principles set out in this Part shall be fundamental to the governance of Bangladesh, shall be applied by the State in the making of laws, shall be a guide to the interpretation of the Constitution and of the other laws of Bangladesh, and shall form the basis of the work of the State and of its citizens, but shall not be judicially enforceable.</ref>
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1980–1987).svg|size=23px}} [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] (1978–1987)
** Afghanistan became a secular state following the [[Saur Revolution]]. However, [[Sunni Islam]] was briefly reinstated as the state religion under General Secretary [[Hafizullah Amin]] until his assassination in December 1979. President [[Mohammad Najibullah]] would reinstate [[Sunni Islam]] as the state religion in 1987.<ref name="Gurcan 2016 p. 76">{{cite book | last=Gurcan | first=M. | title=What Went Wrong in Afghanistan?: Understanding Counter-insurgency Efforts in Tribalized Rural and Muslim Environments | publisher=Helion Limited | series=Wolverhampton Military Studies | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-911096-84-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2TyDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 | access-date=Sep 15, 2023 | page=76}}</ref>
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of the People's Republic of Kampuchea.svg|size=23px}} [[People's Republic of Kampuchea]] (1979–1993)
** Kampuchea was a secular state from 1979 until the restoration of its monarchy in 1993.
*{{flag|Djibouti}} (1977–2010)
** Djibouti became a secular state after gaining independence from [[France]] in 1977. [[Islam]] was installed as the state religion in 2010.
* {{Flagicon image|State flag of Iran 1964-1980.svg|size=23px}} [[Pahlavi Iran|Imperial State of Iran]] (1925–1979)
** Iran became a ''de facto'' secular state following the [[1921 Persian coup d'état]] with the establishment of the [[Pahlavi dynasty]] as the ruling house of the country in 1925, until the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]] in 1979.
* {{flag|Ba'athist Iraq|1963|size=23px|name=Iraq}} (1932–1993)
** Iraq became a secular state in 1958 after overthrowing the monarchy. However, the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region|Ba'athist]] [[Ba'athist Iraq|Government]] led by [[Saddam Hussein]] launched the [[Faith Campaign]] in 1993 and placed significant emphasis on [[Islam in Iraq|Islam]] within all sectors of state and public life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=2889|title=Americanchronicle.com|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141154/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=2889|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Myanmar (1974-2010).svg|size=23px}} [[Burma]] (currently [[Myanmar]]) (1885–1961; 1962–2008)
** Myanmar was a secular state during the [[British Burma|colonial period]] and [[Post-independence Burma (1948–1962)|post-independence]] period until 1961 and again under the [[Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma|socialist regime]], and the [[State Peace and Development Council|military regime]] until 2008.
* {{Flag|Samoa|size=23px}} (1962–2017)
** The Samoan legislative assembly approved a constitutional amendment in 2017 that instituted [[Christianity]] as the state religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/samoa-officially-becomes-a-christian-state/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616153746/https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/samoa-officially-becomes-a-christian-state/|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 June 2017|title=Samoa Officially Becomes a Christian State - The Diplomat|date=16 June 2017}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Papua New Guinea|size=23px}} (1975–2025)
** Parliament voted to amend the [[Constitution of Papua New Guinea]] to include in its [[preamble]] the words "[We] acknowledge and declare God, the Father; Jesus Christ, the Son; and Holy Spirit, as our Creator and Sustainer of the entire universe and the source of our powers and authorities, delegated to the people and all persons within the geographical jurisdiction of Papua New Guinea."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-11 |title=PARLIAMENT PASSES AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION TO DECLARE PNG'S CHRISTIAN IDENTITY; SECTION 45 PROTECTING FREEDOM TO PRACTISE OTHER FAITHS REMAINS INTACT |url=https://pmnec.gov.pg/parliament-passes-amendment-to-the-constitution-to-declare-pngs-christian-identity-section-45-protecting-freedom-to-practise-other-faiths-remains-intact/ |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=Department of Prime Minister and National Executive Council |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-13 |title=PNG parliament passes bill declaring god as 'creator and sustainer of the entire universe' |url=https://www.abc.net.au/pacific/programs/pacificbeat/png-puka-temu/105050958 |access-date=2025-04-16 |website=ABC Pacific |language=en-AU}}</ref>

==Ambiguous countries==
*{{flag|Bangladesh}}
** There is constitutional ambiguity whether Bangladesh is a secular country or an Islamic country. In 2010, the high court of Bangladesh reinstated secularism as a part of the Bangladesh constitution after terming the 1977 constitutional amendment done by then Bangladesh President [[Ziaur Rahman]] as illegal.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 July 2010 |title=Bangladesh's court restores 'secularism' in Constitution |url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/south-asia/bangladeshs-court-restores-secularism-in-constitution_644258.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016024057/https://zeenews.india.com/news/south-asia/bangladeshs-court-restores-secularism-in-constitution_644258.html |archive-date=16 October 2023 |access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref> Political leaders and experts have expressed uncertainty if Bangladesh is a secular state or an Islamic state.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/bangladeshs-ambiguity-on-religion-has-been-expensive-for-the-country/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309064856/https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/bangladeshs-ambiguity-on-religion-has-been-expensive-for-the-country/|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 March 2023|title=Bangladesh's Ambiguity on Religion Has Been Expensive for the Country|date=7 October 2023|access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref> Bangladesh regime changes often advocate for different type of religious freedom as in secularism or pluralism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/ali-riaz-on-recommendations-of-bangladeshs-constitutional-reform-commission/|title=Ali Riaz on Recommendations of Bangladesh's Constitutional Reform Commission|date=3 February 2025|access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref>
* {{flag|Israel}}
** Since the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|Proclamation of Israeli independence in 1948]], Israel is defined in several of its laws as a "[[Jewish and democratic state]]" ({{langx|he|מדינה יהודית ודמוקרטית|medina yehudit ve-demokratit}}). However, the term "[[Jew]]ish" is a [[Polysemy|polyseme]] that can describe the Jewish people [[Who is a Jew?|as either an ethnic or a religious group]]. The debate about the meaning of the term "Jewish" and its legal and social applications is one of the most profound issues with which Israeli society deals. The problem of the status of religion in Israel, even though it is relevant to all religions, usually refers to the status of [[Judaism]] in Israeli society. Thus, even though from a constitutional point of view Judaism is not the state religion in Israel, its status nevertheless determines relations between religion and state and the extent to which religion influences the political center.<ref>''Trouble in Utopia: The Overburdened Polity of Israel'', by Dan Horowitz and Moshe Lissak, pp. 51–52</ref>
* {{flag|Thailand|size=23px}}
** Article 67 of the [[Constitution of Thailand]] states: The State should support and protect Buddhism [...] In supporting and protecting Buddhism, [...] the State should promote and support education and dissemination of dharmic principles of Theravada Buddhism [...], and shall have measures and mechanisms to prevent Buddhism from being undermined in any form. The State should also encourage Buddhists to participate in implementing such measures or mechanisms.<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand|url=http://www.constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/2017-05/CONSTITUTION%2BOF%2BTHE%2BKINGDOM%2BOF%2BTHAILAND%2B%28B.E.%2B2560%2B%282017%29%29.pdf|website=ConstitutionNet|access-date=29 October 2017 }}</ref>
* {{flag|Malaysia|size=23px}}
**There is confusion whether Malaysia is secular or Islamic. Pas president declared that Malaysia is a secular state. Many authors have argued whether Malaysia is Islamic or secular.<nowiki>https://m.malaysiakini.com/columns/683744</nowiki> . Constitution of Malaysia guarantees freedom of religion in article 11 .https://www.studocu.com/my/document/multimedia-university/human-rights-law/article-11/29869828 The addition of state religion in article 3 of Malaysia constitution makes it hard to define whether Malaysia is Islamic or secular. Therefore, Malaysia is not necessarily a Islamic or secular country as article 11 and article 3 of Malaysia indicates ambiguity about whether Malaysia is a fully Islamic country or secular state due to confusion

==See also==
{{Wiktionary|secular}}
{{col div|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Civil religion]]
* [[Freedom of religion]]
* [[Secular education]]
* [[Secularism]]
* [[Secularity]]
* [[Secular religion]]
* [[Separation of church and state]]
* [[State atheism]]
* [[State religion]]
* [[Theocracy]]
* [[Religious law]]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite book|last=Dodd|first=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wImNYmmgcA0C|title=The rough guide to Vietnam|year=2003|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=9781405389730|edition=7th|location=London|oclc=762991000}}
* Temperman, Jeroen, ''State Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance'', BRILL, 2010, {{ISBN|9004181482}}

{{portal bar|politics|religion}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Secular State}}
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Politics and secularism]]
[[Category:Religion and politics]]
[[Category:Religion and government]]
[[Category:Religious policy]]

Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999

2026-03-25T18:20:24Z

Google updates 22: Made A Entry

{{Short description|Law enacted by Government of Maharashtra to combat Organised crime and Terrorism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox legislation
| image = Seal of Maharashtra.svg
| imagesize = 150
| enacted_by = [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

| introduced_by = [[Gopinath Munde]]
| status = in force
}}
The '''Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999''' (Mah. 30/1999) is a law enacted by the state of [[Maharashtra]] in [[India]] in 1999 to combat organised [[Crime in India|crime]] and [[Terrorism in India|terrorism]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-21 |title=Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999 |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/16362/1/the_maharashtra_control_of_organised_crime_act%2C_1999.pdf |access-date=2021-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621174749/https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/16362/1/the_maharashtra_control_of_organised_crime_act%2C_1999.pdf |archive-date=21 June 2021}}</ref><ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> Known as "'''MCOCA'''", the Act provides the [[Government of Maharashtra|State Government]] with special powers to tackle these issues, including powers of [[surveillance]],relaxed evidentiary standards and procedural safeguards, and prescribing additional criminal penalties, including the [[Capital punishment in India|death penalty]]. The law was introduced by a coalition government of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and [[Shiv Sena]].<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Sahi|first=Ajit|title=One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest {{!}} Tehelka - Investigations, Latest News, Politics, Analysis, Blogs, Culture, Photos, Videos, Podcasts|url=http://old.tehelka.com/one-flew-over-the-cuckoos-nest/|access-date=2020-07-16|website=old.tehelka.com|language=en-US|archive-date=29 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029023916/http://old.tehelka.com/one-flew-over-the-cuckoos-nest/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Gopinath Munde]] ([[List of deputy chief ministers of Maharashtra|dy.CM of Maharashtra]] at the time) had the lion's share in the efforts which were taken for this act's enactment; to curb the rising powers of the underworld in the state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MCOCA Act: Know The Provisions, Sections & More |url=https://testbook.com/mpsc-preparation/maharashtra-control-of-organised-crime-act |access-date=2025-10-23 |website=Testbook |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=JAIN |first=NIKITA |date=2024-07-23 |title=Maharashtra Adds To Its Stable Of Draconian Laws, Civil Society Protests |url=https://www.thecitizen.in/in-depth/maharashtra-adds-to-its-stable-of-draconian-laws-civil-society-protests-1051345 |access-date=2025-10-23 |website=www.thecitizen.in |language=en}}</ref>

== Legislative history and aim ==
MCOCA was enacted as an ordinance on 24 February 1999, and was subsequently ratified by the [[Parliament of India|legislature]], becoming law when it received the assent of the [[President of India]] in accordance with the procedure under Article 245 of the [[Constitution of India]], which applies when a legislative subject is within both state and federal powers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Constitution of India|url=https://www.india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf|website=National Portal of India}}</ref> MCOCA was the first state legislation enacted to address [[organised crime in India]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sen|first=Srijoni|title=After Four Unsuccessful Attempts, the Controversial Gujarat Anti-Terror Bill is Sent for Presidential Assent Again|url=https://caravanmagazine.in/vantage/controversial-gujarat-anti-terror-bill-presidential-assent-again|access-date=2020-07-14|website=The Caravan|language=en}}</ref> It replaced the temporary Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Ordinance 1999.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 30, (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

The Statement of Object and Reasons that prefaces MCOCA identifies organised crime as a threat, linking it to [[Terrorism|terrorist activity]] and noting the economic impact of illegal wealth and black money on the state's economy. The Statement of Objects and Reasons goes on to note, "the existing [[Legal doctrine|legal framework]], i.e. the penal and procedural laws and the adjudicatory system, are found to be rather inadequate to curb or control the menace of organised crime. Government has, therefore, decided to enact a special law with stringent and deterrent provisions including in certain circumstances power to intercept [[Wired communication|wire]], [[Telecommunications|electronic]] or [[Conversation|oral communication]] to control the menace of [[Organised crime in India|organised crime]]."<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act, 1999], Statement of Objects and Reasons</ref>

== Applicability ==
MCOCA applies to the entire [[Maharashtra|State of Maharashtra]].<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 1 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> The [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Home Ministry of the Government of India]] extended the applicability of MCOCA to the [[National capital territory of Delhi|National Capital Territory of Delhi]] as well, by a notification dated 2 January 2002.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Ujjwal Kumar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeCGAwAAQBAJ&q=act+passed+with+assent+of+governor+MCOCA&pg=PA322|title=The State, Democracy and Anti-Terror Laws in India|date=2007-01-11|publisher=SAGE Publications India|isbn=978-81-7829-955-6|pages=322|language=en}}</ref><ref>Ministry of Home Affairs Notification No: GSR 6(E) dated 2 January 2002, under section 2 of the Union Territories (Laws) Act, 1950</ref> MCOCA overrides all other Indian laws, and will prevail over any [[Law of India|Indian law]] that conflicts with the provisions that MCOCA contains.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 25 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

== Major provisions ==

=== Definitions ===
MCOCA defines 'organised crime' as "any continuing unlawful activity by an individual, singly or jointly, either as a member of an organised crime syndicate or on behalf of such syndicate, by use of violence or threat of violence or intimidation or coercion, or other unlawful means, with the objective of gaining pecuniary benefits, or gaining undue economic or other advantage for himself or any person or promoting insurgency," and further defines an 'organised crime syndicate' as consisting of two or more persons who singly or collectively engage in organised crime.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 2(e) and (f), (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

=== Penalties ===
MCOCA provides for a number of penalties in relation to organised crime, described in the table below.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], sections 3 and 4, (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!MCOCA Section
!Offence
!Penalty
|-
|Section 3(1)(i)
|Committing organised crime resulting in the death of any person
|Death, or life imprisonment, and a minimum fine of Rs. 150,000
|-
|Section 3(1)(ii)
|Committing any other organised crime
|Imprisonment for a term between five years to life, and a minimum fine of Rs. 500,000
|-
|Section 3(2)
|Conspiring to, abetting, aiding in, or knowingly facilitating organised crime
|Imprisonment for a term between five years to life, and a minimum fine of Rs. 500,000
|-
|Section 3(3)
|Harbouring or concealing a member of an organised crime syndicate
|Imprisonment for a term between five years to life, and a minimum fine of Rs. 500,000
|-
|Section 3(4)
|Membership in an organised crime syndicate
|Imprisonment for a term between five years to life, and a minimum fine of Rs. 500,000
|-
|Section 3(4)
|Holding any property derived from the commission of organised crime, or from the funds of an organised crime syndicate
|Imprisonment for a term between three years to life, and a minimum fine of Rs. 200,000
|-
|Section 4
|Possessing movable or immovable property on behalf of an organised crime syndicate
|Imprisonment for a term between three and ten years, a fine of Rs. 100,000 and forfeiture of the property in question
|-
|Section 24
|Public servants helping to carry out organised crime, or failing to take lawful measures under MCOCA, or disobeying orders of Special Courts under MCOCA
|Imprisonment for up to three years and a fine of
|}

=== Establishment of special courts and prosecutors ===
Sections 5 to 8 of MCOCA provide for the establishment of special courts to try offences defined under the Act.<ref name=":0">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 5 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> Such courts can be established by the Maharashtra State Government by notification in the Official Gazette of the state, and are staffed by judges nominated by the State, in concurrence with the Chief Justice of the [[Bombay High Court]].<ref name=":0" /> To qualify as a judge for a MCOCA Special Court, the judge must previously have served as a judge in a criminal trial court, known as a [[Sessions Court]].<ref name=":0" /> MCOCA Special Courts have the jurisdiction to try cases concerning offences defined under MCOCA, but can also conduct trials for offences under any other laws, provided that the offences are connected to a MCOCA trial or discovered in the course of a MCOCA trial.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], sections 6 and 7 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

MCOCA further provides that each Special Court shall have a Special Public Prosecutor appointed to conduct trials, and that such prosecutors have the same powers as prosecutors appointed to conduct criminal trials under the Indian [[Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973]]. The minimum qualification for such prosecutors is at least ten years of practice as an [[advocate]] in India.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 8 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

Trials in MCOCA courts take precedence over any other trial that persons accused of offences under this Act may be facing, and Special Courts can transfer cases out of their jurisdiction to trial courts if they find that the case is unrelated to MCOCA.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 10 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> Appeals from orders of MCOCA Special Courts are preferred directly to the state's [[Bombay High Court|High Court]] and must be filed within 30 days of the order being appealed.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 12, (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

=== Investigative and surveillance powers ===
MCOCA provides special powers to the police to conduct surveillance, in the form of intercepting written, oral, and electronic evidence. All investigations must be directed by a police officer who holds the minimum rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police, and all information about the commission of offences have to be recorded by police officers holding a minimum rank of Deputy Inspector General of Police.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 23 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

==== Authorisation of surveillance ====
MCOCA provides for the appointment of a 'Competent Authority' to supervise and authorise the police to conduct surveillance activities to investigate organised crime. The Competent Authority is to be appointed by the State Government, and must be an officer not below the rank of Secretary to the Government.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 13 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

Applications for the interception of wire, electronic, or oral communication have to be made by a police officer of the rank of Superintendent of Police, involved in the investigation, and have to contain information including the identities of the investigating officers, a statement of facts detailing the offence committed or about to be committed, the identity of the person sought to be surveilled, the location of the surveillance, as well as the proposed method and duration of the surveillance.<ref name=":1">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 14,(Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> The application also has to contain a disclosure of any prior requests for surveillance involving the same persons or places that are sought to be surveilled.<ref name=":1" />

MCOCA then permits the Competent Authority to grant all or part of such application, if the Competent Authority is satisfied, that the following conditions are met:<ref name=":1" />

* There is [[probable cause]] that the target of surveillance has committed or is about to commit an offence under MCOCA;
* There is probable cause that particular communications concerning that offence will be obtained through the proposed surveillance and interceptions;
* Other modes of inquiry and intelligence gathering have been tried and have failed, or appear to be reasonably unlikely to succeed, or appear to be too dangerous, or are likely to expose the identities of those connected with the surveillance operation; and
* There is probable cause to believe that the facilities in which the surveillance is proposed are being used, or are likely to be used, in connection with committing an offence under MCOCA, and are leased, listed to, or commonly used by the target of surveillance.

MCOCA requires the Competent Authority to record the reasons for his or her order in writing, and to specify the target, duration, and extent of surveillance in the authorising order.<ref name=":1" /> Orders cannot allow the interception of any communication for a period exceeding 60 days, and applications for an extension of a surveillance order have to undergo the same process of vetting as the original application.<ref name=":1" /> The Competent Authority can also require periodic reports on the surveillance operation from the investigators.

==== Oversight of surveillance ====
Individual surveillance orders passed under MCOCA are not under the review of the legislature or the judiciary, and oversight is retained within the State Government. All orders passed by Competent Authorities to conduct surveillance and intercept communications have to be reviewed by a Review Committee.<ref name=":2">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 15 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> MCOCA provides that the Review Committee should be chaired by the Chief Secretary to the State Government, and also include the Principal Secretary or Secretary and Remembrancer of Legal Affairs and the Law and Judiciary Department as well as the additional Chief Secretary or the senior most Principal Secretary as the case may be, in the Home Department.<ref name=":2" /> MCOCA does not require the Competent Authority to place its orders for review within a specified period of time; however, once placed before the Review Committee, the committee has to make a determination within ten days, on whether the order was 'necessary, reasonable and justified'.<ref name=":2" /> The State Government is required to place an annual report of surveillance orders before the State Legislature, but is permitted to exclude any information that it feels might prejudice State security, or an investigation or prevention of organised crime.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 27 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

==== Exceptions to the authorisation procedure ====
In cases of exception, or emergencies, a police officer who is not below the rank of [[Additional director general of police|Additional Director General of Police]] can order surveillance or interception of communication without taking prior consent of the Competent Authority. Such exceptions or emergencies must involve either the danger of death or physical injury to any person, or a conspiracy threatening the security of the State.<ref name=":1" />

==== Prohibited interceptions and penalties ====
MCOCA prohibits the interception of any communication unless authorised by the procedure under MCOCA, and also prohibits any disclosure of information obtained by such interceptions unless authorised to do so under MCOCA. Persons who violate these prohibitions, whether they are disclosing, obtaining, or receiving unauthorised interceptions can be penalised with imprisonment for up to one year, and a maximum fine of Rs. 50,000.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 16 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

=== Evidence ===

==== Admissibility of intercepted communication ====
All communications intercepted and obtained under MCOCA must be recorded, wherever possible and the recordings have to be made available to the Competent Authority that authorised the surveillance. The Competent Authority retains custody of the recordings and must preserve them for at least ten years, and can make the recordings available to any person if they determine that it is in the interests of justice.<ref name=":1" /> The Competent Authority is also required to keep an archive of surveillance applications and orders for a period of ten years.<ref name=":1" />

MCOCA provides that no evidence, including recordings, obtained under these MCOCA provisions are admissible in evidence unless they have been provided to all parties concerned in the trial at least ten days in advance, along with copies of the surveillance application and authorising order; however, MCOCA also authorises judges to waive the ten-day period for evidence review if they feel that the investigators and prosecutors cannot comply with it, and that the delay will not prejudice the trial.<ref name=":1" /> In the event that a Review Committee finds that an order by a Competent Authority for surveillance was not reasonable, necessary or justified, all intercepted communication under that order has to be destroyed and is inadmissible in court.<ref name=":2" />

==== Presumption of guilt ====
Under MCOCA, if a person is found in possession of arms and weapons believed to be used in committing an offence, or if their fingerprints are found at a scene of a crime, MCOCA Special Courts are permitted to assume that they are guilty of committing that crime.<ref name=":3">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 22 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> MCOCA Special Courts can also presume guilt for an offence if a person is found providing financial aid to any one else who committed an offence under MCOCA.<ref name=":3" /> MCOCA accordingly reversed the principle of law that a person is presumed innocent until proved guilty, by transferring the burden of proof of innocence to the person accused of crimes.

==== Prohibition of suits against the state ====
MCOCA prohibits any lawsuit against the State Government or any officers or state authorities, for actions done in good faith, or actions done in pursuance of MCOCA.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 26 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

==== Exceptions to rules of evidence ====
MCOCA further establishes certain exceptions to the [[Indian Evidence Act]], and the [[Code of Criminal Procedure (India)|Code of Criminal Procedure]]. Unlike in other criminal trials, MCOCA Special Courts are allowed to take into account some prior conduct of persons accused of offences under MCOCA, including previous prosecutions under MCOCA or other laws permitting preventive detention, as well as prior orders of caution for habitual offenders.<ref name=":4">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 17 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> Additionally, when a person is accused of offences under MCOCA, the Court may operate under a presumption that any unaccounted-for property found with the accused person was obtained illegally, unless the person is able to prove otherwise.<ref name=":4" /> Similarly, if a case of kidnapping or abduction is proven in connection with a MCOCA trial, a Special Court can presume that it was for ransom.<ref name=":4" />

=== Criminal procedure ===

==== Powers and procedure in special courts ====
Special Courts are exempted from a number of requirements under the Indian Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 under MCOCA, and the Bombay High Court as well as the State Government have the power to frame additional rules of procedure for Special Courts.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 28 and 29 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

MCOCA Special Courts can take cognisance and begin the trial process when a complaint is filed before the court, even if the persons named in the complaint are not present at the time.<ref name=":5">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 9 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> Special Courts can conduct summary trials for offences under MCOCA. Ordinarily, summary trials are conducted with a simplified procedure used only when the maximum penalty is three months of imprisonment; in the case of MCOCA, these can be used for penalties extending to three years.<ref name=":5" /> Special Courts also do not have to follow the normal procedure to issue a pardon, and can provide a pardon if a person co-operates with the court in providing evidence.<ref name=":5" /> MCOCA Special Courts also have the power to attach the property of any person being tried, and if the trial results in conviction, that property is then forfeited to the state.<ref>[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 20 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref>

==== Confessions ====
Under Indian criminal procedure, confessions made to police officers are ordinarily inadmissible, and Section 25 of the Indian Evidence Act<ref>[https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/6819/1/indian_evidence_act_1872.pdf Indian Evidence Act 1872], Section 25, India Code, Government of India</ref> prohibits such confessions in order to eliminate the possibility of eliciting confessions by force or intimidation during interrogation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sekhri|first=Abhinav|date=2014|title=Confessions, Police Officers and Section 25 of the Indian Evidence Act|url=http://nujslawreview.org/2016/12/04/confessions-police-officers-and-section-25-of-the-indian-evidence-act/|journal=NUJS Law Review|volume=7|issue=1}}</ref> MCOCA makes an exception to this rule, allowing certain confessions made to police officers to be admissible in evidence.<ref name=":6">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 18 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> The conditions for this exception to apply are that the police officer must be of the rank of Superintendent or higher; the confession must be recorded; the person making the confession must be cautioned that they are not bound to make the confession, and that it can be used against them in evidence.<ref name=":6" /> MCOCA further requires that the person making the confession statement should be produced before a judicial magistrate, who is to scrutinise the statement, and may hear any complaints about torture, following which the magistrate can order a medical examination if necessary.<ref name=":6" /> MCOCA does not specify a minimum period of time for the person to be produced before a magistrate, apart from specifying that it should be done "without unreasonable delay".<ref name=":6" /> MCOCA also makes confessions admissible not only against the person making them, but also against any co-conspirators, abettors, or others named by the person confession.<ref name=":6" />

==== Detention and bail ====
The Indian Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 allows magistrates to extend detention of a person in police custody beyond 24 hours if it is necessary for an investigation.<ref>Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 (Act 2/74), [https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show-data?actid=AC_CEN_5_23_000010_197402_1517807320555&sectionId=22559&sectionno=167&orderno=192 section 167], India Code, Government of India</ref> In the case of MCOCA trials, this period can be extended from the standard maximum of 30 days to a maximum of 180 days, without trial.<ref name=":7">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 21 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> Anticipatory bail, i.e. an application for an order of bail when a person believes they may be arrested in the future, do not apply in MCOCA cases, and the conditions for ordinary bail are far more stringent, and can be granted to a person only when the Court "is satisfied that there are reasonable grounds for believing he is not guilty of such offence."<ref name=":7" /> MCOCA allows for preventive detention and custodial interrogation, with the only safeguard being a requirement that the police officer seeking such detention or custody has to file a written statement detailing the reasons.<ref name=":7" /> The implication of these bail provisions is that a person accused of a crime under MCOCA may be indefinitely detained during investigation, unless charges are framed or the person is found innocent in the investigation.<ref name=":11" />

==== Witness protection ====
India does not have a law for the protection of witnesses, although since 2018, a temporary Witness Protection Program is in place following a Supreme Court ruling requiring one until Parliament legislates on the subject.<ref>{{Cite web|last=India Today Web Desk|date=5 December 2018|title=India now has a witness protection programme|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/india-witness-scheme-programme-supreme-court-1402830-2018-12-05|access-date=2020-07-15|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref> Under MCOCA, however, a Special Court can take certain measures to protect the identity of witnesses, including holding court proceedings in special locations, removing mentions of witness names in their orders, keeping witness protection orders sealed, and refraining from publishing the orders of any court proceeding.<ref name=":8">[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act 1999], section 19 (Maharashtra Act 30 of 1999), National Investigation Agency, Government of India</ref> The violation of any witness protection orders can result in imprisonment for up to one year and a maximum fine of Rs. 1,000.<ref name=":8" />

== Notable cases prosecuted under MCOCA ==

* MCOCA charges were also brought against those accused in the [[2006 Mumbai train bombings|2006 Mumbai Train Bombings]], and in 2006, five persons were sentenced to life imprisonment, and seven others to the death penalty, in connection with this case.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-09-30|title=Death for five in Mumbai train blasts|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34398810|access-date=2020-07-17}}</ref>
* In 2008, [[Arun Gawli]], a former gangster, businessman and politician, was charged along with other members of the [[Akhil Bharatiya Sena]], in a case concerning extortion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arun Gawli slapped with MCOCA in extortion case - Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/arun-gawli-slapped-with-mcoca-in-extortion-case/303405/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=archive.indianexpress.com}}</ref>
* In 2013, MCOCA was invoked against cricketers [[S. Sreesanth]], [[Ajit Chandila]], and [[Ankeet Chavan]], amongst others, by the [[Delhi Police]], in connection with the [[2013 Indian Premier League spot-fixing and betting case|2013 IPL spot-fixing and betting case]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-11-20|title=SC clears way for police to invoke MCOCA against Sreesanth, others|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/sc-clears-way-for-police-to-invoke-mcoca-against-sreesanth-others/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> In 2015, charges under MCOCA were dropped against these three and 38 other persons charged with MCOCA offences, on grounds of insufficient evidence.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Court drops charges against Sreesanth, Chavan and Chandila {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/20452489/court-drops-charges-sreesanth-chavan-chandila|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.espncricinfo.com|language=en}}</ref>
* A number of alleged associates of mobster [[Ravi Pujari]] have been prosecuted under MCOCA.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-01-29|title=Mumbai: MCOCA against 2 with links to gangster Ravi Pujari|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/mumbai-police-crime-branch-invokes-mcoca-against-two-linked-gangster-ravi-pujari-5558610/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> In 2019, Obed Radiowala, alleged to be an associate of Gawli, was deported from the United States of America to India and produced before a MCOCA Special Court, which later dropped the charges against him in a case concerning an attack on film producer [[Mahesh Bhatt]]. He was then prosecuted in the criminal courts in Mumbai.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-05|title=Obed Radiowala to be produced before MCOCA court today|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/obed-radiowala-to-be-produced-before-mcoca-court-today-5659449/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
* MCOCA was invoked against the accused in the [[29 September 2008 western India bombings]], including [[Pragya Singh Thakur]] (a [[Member of parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]] for the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]), Lt. Col. Prasad Purohit, and others. However, in 2017 the charges concerning MCOCA were dropped by a Special Court.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-12-27|title=Malegaon blast case: MCOCA dropped, terror charges remain against Sadhvi Pragya, Lt Col Purohit|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/2008-malegaon-blast-case-nia-court-drops-mcoca-charges-against-sadhvi-pragya-lt-col-purohit/story-xAg7XszQCoplOQzeb0ug7J.html|access-date=2020-07-17|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> Special Prosecutor [[Rohini Salian]] in the case alleged that the [[National Investigation Agency]] (NIA) had asked her to "go soft" on the accused in this case, following which she was "denotified" from NIA's panel of lawyers, the NIA said that Salian's allegations were false, “unwarranted and baseless”.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-10-13|title=Rohini Salian names NIA officer who told her to 'go soft' against Malegaon blasts accused|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/rohini-salian-names-nia-officer-who-told-her-to-go-soft/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
* In 2016, MCOCA provisions were used to charge gangster and drug trafficker [[Chhota Rajan]] in connection with the murder of journalist [[Jyotirmoy Dey|Jyotirmay Dey]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-01-08|title=J Dey murder case: MCOCA court to frame charges against Chhota Rajan on 19 Jan|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/j-dey-case-chhota-rajan-produced-before-special-court-through-video-conferencing/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

== Judicial review and interpretation of MCOCA ==

=== Judicial review ===
In 2007, one of the accused in a case relating to the [[2006 Mumbai train bombings]] challenged the definition of 'organised crime' in MCOCA, which includes the term, 'insurgency', basing their claim on the Constitution of India's [[Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India|allocation of legislative powers between the State and Center]]. The argument made in this case, ''Zameer Ahmed Latifur Rehman Sheikh v. State of Maharashtra''<ref name=":9">Zameer Ahmed Latifur Rehman Sheikh v. State of Maharashtra, (2010) 5 S.C.C. 246</ref> against MCOCA was that the Constitution of India did not allow state legislatures to frame laws on issues concerning 'insurgency' and that this would fall within the powers of the [[Parliament of India]] to legislate on issues of national defense, instead. Justice Ranjana Desai held for the Supreme Court that MCOCA's goal was to counter organised crime, which fell within the state's powers to legislate on criminal law, and that the mention of 'insurgency' did not infringe on Parliament's powers to legislate on issues relating to the defense of India.<ref name=":9" />

The constitutionality of MCOCA was also challenged in 2008, in ''State of Maharashtra v Bharat Shanti Lal Shah''.<ref name=":10">[https://indiankanoon.org/doc/698472/ ''State of Maharashtra v. Bharat Shanti Lal Shah''], (2008) 13 S.C.C. 5 (Supreme Court of India)</ref> In this case, MCOCA was challenged once again, on two grounds. The petitioners argued first that the State Legislature did not have the power to legislate on intercepting communications and surveillance, as that power belonged to the Parliament of India, which had already enacted the Indian Telegraph Act 1885, dealing with the same issues, and secondly, that provisions of MCOCA violated the Constitution of India's guarantee of the right to equality in Article 14. The Supreme Court of India rejected both these arguments.<ref name=":10" />

=== Interpretation ===
In 2011, the Bombay High Court accepted an argument from the Maharashtra State Government, that the term 'organised crime' in MCOCA should be interpreted widely, to allow the state to prosecute those who gained advantages other than pecuniary benefits.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deshpande|first=Swati|date=6 August 2011|title=High court widens scope of MCOCA|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/High-court-widens-scope-of-MCOCA/articleshow/9499349.cms|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Criticism ==

=== Implementation and review ===
The provisions of MCOCA have been criticised by legal scholars, police officers, prosecutors, politicians, and commentators, with the law being described as "draconian"<ref>{{Cite web|last=Singh|first=Y. P.|title=A Law Inconsistent with the Idea of India {{!}} Tehelka - Investigations, Latest News, Politics, Analysis, Blogs, Culture, Photos, Videos, Podcasts|url=http://old.tehelka.com/a-law-inconsistent-with-the-idea-of-india/|access-date=2020-07-16|website=old.tehelka.com|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2018, BS Joon, former director of prosecution in the Delhi government, criticised the use of MCOCA, noting that "Police often invoke MCOCA haphazardly. Many times the investigators do not comply with the exact ingredients of MCOCA which means the evidence is weak and the accused is let off. Many times police use MCOCA so that the accused persons don't get bail and remain behind the bars".<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=2018-05-10|title=16 years later, Delhi reports only one conviction under stringent MCOCA|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/16-years-later-delhi-reports-only-one-conviction-under-stringent-mcoca/story-g1mCJmSHDp7tY2oBwAy1JN.html|access-date=2020-07-16|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> Mumbai Police have consistently endorsed the use of MCOCA provisions despite these criticisms, with Mumbai Police Commissioner D Sivanandan stating to journalists in 2010, "Should we do away with electricity because some people get electrocuted?"<ref name=":11" />

In 2004, noting such criticism, Maharashtra Home Minister R.R. Patil constituted a review committee to examine the provisions and implementation of MCOCA, consisting of former Judge Chandrasekhar Dharmadhikari, former Mumbai Police Commissioner, Satish Sawhney, and Nagpur Police Commissioner D. Shivanandan.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Press Trust of India|date=4 June 2004|title=Committee to review MCOCA|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/committee-to-review-mcoca/226222|access-date=2020-07-17|website=Outlook India}}</ref> The review committee submitted a report in 2007, noting that MCOCA provisions had been misused, and recommended the creation of a review panel headed by a retired judge.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kanate|first=Ganesh|date=2007-06-26|title=Act is out of bounds for cops|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-act-is-out-of-bounds-for-cops-1106022|access-date=2020-07-17|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref> This recommendation was not accepted, and in 2010, a bench of the Bombay High Court, consisting of Justice [[Ranjana Desai]] and Justice [[Mridula Bhatkar]] also recommended the formation of a review panel to prevent the misuse of MCOCA provisions, pointing to the creation of similar review panels for the implementation of similar laws, such as the since-repealed [[Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act|Terrorism and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act]], and [[Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002|Prevention of Terrorism Act]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=High Court recommends setting up of review committee for MCOCA cases - Indian Express|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/high-court-recommends-setting-up-of-review-committee-for-mcoca-cases/617226/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=archive.indianexpress.com}}</ref>

=== Application in offences other than organised crime ===
The definition of 'organised crime' in MCOCA has been criticised as being too vague, and allowing the Act's stringent provisions to be applied in a wide variety of cases, including those that are already covered under other laws.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Ujjwal Kumar|date=2004|title=Repeal of POTA: What about Other Draconian Acts?|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=39|issue=33|pages=3677–3680|jstor=4415404|issn=0012-9976}}</ref>

Although MCOCA was initially intended to prosecute organised crime that was not covered in other laws, over the years, the Act has been used in Maharashtra for a number of offences already defined in the Indian Penal Code. In 2020, MCOCA was invoked against a person charged with kidnapping a doctor for ransom in Pune.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-02|title=MCOCA invoked against woman involved in kidnapping, extorting money from doctors|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/mcoca-invoked-against-woman-involved-in-kidnapping-extorting-money-from-doctors-6487435/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> In some instances, courts have pushed back against the use of MCOCA in this manner; in 2016, the Bombay High Court refused to allow charges under MCOCA in a case concerning assault by two groups against each other, noting that this was not the intended use of MCOCA's provisions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-09-13|title=Bombay High Court rules out application of MCOCA in assault case between two groups|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/bombay-hc-rules-out-application-of-mcoca-in-assault-case-between-two-groups-3028193/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

Conflict has also arisen over the use of MCOCA provisions to bring charges in the case of terrorist attacks, with the Bombay High Court in 2019 ruling that in such cases, charges against MCOCA as well as under the [[Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act|Unlawful Activities Prevention Act]] (UAPA) can be brought.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Terror accused can be booked under both MCOCA and UAPA: Bombay High Court - The Economic Times|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/terror-accused-can-be-booked-under-both-mcoca-and-uapa-bombay-high-court/articleshow/47086351.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2020-07-17}}</ref> This ruling overturns a finding of a MCOCA Special Court, which had previously stated that UAPA and MCOCA have different aims, and that charges under both for the same offence cannot be brought simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hakim|first=Sharmeen|date=6 September 2019|title=MCOCA for terror plots, UAPA for their execution|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/crime/MCOCA-for-terror-plots-UAPA-for-their-execution/articleshow/47135043.cms|access-date=2020-07-17|website=Mumbai Mirror|language=en}}</ref>

=== Bail, custody and torture ===
In 2010, an investigation by journalists Ajit Sahi and [[Rana Ayyub]] showed that in seven out of eight cases that they studied, persons were detained under MCOCA for sustained periods without any charges against them, and eventually freed for lack of any evidence that they had committed crimes.<ref name=":11" /> Persons detained under MCOCA have made repeated allegations of torture and violence during custody, and custodial interrogation. In 2017, an internal investigation found that prison staff was responsible for assaults against a person in custody for charges under MCOCA in Nashik Jail, and referred the matter to the Maharashtra State Human Rights Commission for further investigation.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-01-17|title=Human rights panel seeks report on 'custodial torture' in Nashik prison|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/human-rights-panel-seeks-report-on-custodial-torture-in-nashik-prison-4477726/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

=== Impact and conviction rates ===
The efficacy of MCOCA in tackling organised crime has been critiqued on the basis of conviction rates, suggesting that the provisions of the Act are not effective in aiding the prevention and investigation of organised crime. Defense lawyers have suggested that the conviction rate is very low, and close to 10%.<ref name=":11" /> The Mumbai Police on the other hand have made various and occasionally conflicting claims about the conviction rate under MCOCA. In 2009, prosecution data suggested that the conviction rate for offences under MCOCA was 58% of cases,<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|last=Hafeez|first=Mateen|date=31 August 2009|title=MCOCA checks crime in state|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/MCOCA-checks-crime-in-state/articleshow/4952889.cms|access-date=2020-07-16|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> a figure that Ujwala Shankarrao Pawar, an additional prosecutor in Maharashtra, described as "very less".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jadhav|first=Ashish|date=2011-09-30|title=Increasing conviction rate, reducing pending cases on agenda|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/interview-increasing-conviction-rate-reducing-pending-cases-on-agenda-1593390|access-date=2020-07-16|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref> However, the Mumbai Police described the conviction rate as "a huge 62 per cent," leading to some ambiguity about the actual rates, and compared to the 25% rate of convictions for offences under the Indian Penal Code.<ref>{{Cite web|title=MCOCA pins down 181 Dawood gangsters; 117 of Chota Rajan|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/mcoca-pins-down-181-dawood-gangsters-117-of-chota-rajan/378551|access-date=2020-07-16|website=Outlook India}}</ref><ref name=":14" /> In 2010, Pune Police Commissioner Meera Borwankar began an initiative to improve conviction rates for offences, specifically noting the high number of acquittals in MCOCA cases.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-10-28|title=CP wants conviction rate improved|url=https://daily.bhaskar.com/news/cp-wants-conviction-rate-improved-1499182.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716071739/https://daily.bhaskar.com/news/cp-wants-conviction-rate-improved-1499182.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 July 2020|access-date=2020-07-16|website=dailybhaskar|language=en}}</ref> MCOCA also was extended to apply in the National Capital Territory of Delhi in 2002, but in 2016, Delhi Police admitted that although the Act had been invoked in 57 cases, convictions had only been secured in 1 case.<ref name=":12" /> In 2015, noting low conviction rates, the Maharashtra Government established a dedicated legal team to assist the Maharashtra Anti-Terrorism Squad (ATS) for cases including those involving MCOCA offences.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-04-20|title=Poor Conviction Rate: Govt sanctions dedicated set of prosecutors for ATS cases|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/poor-conviction-rate-govt-sanctions-dedicated-set-of-prosecutors-for-ats-cases/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

=== Penalties for public officials ===
MCOCA has also been criticised because it enables action to be taken against police officers for offences such as failing to adequately implement the Act. For instance, in 2010, Chhagan Bhujbal, who was the Home Minister for Maharashtra when MCOCA was enacted, called for amendments in the law, criticizing its implementation. While endorsing the need for MCOCA to tackle organised crime, Bhujbal suggested that the provisions prohibiting or reducing access to bail should be amended, to allow accused persons out of jail while awaiting trial. He also noted that the provisions of MCOCA were being used to settle scores within the police force, resulting in the imprisonment of police officers for alleged failures to implement the law.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayyub|first=Rana|title='MCOCA needs amendment to check its misuse' {{!}} Tehelka - Investigations, Latest News, Politics, Analysis, Blogs, Culture, Photos, Videos, Podcasts|url=http://old.tehelka.com/mcoca-needs-amendment-to-check-its-misuse/|access-date=2020-07-16|website=old.tehelka.com|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Related legislation ==
Following the enactment of MCOCA in Maharashtra, a number of Indian states have enacted similar or identical legislation. These include the [[Karnataka Control of Organised Crimes Act|Karnataka Control of Organised Crime Act]] (KCOCA) and a similar law in Andhra Pradesh, which was of a limited duration and expired in 2004.<ref>{{Cite magazine|author=Rajeev Dhavan |date=February 9, 2009 |title=Mechanism, not terror law, is the answer|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/mechanism-not-terror-law-is-the-answer-39153-2009-02-09|access-date=2020-07-14|magazine=India Today|language=en}}</ref> Other states have also attempted to enact parallel legislation, including Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh; however, these bills failed to gain presidential assent and consequently were not enacted.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mohan|first=Vishwa Mohan|date=12 October 2009|title=Govt returns 3 bills similar to GUJCOC|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Govt-returns-3-bills-similar-to-GUJCOC/articleshow/5113823.cms|access-date=2020-07-14|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> In 2019, the [[Haryana]] State Legislature cleared a MCOCA-like bill to tackle organised crime.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-07|title=Haryana clears MCOCA-like Bill to check organised crime|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/haryana-clears-mcoca-like-bill-to-check-organised-crime-5885726/|access-date=2020-07-17|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> In 2019, the Gujarat State Legislature received presidential assent for the controversial [[Gujarat Control of Organised Crime Act]], which had failed to receive presidential assent on three prior occasions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Katakam|first=Anupama|title=President's assent to Gujarat anti-terrorism Bill of 2003|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/dispatches/article29922498.ece|access-date=2020-07-17|website=Frontline|date=8 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

MCOCA has also served as a model for national legislation, with its example being specifically invoked during discussions in Parliament on the [[Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] (which has since been repealed).<ref name=":13" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External reference==
*[https://www.nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/LawReference/25_1_Maharashtra_Control_of_Organised_Crime_Act__1999__MCOCA__-_Maharashtra_Act_no_30__of_1999.pdf Full text of the Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act]

{{Organised crime in India}}

[[Category:1999 in law]]
[[Category:Counterterrorism in India]]
[[Category:Maharashtra state legislation]]
[[Category:Organised crime in India]]
[[Category:Crime in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:1999 in Indian law]]
[[Category:Acts related to organized crime]]

K. J. Rao

2026-03-14T20:41:53Z

Google updates 22: done!

{{short description|Indian civil servant}}
{{Orphan|date=April 2016}}

{{Infobox person
|name = K. J. Rao
|image =
|image_size = 120px
|caption =
|birth_date = 1942
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|other_names =
|known_for = Observer for [[Bihar]] elections
|occupation = [[Indian Civil Service|Civil servant]] ([[Election Commission of India|ECI]])
}}
'''K. J. Rao''' (born 1942) was an advisor to the [[Indian Election Commission]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/04/20/stories/2009042056400900.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107100941/http://www.hindu.com/2009/04/20/stories/2009042056400900.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=2012-11-07 | work=[[The Hindu]] | date=2009-04-20 | title=Andhra Pradesh }}</ref> He was an election observer for 2005 [[Bihar]] elections.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2005/dec/19bihar1.htm | title=K J Rao is Bihar's hero no. 1, Lalu is zero no. 1 | work=[[rediff.com]] | date=December 19, 2005 | author=Sahay, Anand Mohan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/k-j-rao-model-to-power-rahuls-mission-bihar/563981/2 | title=K J Rao model to power Rahul's 'Mission Bihar' | publisher=[[indianexpress.com]] | date=January 6, 2010 | author=Singh, Santosh}}</ref>

==Career==
K. J. Rao was a member of the investigation team that probed the malpractices in [[Amethi]], the constituency of late [[Rajiv Gandhi]], in 1989. He retired in 2002 but continued with the commission in various capacities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/india/EC-pointsman-K-J-Rao-call-it-a-day/articleshow/1437832.cms |title=Election Committee pointsman K. J. Rao calls it a day |publisher=[[indiatimes.com]] |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103235231/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/india/EC-pointsman-K-J-Rao-call-it-a-day/articleshow/1437832.cms |archivedate=November 3, 2010 }}</ref> He also helped in weeding out [[ballot stuffing|bogus names]] from electoral lists in [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/bihar-poll-hero-k-j-rao-to-oversee-bengal-elections/227240/ | title=Bihar poll hero K J Rao to oversee Bengal elections | publisher=[[business-standard.com]] | date=January 6, 2006 | author=Our Political Bureau}}</ref>

In 2004 he was Election observer for President election in Afghanistan. He also refuted the claims of tampering with [[electronic voting machine]]s (EVM) in 2009.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/evms-cannot-be-tampered-k-j-rao/499148/ | title=EVMs cannot be tampered: K J Rao | publisher=[[indianexpress.com]] | date=Aug 7, 2009 | author=Press Trust of India }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rao, K. J.}}[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Election people]]
[[Category:1942 births]]

{{India-bio-stub}}
{{Gov-bio-stub}}

Al-Walid I

2026-03-08T22:49:48Z

Google updates 22: Content refined for better accuracy

{{Short description|Umayyad caliph from 705 to 715}}
{{Lowercase title}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = {{plainlist|
* al-Walid I
* الوليد الأول}}
| title = {{ubl|{{Transliteration|ar|[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]}}|{{Transliteration|ar|[[List of Caliphs|Khalifat Allah]]}}}}
| image = File:Gold dinar of al-Walid obverse, 707-708 CE.jpg
| caption = [[Gold dinar]] of al-Walid, minted in [[Damascus]], 707/08 CE
| alt = The obverse and reverse of a gold coin inscribed in Arabic
| full name = Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān
| succession = 6th [[Caliph]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]
| reign = 9 October 705 – 23 February 715
| predecessor = [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]]
| successor = [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulayman]]
| dynasty = [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad]]
| house = [[Marwanids (clan)|Marwanid]]
| father = [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|ʿAbd al-Malīk]]
| mother = Wallāda bint al-ʿAbbās ibn al-Jazʾ
| spouses = {{Indented plainlist|
* [[Umm al-Banin bint Abd al-Aziz]]
* Umm ʿAbdallāh bint ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAmr ibn ʿUthmān
* ʿIzza bint ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAmr ibn ʿUthman
* Nafīsa bint Zayd ibn al-Ḥaṣan
* Zaynab bint al-Ḥaṣan ibn al-Ḥaṣan
* Āmīna bint Sāʾīd ibn al-ʿĀs
* Shah-i-Afrid bint Peroz III ([[umm walad|concubine]])
* Budayra (concubine)
}}
| issue = {{Indented plainlist|
* [[al-Abbas ibn al-Walid|al-ʿAbbās]]
* [[Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Walid|ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz]]
* [[Umar al-Fahl|ʿUmar al-Faḥl]]
* [[Bishr ibn al-Walid|Bishr]]
* [[Masrur ibn al-Walid|Masrūr]]
* [[Yazid III|Yazid]]
* [[Ibrahim ibn al-Walid|Ibrahim]]
* ʿAnbāsa
* Marwān
* Muḥammad
* ʿĀʾisha (daughter)
* Rawḥ
* Khālid
* Maslama
* Mansūr
* Tammām
* Mubashshir
* Jazʾ
* ʿAbd al-Raḥmān
* Yaḥyā
* Abū ʿUbayda
* Ṣadaqā
}}
| birth_date = {{circa|674}}
| birth_place = [[Medina]], Hejaz, [[Umayyad Caliphate]]
| death_date = {{Death date and given age|715|02|23|{{c.|lk=no|41}}|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Dayr Murran]], Syria, Umayyad Caliphate
| burial_place = [[Bab al-Saghir]] or [[Bab al-Faradis]], Damascus
| religion = [[Islam]]
}}
'''Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan'''{{efn|{{langx|ar|الوليد بن عبد الملك بن مروان|al-Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān}}}} ({{circa|674}} – 23 February 715),{{efn|The 9th-century historian [[Ya'qubi]] mentions two alternative death dates, 14 Jumada I 96 [[Hijra year|AH]] (25 January 715 CE) or the last day of Jumada II 96 AH (11 March 715).{{sfn|Gordon|Robinson|Rowson|Fishbein|2018|p=1001}}}} commonly known as '''al-Walid I''',{{efn|{{langx|ar|الوليد الأول}}}} was the sixth [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad caliph]], ruling from October 705 until his death in 715. He was the eldest son of his predecessor, Caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] ({{reign|685|705}}). As a prince, he led annual [[Raid (military)|raids]] against the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] from 695 to 698 and built or restored fortifications along the [[Syrian Desert]] route to [[Mecca]]. He became [[Wali al-Ahd|heir apparent]] in {{circa|lk=no|705}}, after the death of the designated successor, Abd al-Malik's brother [[Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan]].

Under al-Walid, his father's efforts to centralize government, impose a more Arabic and Islamic character on the state, and expand its borders were continued. He heavily depended on [[al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]], his father's powerful viceroy over the eastern half of the caliphate. During his reign, armies commissioned by al-Hajjaj conquered [[Sind (caliphal province)|Sind]] and [[Transoxiana]] in the east, while the troops of [[Musa ibn Nusayr]], the governor of [[Ifriqiya]], conquered the [[Maghreb]] and [[al-Andalus|Hispania]] in the west, bringing the caliphate to its largest territorial extent. War spoils from the conquests enabled al-Walid to finance impressive public works, including his greatest architectural achievement, the [[Umayyad Mosque|Great Mosque of Damascus]], as well as the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]], the expansions of the [[al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Prophet's Mosque]] in [[Medina]] and the [[Great Mosque of Sanaa|Great Mosque of Sana'a]], and the building of the historical city of [[Anjar, Lebanon|Anjar]]. He was the first caliph to institute programs for social welfare, aiding the poor and handicapped among the Muslim [[Arabs]] of [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]], who held him in high esteem.

His reign was marked by domestic peace and prosperity and likely represented the peak of Umayyad power, though it is difficult to ascertain his direct role in its affairs. The balance al-Walid maintained among the elites, including the [[Qays–Yaman rivalry|Qays and Yaman army factions]], may have been his key personal achievement. On the other hand, the massive military expenditures of his rule, as well as his extravagant grants to the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad princes]], became a financial burden on his successors.

==Early life==
Al-Walid was born in [[Medina]] in {{circa|674}}, during the rule of [[Mu'awiya I]] ({{reign|661|680}}), the founder and first [[caliph]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}} His father, [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]], was a member of the [[Umayyad dynasty]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}} While Mu'awiya belonged to the Umayyads' [[Abu Sufyan|Sufyanid]] branch, resident in [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]], al-Walid's family was part of the larger [[Abu al-As ibn Umayya|Abu al-As]] line in the [[Hejaz]] (western [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], where [[Mecca]] and Medina are located). His mother, Wallada bint al-Abbas ibn al-Jaz, was a descendant of [[Zuhayr ibn Jadhima]], a famous 6th-century chief of the [[Banu Abs]] tribe.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}{{sfn|Hinds|1990|p=118}} In 684, after Umayyad rule collapsed amid the [[Second Muslim Civil War]], the Umayyads of the Hejaz were expelled by a rival claimant to the caliphate, [[Ibn al-Zubayr]], and relocated to Syria. There al-Walid's grandfather, the elder statesman [[Marwan I]] ({{reign|684|685}}), was recognized as caliph by pro-Umayyad Arab tribes. With the tribes' support, he restored the dynasty's rule in Syria and [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]] by the end of his reign.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=92–93}} Abd al-Malik succeeded Marwan and conquered the rest of the caliphate, namely [[History of Iraq#Middle Ages|Iraq]], [[History of Iran#Medieval period|Iran]], and Arabia. With the key assistance of his viceroy of Iraq, [[al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]], Abd al-Malik instituted several centralization measures, which consolidated Umayyad territorial gains.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=98–99}}

[[File:Qasr Burqu 2014.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|alt=A ruined basalt fortified structure in the desert of modern Jordan|The ruins of [[Qasr Burqu']], a fortified outpost in the [[Syrian Desert]] built or expanded by al-Walid while he was still a prince in 700/01 CE]]

The [[Arab–Byzantine wars|war]] with the [[Byzantine Empire]], which dated to the [[Muslim conquest of Syria]] in the 630s, resumed in 692 after the collapse of the truce that had been reached three years earlier. Annual campaigns were thereafter launched by the Umayyads in the [[al-Awasim|Arab–Byzantine frontier zone]] and beyond. During his father's caliphate, al-Walid led the campaigns in 696, 697, 698 and 699.{{sfn|Marsham|2009|p=125}} In his summer 696 campaign, he raided the area between [[Malatya]] (Melitene) and [[Mopsuestia|al-Massisa]] (Mopsuestia), while in the following year, he targeted a place known in Arabic sources as 'Atmar', located at some point north of Malatya.{{sfn|Rowson|1989|p=176, note 639}} He also led the annual [[Hajj]] pilgrimage in Mecca in 698.{{sfn|Marsham|2009|p=125}}

In 700 or 701, al-Walid patronized the construction or expansion of [[Qasr Burqu']], a fortified [[Syrian Desert]] outpost on the route connecting [[Palmyra]] in the north with the [[Azraq, Jordan|Azraq]] oasis and [[Wadi Sirhan]] basin in the south, ultimately leading to Mecca and Medina.{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=31}} His patronage is attested by an inscription naming him as "the emir al-Walid, son of the [[commander of the faithful]]".{{sfn|Marsham|2009|pp=126–127}} According to the historian [[Jere L. Bacharach]], al-Walid built the nearby site of [[Jabal Says]], likely as a [[Bedouin]] summer encampment between his base of operations in [[al-Qaryatayn]] and Qasr Burqu'.{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|pp=31–32}} Bacharach speculates that al-Walid used the sites, located in the territory of Arab tribes, to reaffirm their loyalty, which had been critical to the Umayyads during the civil war.{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=32}}

==Caliphate==
Toward the end of his reign, Abd al-Malik, supported by al-Hajjaj, attempted to nominate al-Walid as his successor, abrogating the arrangement set by Marwan whereby Abd al-Malik's brother, the governor of Egypt, [[Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan|Abd al-Aziz]], was slated to succeed.{{sfn|Hawting|2000|p=58}}{{sfn|Dietrich|1971|p=41}} Though the latter refused to step down from the line of succession, he died in 704 or early 705, removing the principal obstacle to al-Walid's nomination. After the death of Abd al-Malik on 9 October 705, al-Walid acceded.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}{{sfn|Hawting|2000|p=58}} Al-Walid was physically described by the 9th-century historian [[al-Ya'qubi]] as "tall and swarthy ... snub-nosed ... with a touch of gray ''[sic]'' at the tip of his beard". He noted that al-Walid "spoke ungrammatically".{{sfn|Gordon|Robinson|Rowson|Fishbein|2018|pp=1001, 1004}} To his father's chagrin, al-Walid abandoned speaking the [[classical Arabic]] in which the [[Qur'an]] was written but insisted that everyone in his company have knowledge of the Qur'an.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|pp=224–225}}

Al-Walid essentially continued his father's policies of centralization and expansion.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=103}} Unlike Abd al-Malik, al-Walid heavily depended on al-Hajjaj and allowed him free rein over the eastern half of the caliphate. Moreover, al-Hajjaj strongly influenced al-Walid's internal decision-making, with officials often being installed and dismissed upon the viceroy's recommendation.{{sfn|Dietrich|1971|p=41}}

===Territorial expansion===
[[File:The Early Muslim Conquests 630s to 820s.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=A map showing different phases of the early Muslim conquests in Asia, Africa, and Europe|A map depicting the expansion of the [[caliphate]]. The [[Maghreb]], [[al-Andalus|Hispania]], [[Sind (caliphal province)|Sind]] and [[Transoxiana]], including [[Khwarazm]], [[Tukharistan]] and [[Ferghana]], (the areas shaded in green) were all conquered during al-Walid's reign]]

The renewal of the [[early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] on the eastern and western frontiers had begun under Abd al-Malik, after he neutralized the Umayyads' domestic opponents.{{sfn|Della Vida|1993|p=1002}} Under al-Walid, the armies of the caliphate "received a fresh impulse" and a "period of great conquests" began, in the words of the historian [[Julius Wellhausen]].{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=224}} During the second half of al-Walid's reign, the Umayyads reached their furthest territorial extent.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}}

====Eastern frontiers====
{{main|Muslim conquest of Transoxiana|Umayyad conquest of Sindh}}

Expansion from the eastern frontiers was overseen by al-Hajjaj from Iraq. His lieutenant governor of [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasan]], [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]], launched several campaigns in [[Transoxiana]] (Central Asia), which had been a largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715. Qutayba gained the surrender of [[Bukhara]] in 706–709, [[Khwarazm]] and [[Samarkand]] in 711–712, and [[Farghana]] in 713.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}} He mainly secured Umayyad suzerainty through tributary alliances with local rulers, whose power remained intact.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}} With Qutayba's death in 716, his army disbanded and the weak Arab position in Transoxiana allowed for the local princes and the [[Turgesh]] nomads to roll back most of Qutayba's gains by the early 720s.{{sfn|Gibb|1923|pp=54–56, 59}} From 708 or 709, al-Hajjaj's nephew, [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Thaqafi|Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]], conquered [[Sind (caliphal province)|Sind]], the northwestern part of South Asia.{{sfn|Dietrich|1971|p=41}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}}

====Western frontiers====
{{see also|Muslim conquest of Spain}}

In the west, al-Walid's governor in [[Ifriqiya]] (central [[North Africa]]), [[Musa ibn Nusayr]], another holdover from Abd al-Malik's reign, subjugated the [[Berbers]] of the [[Hawwara]], [[Zenata]] and [[Kutama]] confederations and advanced on the [[Maghreb]] (western North Africa).{{sfn|Lévi-Provençal|1993|p=643}} In 708 or 709, he conquered [[Tangier]] and [[Sous|Sus]], in the far north and south of modern-day Morocco.{{sfn|Lévi-Provençal|1993|p=643}}{{sfn|Kaegi|2010|p=15}} Musa's Berber {{Transliteration|ar|[[mawla]]}} (freedman or client; pl. {{Transliteration|ar|mawali}}), [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], invaded the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] of [[Al-Andalus|Hispania]] (the Iberian Peninsula) in 711, and was reinforced by Musa in the following year.{{sfn|Lévi-Provençal|1993|p=643}} By 716, a year after al-Walid's death, Hispania [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|had been largely conquered]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}} The massive war spoils netted by the conquests of Transoxiana, Sind and Hispania were comparable to the amounts accrued in the Muslim conquests during the reign of Caliph [[Umar]] ({{reign|634|644}}).{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=82}}

====Byzantine front====
Al-Walid appointed his half-brother [[Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik|Maslama]] as governor of the [[Al-Jazira (caliphal province)|Jazira]] (Upper Mesopotamia) and charged him with leading the war effort against Byzantium. Although Maslama established a strong power base in the frontier zone, the Umayyads made few territorial gains during al-Walid's reign.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}} After a [[Siege of Tyana|lengthy siege]], the Byzantine fortress of [[Tyana]] was captured and sacked in {{circa|708}}.{{efn|The primary sources give different dates for the city's fall, ranging from 707 to 710. The event is generally placed in 708 or 709 by modern scholars.{{sfn|Lilie|1976|pp=116–118 (esp. note 40)}}}} Al-Walid did not lead any of the annual or bi-annual campaigns, but his eldest son [[al-Abbas ibn al-Walid|al-Abbas]] fought reputably alongside Maslama. His other sons [[Abd al-Aziz ibn al-Walid|Abd al-Aziz]], [[Umar ibn al-Walid|Umar]], [[Bishr ibn al-Walid|Bishr]] and Marwan also led raids.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}}

By 712, the [[Arabs]] solidified their control of [[Cilicia]] and the areas east of the [[Euphrates River]] and launched raids deep into [[Anatolia]]. After one such raid against [[Ancyra]] in 714, the Byzantine emperor [[Anastasios II]] ({{reign|713|715}}) sent a delegation to negotiate a truce with al-Walid or decipher his intentions. The delegates reported back that al-Walid was planning a land and naval assault to conquer the Byzantine capital [[Constantinople]]. Al-Walid died in 715 and the [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|siege]] was carried out under his successors, ending in 718 as a disaster for the Arabs.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|pp=343–344, 349}}

===Provincial affairs===
====Syria====
Al-Walid entrusted most of Syria's [[jund#Syria|military districts]] to his sons;{{sfn|Crone|1980|p=126}}{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=30}} al-Abbas was assigned to [[Jund Hims|Homs]], Abd al-Aziz to [[Jund Dimashq|Damascus]], and Umar to [[Jund al-Urdunn|Jordan]].{{sfn|Crone|1980|p=126}} In [[Jund Filastin|Palestine]], al-Walid's brother [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulayman]] had been appointed by their father as governor and remained in office under al-Walid. Sulayman sheltered the deposed governor of Khurasan, [[Yazid ibn al-Muhallab]], a fugitive from al-Hajjaj's prison, in 708.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=105}}{{sfn|Hinds|1990|pp=160–161}} Despite his initial disapproval, al-Walid pardoned Yazid as a result of Sulayman's lobbying and payment of the heavy fine that al-Hajjaj had imposed on Yazid.{{sfn|Hinds|1990|pp=160–162}}

====Egypt====
Between 693 and 700, Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj initiated the dual processes of establishing a single Islamic currency in place of the previously used Byzantine and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] coinage and replacing [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Middle Persian|Persian]] with [[Arabic]] as the language of the bureaucracy in Syria and Iraq, respectively.{{sfn|Gibb|1960|p=77}}{{sfn|Duri|1965|p=324}} These administrative reforms continued under al-Walid, during whose reign, in 705 or 706, Arabic replaced Greek and [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in the {{Transliteration|ar|[[divan|diwan]]}} (government departments) of Egypt.{{sfn|Duri|1965|p=324}}{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=38}} The change was implemented by al-Walid's half-brother, [[Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik|Abd Allah]], the governor of Egypt and appointee of Abd al-Malik.{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|pp=71–72|ignore-err=yes}} These policies effected the gradual [[Arabization|transition of Arabic]] as the sole official language of the state, unified the varied tax systems of the caliphate's provinces and contributed to the establishment of a more ideologically Islamic government.{{sfn|Gibb|1960|p=77}}{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=94–95}} In 709, al-Walid replaced Abd Allah with his {{Transliteration|ar|[[katib]]}} (scribe), [[Qurra ibn Sharik al-Absi]], who belonged to the same tribe as the caliph's mother. This was prompted either because of mounting complaints against Abd Allah's corruption, which was blamed for Egypt's first recorded famine under Islamic rule, or a desire to install a loyalist as governor.{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|p=72|ignore-err=yes}}{{sfn|Crone|1980|p=125}} Qurra ibn Sharik served until his death in 715 and established a more efficient means of tax collection, reorganized [[Fustat|Egypt's army]] and, on al-Walid's orders, restored the [[Mosque of Amr ibn al-As|mosque of Fustat]].{{sfn|Kennedy|1998|p=72|ignore-err=yes}}

====Hejaz====
Al-Walid initially kept Abd al-Malik's appointee, [[Hisham ibn Isma'il al-Makhzumi]], as governor of the Hejaz and leader of the Hajj pilgrimage. Both offices were of great prestige owing to the central religious importance of Mecca and Medina, the two [[holiest sites in Islam|holiest cities of Islam]]. Al-Walid dismissed him in 706 as punishment for flogging and humiliating the prominent Medinan scholar [[Sa'id ibn al-Musayyib]] for refusing to give the oath of allegiance to al-Walid as heir apparent during Abd al-Malik's reign. Although Hisham's act was in support of al-Walid, he considered it an abusive excess. According to the historian M. E. McMillan, other than al-Walid's "sense of righteous indignation", dynastic politics motivated his dismissal order.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}} Hisham was the maternal grandfather of al-Walid's half-brother [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Hisham]], who was a contender for the caliphal succession, which al-Walid coveted for his son Abd al-Aziz. Rather than leaving such a close relative of his brother Hisham at the helm of the Islamic holy cities, al-Walid installed his cousin [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]], who was the husband of al-Walid's sister Fatima and brother to al-Walid's wife Umm al-Banin, the mother of Abd al-Aziz. On al-Walid's orders, Umar had Hisham publicly humiliated, an unprecedented motion against a sacked governor of Medina, which set "a dangerous precedent", according to McMillan.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}}{{efn|Following the precedent of Hisham's public humiliation, several Umayyad governors of Medina underwent public humiliations and floggings by their successors upon dismissal from office, including [[Uthman ibn Hayyan al-Murri]] in 715, [[Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Amr ibn Hazm]] in 720–721, [[Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri]] in 723,{{sfn|Powers|1989|pp=105–107, 179–182}} and Hisham's sons [[Ibrahim ibn Hisham ibn Isma'il al-Makhzumi|Ibrahim]] and [[Muhammad ibn Hisham ibn Isma'il al-Makhzumi|Muhammad]] in 743.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}}}}

Umar maintained friendly ties to the holy cities' religious circles.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=224}} He led the Hajj for at least four of the six years he was in office, with al-Walid's son Umar leading it in 707 and al-Walid leading it in 710,{{sfn|McMillan|2011}} the only time he left Syria during his caliphate.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}{{efn|According to [[al-Mas'udi]], al-Walid also led the Hajj pilgrimage in 707.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}}}} Umar provided safe haven to Iraqis evading the persecution of al-Hajjaj.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}} Umar informed al-Walid of al-Hajjaj's abuses,{{sfn|McMillan|2011}} while al-Hajjaj advised the caliph to dismiss Umar for hosting Iraqi rebels.{{sfn|Hinds|1990|pp=201–202}} Al-Walid, wary of the Hejaz once again developing into a center of anti-Umayyad activity as it had during the Second Muslim Civil War, dismissed Umar in 712.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}} He split the governorship of the Hejaz, appointing al-Hajjaj's nominees [[Khalid ibn Abdallah al-Qasri]] to Mecca and [[Uthman ibn Hayyan al-Murri]] to Medina.{{sfn|Hinds|1990|pp=201–202}} Neither was ever appointed to lead the Hajj, al-Walid reserving that office for Maslama and his own sons.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}}

===Balancing of tribal factions===
{{See also|Qays–Yaman rivalry#Umayyad era}}

As a result of the [[Battle of Marj Rahit (684)|Battle of Marj Rahit]], which inaugurated Marwan's reign in 684, a sharp division developed among the Syrian Arab tribes, who formed the core of the Umayyad army. The loyalist tribes that supported Marwan formed the [[Yaman (tribal group)|Yaman]] confederation, alluding to ancestral roots in [[South Arabia|Yemen]] (South Arabia), while the [[Qays]], or northern Arab tribes, largely supported Ibn al-Zubayr. Abd al-Malik reconciled with the Qays in 691, but competition for influence between the two factions intensified as the Syrian army was increasingly empowered and deployed to the provinces, where they replaced or supplemented Iraqi and other garrisons.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=100}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2001|p=34}}

Al-Walid maintained his father's policy of balancing the power of the two factions in the military and administration.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104|ignore-err=yes}} According to the historian [[Hugh N. Kennedy]], it is "possible that the caliph kept it [the rivalry] on the boil so that one faction [would] not acquire a monopoly of power".{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}} Al-Walid's mother genealogically belonged to the Qays and he accorded Qaysi officials certain advantages.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}} However, Wellhausen doubts that al-Walid preferred one faction over the other, "for he had no need to do so, and it is not reported" by the medieval historians.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|pp=225–226}} The Qays–Yaman division intensified under al-Walid's successors, who did not maintain his balancing act. The feud was a major contributor to the Umayyad regime's demise in 750.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=103–104, 113}}

===Public works and social welfare===
[[File:Anjar vu du palais.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=The strewn stone remains of an ancient city, including arcades|Ruins of the Umayyad city of [[Anjar, Lebanon|Anjar]], founded by al-Walid I in modern-day [[Lebanon]]]]

From the beginning of his rule, al-Walid inaugurated public works and social welfare programs on a scale unprecedented in the caliphate's history. The efforts were financed by treasure accrued from the conquests and tax revenue.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=82}} He and his brothers and sons built way-stations and dug wells along the roads in Syria and installed street lighting in the cities.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=82}} They invested in land reclamation projects, entailing irrigation networks and canals, which boosted agricultural production.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=82}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=111}} Al-Hajjaj also carried out irrigation and canal projects in Iraq during this period, in a bid to restore its agricultural infrastructure, damaged by years of warfare, and to find employment for its demobilized inhabitants.{{sfn|Shaban|1971|p=117}}

Al-Walid or his son al-Abbas founded the city of [[Anjar, Lebanon|Anjar]], between Damascus and [[Beirut]], in 714. It included a mosque, palace, and residential, commercial, and administrative structures. According to the art historian [[Robert Hillenbrand]], Anjar "has the best claim of any Islamic foundation datable before 750 ... to be a city", though it was probably abandoned within forty years of its construction.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1999|pp=59–61}} In the Hejaz, al-Walid attempted to redress the hardships of pilgrims making the trek to Mecca by having water wells dug throughout the province, improving access through the mountain passes, and building a drinking fountain in Mecca.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}} The historian M. A. Shaban theorizes that while al-Walid's projects in the cities of Syria and the Hejaz had a "utilitarian purpose", they were mainly intended to provide employment, in the form of cheap labor, for the growing non-Arab populations in the cities.{{sfn|Shaban|1971|p=118}}

Welfare programs included financial relief for the poor and servants to assist the handicapped, though this initiative was limited to Syria,{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=82}}{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=299}} and only to the Arab Muslims there.{{sfn|Shaban|1971|pp=118–119}} As such, Shaban considered it "a special state subsidy to the ruling class".{{sfn|Shaban|1971|pp=118–119}} He is sometimes credited with establishing the first [[bimaristan]] (hospital) in the Islamic world in Damascus in 707,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Dols |first=Michael W. |date=1987 |title=The Origins of the Islamic Hospital: Myth and Reality |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44442098 |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=378 |issn=0007-5140}}</ref><ref name=":05232">{{EI2|last=Dunlop|first=D.M.|title=Bīmāristān; i. Early period and Muslim East.|volume=1|pages=1223}}</ref> but this has been disputed among historians.{{Sfn|Ragab|2015|pp=22 (see also note 40), 231}} The claim is largely based on the writings of later medieval historians such as [[al-Tabari]] (d. 923) and [[al-Maqrizi]] (d. 1442).<ref name=":0523">{{EI2|last=Dunlop|first=D.M.|title=Bīmāristān; i. Early period and Muslim East.|volume=1|pages=1223}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ragab|2015|pp=22, 231}} Modern historians Michael W. Dols and [[Douglas Morton Dunlop]] concluded that some of the early historical sources suggest that al-Walid I created something like a [[leprosarium]] (a segregated hospice for [[lepers]]) rather than a hospital, consistent with contemporary Byzantine practices.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":05232" /> Historian [[Lawrence Conrad]] concluded that al-Walid did not establish a hospital,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Conrad |first=Lawrence |date=1994 |title=Did al-Walid I Found the First Islamic Hospital? |journal=Aram |volume=6 |pages=225–244}}</ref> and this view was accepted by multiple other historians, including [[Peregrine Horden|Peregine Horden]] and Peter E. Pormann.{{Sfn|Ragab|2015|pp=22 (see also note 40), 231}} More recently, Ahmed Ragab argued that there is no evidence that al-Walid's foundation resembled the later bimaristans of the Islamic world, which were more sophisticated medical institutions, but that there is evidence he would have established charitable institutions offering shelter for lepers, the blind, and the handicapped. These likely continued or competed with existing Byzantine charitable institutions of the era and may have formed a precedent that was continued by later Muslim institutions.{{Sfn|Ragab|2015|pp=22–25, 231–238}}

====Patronage of great mosques====
[[File:CSC 0190 (5300274180).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=The mosaic-covered facade of a large prayer hall resting on arcades in a marbled courtyard|The [[Umayyad Mosque]] of [[Damascus]], which has maintained much of its original form since its founding by al-Walid]]

Al-Walid turned the example of his father's construction of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]] into a wide-scale building program. His patronage of [[great mosque]]s in Damascus, Jerusalem and Medina underlined his political legitimacy and religious credentials.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}} The mosque he founded in Damascus, later known as the [[Umayyad Mosque]], was the greatest architectural achievement of his rule. Under his predecessors, Muslim residents had worshipped in a small {{Transliteration|ar|[[musalla]]}} (prayer room) attached to the 4th-century Christian cathedral of [[John the Baptist]].{{sfn|Elisséeff|1965|p=800}}{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|p=69}} By al-Walid's reign, the {{Transliteration|ar|musalla}} could not cope with the fast-growing Muslim community and no sufficient free spaces were available in Damascus for a large congregational mosque.{{sfn|Elisséeff|1965|p=800}} In 705, al-Walid had the cathedral converted into a mosque, compensating local Christians with other properties in the city.{{sfn|Elisséeff|1965|p=800}}{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|p=69}}

Most of the structure was demolished.{{sfn|Elisséeff|1965|p=801}}{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|p=69}} Al-Walid's architects replaced the demolished space with a large prayer hall and a courtyard bordered on all sides by a closed portico with double arcades.{{sfn|Elisséeff|1965|p=801}} The mosque was completed in 711. The army of Damascus, numbering some 45,000 soldiers, were taxed a quarter of their salaries for nine years to pay for its construction.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=82}}{{sfn|Elisséeff|1965|p=801}} The scale and grandeur of the great mosque made it a "symbol of the political supremacy and moral prestige of Islam", according to the historian Nikita Elisséeff.{{sfn|Elisséeff|1965|p=801}} Noting al-Walid's awareness of architecture's propaganda value, Hillenbrand calls the mosque a "victory monument" intended as a "visible statement of Muslim supremacy and permanence".{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|pp=71–72}} The mosque has maintained its original form until the present day.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}

[[File:Jerusalem (31981248672).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Excavated ruins of early Islamic palatial and administrative structures beneath the walls of a silver-domed mosque|Excavated ruins of the Umayyad palatial and administrative structures beneath the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the southern wall of the [[Temple Mount]]. These unfinished buildings and the al-Aqsa Mosque are generally attributed to al-Walid, though the mosque has been substantially altered since al-Walid's reign.]]

In Jerusalem, al-Walid continued his father's works on the [[Temple Mount]].{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=30}} There is disagreement as to whether the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]], which was built on the same axis of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount,{{sfn|Grabar|1986|p=341}} was originally built by Abd al-Malik or al-Walid. Several architectural historians hold that Abd al-Malik commissioned the project and that al-Walid finished or expanded it.{{efn|[[K. A. C. Creswell]], the archaeologists [[Robert Hamilton (archaeologist)|Robert Hamilton]] and Henri Stern, and the historian [[F. E. Peters]] attribute the original Umayyad construction to al-Walid.{{sfn|Allan|1991|p=16}}{{sfn|Elad|1999|p=36, note 58}} Other architectural historians, Julian Rabi,{{sfn|Allan|1991|pp=16–17}} [[Jere Bacharach]],{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=30}} and Yildirim Yavuz,{{sfn|Yavuz|1996|p=153}} as well as the scholars [[Idris Bell|H. I. Bell]],{{sfn|Bell|1908|p=116}} Rafi Grafman and Myriam Rosen-Ayalon,{{sfn|Grafman|Rosen-Ayalon|1999|p=2}} and Amikam Elad,{{sfn|Elad|1999|p=39}} assert or suggest that Abd al-Malik started the project and al-Walid finished or expanded it.}} The earliest source indicating al-Walid's work on the mosque is the [[Aphrodito]] Papyri,{{sfn|Elad|1999|pp=36–37}} which contain letters from December 708 – June 711 between his governor of Egypt, Qurra ibn Sharik, and an official in [[Upper Egypt]] discussing the dispatch of Egyptian laborers and craftsmen to help build the "Mosque of Jerusalem".{{sfn|Bell|1908|p=116}} It is likely that the unfinished administrative and residential structures that were built opposite the southern and eastern walls of the Temple Mount, next to the mosque, date to the era of al-Walid, who died before they could be completed.{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|pp=30, 33}}

In 706 or 707, al-Walid instructed Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz to significantly enlarge the [[Masjid an-Nabawi|Prophet's Mosque]] in Medina.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|p=73}}{{sfn|Munt|2014|p=106}} Its redevelopment entailed the demolition of the living quarters of Muhammad's wives and the incorporation of the graves of Muhammad and the first two caliphs, [[Abu Bakr]] ({{reign|632|634}}) and Umar.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=35}}{{sfn|Munt|2014|pp=106–108}} The vocal opposition to the demolition of Muhammad's home from local religious circles was dismissed by al-Walid.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|p=73}} He lavished large sums for the reconstruction and supplied mosaics and Greek and [[Copts|Coptic]] craftsmen.{{sfn|Bacharach|1996|p=35}} According to Hillenbrand, the building of a large-scale mosque in Medina, the original center of the caliphate, was an "acknowledgement" by al-Walid of "his own roots and those of Islam itself" and possibly an attempt to appease Medinan resentment at the loss of the city's political importance to Syria under the Umayyads.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1994|p=73}} In the words of McMillan, the mosque and the works benefitting the pilgrims to the holy cities "were a form of reconciliation ... a constructive counterweight to the political damage" caused by the Umayyad [[siege of Mecca (683)|sieges of Mecca in 683]] and [[Siege of Mecca (692)|692]] and [[Battle of al-Harra|assault on Medina]] during the civil war.{{sfn|McMillan|2011}} Other mosques that al-Walid is credited for expanding in the Hejaz include the [[Masjid al-Haram|Sanctuary Mosque]] around the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca and the mosque of [[Ta'if]].{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=82}}

==Death and succession==
Al-Walid died of an illness in [[Dayr Murran]], an Umayyad winter estate on the outskirts of Damascus,{{sfn|Hinds|1990|pp=219, 222}} on 23 February 715,{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}{{sfn|Powers|1989|p=3}} about one year after al-Hajjaj's death.{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=105}} He was buried in Damascus at the cemetery of [[Bab al-Saghir]] or [[Bab al-Faradis]] and Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz led the funeral prayers.{{sfn|Gordon|Robinson|Rowson|Fishbein|2018|p=1001}}{{sfn|Hinds|1990|p=219}}

Al-Walid unsuccessfully attempted to nominate his son Abd al-Aziz as his successor and void the arrangements set by his father, in which Sulayman was to succeed al-Walid.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}} Relations between the two brothers had become strained.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}} Sulayman acceded and dismissed nearly all of al-Walid's governors. Although he maintained the militarist policies of al-Walid and Abd al-Malik, expansion of the caliphate largely ground to a halt under Sulayman ({{reign|715|717}}).{{sfn|Eisener|1997|p=821}}

==Assessment and legacy==
According to the historian [[Giorgio Levi Della Vida]], "The caliphate of al-Walīd saw the harvest of the seed planted by the long work of ʿAbd al-Malik".{{sfn|Della Vida|1993|p=1002}} In the assessment of Shaban: {{blockquote| Walīd I's reign (705–15/86–96) was in every way a direct continuation of his father's and was unruffled. Ḥajjāj remained in power, in fact he became more powerful, and the same policies were followed. The only difference was that the tranquillity of these years allowed Walīd to develop further the internal implications of the ʿAbdulmalik-Ḥajjāj policy.{{sfn|Shaban|1971|p=117}}}}

The historian [[Gerald Hawting]] comments that the combined reigns of al-Walid and Abd al-Malik, tied together by al-Hajjaj, represented in "some ways the high point of Umayyad power, witnessing significant territorial advances both in the east and the west and the emergence of a more marked Arabic and Islamic character in the state's public face".{{sfn|Hawting|2000|p=58}} Domestically, it was generally a period of peace and prosperity.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=104}} Kennedy asserts that al-Walid's reign was "remarkably successful and represents, perhaps, the zenith of Umayyad power", though his direct role in these successes is unclear and his primary accomplishment may have been maintaining the equilibrium between the rival factions of the Umayyad family and military.{{sfn|Kennedy|2002|p=127}}

By virtue of the conquests of Hispania, Sind and Transoxiana during his reign, his patronage of the great mosques of Damascus and Medina, and his charitable works, al-Walid's Syrian contemporaries viewed him as "the worthiest of their caliphs", according to the 9th-century historian [[Umar ibn Shabba]].{{sfn|Hinds|1990|p=219}} Several [[panegyric]]s were dedicated to al-Walid and his sons by [[al-Farazdaq]], his official court poet.{{sfn|Blachère|1965|p=788}} The latter's contemporary, [[Jarir ibn Atiyah|Jarir]], lamented the caliph's death in verse: "O eye, weep copious tears aroused by remembrance; after today there is no point in your tears being stored."{{sfn|Hinds|1990|p=221}} The Christian poet [[Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi|al-Akhtal]] considered al-Walid to be "the caliph of God through whose {{Transliteration|ar|[[sunnah|sunna]]}} rain is sought".{{sfn|Crone|Hinds|1986|pp=8–9}}

Al-Walid embraced the formal trappings of monarchy in a manner unprecedented among earlier caliphs.{{sfn|Wellhausen|1927|p=224}} He resided at several palaces, including in [[Khunasira]] in northern Syria and Dayr Murran.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=293, note 18}} The considerable wealth in his treasury allowed him to spend extravagantly on his relatives. Expectations of such grants among the growing number of Umayyad princes continued under his successors. Their generous stipends and costly private constructions were resented by "nearly everyone else" in the caliphate and were "a drain on the treasury", according to the historian [[Khalid Yahya Blankinship]].{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=83, 85}} More significant were the costs to equip and pay the armies driving the conquests.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=84}} The substantial expenditures under both Abd al-Malik and al-Walid became a financial burden on their successors,{{sfn|Della Vida|1993|p=1002}} under whom the flow of war spoils, on which the caliphal economy depended, began to diminish.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=83–84}} Blankinship notes that the enormous losses incurred during the 717–718 siege of Constantinople alone "practically wiped out the gains made under al-Walid".{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=83–84}}

==Family==
Compared to his brothers, al-Walid had an "exceptional number of marriages", at least nine, which "reflect both his seniority in age ... and his prestige as a likely successor" to Abd al-Malik, according to the historian Andrew Marsham.{{sfn|Marsham|2022|p=38}} The marriages were intended to forge political alliances, including with potential rival families like those of the descendants of the fourth caliph, [[Ali]] ({{reign|656|661}}), and the prominent Umayyad statesman, [[Sa'id ibn al-As]]. Al-Walid married two of Ali's great-granddaughters, Nafisa bint Zayd ibn al-Hasan and Zaynab bint al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan. He married Sa'id's daughter, Amina, whose brother [[al-Ashdaq]] had been removed from the line of succession by Marwan and was killed in an attempt to topple Abd al-Malik. One of his wives was a daughter of a Qurayshite leader, [[Abd Allah ibn Muti]], who was a key official under Ibn al-Zubayr. Among his other wives was a woman of the Qaysi [[Banu Fazara]] tribe, with whom he had his son Abu Ubayda.{{sfn|Marsham|2022|p=38}}

Marsham notes al-Walid's marriage to his first cousin, [[Umm al-Banin bint Abd al-Aziz|Umm al-Banin]], "tied the fortunes" of Abd al-Malik and her father, Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan.{{sfn|Marsham|2022|p=38}} From her al-Walid had his sons Abd al-Aziz, Muhammad, Marwan, and Anbasa, and a daughter, A'isha.{{sfn|Marsham|2022|p=39}} From another Umayyad wife, Umm Abd Allah bint Abd Allah ibn Amr, a great-granddaughter of Caliph [[Uthman]] ({{reign|644|656}}), al-Walid had his son Abd al-Rahman.{{sfn|Ahmed|2011|p=123}} He also married Umm Abd Allah's niece, Izza bint Abd al-Aziz, whom he divorced.{{sfn|Ahmed|2011|p=123, note 674}}{{efn|After al-Walid's death, Umm Abd Allah married his nephew Ayyub, the son and would-be successor of Caliph [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulayman]]. Izza married al-Walid's brother [[Bakkar ibn Abd al-Malik]]. Their consistent marriages with the Marwanids indicates the high favor their family enjoyed with the Umayyad caliphs.{{sfn|Ahmed|2011|p=123}}}}

Out of his twenty-two children, fifteen were born to [[umm walad|slave concubine]]s, including al-Abbas,{{sfn|Marsham|2022|p=38}} whose mother was Greek.{{sfn|Fowden|2004|p=241}} According to [[al-Tabari]], the mother of al-Walid's son [[Yazid III]] ({{reign|744|744}}) was Shah-i-Afrid (also called Shahfarand), the daughter of the [[Sasanian dynasty|Sasanian]] prince [[Peroz III]] and granddaughter of the last Sasanian king, [[Yazdegerd III]] ({{reign|632|651}}).{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=163}} She had been taken captive in the conquest of Transoxiana and was gifted to al-Walid by al-Hajjaj.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|1989|p=234}}{{sfn|Hawting|2002|p=311}} The mother of his son [[Ibrahim ibn al-Walid|Ibrahim]] ({{reign|744|744}}) was a concubine named Su'ar or Budayra.{{sfn|Gordon|Robinson|Rowson|Fishbein|2018|p=1058}} His other sons by concubines were Umar, Bishr, [[Masrur ibn al-Walid|Masrur]], Mansur, Rawh, Khalid, Jaz, Maslama, Tammam, Mubashshir, Yahya, and Sadaqa.{{sfn|Marsham|2022|p=39}}

In 744, around a dozen of al-Walid's sons, probably resentful at being sidelined from the caliphal succession, conspired with other Umayyad princes and elites under Yazid III to topple their cousin Caliph [[al-Walid II]] ({{reign|743|744}}). His assassination in April 744 sparked the [[Third Muslim Civil War]] (744–750). Yazid III acceded but died six months later, after which he was succeeded by his half-brother Ibrahim. The latter did not attain wide recognition and was overthrown in December 744 by a distant Umayyad kinsman, [[Marwan II]] ({{reign|744|750}}).{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|pp=112–114}}{{sfn|Hawting|2000|pp=91–93, 96}} Several descendants of al-Walid, progeny of his son Rawh, were executed during the [[Abbasid Revolution]] which toppled Umayyad rule in 750.{{sfn|Robinson|2010|p=237}} Others from the lines of his sons al-Abbas and Umar survived,{{sfn|Uzquiza Bartolomé|1994|p=458}} including the [[Habib ibn Abd al-Malik al-Qurashi|Habibi family]], which attained prominence in the Umayyad [[Emirate of Cordoba|emirate of al-Andalus]] after its establishment in 756.{{sfn|Scales|1994|p=114}}{{efn|The Habibi family were descended from al-Walid's great-grandson, [[Habib ibn Abd al-Malik al-Qurashi|Habib ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Umar]], and its members were governors, [[qadi]]s, poets and major landowners in the [[Emirate of Cordoba|Umayyad emirate]] in al-Andalus up to the late 9th century.{{sfn|Scales|1994|p=114}} The 10th-century historian [[Ibn Hazm]] of al-Andalus lists two other sons of al-Walid, Abd al-Malik and al-As'ad, whose descendants settled in the emirate.{{sfn|Uzquiza Bartolomé|1994|p=458}}}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{The Arab Conquests in Central Asia}}
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* {{cite book |editor1-last=Gordon |editor1-first=Matthew S. |editor-last2=Robinson |editor-first2=Chase F. |editor-link2=Chase F. Robinson |editor-last3=Rowson |editor-first3=Everett K. |editor-link3=Everett K. Rowson |editor-last4=Fishbein |editor-first4=Michael |title=The Works of Ibn Wāḍiḥ al-Yaʿqūbī (Volume 3): An English Translation |date=2018 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden and Boston |isbn=978-90-04-35621-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OHxTDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{EI2 |last=Grabar |first=O. |authorlink=Oleg Grabar |article=Al-Kuds—B. Monuments |volume=5 |pages=339–344}}
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* {{The First Dynasty of Islam |edition=Second}}
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=George |first=Alain |editor-last=Gibson |editor-first=Melanie |title=Fruit of Knowledge, Wheel of Learning: Essays in Honour of Robert Hillenbrand (Vol. II) |year=2021 |publisher=Gingko |location=London |chapter=A Builder of Mosques: The Projects of al-Walid I, from Sanaa to Homs |pages=16–49 |isbn=978-1-9099-4260-8 |ref=none}}

{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Umayyad Dynasty]]||c. 674||23 February 715|name=al-Walid I}}
{{S-bef|before = [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]]}}
{{S-ttl|title = [[List of Caliphs|Caliph of Islam]] [[Umayyad Caliph]]|years=705 – 23 February 715}}
{{S-aft|after = [[Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik|Sulayman]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Umayyads}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Walid 01}}
[[Category:670s births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:715 deaths]]
[[Category:Arab Muslims]]
[[Category:8th-century Umayyad caliphs]]
[[Category:8th-century monarchs in Europe]]
[[Category:People from Medina]]
[[Category:Umayyad people of the Arab–Byzantine wars]]

Śvetaketu

2026-03-06T00:03:36Z

Google updates 22: Started A Pg - done

{{Short description|Upanishadic sage}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Svetaketu
| father = [[Uddalaka Aruni]]
}}
{{Upanishads}}
'''Svetaketu''' ({{IAST3|Śvetaketu}}), also spelt '''Shvetaketu''', was a sage mentioned in the [[Upanishads|Chandogya Upanishad]]. He was the son of the sage [[Uddalaka]], and represents the pursuit of knowledge.

In the Mahabharata, Svetaketu is credited for creating the practice of the "wife being loyal to one husband for life" after observing a [[Brahmin|brahmana]] catching his mother's hand in front of his father.<ref>{{cite book |author=Paul Thomas |title=Kama Kalpa, or The Hindu Ritual of Love |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6FAiAQAAIAAJ |year=1960 |publisher=D.B. Taraporevala |page=3}}</ref>{{Efn|
''kruddham tam tu pita drstva svetaketum uvaca ha; mã tãta kopam kãrsis tvam esa dharmah sanātanah''
 
Mahabharata Book 1 Adi Parva: Section 122 (Sambhava Parva),-Pandu narrating to Kunti:
"It hath been heard by us that there was a great Rishi of the name of Uddalaka, who had a son named Swetaketu who also was an ascetic of merit. O thou of eyes like lotus-petals, the present virtuous practice hath been established by that Swetaketu from anger. Hear thou the reason. One day, in the presence of Swetaketu's father a Brahmana came and catching Swetaketu's mother by the hand, told her, 'Let us go.' Beholding his mother seized by the hand and taken away apparently by force, the son was greatly moved by wrath.
Seeing his son indignant, Uddalaka addressed him and said, 'Be not angry. O son! This is the practice sanctioned by antiquity"}}

The case of Svetaketu appears in three principal (''[[mukhya]]'') [[Upanishad]]s, namely, the [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] S. 6.2.1 to 6.2.8, [[Chandogya Upanishad]] S.5.3 and in the [[Kausitaki]] S.1. Svetaketu is the recipient of the knowledge enshrined in the [[mahavakya]] which appears in the sixteen chapters of the 6th section (Prapathaka) of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].

== First Reincarnation Story ==
Svetaketu's story in the Chandogya Upanishad is the first time that reincarnation is mentioned in the Vedas and perhaps in all of the known writings in human history. In the story, Svetaketu returns home from studying and his childhood friends ask him what he learned about the afterlife, to which he replies it was not part of his curriculum. They ask Svetaketu's father and he also does not know, so they ask the king, who claims to have known all along and explained the concept of reincarnation. He adds that it is a common belief among the Kshatriya (warrior and administrative class) and from this belief, they draw their power (courage in battle).<ref>{{cite web |title=Does the Rig-Veda Mention Reincarnation or not? : Part 1 {{!}} Hindu Human Rights Worldwide |url=https://www.hinduhumanrights.info/does-the-rig-veda-mention-reincarnation-or-not-part-1/ |website=www.hinduhumanrights.info |access-date=23 April 2020 |date=4 April 2013}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal|last1=Olivelle|first1=Patrick|title=Young Śvetaketu: A Literary Study of an Upaniṣadic Story|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=1 January 1999|volume=119|issue=1|pages=46–70|doi=10.2307/605540|jstor=605540}}
* The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, by [[Kisari Mohan Ganguli]] Volume 1, location 5060
* S. [[Radhakrishnan]], ''[[The Principal Upanishads (book)|The Principal Upanishads]]''
* [[Sri Aurobindo]], ''The Upanishads'' [http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12]. [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]]. 1972.

[[Category:Upanishadic people]]
[[Category:Characters in the Mahabharata]]

CID Eesha

2026-03-04T04:40:59Z

Google updates 22: stub.

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = CID Eesha
| image = CID Eesha.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Poster
| native_name = 
| director = N. Rajesh Fernandes
| writer = Rama Narayanan (dialogue)
| screenplay = N. Rajesh Fernandes
| story = Rama Narayanan{{Efn|Although the film is a remake, Rama Narayanan takes credit for the story.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chiloka.com/movie/cid-eesha-2013#movie_crew_list|title=CID Eesha|work=Chitraloka|access-date=2023-10-09|archive-date=2023-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322064323/https://chiloka.com/movie/cid-eesha-2013#movie_crew_list|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| based_on = [[CID Moosa]] (2003)
| producer = C. Umakantha Raju
| starring = [[Jaggesh]] [[Labrador Retriever|Dala]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = Ramesh Babu
| editing = Shyam
| music = Vijaya Bharathi
| studio = Sri Uma Maheshwari Creations
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2013|3|22}}
| runtime = 127 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''CID Eesha''''' is a 2013 Indian Kannada-language [[action film|action]] [[comedy film]] directed by N. Rajesh Fernandes. A remake of the Malayalam film ''[[C.I.D. Moosa]]'' (2003),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://specials.rediff.com/movies/2008/sep/05sli4.htm|title=CID Easha|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=5 September 2008|first=R. G.|last=Vijayasarathy|author-link=R. G. Vijayasarathy|access-date=9 October 2023|archive-date=13 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013203734/http://specials.rediff.com/movies/2008/sep/05sli4.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.supergoodmovies.com/32983/sandalwood/mossa-seena-is-eesha-in-kannada-news-details|title=Mossa, Seena is Eesha in Kannada|work=Super Good Movies|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216202258/http://www.supergoodmovies.com/11121/sandalwood/arthi-amazing-actress-exclusives-details|archive-date=16 February 2013}}</ref> the film stars [[Jaggesh]] and a [[Labrador Retriever|Labrador]] named Dala with [[Flora Saini|Mayuri]], [[Komal (actor)|Komal]], [[Rangayana Raghu]], [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] and [[Srinivasa Murthy]] in supporting roles. The title of the film is an acronym of Eerenahalli Shankaregowda, the name of the detective agency that Jaggesh's character Shankar owns.

The film was in the making for five years due to technical problems. The film was released on 22 March 2013 alongside ''[[Ziddi (2013 film)|Ziddi]]'' and ''[[Nenapinangala]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/two-malayalam-remakes-release-this-week/articleshow/19108895.cms|title=Two Malayalam remakes release this week|date=21 March 2013|work=[[The Times of India]]|first=Sharanya|last=CR|access-date=9 October 2023|archive-date=3 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103140622/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/two-malayalam-remakes-release-this-week/articleshow/19108895.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-three-kannada-films-to-release-this-week/20130321.htm|title=Three Kannada films to release this week|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=22 March 2013|access-date=9 October 2023|archive-date=11 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511055739/https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-three-kannada-films-to-release-this-week/20130321.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It was a box office failure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/jaggesh-joins-twitter/articleshow/21504408.cms|title=Jaggesh joins Twitter|work=[[The Times of India]]|first=Sharanya|last=CR|date=31 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/radhan-ganda-is-a-summer-release/articleshow/19321270.cms|title=Radhan Ganda is a summer release|work=[[The Times of India]]|first=Sharanya|last=CR|date=1 April 2013}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Jaggesh]] as Shankar
*[[Labrador Retriever|Dala]]
*[[Flora Saini|Mayuri]]
*[[Komal (actor)|Komal]]
*[[Rangayana Raghu]] as Narasimha
*[[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]] as Police officer
*Chidanand
*[[Bank Janardhan]]
*[[R. N. Sudarshan]]
*Harish Roy
*[[Srinivasa Murthy]] as Rangaswamy
*Lakshman
*Ninasam Ashwath
*Killer Venkatesh
*Jayalakshmi
}}

== Production ==
A [[Labrador Retriever|Labrador]] named Dala, who featured in the film, died a month after the film's shooting in 2008. Dala's owner Roy donated ₹20 lakhs to the film's producer in 2010 since the film ran out of budget.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/cover-story/bow-wow/articleshow/21893516.cms|title=Bow wow|work=[[Bangalore Mirror]]|date=6 April 2010}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by Vijaya Bharathi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/cid-eesha-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1161162213|title=CID Eesha (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - EP|date=2014|work=[[Apple Music]]|access-date=2023-10-09|archive-date=2023-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317230123/https://music.apple.com/us/album/cid-eesha-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1161162213|url-status=live}}</ref> The song "Jamesbondin Ditto" from the original was reused as "James Bondigintha" with the same singer. The song "Kuhu Kuhu Kogile" is based on "Kick Eruthe" from Tamil film ''[[Padayappa]]'' (1999).
{{Infobox album
| name = CID Eesha
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Vijaya Bharathi
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2013
| recorded = 2008
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 20:08
| language = Kannada
| label =
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{external music video| header = Official audio
|{{YouTube| 9-oWR4eBVM8 | CID Eesha - Full Album}}
}}
}}

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 20:08
| title1 = James Bondigintha
| extra1 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
| length1 = 4:10
| title2 = Kuhoo Kuhoo Kogile
| extra2 = [[Rajesh Krishnan]], [[Nanditha (singer)|Nanditha]]
| length2 = 4:21
| title3 = Don't Worry Don't Worry
| extra3 = [[Mukesh Mohamed|Mukesh]]
| length3 = 3:53
| title4 = Ivanu Yaaru
| extra4 = Rajesh Krishnan
| length4 = 3:46
| title5 = Oorige Oore
| extra5 = [[Sriram Parthasarathy]], [[Sangeetha Sajith|Sangeetha]]
| length5 = 3:58
}}

== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film a rating of three out of five stars and wrote that "It’s Jaggesh’s show throughout. He has carried the story forward with catchy dialogues, good expressions and body language. Director N Rajesh could have a better job by cutting unnecessary sequences which we had seen years ago. There is nothing new in narration or the script".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/cid-eesha/movie-review/19149758.cms|title=CID EESHA MOVIE REVIEW|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 May 2016|access-date=9 October 2023|archive-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502174732/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/CID-Eesha/movie-review/19149758.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' wrote that "On the whole, you can watch the movie once, provided you strongly believe in the fact that there is no logic but only masti ({{Translation|fun}})".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/watch-out-bond-here-comes-eesha/articleshow/21214180.cms|title=Watch out, Bond! Here comes Eesha|work=[[Bangalore Mirror]]|date=24 May 2013}}</ref> A critic from ''Chitraloka'' wrote tha "The film is an out and out slap stick film with no logic. Jaggesh carries the film entirely on his shoulders and he is the only reason for the audience to watch the film".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chitraloka.com/movie-reviews/2653-cid-esha-movie-review.html|title=CID EESHA MOVIE REVIEW|work=Chitraloka|date=23 March 2013|access-date=9 October 2023|archive-date=4 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604200813/http://chitraloka.com/movie-reviews/2653-cid-esha-movie-review.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|3348372}}

[[Category:Kannada remakes of Malayalam films]]
[[Category:Indian action comedy films]]
[[Category:2013 Indian films]]
[[Category:2013 Kannada-language films]]

Parasuram (2002 film)

2026-03-03T21:58:10Z

Google updates 22: created entry!

{{short description|Indian action drama film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Parasuram
| image = Parasuram (2002 film).jpg
| alt =
| caption = DVD cover
| native_name = 
| director = Mohan Gandhi
| writer = [[Krishneswara Rao]] (dialogues)
| screenplay = Mohan Gandhi
| story =
| based_on =  | producer = Priyanka
| starring = [[Srihari]] [[Sanghavi]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = B. Lokeshwara Rao
| editing =
| music = [[M. M. Srilekha]]
| studio = Priyanka Cinema
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2002|03|07|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
}}
'''''Parasuram''''' is a 2002 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[action drama film]] directed by Mohan Gandhi and starring [[Srihari]] and [[Sanghavi]]. The film was released to negative reviews from critics who felt that Srihari's acting could not save the film.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Srihari]] as Parasuram
*[[Sanghavi]] as Vyjayanti
*[[Nutan Prasad]] as Chandrakanth
*[[Sharat Saxena]] as Bulli Ramaiah "BR"
*[[Jaya Prakash Reddy]] as Mental Anjaneyulu
*[[Raja Ravindra]] as Subhash
*Pavani as Ramya
*[[Brahmanandam]] as a mentally challenged patient
*[[Giri Babu]]
*[[M. S. Narayana]]
* G. V. Lakshmayya Chowdhary
}}

==Release and reception==
[[Srihari]] visited Satyam theatre, Hyderabad on 7 March 2007 to inquire about the film's reception.<ref name="H"/>

Jeevi from ''[[Idlebrain.com]]'' rated the film three out of five and wrote that "A must see for Sri Hari fans. Other people too can watch this film as time pass if they have nothing else to do".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-parasuram.html|title=Telugu Cinema - Review - Parasuram - Srihari, Sanghavi - Sri Lekha|website=[[Idlebrain.com]]|last=jeevi|date=7 March 2002|access-date=29 August 2024|archive-date=25 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240825025029/https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-parasuram.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Gudipoodi Srihari]] of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote that "It is a routine theme witnessed in different formats. It is Srihari's film, with none having much display histrionically".<ref name="H">{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mrg-parasuram.html|title=Of brawny scribes and ...|website=[[The Hindu]]|last=Srihari|first=Gudipoodi|author-link=Gudipoodi Srihari|access-date=2024-08-29|archive-date=2024-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240825025028/https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mrg-parasuram.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

A critic from ''Full Hyderabad'' wrote that "Anyway, it's worth the twenty bucks you spend. I'd rather kill time than myself".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://movies.fullhyderabad.com/parasuram/telugu/parasuram-movie-reviews-1199-2.html|title=Parasuram review: Parasuram (Telugu) Movie Review|website=fullhyd.com|first=Smriti|last=Kashyap|access-date=2024-08-29|archive-date=2024-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240825025045/https://movies.fullhyderabad.com/parasuram/telugu/parasuram-movie-reviews-1199-2.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A critic from ''Andhra Today'' wrote that "Bereft of novelty, this movie gives one a feeling of watching an earlier movie of Srihari. His hardwork in such fare might not add any feathers to his plume".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.andhratoday.com/MOVIE/parsu.htm|title=PARASURAM|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020416105716/http://www.andhratoday.com/MOVIE/parsu.htm|archive-date=16 April 2002|work=Andhra Today}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|0834136}}

[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:2002 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2002 Indian films]]

Valu Jada Tholu Beltu

2026-03-03T18:29:35Z

Google updates 22: Started Stub - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Valu Jada Tholu Beltu
| image = Valu_Jada_Tolu_Beltu.jpg
| caption = VCD Cover
| director = [[Vijaya Bapineedu]]
| producer = Gutta Madhusudana Rao
| writer = V. Anand Shankaram {{small|(dialogues)}}
| story = Vijaya Bapineedu M.V.V.S. Babu Rao {{small|(script)}}
| screenplay = Vijaya Bapineedu
| starring = [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] [[Kanaka (actress)|Kanaka]]
| music = Prasanna Swaraj
| cinematography = Babu
| editing = Trinath
| studio = M.R.C. Movie Creations
| released = {{film date|df=y|1992|2|21}}
| runtime = 122 mins
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Valu Jada Tholu Beltu''''' ({{translation|''Long braid-Leather belt''}}) is a 1992 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[comedy film]], produced by Gutta Madhusudana Rao under the banner M.R.C. Movie Creations and directed by [[Vijaya Bapineedu]]. It stars [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]], [[Kanaka (actress)|Kanaka]] with music composed by Prasanna Swaraj.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gomolo.com/vaalu-jada-tholu-belt-movie/18125|title=Valu Jada Tolu Beltu|accessdate=2014-09-19|publisher=gomolo.com|archive-date=17 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917215704/http://www.gomolo.com/vaalu-jada-tholu-belt-movie/18125|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecinebay.com/movie/index/id/4336?ed=Tolly|title=Valu Jada Tolu Beltu|accessdate=2014-09-19|publisher=thecinebay.com|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230048/http://www.thecinebay.com/movie/index/id/4336?ed=Tolly|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is the remake of the successful 1990 Malayalam film, ''Nanma Niranjavan Sreenivasan'', starring [[Jayaram]], [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]].

==Plot==
The film begins in a village, Accha Rao, a callow craven who leads a rejoicing life. He acquires a constable job and takes charge where the Station S.I. is demonic. Here, their Head Constable endears Accha Rao's amiable nature, shelters him, and his daughter Seeta loves him. Meanwhile, a new scheme commences by a company to sell households at the lowest prices which is bogus. The company agent, Peter, collects massive amounts when, the Proprietor's son tries to flee and Peter bars him. Accidentally, he dies at Peter's hands when S.I. takes charge and targets him for terrible torture. Exploiting Accha Rao's solace, Peter absconds, and the Head Constable takes the guilt to shield him. To redeem himself, Accha Rao moves to catch Peter with Seeta. The district S.P. mandates S.I. to produce Accha Rao & Peter in his sight, and the Company Proprietor bids him slay them out. During this trial, Accha Rao acquaints with Peter's mother and learns that his wife is terminally ill. Ergo, he takes care of the two as his own and mingles Peter with them, detecting his whereabouts. After that, Peter surrenders himself, and the Company Proprietor adversely clutches Accha Rao. The heels seek to slay him, but Accha Rao breaks out by killing the Company Proprietor and walks to Peter. By then, S.I. encounters him and chases to wipe out Accha Rao. Fortuitously, the S.P. witnesses it and knocks out the blackguard. At last, the department honors Accha Rao with a promotion. Finally, the movie ends with the marriage of Accha Rao & Seeta.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] as Accha Rao
*[[Kanaka (actress)|Kanaka]] as Seeta
*Vallabhaneni Janardhan as S.I.
*M. S. Gopinath as Company Proprietor
*[[P. L. Narayana]] as Head Constable
*[[Saikumar (actor, born 1960)|Sai Kumar]] as Peter
*[[Nutan Prasad]] as Accha Rao's maternal uncle
*[[Brahmanandam]]
*[[Babu Mohan]]
*Kota Shankar Rao as S.P.
*[[Ananth Babu|Ananth]] as Accha Rao's friend
*[[Chitti Babu (Telugu actor)|Chitti Babu]] as Accha Rao's friend
*[[Potti Prasad]]
*[[Kallu Chidambaram]]
*[[Ironleg Sastri]] as Accha Rao's friend
*Dham
*Varalakshmi as Sri Mahalakshmi
*[[Radha Kumari]] as Peter's mother
*Annuja
*Sailaja as Peter's wife
*[[Kalpana Rai]]
*[[Nirmalamma]] as Accha Rao's grandmother
{{colend}}

==Crew==
*'''Art''': AP Raju
*'''Choreography''': Thara, Siva Subrahmanyam, Prameela
*'''Stills''': G. Narayana Rao
*'''Fights''': Vicky
*'''Script''': M. V. V. S. Babu Rao
*'''Dialogues''': V. Ananda Shankaram
*'''Lyrics''': [[Bhuvana Chandra]]
*'''Playback''': [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chithra|Chitra]], [[Malgudi Subha]]
*'''Music''': Prasanna Sarraj
*'''Editing''': Trinath
*'''Cinematography''': Babu
*'''Producer''': Gutta Madhusudana Rao
*'''Story - Screenplay - Director''': [[Vijaya Bapineedu]]
*'''Banner''': M.R.C. Movie Creations
*'''Release date''': 21 February 1992

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Valu Jada Tolu Beltu
| type = film
| artist = Prasanna Swaraj
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1991
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Soundtrack
| length = 13:56
| label = Supreme Audio
| producer = Prasanna Swaraj
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

Music composed by Prasanna Swaraj. Lyrics were written by [[Bhuvana Chandra]]. Music released on Supreme Audio Company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cineradham.com/telugu-audio/movie/3229/Valujada%20Tolubeltu(2000)/ |title=Valu Jada Tolu Beltu (Songs) |work=Cineradham |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610020118/http://www.cineradham.com/telugu-audio/movie/3229/Valujada%20Tolubeltu(2000)/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Track listing
| collapsed =
| headline =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 13:56
| all_writing =
| all_lyrics =
| all_music =
| writing_credits =
| lyrics_credits =
| music_credits =

| title1 = Pedha Veedhi Chinna Veedhi
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
| length1 = 3:59

| title2 = Goli Soda Thagistha
| extra2 = [[Malgudi Subha]]
| length2 = 2:57

| title3 = Gangaravi Chettu Kada
| extra3 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[K. S. Chithra|Chitra]]
| length3 = 3:06

| title4 = Abba Em Gaali
| extra4 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Chitra
| length4 = 3:54
}}

==Other==
* VCDs and DVDs on - VOLGA Videos, [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{YouTube|id=AehddDO5g5s|title=Valu Jada Tolu Beltu}}

[[Category:1992 films]]
[[Category:1992 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Telugu remakes of Malayalam films]]

Mosagallaku Mosagadu (2015 film)

2026-03-03T17:49:40Z

Google updates 22: Made A Pg

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{infobox film
| name = Mosagalakku Mosagadu
| image = Mosagallaku Mosagadu 2015.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = Nellore Bose
| producer = Chakri Chigurupati
| writer =
| starring = [[Sudheer Babu]] [[Nandini Rai]] [[Abhimanyu Singh]]
| music = [[Manikanth Kadri]]
| cinematography = Sai Prakash Ummadisingu
| editing = [[Karthika Srinivas]]
| studio = [[Lakshmi Narasimha Entertainments]]
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|df=y|2015|5|22}}
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Mosagalakku Mosagadu''''' ({{translation|Cheater to the cheaters}}) is a 2015 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[black comedy]] [[crime film]] directed by Nellore Bose and produced by Chakri Chigurapati under the [[Lakshmi Narasimha Entertainments]] banner. It stars [[Sudheer Babu]], [[Nandini Rai]] and [[Abhimanyu Singh]]. [[Manchu Manoj]] enacted a guest role in the film. It was released on 22 May 2015. This film is a [[spiritual sequel]] for the film [[Swamy Ra Ra]] starring [[Nikhil Siddharth]].

== Plot ==
The idols of Rama and Sita get stolen from a temple situated 12 km away from [[Ayodhya]]. Rudra, the mastermind behind the robbery, sets a deal of {{INR|20|link=yes}}{{Nbsp}}crores (200 million) for the idols. Krishna is a thief and a con artist. He falls in love with Janaki and tries to impress her. Masterji Rama Chandra, a teacher and founder of Ramakrishna Vidhyalayam, gets a default notice from the bank. The investigating officer finds thieves in a hotel and they run away with the idols of Lord Rama and Sita each. One of them, Amit, contacts Rudra and he orders Amit to hide in Guruji's house for a few days. The other guy hands over the idol of Sita to Rudra. Guruji sends Krishna to steal the idol of Lord Rama from Amit. Krishna gets away with the idol while Amit gets shot by the investigating officer.

Rudra comes to India after knowing that the idol was stolen. Krishna inquires the value of the idol and learns that it is of no value without the idol of Sita. Krishna returns the idol to Rudra and manages to stay with him. Rudra plans to sell the idol during a marriage of Guruji's henchman. Meanwhile, the bank auctions the land of the school for loan recovery. Krishna steals the money from Rudra and hands over the idols to the investigating officer. He sends the money through his friend [[Manchu Manoj]] to mastaru. Rudra, Guruji and the smugglers get arrested. Nandini asks Krishna for the reason behind stealing money. He tells her that mastaru saved his life in his childhood when he met with an accident. The film ends with Krishna and Nandini uniting and the idols returned to the temple.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Sudheer Babu]] as Krishna "Krish"
*[[Nandini Rai]] as Janaki
*[[Abhimanyu Singh]] as Rudra
*[[Chandra Mohan (Telugu actor)|Chandra Mohan]] as Masterji Rama Chandra
*[[Jaya Prakash Reddy]] as Kaushik Guruji
*[[Pankaj Kesari]]
*[[Praveen (actor)|Praveen]] as Krishna's friend
*[[Saptagiri (actor)|Saptagiri]]
*[[Duvvasi Mohan]] as Kaushik's sidekick
*[[Fish Venkat]] as Kaushik's henchmen
*[[Shakalaka Shankar]]
}}

== Soundtrack ==
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Oho Sundari
| extra1 = Sooraj Santhosh
| title2 = Naavaadai
| extra2 = [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]], [[Nakul Abhyankar]]
| title3 =Mosagallaku Mosagadu
| extra3 = [[Baba Sehgal]]
| title4 = Oho Sundari
| note4 =Remix
| extra4 = Naveen
| title5 = Hello Hello
| extra5 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Supriya Lohith]]
| title6 = Raamaaya Raamabhadraaya
| extra6 = Sooraj Santhosh
| title7= Call For Mosagaallaku Mosagaadu
| extra7 = MC Vickey
}}

== Critical reception ==
''123Telugu'' wrote "On the whole, ''Mosagallaku Mosagadu'' will provide a decent relief for [[Sudheer Babu]]’s career. A slow first half and predictable nature of the script are basic drawbacks. If you manage to sit through the first half an hour and stop looking for logics, you can easily give this film a shot for its decent comedy in the second half."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.123telugu.com/reviews/mosagallaku-mosagadu-telugu-movie-review.html|title=Mosagallaku Mosagadu Telugu Movie Review|date=24 May 2015|publisher=www.123telegu.com|accessdate=6 July 2018|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205000841/http://www.123telugu.com/reviews/mosagallaku-mosagadu-telugu-movie-review.html|archivedate=5 February 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ''Telugucinema'' wrote "The movie has not much runtime but as there is no story, the film just drags. Many romantic sequences can be edited. New director has grip over technical aspects but he should have focused more on writing".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telugucinema.com/reviews/Mosagallaku-Mosagadu-Movie-Review|title=Mosagallaku Mosagadu – Movie Review|last=admin|date=22 May 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220080434/http://www.telugucinema.com/reviews/Mosagallaku-Mosagadu-Movie-Review|archivedate=20 December 2016|df=dmy-all|access-date=6 December 2016}}</ref> ''Greatandhra'' has given 2.75 rating and called it a time-pass movie.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.greatandhra.com/movies/reviews/mosagallaku-mosagadu-review-for-few-laughs-66340.html|title=Mosagallaku Mosagadu, Mosagallaku Mosagadu Rating, Mosagallaku Mosagadu Review, Mosagallaku Mosagadu Telugu Review|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703105219/https://www.greatandhra.com/movies/reviews/mosagallaku-mosagadu-review-for-few-laughs-66340.html|archivedate=3 July 2018|df=dmy-all|access-date=3 July 2018}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4701630/ Mosagalakku Mosagadu at IMDB]

[[Category:2015 films]]
[[Category:Indian black comedy films]]
[[Category:2015 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2015 Indian films]]
[[Category:2015 directorial debut films]]

Shailendra Raj Mehta

2026-03-02T14:43:12Z

Google updates 22: Started A Info - done

{{short description|Indian economist (born 1959)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shailendra Raj Mehta
| image = Dr.-Shailendra-Raj-Mehta (cropped).jpg
| caption = Mehta in 2017
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1959|07|09|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Jodhpur, Rajasthan]], India
| education = [[Delhi University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Arts|MA]]) [[University of Oxford]] ([[Master of Philosophy|MPhil]]) [[Harvard University]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
| occupation = {{hlist|Academic administrator|Economist|Entrepreneur}}
| organization =
| spouse = Neena Mehta
| children = 1
| awards = Rector's Prize, [[Delhi University]]
INLAKS scholarship [[Oxford University]]
}}

'''Shailendra Raj Mehta''' (born 9 July 1959) is an Indian academic administrator, economist, and entrepreneur.<ref name=":1" /> He served as president and director of the Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA) from 2017 to 2024.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

He has held other positions in Indian higher education, including chairman of the Board of Management at AURO University, and provost and vice-chancellor of Ahmedabad University.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="indiatimes3" /> He is a member of the Mission High-Level Committee of the Indian Knowledge System<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-02-03 |title=MICA president Mehta appointed IIAS governing body vice-chairman |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/mica-president-mehta-appointed-iias-governing-body-vice-chairman-7753925/ |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> and vice-chairman of the Governing Body of the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite patent|number=US11379445B2|title=System and method for analyzing and structuring data records|gdate=2022-07-05|invent1=Seth|invent2=Mehta|inventor1-first=Pradip Kumar|inventor2-first=Shailendra Raj|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US11379445B2/en?q=(Shailendra+Mehta)&oq=Shailendra+Mehta}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Mehta was born in [[Jodhpur]], Rajasthan. He completed his [[Bachelor of Arts]] at [[St. Stephen's College, Delhi]], followed by his [[Master of Arts]] from the [[Delhi School of Economics]]. He earned an [[M.Phil.]] from [[Balliol College, Oxford]], and a [[Doctor of Philosophy]] from [[Harvard University]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=The secret of Harvard's success: alumni |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/time-to-lead/the-secret-of-harvards-success-alumni/article4616853/ |access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Board of Directors |url=https://www.jmcprojects.com/investor/board_of_directors |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=www.jmcprojects.com}}</ref>

== Career ==
{{More citations needed|date=August 2025}}
Mehta's research has focused on [[industrial organization]], [[information economics]], and [[experimental economics]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Shailendra Raj Mehta • The Lakshmi Mittal and Family South Asia Institute |url=https://mittalsouthasiainstitute.harvard.edu/people/shailendra-raj-mehta/ |access-date=2025-12-24 |website=The Lakshmi Mittal and Family South Asia Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> He holds several US patents related to data record structuring and industrial simulation environments.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite patent|number=US11379435B2|title=System and method for automated document generation|gdate=2022-07-05|invent1=Seth|invent2=Mehta|inventor1-first=Pradip Kumar|inventor2-first=Shailendra Raj|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US11379435B2/en?inventor=Shailendra+Raj+Mehta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite patent|number=US20050256736A1|title=Industry simulation environment|gdate=2005-11-17|invent1=Mehta|invent2=Chaturvedi|inventor1-first=Shailendra|inventor2-first=Alok|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20050256736A1/en?q=(Shailendra+Mehta)}}</ref>

Mehta taught at the [[Krannert School of Management]] at [[Purdue University]] from 1990 to 2006, where he directed the Entrepreneurship Initiative and the SEAS Simulation Lab. While at Purdue, he co-founded Simulex Inc., a technology company based in the [[Purdue Research Park]] that developed simulation technology for crisis-scenario modelling.{{Citation needed|date=January 2026}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Purdue Research Park firm simulates threat for armed forces |url=https://www.purdue.edu/uns/html3month/2004/040127.Simulex.sim.html |access-date=2026-02-26 |website=www.purdue.edu}}</ref>

He returned to India in 2007 and worked on a collaboration between Duke Corporate Education and the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, which operated in India, West Asia, and the Middle East. He also served as a visiting professor of business policy at the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://faculty.iima.ac.in/~shailendra/|title=Faculty}}</ref>

Mehta was appointed provost and vice-chancellor of Ahmedabad University in 2014. The following year, he became chairman of the Board of Management at [[Auro University]], where he also served as acting vice-chancellor.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=University Professors |url=https://jgu.edu.in/university-professors |access-date=2025-12-24 |website=jgu.edu.in}}</ref>

In 2017, Mehta became president and director of [[MICA (institute)|MICA]],<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web|url=https://ahmedabadmirror.indiatimes.com/ahmedabad/others/mica-faculty-engages-with-chinese-industry-varsities-to-promote-cooperation/articleshow/71551883.cms|website=ahmedabadmirror.indiatimes.com|title=Ahmedabad: MICA faculty engages with Chinese industry, varsities to promote cooperation|date=2019-10-12|author=Niyati Rana|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> and the [[Ministry of Education (India)|Ministry of Education]] appointed him vice-chairman of the Governing Body of the [[Indian Institute of Advanced Study]].<ref name=":0"/>

After completing his term at MICA, he joined [[O. P. Jindal Global University]] in May 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MICA president's term ends in May |url=https://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/mica-presidents-term-ends-in-may/81865112.html |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=Ahmedabad Mirror |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/india-central-universities-affordable-eductaion-hrd-ministry-7118924/|title=Opinion on governance, institutions|website=indianexpress.com|date=2020-12-25}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/faculty-and-research/faculty-profile.html&user_id=47 |title=Faculty Profile - IIMA |website=Iimahd.ernet.in |date= |access-date=2016-09-17}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.patentbuddy.com/Patent/6931365 |title=Analytics for US Patent No. 6,931,365, Industry simulation environment |website=Patentbuddy.com |date= |access-date=2016-09-17}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.krannert.purdue.edu/centers/perc/cemra/wp/SEAS%20White%20paper.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - SEAS White paper.doc |website=Krannert.purdue.edu |date= |access-date=2016-09-17}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.aurouniversity.edu.in/Dr_Shailendra_Mehta.html |title=Dr. Shailendra Mehta |website=Aurouniversity.edu.in |date= |access-date=2016-09-17}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.mica.ac.in/shailendra-raj-mehta |title=Dr. Shailendra Mehta |website=mica.ac.in |date= |access-date=2017-06-02}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/alumni-led-boards-key-us-universities-strength | title=Alumni-led boards key to US universities strength | date = |access-date=2021-03-02}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehta, Shailendra}}
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian chief executives]]
[[Category:Krannert School of Management faculty]]
[[Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford]]
[[Category:St. Stephen's College, Delhi alumni]]
[[Category:Delhi School of Economics alumni]]
[[Category:Indian economists]]
[[Category:Indian academic administrators]]
[[Category:People from Jodhpur]]
[[Category:Purdue University faculty]]

Liberalism

2026-02-28T21:53:57Z

Google updates 22:

{{Short description|Philosophy of individual rights and liberty}}
{{other uses|Liberal (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|Libertarianism}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{liberalism sidebar}}
{{party politics}}

'''Liberalism''' is a [[Political philosophy|political]] and [[moral philosophy]] based on the [[Individual rights|rights of the individual]], [[liberty]], [[consent of the governed]], [[political equality]], [[right to private property]], and [[equality before the law]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| title = The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics
| editor-last = McLean
| editor-first = Iain
| editor2-last = McMillan
| editor2-first = Alistair
| edition = 3rd
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2010
| isbn = 978-0-19-920516-5
| oclc = 173498589
| quote = liberalism In general, the belief that it is the aim of politics to preserve individual rights and to maximize freedom of choice.
}}</ref><ref name="wpt">{{cite book |quote=political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural distaste for conservatism and for tradition in general, tolerance, and ... individualism. |first=John |last=Dunn |title=Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future |date=1993 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-43755-4|oclc=28111574}}</ref> Different liberals espouse various and sometimes conflicting views depending on their understanding of these principles but generally support [[liberal democracy]], [[private property]], [[market economies]], individual rights (including [[civil rights]] and [[human rights]]), [[secularism]], [[rule of law]], [[Economic freedom|economic]] and [[political freedom]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], [[freedom of assembly]], and [[freedom of religion]].<ref name="Generally support">Generally support:
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkVIYjezrF0C&q=liberalism+secularism |first=Nader |last=Hashemi |title=Islam, Secularism, and Liberal Democracy: Toward a Democratic Theory for Muslim Societies |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |quote=Liberal democracy requires a form of secularism to sustain itself |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-971751-4 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htuTnexZAo8C&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA1 |first=Kathleen G. |last=Donohue |title=Freedom from Want: American Liberalism and the Idea of the Consumer |series=New Studies in American Intellectual and Cultural History |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |quote=Three of them – freedom from fear, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion – have long been fundamental to liberalism. |isbn=978-0-8018-7426-0 |date=19 December 2003 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBzHAAAAIAAJ&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion |title=The Economist, Volume 341, Issues 7995–7997 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |quote=For all three share a belief in the liberal society as defined above: a society that provides constitutional government (rule by law, not by men) and freedom of religion, thought, expression and economic interaction; a society in which .... |year=1996 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndAdGl8ScfcC&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA525 |first=Sheldon S. |last=Wolin |title=Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western Political Thought |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |quote=The most frequently cited rights included freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, property, and procedural rights |isbn=978-0-691-11977-9 |year=2004 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQJgnEITPRIC&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA366 |first1=Edwin Brown |last1=Firmage |first2=Bernard G. |last2=Weiss |first3=John Woodland |last3=Welch |title=Religion and Law: Biblical-Judaic and Islamic Perspectives |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |quote=There is no need to expound the foundations and principles of modern liberalism, which emphasises the values of freedom of conscience and freedom of religion |isbn=978-0-931464-39-3 |year=1990 |access-date=31 December 2007 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediapoli00lalogoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediapoli00lalogoog/page/n758 760] |first=John Joseph |last=Lalor |author-link=John Joseph Lalor |title=Cyclopædia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of the Political History of the United States |publisher=Nabu Press |quote=Democracy attaches itself to a form of government: liberalism, to liberty and guarantees of liberty. The two may agree; they are not contradictory, but they are neither identical, nor necessarily connected. In the moral order, liberalism is the liberty to think, recognised and practiced. This is primordial liberalism, as the liberty to think is itself the first and noblest of liberties. Man would not be free in any degree or in any sphere of action, if he were not a thinking being endowed with consciousness. The freedom of worship, the freedom of education, and the freedom of the press are derived the most directly from the freedom to think. |year=1883 |access-date=31 December 2007}}
*{{Cite web |title=Liberalism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/liberalism |access-date=2021-06-16 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}[[constitutional government]] and [[privacy rights]]
*{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York |pages=374}}
</ref> Liberalism is frequently cited as the dominant [[ideology]] of [[modern history]].<ref name=":1">Wolfe, p. 23.</ref><ref name="Adams 2011">{{cite book|last=Adams|first=Ian|title=Political Ideology Today|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/mode/2up?view=theater|url-access = registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/page/10/mode/2up?view=theater|chapter-url-access = registration|edition=Second|series=Politics Today|year=2001|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester and New York|isbn=0-7190-6019-2|chapter=2: Liberalism and democracy}}</ref>{{rp|11}}

Liberalism became a distinct [[Political movement|movement]] in the [[Age of Enlightenment]], gaining popularity among [[Western world|Western]] philosophers and [[economist]]s. Liberalism sought to replace the [[Norm (social)|norms]] of [[Nobility|hereditary privilege]], [[state religion]], [[absolute monarchy]], the [[divine right of kings]] and [[traditional conservatism]] with [[representative democracy]], rule of law, and equality under the law. Liberals also ended [[mercantilist]] policies, [[Legal monopoly|royal monopolies]], and other [[trade barrier]]s, instead promoting [[free trade]] and marketization.<ref name="Gould, p. 3"/> The philosopher [[John Locke]] is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct tradition based on the ''[[social contract]]'', arguing that each man has a [[natural right]] to [[life, liberty and property]], and governments must not violate these [[rights]].<ref>{{cite book |quote=All mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions |first=John |last=Locke |author-link=John Locke |title=Second Treatise of Government}}</ref> While the [[Gladstonian liberalism|British liberal tradition]] emphasized expanding democracy, [[French liberalism]] emphasized rejecting [[authoritarianism]] and is linked to [[Nationalism|nation-building]].<ref name="Kirchner, p. 3">Kirchner, p. 3.</ref>

Leaders in the British [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/1688firstmodernr00stev |url-access=registration |title=1688: The First Modern Revolution |first=Steven |last=Pincus |year=2009 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-15605-8 |access-date=7 February 2013}}</ref> the [[American Revolution]] of 1776, and the [[French Revolution]] of 1789 used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of royal [[sovereignty]]. The 19th century saw liberal governments established in [[Liberalism in Europe|Europe]] and [[Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America|South America]], and it was well-established alongside [[republicanism in the United States]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Milan |last=Zafirovski |title=Liberal Modernity and Its Adversaries: Freedom, Liberalism and Anti-Liberalism in the 21st Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlT9Qho0tAC&pg=PA237 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |page=237 |isbn=978-90-04-16052-1 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> In [[Victorian Britain]], it was used to critique the political establishment, appealing to science and reason on behalf of the people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=Matthew Daniel |title=The Politics of Cognition: Liberalism and the Evolutionary Origins of Victorian Education |journal=British Journal for the History of Science |date=2017 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=677–699 |doi=10.1017/S0007087417000863 |pmid=29019300 |doi-access=free |issn=0007-0874 }}</ref> During the 19th and early 20th centuries, [[Liberalism in Turkey|liberalism in the Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Middle East]] influenced periods of reform, such as the [[Tanzimat]] and [[Al-Nahda]], and the rise of [[constitutionalism]], [[nationalism]], and [[secularism]]. These changes, along with other factors, helped to create a sense of crisis within [[Islam]], which continues to this day, leading to [[Islamic revivalism]]. Before 1920, the main ideological opponents of liberalism were [[communism]], [[conservatism]], and [[socialism]];<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lta_DwAAQBAJ |title=Liberalism and Its Critics |last=Koerner |first=Kirk F. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-429-27957-7 |location=London |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> liberalism then faced major ideological challenges from [[fascism]] and [[Marxism–Leninism]] as new opponents. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further, especially in Western Europe, as liberal democracies found themselves as the winners in both [[world wars]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Conway |first=Martin |editor-last=Gosewinkel |editor-first=Dieter |title=Anti-liberal Europe: A Neglected Story of Europeanization |chapter=The Limits of an Anti-liberal Europe |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECIfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |year=2014 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |page=184 |isbn=978-1-78238-426-7 |quote=Liberalism, liberal values and liberal institutions formed an integral part of that process of European consolidation. Fifteen years after the end of the Second World War, the liberal and democratic identity of Western Europe had been reinforced on almost all sides by the definition of the West as a place of freedom. Set against the oppression in the Communist East, by the slow development of a greater understanding of the moral horror of Nazism, and by the engagement of intellectuals and others with the new states (and social and political systems) emerging in the non-European world to the South. |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> and the [[Cold War]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Patrick|last1=Iber|title=Neither Peace Nor Freedom: The Cultural Cold War in Latin America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqDXCgAAQBAJ|publisher=Harvard University Press|date=13 October 2015|isbn=978-0-674-28604-7|via=Google Books|pages=6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fukuyama |first=Francis |date=1989 |title=The End of History? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184 |journal=The National Interest |issue=16 |pages=3–18 |jstor=24027184 |issn=0884-9382}}</ref>

Liberals sought and established a constitutional order that prized important [[Civil liberties|individual freedoms]], such as [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of association]]; an [[independent judiciary]] and public [[trial by jury]]; and the abolition of [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocratic]] privileges.<ref name="Gould, p. 3" /> Later waves of modern liberal thought and struggle were strongly influenced by the need to expand civil rights.<ref name="Worell470">Worell, Judith. ''Encyclopedia of women and gender, Volume I''. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2001. {{ISBN|0-12-227246-3}}</ref> Liberals have advocated gender and racial equality in their drive to promote civil rights, and global [[civil rights movements]] in the 20th century achieved several objectives towards both goals. Other goals often accepted by liberals include [[universal suffrage]] and [[universal access to education]]. In Europe and North America, the establishment of [[social liberalism]] (often called simply [[Modern liberalism in the United States|''liberalism'']] in the United States) became a key component in expanding the [[welfare state]].<ref>[http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/schleslib.html "Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212050753/http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/schleslib.html |date=12 February 2018 }} by [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] (1956) from: ''The Politics of Hope'' (Boston: Riverside Press, 1962). "Liberalism in the U.S. usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any other country, save possibly Britain."</ref> 21st-century [[liberal parties]] continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. The fundamental elements of [[Modernity|contemporary society]] have liberal roots. The early waves of liberalism popularised economic individualism while expanding constitutional government and [[parliament]]ary authority.<ref name="Gould, p. 3">Gould, p. 3.</ref>

==Definitions==
===Origins===
{{libertarianism sidebar|origins}}
''[[wikt:Liberal|Liberal]]'', ''[[wikt:Liberty|liberty]]'', ''[[wikt:Libertarianism|libertarian]]'', and ''[[libertine]]'' all trace their [[etymology]] to ''[[wikt:Liber|liber]]'', a [[Root (linguistics)|root]] from [[Latin]] that means "[[wikt:Free|free]]".<ref name="Gross, p. 5">Gross, p. 5.</ref> One of the first recorded instances of ''liberal'' occurred in 1375 when it was used to describe the [[liberal arts]] in the context of an education desirable for a free-born man.<ref name="Gross, p. 5"/> The word's early connection with the classical education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. ''Liberal'' could refer to "free in bestowing" as early as 1387, "made without stint" in 1433, "freely permitted" in 1530, and "free from restraint"—often as a pejorative remark—in the 16th and the 17th centuries.<ref name="Gross, p. 5"/>

In the 16th-century [[Kingdom of England]], ''liberal'' could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someone's generosity or indiscretion.<ref name="Gross, p. 5"/> In ''[[Much Ado About Nothing]]'', [[William Shakespeare]] wrote of "a liberal villaine" who "hath ... confest his vile encounters".<ref name="Gross, p. 5"/> With the rise of [[the Enlightenment]], the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, defined as "free from narrow prejudice" in 1781 and "free from bigotry" in 1823.<ref name="Gross, p. 5"/> In 1815, the first use of ''liberalism'' appeared in English.<ref>Kirchner, pp. 2–3.</ref> In Spain, the ''[[Liberalism and radicalism in Spain|liberales]]'', the first group to use the liberal label in a political context,<ref>Palmer and Colton, p. 479.</ref> fought for decades to implement the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812]]. From 1820 to 1823, during the ''[[Trienio Liberal]]'', [[King Ferdinand VII]] was compelled by the ''liberales'' to swear to uphold the 1812 Constitution. By the middle of the 19th century, ''liberal'' was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide.<ref>Kirchner, Emil J. (1988). ''Liberal Parties in Western Europe''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-32394-9}}. "Liberal parties were among the first political parties to form, and their long-serving and influential records, as participants in parliaments and governments, raise important questions ... ."</ref>

[[Yellow]] is the [[political colour]] most commonly associated with liberalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Sean |url=https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86 |title=Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design |last2=Morioka |first2=Noreen |last3=Stone |first3=Terry Lee |date=2006 |publisher=Rockport Publishers |isbn=1-59253-192-X |location=Gloucester, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86 86] |oclc=60393965}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Rohit Vishal |last2=Joshi |first2=Radhika |date=October–December 2006 |title=Colour, Colour Everywhere: In Marketing Too |journal=SCMS Journal of Indian Management |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=40–46 |issn=0973-3167 |ssrn=969272}}</ref><ref>Cassel-Picot, Muriel "The Liberal Democrats and the Green Cause: From Yellow to Green" in Leydier, Gilles and Martin, Alexia (2013) ''Environmental Issues in Political Discourse in Britain and Ireland''. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fFgxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 p.105] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080446/https://books.google.ca/books?id=fFgxBwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA105 |date=6 December 2022 }}. {{isbn|9781443852838}}</ref> The United States differs from other countries in that conservatism is associated with red and [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberalism]] with blue.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design |last1=Adams |first1=Sean |last2=Morioka |first2=Noreen |last3=Stone |first3=Terry Lee |date=2006 |publisher=[[Rockport Publishers]] |isbn=159253192X |location=Gloucester, Mass. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86 86] |oclc=60393965 |url=https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86}}</ref>

===Modern usage and definitions===
In Europe and Latin America, ''liberalism'' means a moderate form of [[classical liberalism]] and includes both [[conservative liberalism]] ([[centre-right]] liberalism) and [[social liberalism]] ([[centre-left]] liberalism).<ref name="Nordsieck contents">{{cite web |url=http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/content.html |title=Content |date=2020 |website=Parties and Elections in Europe}}</ref> In North America, ''liberalism'' almost exclusively refers to social liberalism. The dominant Canadian party is the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]], and the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] is usually considered liberal in the United States.<ref>Puddington, p. 142. "After a dozen years of centre-left Liberal Party rule, the Conservative Party emerged from the 2006 parliamentary elections with a plurality and established a fragile minority government."</ref><ref>Grigsby, pp. 106–07. [Talking about the Democratic Party] "Its liberalism is, for the most part, the later version of liberalism – modern liberalism."</ref><ref>Arnold, p. 3. "Modern liberalism occupies the left-of-center in the traditional political spectrum and is represented by the Democratic Party in the United States."</ref> In the United States, conservative liberals are usually called ''conservatives'' in a broad sense.<ref name="Friedman">{{cite book |editor-last=Cayla |editor-first=David |title=Populism and Neoliberalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDAXEAAAQBAJ&dq=Neoliberalism+%22conservative+liberalism%22&pg=PA62 |date=2021 |page=62 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781000366709 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Slomp |editor-first=Hans |title=Europe, A Political Profile: An American Companion to European Politics, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmfAPmwE6YYC&q=EU+left-wing+liberal+parties |date=2011 |pages=106–108 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=9780313391811 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

====Social liberalism====
{{see also|Social liberalism|Welfare state|Liberalism in the United States}}
Over time, the meaning of ''liberalism'' began to diverge in different parts of the world. Since the 1930s, ''liberalism'' is usually used without a qualifier in the United States, to refer to [[social liberalism]], a variety of liberalism that endorses a [[regulated market]] economy and the expansion of [[civil and political rights]], with the common good considered as compatible with or superior to the freedom of the individual.<ref>De Ruggiero, Guido (1959). ''The History of European Liberalism''. pp. 155–157.</ref>

According to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "In the United States, liberalism is associated with the welfare-state policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres. [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], whereas in Europe it is more commonly associated with a commitment to [[limited government]] and ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economic policies."<ref>"Liberalism". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> This variety of liberalism is also known as ''[[Modern liberalism in the United States|modern liberalism]]'' to distinguish it from ''classical liberalism'', which in the United States evolved into [[modern conservatism]]. These two forms of liberalism comprise the two main poles of American politics, in the forms of ''[[modern American liberalism]]'' and ''[[Conservatism in the United States|modern American conservatism]]''.<ref>Pease, Donald E.; Wiegman, Robyn (eds.) (2002). ''The Futures of American Studies''. Duke University Press. p. 518.</ref>

Some liberals, who call themselves ''classical liberals'', ''[[fiscal conservatives]]'', or ''[[Libertarianism in the United States|libertarians]]'', endorse fundamental liberal ideals but diverge from modern liberal thought on the grounds that [[economic freedom]] is more important than [[social equality]].<ref>Pena, David S. (2001). ''Economic Barbarism and Managerialism''. p. 35.</ref> Consequently, the ideas of [[individualism]] and ''laissez-faire'' economics previously associated with [[classical liberalism]] are key components of modern [[American conservatism]] and [[movement conservatism]], and became the basis for the emerging school of modern [[American libertarian]] thought.<ref>Rothbard, Murray (2006) [1973]. [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html "The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism"]. ''[[For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto]]''. [[Mises Institute]]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618045238/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard121.html |date=18 June 2015 }}. Retrieved 18 June 2015 – via LewRockewell.com</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2020}} In this American context, ''liberal'' is often used as a pejorative.<ref>{{cite news |date=6 January 2012 |title=The failure of American political speech |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/johnson/2012/01/06/the-failure-of-american-political-speech |access-date=1 September 2022 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

This political philosophy is exemplified by enactment of major social legislation and welfare programs. Two major examples in the United States are [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] policies and later [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'s [[Great Society]], as well as other accomplishments such as the [[Works Progress Administration]] and the [[Social Security Act]] in 1935, as well as the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]]. Modern liberalism, in the United States and other major Western countries, now includes issues such as [[Same-sex marriage in the United States|same-sex marriage]], [[Transgender rights in the United States|transgender rights]], the abolition of [[Capital punishment in the United States|capital punishment]], [[reproductive rights]] and other [[women's rights]], [[voting rights]] for all adult citizens, civil rights, [[environmental justice]], and government protection of the [[right to an adequate standard of living]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jeffries, John W.|title=The "New" New Deal: FDR and American Liberalism, 1937–1945|journal=Political Science Quarterly|volume=105|number=3|date=1990|pages=397–418|doi=10.2307/2150824|jstor=2150824}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-01-31 |title=Coretta's Big Dream: Coretta Scott King on Gay Rights |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/coretta-scott-king_b_2592049 |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/02/11/deep-partisan-divide-on-whether-greater-acceptance-of-transgender-people-is-good-for-society/ | title=Deep partisan divide on whether greater acceptance of transgender people is good for society | date=11 February 2022 }}</ref> National [[social services]], such as equal educational opportunities, access to health care, and transportation infrastructure are intended to meet the responsibility to promote the [[general welfare]] of all citizens as established by the [[United States Constitution]].

====Classical liberalism====
{{see also|Classical liberalism|Conservative liberalism}}
Classical liberalism is a [[political tradition]] and a [[History of liberalism|branch]] of liberalism that advocates [[free market]] and [[laissez-faire]] economics and [[civil liberties]] under the [[rule of law]], with special emphasis on individual autonomy, [[limited government]], [[economic freedom]], [[political freedom]] and [[freedom of speech]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Classical liberalism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/classical-liberalism |website=www.britannica.com |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 October 2023 |date=6 September 2023}}</ref> Classical liberalism, contrary to liberal branches like [[social liberalism]], looks more negatively on [[social policies]], [[tax]]ation and the state involvement in the lives of individuals, and it advocates [[deregulation]].<ref>{{cite book| first1 = M. O. | last1 = Dickerson | last2 = Flanagan | first2 = Thomas | last3 = O'Neill| first3 = Brenda | title = An Introduction to Government and Politics: A Conceptual Approach | date = 2009| page=129}}</ref>

In the context of current American politics of the present day, ''classical liberalism'' may be described as "fiscally conservative" and "socially liberal".<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York |pages=370}}</ref> Despite this, classical liberals tend to reject [[Conservatism in the United States|the right]]'s higher tolerance for [[economic protectionism]] and [[Modern liberalism in the United States|the left's]] inclination for collective [[group rights]] due to classical liberalism's central principle of [[individualism]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Goodman |first1=John C. |title=Classical Liberalism vs. Modern Liberalism and Modern Conservatism |url=https://www.goodmaninstitute.org/about/how-we-think/classical-liberalism-vs-modern-liberalism-and-modern-conservatism/ |website=Goodman Institute |access-date=2 January 2022}}</ref> Additionally, in the United States ''classical liberalism'' is considered closely tied to, or synonymous with, [[American libertarianism]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-06 |title=Libertarianism vs. Classical Liberalism: Is there a Difference? |url=https://reason.com/volokh/2023/04/06/libertarianism-vs-classical-liberalism-is-there-a-difference/ |access-date=2023-09-22 |website=Reason.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Klein |first=Daniel B. |date=2017-05-03 |title=Libertarianism and Classical Liberalism: A Short Introduction {{!}} Daniel B. Klein |url=https://fee.org/articles/libertarianism-and-classical-liberalism-a-short-introduction/ |access-date=2022-03-08 |website=fee.org |language=en}}</ref>

Until the [[Great Depression]] and the rise of social liberalism, classical liberalism was called [[economic liberalism]]. Later, the term was applied as a [[retronym]], to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from social liberalism.{{sfn|Richardson|2001|p=52}} By modern standards, in [[Liberalism in the United States|the United States]] the bare term ''liberalism'' often means social liberalism whereas in [[Liberalism in Europe|Europe]] and [[Liberalism in Australia|Australia]] it often means classical liberalism.<ref>{{cite news |last=Goldfarb |first=Michael |date=20 July 2010 |title=Liberal? Are we talking about the same thing? |language=en-GB |publisher=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-10658070 |access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Greenberg |first=David |date=12 September 2019 |title=The danger of confusing liberals and leftists |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/09/12/stop-calling-bernie-sanders-alexandria-ocasio-cortez-liberals/ |access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref>

Classical liberalism gained full flowering in the early 18th century, building on ideas dating at least as far back as the 16th century, within the Iberian, British, and Central European contexts, and it was foundational to the [[American Revolution]] and "American Project" more broadly.<ref>{{cite book |last=Douma |first=Michael |title=What is Classical Liberal History? |date=2018 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-3610-3}}</ref>{{sfn|Dickerson|Flanagan|O'Neill|2009|p=129}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Renshaw |first=Catherine |date=2014-03-18 |title=What is a 'classical liberal' approach to human rights? |url=http://theconversation.com/what-is-a-classical-liberal-approach-to-human-rights-24452 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=The Conversation}}</ref> Notable liberal individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include [[John Locke]],<ref name="Steven M. Dworetz 1994">Steven M. Dworetz (1994). ''The Unvarnished Doctrine: Locke, Liberalism, and the American Revolution''.</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Say]], [[Thomas Malthus]], and [[David Ricardo]]. It drew on [[classical economics]], especially the economic ideas espoused by [[Adam Smith]] in Book One of ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', and on a belief in [[natural law]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Appleby |first=Joyce |author-link=Joyce Appleby |title=Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83HlqTJjLcgC&pg=PA58 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=1992 |page=58 |isbn=978-0674530133}}</ref> In contemporary times, [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Milton Friedman]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Thomas Sowell]], [[George Stigler]], [[Larry Arnhart]], [[Ronald Coase]] and [[James M. Buchanan]] are seen as the most prominent advocates of classical liberalism;<ref>{{cite book |last=Dilley |first=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAIQOVWz2hEC |title=Darwinian Evolution and Classical Liberalism: Theories in Tension |date=2013-05-02 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-8107-2 |pages=13–14}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Peters |first=Michael A. |date=2022-04-16 |title=Hayek as classical liberal public intellectual: Neoliberalism, the privatization of public discourse and the future of democracy |journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=443–449 |doi=10.1080/00131857.2019.1696303 |s2cid=213420239 |issn=0013-1857|doi-access=free}}</ref> however, other scholars have made reference to these contemporary thoughts as ''[[neoclassical liberalism]]'', distinguishing them from 18th-century classical liberalism.<ref name="Mayne 1999 p. 124">Mayne, Alan James (1999). ''From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigmss''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 124–125. {{ISBN|0275961516}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ishiyama |first1=John T. |title=21st Century Political Science A Reference Handbook |last2=Breuning |first2=Marijke |collaboration=Ellen Grigsby |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4129 6901-7 |pages=596–603 |chapter=Neoclassical liberals}}</ref>

== Philosophy ==
Liberalism—both as a political current and an intellectual tradition—is mostly a modern phenomenon that started in the 17th century, although some liberal philosophical ideas had precursors in [[classical antiquity]] and [[History of China#Imperial China|Imperial China]].<ref name="BevirSAGE"/><ref name="FungCambridge"/> The [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Marcus Aurelius]] praised "the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed".<ref>Antoninus, p. 3.</ref> Scholars have also recognised many principles familiar to contemporary liberals in the works of several [[Sophists]] and the ''Funeral Oration'' by [[Pericles]].<ref name="Young, pp. 25–6">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|pp=25–26}}.</ref> Liberal philosophy is the culmination of an extensive intellectual tradition that has examined and popularized some of the modern world's most important and controversial principles. Its immense scholarly output has been characterized as containing "richness and diversity", but that diversity often has meant that liberalism comes in different formulations and presents a challenge to anyone looking for a clear definition.<ref name="Young, p. 24">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=24}}.</ref>

=== Major themes ===
{{individualism sidebar|philosophies}}
Although all liberal doctrines possess a common heritage, scholars frequently assume that those doctrines contain "separate and often contradictory streams of thought".<ref name="Young, p. 24"/> The objectives of [[List of liberal theorists|liberal theorists and philosophers]] have differed across various times, cultures and continents. The diversity of liberalism can be gleaned from the numerous qualifiers that liberal thinkers and movements have attached to the term "liberalism", including [[Classical liberalism|classical]], [[egalitarian]], [[Economic liberalism|economic]], [[Social liberalism|social]], the [[welfare state]], [[ethical]], [[humanist]], [[deontological]], [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|perfectionist]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[institution]]al, to name a few.<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=25}}.</ref> Despite these variations, liberal thought does exhibit a few definite and fundamental conceptions.

Political philosopher [[John Gray (philosopher)|John Gray]] identified the common strands in liberal thought as [[individualist]], egalitarian, [[meliorist]] and [[universalist]]. The individualist element avers the ethical primacy of the human being against the pressures of social [[collectivism]]; the egalitarian element assigns the same [[Morality|moral]] worth and status to all individuals; the meliorist element asserts that successive generations can improve their sociopolitical arrangements, and the universalist element affirms the moral unity of the human species and marginalises local [[cultural]] differences.<ref name="Gray, p. xii">Gray, p. xii.</ref> The meliorist element has been the subject of much controversy, defended by thinkers such as [[Immanuel Kant]], who believed in human progress, while suffering criticism by thinkers such as [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], who instead believed that human attempts to improve themselves through social [[cooperation]] would fail.<ref>Wolfe, pp. 33–36.</ref>

The liberal philosophical tradition has searched for validation and justification through several intellectual projects. The moral and political suppositions of liberalism have been based on traditions such as natural rights and [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian theory]], although sometimes liberals even request support from scientific and religious circles.<ref name="Gray, p. xii"/> Through all these strands and traditions, scholars have identified the following major common facets of liberal thought:

* believing in equality and [[individual liberty]]
* supporting private property and individual rights
* supporting the idea of limited constitutional government
* recognising the importance of related values such as [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]], [[toleration]], autonomy, [[bodily integrity]], and [[Consent of the governed|consent]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=45}}.</ref>

=== Classical and modern ===
{{see also|Age of Enlightenment}}

==== John Locke and Thomas Hobbes ====
{{See also|John Locke|Thomas Hobbes}}
[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers are given credit for shaping liberal ideas. These ideas were first drawn together and systematized as a distinct [[ideology]] by the English philosopher [[John Locke]], generally regarded as the father of modern liberalism.<ref name="Taverne, p. 18">Taverne, p. 18.</ref><ref name="Godwin et al., p. 12">Godwin et al., p. 12.</ref> [[Thomas Hobbes]] attempted to determine the purpose and the justification of governing authority in post-civil war England. Employing the idea of a ''[[state of nature]]'' — a hypothetical war-like scenario prior to the state — he constructed the idea of a ''[[social contract]]'' that individuals enter into to guarantee their security and, in so doing, form the State, concluding that only an [[absolute monarchy|absolute sovereign]] would be fully able to sustain such security. Hobbes had developed the concept of the social contract, according to which individuals in the anarchic and brutal state of nature came together and voluntarily ceded some of their rights to an established state authority, which would create laws to regulate social interactions to mitigate or mediate conflicts and enforce justice. Whereas Hobbes advocated a strong monarchical commonwealth (the [[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]), Locke developed the then-radical notion that government acquires [[Consent of the governed|consent from the governed]], which has to be constantly present for the government to remain [[Legitimacy (political)|legitimate]].<ref>Copleston, Frederick. ''A History of Philosophy: Volume V''. New York: Doubleday, 1959. {{ISBN|0-385-47042-8}} pp. 39–41.</ref> While adopting Hobbes's idea of a state of nature and social contract, Locke nevertheless argued that when the monarch becomes a [[tyrant]], it violates the social contract, which protects life, liberty and property as a natural right. He concluded that the people have a right to overthrow a tyrant. By placing the security of life, liberty and property as the supreme value of law and authority, Locke formulated the basis of liberalism based on social contract theory. To these early enlightenment thinkers, securing the essential amenities of life—[[liberty]] and [[private property]]—required forming a "sovereign" authority with universal jurisdiction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|pp=30–31}}</ref>

His influential ''[[Two Treatises]]'' (1690), the foundational text of liberal ideology, outlined his major ideas. Once humans moved out of their [[State of nature|natural state]] and formed [[societies]], Locke argued, "that which begins and actually constitutes any [[political society]] is nothing but the consent of any number of freemen capable of a majority to unite and incorporate into such a society. And this is that, and that only, which did or could give beginning to any lawful government in the world".<ref name="Locke Two Treatises 1947">{{cite book|last=Locke|first=John|author-link=John Locke|title=Two Treatises of Government|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.503178/page/n5/mode/2up|year=1947|publisher=Hafner Publishing Company|location=New York}}</ref>{{rp|170}} The stringent insistence that lawful government did not have a [[supernatural]] basis was a sharp break with the dominant theories of governance, which advocated the [[divine right of kings]]<ref>Forster, p. 219.</ref> and echoed the earlier thought of [[Aristotle]]. Dr John Zvesper described this new thinking: "In the liberal understanding, there are no citizens within the regime who can claim to rule by natural or supernatural right, without the consent of the governed".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zvesper |first=Dr John |title=Nature and Liberty |date=4 March 1993 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415089234 |pages=93 |language=en}}</ref>

Locke had other intellectual opponents besides Hobbes. In the ''First Treatise'', Locke aimed his arguments first and foremost at one of the doyens of 17th-century English conservative philosophy: [[Robert Filmer]]. Filmer's ''Patriarcha'' (1680) argued for the divine right of kings by appealing to [[biblical]] teaching, claiming that the authority granted to [[Adam]] by [[God]] gave successors of Adam in the male line of descent a right of dominion over all other humans and creatures in the world.<ref>Copleston, Frederick. ''A History of Philosophy: Volume V''. New York: Doubleday, 1959. {{ISBN|0-385-47042-8}}, p. 33.</ref> However, Locke disagreed so thoroughly and obsessively with Filmer that the ''First Treatise'' is almost a sentence-by-sentence refutation of ''Patriarcha''. Reinforcing his respect for consensus, Locke argued that "conjugal society is made up by a voluntary compact between men and women".<ref name="Kerber 1976">{{cite journal|last=Kerber|first=Linda|author-link = Linda Kerber|year=1976|title=The Republican Mother: Women and the Enlightenment-An American Perspective|journal=American Quarterly|volume=28|issue=2|doi=10.2307/2712349|jstor=2712349|pages=187–205}}</ref> Locke maintained that the grant of dominion in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] was not to [[Male privilege|men over women]], as Filmer believed, but to humans over animals.<ref name="Kerber 1976"/> Locke was not a [[feminist]] by modern standards, but the first major liberal thinker in history accomplished an equally major task on the road to making the world more pluralistic: integrating women into [[social theory]].<ref name="Kerber 1976"/>

[[File:Areopagitica 1644bw gobeirne.png|thumb|upright=0.9|[[John Milton]]'s ''[[Areopagitica]]'' (1644) argued for the importance of [[freedom of speech]].]]
Locke also originated the concept of the [[separation of church and state]].<ref name=AFP>Feldman, Noah (2005). ''Divided by God''. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 29 ("It took [[John Locke]] to translate the demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argument for distinguishing the realm of government from the realm of religion.")</ref> Based on the social contract principle, Locke argued that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual [[conscience]], as this was something [[rational]] people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right to the liberty of conscience, which he argued must remain protected from any government authority.<ref>Feldman, Noah (2005). ''Divided by God''. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 29</ref> In his ''Letters Concerning Toleration'', he also formulated a general defence for [[religious toleration]]. Three arguments are central:

# Earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth claims of competing religious standpoints;
# Even if they could, enforcing a single "[[Supremacism#Religious|true religion]]" would not have the desired effect because belief cannot be compelled by [[Religious violence|violence]];
# Coercing [[religious uniformity]] would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.<ref>[[McGrath, Alister]]. 1998. ''Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought.'' Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. pp. 214–15.</ref>

Locke was influenced by the liberal ideas of Presbyterian politician and poet [[John Milton]], who was a staunch advocate of freedom in all its forms.<ref>{{Citation | first = Heinrich | last = Bornkamm | language = de | contribution = Toleranz. In der Geschichte des Christentums | title = Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart | year = 1962}}, 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 942</ref> Milton argued for [[disestablishment]] as the only effective way of achieving broad [[Religious toleration|toleration]]. Rather than force a man's conscience, the government should recognise the persuasive force of the gospel.<ref>Hunter, William Bridges. ''A Milton Encyclopedia, Volume 8'' (East Brunswick, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1980). pp. 71, 72. {{ISBN|0-8387-1841-8}}.</ref> As assistant to [[Oliver Cromwell]], Milton also drafted a constitution of the [[Independent politician|independents]] (''Agreement of the People''; 1647) that strongly stressed the equality of all humans as a consequence of democratic tendencies.<ref>{{Citation | first = W | last = Wertenbruch | contribution = Menschenrechte | title = Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart | language = de | place = Tübingen, DE | year = 1960}}, 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 869</ref> In his ''[[Areopagitica]]'', Milton provided one of the first arguments for the importance of freedom of speech—"the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties". His central argument was that the individual could use reason to distinguish right from wrong. To exercise this right, everyone must have unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in "[[Marketplace of ideas|a free and open encounter]]", which will allow good arguments to prevail.

In a natural state of affairs, liberals argued that humans were driven by the instincts of survival and [[self-preservation]], and the only way to escape from such a dangerous existence was to form a common and supreme power capable of arbitrating between competing human desires.<ref name="Young 30">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=30}}.</ref> This power could be formed in the framework of a [[civil society]] that allows individuals to make a voluntary social contract with the sovereign authority, transferring their natural rights to that authority in return for the protection of life, liberty and property.<ref name="Young 30"/> These early liberals often disagreed about the most appropriate form of government, but all believed that liberty was natural and its restriction needed strong justification.<ref name="Young 30" /> Liberals generally believed in limited government, although several liberal philosophers decried government outright, with [[Thomas Paine]] writing, "Government even in its best state is a necessary evil."<ref name="Young, p. 31">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=31}}.</ref>

==== James Madison and Montesquieu ====
{{Capitalism sidebar}}
As part of the project to limit the powers of government, liberal theorists such as [[James Madison]] and [[Montesquieu]] conceived the notion of [[separation of powers]], a system designed to equally distribute governmental authority among the [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]] and [[judicial]] branches.<ref name="Young, p. 31" /> Governments had to realise, liberals maintained, that legitimate government only exists with the [[consent of the governed]], so poor and improper governance gave the people the authority to overthrow the ruling order through all possible means, even through outright violence and [[revolution]], if needed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=32}}.</ref> Contemporary liberals, heavily influenced by social liberalism, have supported limited [[Constitution#Governmental constitutions|constitutional government]] while advocating for [[Social services|state services]] and provisions to ensure equal rights. Modern liberals claim that formal or official guarantees of individual rights are irrelevant when individuals lack the material means to benefit from those rights and call for a [[Economic interventionism|greater role for government]] in the administration of economic affairs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|pp=32–33}}.</ref> Early liberals also laid the groundwork for the separation of church and state. As heirs of the Enlightenment, liberals believed that any given social and political order emanated [[Consent of the governed|from human interactions]], not from [[Divine law|divine will]].<ref name="Gould, p. 4">Gould, p. 4.</ref> Many liberals were openly hostile to [[religious belief]] but most concentrated their opposition to the union of religious and political authority, arguing that faith could prosper independently without official sponsorship or administration by the state.<ref name="Gould, p. 4"/>

Beyond identifying a clear role for government in modern society, liberals have also argued over the meaning and nature of the most important principle in liberal philosophy: liberty. From the 17th century until the 19th century, liberals (from [[Adam Smith]] to [[John Stuart Mill]]) conceptualised liberty as the absence of interference from government and other individuals, claiming that all people should have the freedom to develop their unique abilities and capacities without being sabotaged by others.<ref name="Young, p. 33">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=33}}.</ref> Mill's ''[[On Liberty]]'' (1859), one of the classic texts in liberal philosophy, proclaimed, "the only freedom which deserves the name, is that of pursuing our own good in our own way".<ref name="Young, p. 33"/> Support for ''laissez-faire'' [[capitalism]] is often associated with this principle, with [[Friedrich Hayek]] arguing in ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'' (1944) that reliance on free markets would preclude totalitarian control by the state.<ref>Wolfe, p. 74.</ref>

==== Coppet Group and Benjamin Constant ====
[[File:Marie Eléonore Godefroid - Portrait of Mme de Staël.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Madame de Staël]]]]
The development into maturity of modern classical in contrast to ancient liberalism took place before and soon after the French Revolution. One of the historic centres of this development was at [[Coppet Castle]] near [[Geneva]], where the eponymous [[Coppet group]] gathered under the aegis of the exiled writer and [[Salon (gathering)|salonnière]], [[Madame de Staël]], in the period between the establishment of [[Napoleon]]'s First Empire (1804) and the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] of 1814–1815.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Tenenbaum |first1= Susan |title= The Coppet Circle. Literary Criticism as Political Discourse |journal= History of Political Thought |date= 1980 |volume= 1 |issue= 2 |pages= 453–473}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Lefevere |first1= Andre |title= Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame |date= 2016 |publisher= Taylor & Francis |page= 109}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Fairweather |first1= Maria |title= Madame de Stael |date= 2013 |publisher= Little, Brown Book Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Hofmann |first1= Etienne |last2= Rosset |first2= François |title= Le Groupe de Coppet. Une constellation d'intellectuels européens |date= 2005 |publisher= Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes}}</ref> The unprecedented concentration of European thinkers who met there was to have a considerable influence on the development of nineteenth-century liberalism and, incidentally, [[romanticism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Jaume |first1= Lucien |title= Coppet, creuset de l'esprit libéral: Les idées politiques et constitutionnelles du Groupe de Madame de Staël |date= 2000 |publisher= Presses Universitaires d'Aix-Marseille |page= 10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Delon |first1= Michel |editor1-last= Francillon |editor1-first= Roger |title= Histoire de la littérature en Suisse romande t.1 |date= 1996 |publisher= Payot |chapter= Le Groupe de Coppet}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Home of French Liberalism|publisher=The Coppet Institute|url=https://coppetinstitute.org|access-date=2020-02-20}}</ref> They included [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], [[Jean de Sismondi]], [[Charles Victor de Bonstetten]], [[Prosper de Barante]], [[Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux|Henry Brougham]], [[Lord Byron]], [[Alphonse de Lamartine]], Sir [[James Mackintosh]], [[Juliette Récamier]] and [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Making Way for Genius: The Aspiring Self in France from the Old Regime to the New|author=Kete, Kathleen|publisher= Yale University Press|date= 2012|isbn= 978-0-300-17482-3}}</ref>

[[File:Roche - Portrait de Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), écrivain et homme politique - P1679 - Musée Carnavalet.jpg|thumb|[[Benjamin Constant]], a Franco-Swiss political activist and theorist]]
Among them was also one of the first thinkers to go by the name of "liberal", the [[Edinburgh University]]-educated Swiss Protestant, [[Benjamin Constant]], who looked to the United Kingdom rather than to [[ancient Rome]] for a practical model of freedom in a large mercantile society. He distinguished between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns".<ref name="AncientModern">{{cite web |url=http://www.uark.edu/depts/comminfo/cambridge/ancients.html |title=Constant, Benjamin, 1988, 'The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns' (1819), in The Political Writings of Benjamin Constant, ed. Biancamaria Fontana, Cambridge, pp. 309–28 |publisher=Uark.edu |access-date=2013-09-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805184450/http://www.uark.edu/depts/comminfo/cambridge/ancients.html |archive-date=5 August 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Liberty of the Ancients was a participatory [[Republicanism|republican]] liberty,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bertholet |first=Auguste |date=2021 |title=Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne |url=https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html |journal=Annales Benjamin Constant |volume=46 |pages=65–76}}</ref> which gave the citizens the right to influence politics directly through debates and votes in the public assembly.<ref name="AncientModern"/> In order to support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-group of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous male societies, where they could congregate in one place to transact public affairs.<ref name="AncientModern"/>

In contrast, the Liberty of the Moderns was based on the possession of [[civil liberties]], the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states and the inevitable result of creating a mercantile society where there were no slaves, but almost everybody had to earn a living through work. Instead, the voters would elect [[Legislator|representatives]] who would deliberate in Parliament on the people's behalf and would save citizens from daily political involvement.<ref name="AncientModern"/> The importance of Constant's writings on the liberty of the ancients and that of the "moderns" has informed the understanding of liberalism, as has his critique of the French Revolution.<ref>{{cite book|title=Benjamin Constant, Madame de Staël et le Groupe de Coppet: Actes du Deuxième Congrès de Lausanne à l'occasion du 150e anniversaire de la mort de Benjamin Constant Et Du Troisième Colloque de Coppet, 15–19 juilliet 1980|editor=Hofmann, Étienne|publisher=Oxford, The [[Voltaire Foundation]] and Lausanne, Institut Benjamin Constant|date=1982|language=fr|isbn= 0-7294-0280-0}}</ref> The British philosopher and historian of ideas, Sir [[Isaiah Berlin]], has pointed to the debt owed to Constant.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rosen, Frederick |title=Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |page=251}} According to Berlin, the most eloquent of all defenders of freedom and privacy [was] Benjamin Constant, who had not forgotten the Jacobin dictatorship.</ref>

==== British liberalism ====
[[Liberalism in the United Kingdom|Liberalism in Britain]] was based on core concepts such as [[classical economics]], [[free trade]], ''[[laissez-faire]]'' government with minimal intervention and taxation, and a [[balanced budget]]. Classical liberals were committed to individualism, liberty and equal rights. Writers such as [[John Bright]] and [[Richard Cobden]] opposed aristocratic privilege and property, which they saw as an impediment to developing a class of [[yeoman]] farmers.<ref name="Vincent, pp. 29–30">{{cite book|last=Vincent|first=Andrew|title=Modern Political Ideologies|url=https://archive.org/details/modernpoliticali0000vinc/mode/2up?view=theater|url-access = registration |year=1992|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford, UK, & Cambridge, US|isbn=0-631-16451-0|pages=29–30}}</ref>

[[File:T.H. Green.png|thumb|left|upright|[[T. H. Green]], an influential [[List of liberal theorists|liberal philosopher]] who established in ''Prolegomena to Ethics'' (1884) the first major foundations for what later became known as [[positive liberty]] and in a few years, his ideas became the [[Liberal welfare reforms|official policy]] of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] in [[Liberalism in the United Kingdom|Britain]], precipitating the rise of [[social liberalism]] and the modern [[welfare state]]]]
Beginning in the late 19th century, a new conception of liberty entered the liberal intellectual arena. This new kind of liberty became known as [[positive liberty]] to distinguish it from the prior [[negative liberty|negative version]], and it was first developed by [[British philosophy|British philosopher]] [[T. H. Green]]. Green rejected the idea that humans were driven solely by [[self-interest]], emphasising instead the complex circumstances involved in the evolution of our [[moral character]].<ref name="Adams 1998">{{cite book|last=Adams|first=Ian|title=Ideology and Politics in Britain Today|series = Politics Today | url=https://archive.org/details/ideologypolitics0000adam/mode/2up?view=theater|url-access = registration| chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/ideologypolitics0000adam/page/52/mode/2up?view=theater | chapter-url-access = registration|year=1998|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester & New York|isbn=0-7190-5055-3|chapter=New Liberals to Liberal Democrats}}</ref>{{rp|54–55}} In a very profound step for the future of modern liberalism, he also tasked society and political institutions with the enhancement of individual freedom and identity and the development of moral character, will and reason and the state to create the conditions that allow for the above, allowing genuine [[choice]].<ref name="Adams 1998"/>{{rp|54–55}} Foreshadowing the new liberty as the freedom to act rather than to avoid suffering from the acts of others, Green wrote the following: {{blockquote|If it were ever reasonable to wish that the usage of words had been other than it has been ... one might be inclined to wish that the term 'freedom' had been confined to the ... power to do what one wills.<ref>Wempe, p. 123.</ref>|sign=|source=}}

Rather than previous liberal conceptions viewing society as populated by selfish individuals, Green viewed society as an organic whole in which all individuals have a [[duty]] to promote the [[common good]].<ref name="Adams 1998"/>{{rp|55}} His ideas spread rapidly and were developed by other thinkers such as [[Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse]] and [[John A. Hobson]]. In a few years, this ''New Liberalism'' had become the essential social and political programme of the Liberal Party in Britain,<ref name="Adams 1998"/>{{rp|58}} and it would encircle much of the world in the 20th century. In addition to examining negative and positive liberty, liberals have tried to understand the proper relationship between liberty and democracy. As they struggled to expand [[Universal suffrage|suffrage rights]], liberals increasingly understood that people left out of the [[Voting|democratic decision-making process]] were liable to the "[[tyranny of the majority]]", a concept explained in Mill's ''On Liberty'' and ''[[Democracy in America]]'' (1835) by [[Alexis de Tocqueville]].<ref name="Young, p. 36">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=36}}.</ref> As a response, liberals began demanding proper safeguards to thwart majorities in their attempts at suppressing the [[Minority rights|rights of minorities]].<ref name="Young, p. 36"/>

Besides liberty, liberals have developed several other principles important to the construction of their philosophical structure, such as equality, pluralism and tolerance. Highlighting the confusion over the first principle, [[Voltaire]] commented, "equality is at once the most natural and at times the most chimeral of things".<ref>Wolfe, p. 63.</ref> All forms of liberalism assume in some basic sense that individuals are equal.<ref name="auto">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=39}}.</ref> In maintaining that people are naturally equal, liberals assume they all possess the same right to liberty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|pp=39–40}}.</ref> In other words, no one is inherently entitled to enjoy the benefits of liberal society more than anyone else, and all people are [[Equality before the law|equal subjects before the law]].<ref name="Young, p. 40">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=40}}.</ref> Beyond this basic conception, liberal theorists diverge in their understanding of equality. American philosopher [[John Rawls]] emphasised the need to ensure equality under the law and the equal distribution of material resources that individuals required to develop their [[Motivation|aspirations]] in life.<ref name="Young, p. 40"/> Libertarian thinker [[Robert Nozick]] disagreed with Rawls, championing the former version of [[Equal opportunity|Lockean equality]].<ref name="Young, p. 40"/>

To contribute to the development of liberty, liberals also have promoted concepts like pluralism and tolerance. By pluralism, liberals refer to the proliferation of opinions and beliefs that characterise a stable [[social order]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|pp=42–43}}.</ref> Unlike many of their competitors and predecessors, liberals do not seek [[conformity]] and homogeneity in how people think. Their efforts have been geared towards establishing a governing framework that [[Conflict resolution|harmonises and minimises conflicting views]] but still allows those views to exist and flourish.<ref>{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=43}}.</ref> For liberal philosophy, pluralism leads easily to toleration. Since individuals will hold diverging viewpoints, liberals argue, they ought to uphold and respect the right of one another to disagree.<ref name="Young, p. 44">{{Harvnb|Young|2002|p=44}}.</ref> From the liberal perspective, toleration was initially connected to [[religious toleration]], with [[Baruch Spinoza]] condemning "the stupidity of religious persecution and ideological wars".<ref name="Young, p. 44"/> Toleration also played a central role in the [[Kantianism|ideas of Kant]] and John Stuart Mill. Both thinkers believed that society would contain different conceptions of a good ethical life and that people should be allowed to make their own choices without interference from the state or other individuals.<ref name="Young, p. 44"/>

=== Liberal economic theory ===
{{main|Economic liberalism}}

[[File:Liberalescoruneses.JPG|thumb|300px|Monument to the liberals of the 19th century in Agra del Orzán neighborhood, [[La Coruña]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] ([[Spain]])]]
[[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', published in 1776, followed by the French liberal economist [[Jean-Baptiste Say]]'s treatise on ''[[Say's Political Economy|Political Economy]]'' published in 1803 and expanded in 1830 with practical applications, were to provide most of the ideas of economics until the publication of [[John Stuart Mill]]'s ''Principles'' in 1848.<ref name="Mills">{{cite book|last=Mills|first=John|author-link=John Mills (businessman)|title=A Critical History of Economics|url=https://archive.org/details/criticalhistoryo0000mill/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater|year=2002|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=0-333-97130-2}}</ref>{{rp|63, 68}} Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity, the causes of [[Pricing|prices]] and [[wealth distribution]], and the [[Economic policy|policies]] the state should follow to maximise [[wealth]].<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|64}}

Smith wrote that as long as [[Supply and demand|supply, demand]], [[price]]s and [[Competition (economics)|competition]] were left free of government regulation, the pursuit of material self-interest, rather than altruism, maximises society's wealth<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=KpWg1DYxRTwC&dq=%22public+good%22&pg=PA81 The Wealth of Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080447/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpWg1DYxRTwC&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=%22public+good%22&sa=X#v=onepage&q=%22public%20good%22 |date=6 December 2022 }}'', Strahan and Cadell, 1778</ref> through profit-driven production of goods and services. An "[[invisible hand]]" directed individuals and firms to work toward the nation's good as an unintended consequence of efforts to maximise their gain. This provided a moral justification for accumulating wealth, which some had previously viewed as sinful.<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|64}}

Smith assumed that workers could be [[Salary|paid]] as low as was necessary for their survival, which [[David Ricardo]] and [[Thomas Robert Malthus]] later transformed into the "[[iron law of wages]]".<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|65}} His main emphasis was on the benefit of free internal and [[international trade]], which he thought could increase wealth through specialisation in production.<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|66}} He also opposed restrictive [[trade preference]]s, state grants of [[monopolies]] and [[employers' organisation]]s and [[trade union]]s.<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|67}}
While Smith advocated for minimal government intervention, he recognized that some market regulation was necessary to prevent fraud, protect consumers, and ensure fair competition.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24695923|title=Adam Smith on markets, competition and violations of natural liberty|date=March 2016|access-date=8 January 2025|publisher=Oxford University Press|last=Kurz|first=Heinz D.|journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=615–638 |doi=10.1093/cje/bev011 |jstor=24695923|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Other than that government should be limited to defence, [[public work]]s and the [[administration of justice]], financed by [[Income tax|taxes based on income]].<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|68}} Smith was one of the progenitors of the idea, which was long central to classical liberalism and has resurfaced in the [[globalisation]] literature of the later 20th and early 21st centuries, that free trade promotes peace.<ref>See, e.g., [[Donald Markwell]], ''John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace'', Oxford University Press, 2006, chapter 1.</ref> Smith's economics was carried into practice in the 19th century with the lowering of tariffs in the 1820s, the repeal of the [[Poor Relief Act 1662|Poor Relief Act]] that had restricted the mobility of labour in 1834 and the end of the rule of the [[East India Company]] over India in 1858.<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|69}}

In his ''Treatise'' (Traité d'économie politique), Say states that any production process requires effort, knowledge and the "application" of the entrepreneur. He sees entrepreneurs as intermediaries in the production process who combine productive factors such as land, capital and labour to meet the consumers' demands. As a result, they play a central role in the economy through their coordinating function. He also highlights qualities essential for successful entrepreneurship and focuses on judgement, in that they have continued to assess market needs and the means to meet them. This requires an "unerring market sense". Say views entrepreneurial income primarily as the high revenue paid in compensation for their skills and expert knowledge. He does so by contrasting the enterprise and supply-of-capital functions, distinguishing the entrepreneur's earnings on the one hand and the remuneration of capital on the other. This differentiates his theory from that of [[Joseph Schumpeter]], who describes entrepreneurial rent as short-term profits which compensate for high risk (Schumpeterian rent). Say himself also refers to risk and uncertainty along with innovation without analysing them in detail.

Say is also credited with [[Say's law]], or the law of markets which may be summarised as "[[Aggregate supply]] creates its own [[aggregate demand]]",
and "[[Supply creates its own demand]]", or "Supply constitutes its own demand" and "Inherent in supply is the need for its own consumption". The related phrase "supply creates its own demand" was coined by [[John Maynard Keynes]], who criticized Say's separate formulations as amounting to the same thing. Some advocates of Say's law who disagree with Keynes have claimed that Say's law can be summarized more accurately as "production precedes consumption" and that what Say is stating is that for consumption to happen, one must produce something of value so that it can be traded for money or barter for consumption later.<ref name="clower92">{{Harv|Clower|2004|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tzzClShefiYC&pg=PA92 p. 92]}}</ref><ref>Bylund, Per. [https://twitter.com/perbylund/status/883692795583746049 "Say's Law (the Law of Markets)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308022031/https://twitter.com/perbylund/status/883692795583746049 |date=8 March 2021 }}.</ref> Say argues that "products are paid for with products" (1803, p. 153) or "a glut occurs only when too much resource is applied to making one product and not enough to another" (1803, pp. 178–179).<ref>[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/say.htm "Information on Jean-Baptiste Say"].{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326021523/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/say.htm|date=26 March 2009}}</ref>

Related reasoning appears in the work of [[John Stuart Mill]] and earlier in that of his Scottish classical economist father, [[James Mill]] (1808). Mill senior restates Say's law in 1808: "production of commodities creates, and is the one and universal cause which creates a market for the commodities produced".<ref>{{cite book |last=Mill |first=James |date=1808 |title=Commerce Defended |chapter-url=http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1668&layout=html |chapter=VI: Consumption |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224092944/https://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1668&layout=html |archive-date=24 February 2021 |page=81}}</ref> In addition to Smith's and Say's legacies, [[Thomas Malthus]]' theories of population and [[David Ricardo]]'s [[Iron law of wages]] became central doctrines of classical economics.<ref name="Mills" />{{rp|76}} Meanwhile, Jean-Baptiste Say challenged Smith's [[labour theory of value]], believing that prices were determined by utility and also emphasised the critical role of the entrepreneur in the economy. However, neither of those observations became accepted by British economists at the time. Malthus wrote ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' in 1798,<ref name="Mills" />{{rp|71–72}} becoming a major influence on classical liberalism. Malthus claimed that population growth would outstrip food production because the population grew geometrically while food production grew arithmetically. As people were provided with food, they would reproduce until their growth outstripped the food supply. Nature would then provide a check to growth in the forms of vice and misery. No gains in income could prevent this, and any welfare for the poor would be self-defeating. The poor were, in fact, responsible for their problems which could have been avoided through self-restraint.<ref name="Mills" />{{rp|72}}

Several liberals, including Adam Smith and [[Richard Cobden]], argued that the free exchange of goods between nations would lead to world peace.<ref>Erik Gartzke, "[http://www.columbia.akadns.net/itc/journalism/stille/Politics%20Fall%202007/readings%20weeks%206-7/Economic%20Freedom%20and%20Peace%20--%20Garzke.pdf Economic Freedom and Peace]", in ''Economic Freedom of the World: 2005 Annual Report'' (Vancouver: Fraser Institute, 2005). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227133203/http://www.columbia.akadns.net/itc/journalism/stille/Politics%20Fall%202007/readings%20weeks%206-7/Economic%20Freedom%20and%20Peace%20--%20Garzke.pdf |date=27 December 2018 }}.</ref> Smith argued that as societies progressed, the spoils of war would rise, but the costs of war would rise further, making war difficult and costly for industrialised nations.<ref>Michael Doyle, ''Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism'' (New York: Norton, 1997), p. 237 ({{ISBN|0-393-96947-9}}).</ref> Cobden believed that military expenditures worsened the state's welfare and benefited a small but concentrated elite minority, combining his [[Little Englander]] beliefs with opposition to the economic restrictions of mercantilist policies. To Cobden and many classical liberals, those who advocated peace must also advocate free markets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Howe |first1=Anthony |last2=Morgan |first2=Simon |title=Rethinking nineteenth-century liberalism: Richard Cobden bicentenary essays |year=2006 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-7546-5572-5 |pages=231, 239 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eqp4Hae4bmUC |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> [[Utilitarianism]] was seen as a [[Legitimacy (political)|political justification]] for implementing [[economic liberalism]] by British governments, an idea dominating economic policy from the 1840s. Although utilitarianism prompted legislative and administrative reform, and John Stuart Mill's later writings foreshadowed the welfare state, it was mainly used as a premise for a ''laissez-faire'' approach.<ref name="Richardson 2001">{{cite book|first=James L.|last=Richardson|year=2001|title=Contending Liberalisms in World Politics: Ideology and Power|location=Boulder, Colorado|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=155587939X}}</ref>{{rp|32}} The central concept of utilitarianism, developed by [[Jeremy Bentham]], was that [[public policy]] should seek to provide "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". While this could be interpreted as a justification for state action to [[Poverty reduction|reduce poverty]], it was used by classical liberals to justify inaction with the argument that the net benefit to all individuals would be higher.<ref name="Mills" />{{rp|76}} His philosophy proved highly influential on government policy and led to increased Benthamite attempts at government [[social control]], including [[Robert Peel]]'s [[Metropolitan Police]], [[prison reform]]s, the [[workhouse]]s and [[History of psychiatric institutions|asylums]] for the mentally ill.

==== Keynesian economics ====
{{main|Keynesian economics}}
[[File:Keynes 1933.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[John Maynard Keynes]], one of the most influential economists of modern times and whose ideas, which are still [[2008–09 Keynesian resurgence|widely felt]], formalized modern liberal economic policy]]

During the [[Great Depression]], the English economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] (1883–1946) gave the definitive liberal response to the economic crisis. Keynes had been "brought up" as a classical liberal, but especially after World War I, became increasingly a welfare or social liberal.<ref>See studies of Keynes by, e.g., [[Roy Harrod]], [[Robert Skidelsky]], Donald Moggridge, and [[Donald Markwell]].</ref> A prolific writer, among many other works, he had begun a theoretical work examining the relationship between unemployment, money and prices back in the 1920s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pressman |first=Steven |title=Fifty Great Economists |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-13481-1 |pages=96–100 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London}}</ref> Keynes was deeply critical of the British government's [[austerity]] measures [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|during the Great Depression]]. He believed [[budget deficit]]s were a good thing, a product of [[recession]]s. He wrote: "For Government borrowing of one kind or another is nature's remedy, so to speak, for preventing business losses from being, in so severe a slump as the present one, so great as to bring production altogether to a standstill".<ref name="Cassidy2011">{{cite magazine |last=Cassidy |first=John |author-link=John Cassidy (journalist) |title=The Demand Doctor |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=10 October 2011 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/10/the-demand-doctor}}</ref> At the height of the Great Depression in 1933, Keynes published ''The Means to Prosperity'', which contained specific policy recommendations for tackling unemployment in a global recession, chiefly counter cyclical public spending. ''The Means to Prosperity'' contains one of the first mentions of the [[multiplier effect]].<ref name="Skid30s">{{cite book |last=Skidelsky |first=Robert |title=John Maynard Keynes: 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-330-48867-9 |pages=494–500, 504, 509–510 |publisher=Pan MacMillan Ltd}}</ref>

[[File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Great Depression]], with its periods of worldwide economic hardship, formed the backdrop against which the [[Keynesian Revolution]] took place (the image is [[Dorothea Lange]]'s ''[[Migrant Mother]]'' depiction of destitute [[pea-pickers]] in California, taken in March 1936).]]

Keynes's ''[[magnum opus]]'', ''[[The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money]]'', was published in 1936,<ref>{{cite book |first=Keith |last=Tribe |title=Economic careers: economics and economists in Britain, 1930–1970 |date=1997 |page=61}}</ref> and served as a theoretical justification for the [[Economic interventionism|interventionist policies]] Keynes favoured for tackling a recession. The ''General Theory'' challenged the earlier [[neo-classical economics|neo-classical economic]] paradigm, which had held that the [[Market (economics)|market]] would naturally establish [[full employment]] equilibrium if it were unfettered by government interference. [[Classical economists]] believed in [[Say's law]], which states that "[[supply creates its own demand]]" and that in a [[free market]], workers would always be willing to lower their wages to a level where employers could profitably offer them jobs. An innovation from Keynes was the concept of [[price stickiness]], i.e. the recognition that, in reality, workers often refuse to lower their wage demands even in cases where a classical economist might argue it is [[rational]] for them to do so. Due in part to price stickiness, it was established that the interaction of "[[aggregate demand]]" and "[[aggregate supply]]" may lead to stable unemployment equilibria, and in those cases, it is the state and not the market that economies must depend on for their salvation. The book advocated activist economic policy by the government to stimulate demand in times of high unemployment, for example, by spending on public works. In 1928, he wrote: "Let us be up and doing, using our idle resources to increase our wealth. ... With men and plants unemployed, it is ridiculous to say that we cannot afford these new developments. It is precisely with these plants and these men that we shall afford them."<ref name="Cassidy2011"/> Where the market failed to allocate resources properly, the government was required to stimulate the economy until private funds could start flowing again—a "prime the pump" kind of strategy designed to boost [[industrial production]].<ref>Palmer and Colton, p. 808.</ref>

=== Liberal feminist theory ===
{{main|Liberal feminism}}
[[File:Mary Wollstonecraft by John Opie (c. 1797).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mary Wollstonecraft]], widely regarded as the pioneer of [[liberal feminism]]]]
[[Liberal feminism]], the dominant tradition in [[History of feminism|feminist history]], is an [[individualistic]] form of [[feminist theory]] that focuses on women's ability to maintain their equality through their actions and choices. Liberal feminists hope to eradicate all barriers to [[gender equality]], claiming that the continued existence of such barriers eviscerates the individual rights and freedoms ostensibly guaranteed by a liberal social order.<ref>Jensen, p. 2.</ref> They argue that society believes women are naturally [[Gender inequality|less intellectually and physically capable]] than men; thus, it tends to [[Sexism|discriminate against women]] in the [[Sexism in academia|academy]], the forum and the [[Occupational sexism|marketplace]]. Liberal feminists believe that "female subordination is rooted in a set of customary and legal constraints that blocks women's entrance to and success in the so-called public world". They strive for sexual equality via political and legal reform.<ref name="Tong, Rosemarie 1989">Tong, Rosemarie. 1989. Feminist Thought: A Comprehensive Introduction. Oxon, United Kingdom: Unwin Human Ltd. Chapter 1</ref>

British [[List of women philosophers|philosopher]] [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] (1759–1797) is widely regarded as the pioneer of liberal feminism, with ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' (1792) expanding the boundaries of liberalism to include women in the political structure of liberal society.<ref>Falco, pp. 47–48.</ref> In her writings, such as ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'', Wollstonecraft commented on society's view of women and encouraged women to use their voices in making decisions separate from those previously made for them. Wollstonecraft "denied that women are, by nature, more pleasure seeking and pleasure giving than men. She reasoned that if they were confined to the same cages that trap women, men would develop the same flawed characters. What Wollstonecraft most wanted for women was personhood".<ref name="Tong, Rosemarie 1989"/>

[[John Stuart Mill]] was also an early proponent of feminism. In his article ''[[The Subjection of Women]]'' (1861, published 1869), Mill attempted to prove that the legal subjugation of women is wrong and that it should give way to perfect equality.<ref>John Stuart Mill: critical assessments, Volume 4, By [[John Cunningham Wood]]</ref><ref>Mill, J.S. (1869) [http://www.constitution.org/jsm/women.htm ''The Subjection of Women''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429185554/http://www.constitution.org/jsm/women.htm |date=29 April 2015 }}, Chapter 1</ref> He believed that both sexes should have equal rights under the law and that "until conditions of equality exist, no one can possibly assess the natural differences between women and men, distorted as they have been. What is natural to the two sexes can only be found out by allowing both to develop and use their faculties freely".<ref>Mill, John Stuart (1869). The Subjection of Women (1869 first ed.). London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer. Retrieved 10 December 2012.</ref> Mill frequently spoke of this imbalance and wondered if women were able to feel the same "genuine unselfishness" that men did in providing for their families. This unselfishness Mill advocated is the one "that motivates people to take into account the good of society as well as the good of the individual person or small family unit".<ref name="Tong, Rosemarie 1989"/> Like Mary Wollstonecraft, Mill compared sexual inequality to slavery, arguing that their husbands are often just as abusive as masters and that a human being controls nearly every aspect of life for another human being. In his book ''The Subjection of Women'', Mill argues that three major parts of women's lives are hindering them: society and gender construction, education and marriage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/|title=Mill's Moral and Political Philosophy|last=Brink|first=David|date=9 October 2007|publisher=Stanford University|access-date=1 October 2016}}</ref>

[[Equity feminism]] is a form of liberal feminism discussed since the 1980s,<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Feminism |first=Naomi |last=Black |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYqAAAAYAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=9780801422614 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name=Halfmann>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q83kxhOsgxYC&pg=PA79 |title=Industry and Politics in West Germany: Toward the Third Republic |editor-first=Peter J. |editor-last=Katzenstein |chapter=3. Social Change and Political Mobilization in West Germany |page=79 |first=Jost |last=Halfmann |quote=Equity-feminism differs from equality-feminism |year= 1989|publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-9595-3 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> specifically a kind of classically liberal or libertarian feminism.<ref name=Stanford>{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-liberal/#EquFem |title=Liberal Feminism |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=18 October 2007 |access-date=24 February 2016}} (revised 30 September 2013)</ref> [[Steven Pinker]], an [[evolutionary psychologist]], defines equity feminism as "a moral doctrine about equal treatment that makes no commitments regarding open empirical issues in psychology or biology".<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinker |first=Steven |title=The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature |url=https://archive.org/details/blankslatemodern00pink |url-access=registration |isbn=0-670-03151-8 |publisher=Viking |year=2002 |page=[https://archive.org/details/blankslatemodern00pink/page/341 341]}}</ref> Barry Kuhle asserts that equity feminism is compatible with [[evolutionary psychology]] in contrast to [[Who Stole Feminism?|gender feminism]].<ref>{{cite journal |journal=[[Evolutionary Psychology (journal)|Evolutionary Psychology]] |url=http://www.epjournal.net/articles/evolutionary-psychology-is-compatible-with-equity-feminism-but-not-with-gender-feminism-a-reply-to-eagly-and-wood-2011/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=16 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116120314/http://www.epjournal.net/articles/evolutionary-psychology-is-compatible-with-equity-feminism-but-not-with-gender-feminism-a-reply-to-eagly-and-wood-2011/ |title=Evolutionary psychology is compatible with equity feminism |date=2011 |first=Barry X. |last=Kuhle}}</ref>

=== Social liberal theory ===
{{main|Social liberalism}}
[[File:Jean Charles Simonde de Sismondi (1773-1842).png|thumb|upright|left|[[Sismondi]], who wrote the first critique of the free market from a liberal perspective in 1819]]
[[Jean Charles Léonard Simonde de Sismondi]]'s ''New Principles of Political Economy'' (French: ''Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, ou de la richesse dans ses rapports avec la population'') (1819) represents the first comprehensive liberal critique of early capitalism and laissez-faire economics, and his writings, which were studied by [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Karl Marx]] among many others, had a profound influence on both liberal and socialist responses to the failures and contradictions of industrial society.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Ross E. |title=Sismondi's Forgotten Ethical Critique of Early Capitalism |journal=[[Journal of Business Ethics]] |date=1984 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=227–234|doi=10.1007/BF00382924 |s2cid=154967384}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Spiegel |first1=Henry William |title=The Growth of Economic Thought |date=1991 |publisher=Duke University Press |pages=302–303}}</ref><ref name="Gareth">{{cite book |last1=Stedman Jones |first1=Gareth |editor1-last=Aprile |editor1-first=Sylvie |editor2-last=Bensimon |editor2-first=Fabrice |title=La France et l'Angleterre au XIXe siècle. Échanges, représentations, comparaisons |chapter=Saint-Simon and the Liberal origins of the Socialist critique of Political Economy |date=2006 |publisher=Créaphis |pages=21–47}}</ref> By the end of the 19th century, the [[Classical liberalism#Evolution of core beliefs|principles of classical liberalism]] were being increasingly challenged by downturns in [[economic growth]], a growing perception of the [[Diseases of poverty|evils of poverty]], unemployment and relative deprivation present within modern industrial cities, as well as the agitation of [[organised labour]]. The ideal of the [[Self-made man|self-made individual]] who could make his or her place in the world through hard work and talent seemed increasingly implausible. A major political reaction against the changes introduced by [[industrialisation]] and ''laissez-faire'' capitalism came from conservatives concerned about social balance, although [[socialism]] later became a more important force for change and reform. Some [[Victorian literature|Victorian writers]], including [[Charles Dickens]], [[Thomas Carlyle]] and [[Matthew Arnold]], became early influential critics of social injustice.<ref name = "Richardson 2001"/>{{rp|36–37}}

New liberals began to adapt the old language of liberalism to confront these difficult circumstances, which they believed could only be resolved through a broader and more interventionist conception of the state. An equal right to liberty could not be established merely by ensuring that individuals did not physically interfere with each other or by having impartially formulated and applied laws. More positive and proactive measures were required to ensure that every individual would have an [[equal opportunity]] for success.<ref name="eatwell">{{cite book |last1=Eatwell |first1=Roger |last2=Wright |first2=Anthony |title=Contemporary political ideologies |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8264-5173-6}}</ref>

[[File:John Stuart Mill by London Stereoscopic Company, c1870.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Stuart Mill]], whose ''[[On Liberty]]'' greatly influenced 19th-century liberalism]]
[[John Stuart Mill]] contributed enormously to liberal thought by combining elements of classical liberalism with what eventually became known as the new liberalism. Mill's 1859 ''[[On Liberty]]'' addressed the nature and limits of the [[Power (philosophy)|power]] that can be legitimately exercised by society over the [[individual]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mill |first=John Stuart |author-link=John Stuart Mill |title=[[On Liberty]] |publisher=Penguin Classics |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-14-144147-4 |pages=90–91}}</ref> He gave an impassioned defence of free speech, arguing that free [[discourse]] is a [[necessary condition]] for intellectual and social progress. Mill defined "[[social liberty]]" as protection from "the tyranny of political rulers". He introduced many different concepts of the form tyranny can take, referred to as social tyranny and [[tyranny of the majority]]. Social liberty meant limits on the ruler's power through obtaining recognition of political liberties or rights and establishing a system of "[[constitutional]] checks".<ref>{{cite book |last=Mill |first=John Stuart |author-link=John Stuart Mill |title=[[On Liberty]] |publisher=Penguin Classics |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-14-144147-4 |pages=10–11}}</ref>

His definition of liberty, influenced by [[Joseph Priestley]] and [[Josiah Warren]], was that the [[individual]] ought to be free to do as he wishes unless he harms others.<ref>John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), "The Contest in America". Harper's New Monthly Magazine. Volume 24. Issue 143. pp. 683–684. Harper & Bros. New York. April 1862. [https://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=harp;cc=harp;rgn=full%20text;idno=harp0024-5;didno=harp0024-5;view=image;seq=00693;node=harp0024-5%3A1 Cornell.edu].</ref> However, although Mill's initial [[Philosophy and economics|economic philosophy]] supported [[free market]]s and argued that [[progressive tax]]ation penalised those who worked harder,<ref>[http://www.irefeurope.org/col_docs/doc_51_fr.pdf IREF | Pour la liberte economique et la concurrence fiscale] (PDF) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327011315/http://www.irefeurope.org/col_docs/doc_51_fr.pdf |date=27 March 2009 }}</ref> he later altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his ''Principles of Political Economy'' in defence of a socialist outlook and defending some socialist causes,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mill |first1=John Stuart |last2=Bentham |first2=Jeremy |editor-last=Ryan |editor-first=Alan |title=Utilitarianism and other essays |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2004 |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-043272-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/utilitarianismot00mill/page/11 11] |url=https://archive.org/details/utilitarianismot00mill/page/11}}</ref> including the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Another early liberal convert to greater government intervention was [[T. H. Green]]. Seeing the effects of alcohol, he believed that the state should foster and protect the social, political and economic environments in which individuals will have the best chance of acting according to their consciences. The state should intervene only where there is a clear, proven and strong tendency of liberty to enslave the individual.<ref>Nicholson, P. P., "T. H. Green and State Action: Liquor Legislation", ''History of Political Thought'', 6 (1985), 517–50. Reprinted in A. Vincent, ed., ''The Philosophy of T. H. Green'' (Aldershot: Gower, 1986), pp. 76–103</ref> Green regarded the national state as legitimate only to the extent that it upholds a system of rights and obligations most likely to foster individual self-realisation.

The New Liberalism or social liberalism movement emerged in about 1900 in Britain.<ref>[[Michael Freeden]], ''The New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Reform'' (Oxford UP, 1978).</ref> The New Liberals, including intellectuals like L. T. Hobhouse and [[John A. Hobson]], saw individual liberty as something achievable only under favourable social and economic circumstances.<ref name="Adams 2011" />{{rp|29}} In their view, the poverty, squalor and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. New Liberals believed these conditions could be ameliorated only through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented, interventionist state.<ref>The Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, p. 599</ref> It supports a [[mixed economy]] that includes [[public property|public]] and private property in [[capital good]]s.<ref name="Stanislao G. Pugliese 1999. p. 99">{{cite book |first=Stanislao G. |last=Pugliese |url=https://archive.org/details/carlorossellisoc00pugl |title=Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=1999 |page=99|isbn=9780674000537 }}</ref><ref name="Noel W. Thompson 2006. pp. 60–1">{{cite book |first=Noel W. |last=Thompson |title=Political economy and the Labour Party: the economics of democratic socialism, 1884–2005 |edition=2nd |location=Oxon, England; New York, New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2006 |pages=60–61}}</ref> Principles that can be described as social liberal have been based upon or developed by philosophers such as John Stuart Mill, [[Eduard Bernstein]], [[John Dewey]], [[Carlo Rosselli]], [[Norberto Bobbio]] and [[Chantal Mouffe]].<ref>Nadia Urbinati. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YoS6bMf4toQC J.S. Mill's political thought: a bicentennial reassessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080447/https://books.google.com/books?id=YoS6bMf4toQC&printsec=frontcover |date=6 December 2022 }}''. Cambridge, England, UK: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2007 p. 101.</ref> Other important social liberal figures include Guido Calogero, [[Piero Gobetti]], Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse and [[R. H. Tawney]].<ref name="ref72">Steve Bastow, James Martin. ''[http://research.gold.ac.uk/1882/ Third way discourse: European ideologies in the twentieth century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227181430/http://research.gold.ac.uk/1882/ |date=27 December 2018 }}''. Edinburgh, Scotland, UK: [[Edinburgh University Press]], Ltd, 2003. p. 72.</ref> [[Liberal socialism]] has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics.<ref name="ref72" />

=== Anti-state liberal theory ===
{{See also|Polycentric law|Voluntaryism|Panarchy (political philosophy)|Neoclassical liberalism|Anarcho-capitalism}}[[File:Gustave de Molinari.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gustave de Molinari]]]]
[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1863) b 269.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Julius Faucher]]]]
[[Classical liberalism]] advocates [[free trade]] under the rule of law. In contrast, the "anti-state liberal tradition", as described by [[Ralph Raico]], was supportive of a system where law enforcement and the courts being provided by private companies, minimizing or rejecting the role of the state. Various theorists have espoused legal philosophies similar to [[anarcho-capitalism]]. One of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of [[privatizing]] the protection of individual liberty and property was the French philosopher [[Jakob Mauvillon]] in the 18th century. Later in the 1840s, [[Julius Faucher]] and [[Gustave de Molinari]] advocated the same. In his essay ''The Production of Security'', Molinari argued: "No government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it, or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity". Molinari and this new type of anti-state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics. Historian and libertarian Ralph Raico argued that what these liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism".<ref>Raico, Ralph (2004) [https://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th century''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610035217/http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm |date=10 June 2009 }} Ecole Polytechnique, [http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610035217/http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm |date=10 June 2009 }}, Unité associée au CNRS</ref>

Unlike the liberalism of Locke, which saw the state as evolving from society, the anti-state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people, i.e. society, and the institutions of force, i.e. the state. This society versus state idea was expressed in various ways: natural society vs artificial society, liberty vs authority, society of contract vs society of authority and industrial society vs militant society, to name a few.<ref name="Molinari-1849">Molinari, Gustave de (1849) [http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm The Production of Security] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927000023/http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm |date=27 September 2007 }} (trans. J. Huston McCulloch). Retrieved 15 July 2006.</ref> The anti-state liberal tradition in Europe and the United States continued after Molinari in the early writings of [[Herbert Spencer]] and thinkers such as [[Paul Émile de Puydt]] and [[Auberon Herbert]]. However, the first person to use the term anarcho-capitalism was [[Murray Rothbard]]. In the mid-20th century, Rothbard synthesized elements from the [[Austrian School]] of economics, classical liberalism and 19th-century American [[individualist anarchist]]s [[Lysander Spooner]] and [[Benjamin Tucker]] (while rejecting their [[labour theory of value]] and the norms they derived from it).<ref>"A student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker." Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1987, {{ISBN|978-0-631-17944-3}}, p. 290</ref> Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of the state in favour of [[individual sovereignty]], [[private property]] and [[free markets]]. [[Anarcho-capitalist]]s believe that in the absence of [[statute]] (law by [[decree]] or [[legislation]]), society would improve itself through the discipline of the free market (or what its proponents describe as a "[[voluntary society]]").<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Morris |first=Andrew |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n8 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024 |lccn=2008009151 |pages=13–14 |chapter=Anarcho-Capitalism}}</ref><ref name="Stringham51">Edward Stringham, ''Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice,'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=nft4e62nicsC&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&pg=PA51 p. 51] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080458/https://books.google.com/books?id=nft4e62nicsC&pg=PA51&dq=anarcho-capitalism+libertarian&sa=X&ct=result&resnum=8#v=onepage&q=anarcho-capitalism%20libertarian |date=6 December 2022 }}.</ref>

In a theoretical [[anarcho-capitalist]] society, [[law enforcement]], [[court]]s and all other security services would be operated by privately funded competitors rather than centrally through [[taxation]]. [[Money]] and other [[goods and services]] would be privately and competitively provided in an [[open market]]. Anarcho-capitalists say personal and economic activities under anarcho-capitalism would be regulated by victim-based dispute resolution organizations under [[tort]] and [[contract]] law rather than by statute through centrally determined punishment under what they describe as "political monopolies".<ref name="libertarianpapers">[http://libertarianpapers.org/articles/2011/lp-3-3.pdf "Review of Kosanke's Instead of Politics – Don Stacy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001010127/http://libertarianpapers.org/articles/2011/lp-3-3.pdf |date=1 October 2018 }} Libertarian Papers VOL. 3, ART. NO. 3 (2011)</ref> A Rothbardian anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon libertarian "legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow".<ref>Rothbard, Murray. For A New Liberty. [https://www.mises.org/rothbard/newliberty11.asp 12 The Public Sector, III: Police, Law, and the Courts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213124557/http://mises.org/rothbard/newliberty11.asp |date=13 December 2011 }}</ref> Although enforcement methods vary, this pact would recognize [[self-ownership]] and the [[non-aggression principle]] (NAP).

== History ==
{{main|History of liberalism}}

{{cleanup|section|reason=Needs better presentation and content summarization|date=May 2017}}
[[File:John Locke.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Locke]] was the first to develop a liberal philosophy, including the [[right to private property]] and the [[consent of the governed]].]]
Liberal ideas were first drawn together and systematized as a distinct ideology by the English philosopher [[John Locke]], generally regarded as the father of modern liberalism.<ref name="Taverne, p. 18"/><ref name="Godwin et al., p. 12"/><ref name="FungCambridge">{{cite book |last1=Fung |first1=Edmund S. K. |title=The Intellectual Foundations of Chinese Modernity: Cultural and Political Thought in the Republican Era |date=2010 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-139-48823-5 |page=130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7muduLXtSGMC&pg=PA130 |access-date=16 May 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="BevirSAGE">{{cite book |last1=Bevir |first1=Mark |title=Encyclopedia of Political Theory: A–E, Volume 1 |year=2010 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-1-4129-5865-3 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVIoCtB3m74C&pg=PA164 |access-date=19 May 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The first major signs of liberal politics emerged in modern times. These ideas began to coalesce at the time of the [[English Civil War]]. The [[Levellers]], a largely ignored minority political movement that primarily consisted of [[Puritans]], [[Presbyterians]], and [[Quakers]], called for [[Freedom of religion in the United Kingdom|freedom of religion]], frequent convening of parliament and equality under the law. The [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 enshrined [[parliamentary sovereignty]] and the [[right of revolution]] in Britain and was referred to by author [[Steven Pincus]] as the "first modern liberal revolution".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/1688firstmodernr00stev |url-access=registration |title=1688: The First Modern Revolution |first=Steven |last=Pincus |year=2009 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-15605-8 |access-date=7 February 2013}}</ref> The development of liberalism continued throughout the 18th century with the burgeoning Enlightenment ideals of the era. This period of profound intellectual vitality questioned old traditions and influenced several [[European monarchies]] throughout the 18th century. Political tension between England and its [[American colonies]] grew after 1765 and the [[Seven Years' War]] over the issue of [[taxation without representation]], culminating in the [[American Revolutionary War]] and, eventually, the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]. After the war, the leaders debated about how to move forward. The [[Articles of Confederation]], written in 1776, now appeared inadequate to provide security or even a functional government. The [[Confederation Congress]] called a [[Philadelphia Convention|Constitutional Convention]] in 1787, which resulted in the writing of a new [[Constitution of the United States]] establishing a [[Federation|federal]] government. In the context of the times, the Constitution was a republican and liberal document.<ref>[[John Roberts (historian)|Roberts, J.M.]] ''The Penguin History of the World''. New York: Penguin Group, 1992. {{ISBN|0-19-521043-3}} p. 701.</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Milan |last=Zafirovski |title=Liberal Modernity and Its Adversaries: Freedom, Liberalism and Anti-Liberalism in the 21st Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlT9Qho0tAC |year=2007 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |pages=237–38 |isbn=978-90-04-16052-1 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> It remains the oldest liberal governing document in effect worldwide.

[[File:Montesquieu 1.png|thumb|upright|[[Montesquieu]], who argued for the [[separation of powers|separation of the powers of government]]]]
The two key events that marked the triumph of liberalism in France were the [[abolition of feudalism in France]] on the night of 4 August 1789, which marked the collapse of feudal and old traditional rights and privileges and restrictions, as well as the passage of the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] in August, itself based on the U.S. Declaration of Independence from 1776.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jon |last=Meacham |title=Thomas Jefferson: President and Philosopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tvBMBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT131 |year=2014|publisher=[[Random House]] |page=131 |isbn=978-0-385-38751-4}}</ref> During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the French brought Western Europe the liquidation of the [[feudal system]], the liberalization of [[property law]]s, the end of [[Manorialism|seigneurial dues]], the abolition of [[guild]]s, the legalization of [[divorce]], the disintegration of [[Jewish ghettos in Europe|Jewish ghettos]], the collapse of the [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]], the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the elimination of church courts and religious authority, the establishment of the [[metric system]] and equality under the law for all men.<ref>Palmer and Colton, pp. 428–29.</ref> His most lasting achievement, the [[Napoleonic Code|Civil Code]], served as "an object of emulation all over the globe"<ref>Lyons, p. 94.</ref> but also perpetuated further discrimination against women under the banner of the "natural order".<ref>Lyons, pp. 98–102.</ref>

The development into maturity of classical liberalism took place before and after the French Revolution in Britain.<ref name="Vincent, pp. 29–30"/> [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', published in 1776, was to provide most of the ideas of economics, at least until the publication of [[John Stuart Mill]]'s ''Principles'' in 1848.<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|63, 68}} Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity, the causes of prices and wealth distribution, and the policies the state should follow to maximise wealth.<ref name="Mills"/>{{rp|64}} The [[radicalism (historical)|radical liberal movement]] began in the 1790s in England and concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasizing natural rights and [[popular sovereignty]]. Radicals like [[Richard Price]] and [[Joseph Priestley]] saw parliamentary reform as a first step toward dealing with their many grievances, including the treatment of [[English Dissenters|Protestant Dissenters]], the slave trade, high prices and high taxes.<ref>Turner, p. 86</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In [[Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America|Latin America]], liberal unrest dates back to the 18th century, when liberal agitation in Latin America led to [[Spanish American wars of independence|independence]] from the imperial power of Spain and Portugal. The new regimes were generally liberal in their political outlook and employed the philosophy of [[positivism]], which emphasized the truth of modern science, to buttress their positions.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://pics3441.upmf-grenoble.fr/articles/cult/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212190612/http://pics3441.upmf-grenoble.fr/articles/cult/assimilation_and_transformation_of_positivism_in_latin_america.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 February 2015 |jstor=2707981 |title=Assimilation and Transformation of Positivism in Latin America |journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]] |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=515–522 |last1=Ardao |first1=Arturo |year=1963 |doi=10.2307/2707981|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In the United States, a [[American Civil War|vicious war]] ensured the integrity of the nation and the abolition of slavery in the [[Southern United States|South]]. Historian [[Don H. Doyle]] has argued that the Union victory in the [[American Civil War]] (1861–1865) greatly boosted the course of liberalism.<ref>{{cite book |first=Don H. |last=Doyle | author-link = Don H. Doyle |title=The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War |date=2014}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2023}} In the 19th century, [[English people|English]] liberal [[Political philosophy|political philosophers]] were the most influential in the global tradition of liberalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Caldwell |first1=Wallace E. |title=History of the World |last2=Merrill |first2=Edward H. |publisher=The Greystone Press |year=1964 |volume=1 |location=[[United States]] |pages=428}}</ref>

During the 19th and early 20th century, in the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, liberalism influenced periods of reform, such as the [[Tanzimat]] and [[Al-Nahda]]; the rise of secularism, constitutionalism and nationalism; and different intellectuals and religious groups and movements, like the [[Young Ottomans]] and [[Islamic Modernism]]. Prominent of the era were [[Rifa'a al-Tahtawi]], [[Namık Kemal]] and [[İbrahim Şinasi]]. However, the reformist ideas and trends did not reach the common population successfully, as the books, periodicals, and newspapers were accessible primarily to intellectuals and segments of the emerging middle class. Many [[Muslim]]s saw them as foreign influences on the [[Muslim world]]. That perception complicated reformist efforts made by Middle Eastern states.<ref name="Abdelmoula">{{cite book |last1=Abdelmoula |first1=Ezzeddine |title=Al Jazeera and Democratization: The Rise of the Arab Public Sphere |year=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-51847-1 |pages=50–52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vP7qBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |access-date=7 May 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>Roderic. H. Davison, ''Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923 – The Impact of the West'', University of Texas Press, 1990, pp. 115-116.</ref> These changes, along with other factors, helped to create a sense of crisis within Islam, which continues to this day. This led to [[Islamic revivalism]].<ref name="LindgrenRoss">{{cite book |last1=Lindgren |first1=Allana |last2=Ross |first2=Stephen |title=The Modernist World |year=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-69616-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFvLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA440 |access-date=6 May 2017 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

[[File:La Liberté guidant le peuple - Eugène Delacroix - Musée du Louvre Peintures RF 129 - après restauration 2024.jpg|thumb|The iconic painting ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'' by [[Eugène Delacroix]], a tableau of the [[July Revolution]] in 1830]]
[[Abolitionist]] and [[suffrage]] movements spread, along with representative and democratic ideals. France established an [[French Third Republic|enduring republic]] in the 1870s. However, nationalism also spread rapidly after 1815. A mixture of liberal and nationalist sentiments in [[Liberalism and radicalism in Italy|Italy]] and Germany brought about the unification of the two countries in the late 19th century. A liberal regime came to power in Italy and ended the secular power of the Popes. However, the [[Holy See|Vatican]] launched a counter-crusade against liberalism. [[Pope Pius IX]] issued the ''[[Syllabus of Errors]]'' in 1864, condemning liberalism in all its forms. In many countries, liberal forces responded by [[Suppression of the Society of Jesus|expelling the Jesuit order]]. By the end of the nineteenth century, the principles of classical liberalism were being increasingly challenged, and the ideal of the self-made individual seemed increasingly implausible. Victorian writers like [[Charles Dickens]], [[Thomas Carlyle]] and [[Matthew Arnold]] were early influential critics of social injustice.<ref name = "Richardson 2001"/>{{rp|36–37}}

[[File:Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg.jpg|thumb|upright|As a [[liberal nationalist]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eduskunta.fi/triphome/bin/hx5000.sh?{hnro}=911547&{kieli}=su&{haku}=kaikki |title=Edustajamatrikkeli |language=fi |trans-title= |publisher=Eduskunta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212180625/http://www.eduskunta.fi/triphome/bin/hx5000.sh?%7Bhnro%7D=911547&%7Bkieli%7D=su&%7Bhaku%7D=kaikki |archive-date=2012-02-12}}</ref> [[K. J. Ståhlberg]] (1865–1952), the [[President of Finland]], anchored the state in [[liberal democracy]], guarded the fragile germ of the [[rule of law]], and embarked on internal reforms.<ref>{{cite web |first=Juha |last=Mononen |title=War or Peace for Finland? Neoclassical Realist Case Study of Finnish Foreign Policy in the Context of the Anti-Bolshevik Intervention in Russia 1918–1920 |url=https://tampub.uta.fi/handle/10024/80491 |date=2 February 2009 |publisher=[[University of Tampere]] |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=7 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607035630/http://tampub.uta.fi/handle/10024/80491 |url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

Liberalism gained momentum at the beginning of the 20th century. The bastion of [[autocracy]], the [[Nicholas II|Russian Tsar]], was overthrown in the [[February Revolution|first phase]] of the [[Russian Revolution]]. The Allied victory in the [[First World War]] and the collapse of four empires seemed to mark the triumph of liberalism across the European continent, not just among the [[Allies of World War I|victorious allies]] but also in Germany and the newly created states of [[Eastern Europe]]. Militarism, as typified by Germany, was defeated and discredited. As Blinkhorn argues, the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national [[self-determination]], free market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the [[League of Nations]]".

In the Middle East, liberalism led to constitutional periods, like the Ottoman [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First]] and [[Second Constitutional Era]] and the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution|Persian constitutional period]], but it declined in the late 1930s due to the growth and opposition of [[Islamism]] and [[pan-Arab]] [[Arab nationalism|nationalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kurzman|first1=Charles|title=Liberal Islam: A Source Book|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511622-9|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8HSe9SfXMC&pg=PA10|access-date=25 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="Moaddel1">{{cite book|last1=Moaddel|first1=Mansoor|title=Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse|year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53333-9|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dk6BLopmn3gC&pg=PA4}}</ref><ref name="lapidus">{{cite book |title=A History of Islamic Societies |last=Lapidus |first=Ira Marvin |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 |page=496 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3mVUEzm8xMC&pg=PA496}}</ref><ref name="LorentzIran">{{cite book|last1=Lorentz|first1=John H.|title=The A to Z of Iran|year=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-1-4617-3191-7|page=224|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oV9WwxXbCB8C&pg=PA224|access-date=9 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="LindgrenRoss"/> However, many intellectuals advocated liberal values and ideas. Prominent liberals were [[Taha Hussein]], [[Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed]], [[Tawfiq al-Hakim]], [[Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri]] and [[Muhammad Mandur]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hanssen|first1=Jens|last2=Weiss|first2=Max|title=Arabic Thought beyond the Liberal Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the Nahda|year=2016|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-13633-5|page=299|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPF7DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA299|access-date=10 May 2017}}</ref>

[[File:FDR-1944-Campaign-Portrait (retouched, cropped) (1).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]]]
In the United States, [[Modern liberalism in the United States|modern liberalism]] traces its history to the popular presidency of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], who initiated the [[New Deal]] in response to the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] and won an [[List of Presidents of the United States|unprecedented four elections]]. The [[New Deal coalition]] established by Roosevelt left a strong legacy and influenced many future American presidents, including [[John F. Kennedy]].<ref>Alterman, p. 32.</ref> Meanwhile, the definitive liberal response to the Great Depression was given by the British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]], who had begun a theoretical work examining the relationship between unemployment, money and prices back in the 1920s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pressman|first=Steven|title=Fifty Great Economists|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-13481-1|pages=96–100|publisher=London: routledge|location=London}}</ref> The worldwide Great Depression, starting in 1929, hastened the discrediting of liberal economics and strengthened calls for state control over economic affairs. Economic woes prompted widespread unrest in the European political world, leading to the rise of [[fascism]] as an ideology and a movement against liberalism and [[communism]], especially in [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]].<ref>Heywood, pp. 218–26.</ref> The rise of fascism in the 1930s eventually culminated in [[World War II]], the deadliest conflict in human history. The [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] prevailed in the war by 1945, and their victory set the stage for the [[Cold War]] between the [[Communist state|Communist]] [[Eastern Bloc]] and the liberal [[Western Bloc]].

[[Liberalism in Iran|In Iran]], liberalism enjoyed wide popularity. In April 1951, the [[National Front (Iran)|National Front]] became the governing coalition when democratically elected [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]], a liberal nationalist, took office as the [[Prime Minister of Iran|Prime Minister]]. However, his way of governing conflicted with Western interests, and he was removed from power in a [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|coup on 19 August 1953]]. The coup ended the dominance of liberalism in the country's politics.<ref name="jrisen">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html|work=The New York Times|title=Secrets of History: The C.I.A. in Iran|author=James Risen|date=16 April 2000|access-date=3 November 2006|author-link=James Risen}}</ref><ref>''Clandestine Service History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran'' (March 1954). p. iii.</ref><ref name="CN-IC-01">{{cite book|title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization|year=2007|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-347-6|pages=775 of 1082|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&pg=PA775}}</ref><ref name="FP 2013">{{cite journal|title=CIA Admits It Was Behind Iran's Coup|first=Malcolm|last=Bryne|date=18 August 2013|journal=Foreign Policy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/08/19/cia-admits-it-was-behind-irans-coup/}}</ref><ref>The CIA's history of the 1953 coup in Iran is made up of the following documents: a historian's note, a summary introduction, a lengthy narrative account written by Donald N. Wilber and as appendices five planning documents he attached. Published on 18 June 2000 under the title [https://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html "The C.I.A. in Iran"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125113825/http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html |date=25 January 2013 }} by ''The New York Times''.</ref>

Among the various regional and national movements, the [[civil rights movement]] in the United States during the 1960s strongly highlighted the liberal efforts for [[Social equality|equal rights]].<ref>Mackenzie and Weisbrot, p. 178.</ref> The [[Great Society]] project launched by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] oversaw the creation of [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]], the establishment of [[Head Start Program|Head Start]] and the [[Job Corps]] as part of the [[War on Poverty]] and the passage of the landmark [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], an altogether rapid series of events that some historians have dubbed the "Liberal Hour".<ref>Mackenzie and Weisbrot, p. 5.</ref>

[[File:Nizhny Novgorod. Anti-Corruption Rally (26 March 2017).jpg|thumb|The [[2017–2018 Russian protests]] were organized by Russia's liberal opposition.]]
The Cold War featured extensive ideological competition and several [[proxy war]]s, but the widely feared [[World War III]] between the Soviet Union and the United States never occurred. While communist states and liberal democracies competed against one another, an [[1973 oil crisis|economic crisis]] in the 1970s inspired a move away from [[Keynesian economics]], especially under [[Margaret Thatcher]] in the United Kingdom and [[Ronald Reagan]] in the United States. This trend, known as [[neoliberalism]], constituted a [[paradigm shift]] away from the [[post-war Keynesian consensus]], which lasted from 1945 to 1980.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Palley|first1=Thomas I|date=2004-05-05|title=From Keynesianism to Neoliberalism: Shifting Paradigms in Economics|url=http://fpif.org/from_keynesianism_to_neoliberalism_shifting_paradigms_in_economics/|journal=Foreign Policy in Focus|access-date=25 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=igrwb3rsOOUC&pg=PA339|title=Modern Political Ideologies|last1=Vincent|first1=Andrew|date=2009|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|isbn=978-1-4051-5495-6|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|page=339}}</ref> Meanwhile, nearing the end of the 20th century, communist states in Eastern Europe [[Revolutions of 1989|collapsed precipitously]], leaving liberal democracies as the only major forms of government in the West.

At the beginning of World War II, the number of democracies worldwide was about the same as it had been forty years before.<ref>[[Colomer, Josep Maria]]. ''Great Empires, Small Nations''. New York: Routledge, 2007. {{ISBN|0-415-43775-X}}, p. 62.</ref> After 1945, liberal democracies spread very quickly but then retreated. In ''The Spirit of Democracy'', Larry Diamond argues that by 1974 "dictatorship, not democracy, was the way of the world" and that "barely a quarter of independent states chose their governments through competitive, free, and fair elections". Diamond says that democracy bounced back, and by 1995 the world was "predominantly democratic".<ref>{{cite book|author=Larry Diamond|title=The Spirit of Democracy: The Struggle to Build Free Societies Throughout the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx3JTGSB5JcC&pg=PA7|year=2008|publisher=Henry Holt|page=7|isbn=978-0-8050-7869-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom in the World 2016|publisher=Freedom House|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2016|date=2016-01-27}}</ref> However, liberalism still faces challenges, especially with the phenomenal growth of China as a model combination of authoritarian government and economic liberalism.<ref>Peerenboom, Randall. ''China modernizes''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-19-920834-4}}, pp. 7–8.</ref> Liberalism is frequently cited as the dominant [[ideology]] of the [[modern era]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Adams 2011" />{{rp|11}}

== Criticism and support ==
[[File:Fusilamiento de Torrijos (Gisbert).jpg|thumb|[[Execution of Torrijos and his Companions on the Beach at Málaga|Execution of José María de Torrijos y Uriarte and his men]] in 1831 as Spanish King [[Ferdinand VII]] took [[History of Spain (1810–73)#The Ominous Decade (1823–1833)|repressive measures]] against the liberal forces in his country]]
[[File:Raif Badawi cropped (3x4 cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Raif Badawi]], a [[Saudi Arabia]]n writer and the creator of the website Free Saudi Liberals, who was sentenced to ten years in prison and 1,000 lashes for "insulting Islam" in 2014]]
Liberalism has drawn criticism and support from various ideological groups throughout its history. Despite these complex relationships, some scholars have argued that liberalism actually "rejects ideological thinking" altogether, largely because such thinking could lead to unrealistic expectations for human society.<ref>Wolfe, p. 116.</ref>

=== Anarchism ===
Anarchists criticise the liberal [[social contract]], arguing that it creates a state that is "oppressive, violent, corrupt, and inimical to liberty".<ref>{{Citation |last=Fiala |first=Andrew |title=Anarchism |date=2021 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/anarchism/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-06-17 |edition=Winter 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>

===Catholicism===
One of the most outspoken early critics of liberalism was the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which resulted in lengthy power struggles between national governments and the Church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Grew|first=Raymond|chapter=Liberty and the Catholic Church in 19th century Europe|title=Freedom and Religion in the 19th Century|editor-last=Helmstadter|editor-first=Richard|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8047-3087-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/freedomreligioni0000unse/page/201 201]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/freedomreligioni0000unse/page/201}}</ref> [[Christian democracy]], a movement associated with modern democracy, hopes to spread [[Catholic social teaching|Catholic social ideas]] and has gained a large following in some European nations.<ref>Riff, pp. 34–36.</ref> The early roots of Christian democracy developed as a reaction against the [[industrialisation]] and [[urbanisation]] associated with ''laissez-faire'' liberalism in the 19th century.<ref>Riff, p. 34.</ref>

===Conservatism===
Conservatives have criticised what they perceive as the reckless liberal pursuit of progress and material gains, arguing that such preoccupations undermine traditional social values rooted in community and continuity.<ref>Koerner, p. 14.</ref> However, some variations of conservatism, such as [[liberal conservatism]], expound some of the same ideas and principles championed by classical liberalism, including "small government and thriving capitalism".<ref name="Grigsby, p. 108"/>

[[Edmund Burke]], the first major proponent of modern conservative thought, offered a blistering critique of the French Revolution by assailing the liberal pretensions to the power of rationality and the natural equality of all humans.<ref name="Grigsby, p. 108">Grigsby, p. 108.</ref> Nonetheless, Burke was highly influential on other classical liberal thought, and has been praised by both conservatives and liberals alike.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Keeffe |first=Dennis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVO9QuYUGwwC&pg=PA93 |title=Edmund Burke |publisher=Continuum |year=2009 |isbn=978-0826429780 |editor-last=Meadowcroft |editor-first=John |page=93}}</ref>

In the book ''[[Why Liberalism Failed]]'' (2018), [[Patrick Deneen]] argued that liberalism has led to [[income inequality]], cultural decline, atomization, [[nihilism]], the erosion of freedoms, and the growth of powerful, centralized bureaucracies.<ref name="Linker">Damon Linker, [https://theweek.com/articles/749378/ominous-prophecy-liberalism An ominous prophecy for liberalism], ''The Week'', January 22, 2018.</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Burns |first=Nick |date=2020-04-08 |title=The new intellectuals of the American right |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/americas/north-america/2020/04/new-intellectuals-american-right |access-date=2023-08-10 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US}}</ref> The book also argues that liberalism has replaced old values of community, religion and tradition with self-interest.<ref name=":02" />

Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] believes that "liberalism has become obsolete" and claims that the vast majority of people in the world oppose multiculturalism, immigration, and [[civil and political rights]] for [[LGBTQ]] people.<ref>{{Cite news|date= 27 June 2019|editor1-last=Tiounine|editor1-first=Margot|editor2-last=Hannen|editor2-first=Tom|work=[[Financial Times]]|title=Liberalism 'has outlived its purpose' — President Putin speaks exclusively to the Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/video/a49cfa25-610e-438c-b11d-5dac19619e08|language=en-GB|access-date=23 August 2019}}</ref>

=== Fascism ===
[[Fascism and liberalism|Fascists accuse liberalism]] of [[materialism]] and a lack of spiritual values.<ref name="massaschussetts1">{{cite book |first1=Marvin |last1=Perry |first2=Myrna |last2=Chase |first3=Margaret |last3=Jacob |first4=James R. |last4=Jacob |title=Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society – From 1600 |volume=2 |edition=9th |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company]] |date=2009 |page=760}}</ref> In particular, fascism opposes liberalism for its materialism, [[rationalism]], [[individualism]] and [[utilitarianism]].<ref name="revolution1994">{{cite book |last1=Sternhell |first1=Zeev |first2=Mario |last2=Sznajder |first3=Maia |last3=Ashéri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hnv0F88nLawC |title=The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080448/https://books.google.com/books?id=hnv0F88nLawC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=6 December 2022 |location=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=1994 |page=7|isbn=0691044864 }}</ref> Fascists believe that the liberal emphasis on individual freedom produces national divisiveness,<ref name="massaschussetts1"/> but they generally agree with liberals in their support of [[private property rights]] and a [[market economy]].<ref name="revolution1994"/>

=== Feminism ===
Some [[feminists]] argue that liberalism's emphasis on distinguishing between the private and public spheres in society "allow[s] the flourishing of bigotry and intolerance in the private sphere and to require respect for equality only in the public sphere", making "liberalism vulnerable to the right-wing populist attack. Political liberalism has rejected the feminist call to recognize that the [[personal is political]] and has relied on political institutions and processes as barriers against illiberalism."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stopler |first=Gila |date=May 8, 2021 |title=The personal is political: The feminist critique of liberalism and the challenge of right-wing populism |url=https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/19/2/393/6272532 |access-date=2023-07-13 |journal=[[International Journal of Constitutional Law]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=393–402 |doi=10.1093/icon/moab032|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Islam===
[[Liberalism and progressivism within Islam|Liberalism within Islam]] is supported by some [[Islamic schools and branches]].<ref name="Kurzman 1998">{{cite book |author-last=Kurzman |author-first=Charles |author-link=Charles Kurzman |year=1998 |chapter=Liberal Islam and Its Islamic Context |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8HSe9SfXMC&pg=PA1 |editor-last=Kurzman |editor-first=Charles |title=Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=1–26 |isbn=9780195116229 |oclc=37368975}}</ref><ref name="Essays by Muslims">{{cite book |editor-last=Safi |editor-first=Omid |editor-link=Omid Safi |date=2003 |title=Progressive Muslims: on justice, gender and pluralism |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |isbn=9781851683161 |oclc=52380025}}</ref> The [[Al-Baqara 256]] verse in [[Quran]] supports liberalism by stating "there is no compulsion in religion".<ref name="qref|2|256">{{qref|2|256|b=yl}}</ref> [[Islamic supremacism]], which includes criminal punishment of [[apostasy in Islam]] up to [[capital punishment]], opposes liberalism.<ref name="g263">{{cite journal | last=Kumar H. M. | first=Sanjeev | title=Islam and the Question of Confessional Religious Identity: The Islamic State, Apostasy, and the Making of a Theology of Violence | journal=Contemporary Review of the Middle East | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=5 | issue=4 | date=10 October 2018 | issn=2347-7989 | doi=10.1177/2347798918806415 | pages=327–348}}</ref>

===Marxism===
[[Karl Marx]] rejected the foundational aspects of liberal theory, hoping to destroy both the state and the liberal distinction between society and the individual while fusing the two into a collective whole designed to overthrow the developing capitalist order of the 19th century.<ref>Koerner, pp. 9–12.</ref> [[Vladimir Lenin]] stated that—in contrast with [[Marxism]]—liberal science defends [[wage slavery]];<ref>{{cite book|last1=Selsam|first1=Howard|last2=Martel|first2=Harry|author-link1=Howard Selsam|title=Reader in Marxist Philosophy|year=1963|publisher=[[International Publishers]]|isbn=978-0-7178-0167-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/readerinmarxistp00sels/page/37 37]|url=https://archive.org/details/readerinmarxistp00sels|url-access=registration|access-date=1 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lenin|first1=Vladimir|author-link1=Vladimir Lenin|title=On Culture and Cultural Revolution|date=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CsoSQ6vD8fUC&pg=PA37|publisher=Wildside Press LLC|isbn=978-1-4344-6352-4|page=34|access-date=1 June 2017}}</ref> however, some proponents of liberalism, such as [[Thomas Paine]], [[George Henry Evans]], and [[Silvio Gesell]], were critics of wage slavery.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ssa.gov/history/paine4.html |title=Social Security Online History Pages |access-date=1 June 2017 |archive-date=15 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315055647/http://www.ssa.gov/history/paine4.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Junius P.|author1-link=Junius P. Rodriguez |title=Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia |volume=1 |year=2007 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |page=500 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4X44KbDBl9gC&pg=PA500 |access-date=1 June 2017 |isbn=978-1-85109-544-5}}</ref>

[[Deng Xiaoping]] believed that liberalization would destroy the political stability of the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Chinese Communist Party]], making it difficult for development to take place, and is inherently capitalistic. He termed it "[[bourgeois liberalization]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=《邓小平文选第三卷》《在党的十二届六中全会上的讲话》|language=zh |url=http://www.qstheory.cn/books/2019-07/31/c_1119485398_58.htm|access-date=2022-02-27 |archive-date=2022-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227203520/http://www.qstheory.cn/books/2019-07/31/c_1119485398_58.htm |quote=大家可以回想一下，粉碎“四人帮"以后，全国人大在一九八○年通过一个议案，取消宪法中的关于“大鸣、大放、大辩论、大字报"这一条。为什么做这件事？因为有一股自由化思潮。搞自由化，就会破坏我们安定团结的政治局面。没有一个安定团结的政治局面，就不可能搞建设。 自由化本身就是资产阶级的，没有什么无产阶级的、社会主义的自由化，自由化本身就是对我们现行政策、现行制度的对抗，或者叫反对，或者叫修改。实际情况是，搞自由化就是要把我们引导到资本主义道路上去，所以我们用反对资产阶级自由化这个提法。管什么这里用过、那里用过，无关重要，现实政治要求我们在决议中写这个。我主张用。|trans-quote=}}</ref> Thus, some socialists accuse the economic doctrines of liberalism, such as individual [[economic freedom]], of giving rise to what they view as a system of exploitation that goes against the democratic principles of liberalism, while some liberals oppose the wage slavery that the economic doctrines of capitalism allow.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Beauchamp |first=Zack |date=2019-09-09 |title=The anti-liberal moment |url=https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/9/9/20750160/liberalism-trump-putin-socialism-reactionary |access-date=2021-05-06 |website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Social democracy ===
[[Social democracy]] is an ideology that advocates for the reform of capitalism in a progressive manner. It emerged in the 20th century and was influenced by socialism. Social democracy aims to address what it perceives as the inherent flaws of capitalism through government reform, with a focus on reducing inequality.<ref>Lightfoot, p. 17.</ref> Importantly, social democracy does not oppose the state's existence. Several commentators have noted strong similarities between social liberalism and social democracy, with one political scientist{{who|date=October 2024}} calling [[American liberalism]] "bootleg social democracy" due to the absence of a significant social democratic tradition in the United States.<ref>Susser, p. 110.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Anarchism]]
* [[Illiberal democracy]]
* [[Liberalism by country]]
* [[Libertarianism]]

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography and further reading ===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Alterman |first=Eric |title=Why We're Liberals : A Political Handbook for Post-Bush America|publisher=Viking Adult |year=2008 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-01860-4|oclc= 182857005|author-link=Eric Alterman}}
*{{cite book |last=Ameringer |first=Charles D.|title=Political parties of the Americas, 1980s to 1990s : Canada, Latin America, and the West Indies|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=1992 |location=Westport |isbn=0-313-27418-5|oclc=25202496 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Amin |first1=Samir |last2=Membrez. |first2=James H.|title=The liberal virus: permanent war and the americanization of the world |publisher=Monthly Review Press |year=2004 |location=New York |author-link=Samir Amin|isbn=9781583671078|oclc=55018976}}
*{{cite book |last=Antoninus |first=Marcus Aurelius |title=The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-954059-4|author-link=Marcus Aurelius}}
*{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=N. Scott |title=Imposing values: an essay on liberalism and regulation |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-495-50112-1 |oclc=233591942}}
* Auerbach, Alan and Kotlikoff, Laurence. ''Macroeconomics'' Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-262-01170-0}}.
* Barzilai, Gad. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities'' [[University of Michigan Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-472-03079-8}}.
* Bell, Duncan. "What is Liberalism?" ''Political Theory'', 42/6 (2014).
* Brack, Duncan and Randall, Ed (eds.). ''Dictionary of Liberal Thought''. London: Politico's Publishing, 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-84275-167-1}}.
* [[George Brandis]], Tom Harley & [[Donald Markwell]] (editors). ''Liberals Face the Future: Essays on Australian Liberalism'', Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1984.
* [[Alan Bullock]] & [[Maurice Shock]] (editors). ''The Liberal Tradition: From Fox to Keynes'', Oxford: [[Clarendon Press]], 1967.
* Chodos, Robert et al. ''The unmaking of Canada: the hidden theme in Canadian history since 1945''. Halifax: James Lorimer & Company, 1991. {{ISBN|1-55028-337-5}}.
* {{Cite book|last=Clower|first=Robert W.|editor1-first=K. Vela|editor1-last=Velupillai|editor1-link=Vela Velupillai|date=22 April 2004|title=Macroeconomic Theory and Economic Policy: Essays in Honour of Jean-Paul Fitoussi|chapter=5: Trashing J.B. Say: The Story of a Mare's Nest|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-35650-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzzClShefiYC}}
* Coker, Christopher. ''Twilight of the West''. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998. {{ISBN|0-8133-3368-7}}.
* Taverne, Dick. ''The march of unreason: science, democracy, and the new fundamentalism''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 2005. {{ISBN|0-19-280485-5}}.
* Diamond, Larry. ''The Spirit of Democracy''. New York: Macmillan, 2008. {{ISBN|0-8050-7869-X}}.
* Dobson, John. ''Bulls, Bears, Boom, and Bust''. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006. {{ISBN|1-85109-553-5}}.
* Dorrien, Gary. ''The making of American liberal theology''. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-664-22354-0}}.
* Farr, Thomas. ''World of Faith and Freedom''. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2008. {{ISBN|0-19-517995-1}}.
* Fawcett, Edmund. ''Liberalism: The Life of an Idea''. Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]], 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-691-15689-7}}.
* Feuer, Lewis. ''Spinoza and the Rise of Liberalism''. New Brunswick: Transaction 1984.
* Flamm, Michael and Steigerwald, David. ''Debating the 1960s: liberal, conservative, and radical perspectives''. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. {{ISBN|0-7425-2212-1}}.
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* Gallagher, Michael et al. ''Representative government in modern Europe''. New York: McGraw Hill, 2001. {{ISBN|0-07-232267-5}}.
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* Godwin, Kenneth et al. ''School choice tradeoffs: liberty, equity, and diversity''. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-292-72842-5}}.
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* Grigsby, Ellen. ''Analyzing Politics: An Introduction to Political Science''. Florence: Cengage Learning, 2008. {{ISBN|0-495-50112-3}}.
* Gross, Jonathan. ''Byron: the erotic liberal''. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2001. {{ISBN|0-7425-1162-6}}.
* Hafner, Danica and Ramet, Sabrina. ''Democratic transition in Slovenia: value transformation, education, and media''. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|1-58544-525-8}}.
* Handelsman, Michael. ''Culture and Customs of Ecuador''. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-313-30244-8}}.
* [[Hartz, Louis]]. ''The liberal tradition in America''. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1955. {{ISBN|0-15-651269-6}}.
* {{Cite book|last= Heywood|first=Andrew|year=2003|title=Political Ideologies: An Introduction|location= New York|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn= 978-0-333-96177-3}}
* Hodge, Carl. ''Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1944''. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008. {{ISBN|0-313-33406-4}}.
* Jensen, Pamela Grande. ''Finding a new feminism: rethinking the woman question for liberal democracy''. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8476-8189-0}}.
* Johnson, Paul. ''The Renaissance: A Short History''. New York: Modern Library, 2002. {{ISBN|0-8129-6619-8}}.
* {{cite journal|last=Kanazawa|first=Satoshi|author-link=Satoshi Kanazawa|year=2010|title=Why Liberals and Atheists Are More Intelligent|url=http://personal.lse.ac.uk/kanazawa/pdfs/SPQ2010.pdf |journal= [[Social Psychology Quarterly]]|volume=73|issue=1|pages=33–57|jstor=25677384|doi=10.1177/0190272510361602|citeseerx=10.1.1.395.4490|s2cid=2642312}}
* Karatnycky, Adrian. ''Freedom in the World''. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, 2000. {{ISBN|0-7658-0760-2}}.
* Karatnycky, Adrian et al. ''Nations in transit, 2001''. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, 2001. {{ISBN|0-7658-0897-8}}.
* Kelly, Paul. ''Liberalism''. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-7456-3291-2}}.
* Kirchner, Emil. ''Liberal parties in Western Europe''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. {{ISBN|0-521-32394-0}}.
* Knoop, Todd. ''Recessions and Depressions'' Westport: Greenwood Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-313-38163-1}}.
* Koerner, Kirk. ''Liberalism and its critics''. Oxford: Taylor & Francis, 1985. {{ISBN|0-7099-1551-9}}.
* Lightfoot, Simon. ''Europeanizing social democracy?: The rise of the Party of European Socialists''. New York: Routledge, 2005. {{ISBN|0-415-34803-X}}.
* [[Domenico Losurdo|Losurdo, Domenico]]. ''Liberalism: a counter-history''. London: Verso, 2011.
* Mackenzie, G. Calvin and Weisbrot, Robert. ''The liberal hour: Washington and the politics of change in the 1960s''. New York: Penguin Group, 2008. {{ISBN|1-59420-170-6}}.
* Manent, Pierre and Seigel, Jerrold. ''An Intellectual History of Liberalism''. Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]], 1996. {{ISBN|0-691-02911-3}}.
* [[Donald Markwell]]. ''[[John Maynard Keynes]] and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2006.
* Mazower, Mark. ''Dark Continent''. New York: Vintage Books, 1998. {{ISBN|0-679-75704-X}}.
* Monsma, Stephen and Soper, J. Christopher. ''The Challenge of Pluralism: Church and State in Five Democracies''. Lanham: [[Rowman & Littlefield]], 2008. {{ISBN|0-7425-5417-1}}.
* [[Robert Roswell Palmer|Palmer, R.R.]] and Joel Colton. ''A History of the Modern World''. New York: [[McGraw-Hill]], Inc., 1995. {{ISBN|0-07-040826-2}}.
* Perry, Marvin et al. ''Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society''. Florence, KY: [[Cengage Learning]], 2008. {{ISBN|0-547-14742-2}}.
* Pierson, Paul. ''The New Politics of the Welfare State''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 2001. {{ISBN|0-19-829756-4}}.
* Puddington, Arch. ''Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties''. Lanham: [[Rowman & Littlefield]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-7425-5897-5}}.
* Riff, Michael. ''Dictionary of modern political ideologies''. Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]], 1990. {{ISBN|0-7190-3289-X}}.
* Rivlin, Alice. ''Reviving the American Dream'' Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8157-7476-1}}.
* Ros, Agustin. ''Profits for all?: the cost and benefits of employee ownership''. New York: Nova Publishers, 2001. {{ISBN|1-59033-061-7}}.
* {{Cite book|title=The Lost History of Liberalism : From Ancient Rome to the Twenty-First Century|last=Rosenblatt|first=Helena|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2018|isbn=9780691203966|oclc=1028166609}}
* Routledge, Paul et al. ''The geopolitics reader''. New York: [[Routledge]], 2006. {{ISBN|0-415-34148-5}}.
* {{cite book |last= Russell |first=Bertrand |author-link=Bertrand Russell |year=2000 |orig-date=1945 |title=History of Western Philosophy |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-22854-1 |title-link=A History of Western Philosophy}}
* [[Alan Ryan|Ryan, Alan]]. ''The Philosophy of John Stuart Mill''. Humanity Books: 1970. {{ISBN|978-1-57392-404-7}}.
* [[Alan Ryan|Ryan, Alan]]. ''The Making of Modern Liberalism'' ([[Princeton University Press]], 2012).
* [[Alan Ryan|Ryan, Alan]]. ''On Politics: A History of Political Thought: From Herodotus to the Present''. Allen Lane, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-87140-465-7}}.
* Shell, Jonathan. ''The Unconquerable World: Power, Nonviolence, and the Will of the People''. New York: Macmillan, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8050-4457-4}}.
* Shaw, G. K. ''Keynesian Economics: The Permanent Revolution''. Aldershot, England: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1988. {{ISBN|1-85278-099-1}}.
* Sinclair, Timothy. ''Global governance: critical concepts in political science''. Oxford: [[Taylor & Francis]], 2004. {{ISBN|0-415-27662-4}}.
* Smith, Steven B. ''Spinoza, Liberalism, and the Question of Jewish Identity''. New Haven: Yale University Press 1997. {{ISBN|0300066805}}
* Song, Robert. ''Christianity and Liberal Society''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]], 2006. {{ISBN|0-19-826933-1}}.
* Stacy, Lee. ''Mexico and the United States''. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2002. {{ISBN|0-7614-7402-1}}.
* Steindl, Frank. ''Understanding Economic Recovery in the 1930s''. Ann Arbor: [[University of Michigan Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0-472-11348-8}}.
* Susser, Bernard. ''Political ideology in the modern world''. Upper Saddle River: Allyn and Bacon, 1995. {{ISBN|0-02-418442-X}}.
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* Van den Berghe, Pierre. ''The Liberal dilemma in South Africa''. Oxford: [[Taylor & Francis]], 1979. {{ISBN|0-7099-0136-4}}.
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* Venturelli, Shalini. ''Liberalizing the European media: politics, regulation, and the public sphere''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-823379-5}}.
* Wallerstein, Immanuel. ''The Modern World-System IV: Centrist Liberalism trimphant 1789–1914''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: [[University of California Press]], 2011.
* Whitfield, Stephen. ''Companion to twentieth-century America''. Hoboken: [[Wiley-Blackwell]], 2004. {{ISBN|0-631-21100-4}}.
* [[Alan Wolfe|Wolfe, Alan]]. ''The Future of Liberalism''. New York: [[Random House]], Inc., 2009. {{ISBN|0-307-38625-2}}.
* {{cite book |last=Young |first=Shaun |year=2002 |title=Beyond Rawls: An Analysis of the Concept of Political Liberalism |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=[[University Press of America]] |isbn=978-0-7618-2240-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondrawlsanaly0000youn}}
* Zvesper, John. ''Nature and liberty''. New York: [[Routledge]], 1993. {{ISBN|0-415-08923-9}}.

:: '''Britain'''
* Adams, Ian. ''Ideology and politics in Britain today''. Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]], 1998. {{ISBN|0-7190-5056-1}}.
* Cook, Richard. ''The Grand Old Man''. Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. {{ISBN|1-4191-6449-X}} on Gladstone.
* Falco, Maria. ''Feminist interpretations of Mary Wollstonecraft''. State College: Penn State Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-271-01493-8}}.
* Forster, Greg. ''John Locke's politics of moral consensus''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2005. {{ISBN|0-521-84218-2}}.
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* Wempe, Ben. ''T. H. Green's theory of positive freedom: from metaphysics to political theory''. Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2004. {{ISBN|0-907845-58-4}}.

:: '''France'''
* Frey, Linda and Frey, Marsha. ''The French Revolution''. Westport: [[Greenwood Press]], 2004. {{ISBN|0-313-32193-0}}.
* Hanson, Paul. ''Contesting the French Revolution''. Hoboken: [[Blackwell Publishing]], 2009. {{ISBN|1-4051-6083-7}}.
* Leroux, Robert, ''Political Economy and Liberalism in France: The Contributions of Frédéric Bastiat'', London and New York, [[Routledge]], 2011.
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* Lyons, Martyn. ''Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution''. New York: [[St. Martin's Press]], Inc., 1994. {{ISBN|0-312-12123-7}}.
* Shlapentokh, Dmitry. ''The French Revolution and the Russian Anti-Democratic Tradition''. Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1997. {{ISBN|1-56000-244-1}}.
{{refend}}

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Siege of Multan (1818)

2026-02-28T18:11:00Z

Google updates 22: Improved readability and structure

{{Short description|Part of the Afghan–Sikh Wars}}
{{infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Multan (1818)
| partof = the [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]]
| image = 
| caption =
| date = March 1818 – 2 June 1818
| place = [[Multan]], [[Punjab]] (extended siege at [[Multan Fort]])
| coordinates = {{coord|30.198247|71.470311|region:DE_type:city}}
| map_type = Pakistan
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size = 300px
| map_caption = Location of Multan within present-day [[Pakistan]]
| map_label = Multan
| territory = Sikhs capture Multan from the Afghans<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranjit Singh Sikh maharaja|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ranjit-Singh-Sikh-maharaja|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>
| result = Sikh victory<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of India, Volume III|publisher=Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer|author=Marshman, John Clark|url=https://archive.org/details/historyindiafro05marsgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyindiafro05marsgoog/page/n359 33]|year=1867}}</ref>
| combatant1 = [[Sikh Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[Durrani Empire]]
| commander1 = '''[[Misr Diwan Chand]]''' [[Kharak Singh]]{{#tag:ref|Kharak Singh was the nominal leader of the expedition as several officers refused to serve under Misr Diwan Chand.<ref name=Chopra17>{{harvnb|Chopra|1928|p=17}}</ref>|group=nb}} [[Hari Singh Nalwa]] [[Fateh Singh Ahluwalia]] [[Khushal Singh Jamadar]] Dhanna Singh Malwai [[Sham Singh Attariwala]] [[Akali Phoola Singh]]
| commander2 = '''[[Nawab Muzaffar Khan]]{{KIA}}'''<ref name=Chopra23>{{harvnb|Chopra|1928|p=23}}</ref>
| notes =
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Afghan-Sikh Wars}}
| map_relief =
}}
{{Campaignbox Conflicts in Afghanistan (1900-1950)}}
The '''siege of Multan''' began in March 1818 and lasted until 2 June 1818 as part of the [[Afghan–Sikh Wars]],{{sfn|Jaques|2006|p=696}} and saw the [[Sikh Empire]] capture Multan (in modern-day [[Pakistan]]) from the [[Durrani Empire]].

== Background ==
[[File:Map of Multan - Report for the year 1872-73 - Sir Alexander Cunningham pgXXXVI.jpg|200px|thumb|left|This map of Multan from 1873 shows the prominence of the [[Multan Fort]]]]

[[Maharaja]] [[Ranjit Singh]] had previously invaded [[Multan]] seven times successfully.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History of the Sikhs Volume 5|last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |year=1991 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|isbn=9788121505154|pages=106}}</ref> He first led the invasion in 1802 which ended with [[Nawab Muzaffar Khan]] offering his submission, some presents and a promise to pay tribute.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=106}} Ranjit Singh led the second invasion in 1805 which resulted in Nawab Muzaffar Khan again offering him rich presents and a tribute of 70,000 rupees.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=107}} The third invasion in 1807 happened when Ahmad Khan Sial, who had fled to [[Jhang]] during Ranjit Singh's invasion of Multan in 1805, persuaded Nawab Muzaffar to organise a tough resistance against Ranjit Singh, noting that Ranjit Singh was busy with Holkar-Lake incident.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=107}} Ranjit Singh advanced and besieged Multan but the siege was raised after the Nawab yielded, paying some tribute and gifting 5 horses.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=107}} Fourth invasion in 1810 led due to Muzaffar Khan's refusal to pay tribute where Ranjit Singh captured the city and laid siege of the fort.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=107}} After a hard-fought battle over 2 months, Muzaffar Khan was defeated and submitted to paying tribute of 180,000 rupees along with 20 horses and a promise to pay annual tribute to Ranjit Singh. Fifth invasion occurred in 1812 but ended peacefully with successful negotiation of tribute.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=108}} The sixth invasion in 1815 led resulted from the annual tribute from Multan falling past due, resulting in a siege where the Sikhs scaled the walls of the fort, leading to Muzaffar Khan's submission and paying 200,000 rupees.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=108}} In 1816, Nawab realized tribute after brief resistance and continued to realize tribute the following year, but in August 1817, news of Nawab extorting money from the people of Multan resulting in their hardship, reached Lahore.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=108}} Tired of demands of tributes, Nawab Muzaffar Khan decided to militarily resist by putting the fort in a state of defence after repairing the fort and mounting guns and gathering resources, and this led to Ranjit Singh's final conquest of Multan in 1818, resulting in the capture and fall of the city, bringing the territory under the complete domain of Sikh Empire with the appointment of Sukh Dayal Khatri as the governor of Multan followed by Sham Singh Peshauriya.{{sfn|Gupta|1991|p=112}}

== Battle ==
In early 1818, [[Ranjit Singh]] ordered [[Misr Diwan Chand]] to [[wikt:rendezvous|rendezvous]] on the south-west frontier of the Sikh Empire to make preparations for an expedition against Multan. By January 1818, the Sikh Empire had established an extensive [[supply chain]] from the capital, [[Lahore]], to Multan, with the use of boat transports to ferry supplies across the [[Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], and [[Ravi River|Ravi]] rivers.{{sfn|Chopra|1928|p=17}} [[Datar Kaur|Maharani Datar Kaur]] (Mai Nakkain) was given the command <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2FRAAAAYAAJ&q=datar+kaur|title=Journal of Sikh Studies|date=2001|publisher=Department of Guru Nanak Studies, Guru Nanak Dev University.|language=en}}</ref> of the food and ammunition supply additionally she, herself oversaw the steady supply of grain, horses, and ammunition being sent to the at [[Kot Kamalia]], a town equally distanced between Multan and Lahore.{{sfn|Chopra|1928|p=17}}

In early January, Misr Diwan Chand began their campaign with the capture of [[Nawab Muzaffar Khan]]'s forts at [[Muzaffargarh]] and [[Khangarh, Punjab|Khangarh]].<ref>=Gazetteer of the Multan District |Tile=
Ranjit Singh and His Generals</ref> In February, the Sikh force under actual command of [[Misr Diwan Chand]] and nominally under [[Kharak Singh]]<ref>= |Book Title=The Panjab Past and Present - Volume 14 - Page 195 | Book Title=Journal of the United Service Institution of India</ref> reached Multan and ordered Muzaffar to pay the large [[tribute]] he owed and to surrender the fort, but Muzaffar refused. The Sikh forces under [[Misr Diwan Chand]] won an engagement near the city but were unable to capture Muzaffar before he retreated into the fort. The Sikh army asked for more artillery and Ranjit Singh sent them the [[Zamzama]] and other large artillery pieces, which commenced fire on the walls of the fort. Muzaffar and his sons attempted a [[sortie]] to defend the fort but were killed in the battle. The siege of Multan ended significant [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] influence in the [[Peshawar]] region and led to the capture of [[Peshawar]] by the [[Sikhs]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sandhu|first=Autar Singh|title=General Hari Singh Nalwa 1791-1837|year=1935|pages=10}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
The people who lived in Multan suffered greatly as a result of the sack. Numerous people experienced severe hardships, such as losing their belongings and, in worst situations, their lives. Under danger of shame, several women reportedly resorted to drastic methods, such as drowning themselves in wells or taking their own lives.{{sfn|Husain|2018|p=18}} The onslaught claimed the lives of hundreds of inhabitants, and only a small percentage of them survived without suffering harm or loss.{{sfn|Husain|2018|p=18}}

The Sikh military leaders who had participated in this campaign were given inams and jagirs. ' Misr Diwan Chand, the main conqueror of Multan, was awarded the title of Zafar-Jang-Bahadur (the victorious in battle), and was also given a jagir worth 25,000 rupees and a khillat of the value of one lakh rupees.<ref>The Panjab Past and Present - Volume 19</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

== See also ==

* [[Siege of Multan (disambiguation)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book |title=The Panjab as a Sovereign State |last=Chopra |first=Gulshan Lall |year=1928 |publisher=Uttar Chand Kapur and Sons |location=Lahore}}
*{{cite book |title=A history of the Sikhs |last=Cunningham |first=Joseph Davey |year=1918 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=London, New york |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.164105 }}
*{{cite book |title= Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A-E |last= Jaques |first= Tony |year=2006 |publisher= [[Greenwood Press]] |isbn= 978-0-313-33537-2 |url= http://m.friendfeed-media.com/6e9ec7f58014456d2d5fd015cc8af9d2974509c0 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150626120848/http://m.friendfeed-media.com/6e9ec7f58014456d2d5fd015cc8af9d2974509c0 |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2015-06-26 }}
*{{cite book|last=Prakash|first=Om|title=Encyclopaedic History of Indian Freedom Movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=biAogtjmemYC&pg=PA268|access-date=31 May 2010|date=2002-09-01|publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|isbn=978-81-261-0938-8}}
*{{cite book |title=Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban |last=Tanner |first=Stephen |year=2009 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-306-81826-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistanmilit00tann|url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |title=Afghanistan in the Age of Empires: The Great Game for South and Central Asia |last=Husain |first=Farrukh |year=2018 |publisher=Silk Road Books |edition=illustrated |isbn=9781527216334 }}

{{Sikh Empire}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Multan, Battle of}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1818]]
[[Category:1818 in India]]
[[Category:History of Multan]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Sikh Empire]]
[[Category:March 1818]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Durrani Empire]]

India women's national football team results (unofficial matches)

2026-02-23T17:05:59Z

Google updates 22: stub

{{Short description|List of unofficial match results for the Indian women's national football team}}
{{India women's national football team results}}
This is a list of the '''[[India women's national football team]]''' results that, for various reasons, are '''''not''''' accorded the status of official International A Matches.

==Legend==
{{legend2|#CCFFCC|'''W'''in|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFFFCC|'''D'''raw|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFCCCC|'''L'''oss|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

''Till 1990s the Indian Women National Team was controlled by the Women Football Federation of India '''''(WFFI)''''' which was affiliated to Asian Ladies' Football Confederation '''''(ALFC)''''' neither of which were affiliated to [[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]] or [[FIFA]] for which the international matches played by the team from 1975 till 1994 were refused to be recognised by FIFA.''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dey |first1=Subrata |title=India Women's International matches |date=3 October 2019|website=[[RSSSF]] |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/india-wom-intres.pdf |accessdate=29 October 2019}}</ref>

==1981==
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Women's World Invitational Tournament|Women's Invitational]]
| date = 12 October
| time =
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
| score = 0–0
| report = http://www.rsssf.com/tablesw/wom-wit81.html
| team2 = {{flagicon|FRG}} [[SV Bergisch Gladbach 09#Women's football|Bergisch Gladbach]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Zhongshan Soccer Stadium]]
| location = [[Taipei]], Taiwan
| attendance =
| result = D
| referee =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Women's World Invitational Tournament|Women's Invitational]]
| date = 13 October
| time =
| team1 = [[HJK Helsinki (women)|HJK]] {{flagicon|Finland}}
| score = 5–0
| report = http://www.rsssf.com/tablesw/wom-wit81.html
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Zhongshan Soccer Stadium]]
| location = [[Taipei]], Taiwan
| attendance =
| result = L
| referee =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Women's World Invitational Tournament|Women's Invitational]]
| date = 14 October
| time =
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
| score = 2–2
| report = http://www.rsssf.com/tablesw/wom-wit81.html
| team2 = {{fbw|HAI|1964}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Zhongshan Soccer Stadium]]
| location = [[Taipei]], Taiwan
| attendance =
| result = D
| referee =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Women's World Invitational Tournament|Women's Invitational]]
| date = 17 October
| time =
| team1 = DBSS Sting SC {{flagicon|USA}}
| score = 5–0
| report = http://www.rsssf.com/tablesw/wom-wit81.html
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|National Stadium]]
| location = [[Kaohsiung]], Taiwan
| attendance =
| result = L
| referee =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Women's World Invitational Tournament|Women's Invitational]]
| date = 18 October
| time =
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
| score = 0–2
| report = http://www.rsssf.com/tablesw/wom-wit81.html
| team2 = {{fbw|ROC}} B
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[National Stadium (Kaohsiung)|National Stadium]]
| location = [[Kaohsiung]], Taiwan
| attendance =
| result = L
| referee =
}}

==1986==
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = Tien Soeharto Cup
| date = 20 January
| time =
| team1 = Putri Pagilaran (Melati) {{flagicon|IDN}}
| score = 2–0
| report = [https://www.rsssf.org/tablest/tiensoeharto86.html] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160315014106/http://www.indianfootball.de/data/wmatchdatabase.html]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 = Yuri Maryati {{goal|3}} Atmini {{goal|13}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Soemantri Brodjonegoro Stadium|Kuningan Students' Stadium]]
| location = [[South Jakarta]], Indonesia
| attendance =
| result = L
| referee =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = Tien Soeharto Cup
| date = 23 January
| time =
| team1 = DKI Jaya (Mawar) {{flagicon|IDN}}
| score = 0–8
| report = [https://www.rsssf.org/tablest/tiensoeharto86.html] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160315014106/http://www.indianfootball.de/data/wmatchdatabase.html]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
* Shukla Dutta {{goal|2||13||48||59}}
* Kungenwari {{goal|20}}
* Clementina Fernandes {{goal|22}}
* Anita Sarkar {{goal|32||67}}
| stadium = [[Soemantri Brodjonegoro Stadium|Kuningan Students' Stadium]]
| location = [[South Jakarta]], Indonesia
| attendance =
| result = W
| referee =
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = Tien Soeharto Cup
| date = 24 January
| time =
| team1 = Buana Putri (Cempaka) {{flagicon|IDN}}
| score = 1–4
| report = [https://www.rsssf.org/tablest/tiensoeharto86.html] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160315014106/http://www.indianfootball.de/data/wmatchdatabase.html]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 = Nine Noventi {{goal|44}}
| goals2 = Shukla Dutta {{goal|28||38||54||55}}
| stadium = [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium|Senayan Main Stadium]]
| location = [[South Jakarta]], Indonesia
| attendance =
| result = W
| referee =
}}

==2003==
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = FAS International W's Tournament
| date = 15 October
| time =
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|THA}}
| score = 9–0
| report = [https://www.rsssf.org/tablesw/wom-singapore03.html] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200802071609/http://www.indianfootball.de/data/wmatchdatabase.html] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160808185826/http://indianfootball.de/news/m200310.html]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Choa Chu Kang Stadium]]
| location = [[Choa Chu Kang]], Singapore
| attendance =
| referee =
| result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = FAS International W's Tournament
| date = 16 October
| time =
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|VIE}}
| score = 3–0
| report = [https://www.rsssf.org/tablesw/wom-singapore03.html] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160808185826/http://indianfootball.de/news/m200310.html]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Choa Chu Kang Stadium]]
| location = [[Choa Chu Kang]], Singapore
| attendance =
| result = L
| referee =
}}

==2005==
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = Vietnam Coal Tournament
| date = 2 October
| time =
| team1 = Cua Ong Coal {{flagicon|VIE}}
| score = 1–0
| report = [https://www.rsssf.org/tablesw/wom-vietcoal05.html] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160808191634/http://indianfootball.de/news/m200510.html]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 = Le Thi Hoai Thu {{goal|33}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Cẩm Phả Stadium]]
| location = [[Cẩm Phả]], Vietnam
| attendance =
| result = L
| referee =
}}

==2013==
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
|date = 17 January
|time =
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 0–2
|report = [https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/netherlands-women-win-2-0-against-india-in-kolhapur] [https://blog.cpdfootball.de/2013/01/17/friendly-match-women-india-0-2-netherlands/]
|team2 = {{flagicon|NED}} KNVB CTO
|goals1 =
|goals2 = Annebel ten Broeke {{goal|2}} Sylvana Tieleman {{goal|76}}
|stadium = [[Rajarshi Shahu Stadium]]
|location = [[Kolhapur]], India
|attendance = 20000
|result = L
|referee=
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
|date = 20 January
|time =
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 1–0
|report = [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/indian-womens-football-team-pulls-off-shock-win-over-dutch/articleshow/18104669.cms] [https://blog.cpdfootball.de/2013/01/20/ashalata-devis-goal-secures-india-a-win-against-the-netherlands/]
|team2 = {{flagicon|NED}} KNVB CTO
|goals1 = [[Ashalata Devi]] {{goal|15}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = [[Fr. Agnel Stadium]]
|location = [[Navi Mumbai]], India
|attendance = 4000
|result = W
|referee=
}}

==2014==
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
|date = 6 September
|time =
|team1 = Century Park FC {{flagicon|CHN}}
|score = 2–4
|report = https://www.the-aiff.com/article/india-women-prove-too-good-for-century-park-fc
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 = ? {{goal|60}} ? {{goal|72}}
|goals2 = [[Bala Devi]] {{goal|6||10||34}} [[Yumlembam Premi Devi|Premi Devi]] {{goal}}
|stadium =
|location = [[Shanghai]], China
|referee =
|result = W
}}

==2017==
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 28 July
|time =
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|MAS}}
|score = 2–2
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
*?
|goals2 =
*[[Moirangthem Mandakini Devi|Mandakini Devi]] {{goal}}
*[[Yumnam Kamala Devi|Kamala Devi]] {{goal}}
|stadium =
|location = [[Kuala Lumpur]], Malaysia
|attendance =
|referee =
|report = https://www.the-aiff.com/article/girls-look-to-be-in-great-shape-maymol-rocky
|result = D
}}

==2018==
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
|date = 31 July
|time =
|team1 = [[UD Alzira]] {{flagicon|Valencian Community}}
|score = 1–3
|report = https://the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=9073
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 = {{goal|60}}
|goals2 = {{goal|19}} [[Bala Devi]] {{goal|51}} [[Grace Dangmei]] {{goal|56}} [[Kamala Devi Yumnam]]
|stadium =
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|referee =
|result = W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2018]]
|date = 1 August
|time = 19:00 [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|team1 = [[Fundación Albacete]] {{flagicon|Albacete}}
|score = 4–1
|report = http://www.cotifalcudia.com/partido/f-albacete-vs-seleccion-nacional-india/
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
*[https://www.laliga.es/jugador/alba-redondo Alba Redondo] {{goal|30}}
*[https://www.laliga.es/jugador/leles Leles] {{goal|42}}
*[https://www.laliga.es/jugador/costa-1 Miriam Costa] {{goal|53}}
*[https://www.laliga.es/jugador/tomo Tomo Matsukawa] {{goal|70}}
|goals2 =
*[[Kamala Devi Yumnam]] {{goal|19|pen.}}
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 2,000
|referee = [[José Luis Munuera Montero]] [[List of FIFA international referees|FIFA]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2018]]
|date = 3 August
|time = 19:00 [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 0–5
|report = http://www.cotifalcudia.com/partido/seleccion-nacional-india-vs-levante-ud/
|team2 = {{flagicon|Valencian Community}} [[Levante UD Femenino|Levante UD]]
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[[Nerea Pérez Machado]] {{goal|25}}
*[[Jéssica Silva]] {{goal|27||37}}
*[[María Alharilla Casado|María Alharilla]] {{goal|52|pen.}}
*[[Sonia Bermúdez (footballer)|Sonia Bermúdez]] {{goal|58}}
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 1,500
|referee = [[Guillermo Cuadra Fernández]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2018]]
|date = 5 August
|time = 17:45 [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 1–5
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200652/http://www.cotifalcudia.com/partido/seleccion-nacional-india-vs-seleccion-nacional-marruecos/
|team2 = {{fbw|MAR}}
|goals1 =
*[[Sandhiya Ranganathan]] {{goal|42}}
|goals2 =
*[[Ghizlane Chebbak]] {{goal|49|pen.}}
*[[Najat Badri]] {{goal|51||56}}
*[[Ibtissam Jraïdi]] {{goal|70|pen.}}
*[[Aziza Rabbah]] {{goal|70+3}}
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 1,000
|referee = [[Ricardo de Burgos Bengoetxea]] [[List of FIFA international referees|FIFA]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2018]]
|date = 6 August
|time = 19:30 [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|team1 = [[Madrid CFF]] {{flagicon|Madrid}}
|score = 1–0
|report = http://www.cotifalcudia.com/partido/madrid-cf-vs-seleccion-nacional-india/
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 = [[Alba Mellado]] {{goal|70|pen.}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 2,000
|referee = [[:es:Eduardo Prieto Iglesias|Eduardo Prieto Iglesias]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = L
}}

==2019==
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
|date = 26 July
|time =
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 5–0
|report = https://twitter.com/IndianFootball/status/1154709738740830208
|team2 = {{flagicon|Valencian Community}} CF Athletico Carcer
|goals1 =
*[[Grace Dangmei]] {{goal}}{{goal}}
*[[Ngangom Bala Devi|Bala Devi]] {{goal|pen.}}
*[[Jabamani Tudu]] {{goal}}
*[[Sanju Yadav]] {{goal}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|referee=
|result = W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
|date = 29 July
|time =
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 1–0
|report = https://twitter.com/IndianFootball/status/1155794967727448064
|team2 = {{flagicon|Valencian Community}} [[UD Alzira]]
|goals1 = [[Grace Dangmei]] {{goal|}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|referee =
|result = W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2019]]
|date = 1 August
|time =
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 0–2
|report = [http://www.cotifalcudia.com/en/partido/seleccion-nacional-india-femenino-2019-vs-villarreal-cf-femenino-2019/] [https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=9836]
|team2 = {{flagicon|Valencian Community}} [[Villarreal CF]] U20
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*Sheila Gómez {{goal|9}}
*Nazaret Padrón {{goal|62}}
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 700
|referee = [[:es:Iosu Galech Apezteguía|Iosu Galech Apezteguía]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2019]]
|date = 3 August
|time = 23:30 IST
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 3–1
|report = [http://www.cotifalcudia.com/en/partido/seleccion-nacional-india-femenino-2019-vs-sel-nal-bolivia-femenino-2019-2/] [https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=9839]
|team2 = {{flagicon|Bolivia}} [[Bolivia women's national under-20 football team|Bolivia U19]]
|goals1 =
*[[Ngangom Bala Devi|Bala Devi]] {{goal|5}}
*[[Nongmaithem Ratanbala Devi|Ratanbala Devi]] {{goal|36||58}}
|goals2 = [[Ngangbam Sweety Devi|Sweety Devi]] {{goal|2|o.g.}}
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 1,000
|referee = [[:es:César Soto Grado|César Soto Grado]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2019]]
|date = 4 August
|time = 22:15 IST
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|MTN}}
|score = 0–7
|report = [https://web.archive.org/web/20210511232055/http://www.cotifalcudia.com/en/partido/sel-nal-mauritania-femenino-2019-vs-seleccion-nacional-india-femenino-2019/] [https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=9841]
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[[Manisha Kalyan]] {{goal|3}}
*[[Grace Dangmei]] {{goal|7||32}}
*[[Ngangom Bala Devi|Bala Devi]] {{goal|27}}
*[[Loitongbam Ashalata Devi|Ashalata Devi]] {{goal|51|pen.|63|pen.}}
*[[Heigrujam Daya Devi|Daya Devi]] {{goal|65}}
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 1,500
|referee = [[:es:Luis Mario Milla Alvendiz|Luis Mario Milla Alvendiz]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[L'Alcúdia International Football Tournament|Cotif Cup 2019]]
|date = 7 August
|time = 24:00 IST
|team1 = [[Spain women's national under-20 football team|Spain U20]] {{flagicon|SPA}}
|score = 2–0
|report = [http://www.cotifalcudia.com/en/partido/sel-nal-espana-femenino-2019-vs-seleccion-nacional-india-femenino-2019/]
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 = Jana {{goal|15}} Irene {{goal|64|pen.}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = Estadi municipal Els Arcs de L'alcúdia
|location = [[Valencia]], Spain
|attendance = 2,500
|referee = [[:es:Oliver de la Fuente Ramos|Oliver Fuente Ramos]] ([[Royal Spanish Football Federation|Spain]])
|result = L
}}

==2021==
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
| date = 17 February
| time = 13:00
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|SRB}}
| score = 2–0
| report = [https://x.com/MundialesyCopas/status/1362100208390328327 Twitter]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
*[[Tijana Matić|Matić]] {{goal|20}}
*[[Nina Matejić|Matejić]] {{goal}}
| goals2 =
| location = [[Kargıcak]], Turkey
| stadium = Gold City Sports Complex
| attendance =
| referee =
| result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
| date = 20 October
| time =
| team1 = [[Hammarby Fotboll (women)|Hammarby IF]] {{Flagdeco|SWE}}
| score = 3–2
| report = [https://www.the-aiff.com/article/indian-womens-team-lose-lead-and-match-against-swedens-hammarby-if Report (article)] [https://www.the-aiff.com/match-center/nt/199 Report (detailed)]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
*[[Nina Jakobsson|Jakobsson]] {{goal|36}}
*Amanda Sundstrom {{goal|52}}
*[[Sorokhaibam Ranjana Chanu|Chanu]] {{goal|78|o.g.}}
| goals2 =
*[[Indumathi Kathiresan|Indumathi]] {{goal|30}}
*[[Manisha Panna|Panna]] {{goal|40}}
| location = [[Stockholm]], Sweden
| stadium = [[Hammarby IP]]
| attendance =
| referee =
| result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
| date = 23 October
| time =
| team1 = [[Djurgårdens IF Fotboll (women)|Djurgårdens IF]] {{Flagdeco|SWE}}
| score = 1–0
| report = [https://www.the-aiff.com/article/djurgarden-if-beat-india-in-friendly-match Report (article)] [https://www.the-aiff.com/match-center/nt/201 Report (detailed)]
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 = [[Fanny Lång|Lang]] {{goal|43}}
| goals2 =
| location = [[Stockholm]], Sweden
| stadium = [[Stockholm Olympic Stadium]]
| attendance =
| referee =
| result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
| date = 15 December
| time =
| score = 4–0
| report = https://twitter.com/IndianFootball/status/1471160112102268930
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
| goals1 =
| team2 = {{flagicon|IND}} All Stars
| goals2 =
| stadium = Panampilly Nagar Ground
| location = [[Kochi]], India
| attendance =
| referee =
| result = W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
| date = 17 December
| time =
| score = 3–0
| report = https://twitter.com/IndianFootball/status/1471881271210958848
| team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
| goals1 =
| team2 = {{flagicon|IND}} All Stars
| goals2 =
| stadium = Panampilly Nagar Ground
| location = [[Kochi]], India
| attendance =
| referee =
| result = W
}}

==2022==
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = U-23 Tri-nation series
| date = 22 June
| time = {{UTZ|22:30|+2}}
| team1 = Sweden U23 {{Flagdeco|SWE}}
| score = 1–0
| team2 = {{Flagdeco|IND}} India
| goals1 = [[Linn Vickius|Vickius]] {{goal|90+8}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Ängelholms IP]]
| location = [[Ängelholm]], Sweden
| attendance =
| referee =
| report = https://www.the-aiff.com/article/injury-time-goal-hands-india-defeat-against-sweden-in-wu23-3-nations-tournament
| result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = U-23 Tri-nation series
| date = 25 June
| time = {{UTZ|22:30|+2}}
| team1 = {{fbwu-rt|23|USA|name=United States U23}}
| score = 4–1
| team2 = {{Flagdeco|IND}} India
| goals1 =
*[[Messiah Bright|Bright]] {{goal|9}}
*[[Jenna Nighswonger|Nighswonger]] {{goal|47}}
*[[Sierra Enge|Enge]] {{goal|74}}
*[[Ava Cook|Cook]] {{goal|85}}
| goals2 =
*[[Pyari Xaxa|Xaxa]] {{goal|8}}
| stadium = Laröds IP
| location = [[Helsingborg]], Sweden
| attendance =
| referee =
| report = https://www.the-aiff.com/article/india-lose-lead-and-match-against-usa-in-wu23-3-nations-tournament
| result = L
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
| date = 27 June
| time = {{UTZ|22:30|+2}}
| team1 = [[Eskilsminne IF]] {{flagicon|SWE}}
| score = 1–3
| team2 = {{Flagdeco|IND}} India
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
*[[Priyangka Devi|P. Devi]] {{goal|35}}
*[[Manisha Kalyan|Kalyan]] {{goal|70||74}}
| stadium =
| location = Sweden
| attendance =
| referee =
| report =
| result = W
}}

== 2025 ==
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 29 October
|time = {{UTZ|16:45|+5:30}}
|team1 = {{fbw-rt|IND}}
|score = 1–1
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20251029191400/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/india-and-nepal-womens-teams-play-exhibition-match-in-gangtok
|team2 = {{fbw|NEP}}
|goals1 = [[Soumya Guguloth|Guguloth]] {{goal|30}}
|goals2 = [[Rashmi Ghising|Ghising]] {{goal|45+2}}
|penaltyscore = 0–3
|penalties1 =
*[[Priyadharshini Selladurai|Priyadharshini]] {{penmiss}}
*[[Santosh (footballer)|Santosh]] {{penmiss}}
*[[Astam Oraon|Oraon]] {{penmiss}}
|penalties2 =
*[[Sabita Rana Magar|S. Magar]] {{pengoal}}
*[[Rashmi Kumari Ghising|Ghising]] {{pengoal}}
*[[Anita Basnet|Basnet]] {{penmiss}}
*[[Nisha Thokar|Thokar]] {{pengoal}}
|stadium = [[Paljor Stadium]]
|location = [[Gangtok]], India
|attendance =
|referee = Meera Tamang ([[Bhutan Football Federation|Bhutan]])
|result = D
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
| date = 30 November
| time =
| team1 = Precision FC {{flagicon|UAE}}
| score = 1–8
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
*[[Lynda Kom]] {{goal|?||?||?||?}}
*[[Aveka Singh]] {{goal|?||?}}
*[[Sangita Basfore]] {{goal|?}}
*[[Anju Tamang]] {{goal|?}}
| stadium =
| location = United Arab Emirates
| attendance =
| referee =
| report = https://x.com/MarcusMergulhao/status/1995164544176648410
| result = W
}}
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Hybrid friendly]]
| date = 1 December
| time =
| team1 = [[Banaat FC|Banaat]] {{flagicon|UAE}}
| score = 1–3
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
*[[Aveka Singh]] {{goal|?}}
*[[Anju Tamang]] {{goal|?}}
*[[Manisha Kalyan]] {{goal|?}}
| stadium =
| location = United Arab Emirates
| attendance =
| referee =
| report = https://x.com/MarcusMergulhao/status/1995518718714192208
| result = W
}}

== 2026 ==
{{Football box collapsible
| format = 1
| round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
| date = 18 January
| time = {{UTZ|17:30|+5:30}}
| team1 = [[FC Metalist 1925 Kharkiv (women)|Metalist 1925 Kharkiv]] {{flagicon|UKR}}
| score = 2–0
| team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
| goals1 =
*Lydia Zaborovets {{goal|60|pen.}}
*Lesia Olkhova {{goal|90+3}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Arslan Zeki Demirci Sports Complex|Emirhan Sport Center]]
| location = [[Manavgat]], Turkey
| attendance =
| referee =
| report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260215195655/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/blue-tigresses-suffer-defeat-in-friendly-against-fc-metalist-1925-in-turkiye
| result = L
}}
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 24 January
|time = {{UTZ|17:30|+5:30}}
|team1 = [[FC Schlieren|Schlieren]] {{fbicon|SUI}}
|score = 1–2
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260210002309/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/blue-tigresses-defeat-fc-schlieren-in-closed-door-friendly
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
*Stefanie Raschle {{goal|85|pen.}}
|goals2 =
*[[Anju Tamang|Tamang]] {{goal|19}}
*[[Grace Dangmei|Dangmei]] {{goal|81}}
|stadium = Evrenseki/Ilıca Stadium
|location = [[Manavgat]], Turkey
|attendance =
|referee =
|result = W
}}
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 30 January
|time = {{UTZ|19:30|+5:30}}
|team1 = [[FC Spartak Moscow (women)|Spartak Moscow]] {{fbicon|RUS}}
|score = 0–0
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260215195534/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/blue-tigresses-play-out-a-stalemate-with-spartak-moscow
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|stadium = Evrenseki Stadium
|location = [[Antalya]], Turkey
|attendance =
|referee =
|result = D
}}
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 2 February
|time = {{UTZ|17:30|+5:30}}
|team1 = [[:de:Hertha BSC (Frauenfußball)|Hertha BSC]] {{fbicon|GER}}
|score = 0–1
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260203062650/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/india-hand-friendly-defeat-to-hertha-bsc-frauen-in-turkiye
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
|goals2 = [[Grace Dangmei|Dangmei]] {{goal|37}}
|stadium = Evrenseki Stadium
|location = [[Antalya]], Turkey
|attendance =
|referee =
|result = W
}}
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 4 February
|time = {{UTZ|17:30|+5:30}}
|team1 = [[Zvezda-2005 Perm]] {{fbicon|RUS}}
|score = 0–2
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260215185654/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/blue-tigresses-defeat-zvezda-2005-perm-notch-third-friendly-win-in-turkiye
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[[Anju Tamang|Tamang]] {{goal|9}}
*[[Lynda Kom|Kom]] {{goal|89}}
|stadium = S&B Sport Football Complex
|location = [[Serik]], Turkey
|attendance =
|referee =
|result = W
}}
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 7 February
|time =
|team1 = [[FK Csíkszereda Miercurea Ciuc (women's football)|Csíkszereda]] {{fbicon|ROM}}
|score = 1–0
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260215183329/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/blue-tigresses-suffer-narrow-defeat-against-fk-csikszereda-miercurea-ciuc
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 = ? {{goal|12}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = Fanatic Tour Serik Sport Center
|location = [[Serik]], Turkey
|attendance =
|referee =
|result = L
}}
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 19 February
|time = {{UTZ|14:30|+5:30}}
|team1 = [[Perth RedStar FC|Perth RedStar]] {{fbicon|AUS}}
|score = 0–5
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260219124040/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/blue-tigresses-defeat-perth-redstar-in-closed-door-friendly-in-perth
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[[Aveka Singh|A. Singh]] {{goal}}{{goal}}
*[[Pyari Xaxa|Xaxa]] {{goal}}
*[[Nirmala Devi Phanjoubam|Phanjoubam]] {{goal}}
*[[Sanju Yadav|Yadav]] {{goal}}
|stadium = Dalmatinac Sports & Community Club Ground
|location = [[Perth]], Australia
|attendance =
|referee =
|result = W
}}
{{Footballbox collapsible
|format = 1
|round = [[Exhibition game|Unofficial friendly]]
|date = 23 February
|time = {{UTZ|16:00|+5:30}}
|team1 = [[Perth SC|Perth Azzurri]] {{fbicon|AUS}}
|score = 2–7
|report = https://web.archive.org/web/20260223165718/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/indian-womens-team-steam-past-perth-azzurri
|team2 = {{fbw|IND}}
|goals1 =
* ?? {{goal|pen.}}
* ?? {{goal}}
|goals2 =
* [[Grace Dangmei|Dangmei]] {{goal}}
* [[Rimpa Haldar|Haldar]] {{goal}}
* [[Babina Devi Lisham|Lisham]] {{goal}}
* [[Kaviya Pakkirisamy|Pakkirisamy]] {{goal}}
* [[Sangita Basfore|Basfore]] {{goal}}{{goal}}
|stadium = [[Macedonia Park]]
|location = [[Perth]], Australia
|attendance =
|referee =
|result = W
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{India women's national football team}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian women's national football team results (unofficial matches)}}
[[Category:India women's national football team results|Unofficial]]
[[Category:Lists of national association football team unofficial results]]

Deenar Nagar

2026-02-22T20:40:55Z

Google updates 22: stub.

{{refimprove|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
'''Deenar Nagar''' is a small town in [[Kasaragod]] district, [[Kerala]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=2011 |title=Basic Population Figures of India, States, Districts, Sub-District and Village, 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] |access-date=May 18, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711042331/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=2022-07-11}}</ref> '''Deenar Nagar''' is located about 3 km inwards to Bandiyod, a small town between [[Kasaragod]] and [[Mangalore]]. It is around 19.7 km north to the [[Kasaragod]] town and 39 km south to [[Mangalore]].

== Sports ==

[[Association football|Football]] and [[cricket]] are given major importance in Deenar Nagar. Other sports like [[volleyball]] and gori are also played there.

Dilkush Stadium is one of the best in the area and one of the oldest football clubs in the [[Kasaragod]] district.

Victory Arts & Sports Club (VASC) Deenar Nagar is one of the oldest clubs, established in 1951 which is prominent in football, cricket & volleyball.

== Mosques ==

Muhiyuddeen Jumah Masjid is the only mosque in Deenar Nagar.

== Transport ==

=== Air ===
The nearest airport to Deenar Nagar is [[Mangalore International Airport]], which is around 44.8 km away from the town. [[Kannur International Airport]], which is 141 km from the town is under construction. Other airports near Deenar Nagar is [[Calicut International Airport]], lies about 223 km to the south and Mysore Airport, which is around 259 km to the south east.

=== Road ===
Deena Nagar Bus Station is the only bus station in Deenar Nagar. Private buses are servicing through Deenar Nagar on regular intervals.

== Schools and education ==
Malandoor UP school is situated in Deenar Nagar and is controlled by Kerala Government. There are other few schools nearby like Kunil Education Trust, AJI English Medium School, Shihab English Medium School, Uppala Government School, Meepiry Government School and Ichlangod Government School.

==Languages==
This locality is an essentially multi-lingual region. The people speak [[Malayalam]], [[Kannada]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Beary bashe]] and [[Konkani language|Konkani]]. Migrant workers also speak [[Hindi]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] languages. This village is part of Manjeswaram assembly constituency which is again part of [[Kasaragod (Lok Sabha constituency)]]

== Infrastructure ==

=== Garden City Auditorium ===
The region's only Auditorium, Garden City Auditorium, was established in 2018. Garden City Auditorium can accommodate around 2000-3000 people and can be used for occasions like weddings, meetings, etc.<ref>https://www.justdial.com/Kasaragod/Garden-City-Auditorium-Deenar-Nagar/9999P4994-4994-180316023859-Q1F8_BZDET</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Kasaragod district}}
{{coord|12.652|74.948|type:city_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Manjeshwar area]]

Hamom Sadananda

2026-02-07T19:34:26Z

Google updates 22: done

{{Short description|Indian actor and singer from Manipur}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| image =
| caption = ''Hamom Sadananda in Chingda Satpi Engellei (2018)''
| birth_name = Hamom Sadananda
| occupation = Actor, singer
| years active =
| birth_date = 16 February
| birth_place = Sega Road, Thouda Bhabok Leikai, [[Imphal]], [[Manipur]]
| relatives =
| parents = Hamom Muhindro Hamom Ongbi Indubala
}}

'''Hamom Sadananda''' is an Indian actor and singer who appears in [[cinema of Manipur|Manipuri films]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=5..130611.jun11|title=Sadananda extends aid to landmine victim|website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/chopsticks-in-manipur-korean-culture-india/|title=Chopsticks in Manipur|author=AKOIJAM SUNITA|accessdate=7 December 2021|website=www.himalmag.com}}</ref> He is a resident of Sega Road, Thouda Bhabok Leikai, [[Imphal]], [[Manipur]]. He has acted in more than 100 Manipuri films.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=15..050913.sep13|title=Manipuri stars shine on Red Carpet|website=e-pao.net}}</ref> Besides acting and singing in films, he also performs [[Manipuri Sankirtana]] on various Manipur occasions. ''Ingengi Atiya'', ''[[Chumthang Makhong]]'', ''Sakthibee Tampha'', ''Natephamda Tero'', ''Manithoiba'' are some of his famous movies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=22..220609.jun09|title=Awards given|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

==Career==
Hamom Sadananda acted as a child artist in the 1993 film ''[[Sambal Wangma]]''. He started his career initially in singing and then later became a successful actor in Manipuri cinema. His first film is ''Ingengi Atiya (The Sky of Autumn)''. He has now done more than 100 films.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://e-pao.org/erang/Actor/Sadananda.php#|title=Hamom Sadananda :: A front-runner with loud cheers|website=e-pao.org}}</ref> Among his popular films are ''Ingengi Atiya'', ''Manithoiba'', ''[[Chumthang Makhong]]'', ''Imagi Laman Singamdre'', ''Khuji'', ''Thoiba Thoibi'' and ''Mami Sami''. He has also produced a music video titled ''Engao Ngaojabi'' which stars [[Bonium Thokchom]] and Eshita Yengkhom.

In ''[[Chumthang Makhong]]'' and ''Ekhenglaktagi Red Rose'', he played the role of militants. He played a cancer patient in the film ''Da Sadananda''. In films like ''Eidee Lankhide'' and ''Khongthang-gi Makhol'', he played antagonistic roles.

His role of Achouba, a brain tumor patient who sacrifices everything for his mother and his brothers in the film ''[[Hingbagee Mahao]]'', earned him a ''Best Actor in a Leading Role - Male'' award at the 5th SSS MANIFA 2016.

==Accolades==
''Hamom Sadananda'' has won a number of awards. He was honoured with the title ''Brother of the Disabled'' by the authority of the Disabled Development Association, Manipur (DDAM) in February 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imphaltimes.com/news/item/2068-actor-sadananda-honoured-as-the-brother-of-disabled|title=Actor Sadananda honoured as the brother of the disabled|website=www.imphaltimes.com}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Award
! Category
! Film
! {{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
| 3rd RJ Films Vision Special Award 2009
| Best Actor
| {{dash}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.e-pao.net/epGallery.asp?id=3&src=Movies/FAMSada2009|title=
4th FAM's Foundation day :: Feb 12 2009|accessdate=2 October 2024|website=www.e-pao.net}}</ref>
|-
| 7th Manipur State Film Festival 2010
| Best Male Playback Singer for the song "Houda Houjillu"
| ''[[Nobap]]''
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=4..210910.sep10|title=Nobap walks away with the lion's share at 7th film fest|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>
|-
| 8th Manipur State Film Festival 2013
| Special Jury Mention
| ''Imagi Laman Singamdre''
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.e-pao.net/epGallery.asp?id=6&src=Movies/8thManipurFilmFestival20131224|title=8th Manipur State Film Festival 2013 Awards :: December 24, 2013|accessdate=5 December 2021|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|3rd SSS MANIFA 2014
| Best Actor in a Supporting Role
| rowspan="2"|''[[Tabunungda Akaiba Likli]]''
| rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=30..220414.apr14 |title=Tabubunungda Akaiba Likli sweeps film awards : 22nd apr14 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |access-date=2016-01-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305184124/http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=30..220414.apr14 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
|-
| Best Male Playback Singer
|-
| 5th SSS MANIFA 2016
| Best Actor in a Leading Role - Male
| ''[[Hingbagee Mahao]]''
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/hingbagi-mahao-named-best-film-at-sss-manifa-2016/|title=Hingbagi Mahao named Best Film at SSS MANIFA 2016|newspaper=The Sangai Express|access-date=25 January 2016|archive-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130200830/http://www.thesangaiexpress.com/hingbagi-mahao-named-best-film-at-sss-manifa-2016/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|}

==Off-screen work==
''Hamom Sadananda'' was the brand ambassador of Kaizen Sports along with [[Soma Laishram]] and [[Oinam Bembem Devi]].

==Selected filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Director
|-
|2002
|''Ingengi Atiya (The Sky of Autumn)''
|Tompok
|[[Khwairakpam Bishwamittra]]
|-
|2004
|''Reporter''
|Chingkhei
|L. Surjakanta
|-
|rowspan="5"|2005
|''Laang''
|Sashi
|[[Moirangthem Inao]]
|-
|''Matang Chabada Hairage''
|Rishi
|Ksh. Kishorekumar
|-
|''Nangtana Helli''
|Rajesh
|[[Oken Amakcham]]
|-
|''Laibakkee Chandan''
|Vikas
|[[Oinam Gautam Singh|O. Gautam]]
|-
|''Nanga Thengnaramdraba''
|Rajiv
|Ak. Gyaneshori
|-
| rowspan="6"|2006
|''Tang 24''
|Dino
|Vir Bhadra Yumnam
|-
|''Payal''
|Roshan
|Amar Raj
|-
|''Khuji''
|Chingkhei
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|''Eshworgee Khudol''
|Abung
|Diya Khwairakpam
|-
|''Eedom Chatcharage''
|Dr. Hemba
|Amar Raj
|-
|''Sakthibee Tampha''
|Ningthem
|Diya Khwairakpam
|-
| rowspan="6"|2007
|''[[Yenning Amadi Likla]]''
|Bijaya's husband
|[[Makhonmani Mongsaba]]
|-
|''Meitei Chanu''
|Tompok
|Amar Raj
|-
|''Akhunba Mani''
|Malangba
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|''Manithoiba''
|Manithoiba
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|''Meera Memcha''
|Sadananda
|Mohendro
|-
|''Lengdaba Lan''
|Yoihenba
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
| rowspan="6"|2008
|''Malla Malla Leinungshi''
|Nganba
|Amar Raj
|-
|''[[Chumthang Makhong]]''
|Priyoranjan
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|''Ekhenglaktagi Red Rose''
|Nganba
|Romi Meitei
|-
|''Mami Sami''
|Wangthoi
|Ningthouja Lancha
|-
|''Echan''
|Henba
|Amar Raj
|-
|''Ningthem''
|Lemba
|[[Khwairakpam Bishwamittra]]
|-
| rowspan="4"|2009
|''Khangdreda Nongdamba''
|Mukhan
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|''[[Kaboklei]]''
|Pamheiba
|Pilu H.
|-
|''Eigee Morambee''
|Ngouba
|Rajen Leishangthem
|-
|''Khongthang-gi Makhol''
|Krishnakanta
|[[Oinam Gautam Singh|O. Gautam]]
|-
| rowspan="4"|2010
|''[[Thoicha]]''
|Ibohal
|Ningthoujam Prem
|-
|''Ashit Awanthada Pee Thadoi Ahum''
|Chaoren
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|''Aabirkhan''
|Bir Singh
|Pilu H.
|-
|''Imagi Laman Singamdre''
|Thouna
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|2011
|''Mongpham''
|Nongdamba
|Lai Jiten
|-
|''[[Lanphamda Ibeni]]''
|Loya
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|2012
|''Cheitheng''
|Chingkhei
|Chan Heisnam
|-
|''Boiton Mangkhre''
|Poirei
|Khoibam Homeshwori
|-
|2013
|''[[Tabunungda Akaiba Likli]]''
|Businessman
|Romi Meitei
|-
|2014
|''Meerang Mahum''
|Pathou
|Ajit Ningthouja
|-
| rowspan="3"|2015
|''[[Nungshit Mapi]]''
|Fake CBI Officer
|Ajit Ningthouja
|-
|''[[Nangna Nokpa Yengningi]]''
|Memi's brother
|Ajit Ningthouja
|-
|''[[Hingbagee Mahao]]''
|Achouba
|Jeetendra Ningomba
|-
| rowspan="3"|2016
|''Konggol''
|Ayeengbi's husband
|Ajit Ningthouja
|-
|''Thaba''
|Ibosana
|Devbrata Samurai & Dpak Manohar
|-
|''Sor''
|Usha's brother
|Ajit Ningthouja
|-
| 2017
|''Mani Mamou''
|Dr. Loyumba
|Ajit Ningthouja
|-
| rowspan="5"|2018
|''Tomthin''
|Sanatomba Ningthoujam
|Ojitbabu Ningthoujam
|-
|''Amuktang-ga Haikho''
|Loya
|[[Romi Meitei]]
|-
|''Soinairaba Thamoi''
|Khogen
|Pilu H.
|-
|''Leichilda Pallaba Thaja''
|Chaoba
|Pilu H.
|-
|''Chingda Satpi Engellei''
|Dr. Ibomcha
|Bobby Haobam
|-
|2019
|''[[Khurai Angaobi]]''
|Lanchenba
|Sudhir Kangjam
|-
|2021
|''Amuba Kundo''
|Malem
|Luwang Kanglei
|-
|rowspan="3"|2022
|''Nongallamdaisida''
|Ningthem
|[[Oinam Gautam Singh|O. Gautam]]
|-
|''Hoo Sangom''
|Lemba
|Ojitbabu Ningthoujam
|-
|''Ningol''
|Sajou
|L. Surjakanta
|-
|rowspan="2"|2024
|''[[Boong (film)|Boong]]''
|Joykumar
|Lakshmipriya Devi
|-
|''Leishna''
|
|Hemanta Khuman
|-
|rowspan="3"|2025
|''Thamoigi Atiya''
|
|Bijgupta Laishram
|-
|''Shaktam''
|Thoithoi
|Ojitbabu Ningthoujam
|-
|''Khangpoksang Gee Sha''
|
|Naocha Sana
|-
|rowspan="3"|Upcoming
|''Aroiba Wayel''
|
|[[Binoranjan Oinam]]
|-
|''Loinaidra Wari''
|
|Naocha Sana
|-
|''Lonthokta Thamoi''
|
|Inaocha Khundrakpam
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.facebook.com/ManipurTimes/photos/a.222469787877855.1073741905.181200988671402/222469867877847/ Hamom Sadananda]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sadananda, Hamom}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Manipur]]
[[Category:Meitei people]]
[[Category:People from Imphal]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Shumang Kumhei artists]]

2024 Almora bus accident

2026-02-01T07:03:11Z

Google updates 22: Made redirect

#REDIRECT [[Almora]]
{{R from merge}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Almora bus accident, 2024}}{{R from alternative transliteration}}

Collegiate university

2026-01-14T23:15:51Z

Google updates 22: improve intro for consistency and added references based on references

{{Short description|Form of university organisation}}
{{Redirect|Federal university|universities owned by a federal government|National university}}
A '''collegiate university''' is a [[university]] where functions are divided between a central administration and a number of constituent [[college]]s. Historically, the first collegiate university was the [[University of Paris]] and its first college was the [[Collège des Dix-Huit]]. The two principal forms are [[residential college]] universities, where the central university is responsible for teaching and colleges may deliver some teaching but are primarily residential communities, and federal universities where the central university has an administrative (and sometimes examining) role and the colleges may be residential but are primarily teaching institutions. The larger colleges or campuses of federal universities, such as [[University College London]] and [[University of California, Berkeley]], are effectively universities in their own right and often have their own [[Students' union|student union]]s.

For universities with [[residential college]]s, the principal difference between these and non-collegiate halls of residence (or dormitories) is that "colleges are societies (Latin ''collegia''), not buildings".<ref name=howto>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/howto/|title=How to Build a Residential College|work=The Collegiate Way|author=Robert J. O'Hara|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref> This is expressed in different ways in different universities; commonly students are members of a college, not residents of a college, and remain members whether they are living in the college or not,<ref>{{cite web|quote=every Durham University student belongs to a college, whether you live in college or elsewhere.|url=https://www.dur.ac.uk/colleges/|title=Colleges and accommodation|publisher=Durham University|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref> but this is not universal and the distinction may be drawn in other ways (see, e.g., the [[University of Otago]] below). Residential colleges also commonly have members drawn from the university's academic staff in order to form a whole academic community.<ref name=howto/> Students in residential colleges are often organised into a [[common room (university)|junior common room]], with postgraduate students in a [[common room (university)|middle common room]], and academic staff forming a [[common room (university)|senior common room]].

==History==
The development of the collegiate university in western Europe followed shortly after the development of the [[medieval university]] itself. The first college to be established was the [[Collège des Dix-Huit]] at the [[University of Paris]], founded in 1180 by John of London shortly after he had returned from Jerusalem. This has led to the suggestion that the college was inspired by [[madrasa]]s he saw on his travels, although this has been disputed, particularly as, unlike madrasas, the early Paris colleges did not teach.<ref name=Geelhaar>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=14jlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|page=76| author=Tim Geelhaar|chapter=Did the West Receive a "Complete Model"?|title=Cultural Transfers in Dispute: Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages|editor1=Jörg Feuchter|editor2=Friedhelm Hoffmann|editor3=Bee Yun|publisher=Campus Verlag|date=8 August 2011|isbn=9783593394046}}</ref> Other colleges appeared in Paris shortly after this, including the College of St Thomas du Louvre (1186) and the College of the Good Children of St Honore (1208–1209) – although these may both have had more of the character of grammar schools than colleges of the university<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA483|pages=483–485|title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|volume=1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris|author=Hastings Rashdall|author-link=Hastings Rashdall|date=1895|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108018104}}</ref> – various monastic colleges starting with the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] in 1217,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA487|page=487|title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|volume=1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris|author=Hastings Rashdall|author-link=Hastings Rashdall|date=1895|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108018104}}</ref> and the [[College of Sorbonne]] for non-monastic theology students in 1257.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&pg=PA116|page=116|work=A History of the University in Europe|volume=1, Universities in the Middle Ages|title=Management and resources|author=Aleksander Gieysztor|editor=Hilde de Ridder-Symoens|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=16 October 2003|isbn=9780521541138}}</ref> From Paris, the idea spread to Oxford, where [[William of Durham]], who had been a Regent [[Master of Theology]] at Paris, left a legacy to found [[University College, Oxford]] in 1249. Although this is taken as the foundation date of University College, it was not until after 1280 that the college actually began operating. At around the same time [[Balliol College]] was founded by [[John de Balliol]] via a grant of land in 1263 as a penance imposed by the Bishop of Durham, and [[Merton College]] was founded with an endowment by [[Walter de Merton]] in 1264.<ref name=UCO>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeXwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR13|title=Early Records of University College, Oxford|pages=xiii-xiv|editor=R. H. Darwall-Smith|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|date=2015|isbn=9780904107272}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.balliol.ox.ac.uk/about-balliol/history|title=History|publisher=Balliol College|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref>

These original Oxford colleges were "merely endowed boardinghouses for impoverished scholars",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Oxford|title=University of Oxford|publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> and were limited to those who had already received their [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree and were reading for higher degrees (usually theology).<ref name=UCO/> It was not until 1305 that teaching started in the [[College of Navarre]] in Paris,<ref name=Geelhaar/> an innovation that reached Oxford in 1379 with the foundation of [[New College, Oxford|New College]] – also the first college there to take undergraduate students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.new.ox.ac.uk/college-history|title=The History of New College|publisher=New College, Oxford|access-date=15 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413043446/http://www.new.ox.ac.uk/college-history|archive-date=2018-04-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> In [[University of Bologna|Bologna]] and other Italian universities, the colleges, as [[Hastings Rashdall|Rashdall]] put it, "remained to the last (what all Colleges were originally intended to be) eleemosynary institutions for the help of poor students, boarding-houses and not places of education" and never acquired the same importance as the colleges of Oxford or Paris.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA199|title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|volume=1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris|author=Hastings Rashdall|author-link=Hastings Rashdall|date=1895|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781108018104|publication-date=2 November 2010}}</ref>

Colleges evolved in different directions in different places, but many European universities lost their colleges in the early 18th century. At the [[University of Coimbra]], for example, many colleges were established in the 16th century, although these were limited to the study of theology with the other faculties remaining non-collegiate. These colleges, joined by others in the 17th and 18th centuries, persisted until 1834, when they (along with the religious orders that ran then) were suppressed following the Portuguese civil war.<ref name=coimbra>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/news/2008-coimbra-university-colleges|title=The Lost College of the University of Coimbra|work=Collegiate Way|author=Robert J. O'Hara|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> The colleges of Paris were closed along with the university itself and the rest of the French universities after the French Revolution, as were the colleges of the [[University of Salamanca]].<ref name="Cathenc Paris">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11495a.htm|title=University of Paris|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref><ref name=salamanca>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13392a.htm|title=University of Salamanca|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref>

While the continental universities retained control over their colleges, in England it was the colleges that came to dominate the universities.<ref name=Hamilton>{{cite book|work=DISCUSSIONS ON PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE, EDUCATION AND UNIVERSITY REFORM|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPkH1jlyR1kC&pg=PA383|pages=383–429|author=William Hamilton|title=On the State of the English Universities, With More Especial Reference to Oxford|date=June 1831}}</ref> The [[Hebdomadal Council|Hebdomadal Board]] was established by [[William Laud]] at Oxford in 1631 with the intent of diluting the influence of Congregation (the assembly of regent masters) and Convocation (the assembly of all graduates).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/375-092.shtml#_Toc30485128|title=The Laudian Code|work=Statutes and Regulations|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> This led to criticism in the 19th century, with [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet|William Hamilton]] alleging that the colleges had unlawfully usurped the functions of the universities as the tutors had taken over the teaching from the professors.<ref name=Hamilton/> Royal Commissions in the 1850s led to Acts of Parliament in 1854 (for Oxford) and 1856 (for Cambridge) that, among other measures, limited the power of the colleges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/375-092.shtml#_Toc30485129|title=University Commissioners 1850-81|work=Statutes and Regulations|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref>

Prior to these reforms, however, the first two new universities in England for over 600 years were established, both offering new versions of the collegiate university. The [[University of Durham]] was founded in 1832, taking Oxford for its model, and [[University College, Durham]] was created at the same time. This college, unlike those of Oxford and Cambridge, was not legally distinct from the university and nor was it responsible for teaching, which was carried out by university professors rather than college tutors. This restored the teaching role of the central university that had been lost at Oxford and Cambridge and the original role of the college as a residential rather than educational institution (cf. [[Hastings Rashdall|Rashdall]]'s comments on the Bologna colleges, above).<ref>{{cite web|quote=Durham did not, for example, follow the professorial model of the older English universities, which was itself the subject of calls for reform. The professorial model at Durham followed the Scottish pattern. Thorp always intended that the Professors would work: they would 'have the charge of the studies in their respective departments and work as at Glasgow and the foreign Universities, and as they did at Oxford in old times'.|url=https://universityhistories.com/2016/08/12/durham-university-last-of-the-ancient-universities-and-first-of-the-new-1831-1871/#_ftnref6|title=Durham University: Last of the Ancient Universities and First of the New (1831-1871)|work=University Histories|author=Dr Matthew Andrews|publisher=University History Research Group, University of Manchester|date=12 August 2016|access-date=20 August 2017|archive-date=13 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813043134/https://universityhistories.com/2016/08/12/durham-university-last-of-the-ancient-universities-and-first-of-the-new-1831-1871/#_ftnref6|url-status=dead}}</ref> It also pioneered the concept of residential colleges being owned by the university rather than being established as independent corporations, which provided a useful model for modern institutions looking to establish colleges.<ref name="O'Hara Durham">{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/news/2004-durham-colleges|title=The Collegiate System at the University of Durham|author=R. J. O’Hara|work=Collegiate Way|date=20 December 2004|access-date=4 September 2017|quote= As creatures of the central university, the Durham colleges are a far better model for people at other institutions to look to, than are the independent colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. I strongly urge university faculty and administrators interested in residential colleges to take a close look at Durham and see what structures there might be adapted for their own use.}}</ref> Unlike the earlier foundation of [[Trinity College Dublin]], which had been established as "the mother of a university" but to which no other colleges had ever been added, the Durham system allowed for the university itself to found further colleges, which it did with the establishment of [[Hatfield College]] in 1846.

The [[University of London]], founded in 1836, was very different. It was, in its original form, an examining body for [[Affiliated school|affiliated colleges]]. The first two of these - [[University College London]] (UCL; founded 1826) and [[King's College London]] (founded 1829) were already in existence and resembled non-collegiate 'unitary' universities, as found in Scotland and continental Europe, except in their lack of degree-awarding powers. There had been much dispute over UCL's attempt to gain recognition as a university, and the University of London was designed as a political solution to put an end to this dispute and to enable the students at both UCL and King's to receive degrees. It was modelled to a certain extent on Cambridge, where (at that time) the senate of the university was responsible for examinations and the colleges for the teaching, and also took on some features of the [[University of France]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmqvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|page=76|author=Negley Harte|title=University of London: An Illustrated History: 1836-1986|date=December 2000|publisher=A&C Black |isbn=9780567564498}}</ref> an institution established under [[Napoleon]] in 1808 that had absorbed the formerly independent French universities as "academies" within a single university structure. Unlike Oxford and Cambridge, the affiliated colleges of London (which were spread across the country, not confined to London) were not constituent parts of the university and had no say in its running. Another major difference was that both UCL and King's were non-residential, providing teaching but not accommodation. This would provide the model for the civic colleges that were established in the major English cities, which later became the [[redbrick universities]]. After 1858 the requirement for colleges to be affiliated was dropped and London degrees were available to anyone who could pass the examinations. It was not until 1900 that London, after a period of sustained pressure from the teaching institutions in London, became a federal university. The London pattern spread the idea of the examining university with affiliated colleges around the [[British Empire]], in particular to Canada where the [[University of Toronto]] was refounded as an examining university, its teaching arm becoming [[University College, Toronto]], which federated other colleges in the region,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIi2ciQE2PwC&pg=PA37|pages=37–38|title=The University of Toronto: A History|author= Martin L. Friedland|publisher=University of Toronto Press|date= 2013|isbn=9781442615366}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|work=A History of the University in Europe: Volume 3, Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=entlN4EEPUYC&pg=PA176|author1=Edward Shils|author2=John Roberts|title=The diffusion of European models|editor=Walter Rüegg|publisher= Cambridge University Press|date =16 September 2004|isbn = 9781139453028}}</ref> and to India, where the universities of [[University of Calcutta|Calcutta]], [[University of Madras|Madras]] and [[University of Mumbai|Bombay]] were founded in 1857, and New Zealand, where the federal [[University of New Zealand]] was established in 1874.

A modification of the [[University of London]] plan was used for the [[Queen's University of Ireland]], established in 1850. This took in three newly established colleges: the Queen's Colleges of [[Queen's College, Belfast|Belfast]], [[Queen's College, Cork|Cork]] and [[Queen's College, Galway|Galway]]. This was more federal than London, but proved inflexible and was replaced in 1880 by the [[Royal University of Ireland]], which was an examining university based more directly on London. Also in 1880 another federal university, the [[Victoria University (UK)|Victoria University]], was established in the north of England to solve the problem of Owen's College, Manchester, seeking university status. This originally just took in Owen's College, but grew to take in university colleges in Leeds and Liverpool. However, it unravelled in 1903-4 after Birmingham successfully became England's first unitary university, with the three colleges all becoming universities in their own right.

The federal [[University of Wales]] was created in 1893 as a national university for Wales, taking in pre-existing colleges in Aberystwyth, Cardiff and Bangor that had been preparing students for London degrees. It lasted as a federal university until 2007, when it became a confederal non-membership degree-awarding body. The University of Durham became a very curious federal institution in 1908 – its Durham division was itself collegiate, while its Newcastle division had two independent colleges (Armstrong College, the civic university college affiliated to Durham since its creation in 1871, and the Medical College, which had been affiliated since the 1850s). The two colleges of the Newcastle division were merged in 1937, and [[Newcastle University|Newcastle]] finally became an independent university in 1963. Similarly, the university college in [[University of Dundee|Dundee]], founded 1881, became a college of the [[University of St Andrews]] in 1897 before becoming an independent university in 1967.

The idea of the [[residential college]] spread to America in the early 20th century, with [[Harvard University|Harvard]] and [[Yale University|Yale]] both establishing colleges (called "houses" at Harvard) in the 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/colleges/|title=Residential Colleges Worldwide|work=Collegiate Way|author=Robert J. O'Hara|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> Like the Durham colleges, these were colleges established and owned by the universities with only limited involvement in teaching.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://admissions.yale.edu/residential-colleges|title=Residential Colleges|publisher=Yale University|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://osl.fas.harvard.edu/houses|title=The House System|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> The American [[state university system]]s also developed federal-style universities with autonomous campuses (although normally not legally independent). As these systems often developed from a single original campus, this often became identified as the 'flagship' campus of the state system.

==Types of collegiate university==

An early typology of British university institutions by the Principal of the [[University of Edinburgh]] in 1870 divided them into three types: collegiate (Oxford, Cambridge and Durham), professorial (the Scottish universities – St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh – and the new colleges in Manchester and London) and non-teaching examination boards (London). However, even at that time drawing hard lines was difficult: Oxford had, until a few years prior to this, been an examination board for its colleges, and Trinity College Dublin combined elements of the collegiate and professorial styles.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Upc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA14|page=14|work=Present and Future in Higher Education|publisher=Cambridge University Press|title=The growth of the modern university|author=R. E. Bell|year=1973}}</ref> More recently, the collegiate and federal traditions have been seen as separate in Britain, although both inspired by different aspects of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, e.g. "With the partial exception of Durham (and in the twentieth century York, Kent and Lancaster) there has been no serious attempt to create in Britain a collegial tradition in the mode of Oxbridge, but the federal principle has been widely emulated."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrPjAyfdfBMC&pg=PA46|title=Oxford, the Collegiate University: Conflict, Consensus and Continuity|publisher=Springer|author1=Ted Tapper|author2=David Palfreyman|date=3 November 2010|isbn=9789400700475}}</ref> Similarly a conference on ''The Collegiate Way'' in 2014 concentrated entirely on universities with [[residential college]]s (e.g. Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, etc.), making no mention of federal universities.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qllDQAAQBAJ|title=The Collegiate Way: University Education in a Collegiate Context|editor1=H. M. Evans|editor2= T. P. Burt|date=26 October 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=9789463006811}}</ref> This was in keeping with the idea that "The collegiate way is the notion that a curriculum, a library, a faculty, and students are not enough to make a college. It is an adherence to the residential scheme of things."<ref>{{cite book|author=Frederick Rudolph|work=The American College and University: A History|title=The Collegiate Way|page=87|publisher=University of Georgia Press|date=1962|edition=1990}}</ref>

Yet the federal principle has also been called the "Cambridge principle",<ref name=PT2013>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTwsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|pages=30–31|title=Oxford and the Decline of the Collegiate Tradition|publisher=Routledge|author2=Ted Tapper|author1=David Palfreyman|date=7 March 2013|isbn=9781136225147}}</ref> and is sometimes seen as essential to a collegiate university.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7H_m5ji-IwC&pg=PA67|page=67|title=The Collegial Tradition in the Age of Mass Higher Education |publisher=Springer|author1=Ted Tapper|author2=David Palfreyman|date=20 July 2010|isbn=9789048191543}}</ref> There is also dispute as to what is meant by a federal university: some writers have argued that the distinct feature of a federal system is the separation of teaching and examination, but others see the distinction as being one of governance and distribution of authority.<ref name=PT2013/> A distinction is sometimes made between ''federal universities'', ''collegiate universities'' (where the college is the primary academic unit, i.e. Oxford and Cambridge) and universities that have residential colleges but where these do not participate in teaching.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gahEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44|title=The Meanings of Mass Higher Education|author= Peter Scott|page=44|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (UK)|date = 1 October 1995|isbn=9780335232741}}</ref> One definition of a collegiate university states that "it's the sense of community within a big environment that's the common feature".<ref>{{cite news|work=Independent School Parent|publisher=Chelsea Magazine Company|author=Natalie Milner|date=26 April 2016|title=What is a Collegiate University?|access-date=16 September 2017|url=http://www.independentschoolparent.com/school/senior/what-is-a-collegiate-university/#}}</ref>

===Collegiate universities with centralised teaching===
[[File:St johns rear buildings.jpg|thumb|right|Buildings of [[St John's College, Cambridge]]]]

In many collegiate universities, the teaching is centrally organised through departments and faculties on a university-wide basis. The level of participation in teaching of colleges in such universities varies: they may provide no formal teaching (e.g. Durham), may provide some teaching to their own students (the Oxbridge model), may provide some teaching that is available university or faculty-wide (e.g. Toronto), or may be responsible for delivering centrally organised, university-wide teaching (e.g. Roehampton). Whatever their role in teaching, almost all are residential communities and they will often have their own halls for meals, libraries, sports teams and societies; such colleges are thus sometimes termed [[residential college]]s. [[Monash University]] in Australia has, however, developed a non-residential college model, and [[New York University]] has similar "learning communities" to support non-residential students.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://collegiateway2014.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/should-a-college-be-residential-or-non-residential/|work=Collegiate Way 2014|publisher=Durham University|title=Should a College be Residential or Non-residential?|date=22 July 2014|author=Gay Perez}}</ref> The specifics of how the collegiate system is organised – whether college membership is necessary for students, whether colleges are legally independent, the role colleges play in admissions, etc. – vary widely between different universities.

While the ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge consist of independent colleges that supplement the university's teaching with their own tutorials, some universities have built colleges that do not provide teaching but still perform much of the housing and social duties. Such colleges are planned, built and funded entirely by the central administration and are thus dependent on it, however they still retain their own administrative structures and have a degree of independence. This system was pioneered at [[Durham University]] in the United Kingdom in the 1830s, and has been described as "a far better model for people at other institutions to look to, than are the independent colleges of Oxford and Cambridge".<ref name="O'Hara Durham"/> This has been widely followed in the US, where the colleges at universities such as Harvard, Yale and Princeton are entirely owned by the central university. Some universities, such as the [[University of Otago]] in New Zealand, [[Durham University]] in the UK and the [[University of Pavia]] in Italy have a mix of independent and university-owned (or, in the case of Pavia, state-owned) colleges.

In many collegiate universities, following the pattern of Oxford and Cambridge, membership of a college is obligatory for students, but in others it is either not necessary or only necessary for students in particular faculties, e.g. at the University of Toronto, where the colleges are all associated with the Faculty of Arts and Sciences.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.utoronto.ca/academics/academic-units|title=Academic Units|publisher=University of Toronto|access-date=20 August 2017}}</ref>

===Non-centralised teaching collegiate universities===
[[File:UCL Portico Building.jpg|thumb|[[University College London]]]][[File:Strand102.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[King's College London]]]]

Sometimes, as noted above, referred to as ''federal universities'', these are universities where the teaching function is entirely carried out by constituent colleges, which will often have their own faculties and departments. This is represented by examples such as Oxford and Cambridge up to the mid 19th century, the University of Wales from 1893 to 2007, and the University of London from 1900. The level of legal separation – e.g. whether the colleges are separate corporate bodies – varies between universities. As the colleges are primarily teaching institutions, they may not always be residential communities and many are effectively universities in their own right.

Some colleges are part of loose federations that allow them to exercise nearly complete self-governance, and even (as in the case of colleges of the [[University of London]]) award their own degrees. Other colleges are not legally separate from their parent university, e.g. the [[University of the Arts, London]] (UAL) in the UK and many [[state university system]]s in the US. In some US state systems, a "[[Flagship#University|flagship campus]]" may be identified – often the original campus of the system – which is considered (either officially or informally) to stand above the other campuses in the system (e.g. [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]], [[University of Colorado Boulder]]).

Some universities may have centralised teaching but also have colleges that do not access that centralised teaching. Historically, this was the case at [[Durham University]] for the medical school and Armstrong College in the late 19th and early 20th century (prior to the formation of a true federal university in 1908) and for University College Stockton from 1994 to 2001. The two colleges of [[Queen's University Belfast]], which is for the main part a unitary university, currently operate in this manner. This should not be confused with the situation where courses at an independent college are validated by a university but the college does not become part of that university, e.g. the relationship between the [[New College of the Humanities]] and [[Southampton Solent University]] from 2015 to 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/southampton-solent-validate-%C2%A318k-new-college-humanities-degrees|title=Southampton Solent to validate £18K New College of the Humanities degrees: A. C. Grayling's 'Oxbridge-style' private college strikes agreement with post-92 institution|work=[[Times Higher Education]]|date=30 July 2015|access-date=20 August 2017|archive-date=3 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103143416/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/southampton-solent-validate-%C2%A318k-new-college-humanities-degrees|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Over time, the level of federation may evolve, particularly as independent colleges grow and seek to establish themselves as universities in their own right. [[University College London]] and [[King's College London]] were for much of the 20th century dependent colleges of the central university, without separate legal identities, and all London colleges received funds through the University of London rather than directly. The trend since the latter half of the 20th century has been for increased decentralisation; taken to its ultimate, this has led some colleges to formally end their relations with the parent university to become degree-awarding universities. Examples include [[Cardiff University]] (formerly the [[University of Wales, Cardiff]]) and [[Imperial College London]] (formerly a college of the University of London). Similarly [[Newcastle University]] was part of the federal [[University of Durham]] until 1963 and the [[University of Dundee]] was a college of the [[University of St Andrews]] until 1967. A number of autonomous universities in [[South Africa]] were formerly colleges of the [[University of South Africa]]. Many of the US state systems started as single campuses but have evolved to become federal systems, and the [[University of the Philippines]] similarly started as one campus but is now a system of "constituent universities".

==Collegiate universities around the world==
There are around 80 universities around the world with residential college systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=22814|title=Durham launches the UK's first collegiate universities conference|date=13 November 2014|publisher=Durham University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820205027/https://www.dur.ac.uk/news/newsitem/?itemno=22814|archive-date=20 August 2017}}</ref>

===Argentina===

In Argentina, the first educational institution to host this administrative format was IUNA Instituto Universitario Nacional de las Artes, since 2014 renamed UNA National University of the Arts, in Spanish: UNA - [[Universidad Nacional de las Artes]], established in 1993 as a Collegiate University, incorporation of various national institutions dedicated to the teaching of fine arts.<ref>UNA History, National University of the Artes, Argentina. https://movimiento.una.edu.ar/contenidos/historia_12492</ref>
The origins of the current UNA University lay in the 1875 founding of the National Society of the Stimulus of the Arts by painters Eduardo Schiaffino, Eduardo Sívori, and others. Their guild was rechartered as the National Academy of Fine Arts in 1905 and, then in 1923, on the initiative of painter and academic Ernesto de la Cárcova, created as a department of arts extension education in the [[University of Buenos Aires]], known as the Superior Art School of the Nation in Spanish ''"Escuela Nacional Superior de las Artes"''.<ref>Escuela Superior de Bellas Artes, Ernesto de la Cárcova, Argentina. https://sites.google.com/site/escueladelacarcova</ref>

===Australia===

In Australia, many universities have [[residential college]] systems, often combining independent (frequently denominational) and university-owned colleges. Some universities also have non-collegiate residences. Collegiate universities include the [[University of Queensland]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://liveuq.edu.au/the-colleges/|title=The Colleges|publisher=University of Queensland|access-date=30 August 2017|archive-date=6 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906123647/https://www.liveuq.edu.au/the-colleges/|url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[University of Tasmania]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utas.edu.au/future-students/accommodation|title=Accommodation|publisher=University of Tasmania|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> the [[University of Western Australia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ipoint.uwa.edu.au/app/answers/detail/a_id/419/~/applying-for-residential-college-%28on-campus%29-accommodation|title=Applying for residential college (on campus) accommodation|publisher=University of Western Australia|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> the [[University of Sydney]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sydney.edu.au/campus-life/accommodation/live-on-campus/camperdown-darlington/residential-colleges.html|title=Residential colleges|publisher=University of Sydney|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> the [[University of Melbourne]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.colleges.unimelb.edu.au/about/residential-colleges.html|title=Residential colleges|publisher=University of Melbourne|access-date=30 August 2017|archive-date=14 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814103651/http://www.colleges.unimelb.edu.au/about/residential-colleges.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[University of New South Wales]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accommodation.unsw.edu.au/colleges|title=UNSW Colleges|publisher=University of New South Wales|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> [[Monash University]] runs an unusual "non-residential college" system for students living off-campus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.monash.edu/non-residential-colleges|title=Non-residential colleges|publisher=Monash University|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref>

===Bangladesh===

In [[Bangladesh]], the [[National University, Bangladesh]] is a [[public university|public]] collegiate university that was established in 1992 by an Act of Parliament as an affiliating university of the country to impart graduate and post-graduate level education to the students through its affiliated colleges, schools and professional institutions throughout the country. It is the [[List of largest universities by enrollment|second largest university]] in the world according to enrollment. The headquarters is in [[Gazipur, Dhaka Division|Gazipur]], on the outskirts of [[Dhaka]]. After its establishment, it affiliated association degree awarding colleges, where many of them were previously affiliated by the [[University of Dhaka]], [[University of Rajshahi]] and [[University of Chittagong]].

===Canada===

In [[Canada]], the [[University of Toronto]] has a [[Colleges of the University of Toronto|collegiate system]] for students in the [[University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Science|Faculty of Arts and Science]] on its [[University of Toronto St. George|St. George campus]] that took form from the mid 19th century, originally modelled after that of Oxford. Toronto has a mix of independent and dependent colleges, all of which offer academic programmes that are available faculty-wide rather that just to members of that college. While all students of the Faculty of Arts and Science on the St. George campus are members of one of the colleges, students in other undergraduate faculties (Applied Science and Engineering, Architecture, Landscape, and Design, Kinesiology and Physical Education, and Music) are only members of colleges if they live in a college residence, and its [[University of Toronto Mississauga|Mississauga]] and [[University of Toronto Scarborough|Scarborough campuses]] are non-collegiate.<ref>{{cite book |title=The University of Toronto and Its Colleges, 1827–1906 |last=Alexander |first=William John |year=1906 |publisher=H. H. Langton, The University Library |location=Toronto}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.artsci.utoronto.ca/prospective/colleges|title=The College System|publisher=University of Toronto Faculty of Arts and Sciences|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>

[[Trent University]] in [[Peterborough, Ontario]] also has a collegiate model, with five colleges on the Peterborough campus. All students are affiliated to a college.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trentu.ca/colleges/college-experience|title=The College Experience|publisher=Trent University|access-date=20 February 2019}}</ref>

===China===
A notable collegiate university in [[Mainland China]] is [[The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen]], which inherits the tradition from [[The Chinese University of Hong Kong]] in [[Shatin]], Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cuhk.edu.cn/en/page/78|title=Colleges|access-date=23 July 2024|work=CUHK-Shenzhen}}</ref>

===France===
The number of collegiate universities in France has increased over the past years. These include:

* [[PSL Research University|PSL University]] (Paris Sciences & Lettres), with its constituent colleges or « [[Grandes Écoles]] » including, the [[École normale supérieure|École normale supérieure - PSL]], [[Collège de France]], [[Chimie ParisTech|Chimie ParisTech - PSL]], [[Mines ParisTech|Mines ParisTech - PSL]], [[Université Paris-Dauphine]], [[Observatoire de Paris]] and the [[École pratique des hautes études]];
* [[Paris-Saclay University]], with its [[College|dependent colleges]] including, the [[Paris-Saclay Faculty of Sciences]] and [[Paris-Saclay Medical School]]; and constituent colleges or « [[Grandes Écoles]] » including, the [[École normale supérieure Paris-Saclay]], [[CentraleSupélec]], [[AgroParisTech]] and the [[École supérieure d'optique|Institut d'optique Graduate School]];
* [[Polytechnic Institute of Paris]], with its constituent colleges or « [[Grandes Écoles]] » including, the [[École Polytechnique|École polytechnique]], [[ENSTA Paris]], [[ENSAE ParisTech|ENSAE Paris]], [[Télécom Paris]] and [[Télécom SudParis]];
*[[Université catholique de Lille]], with 5 [[College|dependent colleges]] and 25 constituent colleges.

=== Hong Kong ===
[[File:Lake Ad Excellentiam 201602.jpg|thumb|[[Chung Chi College]]]]
[[File:New Asia College Overview 201607.jpg|thumb|[[New Asia College]]]]
[[File:United College view 201607.jpg|thumb|[[United College (Hong Kong)|United College]]]]

The [[Chinese University of Hong Kong]] (CUHK) is the only collegiate university in Hong Kong. It is the city's second-oldest university and derives its collegiate system from its founding in 1963 as a federation of three originally separate [[University college|colleges]] – [[Chung Chi College]], [[New Asia College]], and [[United College of Hong Kong|United College]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introducing CUHK {{!}} About CUHK {{!}} CUHK |url=https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/english/aboutus/university-intro.html |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=www.cuhk.edu.hk |language=en}}</ref> In the beginning, CUHK followed the federal university model, where the three constituent colleges had their own academic departments and conducted teaching separately, while the university handled administration, financial matters, and examinations. However, based on the advice of the Second Fulton Report, the teaching departments of the three colleges were gradually merged from 1976.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zone A: Milestones through the Decades {{!}} Themes {{!}} CUHK History Gallery |url=https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ugallery/en/zone-a.html |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=www.cuhk.edu.hk}}</ref> Teaching and research were centralised under the university and the colleges became academic communities responsible for providing pastoral support and non-formal learning opportunities. Currently, CUHK has expanded from three to [[Colleges of the Chinese University of Hong Kong|nine constituent colleges]]. All full-time undergraduates and academic staff at the university are affiliated with a college, regardless of whether they reside at the college or not.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/english/college/system.html|title=A Unique College System|publisher=Chinese University of Hong Kong|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref>

The [[University of Hong Kong]] (HKU) has an affiliated Anglican college, St John's College, which was founded in 1912 and has its own charter. The university also established Robert Black College in 1967 as a university guesthouse.{{clarify|date=September 2019}} Over the past decade{{when|date=September 2019}} some of the new residential halls were named colleges, including the Lap-Chee College, the Shun Hing College and the Chi Sun College. Centennial College, a provider of post-secondary education, is affiliated with the university. Those not living in the residential colleges do not belong to a college.

The [[City University of Hong Kong]] has a Community College, similar to HKU's Centennial College, which been in a partnership arrangement with the [[University of Wollongong]] since 2014.

===India===

[[File:Mumbai 03-2016 37 University.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A building of the [[University of Mumbai]]]]

[[File:University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India 2010.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Madras]], established 1857, is one of the three oldest modern [[state universities]] in [[India]]]]

[[File:University of Calcutta cropped.JPG|thumb|[[University of Calcutta]], established in 1857, was the first multidisciplinary and secular Western-style institution in Asia.]]

Most of the public universities in [[India]] follow the collegiate system. The University of Mumbai, is a collegiate public state university located in the city of [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India. The [[University of Mumbai]] is one of the largest universities in the world. As of 2013, the university had 711 affiliated colleges. As of 22 November 2021, the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]] lists 441 state universities. The oldest establishment date listed by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]] is 1857, shared by the [[University of Calcutta]], the [[University of Madras]] and the [[University of Mumbai]]. Most State Universities are collegiate universities administering many affiliated colleges (often located in small towns) that typically offer a range of undergraduate courses, but may also offer post-graduate courses. More established colleges may even offer PhD programs in some departments with the approval of the affiliating university.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://aishe.gov.in/MHRDDashboard/home |title=MHRD Dashboard |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024163951/http://aishe.gov.in/MHRDDashboard/home |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Ireland===

The only '[[ancient university]]' in [[Ireland]], North or Republic, is the [[University of Dublin]]. Created during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], it is modelled on the collegiate universities of Cambridge and Oxford. However, only one constituent college was ever founded, hence the curious position of [[Trinity College, Dublin]] (TCD), today. All of the teaching is provided by the college, with degrees being awarded by the university. Within the [[Republic of Ireland]], the four constituent universities of the federal [[National University of Ireland]] (NUI) are, for all essential purposes, independent universities. The other truly collegiate university in Ireland is [[Ulster University]], which is located in [[Northern Ireland]] (see United Kingdom on this list).

===Italy===

In [[Italy]], independent halls of residence known as 'colleges of merit' operate in a number of university cities, offering tutoring, supplementary teaching, and additional diplomas.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.collegiuniversitari.it/en/home | title=Home }}</ref> The university in which the collegiate model is most developed is the [[University of Pavia]] with four independent colleges (including two established in the 16th century: [[Collegio Borromeo]], founded in 1561, and [[Collegio Ghislieri]], founded in 1567) and 12 public colleges. However, neither in Pavia nor in any other Italian university do students have to be members of colleges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unipv.eu/site/en/home/international-students/living-in-pavia/university-colleges.html|title=University Colleges|publisher=University of Pavia|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref>

===Macau===

The [[University of Macau]] has moved to a residential college system since 2010, when two pilot colleges were established. Further colleges have been founded since, and the university became collegiate in 2014, with 10 colleges in operation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rc.umac.mo/the-residential-college-system-%e6%9b%b8%e9%99%a2%e7%b3%bb%e7%b5%b1/|title=The Residential College System 書院系統|publisher=University of Macau|access-date=20 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://collegiateway.org/news/2009-university-of-macau|title=Residential Colleges for the University of Macau?|date=21 April 2009|access-date=20 August 2017|publisher=Collegiate Way}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://rc.umac.mo/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Residential-College-System-Booklet-%E6%9B%B8%E9%99%A2%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%B0%8F%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%902016-17.pdf|title=The University of Macau Residential Colleges 2016/17|publisher=University of Macau|access-date=20 August 2017}}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===New Zealand===

[[File:University of Otago.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Otago Registry Building]]]]

In New Zealand the [[University of Otago]] has [[Colleges of the University of Otago|15 residential colleges]], of which one (Abbey College) is postgraduate-only, nine are undergraduate-only and five take both postgraduate and undergraduate students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.otago.ac.nz/accommodation/residential-colleges/index.html|title=Residential Colleges|publisher=University of Otaga|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref> Most of the colleges are owned and managed by the university, but there are five independent "affiliated colleges" ([[Colleges of the University of Otago#City College|City College]], [[Knox College, Otago|Knox College]], [[St Margaret's College, Otago|St Margaret's College]], [[Salmond College]] and [[Selwyn College, Otago|Selwyn College]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.otago.ac.nz/study/otago628507.pdf|title=Administrative and Student Services and Facilities|work=The University of Otago Calendar|date=2017|page=142|publisher=University of Otaga|access-date=31 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831131307/http://www.otago.ac.nz/study/otago628507.pdf|archive-date=31 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Membership of a college is not obligatory for students, and only students in residence count as college members. The colleges manage admission to the college (but not the university) and provide academic tutorials to students.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://collegiateway2014.wordpress.com/2014/09/09/martyn-evans-on-the-collegiate-way/|title=Martyn Evans on The Collegiate Way|work=Collegiate Way 2014|publisher=Durham University|date=9 September 2014|author=Martyn Evans}}</ref>

===Singapore===

The [[University of the Arts Singapore|University of the Arts Singapore (UAS)]] is a publicly-funded private collegiate university in Singapore. It is a federation of two local arts colleges —[[Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts]], and [[LASALLE College of the Arts]]. It was announced as a planned-university in 2021, and took its present name in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About us |url=https://uas.edu.sg/about-us |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=uas |language=en}}</ref>

UAS will be the seventh local university of Singapore, and also will be the only publicly-funded private university other than the defunct and restructured [[UniSIM]] in Singapore. UAS will have its own degree-conferring power in Singapore.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Private University of the Arts Singapore – Formed by Alliance Between NAFA and LASALLE – to Open in 2024 |url=http://www.moe.gov.sg/news/press-releases/20220830-new-private-university-of-the-arts-singapore-formed-by-alliance-between-nafa-and-lasalle-to-open-in-2024 |access-date=2023-08-01 |website=www.moe.gov.sg |language=en}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Colleges within universities in the United Kingdom}}

There are a number of British universities with colleges of different types. Some are ''listed bodies'' under the [[Education Reform Act 1988]] legally recognised as "Institutions of a University", while others are not;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/2993/schedule/part/2/made|title=The Education (Listed Bodies) (England) Order 2013|at=Part 2: Institutions of a University|work=legislation.gov.uk|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/wsi/2016/395/schedule/part/2/made|title=The Education (Listed Bodies) (Wales) Order 2016|at=Part 2: Institutions of a University|work=legislation.gov.uk|access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref>{{efn|The University of London's School of Advanced Studies, University Marine Biological Station, and University of London Institute Paris, Durham University's Wesley Study Centre, and the University of Manchester's Manchester Business School are also ''listed bodies'' as "Institutions of a University" but are not considered colleges by their parent universities}} colleges of the University of London are ''recognised bodies'' under the 1988 act that have the right to award degrees of the University of London and (in many cases) their own degrees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2013/2992/schedule/paragraph/1/made|title=The Education (Recognised Bodies) (England) Order 2013|at=Schools, Colleges and Institutes of the University of London permitted by the University to award University of London degrees|work=legislation.gov.uk|access-date=22 September 2018}}</ref> Some colleges are legally independent of their parent university, while others are not.

Collegiate universities with centralised teaching and undergraduate teaching in colleges:
* [[University of Oxford]] (mostly independent colleges; listed bodies)
* [[University of Cambridge]] (independent colleges; listed bodies)

Collegiate universities with centralised teaching and residential-only colleges:
* [[Durham University]] (mostly dependent colleges; listed bodies) (with the exception of in-college teaching for ordinands at [[Cranmer Hall, Durham|Cranmer Hall]] theological college within [[St John's College, Durham|St John's]])
* [[University of York]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)
* [[Lancaster University]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)

* [[University of Roehampton]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)

Collegiate universities where all teaching is carried out in the colleges:
* [[University of London]] (independent colleges; recognised bodies) (with the exception of teaching in the ''central bodies'': the [[University of London Institute in Paris]] and the [[School of Advanced Studies]])
* [[University of the Arts London]] (dependent colleges; not listed bodies)
* [[University of the Highlands and Islands]] (independent colleges; listed bodies)

Unitary universities with centralised teaching and associated colleges that carry out their own teaching:
* [[Queen's University Belfast]] (two independent colleges; listed bodies)
* [[University of South Wales]] (two dependent colleges including one further education college delivering some higher education courses; listed bodies)
* [[University of Wales Trinity Saint David]] (one dependent further education college delivering some higher education courses; listed body)

===United States===
{{See also|State university system}}
[[File:Branford Court spring 2.JPG|thumb|[[Branford College]] at [[Yale University]]]]
[[File:Avery House, California Institute of Technology (September 10, 2011).jpg|thumb|[[House system at the California Institute of Technology#List of the houses|Avery House]] at the [[California Institute of Technology]].]]
The US has a wide variety of systems. There are a number of universities with [[residential college]]s, most of which are owned by the central university, which may be referred to as residential colleges or as houses. These do not normally participate in formal teaching, although there are exceptions to this. Most collegiate universities in the US were previously non-collegiate but have established residential colleges in the 20th or 21st century. There were around 30 universities with residential colleges in the US in 2010,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.houstonpress.com/news/rice-university-residential-college-guarantee-not-all-students-get-what-they-pay-for-6714167|title=Rice University Residential College Guarantee: Not All Students Get What They Pay For|date= 22 July 2010|author=Chasen Marshall|work=Houston Press|access-date=4 September 2017}}</ref> examples include:
* [[Harvard University]] – Established in the 1930s, [[Harvard College#House system|Harvard's house system]] has 12 residential houses for "upperclass" (second year and above) students, with a 13th non-residential house for students living off campus and postgraduate students. Students are assigned to colleges at the end of their first year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://college.harvard.edu/student-residential-life/residential-life/upperclass|title=Upperclassmen|publisher=Harvard University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Yale University]] – Also established in the 1930s, [[Residential colleges of Yale University|Yale's residential college system]] has 14 colleges which follow the traditional British system of students joining a college when they join the university and remaining a member of that college.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://yalecollege.yale.edu/campus-life/residential-colleges|title=Residential Colleges|publisher=Yale University|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref>
* [[California Institute of Technology]] – Established in 1931, the [[house system at the California Institute of Technology]] has 8 houses for undergraduates, which students are selected into upon completion of a two-week "rotation" process when they first join the university. Students remain members of this house for the duration of their undergraduate education at Caltech, but may seek additional membership in other houses upon a public vote in the target house.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interhouse Committee |url=https://ihc.caltech.edu/ |access-date=2024-10-08 |website=Interhouse Committee |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Rice University]] – Established in 1957 with four colleges, [[Residential colleges of Rice University|Rice's residential college system]] now has 11 colleges. Students join a college when they enter the university and retain their membership throughout their time as an undergraduate, with around 75% living in college.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://students.rice.edu/students/Colleges.asp|title=Colleges|publisher=Rice University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[University of California, Santa Cruz]] – Beginning in 1965 with the founding of [[Cowell College]], the [[University of California, Santa Cruz#Residential colleges|UC Santa Cruz residential college system]] has the most established collegiate system on the West Coast. All undergraduate students, whether they live on campus or not, are affiliated with one of 10 residential colleges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Undergraduate Colleges |url=https://www.ucsc.edu/campus/colleges.html |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=www.ucsc.edu}}</ref>
* [[University of Notre Dame]] – Established in the 1960s, the [[University of Notre Dame residence halls|Notre Dame residential college system]] features 32 halls in which all students are placed freshman year and remain for a minimum of 6 semesters. Students rarely switch halls, each of has its own spirit, coat of arms and colors, traditions, mascot, sport teams, events, dances and reputation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glanzer |first=Perry L. |title=Restoring the soul of the university : unifying Christian higher education in a fragmented age |date=2017 |others=Nathan F. Alleman, Todd C. Ream |isbn=978-0-8308-9163-4 |location=Downers Grove, Illinois |pages=159 |oclc=969439621}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=How Being Part of a 'House' Within a School Helps Students Gain A Sense of Belonging |url=https://www.kqed.org/mindshift/50960/how-being-part-of-a-house-within-a-school-helps-students-gain-a-sense-of-belonging |access-date=2021-08-31 |website=KQED |date=15 May 2018 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2018-04-26 |title=How housing alienates Columbia students from each other {{!}} Columbia Spectator |work=Columbia Spectator |url=http://features.columbiaspectator.com/eye/2015/02/18/a-house-is-not-a-home/ |access-date=2022-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426232726/http://features.columbiaspectator.com/eye/2015/02/18/a-house-is-not-a-home/ |archive-date=2018-04-26 }}</ref>
* [[Princeton University]] – Established in the 1980s, [[Princeton University#Residential colleges|Princeton's residential college system]] has six colleges, three of which house students from all years and the other three only first and second year students. Most students in the third year and above do not live in college accommodation, but retain their links to a college.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.princeton.edu/one-community/housing-dining|title=Housing & Dining|publisher=Princeton University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://odoc.princeton.edu/about/residential-colleges|title=Residential Colleges| publisher=Princeton University|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Dartmouth College]] – Established in 2016, Dartmouth's house system has six houses that undergraduates are members of throughout their time at the university.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2015/11/college-unveils-six-house-communities-open-next-fall|title=College Unveils Six House Communities to Open Next Fall|date=November 2015|publisher=Dartmouth College|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://students.dartmouth.edu/residential-life/house-communities/about-house-system|title=About the House System|date=23 August 2016 |publisher=Dartmouth College|access-date=3 September 2017}}</ref>

Many [[State University systems of the USA|state university systems]] consist of campuses that are legally part of a single corporation (e.g., the [[Regents of the University of California]] is the corporation that owns and operates the entire University of California system), but are operationally independent. Examples of such institutions include the [[University of California]], the [[State University of New York]], the [[University of Michigan]], the [[University of Texas System]]. Like [[University of California, Santa Cruz|UC Santa Cruz]], [[University of California, San Diego|UC San Diego]] also has a residential college system inspired by the British model.<ref name="ClarkKerr_Page_273">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520223677|pages=273–280|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA273}}</ref> At both campuses, the academic resources are provided primarily by the university, but each residential college follows its own educational philosophy and sets out its own degree requirements.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://catalog.ucsd.edu/undergraduate/colleges/index.html#:~:text=Each%20faculty%20member%20on%20the,%2C%20and%20Seventh%E2%80%94were%20established | title=Colleges }}</ref>

[[File:Smith Clock Tower view.jpg|thumb|The [[Claremont Colleges]]]]
The [[Claremont Colleges]] in California operate a hybrid federal-constituent system. All 7 colleges are independently governed: [[Pomona College]], [[Scripps College]], [[Claremont McKenna College]], [[Harvey Mudd College]], [[Pitzer College]] as undergraduate colleges as well as [[Claremont Graduate University]] and [[Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences]] as graduate universities. Their founding model was based on that of the University of Oxford and they are linked through the [[Claremont University Consortium]], though, unlike other constituent college systems, degrees are conferred separately by the seven constituent institutions and they exist as [[universities]] and [[liberal arts colleges]] in their own right. The colleges are spread over a square mile site and share certain departmental, library and research facilities. In addition, the five undergraduate colleges operate [[Claremont Colleges#Athletics|two intercollegiate athletic programs]], with Claremont, Harvey Mudd, and Scripps forming one program and Pomona and Pitzer the other.

==Former collegiate universities==
[[File:Sorbonne 17thc.jpg|right|thumb|The [[University of Paris]] depicted in a 17th-century engraving]]

Some universities that once featured collegiate systems have lost them to mergers or suppression, due to financial, political or other reasons, or (in the case of federal universities) the individual colleges becoming independent universities. Examples include the following:

===Former residential college systems===
*At the [[University of St Andrews]], the surviving colleges play a purely ceremonial role and are neither teaching nor residential bodies. The three colleges are [[St Mary's College, St Andrews|St Mary's College]] for the Faculty of Divinity and [[United College, St Andrews|United College]] for the other faculties, and [[St Leonard's College (University of St Andrews)|St Leonard's College]] for postgraduates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/divinity/about/|title=About St Mary's College|publisher=University of St Andrews|date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/library/specialcollections/collections/archives/themunimentcollection/collegiaterecords/unitedcollege/|title=United College|publisher=University of St Andrews|date=3 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/pgstudents/stleonards/about/|title=St Leonard's College|publisher=University of St Andrews|date=3 September 2017}}</ref> University College, Dundee was incorporated into St Andrews in 1898 and was merged with the medical school, the dental school and the Dundee School of Economics in 1954 to form Queen's College. This became the independent [[University of Dundee]] in 1967.<ref>{{cite web|url=|title=Records of University College, Dundee and Queen's College, Dundee, being the University of St Andrews in Dundee| publisher=University of St Andrews|date=27 October 2021}}</ref>
* At the [[University of Coimbra]], independent colleges much like the Oxbridge ones were created throughout the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. They were abolished with the extinction of religious orders in 1836.<ref name=coimbra/>
*The colleges of the former [[University of Paris]] were suppressed after the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="Cathenc Paris"/>
*The [[University of Salamanca]] had a large number of colleges (four ''colegios mayores'', or large colleges, and many ''colegios menores'', or small colleges), which were abolished in 1807 when [[Napoleon]] invaded [[Spain]].<ref name=salamanca/>
*[[Leipzig University]] as an example of a medieval German university (currently the second oldest in the country) was structured into colleges in a similar way. Often they were set up by a particular monastic order to serve its members. Colleges served as places of living and collegiate teaching. They had jurisdiction over their members (i.e. municipal courts of the city of [[Leipzig]] would refuse to hear actions brought against them). In addition there were private residential halls (Bursen). Parallel to the college system there were four nations ([[university nations]]) similar to the model of the universities of Prague (Leipzig's 'mother' institution, see [[Decree of Kutná Hora]]) and Paris after which they were modelled. During the age of enlightenment this structure was abandoned. Still today, the names of the former colleges live on as names of buildings used by the university.
*The [[University of Kent]] abolished the position of [[Head of college|college master]] in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kent.ac.uk/governance/downloads/further-information/officers/college-masters.pdf|title=College Masters|website=University of Kent|access-date=31 July 2025}}</ref> A revision of the university's [[ordinance (university)|ordinance]]s in June 2025 deleted the section on colleges that had been present up to the 2024 revision, removing then from the university's constitutional documents.<ref name=Ordinances2025>{{cite web|url=https://media.www.kent.ac.uk/se/52238/OrdinancesJuly2025-Final.pdf|title=Ordinances|website=University of Kent|date=June 2025|access-date=24 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250214172204/https://media.www.kent.ac.uk/se/45164/OrdinancesJuly2024-FINAL.pdf|url=https://media.www.kent.ac.uk/se/45164/OrdinancesJuly2024-FINAL.pdf|date=July 2024|archive-date=14 February 2025|title=Ordinances|website=University of Kent}}</ref> {{As of|2025|post=,}} only three of the university's residences still bear the names of colleges.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.kent.ac.uk/accommodation/options/|title=Your guide to university accommodation: What are your options at Canterbury?|website=University of Kent|access-date=24 July 2025}}</ref>

===Former federal universities===
* The [[Victoria University (UK)|Victoria University]], which split into the [[Victoria University of Manchester]], the [[University of Liverpool]] and the [[University of Leeds]].
* The [[University of Wales]] was a federal university from its formation in 1893 until 2007, when its colleges became independent and it was transformed into a non-membership accreditation body.
* The [[History of Durham University#The federal university 1910–63|University of Durham]] was a federal university with two divisions in Durham and Newcastle between 1909 and 1963, when the Newcastle division became [[Newcastle University]].
* The [[Federal University of Surrey]] was, from 2000 to 2004, a federation of the [[University of Surrey]] and the University of Surrey Roehampton (now [[Roehampton University]]). It was dissolved when Roehampton became an independent university.
* The [[University of France]] was established by Napoleon in 1808 and acted as a central university for the ''académies'' (the former universities) until 1896, when these were restored to full university status.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnmDJ1tnooMC&pg=PA306|pages=306–307|title=The Evolution of Educational Thought|volume=2|author=Émile Durkheim|publisher=Taylor & Francis|date= 2005|isbn=9780415386081}}</ref>
* The [[University of South Africa]] was formerly a federal university with constituent colleges in the various provinces of [[South Africa]]. After the [[Second World War]], most of these colleges became autonomous universities, and the University of South Africa became primarily a [[distance education]] institution.

==See also==
* [[Affiliated school]]
* [[List of residential colleges]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Types of university or college]]

Kolgaon, Haryana

2025-12-24T13:00:57Z

Google updates 22: updated references additionally and fixed typos after review

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kolgaon
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Haryana#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Haryana, India
| coordinates = {{coord|27|39|48|N|76|56|57|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Haryana]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nuh district|Nuh]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 187
| population_total = 2,862
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| website = {{URL|http://mewat.gov.in}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-HR]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Kolgaon''' is a village in the [[Ferozepur Jhirka]] sub-division of [[Mewat district|Nuh District]], [[Haryana]] state, India.<ref name="Census1">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=71625 |title=Census of India 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref>

It is located in the [[Mewat]] region of Haryana.<ref name="TheWire1">{{cite web |url=https://thewire.in/communalism/alwar-lynching-victim-vilage-ground-report-cow |title=For Mewat's Muslims, Cows Now a Source of Both Livelihood and Fear |last=Singh |first=Amit |date= 30 July 2018|website=The Wire |publisher=The Wire|access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref>

==Geography==
It is located next to [[Aravalli Range]] on the foothill of Kalinjar-Mohun-Kolgaon ridge of Delhi Supergroup.<ref>1996, "Records of the Geological Survey of India", Volume 131, Parts 6-8, page 46.</ref>

== Demography ==
It had a population of 2862 in 498 houses as per 2011 [[Census of India]]. 1497 of the population were noted as male and 1365 female.<ref name="Census1"/>

==Administration==
The village local governance is managed by the elected [[Panchayati raj in India|panchayat]] headed by the [[Sarpanch]].

== See also ==
* [[Bhiwadi]]
* [[Bhadas, Haryana|Bhadas]]
* [[Gurgaon]]
* [[Moolthan]] 

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Haryana}}

[[Category:Villages in Nuh district]]

Abdul Batin Nomani

2025-12-23T11:06:49Z

Google updates 22: Added Some Stub First Draft

{{Short description|Indian mufti and writer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| name = Abdul Batin Nomani
| native_name = عبد الباطن نعمانی
| image = Abdul Batin Nomani (cropped).jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1973|3|5}}
| birth_place = [[Varanasi]], Uttar Pradesh, India
| nationality = Indian
| religion = [[Islam]]
| denomination = [[Sunni Islam]]
| Madh'hab = [[Hanafi]]
|creed = [[Maturidi]]
|movement = [[Deobandi]]
| alma_mater = [[Jamia Mazharul Uloom, Banaras|Jamia Mazharul Uloom, Varanasi]]
| title = Mufti-e-Banaras, Shahi Imam of [[Gyanvapi Mosque]]
| occupation = Islamic scholar, teacher, community leader
}}

'''Abdul Batin Nomani''' (born 5 March 1973) is an Indian Sunni Islamic scholar, mufti, and the current [[Shahi Imam]] of the [[Gyanvapi Mosque]] in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. He also serves as the Mufti of Varanasi and the secretary of the Anjuman Intezamia Masajid Committee, which manages the Gyanvapi Mosque complex.

== Early life and education ==
Abdul Batin Nomani was born in Azad Park, Pili Kothi area of [[Varanasi]] on 5 March 1973. He comes from a family with a long-standing tradition of religious scholarship. He began his Quranic education at home and later studied at [[Jamia Mazharul Uloom, Banaras|Madrasa Mazharul Uloom]], from where he graduated in 1993. He received advanced training in Hadith under scholars including Zainul Abideen Maaroofi and also passed the "Fazil" examination from the Madrasa Board.<ref name="Baseerat2025">{{cite web |last=Arshi |first=Syed Alqamah |date=5 May 2025 |title=Mufti Abdul Batin Nomani Imam-o-Khatib Jama Masjid Gyanvapi Banaras: Sawanehi Khaka |trans-title=Mufti Abdul Batin Nomani, Imam and Khatib of Gyanvapi Mosque, Varanasi: A Biographical Sketch |url=https://www.baseeratonline.com/archives/222487 |access-date=27 May 2025 |website=Baseerat Online |language=ur}}</ref>

==Career==
Following his graduation, Nomani began teaching at Jamia Mazharul Uloom in Varanasi, where he continues to serve.<ref name="Baseerat2025" />

In 2002, he assumed the position of Shahi Imam of the [[Gyanvapi Mosque]], a role previously held by his grandfather, father, and another member of his family.<ref name="Baseerat2025" /> He also serves as the Mufti of Varanasi and the secretary of the Anjuman Intezamia Masajid Committee, which manages the Gyanvapi Mosque complex.<ref name="HT2024">{{cite news |title=AIMC opposes temporary gate installation at the entrance of Gyanvapi complex |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/lucknow-news/aimc-opposes-temporary-gate-installation-at-gyanvapi-complex-101722624450410.html |access-date=2025-05-27 |publisher=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=2024-08-03}}</ref>

He heads the Darul Ifta and serves on the local Shariah arbitration board (Darul Qaza) in Varanasi. He is affiliated with various religious and community organizations, including the [[Jamiat Ulama-e-Hind]] (Banaras chapter).<ref name="Baseerat2025" />

== Gyanvapi Mosque Involvement ==
Nomani has been actively involved in the legal and religious issues surrounding the [[Gyanvapi Mosque]]. He has publicly stated that the mosque has been used for Muslim worship for centuries and is registered as a Sunni Waqf property since 1937.<ref name="HT2022">{{cite news |title=We have expectations of justice from court: Mufti-e-Banaras |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/we-have-expectations-of-justice-from-court-muftiebanaras-101653240906279.html |access-date=2025-05-27 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=2022-05-22}}</ref>

In June 2022, he expressed concerns about increasing legal and societal pressure on mosques in India, citing the Gyanvapi case and other similar disputes.<ref name="Patrika2022">{{cite news |last=Chaturvedi |first=Ajay |date=2022-06-04 |title=ज्ञानवापी प्रकरणः मुफ्ती ए बनारस का बड़ा बयान, मस्जिदें खतरे में, समुदाय के लोग इबादत पर गौर फरमाएं, अपनी खामियां तलाशें |trans-title=Gyanvapi Case: Mufti of Banaras makes a big statement — Mosques are in danger; community members should reflect on their worship and introspect on their shortcomings |url=https://www.patrika.com/varanasi-news/mufti-e-banaras-maulana-abdul-batin-nomani-s-big-statement-in-gyanvapi-case-7573310/ |access-date=2025-05-27 |publisher=[[Rajasthan Patrika]] |language=hi}}</ref>

In August 2024, Nomani led public protests against the installation of a temporary gate near Gate No. 4 of the Gyanvapi complex, alleging that it would hinder Muslim access to the mosque during Friday prayers.<ref name="FPJ2024">{{cite news |last=Banerjee |first=Biswajeet |date=2024-08-02 |title=Uttar Pradesh: Tensions Flare In Varanasi Over Gate Construction At Gyanvapi Mosque |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/uttar-pradesh-tensions-flare-in-varanasi-over-gate-construction-at-gyanvapi-mosque |access-date=2025-05-27 |publisher=[[Free Press Journal]] |language=en}}</ref>

In early February 2024, following a [[Varanasi district]] court order that permitted Hindu worship in the southern cellar (basement) of the Gyanvapi complex, Nomani and the Anjuman Intezamia Masajid Committee (AIMC) called for peaceful protest measures, including a [[bandh]] (shutdown) of shops in several Muslim-dominated localities on 2 February 2024; the AIMC said the action was in response to what it described as a "misleading claim" that puja had been performed in the southern cellar until 1993, which the committee denied.<ref name="HTFeb0324">{{cite news |last= |date=2024-02-03 |title=Friday namaz peaceful at Gyanvapi mosque, mixed response to AIMC bandh call |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/lucknow-news/friday-namaz-peaceful-at-gyanvapi-mosque-mixed-response-to-aimc-bandh-call-101706896146983-amp.html |access-date=2025-05-27 |publisher=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref name="HTFeb0224">{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=Sudhir |title=Gyanvapi panel asks Muslims to shut shops, businesses today |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/gyanvapi-panel-asks-muslims-to-shut-shops-businesses-today-101706853595329-amp.html |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=2024-02-02 |access-date=2025-05-27}}</ref> The AIMC reported that around 2,200 people offered [[Friday prayer]] at Gyanvapi on 2 February and that additional worshippers attended other mosques across the city; security was tightened and police patrolling (including drone deployment) was reported around the complex on that day to maintain peace and order.<ref name="HTFeb0324" />

Nomani publicly denied historical claims suggesting continuous Hindu worship in the southern cellar of the mosque, stating that such assertions were false and that there was no record of puja being performed there, and reiterating the AIMC's legal challenge to the district court's order in the higher courts.<ref name="HTFeb0224" />

In August 2024, after the Kashi Vishwanath (KV) temple security committee proposed and began installing a temporary iron gate near Gate No. 4 of the Gyanvapi complex for crowd and security management, Nomani and other AIMC office-bearers objected strongly, alleging the gate would obstruct Muslim access; the AIMC convened a meeting and resolved to write to several political leaders seeking intervention and to prepare legal options, while the district administration stated the installation was intended for crowd management and subsequently halted work after AIMC objections.<ref name="HTAug0424">{{cite news |last= |date=2024-08-04 |title=AIMC to write to Modi, other leaders to halt installation of gate near Gyanvapi entrance |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/lucknow-news/aimc-to-write-to-modi-other-leaders-to-halt-installation-of-gate-near-gyanvapi-entrance-101722789721799-amp.html |access-date=2025-05-27 |publisher=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Nomani warned of continued opposition — within legal and Gandhian limits — should attempts to restrict access recur, and AIMC leaders prepared both political outreach (letters to MPs and party leaders) and legal recourse to challenge such installations.<ref name="HTAug0424" />

In July 2025, as the Uttar Pradesh government's Dalmandi Road widening project advanced (aimed at improving access to Gate 4 of the Kashi Vishwanath Dham), Nomani wrote an open letter to the President, the Prime Minister, the Chief Minister and opposition leaders seeking an alternative route to avoid demolition of six mosques and numerous shops and homes in the Dalmandi area; he argued that the project threatened livelihoods of thousands and communal harmony, and noted that affected mosque and property owners had obtained temporary stays from the High Court, pointing to legal complexities in the exercise of the project.<ref name="TOIJul2725">{{cite news |last=Dikshit |first=Rajeev |date=27 July 2025 |title=Mufti for alternative plan to avoid razing of mosques |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/mufti-for-alternative-plan-to-avoid-razing-of-mosques/articleshow/122927653.cms |access-date=2025-08-01 |publisher=The Times of India}}</ref> The public letter and local political responses underscored Nomani's continued role in mobilising community concern and seeking political/legal remedies to infrastructure actions that affect mosque properties and local commerce.<ref name="TOIJul2725" />

At a conference in Kozhikode in February 2024, Nomani reiterated that, in his view and research, there is no historical record indicating that a temple stood on the exact site of the Gyanvapi Mosque; he suggested that claims about a temple at that precise spot were fabricated and that the area in question had been used historically for storing temple properties rather than as a site of puja.<ref name="NIEFeb1524">{{cite news |last= |date=15 February 2024 |title=No mention in history about temple at site: Gyanvapi Imam |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2024/Feb/15/no-mention-in-history-about-temple-at-site-gyanvapi-imam |access-date=2025-05-27 |publisher=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

== Public appeals and activism ==
In 2021, Nomani appealed to all mosque committees and imams across Uttar Pradesh to ensure that proper legal documentation of mosques was maintained, following the demolition of a mosque in Barabanki despite a court stay order.<ref name="ETV2021">{{cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title=Masajid ke dastaweezat ki durusti ki appeal: Mufti Abdul Batin Nu'mani – Banaras ke Mufti Abdul Batin Nu'mani. |trans-title=Appeal for accuracy of mosque documents: Mufti Abdul Batin Nomani |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/urdu/national/city/varanasi/appeal-for-accuracy-of-mosque-documents/na20210522205430983 |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=[[ETV Bharat News]] |language=ur}}</ref>

Nomani has continued to combine legal action, political outreach and public appeals in response to developments affecting the Gyanvapi complex and neighbouring areas, including organising or endorsing peaceful protests, calling for community-wide measures such as selective shop closures in protest of court orders, and writing to political leaders to seek intervention when administrative actions (such as security installations or road-widening projects) are perceived to threaten mosque access or existence.<ref name="HTFeb0324" /><ref name="HTAug0424" /><ref name="TOIJul2725" />

== Publications ==
Nomani is also active in Islamic research and has authored a historical account titled ''Jama Masjid Gyanvapi: Tareekh ke Aaine Mein'' (Gyanvapi Mosque in the Mirror of History). He has also contributed to the religious and cultural historiography of Varanasi by editing and annotating earlier works such as ''Asar-e-Banaras'' and ''Tazkira Mashaikh-e-Banaras''. In addition, he has written instructional texts like ''Hajj ka Muallim''.<ref name="Baseerat2025" /><ref name="Freelancer2022">{{cite web |last=Obaidullah |first=Zakaullah |date=2022-07-22 |title=Masjid-e-Gyanvapi |url=https://thefreelancer.co.in/?p=10489 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250210041947/https://thefreelancer.co.in/?p=10489 |archive-date=10 February 2025 |access-date=2025-05-27 |website=The Freelancer |language=ur }}</ref>

== Recognition ==
Nomani has been recognized by several civil society groups for his contributions to interfaith dialogue and social issues. He was honored by the Institute of Planning and Management in 2006 following his efforts for peace during a communal crisis in Varanasi.<ref name="Baseerat2025" />

==See also==

[[Gyanvapi Mosque]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nomani, Abdul Batin}}
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:People from Varanasi]]
[[Category:Indian Islamic religious leaders]]
[[Category:21st-century Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:Hanafis]]
[[Category:Deobandis]]
[[Category:Muftis]]
[[Category:Indian imams]]

Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency

2025-12-20T22:34:08Z

Google updates 22: created post!

{{Short description|Constituency of the Indian parliament in Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
|name = Pratapgarh {{Small|UP-39}}
|established = 1952
|reservation =None
|party = [[Samajwadi Party]]
|mp =[[S. P. Singh Patel]]
|map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Uttar Pradesh/Pratapgarh.map}}
|map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency
|latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general elections|2024]]
|state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|assembly_cons =[[Rampur Khas Assembly constituency|Rampur Khas]] [[Vishwanathganj Assembly constituency|Vishwanathganj]] [[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Pratapgarh]] [[Patti, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Patti]] [[Raniganj, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Raniganj]]
}}
'''Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 80 [[Lok Sabha]] parliamentary constituencies in the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency">{{cite news |last1=Zee News |title=Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency |url=https://zeenews.india.com/lok-sabha-general-elections-2019/pratapgarh-lok-sabha-constituency-2198307.html |accessdate=16 September 2022 |date=2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916041921/https://zeenews.india.com/lok-sabha-general-elections-2019/pratapgarh-lok-sabha-constituency-2198307.html |archivedate=16 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

==Assembly segments==
Presently, Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency comprises five [[Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) segments. They are:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!No
!Name
!District
!Member
!colspan="2"| Party
!colspan="2"| 2024 Lead
|-
|244
|[[Rampur Khas Assembly constituency|Rampur Khas]]
|rowspan="5"| [[Pratapgarh district, Uttar Pradesh|Pratapgarh]]
|[[Aradhana Misra]]
|{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|{{party name with color|Samajwadi Party}}
|-
| 247
|[[Vishwanathganj Assembly constituency|Vishwanathganj]]
|Jeet Lal Patel
|{{party name with color|Apna Dal (Sonelal)}}
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|248
|[[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Pratapgarh]]
|[[Rajendra Kumar Maurya]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|{{party name with color|Samajwadi Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|249
|[[Patti, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Patti]]
|[[Ram Singh Patel]]
|{{party name with color|Samajwadi Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|250
|[[Raniganj, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Raniganj]]
|[[Rakesh Kumar Verma]]
|-
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
|[[1951–52 Indian general election|1952]]
|rowspan="2"| [[Munishwar Datt Upadhyay]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|[[Ajit Pratap Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|rowspan="2"| [[Dinesh Singh (Uttar Pradesh politician)|Dinesh Singh]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|[[Roop Nath Singh Yadav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|[[Ajit Pratap Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|rowspan="2"| [[Dinesh Singh (Uttar Pradesh politician)|Dinesh Singh]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|[[Abhay Pratap Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|[[Rajkumari Ratna Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|[[Ram Vilas Vedanti]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|[[Rajkumari Ratna Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[Akshay Pratap Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samajwadi Party}}
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[Rajkumari Ratna Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]<ref name="The feudal character of Pratapgarh’s four-way contest">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=11 May 2019 |title=The feudal character of Pratapgarh’s four-way contest |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/the-feudal-character-of-pratapgarhs-four-way-contest/article62007711.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250603085847/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/the-feudal-character-of-pratapgarhs-four-way-contest/article62007711.ece |archive-date=3 June 2025 |access-date=3 June 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|[[Harivansh Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Apna Dal (Sonelal)}}
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|[[Sangam Lal Gupta]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|[[S. P. Singh Patel]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samajwadi Party}}
|}

==Election results==
===2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]:[[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh|Pratapgarh]]<ref name="Lok Sabha 2024 Election Results: Pratapgarh">{{cite news |title=Lok Sabha 2024 Election Results: Pratapgarh |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2439.htm |accessdate=21 February 2025 |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=4 June 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250221160530/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2439.htm |archivedate=21 February 2025}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party =Samajwadi Party
|candidate =[[S. P. Singh Patel]]
|votes =4,41,932
|percentage = 46.65
|change ={{up}}46.65
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate =[[Sangam Lal Gupta]]
|votes =3,75,726
|percentage = 39.66
|change ={{down}}08.04
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate =Prathmesh Mishra
|votes =80,144
|percentage = 8.46
|change ={{down}}26.37
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = NOTA
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|votes =2,891
|percentage = 0.31
|change ={{down}}1.02
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes =66,206
|percentage =6.99
|change ={{down}}12.56
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =9,47,288
|percentage =51.67
|change ={{down}}1.89
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Samajwadi Party
|loser = BJP
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2019 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh|Pratapgarh]]<ref name="Pratapgarh Election Results 2019: BJP's Sangam Lal Gupta registers win with over 4.3 lakh votes">{{cite news |title=Pratapgarh Election Results 2019: BJP's Sangam Lal Gupta registers win with over 4.3 lakh votes |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/pratapgarh-up-election-2019-pratapgarh-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/414349 |access-date=3 June 2025 |work= |publisher=Timesnow |date=24 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250603090611/https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/pratapgarh-up-election-2019-pratapgarh-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/414349|archive-date=3 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Sangam Lal Gupta]]|votes=4,36,291|percentage=47.7|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Ashok Kumar Tripathi|votes=3,18,539|percentage=34.83|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Rajkumari Ratna Singh]]|votes=77,096|percentage=8.43|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Jansatta Dal (Loktantrik)|candidate=[[Akshay Pratap Singh]]|votes=46,963|percentage=5.13|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=12,159|percentage=1.33|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=1,17,752|percentage=12.87|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=9,15,259|percentage=53.56|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh|Pratapgarh]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)
|candidate = [[Harivansh Singh|Kunwar Harivansh Singh]]
|votes = 3,75,789
|percentage = 42.01
|change = +25.13
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Asif Nizamuddin Siddique
|votes = 2,07,567
|percentage = 23.20
|change = +1.46
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Rajkumari Ratna Singh]]
|votes = 1,38,620
|percentage = 15.50
|change = -10.89
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Pramod Kumar Singh Patel
|votes = 1,20,107
|percentage = 13.43
|change = -5.49
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Ashok Shukla (Senani)
|votes = 9,983
|percentage = 1.12
|change = +1.12
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the above|None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 9,098
|percentage = 1.02
|change = +1.02
}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes = 1,68,222
|percentage = 18.81
|change = +14.16
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 8,94,456
|percentage = 52.12
|change = +7.46
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing = +15.62
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh|Pratapgarh]] }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Rajkumari Ratna Singh]]
|votes = 1,69,137
|percentage = 26.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = [[Shivakant Ojha|Prof. Shivakant Ojha]]
|votes = 1,39,358
|percentage = 21.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = [[Akshay Pratap Singh|Kunwar Akshaya Pratap Singh]]
|votes = 1,21,252
|percentage = 18.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Apna Dal (Kamerawadi)
|candidate = [[Atique Ahmad|Ateeq Ahmad]]
|votes = 1,08,211
|percentage = 16.88
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Lakshmi Narain Pandey
|votes = 45,575
|percentage = 7.11
|change =
}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes = 29,779
|percentage = 4.65
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 6,41,003
|percentage = 44.66
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Samajwadi Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==External links==
*[https://www.indiaelections2014.info/parliament/2019/states/uttar_pradesh/pratapgarh/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_results.html Pratapgarh lok sabha constituency election 2019 result details]

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Allahabad division topics}}

{{Coord|25.89|91.94|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pratapgarh Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Pratapgarh district, Uttar Pradesh]]

Orlem

2025-12-10T06:33:37Z

Google updates 22: cleanup structure further and corrected details for accuracy

{{short description|Neighbourhood in Mumbai}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Orlem
| settlement_type = Suburb
| image_skyline = Panoramic view of Orlem.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| nickname =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location of Orlem in [[Mumbai]]
| pushpin_map = Mumbai
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_type3 = City
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mumbai Suburban district|Mumbai Suburban]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Mumbai]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporation]]
| governing_body = [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation]] (MCGM)
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 400064
| area_code = 022
| area_code_type =
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = Civic agency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation|BMC]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
}}

'''Orlem''' is a neighbourhood in [[Malad]], a suburb of [[Mumbai]].<ref>[http://www.ourladyoflourdeschurchorlem.com/ Our Lady of Lourdes]</ref> Its original name in the official language of the state ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]) is ''Valnai'', a term used to describe the area as "Valan" meaning turn or curve. The village was settled on a path that curved. The postal zip code 400064 serves the neighborhood. According to a Church census conducted in 2004, it was the largest parish in the [[Archdiocese of Bombay]].<ref name="midday_biggest_parish">{{cite web|date=2004-06-09|title=Malad has biggest parish in Mumbai |url=http://www.mid-day.com/metro/malad/2004/june/85256.htm|access-date=2007-04-21}}{{dead link|date=February 2023}}</ref>

==Location==
Orlem is situated at the northern part of [[Mumbai]] in the western suburb of [[Malad]]. It branches from the main road called Marve Road, which is the main route to Marve beach from [[Swami Vivekanand Road (Mumbai)|Swami Vivekanand Road]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pereira|first=Lindsay|date=2017-04-21|title=Of ghosts, fêtes and chicken lollipops|url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/igeIX1M4nltfw9Ib265heM/Of-ghosts-ftes-and-chicken-lollipops.html|access-date=2021-01-20|website=mint|language=en}}</ref> It is accessible from the Malad Railway station through the bus routes 210, 243, 270, 271, 272, 273, 281,345, 622 and 707

==Landmarks==
Our Lady of Lourdes Church [http://lourdeschurchorlem.org/index.html], established in 1916, is also known as Orlem Church. Many major [[B.E.S.T.]] bus routes stop here and some routes terminate here.

==Localities==
Major zones in Orlem:<ref>Bombay East Indian Association

Watchdog Foundation

A LEAF FROM HISTORY</ref>
* Dominic Colony and Tank Colony
* Joe Braz Colony (J.B.C.)
* Lourdes Colony
* Baudi
* Mithchowki
* Evershine Nagar
* Somwar Bazar & Liberty Garden
* D'monte Lane

Orlem is the channel for many Mumbai beaches such as [[Marve Beach]], [[Aksa Beach]], [[Madh Island]], Erangal, and Dana Pani.

==Demographics==
Orlem was traditionally inhabited by the [[Bombay East Indians]], Koli and SKP communities. According to a 2004 Church census, there were around 7,000 [[Tamil people|Tamil]] Catholics in the parish.<ref name="midday_biggest_parish"/> With the huge boom of the [[call centre]] service industry in the 2000s, Orlem witnessed a large influx of young working class executives.

==Education==
The major schools in Orlem are [[St. Anne's High School, Orlem|St. Anne's High School]] and Junior College, St. Anne International School, Shri Balaji/Pinnacle High International School, Carmel Of St. Joseph, and Orchids International School.

==Sports==
Orlem is home to a vibrant sporting community, predominantly in the fields of hockey and football.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.olympic.org/gavin-ferreira|title = Gavin FERREIRA}}</ref>

==Popular culture==
The writer [[Lindsay Pereira]]'s debut novel, ''[[Gods and Ends]]'', is the first to be set in Orlem.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-20|title=Arre baba, dis is Orlem|url=https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai-guide/things-to-do/article/arre-baba-dis-is-orlem-23164553|access-date=2021-04-26|website=www.mid-day.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pereira|first=Lindsay|date=2021-06-18|title=A Prayer for Orlem|url=https://openthemagazine.com/lounge/books/a-prayer-for-orlem/|access-date=2021-06-27|website=Open The Magazine|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-03|title=Those miserable Goan Catholics of Mumbai's Orlem|url=https://lifestyle.livemint.com//how-to-lounge/books/those-miserable-goan-catholics-of-mumbai-s-orlem-111622633012500.html|access-date=2021-06-27|website=Mintlounge|language=en}}</ref> It was published by Penguin Random House in March, 2021,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lindsay Pereira|url=https://penguin.co.in/book_author/lindsay-pereira/|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Penguin Random House India|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Gods and Ends|url=https://penguin.co.in/book/gods-and-ends/|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Penguin Random House India|language=en-US}}</ref> and focuses on the Goan Catholic community, as well as the East Indian and Mangalorean population of the suburb. The book was described in The Hindu as "a stark and fearless portrayal of the Roman Catholic community in the Bombay of yore."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Anima|first=P.|title=A menagerie of people who wither away|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/read/a-menagerie-of-people-who-wither-away/article34252551.ece|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Businessline|date=6 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

In the Hindi movie [[Merry Christmas (2024 film)|Merry Christmas]], at the very beginning, Maria, a married women discloses to a stranger [whom she met by chance in a restaurant], that her husband had been spending the night in bed with his girl friend at Orlem.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Villages in Mumbai Suburban district]]

Dangal

2025-12-03T13:03:07Z

Google updates 22:

{{wikt|dangal|दंगल}}
'''Dangal''' may refer to:

* Dangal, a type of Indian [[pehlwani]] wrestling competition usually held in an [[akhara]]
* [[Dangal (2016 film)|''Dangal'' (2016 film)]], a Hindi-language Indian film
** [[Dangal (soundtrack)|''Dangal'' (soundtrack)]]
* [[Dangal (1977 film)]], an Indian Bhojpuri-language film
* [[Dangal (TV channel)]], an Indian TV channel
* [[Dangal (TV series)|''Dangal'' (TV series)]], Philippine television drama
* [[Dangal language]], a language of Chad
* [[Dangal dialect (Austronesian)]], a variety within the Watut language complex of Papua New Guinea
* [[Dangal, Iran]], a village in Iran

== See also ==
* [[Danggal language]], of Papua New Guinea
* [[Dangle (disambiguation)]]
* [[Dungal (disambiguation)]]
* [[Dagnall (disambiguation)]]

{{Disambiguation}}

K. Mohammed Ali

2025-12-01T18:57:40Z

Google updates 22: done!

{{Short description|Indian politician (1946–2022)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = K. Mohammed Ali
|birth_date = {{birth date|1946|3|17|df=y}}
|death_date = {{death date and age|2022|9|19|1946|3|17|df=y}}
|office = Member of the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
|constituency = [[Aluva Assembly constituency|Aluva]]
|term_start = 1980
|predecessor = [[T. H. Musthafa]]
|term_end = 2006
|successor =
}}
'''K. Mohammed Ali''' (17 March 1946 – 19 September 2022) was an Indian politician belonging to [[Indian National Congress]]. He represented [[Aluva Assembly constituency|Aluva]] in the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] six times from 1980 to 2006.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Members - Kerala Legislature |url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/members/m418.htm |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=www.niyamasabha.org}}</ref>

He died in Ernakulam on 19 September 2022, aged 73.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-20 |title=K Mohammed Ali Passed Away: ആലുവ മുൻ എംഎൽഎയും കോൺഗ്രസ് നേതാവുമായ കെ മുഹമ്മദലി അന്തരിച്ചു |url=https://zeenews.india.com/malayalam/kerala/former-aluva-mla-k-mohammed-ali-passed-away-106842 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=Zee News Malayalam |language=ml}}</ref>

==Career==

Ali entered politics when he was a student through the students wing of congress. He was a member of [[Kerala Students Union]] (KSU). In 1966, he was elected as the Ernakulam district president of KSU. Later he became the president of Youth Congress in 1968. In 1970, Ali served as the general secretary of the organizing committee for the state rally by youth congress held at [[Kochi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala: Former Congress MLA K Mohammed Ali passes away at 76 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2022/sep/20/kerala-former-congress-mla-k-mohammed-ali-passes-away-at-76-2500164.html |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

Ali had also served as a member of [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala|M.G University]] senate and [[Cochin University of Science and Technology]] syndicate. Mohammed Ali was the KPCC General Secretary from 1972 to 1975. Later he became the vice president of DCC. In 1973, he was appointed the working committee member of KPCC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Former Congress MLA K. Muhammad Ali Passes Away |url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/english/news/kerala/former-congress-mla-k-muhammad-ali-passes-away/7117 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=Deshabhimani |language=en}}</ref>

He won the Assembly election in 1980 and went on to represent [[Aluva Assembly constituency|Aluva constituency]] six times continuously.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-20 |title=Former Kerala MLA and veteran Cong leader K Mohammed Ali passes away |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/former-kerala-mla-and-veteran-cong-leader-k-mohammed-ali-passes-away-168084 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> He contested in 1980 with the support of CPM against [[T. H. Musthafa|T.H Mustafa]] of Indira Congress who was Aluva's sitting MLA. It was [[A. K. Antony|AK Antony]], who came up with suggesting Ali.

Ali retired from active politics in 2006 after losing in the assembly election held that year. Although continued to be active in public affairs, he was not active in political activities. Later he supported his daughter-in-law, who entered the field as a leftist candidate which led to criticism from several congress leaders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=മുൻ എംഎൽഎയും മുതിർന്ന കോൺഗ്രസ് നേതാവുമായ കെ.മുഹമ്മദാലി അന്തരിച്ചു |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2022/09/20/former-mla-k-mohamed-ali-passed-away.html |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref>

==Other positions held==
*International Peace Conference Moscow (participated in 1976)
*Hajj Committee Member
*State Corporative Union Member
*National Sainik Board Member
*Airport Society Limited Board Member
<ref>{{Cite web |last=ലേഖകൻ |first=മാധ്യമം |date=2022-09-20 |title=മുൻ എം.എൽ.എ കെ. മുഹമ്മദാലി അന്തരിച്ചു {{!}} Madhyamam |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/kerala/former-aluva-mla-and-congress-leader-k-mohamed-ali-passed-away-1075913 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=www.madhyamam.com |language=ml}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ali, K. Mohammed}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:2022 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1980–1982]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1982–1987]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1987–1991]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1996–2001]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 2001–2006]]
[[Category:Politicians from Ernakulam district]]

Convention of Baptist Churches of Northern Circars

2025-11-05T18:39:42Z

Google updates 22: done.

{{Short description|Christian denomination in Andhra Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox Christian denomination
| name = Convention of Baptist Churches of Northern Circars
| caption_background =
| image =
| imagewidth = 150px
| alt =
| caption = Official logo
| abbreviation = CBCNC
| type =
| main_classification = [[Evangelicalism]]
| theology = [[Baptists|Baptist]]
| orientation =
| scripture = [[Holy Bible]]
| polity = [[Congregational]]
| governance = [[Voluntary association|Association]]
| structure =
| leader_title = [[President: Augustine Meshach Masa]]
| fellowships =
| associations = [[National Council of Churches in India]], [[Baptist World Alliance]], [[National Council of Churches in India]]
| area = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| headquarters = [[Kakinada]]
| founder = [[Talluru Thomas Gabriel|Thomas Gabriel]] and the [[Canadian Baptists of Ontario and Quebec]]
| founded_date = 1874<ref name="Trophies" />
| founded_place = [[Kakinada]]
| separated_from =
| branched_from =
| merger =
| absorbed =
| separations =
| merged_into =
| defunct =
| nursing_homes =
| aid =
| congregations = 310
| members = 240,000
| ministers =
| missionaries =
| elders =
| hospitals =
| primary_schools =
| secondary_schools =
| tertiary =
| publications =
| website = {{URL|www.cbcnc.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Convention of Baptist Churches of Northern Circars''' ('''CBCNC''') is a [[Baptist]] [[Christian denomination]] in north coastal [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The churches are part of the [[Telugu Christian]] community of Southern India. Its language is [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. It is affiliated to the [[Baptist World Alliance]] (BWA), the [[National Council of Churches in India]] (NCCI) and the [[World Council of Churches]] (WCC).

==History==
CBCNC was founded in 1874<ref name="Trophies">Mary Stillwell McLaurin, ''Chetti Bhanumurti'' in John Craig, J. R. Stillwell, I. C. Archibald, A. E. Baskerville (Edited), ''Some of the Trophies: Canadian Baptist Foreign Mission Board Jubilee Volume, Telugu Trophies – The Jubilee story of some of the principal Telugu converts in the Canadian Baptist Foreign Mission in India from 1874 to 1924'', American Baptist Publication Society, Toronto. [https://archive.org/stream/MN41713ucmf_9/MN41713ucmf_9_djvu.txt]</ref> by the [[Canadian Baptist Mission]] founded by [[Talluru Thomas Gabriel|Thomas Gabriel]] along with the [[Canadian Baptists of Ontario and Quebec]].<ref>[http://www.baptistene.info/asia.php baptistene.info] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721185505/http://www.baptistene.info/asia.php |date=2011-07-21 }}</ref>

From 1947 to 1972, the Convention of Baptist Churches of Northern Circars was managed effortlessly in spite of difficulties. During 1972, crisis brew in the Convention leading to irreparable damage. M. B. Diwakar researched on the crisis with the title, ''An Investigation into the historical antecedents of the crisis in the CBCNC during 1972 to 1974''.<ref>M. B. Diwakar, ''An Investigation into the historical antecedents of the crisis in the CBCNC during 1972 to 1974'' in ''Thesis Titles'', [[Board of Theological Education of the Senate of Serampore College]], Bangalore, 1991.</ref> Due to the crisis, the Churches established by the [[Canadian Baptist Mission]] continued to move forward due to the [[congregational]] type of structure. However, the central leadership is not in place as there are many fractions of the Convention, each claiming to be the rightful successor and the matter continues to be [[subjudice]].<ref>2001 (2) ALD 215, 2001 (2) ALT 190. [http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1240828/]. 2003 (5) ALD 218 [http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1604973/]. 1992 (2) ALT 715 [http://indiankanoon.org/doc/804610/]. 2007 (1) ALD 385 [http://indiankanoon.org/doc/25705357/]. 2002 (6) ALD 503 [http://indiankanoon.org/doc/536587/]</ref>

According to a census published by the association in 2023, it claimed 310 churches and 240,000 members.<ref>Baptist World Alliance, [https://www.baptistworld.org/member-unions/ Members], baptistworld.org, USA, retrieved May 5, 2023</ref>

==Schools==
[[File: Baptist Theological Seminary Building at Jagganaikpur in Kakinada.jpg |280px|thumb|right| [[Baptist Theological Seminary (India)|Baptist Theological Seminary]] in [[Kakinada]].]]
{{Baptist}}
* '''Ministerial'''
** [[Andhra Christian Theological College]], [[Secunderabad]], [[Telangana]] (through Seminary Council),
** [[Baptist Theological Seminary (India)|Baptist Theological Seminary]], [[Kakinada]], [[Andhra Pradesh]],
* '''Ministerial and technical'''
** [[Eva Rose York Bible Training and Technical School for Women]], [[Tuni]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]

== References ==
;Notes
{{reflist}}
;Further reading
* {{cite book
| author=M. B. Diwakar
| title=''An Investigation into the historical antecedents of the crisis in the CBCNC during 1972 to 1974.'' Unpublished M. Th. Thesis, United Theological College, Bangalore
| year=1977
| volume=
| issue=
| url =
}}
* {{cite book
| author=N. Surya Rao |url=http://www.indianchristianity.com/html/NewsDigest.htm
| title=''The History of the Theological Training Institute at Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh 1882–1964.'' Unpublished M.Th. thesis, United Theological College, Bangalore
| year=1984
| volume=
| issue=
}}
* {{cite book
| author=D. J. Jeremiah
| title=''The Relationship of the Baptist Churches in Andhra Pradesh to the Church Union Movement in South India since 1919''. Reflections on Theology Today: Papers Presented by the ACTC Faculty during the Academic Year 1988–89 on Theology and the Mission and Ministry of the Church, Andhra Christian Theological College, Hyderabad
| year=1990
| volume=
| issue=
| oclc=46565446
}}
* {{cite book
| author=G. Beaulah Pearl Sunanda
| title=''An Insight into the History of the Canadian Baptist Mission in Andhra Pradesh (1874–1924).'' Unpublished M.Phil.(History) Thesis, Madras Christian College, Madras
| year=1990
| volume=
| issue=
| url =
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Martin Senftleben
| title=''Influences of Hinduism on Christianity in Andhra Pradesh.'' Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Sri Venkateshwara University, Tirupati
| year=1992
| volume=I
| url=http://www.drmartinus.de/bio/de/thesis1.pdf
| access-date=4 November 2015
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209131403/http://www.drmartinus.de/bio/de/thesis1.pdf
| archive-date=9 December 2008
| url-status=dead
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Martin Senftleben
| title=''Influences of Hinduism on Christianity in Andhra Pradesh.'' Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Sri Venkateshwara University, Tirupati
| year=1992
| volume=II
| url=http://www.drmartinus.de/bio/de/thesis2.pdf
| access-date=4 November 2015
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209131418/http://www.drmartinus.de/bio/de/thesis2.pdf
| archive-date=9 December 2008
| url-status=dead
}}
* {{cite book
| author=S. I. Nirmal Kumar
| title=An Evaluation of the theological understanding regarding the nature, function and authority of ordained ministry within selected Churches of the Convention of Baptist Churches of Northern Circars of Andhra Pradesh
| year=2008
| url-status=
}}{{deadlink|date=September 2023}}
* {{cite book
| author=G. Beulah Pearl Sunanda
| title=''The missionary enterprise of the Canadian Baptist church in Andhra Pradesh An appraisal.'' Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar
| year=2012
| volume=
| issue=
| hdl=10603/124140
}}
* {{cite book
| author=A. Mahalakshmi
| title=''The eradication of leprosy in India and andhra pradesh with a special reference to christian missionary organisations.'' Unpublished Ph. D. thesis. Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar.
| year=2015
| volume=
| issue=
| hdl=10603/188907
}}

==See also==
*[[Samavesam of Telugu Baptist Churches]]

{{Churches in India}}

[[Category:Convention of Baptist Churches of Northern Circars| ]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Affiliated institutions of the National Council of Churches in India]]
[[Category:1874 establishments in India]]

MFK Award for Favourite Villain

2025-11-02T03:38:39Z

Google updates 22: Made Post

{{Short description|Indian film award}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox award
| name = [[Maharashtracha Favourite Kon?]] for Favourite Villain
| image =Sayaji.jpg
|image_size =
| image_upright =
| caption =The 2023 recipient: [[Sayaji Shinde]]
| awarded_for = Best Performance by an Actor in a Negative Role
| presenter = ''[[Zee Talkies]]''
| country = India
| year = [[Siddhartha Jadhav]], ''Galgale Nighale'' (2009)
| holder = [[Sayaji Shinde]], ''[[Ghar Banduk Biryani]]'' (2023)
| website =
}}
'''Maharashtracha Favourite Kon? Award for Favourite Villain''' is given by [[Zee Talkies]] as part of its annual [[Maharashtracha Favourite Kon?]] ceremony for [[Marathi language|Marathi]] films.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Editorial |first=M. M. W. |date=2009-09-19 |title='Maharashtracha Favorite Kon?' |url=https://marathimovieworld.com/news/maharashtracha-favorite-kon-2010.php |access-date=2023-05-14 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Supriya Pilgaonkar during Maharashtracha Favourite Kon Awards 2013, held at Grand Hyatt, in Mumbai, on December 1, 2013. |url=https://photogallery.indiatimes.com/yearendershow/26735469.cms |access-date=2023-05-14 |website=photogallery.indiatimes.com}}</ref> The award was first given in 2009.

==Winners and nominees==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left;"
!scope="col" style="width:5%; text-align:center;"| Year
!scope="col" style="width:10%;text-align:center;"| Photos of winners
!scope="col" style="width:15%;text-align:center;"| Actor
!scope="col" style="width:15%;text-align:center;"| Role(s)
!scope="col" style="width:15%;text-align:center;"| Film
!scope="col" style="width:3%;text-align:center;"|Ref.
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2009
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center" |{{border|[[File:Siddhartha Jadhav.jpg|130px|centre]]|width=2px|style=solid |color=gold}}
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Siddhartha Jadhav]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Andya Banjo'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''Galgale Nighale'''''
| rowspan="3" |<ref name=":0" />
|-
| [[Ramesh Deo]]
|
| ''Galgale Nighale''
|-
| Lokesh Gupte
|Baban
| ''Uladhaal''
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2010
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center" |{{border|[[File:Sayaji.jpg|130px|centre]]|width=2px|style=solid |color=gold}}
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Sayaji Shinde]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Chandrakant Tope'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''[[Gallit Gondhal, Dillit Mujra]]'''''
| rowspan="3" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Editorial |first=M. M. W. |date=2010-11-01 |title='Zee Talkies-Lux' Maharashtracha favourite Kon |url=https://marathimovieworld.com/news/maharashtracha-favourite-kon-2010.php |access-date=2023-05-14 |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ankush Chaudhari]]
|Inspector Abhijit Sardesai
| ''Gaiir''
|-
| Ganesh Yadav
|Rangrav
| ''Huppa Huiyya''
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2011
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center" |{{border|[[File:Sachin Khedekar.jpg|130px|centre]]|width=2px|style=solid |color=gold}}
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Sachin Khedekar]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Madhusudan Patil'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Fakta Ladh Mhana|''Fakta Ladh Mana'']]'''
| rowspan="3" |
|-
| [[Sameer Dharmadhikari]]
|Mahendra
| ''[[City of Gold (2010 film)|Lalbaug Parel]]''
|-
| Vidyadhar Joshi
|Chajed
| ''[[Haapus]]''
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2012
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center" |
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Vaibhav Mangle]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Upadhyay'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''[[Kaksparsh]]'''''
| rowspan="3" |
|-
| Vidyadhar Joshi
|Prataprao
| ''[[Sharyat]]''
|-
| [[Murali Sharma]]
|Mukhiya
| ''[[Ajintha (film)|Ajintha]]''
|-
! rowspan="5" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2013
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center" |{{border|[[File:Jitendra Joshi.jpg|130px|centre]]|width=2px|style=solid |color=gold}}
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Jitendra Joshi]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Sainath Dedgaonkar'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''[[Duniyadari]]'''''
| rowspan="5" |<ref name=":1" />
|-
| [[Sharad Ponkshe]]
|Baba
| ''Mokya Swaas''
|-
| [[Murali Sharma|Murli Sharma]]
|Prakash Jadhav
| ''Vijay Aso''
|-
| Kanistha Kamath
|
| ''Kokanastha''
|-
| [[Ashutosh Rana]]
|Appa Kulkarni
| [[Yeda (film)|''Yeda'']]
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2014
| style="text-align:center" |{{border|[[File:Sharad Kelkar at Zee Rishtey Awards 2012.jpg|130px|centre]]|width=2px|style=solid |color=gold}}
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Sharad Kelkar]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Sangram'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''[[Lai Bhaari]]'''''
|
|-
!2015
| colspan="5" style="background:#FFAA00; text-align:center" |'''Not Awarded'''
|-
! rowspan="4" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2016
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center" |{{border|[[File:SachinPilgaonkar.jpg|130px|centre]]|width=2px|style=solid |color=gold}}
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Sachin Pilgaonkar (actor)|Sachin Pilgaonkar]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Khansaheb Aftab Hussain Bareliwale'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | [[Katyar Kaljat Ghusali (film)|'''''Katyar Kaljat Ghusali''''']]
| rowspan="4" |
|-
| [[Suraj Pawar]]
|Prince
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Sairat]]''
|-
| Suresh Vishwakarma
|Tatya
|-
| Sanjay Khapre
|Mama
| ''[[Dagadi Chawl]]''
|-
! rowspan="4" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2017
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center" |{{border|[[File:Girish Kulkarni (cropped).jpg|130px|centre]]|width=2px|style=solid |color=gold}}
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Girish Kulkarni]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Appa'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''[[Faster Fene]]'''''
| rowspan="4" |
|-
| [[Kiran Karmarkar]]
|Madhubhai
| ''Kanha''
|-
| [[Hemant Dhome]]
|Samsher Patil
| ''[[Baghtos Kay Mujra Kar|Bagtos Kay Mujhra Kar]]''
|-
| [[Zakir Hussain (actor)|Zhakir Hussain]]
|Fernandez Sir
| ''[[Boyz (film)|Boyz]]''
|-
! rowspan="4" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2018
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center" |
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Pravin Tarde]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Nanya Bhai'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''[[Mulshi Pattern]]'''''
| rowspan="4" |
|-
| Omkar Bhojane
|Naru Bondwe
|''[[Boyz 2]]''
|-
| Manoj Joshi
|Keshav Bhatt
| ''[[Dashakriya]]''
|-
| Devendra Gaikwad
|Vikram Dada
| ''[[Baban (film)|Baban]]''
|-
!2019
| colspan="5" style="background:#FFAA00; text-align:center" |'''Not Awarded'''
|-
! rowspan="8" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2021
| rowspan="8" style="text-align:center" |
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Pravin Tarde]]''' '''†'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" |'''Nanya Bhai'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''''[[Lai Bhaari|Mulshi Pattern]]'''''
| rowspan="8" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marathi |first=TV9 |date=2021-12-01 |title='महाराष्ट्राचा फेवरेट कोण? सुवर्णदशक सोहळा', नामांकनातून कोण मारणार बाजी? प्रेक्षकांची उत्सुकता शिगेला! |url=https://www.tv9marathi.com/entertainment/marathi-cinema/maharashtracha-favorite-kon-2021-nomination-list-588086.html |access-date=2023-05-14 |website=TV9 Marathi |language=mr}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sayaji Shinde]]
|Chandrakant Tope
| ''[[Gallit Gondhal, Dillit Mujra]]''
|-
|[[Sachin Khedekar]]
|Madhusudan Patil
| ''[[Fakta Ladh Mhana]]''
|-
|[[Vaibhav Mangle]]
|Upadhyay
| ''[[Kaksparsh]]''
|-
| [[Jitendra Joshi]]
|Sainath Dedgaonkar
| ''[[Duniyadari]]''
|-
| [[Sharad Kelkar]]
|Sangram
| ''[[Lai Bhaari]]''
|-
| [[Sachin Pilgaonkar (actor)|Sachin Pilgaonkar]]
|Khansaheb Aftab Hussain Bareliwale
| ''[[Katyar Kaljat Ghusali (film)|Katyar Kaljat Ghusali]]''
|-
| [[Girish Kulkarni]]
|Appa
| ''[[Faster Fene]]''
|-
! rowspan="5" scope="row" style="text-align:center" | 2022
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center" |
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''[[Prajakta Mali]] †'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | '''Karunatai Pathare'''
| style="background:#FAEB86;" | [[Pandu (film)|'''''Pandu''''']]
| rowspan="5" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhirvandekar |first=Harshada |title=Maharashtracha Favourite Kon: यंदा कोण ठरणार 'महाराष्ट्राचा फेवरेट'? नामांकनं जाहीर! |url=https://marathi.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/maharashtracha-favourite-kon-nominations-declare-know-how-to-vote-141671676182720.html |access-date=2023-05-14 |website=Hindustan Times Marathi |language=mr}}</ref>
|-
| [[Vaibhav Mangle]]
|Madhav Lele
| ''[[Timepass 3]]''
|-
| [[Milind Shinde]]
|Siddi Johar
| ''[[Har Har Mahadev]]''
|-
| [[Mukesh Rishi]]
|[[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzalkhan]]
| ''[[Sher Shivraj]]''
|-
| Vidyadhar Joshi
|Neeraj Dedhiya
| ''[[De Dhakka|De Dhakka 2]]''
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Film awards for lead actor]]
[[Category:MFK awards]]

Agri (caste)

2025-09-20T15:56:12Z

Google updates 22: basic updated lead per sources and improved wording based on references

{{Short description|Hindu caste}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
[[File:Agrees,_or_Salt_Cultivators_of_Salsette_(9842277595).jpg|thumb|Agrees, or Salt Cultivators of Salsette]]
The '''Agri''' or '''Aagri''' are a mostly [[Hindu caste]] found in [[Mumbai (Bombay)]], [[Thane District]], [[Raigad District]] & [[Palghar district]] of [[Konkan division]], [[Maharashtra, India]]. In 1931, the Agri population numbered around 416,000 in India. They are mainly involved in fishing, salt making, and rice farming. They speak the [[Agri dialect]] of [[Maharashtri Konkani]] and write in the [[Devanagari]] script.<ref name="joshua">{{cite web |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/16180/IN |title=Agri in India |work=Joshua Project }}</ref> They are Hindus, worship all the Hindu deities and observe Hindu festivals such as [[Holi]], [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], [[Dussera]], [[Diwali]], [[Hanuman Jayanti]], [[Datta Jayanti]], [[Shiv Jayanti]] and others.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmBjoAFMfjoC&pg=PA56 |title=People of India: Maharashtra, Part 1 |author= Kumar Suresh Singh|year=2004 |page=56 |isbn=9788179911006 }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Agaria (Muslim)|Agaria]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Social groups of Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Social groups of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]

{{maharashtra-stub}}

Bir Bahadur Singh Sports College

2025-08-31T13:17:41Z

Google updates 22: done

{{short description|Sports college in Gorakhpur, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2018}}

{{Infobox college
|name = Bir Bahadur Singh Sports College, Gorakhpur
|native_name =
|image_name =
|image_size = 140px
|type = [[Sports college]]
|affiliation = Uttar Pradesh Sports Colleges Society
|academic_affiliation = [[Board of High School and Intermediate Education Uttar Pradesh|U.P. Board]]
|motto =
|established = 1988
|city = [[Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh|Gorakhpur]]
|state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|country = India
|coor = {{coord|26.7986|83.3834|display=inline,title}}
|students = 320
|chairman =
|principal = Aale Haydar
|campus = Gorakhpur
|nickname =
|colors =
|website = {{url|bbssportscollege.in}}
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
}}

'''Bir Bahadur Singh Sports College, Gorakhpur''' is a residential [[sports college]] in [[Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh]], established in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|title=Veer Bahadur Singh Sports College, Gorakhpur|url=http://www.upsports.gov.in/pages/sportsdirectorate-en/topmenu/institutions/sportsdirectorate-en-sports-college/sportsdirectorate-en-veer-bahadur-singh-sports-college,-gorakhpur|website=upsports.gov.in|publisher=Sports Directorate, UP Gov.|access-date=3 February 2017}}</ref> It offers sports training in [[association football|football]], [[Field hockey|hockey]], [[wrestling]], [[Sport of athletics|athletics]], [[badminton]], [[Swimming (sport)|swimming]] and [[kabaddi]] in 6th to 12th standard and with the curriculum of the [[Board of High School and Intermediate Education Uttar Pradesh|U.P. Board]]. It is the second sports college established in [[Uttar Pradesh]] after [[Guru Gobind Singh Sports College]] of [[Lucknow]] and before [[Etawah district|Etawah]]'s [[Saifai Sports College]].

==History==
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2021}}

After the success of [[Guru Gobind Singh Sports College|Guru Gobind Singh Sports College, Lucknow]], the [[government of Uttar Pradesh]] established this sports college in Gorakhpur in 1988–1989.

==Notable alumni==
* [[Preeti Dubey]], [[Field hockey at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's team squads|Indian Women's Hockey team]] ([[2016 Summer Olympics]])<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 July 2016 |title=RIO OLYMPICS - 3 UP hockey players in India teams |url=https://upsports.gov.in/site/writereaddata/UploadedPressRelease/pdf/C_201607131751395513.pdf |access-date=2024-08-13 |website=Dept. Of Sports, Govt Of Uttar Pradesh [upsports.gov.in]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Maharana Pratap Sports College, Dehradun]]
*[[Motilal Nehru School of Sports, Rai|Motilal Nehru School of Sports, Rai, Sonipat]]

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160621070116/http://bbssportscollege.in/ Official website]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Sport schools in India]]
[[Category:Intermediate colleges in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Sport in Gorakhpur]]
[[Category:Education in Gorakhpur]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh Sports Colleges Society]]
[[Category:1988 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1988]]

{{UttarPradesh-university-stub}}
{{India-sports-venue-stub}}

Nindu Noorella Savaasam

2025-07-12T06:24:28Z

Google updates 22: Created a redirect

#REDIRECT [[Zee Telugu]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

2023 IBA Women's World Boxing Championships – Light middleweight

2025-03-29T17:51:57Z

Google updates 22: Added Initial Details W/ Sources

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox sports competition event
|event = Light middleweight
|championship = 2023 IBA Women's World Boxing Championships
|image = Boxing pictogram.svg
|dates = 17–25 March
|venue = [[Indira Gandhi Arena|K. D. Jadhav Indoor Hall]]
|location = [[New Delhi]], India
|competitors = 19
|nations = 19
|gold = [[Anastasiia Demurchian]]
|gold_nation = RUS
|silver = [[Kaye Scott]]
|silver_nation = AUS
|bronze = [[Zhou Pan]]
|bronze_nation = CHN
|bronze2 = [[Bárbara Santos]]
|bronze2_nation= BRA
|prev = [[2022 IBA Women's World Boxing Championships – Light middleweight|2022]]
|next = [[2025 IBA Women's World Boxing Championships – Light middleweight|2025]]
}}
{{2023Women'sWorldBoxingChampionships}}
The '''Light middleweight''' competition at the [[2023 IBA Women's World Boxing Championships]] was held between 17 and 25 March 2023.<ref>{{cite web|title=Team Delegations' Handbook|url=https://www.iba.sport/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/3qcc4h4b1Anjj2s921w02f4nrk4x6lmfA1gmt6hp7clz1xnd9jl4j5329rkrrzpztvA5Abr93ynhbmgzb3cr0zw44ldkmfhq3g5084384g6nA7dA0mg2rz8nrf66k1w9j4bffy1m4q8pndjv4scsjlw930knjj1v0ym0fA5vlk3xx70t27z1.pdf|publisher=[[International Boxing Association (amateur)|IBA]]|access-date=12 March 2023}}</ref>

==Results==
===Finals===
{{#invoke:RoundN|N4
| 3rdplace=no
| widescore=yes|bold_winner=high


||{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Zhou Pan]]|0|{{Nowrap|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Anastasiia Demurchian]]}}|5
||{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Bárbara Santos]]|3|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Kaye Scott]]|4

||{{Nowrap|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Anastasiia Demurchian]]}}|5|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Kaye Scott]]|0
}}

===Top half===
====Section 1====
{{#invoke:RoundN|N8
| RD1=Round of 32
| RD2=Round of 16
| RD3=Quarterfinals
| 3rdplace=no
| widescore=yes|bold_winner=high
| flex_tree=yes
| skipmatch=1;3-4
| omit_blanks=yes


||{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Zhou Pan]]|5|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shruti Yadav]]|0

||{{flagicon|ARM}} [[Ani Hovsepyan]]|0|{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Zhou Pan]]|5
||{{flagicon|COL}} [[Luisa Vásquez]]|5|{{flagicon|KEN}} [[Lorna Kusa]]|0

||{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Zhou Pan]]|5|{{flagicon|COL}} [[Luisa Vásquez]]|0
}}

====Section 2====
{{#invoke:RoundN|N8
| RD1=Round of 32
| RD2=Round of 16
| RD3=Quarterfinals
| 3rdplace=no
| widescore=yes|bold_winner=high
| flex_tree=yes
| skipmatch=1-4
| omit_blanks=yes



||{{Nowrap|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Anastasiia Demurchian]]}}|5|{{flagicon|UZB}} [[Aziza Zokirova]]|0
||{{flagicon|PYF}} [[Edith Tavanae]]||{{flagicon|ALG}} [[Ichrak Chaib]]|RSC

||{{Nowrap|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Anastasiia Demurchian]]}}|5|{{flagicon|ALG}} [[Ichrak Chaib]]|0
}}

===Bottom half===
====Section 3====
{{#invoke:RoundN|N8
| RD1=Round of 32
| RD2=Round of 16
| RD3=Quarterfinals
| 3rdplace=no
| widescore=yes|bold_winner=high
| flex_tree=yes
| skipmatch=1;3-4
| omit_blanks=yes


||{{flagicon|SRB}} [[Nikolina Gajić]]|5|{{flagicon|NEP}} [[Saraswati Rana]]|0

||{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Bárbara Santos]]|4|{{flagicon|SRB}} [[Nikolina Gajić]]|1
||{{flagicon|KOR}} [[Choi Hong-eun]]|0|{{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Madina Nurshayeva]]|3

||{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Bárbara Santos]]|3|{{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Madina Nurshayeva]]|1
}}

====Section 4====
{{#invoke:RoundN|N8
| RD1=Round of 32
| RD2=Round of 16
| RD3=Quarterfinals
| 3rdplace=no
| widescore=yes|bold_winner=high
| flex_tree=yes
| skipmatch=1-2;4
| omit_blanks=yes


||{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Jocelyn García]]|4|{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Zehra Ceren Tuncer]]|1

||{{flagicon|HUN}} [[Regina Lakos]]|0|{{flagicon|MOZ}} [[Alcinda Panguana]]|5
||{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Jocelyn García]]||{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Kaye Scott]]|RSC

||{{flagicon|MOZ}} [[Alcinda Panguana]]|2|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Kaye Scott]]|5
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.iba.sport/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/70-3.pdf Draw]

{{Footer World Womens Amateur Champions Light Middleweight}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2023 IBA Women's World Boxing Championships - Light middleweight}}
[[Category:2023 IBA Women's World Boxing Championships|Light middleweight]]

Kamptee Coalfield

2025-03-19T03:32:45Z

Google updates 22: improve content additionally and improved wording for accuracy

{{Short description|Coalfield in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox mine
| name = Kamptee Coalfield
| image =
| width =
| caption =
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra
| pushpin_label = Kamptee Coalfield
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra
| coordinates = {{coord|21|14|32|N|79|13|57|E|region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| place =
| subdivision_type = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| state/province = [[Maharashtra]]
| country = [[India]]
| owner = [[Western Coalfields Limited]]
| official website = http://westerncoal.gov.in/
| acquisition year =
| stock_exchange =
| stock_code =
| products =
| financial year =
| amount =
| opening year =
| closing year =
}}
'''Kamptee Coalfield''' is located in [[Nagpur district]] in the [[Vidarbha]] region of the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]].

==The coalfield==
Coalfieds in the Nagpur region are Kamptee, Bokhara and Umrer.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.geologydata.info/coal_02.htm |title = Occurrence of Coal in India| publisher = geologydata.info |access-date = 2012-05-01 }}</ref>

Kamptee Coalfield lies north of Kanhan railway station in Nagpur district.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.preservearticles.com/2012020422793/maharashtra-preserves-344-per-cent-of-the-total-coal-reserves-of-the-country.html |title = Maharashtra preserves 3.44 per cent of the total coal reserves of the country |access-date = 2012-05-01 |archive-date = 20 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130620103948/http://www.preservearticles.com/2012020422793/maharashtra-preserves-344-per-cent-of-the-total-coal-reserves-of-the-country.html |url-status = dead }}</ref> The coalfield extends in north-westerly direction from Kanhan railway station towards Saoner.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://nagpur.nic.in/gazetteer/gaz1966/final_gazettee/ind1.html |title = Nagpur District Gazzetteers | work = Coal |access-date = 2012-05-01 }}</ref>

===Exploration===
While presently (2012) only one mine is being worked in Kamptee Coalfield, detailed exploration has revealed large deposits of coal in three blocks: Ghatrohan area to the east of the Kanhan river, Silewara area to the west of the Kanhan river, Bina area to the south of the Kanhan river. Non-coking coal is available in five workable seams. The moisture content of the coals varies from 8 to 11% and the volatile matter from 33 to 43%.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.geologydata.info/coal_03.htm| title = Geological and Geographical Distribution of Coalfields in India| publisher = geologydata.info| access-date = 2012-05-01| archive-date = 31 March 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120331115928/http://www.geologydata.info/coal_03.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Reserves==
According to the [[Geological Survey of India]], Kamptee Coalfield has total reserves of 2,296.84 million tonnes of non-coking coal, up to a depth of 1,200 m, out of which 1,233.74 million tonnes are proved reserves and the rest being indicated or inferred. Bulk of the coal is up to a depth of 300 m.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/IndiaCoalResources2004.pdf| title =Coal Resources of India (As on 1.1.2004)| publisher =Coal Wing, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata| access-date =2012-05-01| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120327022156/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/IndiaCoalResources2004.pdf| archive-date =27 March 2012| df =dmy-all}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Coalfields}}
{{Godavari basin}}

[[Category:Coalfields of India]]
[[Category:Energy in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Nagpur district]]
[[Category:Nagpur division]]
[[Category:Mining in Maharashtra]]

A. Karunakaran

2025-02-28T07:04:32Z

Google updates 22:

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{for|the Indian cricketer|A. Karunakaran (cricketer)}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = A. Karunakaran
| image = A. Karunakaran in 2023.jpg
| birth_place = [[Devakottai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| yearsactive = 1996–present
| occupation = Director, writer, screenwriter.
| children = 2
}}
'''A. Karunakaran''' (born 25 December 1971) is a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] film director known for ''[[Tholi Prema (1998 film)|Tholi Prema]]'' (1998), ''[[Happy (2006 film)|Happy]]'' (2006), ''[[Ullasamga Utsahamga]]'' (2008) and ''[[Darling (2010 film)|Darling]]'' (2010).<ref name="Idlebrain">{{Cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/interview_karunakaran.html|title=Interview with Karunakaran|work=Idlebrain|last=Jeevi|date=12 July 2001}}</ref>

== Career ==
Karunakaran began his career as a clap director for ''[[Kadhal Desam]]'' (1996) after [[Sasi (director)|Sasi]] introduced him to [[Kathir]].<ref name="The Hindu">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/tale-of-triumph/article3363977.ece|title=Tale of triumph|work=The Hindu|last=Manigandan|first=K.R.|date=28 April 2012}}</ref> He worked as an assistant to Bhagyaraj and Shankar before making his directorial debut with ''[[Tholi Prema (1998 film)|Tholi Prema]]'' (1998). He conceived the script while in Madras and cast Pawan Kalyan after seeing him in a magazine.<ref name="Idlebrain"/> ''Tholi Prema'' was a box office success.<ref name="Idlebrain"/> His second film ''[[Yuvakudu]]'' was [[Bhumika Chawla]]'s first film.<ref name="Idlebrain"/> The film was unsuccessful.<ref name="Idlebrain"/> His next film ''[[Vasu (film)|Vasu]]'' (2002) was not very successful at the box office, but garnered a cult following over the years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/vaasu-completes-19-years-venkateshs-fans-reminisce-the-musical-masterpiece/articleshow/82008562.cms|title="Vaasu" completes 19 Years: Venkatesh's fans reminisce the musical masterpiece|work=The Times of India|date=10 April 2021}}</ref> Karunakaran collaborated with Pawan Kalyan for ''[[Balu ABCDEFG]]'' (2005), but the film was a failure unlike ''Tholi Prema''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/may/17pawan.htm|title=Johnny sinks, but Pawan Kalyan remains afloat|last=Vijayalaxmi|date=15 May 2003|work=Rediff}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sify.com/movies/baalu-abcdefg-review-telugu-pclvGpbjbcija.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014063839/http://www.sify.com/movies/baalu-abcdefg-review-telugu-pclvGpbjbcija.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 October 2016|title=Baalu ABCDEFG|date=10 January 2005|website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> The following year, ''[[Happy (2006 film)|Happy]]'' (2006), based on the Tamil film ''[[Azhagiya Theeye]]'' (2004) released and was a box office success.<ref name="Indiaglitz">{{Cite web|date=2006-02-28|title=Bunny boy is now his own man - Kannada News|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/bunny-boy-is-now-his-own-man-kannada-news-20709.html|access-date=2021-05-23|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref> Karunakaran garnered acclaim for ''[[Ullasamga Utsahamga]]'' (2008) starring newcomer Yasho Sagar.<ref>[http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/jul/25ssuu.htm Ullasanga Utsahanga is a good watch]</ref> ''[[Darling (2010 film)|Darling]]'' (2010) released to positive reviews.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/telugu/movie-reviews/Darling/movie-review/5853020.cms|title=Darling Review|work=[[Times of india]]|access-date=24 April 2010}}</ref> He then directed a bilingual titled ''[[Endhukante Premanta]]'' in Telugu and ''Yen Endral Kadhal Enben'' in Tamil.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/shot-cuts-amybarbie/article3320566.ece|title=New kid on the block|last=Manigandan|first=K.R.|newspaper=The Hindu |date=16 April 2012}}</ref> The Telugu version released to negative reviews while the Tamil version was never released.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-endukantepremanta.html|title=Endukante Premanta Alternate review|publisher=idlebrain.com|access-date=20 June 2012}}</ref> ''[[Chinnadana Nee Kosam]]'' (2014) and ''[[Tej I Love You]]'' (2018) released to mixed reviews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.123telugu.com/reviews/chinnadana-nee-kosam-telugu-movie-review.html|title=Review : Chinnadana Nee Kosam- Routine but Entertaining|work=123Telugu|date=26 December 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/tej-i-love-you/movie-review/64881142.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|title=Tej I Love You Movie Review {2/5}: Dull and predictable|accessdate=6 July 2018|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706161135/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/tej-i-love-you/movie-review/64881142.cms|archivedate=6 July 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Filmography==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film

! Notes
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Tholi Prema (1998 film)|Tholi Prema]]'' || Cameo appearance [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu]]<ref name="The Hindu"/>
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Yuvakudu]]'' ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Vasu (film)|Vasu]]''|| Cameo appearance
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Balu ABCDEFG]]'' ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Happy (2006 film)|Happy]]'' ||
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Ullasamga Utsahamga]]'' || [[Nandi Award for Best Screenplay Writer]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/nandiawards2008.html|title=Nandi awards 2008 announced - Telugu cinema news|website=www.idlebrain.com|access-date=2018-12-15}}</ref>
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Darling (2010 film)|Darling]]'' ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Endhukante Premanta]]'' || Simultaneously shot in Tamil as ''Yen Endral Kadhal Enben''<ref name="The Hindu"/>
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Chinnadana Nee Kosam]]'' ||
|-
|2018 || ''[[Tej I Love You]]'' ||
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{A. Karunakaran}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Karunakaran, A}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:Nandi Award winners]]
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Telugu screenwriters]]