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Letter of recommendation

2026-05-07T11:24:28Z

Godrejsplende: Adding a post...

{{Short description|Document which assesses a person being recommended}}
A '''letter of recommendation''' or '''recommendation letter''', also known as a '''letter of reference''', '''reference letter,''' or simply '''reference''', is a document in which the writer assesses the qualities, characteristics, and capabilities of the person being recommended in terms of that individual's ability to perform a particular task or function. Letters of recommendation are typically related to employment (such a letter may also be called an '''employment reference''' or '''job reference'''), [[University and college admission|admission to institutions of higher education]], or scholarship eligibility. They are usually written by someone who worked with or taught the person, such as a [[supervisor]], colleague, or teacher. Financial institutions, such as banks, may ask other institutions for references to judge, for example, a potential customer's [[creditworthiness]].

References may also be required of companies seeking to win contracts, particularly in the fields of engineering, consultancy, manufacturing, and construction, and with regard to [[public procurement]] and [[tender offer|tenders]], to assess their ability to deliver the required level of service.

==History==
[[File:19. Jahrhundert circa August Heinrich Plinke oil on canvas Gehilfe beim Kupferschmied.jpg|thumb|"Assistant with letter of recommendation introduces himself to the [[coppersmith]]", by August Heinrich Plinke, 19th century]]

Letters of recommendation have a long history: for example in the [[New Testament]], [[Saint Paul]] discusses whether he needs a letter of recommendation to commend his ministry to the [[Ancient Corinth#New Testament Corinth|church in Corinth]].<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|3:1}}</ref><ref>Lias, J. J. (1897), [https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/2_corinthians/3.htm Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges] on 2 Corinthians 3, accessed on 6 June 2025</ref>

== Referee ==
The person providing a reference is called a '''referee'''. An employment reference letter is usually written by a former employer or manager, but references can also be requested from co-workers, customers, and vendors.<ref name=Doyle>{{cite web|last=Doyle|first=Alison|title=References for employment|url=http://jobsearch.about.com/od/referencesrecommendations/a/referencetips.htm|access-date=2 May 2012|archive-date=5 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205073639/http://jobsearch.about.com/od/referencesrecommendations/a/referencetips.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Teachers and professors often supply references for former students.<ref>{{cite web|title=Requesting Letters of Recommendation|url=http://web.csulb.edu/~psy301/lettersrec.html|website=PSY 301|publisher=California State University Long Beach|access-date=5 April 2017}}</ref> Reference letters for organizations are usually supplied by parties to which the company has provided similar services in the past.

Reference letters for students are usually written by a former teacher or professor.

== Content ==
The employment reference letter can cover topics such as:<ref>Peter Häusermann: ''Arbeitszeugnisse – wahr, klar und fair. Tipps und Anregungen für verantwortungsbewusste Arbeitgeber''. 6. Auflage. Spektramedia, Zürich 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-908244-08-0}}</ref>
* the employee's tasks and responsibilities
* the duration of employment or tasks/ responsibilities
* the position relative to the author of the reference letter
* the employee's abilities, knowledge, creativity, intelligence
* the employee's qualifications (foreign languages, special skills)
* the employee's social attitude
* the employee's power of rapport
* reason(s) of employment termination
* some text with the actual recommendation itself (e.g. 'I unequivocally recommend ... [name] as a ... [function/role] and would be happy to hire him/ her again').

== Language ==
In some countries, elements of performance are evaluated using established forms of expression, sometimes [[euphemism|euphemistic]]. For example, in the German-language ''Arbeitszeugnis'', the following terms are frequently used:<ref>Günter Huber, Waltraud Müller: ''Das Arbeitszeugnis in Recht und Praxis. Rechtliche Grundlagen, Musterzeugnisse, Textbausteine, Zeugnisanalyse''. 12. Auflage. Haufe, Freiburg/Breisgau, Berlin, Planegg bei München, Würzburg 2009, {{ISBN|978-3-448-09322-3}}</ref>
* Excellent = ''stets zu unserer vollsten Zufriedenheit erledigt'' (always done to our complete satisfaction)
* Good = ''stets zu unserer vollen Zufriedenheit'' (always to our full satisfaction)
* Satisfactory = ''zu unserer vollen Zufriedenheit'' (to our full satisfaction)
* Adequate = ''zu unserer Zufriedenheit'' (to our satisfaction)
* Poor = ''hat sich bemüht, den Anforderungen gerecht zu werden'' (has endeavored to meet the demands)

This language established itself as an unwritten code in the employment world. Its purpose was to give even weakly performing employees a letter of recommendation that does not sound negative. However, the euphemistically glazed-over descriptions are now codified and generally known, so that the original cryptic intent is no longer served.<ref>Thorsten Knobbe, Mario Leis, Karsten Umnuß: ''Arbeitszeugnisse: Textbausteine und Tätigkeitsbeschreibungen'' (dt./engl.). 5. Auflage. Haufe, Freiburg/Breisgau, Berlin, Planegg bei München, Würzburg 2010, {{ISBN|978-3-448-10118-8}}.</ref> Nonetheless, it is still standard to use this codified language.

== Recipient of the letter ==
Depending on context and issuer, letters can be either:
* specifically requested to be written about someone, and therefore addressed to a particular requester (such as a new employer, university admissions officer)
* or may be issued to the person being recommended without specifying an addressee

For example, a German ''Arbeitszeugnis'' is usually issued automatically to a leaving employee, and is therefore not addressed to a particular requester. A letter of recommendation for a university of college in the US is usually written for and addressed to a specific institution the student wants to apply to.

If the letter is addressed to a particular requester, the letter will often be sent directly to that requester, and not to the applicant. In that case, applicants usually have the right to view a copy of the letter. Some applications, such as professional schools, give applicants the choice to waive their right to view their letters. Usually, applicants are encouraged to waive their rights because if they do not, it is a sign they are not confident in their recommenders.

== Checking of references ==
Most potential employers will contact referees to obtain references before offering a job to a new employee. A survey by the [[Society for Human Resource Management]] (SHRM) found that eight out of ten resource professionals said they regularly conduct reference checks for professional (89%), executive (85%), administrative (84%) and technical (81%) positions.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doyle|first=Alison|title=References – Will They or Won't They?|url=http://jobsearch.about.com/od/gettingreferences/a/references.htm|access-date=2 May 2012|archive-date=27 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127055328/http://jobsearch.about.com/od/gettingreferences/a/references.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Candidates are advised to ensure that they provide a suitable list of referees to their new prospective employer or institution, and to contact those referees to ensure that they are able and willing to provide a suitable reference. In some cases, employers will contact a candidate's former company for a reference even if no contact is supplied by the candidate.

==Duty to provide a reference==
Some employers may not be willing to provide reference letters because they may be concerned about potential lawsuits. In this case, the employer may only provide the job title, dates of employment, and salary history.<ref name=Doyle/> Finland,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tyosuojelu.fi/web/en/employment-relationship/certificate-of-employment|title=Certificate of employment|website=Website of Occupational Safety and Health Administration in Finland|access-date=13 March 2018}}</ref> Germany, [[Austria]], Switzerland, [[Hungary]]<ref>See [http://njt.hu/cgi_bin/njt_doc.cgi?docid=143164.348578 Section 81 of the Labour Code]</ref> and [[Bulgaria]] are the only countries in Europe where employees can legally claim an employment reference, including the right to a correct, unambiguous, and benevolent appraisal.<ref>Heinz-Günther Dachrodt, Erich Ullmann: ''Zeugnisse lesen und verstehen. Formulierungen und ihre Bedeutung''. [[Österreichischer Gewerkschaftsbund|ÖGB]]-Verlag Wien 2000, {{ISBN|3-7035-0809-4}}</ref>

While there is no [[common law]] duty to provide a reference,<ref>''Lawton v BOC Transhield Ltd'', [1987] 2 All ER 608</ref> the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] has held that a refusal to do so may constitute "conduct that is [[Injustice|unfair]] or is in [[bad faith]]" with respect to a [[wrongful dismissal]], and thus "indicative of the type of conduct that ought to merit compensation by way of an addition to the [[notice period]]."<ref>{{cite CanLII|litigants=Wallace v United Grain Growers Ltd|link=Wallace v United Grain Growers Ltd|year=1997|court=scc|num=332|format=canlii|pinpoint=par. 96–101|parallelcite=[1997] 3 SCR 701|date=1997-10-30|courtname=auto|juris=}}, subsequently affirmed in {{cite CanLII|litigants=Honda Canada Inc v Keays|link=Honda Canada Inc v Keays|year=2008|court=scc|num=39|pinpoint=par. 57|parallelcite=[2008] 2 SCR 362|date=2008-06-27}}</ref> There is a [[duty of care]] to ensure that, where one is provided, it is accurate and fair and not give a misleading impression,<ref name="Eversheds2016">{{cite web |url= http://www.eversheds.com/global/en/what/articles/index.page?ArticleID=en/Employment_and_labour_law/Regulatory_references_are_you_ready|title= Regulatory references: are you ready?|author= |date= 28 January 2016|publisher= [[Eversheds]]|access-date= 13 February 2016}}</ref> as held by the [[House of Lords]] in ''[[Spring v Guardian Assurance plc]]''.<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants=Spring v Guardian Assurance plc|link=Spring v Guardian Assurance plc|court=UKHL|year=1994|num=7|parallelcite=[1995] 2 AC 296|date=7 July 1994}}</ref> If an employer goes beyond what a reference should contain, or if it gives inaccurate or misleading information, liability may arise in the areas of [[breach of statutory duty]], [[negligent misstatement]], [[Tort of deceit|deceit]], [[defamation]] or [[malicious falsehood]].<ref name="Eversheds2016"/> It does not matter what form the reference might take.<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants=Byrnell v British Telecommunications & Anor |link=|court=EWHC|division=QB|year=2009|num=727|para=29, 32|parallelcite=|date=20 February 2009}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, references received by an employer from another person or organization can be disclosed to the person about whom they are written under the subject access provisions of the [[Data Protection Act 1998]], but certain confidentiality considerations apply as to the identity of the person giving the reference.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://ico.org.uk/media/for-organisations/documents/2775/references_v1_final.pdf|title= Data Protection Good Practice Note: Subject access and employment references |author= |date= 16 November 2005|publisher= [[Information Commissioner's Office]]|access-date= 14 February 2016}}</ref> As a result, together with the duty of care under ''Spring'', many organizations have issued guidance as to [[best practice]] to be undertaken by reference providers.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.stir.ac.uk/media/services/registry/planning/legalcompliance/ReferencesAdvisoryNote.pdf|title= Data Classification: Issuing of Staff and Student References Advisory Note|author= |date= January 2015|website= stir.ac.uk|publisher= [[University of Stirling]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sath.nhs.uk/Library/Documents/HR/Policies/HR70%20Employment%20References%20v1.pdf|title= Human Resources Policy No. HR70: Employment References|author= |date= December 2010|website= sath.nhs.uk|publisher= [[Shrewsbury and Telford Hospital NHS Trust]]}}</ref>

The duty of care has also been held to apply in non-reference situations, as noted in 2011 in '' McKie v Swindon College''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Salter|first1= Michael|last2= Bryden|first2= Chris|date= 24 June 2011|title= Gone but not forgotten|url= http://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/nlj/content/gone-not-forgotten|journal= [[New Law Journal]]|volume= 161|issue= 7471}}, discussing {{cite BAILII|litigants=McKie v Swindon College|link=|court=EWHC|division=QB|year=2011|num=469|parallelcite=|date=11 February 2011}}</ref> In another case, the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales]] has held that "a reference must not give an unfair or misleading impression overall, even if its discrete components are factually correct."<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants= Bartholomew v London Borough Of Hackney & Anor |link=|court=EWCA|division=Civ|year=1998|num=1604|parallelcite=|date=23 October 1998}}</ref> However, while a reference must be accurate and fair, it is not necessary to report all material facts concerning an individual,<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants=Cox v Sun Alliance Life Ltd|link=|court=EWCA|division=Civ|year=2001|num=649|parallelcite=|date=9 May 2001}}</ref> but it can be argued that, if an agreed reference arising from a [[settlement agreement]] is misleadingly incomplete, the employer can be sued by a subsequent employer for breaching its duty of care.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Smith|first1= Ian|last2= Baker|first2= Aaron|date= 2015|title= Smith & Wood's Employment Law|edition=12th|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rpFcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163|publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]|page= 163|isbn=978-0-19-872735-4}}</ref> The [[Employment Appeal Tribunal]], in an [[unfair dismissal]] case, ruled that, in preparing a reference, it was not reasonable to provide details of complaints against an employee of which the employee was not aware.<ref>''TSB Bank Plc v Harris'' [http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKEAT/1999/1145_97_0112.html [1999] UKEAT 1145_97_0112] (1 December 1999)</ref>

The Court of Appeal has further held that, if an employee leaves when an investigation is ongoing but has not been concluded, or where issues arise after an employee leaves that have not been investigated, employers can disclose this information but should do so in a measured and fair way, which will be particularly important if to omit this information would mean providing a misleading reference.<ref>{{cite BAILII|litigants=Jackson v Liverpool City Council |link=|court=EWCA|division=Civ|year=2011|num=1068|parallelcite=|date=15 June 2011}}</ref>

In 2014, the UK government's [[Crown Commercial Service]] issued an information note clarifying that government departments are permitted to issue references relating to suppliers, and that failure to do so, reflecting a belief that policy matters prevented references from being issued, could have a detrimental effect on companies' development, especially [[small and medium sized enterprises]].<ref>Crown Commercial Services, [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/procurement-policy-note-1114-references-and-public-procurement Procurement Policy Note 11/14: references and public procurement], published 10 December 2014, accessed 6 May 2021</ref> The information note emphasized the importance of references being based on evidence and contemporaneous records, related to a specific proposed contract for which a reference has been requested, and issued by a member of staff formally authorized to speak for the organization providing the reference.<ref>Crown Commercial Service, [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/386966/References_PPN_Final_1214.pdf Procurement Policy Note – References and Public Procurement], published 10 December 2014, accessed 6 May 2021</ref>

In 2016, the [[Financial Conduct Authority]] and the [[Prudential Regulation Authority (United Kingdom)|Prudential Regulation Authority]] are issuing rules that will require the furnishing of references, before any approval or certification may be given by them, as well as specifying the information that they must contain.<ref name="Eversheds2016"/><ref>{{cite web |url= http://fca.org.uk/news/cp15-31-regulatory-references|title= CP15/31: Strengthening accountability in banking and insurance: regulatory references|author= |date= 6 October 2015|publisher= [[Financial Conduct Authority]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/pra/Pages/publications/cp/2015/cp3615.aspx#|title= Strengthening accountability in banking and insurance: regulatory references – CP36/15|author= |date= 6 October 2015|publisher= [[Prudential Regulation Authority (United Kingdom)|Prudential Regulation Authority]]}}</ref>

== Relieving letters in India ==
In India, employees typically receive a '''relieving letter''' (also called an '''experience certificate''' or '''service certificate''') from their employer when leaving a job.<ref>{{Cite web |title=india – What is a relieving letter? What are the consequences of not having one? |url=https://workplace.stackexchange.com/questions/20945/what-is-a-relieving-letter-what-are-the-consequences-of-not-having-one |access-date=2022-03-31 |website=The Workplace Stack Exchange}}</ref> While the relieving letter may also serve as a letter of recommendation, the specific purpose of the relieving letter is to prove to any new employer that the applicant properly resigned from their old job and fulfilled all obligations to the former employer, such as working the notice period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How To Write Relieving Letter: A Complete Guide With Example |url=https://in.indeed.com/career-advice/resumes-cover-letters/how-to-write-relieving-letter |access-date=2022-03-31 |website=Indeed Career Guide |language=en}}</ref>

Generally, employers are legally required to provide a relieving letter to leaving employees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Did your employer ever deny the Experience Certificate? Read on. – People First |date=5 February 2020 |url=https://peoplefirst.in/did-your-employer-ever-deny-the-experience-certificate-read-on/ |access-date=2022-03-31 |language=en-US}}</ref> In [[Kerala]], for example, this is regulated in the Kerala Shops and Commercial Establishments Bill<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE KERALA SHOPS AND COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS (AMENDMENT) BILL, 2014 |url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/bills/13kla/published/293-pub-eng.pdf |quote=5F.Issue of service certificate. Every employer shall provide service certificate to the employees, in such manner as may be prescribed, at the time of resignation or retrenchment or superannuation or while applying for another job.}}</ref> Despite this, employers will sometimes deny or delay providing a relieving letter, which makes it difficult for a leaving employee to start a new job.

==See also==
*[[Character witness]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|3}}

== Bibliography ==
* Karl-Heinz List: ''Das zeitgemäße Arbeitszeugnis. Ein Handbuch für Zeugnisaussteller''. 3. Auflage. BW Bildung und Wissen Verlag, Nürnberg 2008, {{ISBN|978-3-8214-7676-6}}.
* Hein Schleßmann: ''Das Arbeitszeugnis. Zeugnisrecht, Zeugnissprache, Bausteine, Muster''. 18. Auflage. Verlag Recht und Wirtschaft, Frankfurt am Main 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-8005-3083-0}}.
* Volker Stück: ''Das Arbeitszeugnis''. In: ''Monatsschrift für Deutsches Recht''. 60. Jg., Bd. 2, 2006, S. 791–799.
* Arnulf Weuster, Brigitte Scheer: ''Arbeitszeugnisse in Textbausteinen. Rationelle Erstellung, Analyse, Rechtsfragen''. 11. Auflage. Richard Boorberg Verlag, Stuttgart, München, Hannover, Berlin, Weimar, Dresden 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-415-03862-2}}.
* {{cite web |url= http://greggowe.com/files/Reference%20Letters.pdf|title= Reference Letters|last1= Gowe|first1= Gregory T.|date= May 2006|website= greggowe.com|publisher= Lawson Lundell LLP|location=Vancouver}}

{{Commons category|Employment reference letters}}

{{Employment}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Employment]]
[[Category:Letters (message)]]
[[Category:Recruitment]]

Vennila Veedu

2026-05-03T14:11:57Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|2014 Indian film by Vetri Mahalingam}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Vennila Veedu.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Vetri Mahalingam
| writer = Iyndhukovilan (dialogues)
| screenplay = Vetri Mahalingam
| story = Vetri Mahalingam
| producer = P. V. Arun
| starring = [[Mirchi Senthil]] [[Vijayalakshmi Feroz|Vijayalakshmi]] [[Srinda]]
| cinematography = D. Kannan
| editing = [[V J Sabu Joseph]]
| music = Dhanraj Manickam
| studio = Adharsh Studio
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2014|10|10}}
}}

'''''Vennila Veedu''''' ({{Translation|Vennila's House}}) is a 2014 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] written and directed by Vetri Mahalingam.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Karthik |first=Janani |date=28 June 2013 |title=Vennila Veedu is a gold war |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Vennila-Veedu-is-a-gold-war/articleshow/20797215.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216174714/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Vennila-Veedu-is-a-gold-war/articleshow/20797215.cms |archive-date=16 February 2016 |access-date=14 September 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Produced by P. V. Arun, the film stars [[Mirchi Senthil]], [[Vijayalakshmi Feroz|Vijayalakshmi]], and [[Srinda]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Subramanian |first=Anupama |date=7 September 2013 |title=Vijayalakshmi in a mom's role in 'Vennila Veedu' |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130907/entertainment-kollywood/article/vijayalakshmi-mom%E2%80%99s-role-vennila-veedu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925090944/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130907/entertainment-kollywood/article/vijayalakshmi-mom%E2%80%99s-role-vennila-veedu |archive-date=25 September 2013 |access-date=14 September 2013 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lakshmi |first=V |date=3 August 2013 |title=Double delight for Viji |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Double-delight-for-Viji/articleshow/21549276.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216174712/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Double-delight-for-Viji/articleshow/21549276.cms |archive-date=16 February 2016 |access-date=14 September 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Cinematography is by D. Kannan, editing by V. J. Sabu Joseph, and the soundtrack is scored by Dhanraj Manickam. The film was released on 10 October 2014.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 October 2014 |title=Friday Fury- October 10 |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-october-10-news-tamil-okklvrijagafg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924171443/http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-october-10-news-tamil-okklvrijagafg.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=29 May 2025 |work=[[Sify]] |language=en}}</ref> The film is based on a theme similar to the short story ''[[The Necklace]]'' by [[Guy de Maupassant]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=11 October 2014 |title=A Plot that Goes Awry in Translation |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2014/oct/11/a-plot-that-goes-awry-in-translation-670363.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809231345/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2014/oct/11/A-Plot-that-Goes-Awry-in-Translation-670363.html |archive-date=9 August 2022 |access-date=10 August 2022 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
A village couple, Karthik and Thenmozhi, migrates to the city after their marriage. Karthik works as a manager in a firm, and the couple lives happily and helps everyone around according to their capacity. They have a beautiful daughter, Vennila. Meanwhile, Ilavarasi, a new neighbor in their apartment, arrives. She lives right next door. Ilavarasi is the daughter of a rich moneylender and greedy loan shark who will go to any lengths to get his loaned money back from those who borrowed it. He also loves his daughter and will get anything she points at and will do anything for her. Ilavarasi, as a result of this upbringing, is an arrogant, spoiled brat of a man and is married to a spineless man who does whatever she bids him. Though Thenu initially does not have a good opinion about Ilavarasi, they become friends after Ilavarasi thrashes a stalker who repeatedly harassed Thenu over the phone. Soon, the women become good friends, enjoy each other's company over the day, and spend a lot of time together.

One day, when Karthik and Thenu are preparing for a wedding in Karthik's employer's family, Thenu says that she has only a simple jewellery and will feel out of place and belittled at such a grand wedding. Since Karthik is not in a comfortable financial state to buy her some jewels, she decides to ask Ilavarasi to borrow her necklace and return it after the ceremony, and Ilavarasi happily obliges. The trouble begins when a chain snatcher steals the necklace on their way back home.

When Ilavarasi's father learns of this, he becomes wild and scolds Thenu, Karthik, and even Ilavarasi. He asks Karthik to lodge a formal complaint with the police. The policemen's attitude towards this issue is lethargic, and they treat it with negligence. Meanwhile, the inspector tells Ilavarasi's father that while Thenu's own chain is still intact, his daughter's jewellery is also gone, so even Thenu and Karthik could be possible suspects; this kind of cheating is the latest trend among robbers. Ilavarasi's father hears this and poisons his daughter's mind. Ilavarasi also misjudges certain incidents with Thenu and slowly distances herself. One fine day, Ilavarasi throws a surprise party for Karthik and Thenu's wedding anniversary and gifts an expensive showpiece. However, day after day, Ilavarasi's father continues abusing them verbally and looks at them as thieves. Then Vennila is suddenly kidnapped, and after some commotion, Karthik learns that Ilavarasi and her father have orchestrated the whole kidnapping to check whether they have the money from selling the stolen necklace. Karthik is enraged and argues with Ilavarasi's father, who asks him to first find the stolen necklace or at least pay for the jewellery's worth and then talk as much as he pleases. Karthik, unable to see his family suffer humiliation, agrees to somehow give back the money.

Karthik goes to his village to sell a property, leaving Thenu and Vennila at home. However, here too, the land brokers make use of his helpless emergency and buy the land for exactly the amount that Karthik owes Ilavarasi's father, much less than the land's actual worth. Karthik comes back to the city with the money but is in for a rude shock. He finds that Thenu has committed suicide by hanging herself. He reads her suicide note, where she states that there was a secret camera in the gift that Ilavarasi gave for their anniversary, and their intimate moments were filmed and leaked to the internet. Her stalker had seen this and verbally abused her in public. When Thenu confronted Ilavarasi and her father about this, he said that they had fixed the camera only to monitor their activities to find the truth about the theft, and they were not responsible if the video was leaked online. When she argued with him, he slapped and humiliated her further. Unable to bear all the humiliation, she has taken this extreme step.

Karthik is blinded with fury after reading this, and when Ilavarasi's father comes to get his money, he gives it to him and asks him to return his dead wife. This leads to an argument, and he is beaten up by goons, but he bashes them and finally strangles Ilavarasi's father to death with his own gold chains. Except Ilavarasi, nobody else stops Karthik. The film ends with Karthik crying loudly, looking at the state he left Vennila in.

== Cast ==
* [[Mirchi Senthil]] as Karthik
* [[Vijayalakshmi Feroz|Vijayalakshmi]] as Thenmozhi (Thenu)
* [[Srinda]] as Ilavarasi
* Muthuraman as Ilavarasi's father
* Baby Mithra as Vennila
* [[Pandi (actor)|Pandi]]
* VJ Settai Senthil
* VJ Dindugal Saravanan
* Avan Ivan Ramaraj

; Special appearance in promo song
* [[Sivakarthikeyan]]
* [[Premji Amaren]]
* [[Venkat Prabhu]]
* [[Udhayanidhi Stalin]]
* [[Kreshna]]
* [[Sreeja Chandran]]
* Ram Saravana

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack album was composed by Dhanraj Manickam. The lyrics were written by Vetri Mahalingam and [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]]. The track 'Johny Johny' sung by [[Gana Bala]] was released as a single on 23 July 2013.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18yCwJxxRj4 |title=Vennila Veedu – Johny Johny Official Full Song Video feat. Gana Bala |date=23 July 2013 |publisher=[[Sony Music India]] |access-date=19 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409104704/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18yCwJxxRj4 |archive-date=9 April 2016 |url-status=live |via=YouTube}}</ref> The single track is a mish-mash of the famous nursery rhymes 'Johny Johny Yes Papa', 'Baa Baa Black Sheep', 'Twinkle Twinkle Little Star' and the [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]] song 'Ovvoru Friendum Theva Machan'. The audio CD was released by director [[Cheran (director)|Cheran]] and received by Thamizhachi Thangapandian and director [[R. K. Selvamani]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ashok Kumar |first=S. R. |date=14 September 2013 |title=Audio Beat: Vennila Veedu – Music to match mood |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/audio-beat-vennila-veedu-music-to-match-mood/article5128712.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917231736/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/audio-beat-vennila-veedu-music-to-match-mood/article5128712.ece |archive-date=17 September 2013 |access-date=14 September 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

; Tracklist
{{track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Silu Silu Mazhaiyum
| extra1 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
| lyrics1 = [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]]
| title2 = Naayana Oasai Ketten
| extra2 = [[Shakthisree Gopalan]]
| lyrics2 = Kabilan
| title3 = Aala Athattuthu Vayasu
| extra3 = [[Velmurugan]], Padmalatha
| lyrics3 = Kabilan
| title4 = Johny Johny — Friendsbook Song
| extra4 = [[Gana Bala]], Dhanraj Manickam
| lyrics4 = Vetri Mahalingam
| title5 = Johny Johny — Gold Craze Song
| extra5 = Sathya Prakash
| lyrics5 = Vetri Mahalingam
| title6 = Vennila Veetukulla
| extra6 = Veena Arun
| lyrics6 = Vetri Mahalingam
| title7 = Theme
| extra7 = Shakthisree Gopalan (humming)
| lyrics7 = Instrumental
}}

== Critical reception ==
Malini Mannath of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote, "A more realistic and a sensitive approach, could have helped to make ''Vennila Veedu'' an engaging watch".<ref name=":0" /> M. Suganth of ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote, "''Vennila Veedu'' could have turned out into a hard-hitting commentary on the vulnerability of the middle class when faced with an existential crisis. But the film we get is underwhelming".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Suganth |first=M |date=11 October 2014 |title=Vennila Veedu |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/Vennila-Veedu/movie-review/44777942.cms |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014085251/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/Vennila-Veedu/movie-review/44777942.cms |archive-date=14 October 2014 |access-date=29 May 2025 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

[[Category:2014 Indian films]]
[[Category:2014 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2014 drama films]]
[[Category:2014 films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
{{Improve categories|date=May 2025}}

Palak Jain (actress, active since 2003)

2026-05-03T10:04:31Z

Godrejsplende: New...

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Palak Jain
| image = Palak Jain The Buddy Project.jpg
| caption = Jain at the launch party of ''The Buddy Project'' in 2012
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2003–present
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Tapasvi Mehta]]|2019}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ladoo-2-fame-palak-jain-marries-beau-tapasvi-mehta-the-actress-looks-dreamy-at-her-wedding/etphotostory/67938048.cms |title=Ladoo 2 fame Palak Jain marries beau Tapasvi Mehta; the actress looks dreamy at her wedding |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=11 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424051753/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/ladoo-2-fame-palak-jain-marries-beau-tapasvi-mehta-the-actress-looks-dreamy-at-her-wedding/etphotostory/67938048.cms |archive-date=24 April 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| website =
}}

'''Palak Jain''' is an Indian television actress known for roles in television programmes such as ''[[Sunaina (TV series)|Sunaina – Mera Sapna Sach Hua]]'' and ''[[Veer Shivaji]]''. She portrayed the role of Panchi Rastogi in [[Channel V India]]'s ''[[The Buddy Project]]'', opposite [[Kunal Jaisingh]]. She was also a part of the [[Sony TV]] serial ''[[Itna Karo Na Mujhe Pyar]]'' in 2015, followed by ''[[Ek Duje Ke Vaaste]]'' in 2016. She also played role of Jhanvi in the serial ''[[Laado 2 (TV series)|Laado 2]]''.

==Career==

Jain made her television debut in the [[Pogo (TV channel)|Pogo TV]] drama ''[[Sunaina (TV series)|Sunaina- Mera Sapna Sach Hua]]'', as the protagonist Sunaina Mathur, a teenage girl whose dreams literally come true.<ref>[http://www.pogo.tv/microsites/sunaina/play Sunaina] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101044316/http://www.pogo.tv/microsites/sunaina/play |date=1 November 2012 }}</ref> She then went on to play [[Maharani Saibai|Saibai]] in the historical series, ''[[Veer Shivaji]]'' opposite her co-star, [[Paras Arora]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Vijaya Tiwari |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-11/tv/32174194_1_young-girl-show-maine-kuch-kaha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109160523/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-11/tv/32174194_1_young-girl-show-maine-kuch-kaha |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 November 2013 |title=Palak Jain in 'The Buddy Project' on Channel V |date=11 June 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=28 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="https://www.metromasti.com/tv/news/Paras-Arora-starrer-Colors-Veer-Shivaji-awarded-by-Jijao-Puraskar/15485">{{cite news |title=Paras Arora starrer Colors Veer Shivaji awarded by Jijao Puraskar |url=https://www.metromasti.com/tv/news/Paras-Arora-starrer-Colors-Veer-Shivaji-awarded-by-Jijao-Puraskar/15485 |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;"
!Year!! Title !! Role
|-
| rowspan="2"|2003 || ''[[Kaahin Kissii Roz]]''|| Aditi Sikand
|-
| ''[[Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi]]''|| Young Shobha
|-
| 2005-2006 || [[M.A.D. (Indian TV programme)|''M.A.D'']]|| Herself
|-
| 2008 || [[Sunaina (TV series)|''Sunaina'']]|| Sunaina Mathur
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Do Hanson Ka Jodaa]]''|| Sajni
|-
| 2011–2012 || ''[[Veer Shivaji]]''|| [[Maharani Saibai]]
|-
|2012–2014 || ''[[The Buddy Project]]''|| Panchi Rastogi
|-
|2014–2015 || ''[[Itna Karo Na Mujhe Pyar]]''|| Suhani Khanna
|-
|2016 || ''[[Ek Duje Ke Vaaste]]''|| Young Suman
|-
|2017 || ''[[Laado 2]]''||Jhanvi Sangwan
|-
| rowspan="2"|2018-2019 ||[[Laal Ishq (2018 TV series)|''Lal Ishq'']] || Jhanvi
|-
|''[[Kehne Ko Humsafar Hain]]''|| Nikki Mehra
|}

===Films===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#b0c4de; text-align:center;"
! Year !! Title !! Notes
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Tehzeeb (2003 film)|Tehzeeb]]'' || Unnamed
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2005 || ''[[Paheli (2005 film)|Paheli]]''||Kishan's cousin
|-
| ''[[Barsaat (2005 film)|Barsaat]]''|| Young Kajal
|-
| ''[[Vaah! Life Ho Toh Aisi!]]''|| Palak
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Kachchi Sadak]]''|| Unnamed
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|India|Bollywood}}
*{{IMDb name|id=1997968}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jain, Palak}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Indian soap opera actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

White Guard Volunteers (Kerala)

2026-04-27T05:21:46Z

Godrejsplende: Done

{{short description|White Guards, the volunteers of the Muslim Youth League}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = White Guard Volunteers ( Kerala India )
| image =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption = White Guards, the volunteers of the Muslim Youth League
| map =
| map_size = 
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| num_members =
| logo = File:Whiteguard Volunteers - MYL IUML.jpg
| logo_size = 
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| type = Non-governmental organization, Nonprofit religious organization
| founded = {{ublist|{{start date|2018|09|15|df=yes}} (Kerala State Committee of Muslim Youth League)|{{Start date|2019|05}} }}
| founders = {{ublist|Sayyid Munavvar Ali Shihab Thangal |P. K. Firos| Najeeb Kanthapuram}}
| location = [[Calicut]], [[Kerala]] 
| origins = Calicut
| key_people = Sayyid Munavvar Ali Shihab Thangal
| region_served = Now in [[Kerala]] ([[india]])
| focus = [[social service]], [[rescue]] work
| method =
| endowment =
| num_volunteers = {{circa}} 1 lakh
| num_employees = {{circa}} 1000
| subsid =
| owner =
| website = {{official website|http://whiteguard.mylkerala.com}}
| footnotes =
}}
[[File:Whiteguard Volunteers HELP KERALA FLOOD 2018.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|right| White Guard on relief activities 2019 Kerala floods<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/india/kerala-muslim-league-volunteers-clean-flooded-ram-temple-in-wayanad|title=Kerala: Muslim League volunteers clean flooded Ram temple in Wayanad|first=NH Web|last=Desk|date=16 August 2019|website=National Herald}}</ref>]]
[[File:Whiteguard Volunteers HELP KERALA landsliding.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Whiteguard volunteers: rescue service in landslide Kerala 2020]]
[[File:White Guard Volunteers -rescue operation in the Wayanad landslide 2024 Choorlmala.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|right| White Guard Volunteers -rescue operation in the [[2024 Wayanad landslides]]]]
The '''White Guard Volunteers'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theworldnews.net/in-news/whiteguard-volunteers-reach-out-with-vital-drugs|title=Whiteguard volunteers reach out with vital drugs|website=Whiteguard volunteers reach out with vital drugs}}</ref> ('''WG''') is a [[volunteer]]s organization of [[Muslim Youth League]] - [[IUML]], in which people<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kerala-muslim-league-volunteers-clean-ram-temple-hindus-clean-masjid-ahead-of-eid-1579997-2019-08-12|title=Kerala: Muslim League volunteers clean Ram temple, Hindus clean masjid ahead of Eid|author=P. S. Gopikrishnan Unnithan |date=August 12, 2019 |magazine=India Today}}</ref> volunteer two years or more to flood rescue service in [[Kerala]] and [[social service]]<ref name="auto1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/whiteguard-volunteers-reach-out-with-vital-drugs/article31221339.ece|title=Whiteguard volunteers reach out with vital drugs|author=Staff Reporter|newspaper=The Hindu |date=31 March 2020|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> with poor communities. White Guard works in [[Kerala]] neighborhoods and rural communities in about 20 different cities<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/district-news/kannur/2020/08/13/kannur-youth-league-white-guard-activists-sterilized-sreekandapuram-town.html|title=നാടും നഗരവും അണുവിമുക്തമാക്കി വൈറ്റ് ഗാർഡുകൾ|website=ManoramaOnline|language=ml}}</ref> throughout Kerala,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/kerala/working-white-guard-will-continue/673123|title=വൈറ്റ് ഗാര്‍ഡ് പ്രവര്‍ത്തനം പുനരാരംഭിക്കും -യൂത്ത് ലീഗ് | Madhyamam|first=വെബ്|last=ഡെസ്ക്|date=8 April 2020|website=www.madhyamam.com}}</ref> India. White Guards were involved in rescue work during [[2018 Kerala floods]], [[2019 Kerala floods]],<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/myl-to-resume-medi-chain-scheme/article31292431.ece|title=MYL to resume Medi Chain scheme|author=Staff Reporter|newspaper=The Hindu |date=8 April 2020|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> [[2020 Kerala floods]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Youth League workers clean up Sreerama temple in Wayanad |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/good-news/youth-league-workers-clean-up-sreerama-temple-in-wayanad--1.4035151 |website=Mathrubhumi}}</ref> [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and [[2024 Wayanad landslides]].

==Medi Chain Scheme==
The scheme of humanitarian named Medi Chain<ref name="auto1"/> is being carried out by involving the volunteers at zonal and district levels. White Guard team with emergency medicine<ref name="auto"/> for ex-pats Patients can send written or voice clips including their name, age, gender, and medical history. They will check the patient information and then talk to the expert doctors if necessary and reply to the patients. About 50 doctors specializing in various fields are collaborating with this project. The services of doctors in all fields such as General Medicine, Surgery, Gynecology, Pediatrics, Ortho, ENT, and Ophthalmology are also available. In addition, the services of Ayurvedic and Homeopathic doctors have been made available.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://malayalam.samayam.com/local-news/malappuram/youth-league-white-guard-team-to-sent-emergency-medicines-to-gulf-malayalees/articleshow/75099283.cms|title=പ്രവാസികള്‍ക്ക് അത്യാഹിത മരുന്നുകളുമായി യൂത്ത് ലീഗ് വൈറ്റ് ഗാര്‍ഡ് ടീം|website=malayalam.samayam.com}}</ref>

==White Guard Kerala State Committee==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:center; text-align:center; margin:0 0 0 1em;"
|-
!colspan="2"| White Guard of [[Muslim Youth League]] (MYL) Kerala State Committee <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/iumlofficial/photos/white-guard-of-muslim-youth-league-myl-kerala-state-committee-can-be-reached-on-/2583565501656504/|title=Facebook|website=www.facebook.com}}</ref>
|-
|State Captain
|Shafeeq Vachal
|-
|State Vice Captain
|Badaruddin K.K.
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.timesnownews.com/mirror-now/society/article/members-of-indian-union-of-muslim-league-clean-temple-in-flood-hit-kerala-on-eid-al-adha/467865 Members of Indian Union of Muslim League clean temple in flood-hit Kerala on Eid al-Adha]
*[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/myl-to-resume-medi-chain-scheme/article31292431.ece MYL to resume Medi Chain scheme]
*[https://gulfnews.com/uae/see-uae-expats-onsite-in-flood-ravaged-kerala-helping-victims-1.1565599817502 See UAE expats onsite in flood-ravaged Kerala helping victims]
*[https://www.asianetnews.com/kerala-news/youth-legue-workers-cleans-ponkuzhi-sreerama-temple-pw3xtm പൊൻകുഴി ശ്രീരാമക്ഷേത്രം ശൂചീകരിച്ച് മുസ്ലീം യൂത്ത് ലീഗ് വൈറ്റ് ഗാര്‍ഡ് പ്രവര്‍ത്തകര്‍]
*[https://www.manoramaonline.com/district-news/kannur/2020/08/13/kannur-youth-league-white-guard-activists-sterilized-sreekandapuram-town.html നാടും നഗരവും അണുവിമുക്തമാക്കി വൈറ്റ് ഗാർഡുകൾ]

[[Category:Volunteer organisations in India]]

Nurul Haque Choudhury

2026-04-20T06:33:12Z

Godrejsplende: Stub...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Nurul Haque Choudhury
| image =
| birth_date =
| death_date =
| birth_place =
| alma_mater =
| death_place =
| office = Member of the [[Assam Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 1972
| term_end = 1978
| predecessor = [[Moinul Hoque Choudhury]]
| successor = [[Altaf Hossain Mazumdar]]
| constituency = [[Sonai Assembly constituency|Sonai]]
| term_start1 = 1983
| term_end1 = 1985
| predecessor1 = [[Altaf Hossain Mazumdar]]
| successor1 = [[Abdul Rob Laskar]]
| constituency1 = [[Sonai Assembly constituency|Sonai]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| children =
| source =
}}

'''Nurul Haque Choudhury''' is an Indian politician from Assam. He was elected to the [[Assam Legislative Assembly]] from [[Sonai Assembly constituency|Sonai constituency]] in the [[1972 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1972]] and [[1983 Assam Legislative Assembly election|1983]] elections as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/3995-assam-1972/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Assam |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=8 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://assamassembly.gov.in/mla-1972-78.html
|title=Assam Legislative Assembly - MLA 1972-78
|website=Assam Legislative Assembly|accessdate=30 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/3998-assam-1983/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Assam |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=10 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://assamassembly.gov.in/mla-1983-85.html|title=Assam Legislative Assembly – MLA 1983–85|accessdate=13 September 2019|website=Assam Legislative Assembly
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/assam/assembly-constituencies/1983-election-results.html|title=Assam Assembly Election Results in 1983|accessdate=13 September 2019|website=www.elections.in
}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choudhury, Nurul Haque}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Assam]]
[[Category:People from Cachar district]]
[[Category:Assam MLAs 1972–1978]]
[[Category:Assam MLAs 1983–1985]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Assam-INC-politician-stub}}

Gandhwani Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:26:26Z

Godrejsplende: made some stub added tags...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Madhya Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Gandhwani
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 197
| map_image = 197-Gandhwani.svg
| state = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| district = [[Dhar district|Dhar]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Dhar Lok Sabha constituency|Dhar]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = ST
| incumbent_image = Umang Singhar.jpg
| mla = [[Umang Singhar]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
}}
'''Gandhwani''' is one of the 230 [[Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha|Vidhan Sabha]] (Legislative Assembly) constituencies of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state in central [[India]].<ref name="election2013">{{cite web|title=Madhya Pradesh 2013|url=http://www.myneta.info/mp2013/index.php?action=show_candidates&constituency_id=175|website=myneta.info|publisher=National Election Watch|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="election2018">{{cite web|title=List of Assembly Constituencies|url=http://eci.nic.in/archive/se98/background/S12/ListACs-MP.html|website=eci.nic.in|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="election2018-1">{{cite web|title=Vidhansabha Seats|url=http://www.electionsinindia.com/madhyapradesh/statepc.aspx|website=electionsininda.com|publisher=Election In India|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref>

It is part of [[Dhar district, India|Dhar District]]. As of 2023, its representative is [[Umang Singhar]] of the [[Indian National Congress]].{{update after|2029|1}}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Election
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[2008 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<ref name=election2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3739-madhya-pradesh-2008/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2008 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=22 December 2021}}</ref>
|rowspan=4 | [[Umang Singhar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[2013 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2013]]<ref name=election2013 name="election2013-1">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3740-madhya-pradesh-2013/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=22 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2018]]<ref name=election2018 name="election2018-2">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9685-madhya-pradesh-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2018 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=30 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|}

==Election results==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gandhwani<ref name="election2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/madhya-pradesh-assembly-polls-2023/story/madhya-pradesh-election-bjp-second-candidate-list-shivraj-singh-chouhan-2440421-2023-09-25|title=3 Union ministers feature in BJP's second list for Madhya Pradesh polls|work=India Today|accessdate=25 September 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Umang Singhar]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:98982}}
|percentage = 54.01
|change = -3.52
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Sardar Singh Mehda
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:76863}}
|percentage = 41.94
|change = +7.46
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Sumanbai Bherusingh Anare
|votes = {{formatnum:2296}}
|percentage = 1.25
|change = +0.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Dhumsingh Mandloi (Machhar)
|votes = {{formatnum:2041}}
|percentage = 1.11
|change = -0.11
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3069}}
|percentage = 1.67
|change = -1.37
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:22119}}
|percentage = 12.07
|change = -10.98
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:183251}}
|percentage = 74.14
|change = -1.43
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gandhwani<ref name="election2018"/>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Umang Singhar]]
|votes = {{formatnum:96899}}
|percentage = 57.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sardarsingh Mehda
|votes = {{formatnum:58068}}
|percentage = 34.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Gondwana Ganatantra Party
|candidate = Aadiwasi Arvind Muzalda
|votes = {{formatnum:3218}}
|percentage = 1.91
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Bhuwan Singh Gahlot
|votes = {{formatnum:2056}}
|percentage = 1.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Govind Rawat
|votes = {{formatnum:1646}}
|percentage = 0.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:5126}}
|percentage = 3.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:38831}}
|percentage = 23.05
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:168431}}
|percentage = 75.57
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2013===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2013 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gandhwani<ref name="election2013"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[Umang Singhar]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 66760
|percentage = 49.96
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Sardar Singh Mehda
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 54434
|percentage = 40.73
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Amar Singh Solanki
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 2496
|percentage = 1.87
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Kavita Krishnapal Singh Chouhan
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 2103
|percentage = 1.57
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Sukhlal Sisodiya
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 1551
|percentage = 1.16
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = Parwat Singh Mandloi
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|votes = 1473
|percentage = 1.10
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|
|candidate = [[None of the above|None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 4817
|percentage = 3.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|
|votes = 133634
|percentage = 63.69
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of the Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Dhar district]]
* [[Gandhwani]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh}}
{{coord|22.34|75.01|display=title}}

[[Category:Dhar district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Ravi Patwardhan

2026-04-15T06:27:30Z

Godrejsplende: New

{{Short description|Indian actor (1937–2020)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ravi Patwardhan
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date = 6 September 1937
| birth_place = [[Bombay Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = 5 December 2020 (aged 83)
| death_place = [[Thane]], Maharashtra, India
| yearsactive = 1964–2020
}}

'''Ravi Patwardhan''' (6 September 1937 – 5 December 2020) was an [[India]]n actor who appeared in [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-language and [[Hindi]]-language movies and TV serials and theater plays. He started his acting career in [[Marathi theatre]], then pivoted to movies, and in the later part of career worked in TV shows. In the 80s and 90s, he was known for playing towering personalities as public prosecutor, judge, politician, and [[Patil (title)|village Patil]] in films. This identity was further aided by his strong delivery and trademark [[handlebar moustache]]. Patwardhan acted in more than 200 films, 150 plays, and many TV serials.

==Early life==
Patwardhan was born on September 6, 1937, during the [[British Raj]]. His first acting experience came at an early age of 6.5 years during the 1944 ''Marathi Natya Mahotsav''.<ref>{{cite news |title=अभिनेते रवी पटवर्धन यांच्या निधनावर मुख्यमंत्री ठाकरेंनी व्यक्त केला शोक; म्हणाले,… |url=https://www.loksatta.com/maharashtra-news/veteran-marathi-actor-ravi-patwardhan-passes-away-maharashtra-cm-uddhav-thackeray-pays-emotional-tribute-vjb-91-2346743/ |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=Loksatta |date=6 December 2020 |language=mr-IN}}</ref><ref name="Aaranyaknatak tamhane"/>

==Career==
Patwardhan initially worked at the [[Reserve Bank of India|Reserve Bank]] in Mumbai and took time off to work in experimental plays.<ref>{{cite news |title=ज्येष्ठ अभिनेते, रंगकर्मी रवी पटवर्धन काळाच्या पडद्याआड |url=https://www.lokmat.com/marathi-cinema/veteran-actor-ravi-patwardhan-passes-away-a607/ |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=[[Lokmat]] |date=6 December 2020 |language=mr-IN}}</ref><ref name="resumed">{{cite news |title=ज्येष्ठ अभिनेते रवी पटवर्धन काळाच्या पडद्याआड |url=https://www.esakal.com/mumbai/marathi-veteran-actor-ravi-patwardhan-passed-away-thane-mumbai-381566 |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=eSakal |date=6 December 2020 |publisher=[[Sakal]] |language=mr-IN}}</ref>

===Theater===
Patwardhan began his career with an experimental [[Marathi theatre]] and was a noted personality in the scene.<ref name="वस्ताद">{{cite news |last1=निनगुरकर |first1=आशिष |title=रंगभूमीचा ‘वस्ताद पाटील’ |url=https://www.mahamtb.com/Encyc/2020/12/13/article-on-ravi-patvardhan-.html |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=[[Tarun Bharat]] |location=Mumbai |language=mr-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=रवी पटवर्धन |url=https://www.facebook.com/pranilMM/posts/2749411108632029 |publisher=अतरंगी स्टारमेकर्स |access-date=30 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> His first theater gig came in 1964 when he played ''Mukund Pradhan'' in the ''Katha Kunachi Wyatha Kunala'' by [[Gopal Gangadhar Parkhi|Go Gam Parkhi]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parkhi |first1=Gopal Gangadhar |title=Katha kunachi vyatha kuna-drama |date=1964 |publisher=Tridal prakashan |location=Rajyanatyasparha |url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25414871M/Katha_kunachi_vyatha_kuna-drama |access-date=30 December 2020}}</ref>

In 1974, Patwardhan started gaining recognition for playing [[Dhritarashtra]] in a [[Ratnakar Matkari]] play named ''Aranyak''. This play narrates the debilitation and despair of elderly constituents of [[Mahabharata]] epic in the aftermath of battle.<ref name="Aaranyaknatak tamhane">{{cite web |last1=Patwardhan|editor=Madhuri Tamhane |first1=Ravi |title=अवघे पाऊणशे वयमान : अनुभवांचं पाथेय |url=https://www.loksatta.com/chaturang-news/avaghe-paunshe-vayaman-article-by-ravi-patwardhan-1907261/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116000000/https://www.loksatta.com/chaturang-news/avaghe-paunshe-vayaman-article-by-ravi-patwardhan-1907261/ |website= |publisher=Loksatta Chaturang |access-date=30 December 2020 |language=en |date=June 8, 2019 |archive-date=November 16, 2020}} [https://www.facebook.com/Aaranyaknatak/posts/932785237096568 Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ravi Patwardhan, RIP |url=https://www.mumbaitheatreguide.com/dramas/Articles/20/dec/ravi-patwardhan-rip-passedway.asp |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=Mumbai Theatre Guide}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Vaidya |first1=Vidya |title=संहारानंतरचे सर्वकालिक शोकनाट्य |url=https://divyamarathi.bhaskar.com/news/article-by-vidya-vaidya-about-upcoming-drama-aranyak-5969642.html |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=Divya Marathi |date=14 October 2018 |language=mr}}</ref> He played the part of [[Dhritarashtra]] since the first play in 1974, as well as when it was revived in 2018.<ref>{{cite news |title=पुन्हा एकदा रंगमंचावर धडकणार ‘आरण्यक’ |url=https://www.loksatta.com/manoranjan-news/44-years-later-aranyak-marathi-drama-1758541/ |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=[[Loksatta]] |date=24 September 2018 |language=mr-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=कुबल |first1=कल्पेशराज |title=४४ वर्षांनंतर पुन्हा 'आरण्यक' |url=https://maharashtratimes.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/entertainment-drama/44-years-later-aranyak/articleshow/65304890.cms |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=[[Maharashtra Times]] |date=8 August 2018 |language=mr}}</ref>

In 1970s, he acted in ''Hridayaswamini'' directed by M.G. Ranganekar & Yashwant Pagar's ''Prapanch Karava Netka''. He played Beckett in [[Kusumagraj]]'s translation of [[Becket]] by [[Jean Anouilh]]. He played a major part in [[Pu La Deshpande]]'s ''Tujha Aahe Tujhpashi''. He adeptly handled the [[one-man show]] ''Swagat'' also written by Pu La ({{translation}} of ''Prison Diary'' by [[Jayaprakash Narayan]]). Later, he got roles in plays such as ''[[:mr:वीज म्हणाली धरतीला|Vij Mhanali Dhartila]]'', ''Kaunteya'', ''Anand''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shirwadkar |first1=V. V. |author1-link=Kusumagraj |title=वीज म्हणाली धरतीला (Vij Mhanali Dhartila by |date=1970 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=9788171856459 |url=https://www.bookganga.com/ebooks/Books/details/5002139579253579639 |access-date=30 December 2020}}</ref> He later played the role of police in [[Vijaya Mehta]]’s plays based on [[Joshi-Abhyankar serial murders]]. He also worked with noted director [[Sombhu Mitra]] in Indian National Theatre's ''Kondi'', the Marathi adaptation of [[An Enemy of the People]] by Norwegian playwright [[Henrik Ibsen]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mishra |first1=Ambarish |title=Marathi play on corruption gets Anna Hazare’s blessings |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Marathi-play-on-corruption-gets-Anna-Hazares-blessings/articleshow/10548773.cms |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=The Times of India |date=October 31, 2011 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=रवी पटवर्धन |url=https://www.loksatta.com/vyakhtivedh-news/ravi-patwardhan-profile-abn-97-2347973/ |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=Loksatta |date=8 December 2020 |language=mr-IN}}</ref>

===Film===
Patwardhans Marathi movie credits includes roles in [[Sinhasan]] (1979), [[Umbartha]] (1982), Bin Kamacha Navra (1984), Ashya Asawya Suna, and many more. His Hindi movie credits includes roles in [[Ankush (1986 film)|Ankush]] (1986), [[Pratighaat (1987 film)|Pratighat]] (1987), [[Tezaab]] (1988), [[Yeshwant]] (1997), [[Thakshak]] (1999), and [[Grahan (film)|Grahan]] (2001).<ref name="fpj"/>

===TV===
Patwardhan gained fame all over Maharashtra for playing ''Vastad Patil'' in the ''Gappagoshti'' section of the ''Amchi Mati Amchi Manasa'' ({{translation}} Our soil, Our people) show. This agriculture focused series was produced by Mansingh Pawar and aired on [[DD Sahyadri]] in the 90s.<ref name="वस्ताद"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Pradan |first1=Ninad |title=आमची माती आमची माणसं |url=https://www.marathisrushti.com/articles/aamachi-mati-aamachi-manasa-a-popular-program-on-doordarshan/ |website=www.marathisrushti.com |publisher=Marathi Srushti |lang=mr-IN |access-date=30 December 2020}}</ref>

Patwardhan's last role was in a Marathi TV show ''[[Aggabai Sasubai]]'' airing on ''[[Zee Marathi]]''. His character Dattatray Kulkarni aka ''Ajoba'' was dear to many Marathi households and won him awards.<ref name="fpj">{{cite news |title=From Aaranyak to Aggabai Sasubai: Tracing the journey of Ravi Patwardhan |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/from-aaranyak-to-agabai-sasubai-tracing-the-jounery-of-ravi-patwardhan |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=Free Press Journal |date=December 6, 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="aggabai sasubai award">{{cite news |title=‘झी मराठी अवॉर्ड्स २०१९’मध्ये ‘अग्गंबाई सासूबाई’ मालिकेने मारली बाजी |url=https://www.loksatta.com/manoranjan-news/zee-marathi-awards-2019-aggabai-sasubai-won-maximum-awards-ssv-92-1990528/ |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=Loksatta |date=11 October 2019 |language=mr-IN}}</ref>

==Awards==
Patwardhan received the Savarkar Smriti Award in 2018.<ref name="marchedufilms">{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Ankita |title=Senior Actor Ravi Patwardhan passed away |url=https://www.marchedufilms.com/entertainment/ravi-patwardhan-passes-away-marathi-news-senior-actor-ravi-patwardhan-passed-away-2/24491/ |access-date=30 December 2020 |work=Marche du Films |date=December 8, 2020}}</ref> In 2019, he won the ''Best father-in-law Award'' during the ''Zee Marathi Awards'' for his role in [[Aggabai Sasubai]] serial.<ref name="aggabai sasubai award"/>

== Death ==
Patwardhan died of a heart attack on 5 December 2020 in [[Panchpakhadi]], [[Thane]] and was cremated at Jawaharbagh Cemetery and many celebrities attended his funeral. He was survived by his wife, sons, daughter, daughters-in-law, son-in-law and grandchildren.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patwardhan, Ravi}}

[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Marathi actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Marathi cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Male actors in Marathi television]]

Sonali Bendre filmography

2026-04-14T02:05:09Z

Godrejsplende: Put Up.

[[File:Sonali Bendre snapped at the premiere of Tanvi The Great (cropped).jpg|alt=A picture of Sonali Bendre.|thumb|Bendre in 2025]]
{{Short description|none}}
{{Featured list}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}

[[Sonali Bendre]] is an Indian actress widely known for her work in [[Hindi]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] films, along with a few appearances in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]] and [[Kannada language|Kannada]] cinema.<ref name="Intro">{{cite web | title=Sonali Bendre, still enjoying being in Bollywood | website=Gulf News | date=22 April 2017 | url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/sonali-bendre-still-enjoying-being-in-bollywood-1.2015543 | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref> Bendre made her acting debut with the action-drama ''[[Aag (1994 film)|Aag]]'' (1994), opposite [[Govinda]], for which she received the [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut|Filmfare Lux New Face of the Year]] award. She gained further recognition with her role in the 1995 [[romantic thriller]] ''[[Takkar (1995 film)|Takkar]]''. Between 1994 and 1996, Bendre appeared in several commercially unsuccessful films, including the [[action-drama]] ''[[Gaddaar (1995 film)|Gaddar]]'' (1995), [[action thriller]] ''[[Rakshak]]'' (1996), and [[romantic comedy]] ''[[English Babu Desi Mem]]'' (1996). Her first major box office success came with the [[romantic action]] ''[[Diljale]]'' (1996).<ref>{{cite web |title=Face of the Year Award (1989-1994) |url=http://recipeguide.indiatimes.com/awards2001/ex_face.html |website=[[Indiatimes]] |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713025534/http://recipeguide.indiatimes.com/awards2001/ex_face.html |archive-date=13 July 2011}}</ref>

Bendre's prominence grew in the late 1990s with a series of successful films such as action comedy ''[[Duplicate (1998 film)|Duplicate]]'' (1998), romantic action ''[[Major Saab]]'' (1998), drama ''[[Zakhm]]'' (1998), action thriller ''[[Sarfarosh (1999 film)|Sarfarosh]]'' (1999), the highly successful family drama ''[[Hum Saath Saath Hain]]'' (1999) and romantic drama ''[[Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai]]'' (2000). Her performance in ''Sarfarosh'' earned her a nomination for the [[IIFA Award for Best Actress]] for Best Actress, while ''Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai'' won her the [[Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hum Dil De... sweeps IIFA awards |url=http://www.screenindia.com/jun30/film18.htm |website=Screen India |accessdate=14 November 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010220124320/http://www.screenindia.com/jun30/film18.htm |archivedate=20 February 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.screenindia.com/svawards/winom.htm |title=Nominations for 7th Annual Screen Awards are |date=2001 |work=Screen India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040219220635/http://www.screenindia.com/svawards/winom.htm |archive-date=19 February 2004 |access-date=18 July 2021 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Bendre made her Telugu film debut with the romantic drama ''[[Murari (2001 film)|Murari]]'' (2001), receiving a Filmfare Award nomination for [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Telugu|Filmfare Best Actress – Telugu]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://downloads.movies.indiatimes.com/south2001/winners.html |title=49th Annual Filmfare Awards - South |website=Indiatimes |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130710024450/http://downloads.movies.indiatimes.com/south2001/winners.html |archive-date=10 July 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Her subsequent successes in Telugu cinema include action drama ''[[Indra (2002 film)|Indra]]'' (2002), romantic comedy ''[[Manmadhudu]]'' (2002) and comedy drama ''[[Shankar Dada M.B.B.S.]]'' (2004). In Marathi cinema, she was awarded the [[Screen Awards|Screen Award for Best Actress – Marathi]] for her role in ''[[Anahat (film)|Anahat]]'' (2003).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/starlight-express/ |title=Starlight Express |date=23 January 2005 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=27 August 2021 |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827120532/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/starlight-express/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

After a hiatus from films, Bendre transitioned to television, appearing in the series ''[[Ajeeb Daastaan Hai Ye]]'' (2014) and ''[[The Broken News]]'' (2022–2024). Her performance in ''The Broken News'' earned her a nomination at the [[Filmfare OTT Awards]] for [[2022 Filmfare OTT Awards|Best Supporting Actress]] in a Drama Series.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/nominations-for-the-danube-properties-filmfare-ott-awards-2022_-56102.html |title=Nominations announced for Danube Properties Filmfare OTT Awards 2022 |date=21 December 2022 |access-date=21 December 2022 |website=FILMFARE |language=en}}</ref> In addition to acting, Bendre has served as a talent judge on several Indian reality television shows, including ''[[Indian Idol]]'', ''[[India's Got Talent]]'', ''[[Dance India Dance|DID Li'ls Masters]]'' and ''[[India's Best Dancer (Hindi TV series) season 3|India's Best Dancer 3]]''.

== Films ==
{{Pending films key}}
{{sort under}}
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+ {{Screen reader-only|Sonali Bendre's film credits}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role(s)
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable | {{abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|1994
! scope= "row" |''[[Aag (1994 film)|Aag]]''
| Parul
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="Aag">{{cite web |title=Aag (1993) |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/aag-3/cast/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=19 August 1994 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406131219/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/aag-3/cast/ |archive-date=6 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" | ''[[Naaraaz]]''
| Sonali
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="Naaraaz">{{cite web | last=Hungama | first=Bollywood | title=Naaraaz | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=19 August 1994 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/naaraaz/cast/ | access-date=26 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4"|1995
! scope= "row" |''[[The Don (1995 film)|The Don]]''
| {{Sort|Malik|Anita Malik}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Don">{{cite web | title=The Don | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=28 April 1995 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/the-don/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Gaddaar (1995 film)|Gaddaar]]''
| Priya
|
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref name="Gaddaar">{{cite web | title=Gaddaar | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=9 June 1995 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/gaddar-2/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Takkar (1995 film)|Takkar]]''
| Mohini
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="Takkar">{{cite web | title=Takkar | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=14 July 1995 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/takkar-2/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Bombay (1995 film)|Bombay]]''
| Dancer
| Tamil film; Special appearance in song "[[Humma Humma]]"
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="Bombay">{{cite web | title=Bombay | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=7 April 1995 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/bombay/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1996
! scope= "row" |''[[Rakshak]]''
| {{Sort|Malhotra|Dr. Pooja Malhotra}}
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="Rakshak">{{cite web | title=Rakshak | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=29 November 1996 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/rakshak/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[English Babu Desi Mem]]''
| Bijuriya
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="English Babu Desi Mem">{{cite web | title=English Babu Desi Mem | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=26 January 1996 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/english-babu-desi-mem/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Diljale]]''
| Radhika
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="Diljale">{{cite web | title=Diljale | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=27 September 1996 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/diljale/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Apne Dam Par]]''
| Herself
| Special appearance in song "Aara Hile Chapara Hile"
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Apne Dam Par">{{cite web | title=Apne Dam Par | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=15 March 1996 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/apne-dam-par/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Sapoot]]''
| {{Sort|Singhania|Kajal Singhania}}
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Sapoot">{{cite web | title=Sapoot | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=11 August 1996 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/sapoot/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3"|1997
! scope= "row" |''[[Bhai (1997 film)|Bhai]]''
| Meenu
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Bhai">{{cite web | title=Bhai | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=31 October 1997 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/bhai/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Tarazu]]''
| Pooja
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Tarazu">{{cite web| title=Taraazu | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=1 August 1997 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/taraazu/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Qahar]]''
| Neelam
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Qahar">{{cite web| title=Qahar | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=5 December 1997 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/qahar/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="6"|1998
! scope= "row" |''[[Keemat – They Are Back]]''
| Mansi
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Keemat">{{cite web | title=Keemat: They Are Back | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=10 April 1998 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/keematthey-are-back/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Duplicate (1998 film)|Duplicate]]''
| Lily
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Duplicate">{{cite web | title=Duplicate | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=7 May 1998 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/duplicate/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Humse Badhkar Kaun]]''
| Anu
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Humse Badhkar Kaun">{{cite web | title=Hum Se Badhkar Kaun: The Entertainer | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=12 June 1998 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/hum-se-badhkar-kaunthe-entertainer/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Major Saab]]''
| Nisha
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Major Saab">{{cite web | title=Major Saab | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=26 June 1998 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/major-saab/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Angaaray (1998 film)|Angaaray]]''
| Roma
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Angaaray">{{cite web | title=Rediff On The Net, Movies: The review and real video file of Angaarey | website=Rediff | url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/1998/jul/22ang.htm | access-date=26 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Zakhm]]''
| {{Sort|Maheshwari|Sonia Maheshwari}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Zakhm">{{cite web | title=Zakhm | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=25 December 1998 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/zakhm-2/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5"|1999
! scope= "row" |''[[Sarfarosh (1999 film)|Sarfarosh]]''
| {{Sort|Nagrath|Seema Nagrath}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Sarfarosh">{{cite web | title=Rediff On The NeT, Movies: The Sarfarosh review | website=Rediff | date=30 April 1999 | url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/1999/apr/30sar.htm | access-date=26 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Kadhalar Dhinam]]''
| Roja
|Tamil film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Kadhalar Dhinam">{{cite web | title=rediff.com, Movies: The Dil Hi Dil Mein review | website=Rediff | date=22 April 2000 | url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2000/apr/22dil.htm | access-date=26 August 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Kannodu Kanbathellam]]''
| Kalyani
|Tamil film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Kannodu Kanbathellam">{{cite web | title=Kannodu Kanbathellam | website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]] | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/kannodu_kanbathellam/cast-and-crew | access-date=Aug 28, 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Hum Saath Saath Hain]]''
| {{Sort|Chaturvedi|Dr. Preeti Shukla Chaturvedi}}
|
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref name="um Saath Saath Hain">{{cite web | title=Hum Saath Saath Hain | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=Nov 5, 1999 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/hum-saath-saath-hain/cast/ | access-date=Aug 28, 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Dahek]]''
| Sabina, Neelima{{efn|Bendre portrayed dual roles in the film.}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Dahek">{{cite web | title=Dahek | website=Rotten Tomatoes | date=17 April 2011 | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/dahek/cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2000
! scope= "row" |''[[Chal Mere Bhai]]''
| Piya
| Cameo
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref name="Chal Mere Bhai">{{cite web| title=Chal Mere Bhai | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=5 May 2000 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/chal-mere-bhai/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai]]''
| {{Sort|Malhotra|Khushi Malhotra}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai">{{cite web | title=Hamara Dil Aap Ke Paas Hain | website=Rotten Tomatoes | date=25 March 2017 | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/hamara_dil_aapke_paas_hai#cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Dhai Akshar Prem Ke]]''
| Nisha
| Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="DAPK">{{cite web | last=Chaubey | first=Pranita | title=Sonali Bendre And Abhishek Bachchan Took "Laugh Till It Hurts" A Bit Too Seriously | website=[[NDTV]] | date=18 August 2023 | url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/to-abhishek-bachchan-so-much-love-luck-and-laughter-from-sonali-bendre-4308513 | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Jis Desh Mein Ganga Rehta Hain]]''
| Saavni
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Jis Desh">{{cite web | title=Jis Desh Mein Ganga Rehta Hai | website=Rotten Tomatoes | date=1 April 2019 | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/jis-desh-mein-ganga-rehta-hain/cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Preethse]]''
| Kiran
|Kannada film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Preethse">{{cite web | title=Preethse | website=Rotten Tomatoes | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/preethse_2000/cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4"|2001
! scope= "row" |''[[Murari (2001 film)|Murari]]''
| Vasu
|Telugu film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Murari">{{cite web | title=Murari| website=Rotten Tomatoes | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/murari/cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" | ''[[Love Ke Liye Kuch Bhi Karega]]''
| {{Sort|Chopra|Sapna Chopra}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Love Ke Liye Kuch Bhi Karega">{{cite web | title=Love Ke Liye Kuch Bhi Karega | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=29 June 2001 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/love-ke-liye-kuch-bhi-karega/cast/ | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" | ''[[Lajja (2001 film)|Lajja]]''
| Herself
| Special appearance in song "Mujhe Saajan Ke Ghar Jaana Hai"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Lajja">{{cite web | title=Sonali Bendre birthday special: Listen to her iconic songs! | website=[[Radio Mirchi]] | date=1 January 2024 | url=https://mirchi.in/stories/music/sonali-bendre-hit-songs/106409973 | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Tera Mera Saath Rahen]]''
| {{Sort|Khanna|Madhuri Khanna}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Tera Mera Saath Rahen">{{cite web | title=Tera Mera Saath Rahen | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=16 November 2001 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/tera-mera-saath-rahen/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3"|2002
! scope= "row" |''[[Indra (2002 film)|Indra]]''
| Pallavi
| Telugu film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Indra">{{cite web | title=Indra | website=Rotten Tomatoes | date=24 July 2002 | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/indra/cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Khadgam]]''
| Swathi
| Telugu film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Khadgam">{{cite web | title=Khadgam | website=Rotten Tomatoes | date=5 August 2020 | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/khadgam/cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Manmadhudu]]''
| Harika
| Telugu film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Manmadhudu">{{cite web | title=Manmadhudu | website=Rotten Tomatoes | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/manmadhudu/cast-and-crew | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5"|2003
! scope= "row" |''[[Anahat (film)|Anahat]]''
| {{Sort|Sheelavathi|Queen Sheelavathi}}
| Marathi film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Anahat">{{cite web | title=Anaahat | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=1 January 2003 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/anaahat/cast/ | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Pyaar Kiya Nahin Jaatha]]''
| Disha
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Pyaar Kiya Nahin Jaatha">{{cite web | title=Pyaar Kiya Nahin Jaata | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=1 January 2003 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/pyaar-kiya-nahin-jaata/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Palanati Brahmanaidu (film)|Palanati Brahmanaidu]]''
| {{Sort|Nageswari|Siva Nageswari}}
|Telugu film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Palnati">{{cite web | title=Palnati Brahmanayudu | website=Rotten Tomatoes | date=4 January 2024 | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/palnati_brahmanayudu | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Chori Chori (2003 film)|Chori Chori]]''
| {{Sort|Narayan|Pooja Narayan}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Chori2003">{{cite web | title=Chori Chori | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=1 August 2003 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/chori-chori-3/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" | ''[[Kal Ho Naa Ho]]''
| {{Sort|Malhotra|Dr. Priya Malhotra}}
| Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Bendre Cameo">{{cite web | title=Sonali Bendre makes comeback with Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai 2 | website=[[India Today]] | date=4 April 2013 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/sonali-bendre-makes-comeback-with-once-upon-a-time-in-mumbaai-2-107969-2012-07-03 | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|2004
! scope= "row" |''[[Shankar Dada M.B.B.S.]]''
| {{Sort|Chitti|Dr. Sunita "Chitti"}}
|Telugu film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Shankar">{{cite web | title=Shankar Dada M.B.B.S. | website=Rotten Tomatoes | date=5 August 2018 | url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/shankar_dada_mbbs/cast-and-crew | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope= "row" |''[[Aga Bai Arrecha!]]''
| Herself
|Marathi film; special appearance in the song "Cham Cham Karta Hai"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Arrecha">{{cite web | title=Sonali Bendre, Kedar Shinde reminisce about bygone days on 'India's Best Dancer' | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=20 August 2023 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sonali-bendre-kedar-shinde-reminisce-about-bygone-days-on-indias-best-dancer/articleshow/102877000.cms | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2013
! scope= "row" |''[[Once Upon ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara!]]''
| {{Sort|Khan|Mumtaz Khan}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Once2013">{{cite web | title=Once Upon Ay Time In Mumbai Dobaara! | website=Bollywood Hungama | date=15 August 2013 | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/once-upon-ay-time-in-mumbai-dobaara/cast/ | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2022
! scope= "row" |''[[Love You Hamesha]]''
| Shivani
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Verma |first=Sukanya |date=1 October 2019 |title=When Sonali, Deepika, Aishwarya celebrated Navratri |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/special/when-mouni-deepika-aishwarya-celebrated-navratri/20191001.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128173847/https://m.rediff.com/movies/special/when-mouni-deepika-aishwarya-celebrated-navratri/20191001.htm |archive-date=28 January 2022 |access-date=13 April 2022 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2025
! scope= "row" |''[[Be Happy (film)|Be Happy]]''
| Herself
| Cameo
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web | last=Suri | first=Rishabh | title=Be Happy review: Abhishek Bachchan keeps you hooked with this sweet-as-sugar movie designed to make you cry | website=[[Hindustan Times]] | date=14 March 2025 | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/be-happy-review-abhishek-bachchan-keeps-you-hooked-with-this-sweet-as-sugar-movie-designed-to-make-you-cry-101741947368451.html |accessdate=20 March 2025}}</ref>
|}

==Television==
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+ List of Sonali Bendre television credits
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Tooltip|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
| 2001–2002
! scope= "row" | ''Kya Masti Kya Dhoom''
| rowspan="2" | Host
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{cite news |agency=[[IANS]] |date=8 August 2011 |title=I enjoy doing TV shows: Sonali Bendre |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/i-enjoy-doing-tv-shows-2435240 |work=Deccan Herald |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2005
! scope= "row" | ''[[50th Filmfare Awards]]''
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/shah-rukh-rani-mukherjee-bag-awards/article27322991.ece |title=Shah Rukh, Rani Mukherjee bag awards |date=27 May 2005 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=26 August 2021 |author=[[United News of India]] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210826123504/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/shah-rukh-rani-mukherjee-bag-awards/article27322991.ece |archive-date=26 August 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 2008
! scope= "row" | ''Mr & Mrs Television''
| rowspan="4" | Judge
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="auto">{{cite news |last=Singha |first=Bidisha |date=30 April 2008 |title=Sonali Bendre to judge Indian Idol 4 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/sonali-bendre-to-judge-indian-idol-4/story-oBgouKfEsF5n0wj0r60toM.html |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |location=Mumbai |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2008–2009
! scope= "row" |[[Indian Idol (Hindi TV series)|''Indian Idol'']]
| Season 4
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| 2009–2012
! scope= "row" |''[[India's Got Talent]]''
| Seasons 1–3
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indias-got-talent.com/indias-got-talent-hunar-hi-winner-judges/ |title=India's Got Talent Judges |access-date=9 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901183450/http://www.indias-got-talent.com/indias-got-talent-hunar-hi-winner-judges/ |archive-date=1 September 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| 2012
! scope= "row" |''[[Hindustan Ke Hunarbaaz]]''
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{cite news |title=No crying and weeping please. Just Enjoy!|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/No-crying-and-weeping-please-Just-Enjoy/Article1-950708.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028165336/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/No-crying-and-weeping-please-Just-Enjoy/Article1-950708.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 October 2012 |work= Hindustan Times|date=27 October 2012 }}</ref>
|-
| 2014
! scope= "row" |''[[Mission Sapne]]''
| Narrator
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{cite news |agency=IANS |date=10 February 2014 |title=Sonali Bendre happy to play narrator in Mission Sapne |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/television/sonali-bendre-happy-to-play-narrator-in-mission-sapne/article1-1182490.aspx |work=Hindustan Times |location=Mumbai |access-date=21 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407101815/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/television/sonali-bendre-happy-to-play-narrator-in-mission-sapne/article1-1182490.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| 2014–2015
! scope= "row" |''[[Ajeeb Daastaan Hai Ye]]''
| Shobha Sachdev
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/i-never-thought-of-doing-a-fiction-show-sonali-bendre/502145-8-66.html |title=I never thought of doing a fiction show: Sonali Bendre |work=[[IBN Live]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927124243/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/i-never-thought-of-doing-a-fiction-show-sonali-bendre/502145-8-66.html |access-date=15 October 2015|archive-date=27 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| 2013–2016
! scope= "row" | ''[[India's Best Dramebaaz]]''
| rowspan="3" | Judge
| Seasons 1–2
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{cite interview |last=Oberoi |first=Vivek |subject-link=Vivek Oberoi |last2=Bendre |first2=Sonali |date=20 February 2016 |title=Vivek Oberoi and Sonali Bendre talk India's Best Dramebaaz |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/vivek-oberoi-and-sonali-bendre-talk-india-rsquo-s-best-dramebaaz/cid/1414946 |work= |interviewer= |location=Mumbai |publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2022
! scope= "row" | ''[[Dance India Dance|DID Li'ls Masters]]''
| Season 5
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="DID">{{cite web | title=Sonali Bendre on returning with DID Lil Masters 5: There was no guarantee, that I'd ever return | website=Hindustan Times | date=27 March 2022 | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tv/sonali-bendre-on-returning-with-did-lil-masters-5-there-was-no-guarantee-that-i-d-ever-return-101648384365027.html | access-date=31 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2023
! scope= "row"| ''[[India's Best Dancer (Hindi TV series) season 3|India's Best Dancer 3]]''
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{cite news |agency=[[Asian News International]] |date=9 July 2023 |title=Sonali Bendre remembers working with Saroj Khan for Dil Hi Dil Mein song: I was scared she'd throw dandiya sticks at me |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tv/sonali-bendre-saroj-khan-dil-hi-dil-mein-song-chand-aaya-hai-101688865883531.html |work=Hindustan Times |location=Mumbai |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref>
|-
| 2025
! scope= "row"| ''[[Pati Patni Aur Panga – Jodiyon Ka Reality Check|Pati Patni Aur Panga]]''
| Host
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{cite news |title=Host Sonali Bendre says Pati, Patni Aur Panga is like a page of my marriage |work=India Today |date=19 June 2025 |accessdate=28 June 2025 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/entertainment/television/story/sonali-bendre-says-pati-patni-aur-panga-is-like-a-page-of-my-marriage-2743242-2025-06-19}}</ref>
|}

==Web series==
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+ {{Screen reader-only|Sonali Bendre web credits}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Tooltip|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
| 2022–present
! scope= "row" | ''[[The Broken News]]''
| {{Sort|Qureshi|Amina Qureshi}}
|
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref name="The Broken News">{{cite web | title=Sonali Bendre announces her OTT debut with ZEE5's The Broken News: 'Feels so good to be back on sets' | website=[[The Indian Express]] | date=11 May 2022 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/sonali-bendre-announces-her-ott-debut-with-zee5-the-broken-news-7911496/ | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
| TBA
| style="background:#ffc;"| ''Raakh'' {{dagger|alt=Film yet to release}}
| {{TableTBA}}
| Filming
| style="text-align: center;"|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prime Video announces crime thriller 'Raakh' starring Ali Fazal, Sonali Bendre and Aamir Bashir |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/prime-video-raakh-ali-fazal-sonali-bendre-investigative-crime-thriller-aamir-bashir-release-date/article69946722.ece/ |access-date=20 August 2025 |website=[[The Hindu]] |date=18 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[List of awards and nominations received by Sonali Bendre]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian filmographies]]
[[Category:Actress filmographies]]

Sujata Kujur

2026-04-13T02:49:43Z

Godrejsplende: Put Up.

{{Short description|Indian field hockey player (born 2003)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}

'''Sujata Kujur''' (25 January 2003) is an Indian hockey player from [[Odisha]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=India Tour Of Australia 2025 (Women) Details {{!}} Tournaments - Hockey India - Hockey India |url=https://hockeyindia.org/schedule/details/india-tour-of-australia--2025--women- |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=hockeyindia.org}}</ref> She plays for the [[India women's national field hockey team|India women’s national field hockey team]] as a midfielder. She plays for Odisha in the domestic tournaments.

== Early life ==
Kujur is from [[Sundergarh district]], Odisha. Her father’s name is Dina Kujur. She did her graduation at a college affiliated with [[Sambalpur University]] and also played for SU. She started playing hockey at the age of 10. She is youngest of three children in her family.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Orisports.com |url=https://www.orisports.com/PersonDetails.aspx?pId=NDE2Mg== |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=www.orisports.com}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Latest Hockey News and Updates - Hockey India |url=https://hockeyindia.org/news/with-support-from-parents-and-seniors-sujata-kujur-has-eyes-on-the-olympic-games |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=hockeyindia.org}}</ref>

== Career ==

=== International ===
She made her Junior India debut in August 2023, in the 2023 Four Nations Junior Women's Invitational Tournament at Düsseldorf. In June 2023, she was part of the Indian team that won the Junior Asia Cup at [[Kakamigahara]], Japan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Sujata Kujur {{!}} India hockey player |url=https://www.fih.hockey/events/others/women/womens-junior-asia-cup-1511/player/sujata-kujur-30064 |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=International Hockey Federation |language=en}}</ref> In December 2023, she representing India in the 2023 10th FIH Junior World Cup for women at Santiago, Chile.<ref name=":0" />

Kujur made her senior India debut at Perth in Australia, in May 2025. She was part of the Indian team that played five matches, including three tests against the senior Australian women's team.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=With support from parents, seniors, Sujata Kujur eyes on Olympic Games |url=https://www.uniindia.com/with-support-from-parents-seniors-sujata-kujur-eyes-on-olympic-games/sports/news/3456279.html |access-date=5 July 2025 |website=United News of India}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-04-14 |title=Tete sisters, Salima & Mahima, set to take field for India Down Under |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/tete-sisters-salima-mahima-set-to-take-field-for-india-down-under/articleshow/120288695.cms |access-date=2025-07-05 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

Later, she trained as part of the 40 probables at the Senior India camp at [[Sports Authority of India|SAI]], [[Bengaluru|Bangalore]] and was selected to play the [[FIH Pro League]] 2024-25 European leg, which was played from June 14 to 29 at [[London]], [[Antwerp]], and [[Berlin]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chowdhury |first=Rohan |date=2025-05-15 |title=Mahima Tete: Our parents are proud of us, two sisters representing the national team |url=https://revsportz.in/mahima-tete-our-parents-are-proud-of-us-two-sisters-representing-the-national-team/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Revsportz {{!}} Sports News Portal {{!}} Latest Sports Articles |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Domestic ===
Kujur was the skipper of the Sambalpur University team that won the 4th [[Khelo India University Games]] at [[Guwahati]] in February 2024.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kujur, Sujata}}
[[Category:2003 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women's field hockey players]]
[[Category:People from Sundergarh district]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Odisha]]
[[Category:Field hockey players from Odisha]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]

Veena (disambiguation)

2026-04-04T19:40:49Z

Godrejsplende:

{{wiktionary|veena}}
The '''[[veena]]''' is a plucked musical instrument originating from India.

'''Veena''' may also refer to:

{{tocright}}

==Musical instruments==
*[[Rudra veena]], plucked string instrument used in Hindustani music
*[[Saraswati veena]], plucked string instrument used in Carnatic music
*[[Vichitra veena]], plucked string instrument used in Hindustani music
*[[Gottuvadhyam]], plucked string instrument used in Carnatic music
*[[Alapini veena]], historical veena, stick zither
*[[Ancient veena]], an Indian arched harp
*[[Eka-tantri veena]], historical veena, tube zither
*[[Kinnari vina|Kinnari veena]], historical veena
*[[Mohan veena]], slide guitar
*[[Triveni veena]]
*[[Ranjan veena]]
*[[Bobbili Veena]]
*[[Misr veena]]

==Male given name==
*[[Veena Kuppayyar]] (1798–1860), Indian exponent of Veena and composer of Carnatic music
*[[Veena Venkatagiriyappa]] (1887–1961), Indian musician

==Female given name==
*[[Veena (actress)]] (1926–2004) also known as Veena Kumari, Indian actress
*[[Veena Das]] (born 1945), American professor of anthropology
*[[Veena Dubal]], American lawyer and scholar
*[[Veena Goel]] (born 1981), American beauty queen
*[[Veena Malik]] (born 1984 as Zahida Malik), Pakistani actress, model and comedian
*[[Veena Misra]], American engineer
*[[Veena Talwar Oldenburg]], Indian-born American history professor
*[[Veena Rawat]], Canadian electrical engineer
*[[Veena Sahajwalla]], Australian scientist and inventor
*[[Veena Sahasrabuddhe]] (1948–2016), Indian vocalist and composer of Hindustani classical music
*[[Veena Sud]], Canadian-born American television writer, director, and producer
*[[Veena Verma (writer)]] (born 1960), UK-based Punjabi short-story writer
*Veena, character portrayed by Bhasha Sumbli in the 2025 Indian film ''[[Dhurandhar]]''

==Music label==
*[[Veena Music]], a regional music label based in Rajasthan, India

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
*[[Beena (disambiguation)]]
*[[Vina (disambiguation)]]
*[[Manasa Veena (disambiguation)]]
*[[Veen (disambiguation)]]
*[[Been (disambiguation)]]
*{{in title|Veena}}

{{disambiguation}}

Puppy (2025 film)

2026-04-01T01:33:45Z

Godrejsplende: New...

{{short description|Indian Kannada-language drama film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Puppy
| image = Puppy (2025 film).jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Ayush Malli
| producer = Anadappa Sankanur
| writer =
| starring = {{plainlist|* Jagadeesh Koppal
* Aditya Sindhanur
* Adrust Sankanur
* Rutvik Bellary
* Durugappa Kambli
* Renuka
* Aarav Lohith Nagraj}}
| music = {{Ubl | '''Songs:'''
| Ravi Billur
| Sridhar Kashyap
| '''Score:'''
| Sridhar Kashyap}}
| cinematography = B. Suresh Babu
| editing = Vishva N. M.
| studio = B. B. Sankanur Films
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|2025|5|1|df=yes}}
| runtime = 110 minutes<ref name=":BMR" />
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget = 
| gross =
}}
'''''Puppy''''' is a 2025 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[drama film]] directed by Ayush Malli. The film stars Jagadeesh Koppal, Aditya Sindhanur, Adrust Sankanur, Rutvik Bellary, Durugappa Kambli, Renuka, and Aarav Lohith Nagraj.

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=July 2025}}

== Cast ==
* Jagadeesh Koppal as Parshya
* Aditya Sindhanur as Aadi
* Adrust Sankanur
* Rutvik Bellary
* Durugappa Kambli as Durgappa, Parshya's father
* Renuka as Renukamma, Parshya's mother
* Aarav Lohith Nagraj

== Production ==
The film was shot in [[Bangalore]].<ref name=":BMR" />

== Music ==
The film has a song composed by Ravi Billur and Sridhar Kashyap.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kaala Kettaitanta (From "Puppy") Song |url=https://gaana.com/album/kaala-kettaitanta-from-puppy |website=[[Gaana (music streaming service)|Gaana]] |language=en |date=3 April 2025}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Kaala Kettaitanta
| length1 = 4:19
| lyrics1 = Ningappa Doni, Ayush Malli
| extra1 = Ningappa Doni
| total_length = 4:19
}}

== Release ==
''Puppy'' was released theatrically on 1 May 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=A. |first1=Sharadhaa |title=Dhruva Sarja presents Puppy, a heartfelt exploration of North Karnataka's humour |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2025/Apr/28/dhruva-sarja-presents-puppy-a-heartfelt-exploration-of-north-karnatakas-humour |work=The New Indian Express |date=28 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Critical reception ===
Y. Maheswara Reddy of ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' rated the film 3/5 stars and wrote, "The director has given importance to the script without allowing any actor to stray from it. [...] The director deserves appreciation for including all elements such as comedy, sentiments, love, affection and attachment in the movie."<ref name=":BMR">{{cite news |last1=Y. |first1=Maheswara Reddy |title=Kannada Movie Review–Gangster Alla Prankster: All action, but with a message |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/kannada-movie-reviewgangster-alla-prankster-all-action-but-with-a-message/articleshow/120673333.cms |work=Bangalore Mirror |date=3 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref> Susmita Sameera of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film 2.5/5 stars and wrote, "The raw, realistic style gives the film authenticity, though the execution is uneven. Some scenes lack emotional weight, and the humour, while effective in places, occasionally feels overdone. [...] Still, ''Puppy'' resonates with its honest portrayal of childhood, hardship, and unexpected bonds."<ref>{{cite news |title=A friendship story from the streets of bengaluru Movie Review: a friendship story from the streets of bengaluru |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/regional/kannada/a-friendship-story-from-the-streets-of-bengaluru/movie-review/120792736.cms |work=The Times of India |date=1 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

A. Sharadhaa of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' gave the film 2.5/5 stars and wrote, "While it doesn’t fully explore the deeper emotional layers of migration or the children’s inner worlds, it still gently reveals the silent struggles and small hopes that shape life on the margins of a growing city."<ref>{{cite news |last1=A. |first1=Sharadhaa |title=Puppy Movie Review: Heartfelt, sincere but needs more emotional heft |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2025/May/02/puppy-movie-review-heartfelt-sincere-but-needs-more-emotional-heft |work=The New Indian Express |date=2 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Kannada Prabha]]'' rated the film 3/5.<ref>{{cite news |title=ಪಪ್ಪಿ ಚಿತ್ರ ವಿಮರ್ಶೆ: ವಲಸೆ ಬದುಕನ್ನು ತೆರೆದಿಡುವ ಪ್ರಾಮಾಣಿಕ ಪ್ರಯತ್ನ |url=https://kannada.asianetnews.com/movie-reviews/aditya-sindhanur-jagadish-koppal-starrer-puppy-kannada-film-review-gvd-svoo8j |work=[[Asianet Suvarna News]] |date=3 May 2025 |language=kn |archive-date=4 May 2025 |access-date=8 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250504035236/https://kannada.asianetnews.com/movie-reviews/aditya-sindhanur-jagadish-koppal-starrer-puppy-kannada-film-review-gvd-svoo8j |url-status=live }}</ref> Abhilash P. S. of ''[[Prajavani]]'' wrote that some scenes could have been trimmed since the storyline is short.<ref>{{cite news |last1=ಪಿ.ಎಸ್‌ |first1=ಅಭಿಲಾಷ್ |title='ಪಪ್ಪಿ' ಸಿನಿಮಾ ವಿಮರ್ಶೆ: ಸಿದ್ಧಸೂತ್ರವಿಲ್ಲದೆ ಕಟ್ಟಿದ ಸರಳ ಕಥೆ |url=https://www.prajavani.net/entertainment/movie-review/puppy-kannada-movie-review-north-karnataka-dog-story-lockdown-drama-3270840 |work=Prajavani |date=2 May 2025 |language=kn |archive-date=5 May 2025 |access-date=8 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250505105846/https://www.prajavani.net/entertainment/movie-review/puppy-kannada-movie-review-north-karnataka-dog-story-lockdown-drama-3270840 |url-status=live }}</ref> A critic from ''[[Vijayavani]]'' gave it a positive review.<ref>{{cite news |title=PUPPY KANNADA MOVIE REVIEW: ಜವಾರಿ ಜನರ ಬದುಕಿನ ವಿವಿಧ ನೋಟ |url=https://www.vijayavani.net/puppy-kannada-movie-review |work=[[Vijayavani]] |date=3 May 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2025 Indian films]]
[[Category:2025 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]

Himalayan salt

2026-03-28T20:13:27Z

Godrejsplende: cleanup layout additionally and improved wording

{{short description|Rock salt from Pakistan}}
[[File:Himalayan salt (coarse).jpg|thumb|Himalayan salt (coarse)]]
[[Image:2015-03-07 Pakistanisches, sogenanntes Himalaya-Salz 0399.jpg|thumb|right|Himalayan salt from [[Khewra Salt Mine]] near [[Khewra, Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]]]
'''Himalayan salt''' is rock salt ([[halite]]) mined from the [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab region]] of [[Pakistan]]. The salt, which often has a pinkish tint due to trace minerals, is primarily used as a food additive to replace [[Salt#Edible salt|refined table salt]] but is also used for cooking and food presentation, decorative lamps, and spa treatments. The product is often promoted with unsupported claims that it [[health claim|has health benefits]].

== Geology==
[[File:Himalayan salt of Saúde flea market, São Paulo, Brazil.jpg|thumb|left|Himalayan salt]]
Himalayan salt is mined from the [[Salt Range]] mountains,<ref name="punjab">{{cite journal |author=Qazi Muhammad Sharif |author2=Mumtaz Hussain |author3=Muhammad Tahir Hussain |date=December 2007 |title=Chemical evaluation of major salt deposits of Pakistan |journal=Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan |volume=29 |issue=26 |pages=570–571 |publisher=Chemical Society of Pakistan |editor1=Viqar Uddin Ahmad |editor2=Muhammad Raza Shah |url=http://jcsp.org.pk/ArticleUpload/1249-5588-1-RV.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306102656/http://jcsp.org.pk/articleupload/1249-5588-1-rv.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=March 6, 2016 |access-date=September 3, 2017 }}</ref> the southern edge of a [[Fold and thrust belt|fold-and-thrust belt]] that underlies the [[Pothohar Plateau]] south of the Himalayas in [[Pakistan]]. Himalayan salt comes from a thick layer of [[Ediacaran]] to early [[Cambrian]] [[evaporite]]s of the Salt Range Formation. This [[geological formation]] consists of crystalline [[halite]] intercalated with [[potash]] salts, overlain by gypsiferous [[marl]] and interlayered with beds of [[gypsum]] and [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]] with infrequent seams of [[oil shale]] that accumulated between 600 and 540 million years ago. These strata and the overlying Cambrian to [[Eocene]] [[sedimentary rock]]s were thrust southward over younger sedimentary rocks, and eroded to create the Salt Range.<ref name="JauméOthers1998a">{{cite journal |last1=Jaumé |first1=Steven C. |last2=Lillie |first2=Robert J. |title=Mechanics of the Salt Range-Potwar Plateau, Pakistan: A fold-and-thrust belt underlain by evaporites |journal=Tectonics |date=1988 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=57–71 |doi=10.1029/TC007i001p00057|bibcode=1988Tecto...7...57J }}</ref><ref name="GrelandOthers2002a">{{cite journal |last1=Grelaud |first1=Sylvain |last2=Sassi |first2=William |last3=de Lamotte |first3=Dominique Frizon |last4=Jaswal |first4=Tariq |last5=Roure |first5=François |title=Kinematics of eastern Salt Range and South Potwar Basin (Pakistan): a new scenario |journal=Marine and Petroleum Geology |date=2002 |volume=19 |issue=9 |pages=1127–1139 |doi=10.1016/S0264-8172(02)00121-6}}</ref><ref name="RichardsOthers2015a">{{cite journal |last1=Richards |first1=L. |last2=King |first2=R. C. |last3=Collins |first3=A. S. |last4=Sayab |first4=M. |last5=Khan |first5=M. A. |last6=Haneef |first6=M. |last7=Morley |first7=C. K. |last8=Warren |first8=J. |title=Macrostructures vs microstructures in evaporite detachments: An example from the Salt Range, Pakistan |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |date=2015 |volume=113 |pages=922–934 |doi=10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.04.015|s2cid=129485400 }}</ref>

==History==
Local legend traces the discovery of the Himalayan salt deposits to the army of [[Alexander the Great]].<ref name=NPRPride>{{cite news| title=Pakistan's Pink Himalayan Salt Has Become A Matter Of National Pride |last=Hadid |first=Diaa |publisher=NPR |date=22 September 2019 |access-date=25 January 2020|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/09/22/763162082/pakistans-pink-himalayan-salt-has-become-a-matter-of-national-pride}}</ref> However, the first records of mining are from the [[Janjua]] clan in the 1200s.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Maurer|first1=Hermann|title=Khewra Salt Mines|url=https://global-geography.org/af/Geography/Asia/Pakistan/Special_Information/Khewra_Salt_Mines|publisher=Global Geography|access-date=11 August 2017|language=en|date=2016}}</ref> The salt is mostly mined at the [[Khewra Salt Mine]] in Khewra, [[Jhelum District]], Punjab, Pakistan, which is situated in the foothills of the Salt Range hill system between the [[Indus River]] and the [[Punjab Plain]].<ref name=punjab/><ref name="marvyn">{{cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=J. Marvyn |title=The Cenozoic History of the Northwest Punjab|journal=The Journal of Geology |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=362–375 |publisher=Chicago Journals |jstor=30055696 |date=May–June 1928 |doi=10.1086/623522 |bibcode=1928JG.....36..362W |s2cid=129105623 }}</ref><ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6118/ The Salt Range and Khewra Salt Mine]. ''whc.unesco.org''. Retrieved 19 October 2021.</ref> It is primarily exported in bulk, and processed in other countries for the consumer market.<ref name=NPRPride />

[[File:Himalayan Rock Salt.jpg|thumb|Himalayan salt crystals]]

==Mineral composition==
Himalayan salt is a [[table salt]]. There is a common misconception that Himalayan salt has lower sodium than conventional table salt, but the levels are similar.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Vala DR, Azam MS | title=Salt and Cardiovascular Disease | journal=Indian Journal of Clinical Cardiology | volume=5 | issue=2 | date=2024 | issn=2632-4636 | doi=10.1177/26324636241259583 | pages=160–166| doi-access=free }}</ref> Analysis of a range of Khewra salt samples showed them to be between 96% and 99% [[sodium chloride]], with trace presence of [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[zinc]], [[chromium]], [[magnesium]], and [[sulfate]]s, all at varying safe levels below 1%.<ref name=punjab/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Chemical Characterisation of Himalayan Rock Salt|author1=Abrar ul Hassana| author2=Ayesha Mohy Udd Din| author3=Sakhawat Alib| journal=Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research Series A: Physical Sciences| volume=60| pages=67–71|year=2017|url=https://www.v3.pjsir.org/index.php/physical-sciences/article/download/10/9}}</ref><ref name="mcgill">{{cite web |author1=Ada McVean |title=Is Himalayan Pink Salt Better For You?|url= https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/health-and-nutrition-quackery-you-asked/himalayan-pink-salt |publisher=Office for Science and Society, McGill University, Montreal, Canada |access-date=11 June 2019 |date=20 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="hall">{{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Harriet|title=Pink Himalayan sea salt: An update |journal=Science-Based Medicine |date=31 January 2017|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/pink-himalayan-sea-salt-an-update/|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref>

Some salt crystals from this region have an off-white to transparent color, while the trace minerals in some veins of salt give it a pink, reddish, or beet-red color.<ref>{{cite web |title=Salt Mines |website=Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation |url=http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/?p=KhewraSaltMines |access-date=August 13, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813115525/http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/?p=KhewraSaltMines |archive-date=August 13, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Freeman">{{cite web |url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/salt2.htm |title=How Salt Works |last1=Freeman |first1=Shanna |date=27 November 2007 |publisher=[[HowStuffWorks]] |access-date=October 20, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721024605/http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/salt2.htm |archive-date=July 21, 2017}}</ref>

Nutritionally, Himalayan salt is similar to common table salt.<ref name=hall/><ref name=Time>{{cite web|author=Alexandra Sifferlin|title=Does pink Himalayan salt have any health benefits?|publisher=Time|date=28 January 2017|url=https://time.com/4834865/himalayan-pink-salt-benefits/|access-date=23 December 2018|archive-date=18 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618141544/https://time.com/4834865/himalayan-pink-salt-benefits/|url-status=dead}}</ref> A study of pink salts in Australia showed Himalayan salt to contain higher levels of a range of trace elements compared to table salt, but that the levels were too low for nutritional significance without an "exceedingly high intake", at which point any nutritional benefit would be outweighed by the risks of elevated sodium consumption.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |first1=Flavia |last1=Fayet-Moore |first2=Cinthya |last2=Wibisono |first3=Prudence |last3=Carr |first4=Emily |last4=Duve |first5=Peter |last5=Petocz |first6=Graham |last6=Lancaster |first7=Joanna |last7=McMillan |first8=Skye |last8=Marshall |first9=Michelle |last9=Blumfield |title=An Analysis of the Mineral Composition of Pink Salt Available in Australia |journal=Foods |year=2020 |volume=9 |issue=10 |page=1490 |doi=10.3390/foods9101490 |pmid=33086585|pmc=7603209 |doi-access=free }}</ref> An important exception is [[essential mineral]] [[iodine]]. Commercial table salt in many countries is [[iodised salt|supplemented with iodine]], and this has significantly reduced disorders of [[iodine deficiency]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Iodized salt|url=http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt|publisher=Salt Institute|access-date=5 December 2010|year=2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214101408/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt|archive-date=14 February 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Himalayan salt, however, does not provide this benefit.<ref name=inthepink>{{cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/arts-portal/food-and-wine/himalayan-salt-benefits-of-staying-in-the-pink-11780528|title=Himalayan salt: Benefits of staying in the pink|author=Sipokazi Fokazi|date=30 October 2017|publisher=Independent Media, South Africa|access-date=29 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Vice-20190117">{{cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/yw7a8y/is-https://smsalt.com-salt-vs-regular-salt |title=Pink Himalayan Salt Is a Waste of Money |last=Shilton |first=A. C. |publisher=Vice |date=17 January 2019 |access-date=3 January 2020}}{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

==Uses==
Himalayan salt is used to flavor food. Due mainly to marketing costs, pink Himalayan salt is up to 20 times more expensive than table salt or [[sea salt]].<ref name="bi">{{cite web |author1=Charlie Floyd |author2=Ju Shardlow |title=Why pink Himalayan salt is so expensive |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/pink-himalayan-salt-expensive-health-benefits-minerals-2019-6 |publisher=Business Insider |access-date=30 August 2019 |date=11 June 2019}}</ref> The impurities giving it its distinctive pink hue, as well as its unprocessed state and lack of [[anti-caking agent]]s, have given rise to the unsupported belief that it is healthier than common table salt.<ref name=Time /><ref name="Vice-20190117" /><ref name=Mull>{{cite journal|author=Mull, Amanda|title=How Pink Salt Took Over Millennial Kitchens|journal=The Atlantic|date=5 December 2018|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/12/himalayan-pink-salt-in-your-kitchen/577390/|access-date=23 December 2018}}</ref> There is no scientific basis for such claimed health benefits.<ref name=inthepink /><ref name=hall/><ref name=Mull /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Schwarcz|first=Dr Joe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iyulDwAAQBAJ|title=A Grain of Salt: The Science and Pseudoscience of What We Eat|date=2019-10-08|publisher=ECW Press|isbn=978-1-77305-385-1|location=|pages=281|language=en|quote=As is often the case with nutritional controversies, pseudoscience slithers into the picture. In this case it is in the form of “natural” alternatives to table salt with insinuations of health benefits. Himalayan salt, which is composed of large grains of rock salt mined in Pakistan, is touted as a healthier version because it contains traces of potassium, silicon, phosphorus, vanadium, and iron. The amounts are enough to color the crystals, giving them a more “natural” appearance, but are nutritionally irrelevant. Some promoters make claims that are laughable. Himalayan salt, they say, contains stored sunlight, will remove phlegm from the lungs, clear sinus congestion, prevent varicose veins, stabilize irregular heartbeats, regulate blood pressure, and balance excess acidity in brain cells. One would have to have a deficiency in brain cells to believe such hokum. It doesn’t even rise to the level of taking it with a grain of salt.|author-link=Joe Schwarcz}}</ref> In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] [[FDA warning letter|warned]] a manufacturer of [[dietary supplement]]s, including one consisting of Himalayan salt, to discontinue marketing the products using unproven [[health claim|claims]] of health benefits.<ref>{{cite web |title=Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations Herbs of Light, Inc.|date= June 18, 2013 |url=https://www.fda.gov/iceci/enforcementactions/warningletters/2013/ucm359315.htm |publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) |access-date=July 7, 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424223711/https://www.fda.gov/iceci/enforcementactions/warningletters/2013/ucm359315.htm |archive-date=April 24, 2019}}</ref>

Slabs of salt are used as serving dishes, [[baking stone]]s, and [[griddle]]s,<ref name=":1">{{cite web |last1=Bitterman |first1=Mark |title=Safe Heating and Washing Tips for Your Himalayan Salt Block. |url=http://www.saltnews.com/heating-using-cleaning-storing-your-himalayan-salt-block/ |publisher=Salt News |date=January 30, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813121205/http://www.saltnews.com/heating-using-cleaning-storing-your-himalayan-salt-block/ |archive-date=August 13, 2017}}</ref> and it is also used to make [[tequila]] [[shot glass]]es.<ref name=NPRPak>{{cite news |title=Pakistan Wants You To Know: Most Pink Himalayan Salt Doesn't Come From India |last1=Hadid |first1=Diaa |last2=Sattar |first2=Abdul |publisher=NPR |date=3 October 2019 |access-date=25 January 2020 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2019/10/03/763960436/pakistan-wants-you-to-know-most-pink-himalayan-salt-doesnt-come-from-india}}</ref> In such uses, small amounts of salt transfer to the food or drink and alter its flavor profile.<ref>{{cite news| last=Scozzaro| first=Carrie| title=Salt blocks can be used as a versatile cooking alternative| publisher=Inlander| location=Spokane, WA| date=January 10, 2019| access-date=27 January 2020| url=https://www.inlander.com/spokane/salt-blocks-can-be-used-as-a-versatile-cooking-alternative/Content?oid=15991876}}</ref>

[[File:Himalayian salt lamp gnangarra-1000.jpg|thumb|upright|Salt lamp]]
It is also used to make {{vanchor|salt lamps}} that radiate a pinkish or orangish hue, manufactured by placing a light source within the hollowed-out interior of a block of Himalayan salt.<ref name=":2">{{cite news|title=Everything you need to know about buying Himalayan salt lamps|author=Banu Ibrahim, Nikhita Mahtani|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/24/cnn-underscored/himalayan-pink-salt-lamp-shop/index.html|publisher=CNN|date=24 May 2018}}</ref> Claims that their use results in the release of [[ion]]s that benefit health have no scientific foundation.<ref name=Time /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/salt-lamps-cure-everything/ |title=Do Salt Lamps Provide Multiple Health Benefits?|publisher=Snopes|author=Alex Kasprak|date=22 December 2016|access-date=2 September 2019}}</ref> Similar scientifically unsupported claims underlie the use of Himalayan salt to line the walls of [[spa]]s, along with its use for salt-inhalation spa treatments.<ref name=Time /> Salt lamps can be a danger to pets, who may suffer [[salt poisoning]] after licking them.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Scott |first1=Ellen |title=Vets warn how dangerous Himalayan salt lamps can be for cats |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/07/04/vets-warn-dangerous-himalayan-salt-lamps-can-cats-10112003/ |access-date=22 November 2021 |work=Metro |date=4 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

== Impact of India–Pakistan trade tensions ==
In 2025, the trade of Himalayan pink salt faced a major disruption due to renewed [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tensions between [[India–Pakistan relations|India and Pakistan]]. Following the April 2025 [[2025 Pahalgam attack|Pahalgam terror attack]], in which 26 individuals – mostly Indian tourists – were killed, the [[Government of India|Indian government]] imposed a ban on the import of all goods from Pakistan, including those routed via third countries. This measure led to an immediate halt in the cross-border trade of pink salt.

India had been one of the largest markets for Himalayan pink salt, traditionally sourced from Pakistan's [[Khewra, Jhelum|Khewra]] Salt Mine. For decades, Indian importers had brought in thousands of tonnes quarterly to meet demand, with the salt widely used in culinary practices, wellness products, and religious rituals – particularly by [[Hindus]] during fasting periods due to its non-marine origin.

The ban not only disrupted supply chains in India but also resulted in significant [[Economy|economic]] losses for [[Pakistanis|Pakistani]] exporters, many of whom relied heavily on Indian demand to sustain large-scale pink salt operations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Gurvinder |title=India-Pakistan conflict claims an unlikely victim: Himalayan pink salt |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2025/6/9/india-pakistan-conflict-claims-an-unlikely-victim-himalayan-pink-salt |access-date=2025-06-11 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Health effects of salt]]
* [[List of edible salts]]
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
* [[Sea salt]]
* [[Salt#Edible salt|Table salt]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
{{Portal bar|Food|Pakistan}}
{{Salt topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Himalayan Salt}}
[[Category:Edible salt]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Salt industry in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistani spices]]

Nimrat Khaira

2026-03-26T12:37:39Z

Godrejsplende: cleaned up details also and improved wording

{{short description|Indian singer and actress (born 1992)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Fan POV|date=May 2025}}
{{Tone|date=May 2025}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Nimrat Khaira
| image = Nimrat Khaira during promotion of Akaal.jpg
| caption =
| birth_name = Nimratpal Kaur Khaira<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-10 |title=Top Punjabi actress : ये हैं पंजाबी फ‍िल्‍म इंडस्‍ट्री की टॉप एक्‍ट्रेस, जो करती हैं दर्शकों के द‍िलों पर राज |url=https://www.timesnowhindi.com/punjabi/article/top-punjabi-film-industry-actress-name-with-photo/312110 |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=www.timesnowhindi.com |language=hi}}</ref>
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1992|08|08|df=y}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/NimratKhairaOfficial/photos/a.1628141370764770/1821426248102947/?type=3|title=Nimrat Khaira|website=www.facebook.com|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Batala]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], India<ref name="LJ">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thelifestylejournalist.in/the-begum-of-pollywood-nimrat-khaira/|title=The Begum of Pollywood : Nimrat Khaira |date=4 January 2018|language=en-US|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>
| occupation = {{flatlist|
*Singer
*actress
}}
| years_active = (2014–present)
| module = {{Infobox musical artist
| embed = yes
| background = Solo_singer
| genre = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| instrument = {{flatlist|
*Vocals
*guitar
}}
| label = {{flatlist|
*Brown Studios
*Panj-aab
*Speed Records
*White Hill
*Rhythm Boyz
*Brand B
*Worldwide Records Punjabi
*GEET MP3
}}
}}
}}
'''Nimratpal Kaur Khaira'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-10 |title=Top Punjabi actress : ये हैं पंजाबी फ‍िल्‍म इंडस्‍ट्री की टॉप एक्‍ट्रेस, जो करती हैं दर्शकों के द‍िलों पर राज |url=https://www.timesnowhindi.com/punjabi/article/top-punjabi-film-industry-actress-name-with-photo/312110 |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=www.timesnowhindi.com |language=hi}}</ref> (born 8 August 1992)''',''' known professionally as '''Nimrat Khaira''', is an Indian singer and actress known for her work in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi-language]] music and films. She started her singing career with the songs "Rabb Karke" and "SP De Rank Wargi" and debuted as an actor in 2017 with ''[[Lahoriye]]''.

==Career==
Khaira won the third season of the reality television series ''[[Voice of Punjab]]'' in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Voice of Punjab Season 3 winners|url=http://www.yespunjab.com/entertainment/item/6762-nimrat-pal-kaur-and-anant-pal-singh-win-‘voice-of-punjab’-titles}}{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-08-26 |title=Voice of Punjab's grand finale concludes |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/voice-of-punjab-s-grand-finale-concludes/story-c7Ia7fc5BX80pUKD99n2oI.html |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

She started her singing career from a duet song "Rab Karke" with Nishawn Bhullar, which was released on 24 September 2015 by record label Punjaab Records. The song received good response from audience, but she received much attention through her next two songs "Ishq Kacheri" and "SP De Rank Wargi", both released in 2016. She gained fame after the release of "Ishq Kacheri".<ref>{{cite news |title= Nimrat Khaira female singers |url= http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/life-style/her-wakhra-swag/317350.html |accessdate= 2 November 2016 |archive-date= 2 November 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161102153838/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/life-style/her-wakhra-swag/317350.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> She continued her success with songs like "Salute Wajde" in 2016. In the same year, she performed at Saras Mela, held in [[Bathinda]],<ref>{{cite news |title= Saras Mela Performance |url= http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/bathinda/a-blend-of-culture-tradition-and-artwork-on-display/309618.html |accessdate= 2 November 2016 |archive-date= 4 November 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161104000501/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/bathinda/a-blend-of-culture-tradition-and-artwork-on-display/309618.html |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title= Saras Mela Performance |url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Regional-Saras-Mela-at-Bathinda-from-Oct-14-rural-development-minister-Maluka-to-inaugurate/articleshow/54818925.cms |accessdate=2 November 2016}}</ref> and hosted the third edition of Radio Mirchi Music Awards, which were held the following year.<ref>{{cite news |title= Radio Mirchi Music Awards |url= http://www.aninews.in/newsdetail-NQ/MjkyOTcx/radio-mirchi-honours-best-of-punjabi-music-at-mma-punjabi.html |accessdate= 22 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170322203856/http://www.aninews.in/newsdetail-NQ/MjkyOTcx/radio-mirchi-honours-best-of-punjabi-music-at-mma-punjabi.html |archive-date= 22 March 2017 |url-status= dead }}</ref> In 2017, she launched many hit singles, such as "Rohab Rakhdi", "Dubai Wale Sheikh", "Suit" and "Designer". She also won Best Female Vocalist award for her duo "Dubai Wale Sheikh" from ''[[Manje Bistre]]'' at Brit Asia Awards and nominated for a [[Filmfare Punjabi Awards|Filmfare Punjabi Award]]. The song also peaked on [[Official Charts Company|UK Asian chart]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Asian Music Chart Top 40 {{!}} Official Charts Company|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20170428/asian/|website=www.officialcharts.com|language=en|access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref> Her single "Suit" entered top 20 in the chart.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Asian Music Chart Top 40 {{!}} Official Charts Company|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20171020/asian/|website=www.officialcharts.com|language=en|access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref>

Her song "Designer", produced by [[Deep Jandu]], garnered controversy after a foreign composer, Zwirek, claimed the music was plagiarised from his song, which led to the removal of the song from YouTube. Later, the song was re-added to YouTube, after the composition was proved legally original.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://dailypost.in/news/entertainment/nimrat-khairas-designer-song-deleted-youtube/|title=Nimrat Khaira's 'Designer' song deleted from Youtube|date=16 December 2017|work=Latest Punjab News, Breaking News Punjab, India News {{!}} Daily Post|access-date=11 October 2018|archive-date=16 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216113334/https://dailypost.in/news/entertainment/nimrat-khairas-designer-song-deleted-youtube/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Film career ===
She started her film career in 2017 with ''[[Lahoriye]]'', wherein she played the role of Kikkar's sister Harleen Kaur. She was nominated for Best Debut Performance and Best Supporting Actress at [[BritAsia Music & Film Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Nimrat Khaira Films|website=[[IMDb]] |url=https://m.imdb.com/name/nm8674718/}}</ref>

Her second film, ''[[Afsar (2018 film)|Afsar]]'', released on 5 October 2018. The film marked her debut as a lead actress, where Khaira shared screen with [[Tarsem Jassar]]. She played the role of Harman, a teacher in a government school.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/movies/news/afsar-first-look-pollywood-gets-a-new-on-screen-jodi-nimrat-khaira-and-tasrem-jassar/articleshow/64540403.cms|title='Afsar' first look: Pollywood gets a new on-screen jodi – Nimrat Khaira and Tasrem Jassar |work=The Times of India|access-date=23 July 2018}}</ref>

She starred alongside [[Ammy Virk]] and [[Sargun Mehta]] in [[Amberdeep Singh]]'s ''[[Saunkan Saunkne]]'', which released in 2022. Her film ''[[Jodi (2023 film)|Jodi]]'', which was written and directed by [[Amberdeep Singh]], was released in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2 June 2020|title=Trailer of Diljit Dosanjh's 'Jodi' to release soon?|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/movies/news/punjabi-movies-to-look-forward-to-in-2020/trailer-of-diljit-dosanjhs-jodi-to-release-soon/photostory/76149856.cms|access-date=28 October 2020|website=The Times of India}}</ref> In the film, she starred opposite [[Diljit Dosanjh]]. It was her second collaboration with Singh and Rhythm Boyz Entertainment after ''[[Lahoriye]]'' (2017).

Khaira faced strong opposition in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] over the film ''[[Akaal: The Unconquered]]'', along with [[Gippy Grewal]]. Several [[Sikh]] organisations protested against the film, claiming that the film distorted Sikh history and that the film shows several Sikh characters consuming meat and alcohol, which goes against Sikh religious beliefs; several screenings of the film were cancelled at various locations.<ref>{{cite news |title= Controversy erupts over Gippy Grewal's movie |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/movies/news/controversy-erupts-over-gippy-grewals-akaal-the-unconquered-for-allegedly-hurting-religious-sentiments/articleshow/120174368.cms |work=Times of India |agency=IANS |date=11 April 2025 |access-date=11 April 2025}}</ref>

In 2025, she appeared in the film ''Sarbala Ji'' directed by Mandeep Kumar<ref>{{Cite web |title='Sarbala Ji': Gippy Grewal, Ammy Virk, Sargun Mehta, and Nimrat Khaira Lead the Cast |url=https://www.imdb.com/news/ni64684312/ |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=IMDb |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sarbala Ji Movie Review: Ammy Virk and Nimrat Khaira shine in this joyride of traditions |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/movie-reviews/sarbala-ji/movie-review/122784344.cms |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> and in ''[[Saunkan Saunkanay 2]]'', directed by [[Smeep Kang]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-18 |title=Saunkan Saunkanay 2: Fans Can't Wait To Watch Ammy Virk, Sargun Mehta, Nimrat Khaira's Hilarious Journey Together |url=https://www.ptcpunjabi.co.in/pollywood/saunkan-saunkanay-2-fans-cant-wait-to-watch-ammy-virk-sargun-mehta-nimrat-khairas-hilarious-journey-together-4368222 |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=PTC Punjabi |language=en}}</ref>

==Discography==

=== Albums ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Albums as lead artist, showing year released
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" style="width:10em;" |Album details
! scope="col" | Lyricist
|-
! scope="row" | ''Nimmo''
|
* Released: 2022
* Music : Desi Crew, Yeah Proof, J Statik, Arsh Heer
*Tracks : 10
* Label: Speed Records
* Format: [[Music download|Digital download]], [[Streaming media|streaming]]
| [[Arjan Dhillon]], Gifty, Bachan Bedill
|}

===Singles===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of singles as lead artist, showing year released and album name
! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:20em;" | Title
! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:2em;" | Year
!Peak chart position
! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:10em;" | Music
! rowspan="2" |Lyricist
! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:8em;" | Album
|-
![[UK Asian Music Chart|UK Asian]]
|-
! scope="row" | "Rab Karke" {{Small|(with Nishawn Bhullar)}}
| 2015
| || Rupin Kahlon
| Jass Chahal||
|-
! scope="row" | "SP De Rank Wargi"
| rowspan="4" |2016
| || Desi Crew
| Narinder Baath ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Ishq Kacheri"
| || Preet Hundal
| Preet Hundal ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Salute Wajde"
| || [[Deep Jandu]]
| Harf Cheema ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Taanvi Changa Lagda"
| || Gold Boy
| Babbu ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Rohab Rakhdi"
| rowspan="8" |2017
| || Preet Hundal
| Bittu Cheema||
|-
! scope="row" | "Jhumke" {{Small|(with [[Jassi Gill]] & [[Babbal Rai]])}}
| || Jay K
| Veet Baljeet || ''[[Sargi]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Dubai Wale Sheikh" {{Small|(with [[Gippy Grewal]])}}
| || Jay K
| [[Happy Raikoti]] || ''[[Manje Bistre]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "DJ Waaleya"
| || Jay K
| Dalvir Sarobad||
|-
! scope="row" | "Akhar" {{Small|(with [[Amrinder Gill]])}}
| || [[Jatinder Shah]]
| Surinder Saadhpuri|| ''[[Lahoriye]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Bhangra Gidha"
| || Desi Crew
| Babbu ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Suit" {{Small|(featuring Mankirt Aulakh)}}
| 4<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40 {{!}} Official Charts Company |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-music-chart/20171027/asian/ |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=www.officialcharts.com |language=en}}</ref>|| Preet Hundal
| [[Arjan Dhillon]] ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Designer"
| || [[Deep Jandu]]
| Happy Raikoti||
|-
! scope="row" | "Brober Boli"
| rowspan="7" |2018
| || DesiRoutz
| Maninder Kailey ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Ranihaar"
| || Preet Hundal
| [[Arjan Dhillon]], Prince Bhullar||
|-
! scope="row" | "Sun Sohniye" {{Small|(with [[Ranjit Bawa]])}}
| || [[Jaidev Kumar]]
| rowspan="4" | [[Arjan Dhillon]] || rowspan="4" |''[[Afsar (2018 film)|Afsar]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Udhaar Chalda" {{Small|(with [[Gurnam Bhullar]])}}
| || rowspan="5" | Preet Hundal
|-
! scope="row" | "Khat"
|
|-
! scope="row" | "Ravaya Na Kar"
|
|-
! scope="row" | "Sacha Jhootha"
|
| Shah Ali ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Tohar"
| rowspan="5" |2019
|
| [[Arjan Dhillon]] ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Jattan De Munde" {{Small|(with [[Tarsem Jassar]])}}
| || Desi Crew
| Tarseem Jassar|| rowspan="2" |''[[Rabb Da Radio 2]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Channan"
| || Desi Crew
|Taseem Jassar
|-
! scope="row" | "Baddlan De Kaalje" {{Small|(with [[Amrinder Gill]])}}
| || [[Dr Zeus]]
| Bunty Bains|| ''[[Chal Mera Putt]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Supna Laavan Da"
| || Preet Hundal
| Gifty||
|-
! scope="row" | "Lehnga"
| rowspan="12" |2020
| || The Kidd
| [[Arjan Dhillon]] ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Majhe Wal Da" {{Small|(with Amrinder Gill)}}
| || Desi Crew
| Laddi Chahal || ''[[Chal Mera Putt 2]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Ajj Kal Ajj Kal"
| || Desi Crew
|Bunty Bains||
|-
! scope="row" | "Vail" {{Small|(with Mankirt Aulakh)}}
| || Avvy Sra
|Shree Brar||
|-
! scope="row" | "Sohne Sohne Suit"
| || Rox- A
|Farmaan||
|-
! scope="row" | "Track Suit" {{Small|(with [[Diljit Dosanjh]])}}
| || Desi Crew
|Laddi Chahal|| ''[[G.O.A.T. (Diljit Dosanjh album)|G.O.A.T.]]''
|-
! scope="row" | "Lemme Check"
| || Rox A
| Babbu ||
|-
! scope="row" | "Sangdi Sangdi" {{Small|(with Tarsem Jassar)}}
| || [[MixSingh]]
|Tarseem Jassar|| ''My Pride''
|-
! scope="row" | "Busy Busy"
| || Pendu Boyz
| D Harp||
|-
! scope="row" | "Blink"
| ||Desi Crew
|Bunty Bains
|
|-
! scope="row" | "Time Chakda"
|
| rowspan="2" |Desi Crew
|Rony Ajnali, Gill Machrai
|
|-
! scope="row" | Gulabi Rang
|32 <ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40 {{!}} Official Charts Company |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-music-chart/20201211/asian/ |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=www.officialcharts.com |language=en}}</ref>
|Mandeep Maavi
|
|-
! scope="row" | "Sira E Hou" {{Small|(with [[Amrit Maan]])}}
| rowspan="3" | 2021
| 4<ref>{{Cite web |title=Official Punjabi Music Chart Top 20 {{!}} Official Charts Company |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/punjabi-chart/20210321/punjabi/ |access-date=2023-01-31 |website=www.officialcharts.com |language=en}}</ref>|| Desi Crew
|Amrit Maan|| ''All Bamb''
|-
! scope="row" | "Jaan"
| || Arsh Heer
|Gifty||
|-
! scope="row" | "What Ve" {{Small|(with Diljit Dosanjh)}}
| || Desi Crew
|[[Arjan Dhillon]]||
|-
! scope="row" | "Challa"
| rowspan="2" | 2022
| || Desi Crew
|[[Arjan Dhillon]]
| rowspan="2" | ''Nimmo''
|-
! scope="row" | "Ki Karde Je" {{Small|(with [[Arjan Dhillon]])}}
| || Desi Crew
| [[Arjan Dhillon]]
|}

==Filmography==

{| class="wikitable"
|+Key
| style="background:#FFFFCC;"| {{dagger|alt=Films that have not yet been released}}
| Denotes films that have not yet been released
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="row" | Year
! scope="row" | Film(s)
! scope="row"| Role
! scope="row"| Director
! scope="row"| Notes
|-
| 2017
|''[[Lahoriye]]''
| Harleen Kaur || [[Amberdeep Singh]] || Punjabi Film Debut
|-
| 2018
|''[[Afsar (2018 film)|Afsar]]''
| Harman || Gulshan Singh ||
|-
| 2021
|''Teeja Punjab''
|| Mohni || [[Amberdeep Singh]] ||
|-
|2022
|''[[Saunkan Saunkne]]''
|| Kirna || Amarjeet Singh Saraon ||
|-
|2023
|[[Jodi (2023 film)|''Jodi'']]
|Kamaljot
|[[Amberdeep Singh]]
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2025
|''[[Saunkan Saunkanay 2]]''
|| Kiranjit Kaur || [[Smeep Kang]] ||
|-
|''Sarbala Ji''
|Pyaaro
|Mandeep Kumar
|
|-
|''[[Akaal: The Unconquered]]''
|Sahej Kaur
|[[Gippy Grewal]]
|
|}

==Awards and nominations==

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! width=5%|Year
! style="width:20%;"|Film
! style="width:30%;"|Award Ceremony
! style="width:29%;"|Category
! style="width:15%;"|Result
|-
|rowspan="6"|2018
|rowspan="2"|''[[Lahoriye]]''
|rowspan="3"|Brit Asia Awards<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://britasia.tv/full-list-of-winners-from-the-punjabi-film-awards-2018/|title=FULL LIST OF WINNERS FROM THE PUNJABI FILM AWARDS 2018 – BritAsia TV|date=14 May 2018|publisher=BritAsia TV|access-date=14 August 2018}}</ref>
|Best Debut Performance
| {{nom}}
|-
| Best Supporting Actress
| {{nom}}
|-
|rowspan="2"|''[[Manje Bistre]]''
| Best Female Vocalist
| {{won}}
|-
|rowspan="2"|[[Filmfare Awards Punjabi]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmfare.com/awards/filmfare-awards-punjabi-2018/nominations|title=Filmfare Awards Punjabi 2018 Nominations {{!}} Filmfare.com|website=filmfare.com|access-date=14 August 2018}}</ref>
| Best Playback Singer (Female)
| {{nom}}
|-
|rowspan="2"|''Lahoriye''
|rowspan="2"| Best Debut Female
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[PTC Punjabi Film Awards]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ptcpunjabifilmawards.in/nomination/|title=NOMINATION – PTC Punjabi Film Awards 2018 {{!}} PTC Punjabi|website=ptcpunjabifilmawards.in|access-date=14 August 2018|archive-date=17 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190317004056/http://ptcpunjabifilmawards.in/nomination/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="1"|2019
| ''[[Afsar (2018 film)|Afsar]]''
| Brit Asia TV Awards
| Best Female Playback Vocalist
| {{nom}}
|-
|2022
|''Teeja Panjab''
|[[PTC Punjabi Film Awards|PTC Panjabi Film Awards]]
|Best Female Actress
|{{won}}
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|8674718}}
* {{Facebook|NimratKhairaOfficial}}
* {{Instagram|nimratkhairaofficial}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:khaira, Nimrat}}
[[Category:1992 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Gurdaspur district]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language singers]]

German language

2026-03-25T17:39:08Z

Godrejsplende: brief update page per standard format and added references

{{Short description|West Germanic language}}
{{Distinguish|Germanic languages|High German languages|Standard German|}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{refimprove|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox language
| name = German
| nativename = {{lang|de|Deutsch}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|de|dɔɪ̯tʃ||De-Deutsch.ogg}}
| states = [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Belgium]], [[Italy]]
| speakers = [[First language|L1]]: 95 million
| speakers_label = Speakers
| ref = <ref>Thomas Marten, Fritz Joachim Sauer (Hrsg.): Länderkunde Deutschland, Österreich und Schweiz (mit Liechtenstein) im Querschnitt. Inform-Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-9805843-1-3, S. 7.</ref>
| speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: 80–85 million (2014)<ref name=eurobarometer />
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3 = [[West Germanic]]
| fam4 = [[High German]]
| stand1 = [[Standard German]] ([[German Standard German|German]], [[Swiss Standard German|Swiss]], [[Austrian Standard German|Austrian]])
| script = {{plainlist|
* Since Old High German: [[Latin script]] ([[German alphabet]])
* [[German Braille]]
* Until the mid-20th century: [[Hebrew alphabet]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/moses-mendelssohns-beur-translating-the-torah-in-the-age-of-enlightenment |title=Moses Mendelssohn's Be'ur: Translating the Torah in the Age of Enlightenment – TheTorah.com |website=www.thetorah.com |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=29 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129190136/https://www.thetorah.com/article/moses-mendelssohns-beur-translating-the-torah-in-the-age-of-enlightenment |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3471465 |title=Sefer Netivot ha-shalom: ṿe-hu ḥibur kolel ḥamishat ḥumshe ha-torah ʻim tiḳun sofrim ṿe-targum ashkenazi u-veʾur. - 1783. Translated from the Hebrew into German by Moses Mendelssohn. Berlin : Gedruckt bey George Friedrich Starcke |website=digipres.cjh.org |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230148/https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3471465 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3777308 |title=''המאסף ha-Me'asef''. 6644-5571 [1783-1811] [Newspaper in German printed in Hebrew characters]. Königsberg, Prussia. |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810231813/https://digipres.cjh.org/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE3777308 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Dostrzegacz_Nadwislanski |title=YIVO | Dostrzegacz Nadwiślański - / Der Beobakhter an der Vayksel. 1823–1824. Warsaw. |website=yivoencyclopedia.org |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828095519/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Dostrzegacz_Nadwislanski |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico_derivate_00005400/kleindiss.pdf |title=Birgit Klein. 1998. ''Levi von Bonn alias Löb Kraus und die Juden im Alten Reich. Auf den Spuren eines Verrats mit weitreichenden Folgen'', p. 200. |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230150/https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico_derivate_00005400/kleindiss.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| sign = [[Signed German]]
| nation = {{Collapsible list | titlestyle = font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; | title = [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language|6 countries]]|
|[[Austria]]
|[[Belgium]]
|[[Germany]]
|[[Liechtenstein]]
|[[Luxembourg]]
|[[Switzerland]]
}} {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=[[List of countries and territories where German is an official language|1 subdivision]]|
| [[South Tyrol]] ([[Italy]])
}} [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language#International institutions|Various International institutions]]
| minority = {{Collapsible list| titlestyle = font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; | title = [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language#Other legal statuses|9 countries]]
|[[Brazil]] [[Brazilian German|(2 municipalities)]]
|[[Czech Republic]] (select localities)
|[[Denmark]] ([[Syddanmark]])
|[[Hungary]] ([[Sopron]])
|[[Namibia]]
|[[Poland]] ([[Bilingual communes in Poland|Upper Silesia]])
|[[Romania]] (select localities)
|[[Russia]] ([[Azovo German National District]])
|[[Slovakia]] ([[Krahule]])}}
| iso1 = de
| iso2b = ger
| iso2t = deu
| lc1 = deu
| ld1 = [[Standard German|German]]
| lc2 = gmh
| ld2 = [[Middle High German]]
| lc3 = goh
| ld3 = [[Old High German]]
| lc4 = gct
| ld4 = [[Colonia Tovar German]]
| lc5 = bar
| ld5 = [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]]
| lc6 = cim
| ld6 = [[Cimbrian]]
| lc7 = geh
| ld7 = [[Hutterite German]]
| lc8 = ksh
| ld8 = [[Colognian dialect|Kölsch]]
| lc9 = nds
| ld9 = [[Low German]]{{efn|The status of Low German as a German variety or separate language is subject to discussion.{{sfn|Goossens|1983|p=27}}}}
| lc10 = sli
| ld10 = [[Silesian German|Lower Silesian]]
| lc11 = ltz
| ld11 = [[Luxembourgish]]{{efn|The status of Luxembourgish as a German variety or separate language is subject to discussion.}}
| lc12 = vmf
| ld12 = [[Mainfränkisch]]
| lc13 = mhn
| ld13 = [[Mòcheno]]
| lc14 = pfl
| ld14 = [[Palatine German language|Palatinate German]]
| lc15 = pdc
| ld15 = [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]
| lc16 = pdt
| ld16 = [[Plautdietsch]]{{efn|The status of Plautdietsch as a German variety or separate language is subject to discussion.{{sfn|Goossens|1983|p=27}}}}
| lc17 = swg
| ld17 = [[Swabian German]]
| lc18 = gsw
| ld18 = [[Swiss German]]
| lc19 = uln
| ld19 = [[Unserdeutsch]]
| lc20 = sxu
| ld20 = [[Upper Saxon]]
| lc21 = wae
| ld21 = [[Walser German]]
| lc22 = wep
| ld22 = [[Westphalian language|Westphalian]]
| lc23 = hrx
| ld23 = [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]]
| lc24 = yec
| ld24 = [[Yenish language|Yenish]]
| lc25 = yid
| ld25 = [[Yiddish]]
| lingua = {{blist
| 52-ACB–dl ([[Standard German]])
| 52-AC (Continental West Germanic)
| 52-ACB (Deutsch & Dutch)
| 52-ACB-d ([[Central German]])
| 52-ACB-e & -f ([[Upper German|Upper]] and [[Swiss German]])
| 52-ACB-h ([[German diaspora|Émigré German]] varieties, including 52-ACB-hc ([[Hutterite German]]) & 52-ACB-he ([[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]))
| 52-ACB-i ([[Yeniche language|Yenish]])
| Totalling 285 varieties: 52-ACB-daa to 52-ACB-i
}}
| glotto = stan1295
| map = Legal status of German in the world.svg
| notice = IPA
| mapcaption = {{legend|#ffcc00|Sole official language}}
{{legend|#d98575|Co-official language}}
{{legend|#7373d9|National or recognised minority language}}
{{legend|#30efe3|Minority language}}
| ancestor = [[Old High German]]
| ancestor2 = [[Middle High German]]
| ancestor3 = [[Early New High German]]
}}

'''German''' ({{lang|de|Deutsch}}, {{IPA|de|dɔɪ̯tʃ|pron|De-Deutsch.ogg}})<ref>{{Citation |title=Deutsch |date=2026-01-10 |work=Wiktionary, the free dictionary |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Deutsch&oldid=89137764 |access-date=2026-02-08 |language=en}}</ref> is a [[West Germanic language]] in the [[Indo-European language family]], mainly spoken in [[Western Europe|Western]] and [[Central Europe]]. It is the majority and [[Official language|official]] (or co-official) language in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Liechtenstein]]. It is also an official language of [[Luxembourg]], [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|Belgium]] and the Italian autonomous province of [[South Tyrol]], as well as a recognised [[national language]] in [[Namibia]]. There are also notable German-speaking communities in other parts of Europe, including: [[Poland]] ([[Upper Silesia]]), the [[Czech Republic]] ([[North Bohemia]]), [[Denmark]] ([[South Jutland County|North Schleswig]]), [[Slovakia]] ([[Krahule]]), [[Germans of Romania|Romania]], [[Hungary]] ([[Sopron]]), and [[France]] ([[European Collectivity of Alsace|Alsace]]). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in the Americas.

German is one of the [[global language system|major languages of the world]], with nearly 100 million native speakers and over 130 million total speakers as of 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages? |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |access-date=8 March 2025 |website=Ethnologue|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307215256/https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/|archive-date=7 March 2025}}</ref> It is the most spoken native language within the [[European Union]]. German is the second-most widely spoken [[Germanic language]], after English, both as a [[First language|first]] and as a [[second language]]. German is also widely taught as a foreign language, especially in [[continental Europe]] (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French) and in the United States (where it is the third [[List of most commonly learned second languages in the United States|most commonly learned second language]] in K-12 education and among the most studied foreign languages in higher education after Spanish and French).<ref name=":0">{{cite web |date=February 2011 |title=Foreign Language Enrollments in K–12 Public Schools: Are Students Prepared for a Global Society? |url=http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817144116/http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |archive-date=August 17, 2014 |access-date=October 17, 2015 |publisher=American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages }}</ref> Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language globally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-15 |title=German is world's fourth most popular language |url=https://www.thelocal.de/20150415/german-is-fourth-most-learnt-language-globally |first1=Matty |last1=Edwards |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=[[The Local]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919072121/https://www.thelocal.de/20150415/german-is-fourth-most-learnt-language-globally |archive-date= 19 Sep 2016 }}</ref> The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used [[Languages of science|language in science]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Abdumannonovna |first=Akhmedova Dilnoza |date=2022-02-13 |title=German as the Language of Science: Problems and Perspectives |url=https://scholarexpress.net/index.php/wbss/article/view/522 |access-date=2024-09-02 |journal=World Bulletin of Social Sciences |volume=7 |pages=22–24}}</ref> and the [[Languages used on the Internet|third most widely used language on websites]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name="w3techs">{{Cite web |date=2024-09-03 |title=Usage statistics of content languages for websites |url=https://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_language |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=w3techs.com}}</ref> The [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language|German-speaking countries]] are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in the world being published in German.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lobachev |first1=Sergey |title=Top languages in global information production |journal=Partnership: The Canadian Journal of Library and Information Practice and Research |date=17 December 2008 |volume=3 |issue=2 |doi=10.21083/partnership.v3i2.826|doi-access=free }}</ref>

German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely [[Afrikaans]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], the [[Frisian languages]], and [[Scots language|Scots]]. It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic group]], such as [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. Modern German gradually developed from [[Old High German]], which in turn developed from [[Proto-Germanic]] during the [[Early Middle Ages]].

German is an [[inflected language]], with four [[grammatical case|cases]] for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three [[grammatical gender|genders]] (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two [[number (grammar)|numbers]] (singular, plural). It has [[Germanic strong verb|strong and weak verbs]]. The majority of its vocabulary is derived from the ancient Germanic branch of the [[Indo-European]] language family, while a smaller share is partly derived from [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], along with fewer words borrowed from [[French language|French]] and [[Modern English]]. English, however, is the main source of more recent [[loanword]]s.

German is a [[pluricentric language]]; the three standardised variants are [[German Standard German|German]], [[Austrian German|Austrian]], and [[Swiss Standard German]]. [[Standard German]] is sometimes called ''[[High German]]'', which refers to its regional origin. German is also notable for [[German dialects|its broad spectrum of dialects]], with many varieties existing in [[Europe]] and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognised and protected by regional or national governments.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chase |first=Jefferson |date=2016-09-25 |title=Preserving endangered German dialects |url=https://www.dw.com/en/linguists-seek-to-preserve-endangered-regional-german-dialects/a-35885772 |access-date=2024-09-02 |website=[[Deutsche Welle]] |language=en}}</ref>

Since 2004, [[Meeting of the heads of state of German-speaking countries|heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met]] every year,<ref name="land.lu">{{Cite web |url=https://www.land.lu/page/article/379/9379/DEU/index.html |title=Beim Deutschen Bund in Eupen |first=Lëtzebuerger |last=Land |date=2 September 2016 |website=Lëtzebuerger Land |access-date=11 December 2023 |archive-date=21 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221224824/https://www.land.lu/page/article/379/9379/DEU/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Council for German Orthography]] has been the main international body regulating [[German orthography]].

== Classification ==
[[File:Europe germanic-languages 2.PNG|thumb|

'''[[Anglic languages]]'''
{{legend|#FCA503|English}}
{{legend|#FD7B24|[[Scots language|Scots]]}}
'''[[Anglo-Frisian languages]]''' Anglic and
{{legend|#E9D803|[[Frisian languages|Frisian]] ([[West Frisian language|West]], [[North Frisian language|North]], [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland]])}}
'''[[North Sea Germanic languages]]''' Anglo-Frisian and
{{legend|#80FF00|[[Low German|Low German/Low Saxon]]}}
'''[[West Germanic languages]]''' North Sea Germanic and
{{legend|#F0F702|[[Dutch language|Dutch]]; in Africa: [[Afrikaans]]}}
...... German ([[High German|High]]):
{{legend|#00FF00|[[Central German|Central]]; in [[Luxembourg|Lux.]]: [[Luxembourgish]]}}
{{legend|#008000|[[Upper German|Upper]]}}
...... [[Yiddish]]]]

[[Image:Einteilung der Germanen nach Maurer.de.svg|thumb|Maurer's classification of German tribes (German)]]
[[File:Germanic Languages Map Europe.png|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[Germanic languages]] in contemporary Europe]]

German is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] that belongs to the [[West Germanic]] group of the [[Germanic languages]]. The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]], [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]], and [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]. The first of these branches survives in modern [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Faroese language|Faroese]], and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], all of which are descended from [[Old Norse]]. The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as [[English language|English]], German, [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Yiddish]], [[Afrikaans]], and others.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|p=16}}

Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the [[Benrath line|Benrath]] and [[Uerdingen line|Uerdingen]] lines (running through [[Düsseldorf]]-[[Düsseldorf-Benrath|Benrath]] and [[Krefeld]]-[[Uerdingen]], respectively) serve to distinguish the Germanic dialects that were affected by the [[High German consonant shift]] (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as [[High German languages|High German]] dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the [[Low German]] and [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as [[Irminones|Irminonic]], [[Ingvaeonic languages|Ingvaeonic]], and [[Istvaeones|Istvaeonic]], respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by the Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group).{{sfn|Robinson|1992|p=16}}

[[Standard German]] is based on a combination of [[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]]-[[Upper Saxon German|Upper Saxon]] and Upper Franconian dialects, which are [[Central German]] and Upper German dialects belonging to the [[High German languages|High German]] dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as [[Luxembourgish]] (based on [[Central Franconian dialects]]) and [[Yiddish]]. Also closely related to Standard German are the [[Upper German]] dialects spoken in the southern [[List of territorial entities where German is an official language|German-speaking countries]], such as [[Swiss German]] ([[Alemannic German|Alemannic dialects]]) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French [[Regions of France|region]] of [[Grand Est]], such as [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] (mainly Alemannic, but also Central{{ndash}}and{{nbsp}}[[High Franconian German|Upper Franconian]] dialects) and [[Lorraine Franconian]] (Central Franconian).

After these High German dialects, standard German is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern [[Denmark]]), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are the Frisian languages—[[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] (spoken in [[Nordfriesland (district)|Nordfriesland]]), [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]] (spoken in [[Saterland]]), and [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]] (spoken in [[Friesland]])—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both [[Old Norse]] and the [[Norman language]].

== History ==
{{Main|History of German}}

=== Old High German ===
{{Main|Old High German}}

The [[History of German|history of the German language]] begins with the [[High German consonant shift]] during the [[Migration Period]], which separated Old High German dialects from [[Old Saxon]]. This [[Sound change|sound shift]] involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both [[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]] and voiceless [[stop consonant]]s (''b'', ''d'', ''g'', and ''p'', ''t'', ''k'', respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below.
* Voiceless stops became long ([[Gemination|geminated]]) voiceless [[fricative]]s following a vowel;
* Voiceless stops became [[affricate]]s in word-initial position, or following certain consonants;
* Voiced stops became voiceless in certain phonetic settings.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Voiceless stop following a vowel
!Word-initial voiceless stop
!Voiced stop
|-
|/p/→/ff/
|/p/→/pf/
|/b/→/p/
|-
|/t/→/ss/
|/t/→/ts/
|/d/→/t/
|-
|/k/→/xx/
|/k/→/kx/
|/g/→/k/
|}

[[File:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|thumb|The approximate extent of Germanic languages in the early 10th century:
{{legend|#ff0000|'''[[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]]'''}}
{{legend|#FF8040|'''[[w:Old East Norse|Old East Norse]]'''}}
{{legend|#ff00ff|'''[[w:Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]'''}}
{{legend|#ffff00|'''[[w:Old English|Old English]]''' ([[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]])}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Continental West Germanic languages ([[Old Frisian]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old Dutch]], [[Old High German]]).}}
{{legend|#0000ff|'''[[w:Crimean Gothic|Crimean Gothic]]''' ([[w:East Germanic|East Germanic]])}}]]

While there is written evidence of the [[Old High German]] language in several [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the [[Pforzen buckle]]), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the ''[[Abrogans]]'' (written {{Circa|765–775}}), a Latin-German [[glossary]] supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their [[Latin]] equivalents. After the ''Abrogans'', the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in the ninth century, chief among them being the ''[[Muspilli]]'', [[Merseburg Charms|Merseburg charms]], and ''{{Lang|de|[[Hildebrandslied]]}}'', and other religious texts (the ''[[Georgslied]]'', ''[[Ludwigslied]]'', ''Evangelienbuch'', and translated hymns and prayers).<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}}, {{harvnb|Thomas|1992|pp=5–6}}</ref> The ''Muspilli'' is a Christian poem written in a [[Bavarian dialects|Bavarian]] dialect offering an account of the soul after the [[Last Judgment]], and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from the [[Paganism|pagan]] Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the ''{{Lang|de|Hildebrandslied}}'', a secular [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of [[Old Saxon]] and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from the [[Alemanni|Alamanni]], Bavarian, and [[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]] groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ([[Irminones]]), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and [[Austria]] between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}}

In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of [[dialect]]al diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through [[Monastery|monasteries]] and [[Scriptorium|scriptoria]] as local translations of Latin originals; as a result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary.{{sfn|Robinson|1992|pp=239–42}} At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing.

===Middle High German===
{{Main|Middle High German}}

While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the [[Middle High German]] (MHG) period, it is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350.{{sfn|Waterman|1976|p=83}} This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the [[Elbe]] and [[Saale]] rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into [[Slavs|Slavic]] territory (known as the ''{{Lang|de|[[Ostsiedlung]]}}''). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature.{{sfn|Waterman|1976|p=83}}  A clear example of this is the ''{{Lang|de|mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache}}'' employed in the [[Hohenstaufen]] court in [[Swabia]] as a standardised supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to a greater need for regularity in written conventions.

While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g., [[Vowel breaking|diphthongisation]] of certain vowel sounds: ''{{Lang|goh|hus}}'' (OHG & MHG "house")''→{{Lang|gmh|haus}} (regionally in later MHG)→{{Lang|de|Haus}}'' (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to [[schwa]] [ə]: ''{{Lang|goh|taga}}'' (OHG "days")→''{{Lang|gmh|tage}}'' (MHG)).{{sfn|Salmons|2012|p=195}}

A great wealth of texts survives from the MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the {{lang|de|[[Nibelungenlied]]}}, an [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] telling the story of the [[dragon]]-slayer [[Sigurd|Siegfried]] ({{circa|thirteenth century}}), and the ''[[Iwein]]'', an [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] verse poem by [[Hartmann von Aue]] ({{Circa|1203}}), [[Lyric poetry|lyric poems]], and courtly romances such as ''[[Parzival]]'' and ''[[Tristan]]''. Also noteworthy is the ''{{Lang|de|[[Sachsenspiegel]]}}'', the first book of laws written in [[Middle Low German|Middle ''Low'' German]] ({{Circa|1220}}). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardised written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms.

The Middle High German period is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 [[Black Death]] decimated Europe's population.{{sfn|Scherer|Jankowsky|1995|p=11}}

===Early New High German===
{{Main|Early New High German}}

[[File:German dialect continuum in 1900 (according to Wiesinger & König).png|thumb|upright=1.36|left|German language area and major dialectal divisions around [[1900]]<ref>{{harvnb|Goossens|1977|p=48}}, {{harvnb|Wiesinger|1982|pp=807–900}}, {{harvnb|Heeringa|2004|pp=232–34}}, {{harvnb|Giesbers|2008|p=233}}, {{harvnb|König|Paul|2019|p=230}}</ref>]]

Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which [[Wilhelm Scherer]] dates 1350{{ndash}}1650, terminating with the end of the [[Thirty Years' War]].{{sfn|Scherer|Jankowsky|1995|p=11}} This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in the [[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire|German states]]. While these states were still part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking [[Principality|principalities]] and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible [[German dialects|regional dialects]] being spoken throughout the German states; the invention of the [[printing press]] {{circa|1440}} and the publication of [[Luther Bible|Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible]] in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardising German as a supra-dialectal written language.

The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]] German, one being ''{{Lang|de|gemeine tiutsch}}'', used in the court of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], and the other being ''{{Lang|de|Meißner Deutsch}}'', used in the [[Electorate of Saxony]] in the [[Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg]].{{sfn|Keller|1978|pp=365–68}}

Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages (''{{Lang|de|Druckersprachen}}'') aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible.{{sfn|Bach|1965|p=254}} The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in the written form of German.
[[Image:Lutherbibel.jpg|thumb|right|[[Modern High German]] translation of the [[Christian Bible]] by the Protestant reformer [[Martin Luther]] (1534).<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.382 |chapter=Martin Luther, Bible Translation, and the German Language |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |date=2017 |last1=Lobenstein-Reichmann |first1=Anja |isbn=978-0-19-934037-8 }}</ref> The widespread popularity of the [[Luther Bible|Bible translated into High German by Luther]] helped establish modern Standard German.<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/>]]
One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of [[Luther Bible|Luther's translation of the Bible into High German]] (the [[New Testament]] was published in 1522; the [[Old Testament]] was published in parts and completed in 1534).<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> Luther based his translation primarily on the ''{{Lang|de|Meißner Deutsch}}'' of [[Saxony]], spending much time among the population of Saxony researching the dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of [[Gloss (annotation)|glosses]] for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method:{{blockquote|One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in the home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says '{{Lang|la|ex abundantia cordis os loquitur|italic=no}},' I would translate, if I followed the papists, ''{{Lang|de|aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund}}''. But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No, the mother in the home and the plain man would say, ''{{Lang|de|Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über}}''.{{sfn|Super|1893|p=81}}}} [[Luther Bible|Luther's translation of the Bible into High German]] was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from [[Early New High German]] to modern Standard German.<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the [[History of Germany#Culture and literacy|spread of literacy in early modern Germany]],<ref name="Lobenstein-Reichmann"/> and promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area.<ref>Birgit Stolt, "Luther's Translation of the Bible." ''[[Lutheran Quarterly]]'' 28.4 (2014): 373–400.</ref> With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy.{{sfn|Dickens|1974|p=134}} Nevertheless, even with the influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century.{{sfn|Scherer|1868|p=?}}

===Habsburg Empire===
[[File:HRR 1648.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of [[Central Europe]] in 1648:
{{legend|#DEB200|Territories under the [[Holy Roman Empire]], comprising the [[Alps|Alpine]] heartland (''[[Erblande]]'') of the [[Habsburg monarchy]].}}]]
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Ethnolinguistic map comprising the territories of [[Austria-Hungary]] (1910), with German-speaking areas shown in red]]

German was the language of commerce and government in the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Empire]], which encompassed a large area of [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality.

[[Prague]] ({{langx|de|Prag|links=no}}) and [[Budapest]] ([[Buda]], {{langx|de|Ofen|links=no}}), to name two examples, were gradually [[Germanization|Germanised]] in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain. However, Prague had a large German-speaking population since the Middle Ages, as had Pressburg (Pozsony, now Bratislava), which was settled by Germans in the 10th century. Significant portions of Bohemia and Moravia, now part of the [[Czech Republic]], had become German-speaking during [[Ostsiedlung]]. During the Habsburg time, Budapest and cities like [[Zagreb]] ({{langx|de|Agram|links=no}}) or [[Ljubljana]] ({{langx|de|Laibach|links=no}}), contained significant German minorities.

In the eastern provinces of [[Banat]], [[Bukovina]], and [[Transylvania]] ({{langx|de|Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen|links=no}}), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like {{lang|de|Temeschburg}} ([[Timișoara]]), {{lang|de|Hermannstadt}} ([[Sibiu]]), and {{lang|de|Kronstadt}} ([[Brașov]])—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas.{{sfn|Rothaug|1910|p=}}

=== Standardisation ===
In 1901, the [[German Orthographic Conference of 1901|Second Orthographic Conference]] ended with a (nearly) complete [[standardization|standardisation]] of the [[Standard German]] language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition.{{sfn|Nerius|2000|pp=30–54}} Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardised in the process.

[[File:Meetings of German-speaking countries, participants.png|thumb|Participants of Meetings of German-speaking countries (2004–present)]]
The {{lang|de|Deutsche Bühnensprache}} ({{lit|German stage language}}) by [[Theodor Siebs]] had established [[Bühnendeutsch|conventions for German pronunciation in theatres]],{{sfn|Siebs|2000|p=20}} three years earlier; however, this was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today{{snd}}especially the pronunciation of the ending {{lang|de|-ig}} as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider [[Standard German phonology|standardisation of pronunciation]] was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries.

Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial [[German orthography reform of 1996]] was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries.{{sfn|Upward|1997|pp=22–24, 36}} Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which is understood in all areas where German is spoken.

== Geographical distribution ==
{{anchor|Geographic distribution}}
[[File:Map of the German Diaspora in the World.svg|thumb|left|[[German diaspora]]]]
{{See also|List of countries and territories where German is an official language|German-speaking world}}
{{Pie chart
|caption = Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide:
|value1=78.3
|label1=Germany
|color1=#282828
|value2=8.4
|label2=Austria
|color2=Yellow
|value3=5.6
|label3=Switzerland
|color3=#FF0000
|value4=3.2
|label4=Brazil
|color4=#008751
|value5=0.4
|label5=Italy (South Tyrol)
|color5=#85C1E9
|value6=4.1
|color6=Grey
|label6=Other
}}

As a result of the [[German diaspora]], as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language,<ref name="MLA-2015" /><ref name="eurostat-2024">{{cite web |url = https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Foreign_language_learning_statistics|title = Foreign language learning statistics – Statistics Explained |date = September 2024 |website = ec.europa.eu |access-date = 29 April 2025 }}</ref> the [[geographical distribution of German speakers]] (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents.

However, establishing an exact, global number of native German speakers is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] and [[Low German]].{{sfn|Goossens|1983|p=27}} With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90{{ndash}}95 million people speak German as a [[first language]],{{sfn|Lewis|Simons|Fennig|2015|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2020}}{{sfn|Marten|Sauer|2005|p=7}} 10{{ndash}}25{{nbsp}}million speak it as a [[second language]],{{sfn|Lewis|Simons|Fennig|2015|p=}}{{page needed|date=October 2020}} and 75{{ndash}}100{{nbsp}}million as a foreign language.<ref name="eurobarometer">{{cite web |url = http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |title=Special Eurobarometer 386: Europeans and their languages |type=report |date=June 2012 |publisher= [[European Commission]] |access-date=24 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016 }}</ref> This would imply the existence of approximately 175{{ndash}}220{{nbsp}}million German speakers worldwide.<ref name="Statista">{{cite web |url = http://www.statista.com/statistics/266808/the-most-spoken-languages-worldwide/ |title = The most spoken languages worldwide (speakers and native speaker in millions) |publisher = Statista, The Statistics Portal |location = New York City |quote = Native speakers=105, total speakers=185 |access-date = 11 July 2015 |archive-date = 28 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150628162716/http://www.statista.com/statistics/266808/the-most-spoken-languages-worldwide/ |url-status = live }}</ref>

German sociolinguist [[Ulrich Ammon]] estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-20 |title=We speak German |url=https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/the-german-language-surprising-facts-and-figures |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=deutschland.de |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002203206/https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/the-german-language-surprising-facts-and-figures |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Europe ===
[[File:Legal status of German in Europe.svg|thumb|right|
The German language in Europe:
{{legend|#ffcc00|'''German ''[[Sprachraum]]''''': German is the official language (''de jure'' or ''de facto'') and first language of the majority of the population}}
{{legend|#d98575|German is a co-official language but not the first language of the majority of the population}}
{{legend|#7373d9|German (or a German dialect) is a legally recognised minority language (squares: geographic distribution too dispersed/small for map scale)}}
{{legend|#30efe3|German (or a variety of German) is spoken by a sizeable minority but has no legal recognition}}]]
[[File:Languages Austria.svg|thumb|{{legend|#FFD700|Most of [[Austria]] lies in the [[Bavarian dialects|Bavarian]] dialect area; only the very west of the country is}}{{legend|#FF4500|[[Alemannic dialects|Alemannic]]-speaking.}}''Map shows Austria and [[South Tyrol]], Italy.'']]
[[File:Karte Schweizer Sprachgebiete 2026.png|thumb|{{legend|#F7C7B5|([[Swiss German|Swiss]]) German is one of the four national languages of [[Switzerland]].}}]]
[[File:Moselfrankisch.png|thumb|{{legend|#9999FF|[[Luxembourg]] lies in the [[Moselle Franconian]] dialect area.}}]]
[[File:BelgieGemeenschappenkaart.svg|thumb|{{legend|#0000FF|In [[Belgium]], German is spoken in the country's [[German-speaking Community]], in the very east of the country.}}]]

{{as of|2012}}, about 90{{nbsp}}million people, or 16% of the [[European Union]]'s population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language.<ref name=eurobarometer />

====German Sprachraum====
The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language is called the "German ''[[German Sprachraum|Sprachraum]]''". German is the official language of the following countries:
* [[Germany]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[German-speaking Switzerland|17 cantons]] of [[Switzerland]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]

As a result of implementation of the [[Oder–Neisse line]] and ensuing expulsion and ethnic cleansing in post-war Poland, the German Sprachraum significantly shrank, as well as by dissolution of the large German-speaking areas in Bohemia and Moravia. Former German-speaking exclaves of [[East Prussia]], the [[Free City of Danzig]] and the [[Memelland]] ceased to exist, while [[Francization]] in Alsace and Lorraine removed use of German in these areas.

German is a co-official language of the following countries:
* [[Belgium]] (as majority language only in the [[German-speaking Community]], which represents 0.7% of the Belgian population)
* [[Luxembourg]], along with French and Luxembourgish
* Switzerland, co-official at the federal level with French, Italian, and Romansh, and at the local level in four [[List of cantons of Switzerland|cantons]]: [[Canton of Bern|Bern]] (with French), [[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]] (with French), [[Canton of Grisons|Grisons]] (with Italian and Romansh) and [[Canton of Valais|Valais]] (with French)
* Italy, (as majority language only in the [[Autonomous Province of South Tyrol]], which represents 0.6% of the Italian population)

====Outside the German Sprachraum====
Although [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsions]] and [[Persecution of Germans|(forced) assimilation]] after the two [[World war]]s greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum.

Within Europe, German is a recognised minority language in the following countries:<ref name="charter-ratifications">{{cite web |author=Bureau des Traités |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=1&DF=&CL=ENG&VL=1 |title=Recherches sur les traités |website=Conventions.coe.int |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-date=18 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918164438/http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=1&DF=&CL=ENG&VL=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Czech Republic]] (see also: [[Germans in the Czech Republic]])
* [[Denmark]] (see also: [[North Schleswig Germans]])
* [[Hungary]] (see also: [[Germans of Hungary]])
* [[Poland]] (see also [[German minority in Poland]]; German is an [[Bilingual communes in Poland|auxiliary and co-official language in 31 communes]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/english/files/list_of_minority_names.pdf |title=Map on page of Polish Commission on Standardization of Geographical Names |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501024600/http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/english/files/list_of_minority_names.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Romania]] (see also: [[Germans of Romania]])
* [[Russia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://russia.bestpravo.com/omsk/data04/tex17941.htm |script-title=ru:Устав азовского районного совета от 21 May 2002 N 5-09 устав муниципального |trans-title=Charter of the Azov District Council of 05.21.2002 N 5-09 Charter of the municipal |website=russia.bestpravo.com |language=ru |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808205416/http://russia.bestpravo.com/omsk/data04/tex17941.htm |archive-date=8 August 2016 |access-date=18 July 2016}}</ref> (see also: [[History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine and the Soviet Union|Germans in Russia]])
* [[Slovakia]] (see also: [[Carpathian Germans]])

In France, the [[High German]] varieties of [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] and [[Moselle Franconian]] are identified as "[[regional language]]s", but the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/societe/2015/06/05/31003-20150605ARTFIG00157-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales-hollande-nourrit-la-guerre-contre-le-francais.php |title=Charte européenne des langues régionales : Hollande nourrit la guerre contre le français |trans-title=European Charter for Regional Languages: Hollande fuels the war against French |website=lefigaro.fr |date=5 June 2015 |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-date=9 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109035907/http://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/societe/2015/06/05/31003-20150605ARTFIG00157-charte-europeenne-des-langues-regionales-hollande-nourrit-la-guerre-contre-le-francais.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the [[Baltic states]] of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]], there are still around 8,000 members of the German minority ([[Baltic Germans]], East Prussians, and [[Russian Germans]]) who speak Standard German and, to some extent, Low German. For Estonia, the number is estimated quite precisely at under 2,000 (in 2000: 1,870), for Latvia at just over 3,000 (in 2004: 3,311), and also for Lithuania at just over 3,000.<ref>gemäß {{Webarchive |url=http://www.stat.gov.lt/en/pages/view/?id=1763&PHPSESSID=756a5976f2c9cff73b1a04144e501d58 |text=stat.gov.lt |archive-is=2012-09-24}} – zur regionalen Verteilung 2001.</ref>

In 2010, 394,000 Germans lived in [[Russia]], some of whom spoke German. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, many Russian Germans immigrated to Germany.

===Africa===
====Namibia====
{{Main|German language in Namibia}}

[[File:WindhoekBaeckereiCarstensen.jpg|thumb|Bilingual German-English sign at a bakery in [[Namibia]], where German is a national language]]
Namibia also was a [[German South-West Africa|colony]] of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as a native tongue today, mostly [[German Namibians|descendants of German colonial settlers]].<ref name="nmh-2007">{{Cite news |last=Fischer |first=Stefan |date=18 August 2007 |title=Deutsch in Namibia |url=http://www.az.com.na/fileadmin/pdf/2007/deutsch_in_namibia_2007_07_18.pdf |language=de |trans-title=German in Namibia |work=Allgemeine Deutsche Zeitung |publisher=[[Namibia Media Holdings]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624233949/http://www.az.com.na/fileadmin/pdf/2007/deutsch_in_namibia_2007_07_18.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2008}}</ref> The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based [[pidgin]] language called "[[Namibian Black German]]", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it.{{sfn|Deumert|2003|pp=561–613}}

German remained a ''de facto'' official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and [[Afrikaans]], and had ''de jure'' co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of [[apartheid]] and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time.<ref name="nmh-2007" /> German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country.

Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of the ''Sprachraum'' in Europe.<ref name="nmh-2007" /> German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK)]]), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the [[Namibian Broadcasting Corporation]]). The {{lang|de|[[Allgemeine Zeitung (Namibia)|Allgemeine Zeitung]]}} is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa.<ref name="nmh-2007" />

====Rest of Africa====
An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="L1eur">[[Template:German L1 speakers outside Europe|German L1 speakers outside Europe]]</ref> One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.safrika.org/natal_en.html |title=Natal Germans |last=Schubert |first=Joachim |website=German South African Resource Page |access-date=2 August 2016 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129161855/http://www.safrika.org/natal_en.html |url-status=live }}</ref> a variety of [[Low German]] concentrated in and around [[Wartburg, KwaZulu-Natal|Wartburg]]. The South African constitution identifies German as a "commonly used" language and the [[Pan South African Language Board]] is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#5 |title=Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 – Chapter 1: Founding Provisions |website=South African Government |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-date=28 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028043044/http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-1-founding-provisions#5 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Cameroon]] was also a [[Kamerun|colony]] of the [[German Empire]] from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in [[World War I]]. Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become a popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020.<ref>[https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf204/bro_deutsch-als-fremdsprache-weltweit.-datenerhebung-2020.pdf Goethe Insitut - "Deutsch als Fremdsprache weltweit. Datenerhebung 2020"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610081413/https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf204/bro_deutsch-als-fremdsprache-weltweit.-datenerhebung-2020.pdf |date=10 June 2023 }}.</ref> Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bathe |first=Dirk |date=2010-11-29 |title=Deutsch für die Zukunft |trans-title=When German means future |url=https://www.dw.com/de/wenn-deutsch-gleich-zukunft-heißt/a-5070255 |website=DW |language=de-DE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719161346/https://www.dw.com/de/wenn-deutsch-gleich-zukunft-hei%C3%9Ft/a-5070255 |archive-date= Jul 19, 2023 }}</ref>

===North America===
{{Main|German language in the United States|Pennsylvania Dutch language|Plautdietsch|Hutterite German}}

In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]], [[French language in the United States|French]], and [[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]] (with figures for [[Cantonese]] and [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] combined), with over 1 million total speakers.<ref name="US Census">{{cite web |title=Detailed List of Languages Spoken at Home for the Population 5 Years and Over by State: 2000 |url=https://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t20/tab05.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117052130/https://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t20/tab05.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2010 |archive-format=pdf |access-date=15 March 2010 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref> In the states of [[North Dakota]] and [[South Dakota]], German is the most common language spoken at home after English.<ref name=Blatt>{{Cite web |title=Tagalog in California, Cherokee in Arkansas: What language does your state speak? |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2014/05/language_map_what_s_the_most_popular_language_in_your_state.html |website=Slate | author = Blatt, Ben |date=13 May 2014 |access-date=2014-05-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513115444/http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2014/05/language_map_what_s_the_most_popular_language_in_your_state.html |archive-date=2014-05-13 }}</ref> As a legacy of significant [[German American|German immigration to the country]], German geographical names can be found throughout the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest region]], such as [[New Ulm, Minnesota|New Ulm]] and [[Bismarck, North Dakota|Bismarck]] (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions.<ref>{{cite web |work=Germans from Russia Heritage Collection |title=Strasburg Centennial Book: 1902 - 2002 |url=https://library.ndsu.edu/grhc/order/nd_sd/strasburg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619230113/https://library.ndsu.edu/grhc/order/nd_sd/strasburg.html |archive-date=19 June 2010 |access-date=18 July 2016 |publisher=NDSU Libraries }}</ref>

A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as [[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]] and [[Texas German]].

===South America===
{{Main|Brazilian German|Colonia Tovar dialect}}

In Brazil, the largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of [[Rio Grande do Sul]] (where [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] developed), [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], and [[Espírito Santo]].<ref name="ipol">{{cite web |title=IPOL realizará formação de recenseadores para o censo linguístico do município de Antônio Carlos-SC |trans-title=IPOL will carry out training of enumerators for the linguistic census of the municipality of Antônio Carlos-SC |url=http://e-ipol.org/ipol-realizara-formacao-de-recenseadores-para-o-censo-linguistico-do-municipio-de-antonio-carlos-sc/ |date=2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626140033/http://e-ipol.org/ipol-realizara-formacao-de-recenseadores-para-o-censo-linguistico-do-municipio-de-antonio-carlos-sc/ |archive-date=26 June 2015 |access-date=18 July 2016 |website=IPOL }}</ref>

Standard German is a recognised language in the Brazilian municipalities of [[Pomerode]] and [[São João do Oeste]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lista de línguas cooficiais em municípios brasileiros |url=http://ipol.org.br/lista-de-linguas-cooficiais-em-municipios-brasileiros/ |access-date=2023-10-28 |website=ipol.org.br |publisher=IPOL |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212052326/http://ipol.org.br/lista-de-linguas-cooficiais-em-municipios-brasileiros/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Meanwhile, German dialects (namely [[Hunsrik]] and [[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]]) are recognised languages in the following municipalities in Brazil:
* [[Espírito Santo]] (statewide cultural language): [[Domingos Martins]], [[Laranja da Terra]], [[Pancas, Espírito Santo|Pancas]], [[Santa Maria de Jetibá]], [[Vila Pavão]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Szczocarz |first=Roma |year=2017 |title=Pommern in Brasilien |trans-title=Pomerania in Brazil |url=https://lerncafe.de/lerncafe68/pommern-in-brasilien/ |access-date=27 July 2017 |website=LernCafe |publisher=ViLE-Netzwerk |archive-date=1 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201172411/https://lerncafe.de/lerncafe68/pommern-in-brasilien/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Rio Grande do Sul]] ([[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German]] is a designated cultural language in the state): [[Santa Maria do Herval]], [[Canguçu]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al.rs.gov.br/legis/M010/M0100099.ASP?Hid_Tipo=TEXTO&Hid_TodasNormas=58094&hTexto=&Hid_IDNorma=58094 |website=al.rs.gov.br |title=Lei N.º 14.061, de 23 de julho de 2012 |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330024221/http://www.al.rs.gov.br/legis/M010/M0100099.ASP?Hid_Tipo=TEXTO&Hid_TodasNormas=58094&hTexto=&Hid_IDNorma=58094 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]: [[Antônio Carlos, Santa Catarina|Antônio Carlos]]<ref name=ipol />

In Chile, during the 19th and 20th centuries, there was a [[German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue|massive immigration]] of Germans, Swiss and Austrians. Because of that, two dialects of German emerged, [[Lagunen-deutsch|Lagunen-Deutsch]] and Chiloten-Deutsch.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2021-12-17 |language=es-ES |title=El alemañol del sur de Chile {{!}} 10.09.2016 |first1=Natalia |last1=Messer |url=https://www.dw.com/es/el-alema%C3%B1ol-del-sur-de-chile/a-19541116 |website=DW |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040903/https://www.dw.com/es/el-alema%C3%B1ol-del-sur-de-chile/a-19541116 |url-status=live }}</ref> Immigrants even founded prosperous cities and towns. The impact of nineteenth century German immigration to southern Chile was such that [[Valdivia]] was for a while a Spanish-German bilingual city with "German signboards and placards alongside the Spanish".<ref>{{Citation
| last1 = Skottsberg
| first1 = Carl
| author-link = Carl Skottsberg
| name-list-style = amp
| title = The Wilds of Patagonia: A Narrative of the Swedish Expedition to Patagonia Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Island in 1907– 1909
| publisher = [[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold]]
| location = London, England
| volume =
| edition =
| year = 1911
}}</ref> Currently, German and its dialects are spoken in many cities, towns and rural areas of southern Chile, such as Valdivia, [[Osorno, Chile|Osorno]], [[Puerto Montt]], [[Puerto Varas]], [[Frutillar]], [[Nueva Braunau]], [[Castro, Chile|Castro]], [[Ancud]], among many others.

Small concentrations of German-speakers and their descendants are also found in [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], [[Paraguay]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Bolivia]].<ref name="L1eur" />

===Oceania===
In Australia, the state of [[South Australia]] experienced a pronounced wave of Prussian immigration in the 1840s (particularly from [[Silesia]] region). With the prolonged isolation from other German speakers and contact with [[Australian English]], a unique dialect known as [[Barossa German]] developed, spoken predominantly in the [[Barossa Valley]] near [[Adelaide]]. Usage of German sharply declined with the advent of [[World War I]], due to the prevailing anti-German sentiment in the population and related government action. It continued to be used as a first language into the 20th century, but its use is now limited to a few older speakers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-26/keeping-south-australias-barossa-deutsch-alive/8375988 |title=Keeping SA's Barossa Deutsch alive over kaffee und kuchen |date=26 March 2017 |work=ABC News |access-date=23 February 2020 |language=en-AU |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109040531/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-26/keeping-south-australias-barossa-deutsch-alive/8375988 |url-status=live |last=Royal|first=Simon}}</ref>

As of the 2013 census, 36,642 people in [[New Zealand]] spoke German, mostly descendants of a small wave of 19th century German immigrants, making it the third most spoken European language after English and French and overall the ninth most spoken language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethniccommunities.govt.nz/resources-2/our-languages-o-tatou-reo/new-registry-page/|title=Top 25 Languages in New Zealand|website=ethniccommunities.govt.nz|access-date=21 September 2022|archive-date=21 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921024207/https://www.ethniccommunities.govt.nz/resources-2/our-languages-o-tatou-reo/new-registry-page/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A German [[German-based creole languages|creole]] named {{lang|de|[[Unserdeutsch]]}} was historically spoken in the former German colony of [[German New Guinea]], modern day [[Papua New Guinea]]. It is at a high risk of extinction, with only about 100 speakers remaining, and a topic of interest among linguists seeking to revive interest in the language.{{sfn|Holm|1989|p=616}}

===As a foreign language===
[[File:German foreign language EU.jpg|thumb|Self-reported knowledge of German as a foreign language in the EU member states (+[[Turkey]] and [[UK]]), in per cent of the adult population (+15), 2005]]
Like English, French, and Spanish, German has become a standard foreign language throughout the world, especially in the Western World.<ref name="eurobarometer" /><ref name="goethe-institut">{{cite web|url=https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf37/Bro_Deutschlernerhebung_final3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623213857/https://www.goethe.de/resources/files/pdf37/Bro_Deutschlernerhebung_final3.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-23 |url-status=live|title= Deutsch als Fremdsprache weltweit. Datenerhebung 2015 – Worldwide survey of people learning German; conducted by the German Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the Goethe Institute|website=Goethe.de|access-date=18 July 2016}}</ref> German ranks second on par with French among the best known foreign languages in the [[European Union]] (EU) after English,<ref name="eurobarometer"/> as well as in [[Russia]],<ref name="Levada2008">{{cite web |script-title=ru:Знание иностранных языков в России |trans-title=Knowledge of foreign languages in Russia |language=ru |url=http://www.levada.ru/16-09-2008/znanie-inostrannykh-yazykov-v-rossii |publisher=Levada Centre |access-date=10 May 2015 |date=16 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510133101/http://www.levada.ru/16-09-2008/znanie-inostrannykh-yazykov-v-rossii |archive-date=10 May 2015}}</ref> and [[Turkey]].<ref name="eurobarometer" /> In terms of student numbers across all levels of education, German ranks third in the EU (after English and French)<ref name="eurostat-2024" /> and in the United States (after Spanish and French).<ref name="MLA-2015"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |title=Foreign Language Enrollments in K–12 Public Schools: Are Students Prepared for a Global Society? |date=February 2011 |publisher=American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408184754/http://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In British schools, where learning a foreign language is not mandatory, a dramatic decline in entries for German A-Level has been observed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fox |first=Aine |date=2023-06-01 |title=Exam entries: German continues decline in popularity but computing soars |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/tech/gcse-alevel-spanish-german-alevels-b1085006.html |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Evening Standard |language=en |archive-date=26 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826091215/https://www.standard.co.uk/tech/gcse-alevel-spanish-german-alevels-b1085006.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, approximately 15.4{{nbsp}}million people were enrolled in learning German across all levels of education worldwide. This number has decreased from a peak of 20.1{{nbsp}}million in 2000.<ref name="DW survey">{{Cite web |last=Hamann |first=Greta |title=15.4 million people are learning German as a foreign language |date=2020-06-04 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/154-million-people-are-learning-german-as-a-foreign-language/a-53685365 |website=DW |language=en-GB |access-date=31 January 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207051223/https://www.dw.com/en/154-million-people-are-learning-german-as-a-foreign-language/a-53685365 |url-status=live }}</ref> Within the EU, not counting countries where it is an official language, German as a foreign language is most popular in [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Northern Europe]], namely the [[Czech Republic]], [[Croatia]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], and [[Serbia]].<ref name=eurobarometer /><ref name=eurostat /> German was once, and to some extent still is, a [[lingua franca]] in those parts of Europe.{{sfn|Von Polenz|1999|pp=192–94, 96}}

===German-language media worldwide===
A visible sign of the geographical extension of the German language is the German-language media outside the German-speaking countries.
German is the second most commonly used scientific language<ref name="goethe1">{{cite web |title=Why Learn German? |url=https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/wdl.html |publisher=Goethe Institute |access-date=28 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906165214/https://www.goethe.de/en/spr/wdl.html|archive-date=6 September 2014}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2024}} as well as the third most widely used language on websites after English and Spanish.<ref name="w3techs"/>

[[Deutsche Welle]] (German pronunciation: [ˈdɔʏtʃə ˈvɛlə]; "''German Wave''" in German), or '''DW''', is Germany's public international broadcaster. The service is available in 30 languages. DW's satellite television service consists of channels in German, English, Spanish, and Arabic.

See also:
* [[List of newspapers in Germany]] and [[List of German-language newspapers published in the United States]]
* [[List of magazines in Germany]]
* [[List of television stations in Germany]] and [[List of German-language television channels]]
* [[List of radio stations in Germany]] and [[List of German-language radio stations]]
* [[Goethe-Institut]] [ˈɡøːtə ʔɪnstiˌtuːt] (a non-profit German cultural association operational worldwide with 159 institutes, promoting the study of the German language abroad and encouraging international cultural exchange and relations.)

==Standard German==
{{Main|Standard German}}

[[File:Knowledge of German EU map.svg|thumb|right|Self-reported knowledge of German within the nations of the European Union]]

The basis of Standard German developed with the [[Luther Bible]] and the chancery language spoken by the [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxon court]], part of the regional High German group.{{sfn|Swadesh|1971|p=53}} However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by new vernaculars based on Standard German, which is the case in large stretches of [[Northern Germany]] but also in major cities in other parts of the country. However, the remains that the colloquial Standard German differs from the formal written language, especially in grammar and syntax, in which it has been influenced by dialectal speech.

Standard German differs regionally among German-speaking countries in [[vocabulary]] and some instances of [[pronunciation]] and even [[grammar]] and [[orthography]]. This variation must not be confused with the variation of local [[dialects]]. Even though the national varieties of Standard German are only somewhat influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. German is thus considered a [[pluricentric language]], with currently three national standard varieties of German: [[German Standard German]], [[Austrian Standard German]] and [[Swiss Standard German]]. In comparison to other European languages (e.g., Portuguese, English), the multi-standard character of German is still not widely acknowledged.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dollinger |first=Stefan |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360951765 |chapter=Who is afraid of pluricentric perspectives? |title=Pluricentric languages and language education: Pedagogical Implications and Innovative Approaches to Language Teaching |publisher=Routledge |year=2023 |editor1-last=Callies|editor2-last=Hehner |editor1-first=Marcus|editor2-first= Stefanie |pages=219–220 |language=EN}}</ref> However, 90% of Austrian secondary school teachers of German consider German as having "more than one" standard variety.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=De Cillia|last2=Ransmayr |first1=Rudolf|first2= Jutta |title=Österreichisches Deutsch macht Schule |publisher=Böhlau |year=2019 |location=Vienna |pages=Abbildung 36 |language=DE}}</ref> In this context, some scholars speak of a [[One Standard German Axiom]] that has been maintained as a core assumption of German dialectology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dollinger |first=Stefan |title=The Pluricentricity Debate |publisher=Routledge |year=2019 |location=New York |page=14 |language=EN}}</ref>

In most regions, the speakers use a continuum, e.g., "Umgangssprache" (colloquial standards) from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties depending on the circumstances.

===Varieties===
[[File:Standard varieties of German.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The national and regional standard varieties of German{{sfn|Ammon|Bickel|Ebner|Gasser|2004|p=}}]]

In German [[linguistics]], German [[dialect]]s are distinguished from [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of [[Standard German]].
The ''varieties of Standard German'' refer to the different local varieties of the [[pluricentric language|pluricentric]] German. They differ mainly in lexicon and phonology, but also smaller grammatical differences. In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially in Northern Germany.
* [[German Standard German]]
* [[Austrian Standard German]]
* [[Swiss Standard German]]

In the German-speaking parts of [[Switzerland]], mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of Standard German is largely restricted to the written language. About 11% of Swiss residents speak Standard German at home, but this is mainly due to German immigrants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.4842942.html |title=Die am häufigsten üblicherweise zu Hause gesprochenen Sprachen der ständigen Wohnbevölkerung ab 15 Jahren – 2012–2014, 2013–2015, 2014–2016 |type=official site |date=28 March 2018 |format=XLS |publisher=Federal Statistical Office FSO |location=Neuchâtel, Switzerland |language=de, fr, it |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119010803/https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.4842942.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This situation has been called a ''medial [[diglossia]]''. [[Swiss Standard German]] is used in the Swiss education system, while [[Austrian German]] is officially used in the Austrian education system.

==Dialects==
{{Main|German dialects}}

The German dialects are the traditional local varieties of the language; many of them are not [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with standard German, and they have great differences in [[lexicon]], [[phonology]], and [[syntax]]. If a narrow definition of [[language]] based on mutual intelligibility is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for instance by [[ISO 639-3]]). However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics.

The German dialect continuum is traditionally divided most broadly into [[High German languages|High German]] and [[Low German]], also called [[Lower Saxony|Low Saxon]]. However, historically, High German dialects and Low Saxon/Low German dialects do not belong to the same language. Nevertheless, in today's Germany, Low Saxon/Low German is often perceived as a dialectal variation of Standard German on a functional level even by many native speakers.

The variation among the German dialects is considerable, with often only neighbouring dialects being mutually intelligible. Some dialects are not intelligible to people who know only Standard German. However, all German dialects belong to the dialect continuum of High German and Low Saxon.

===Low German===
{{Main|Low German}}

[[File:Verbreitungsgebiet der heutigen niederdeutschen Mundarten-2.PNG|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Low German]] dialects]]
[[Middle Low German]] was the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League]]. It was the predominant language in Northern Germany until the 16th century. In 1534, the [[Luther Bible]] was published. It aimed to be understandable to a broad audience and was based mainly on [[Central German|Central]] and [[Upper German]] varieties. The Early New High German language gained more prestige than [[Low German]] and became the language of science and literature. Around the same time, the Hanseatic League, a confederation of northern ports, lost its importance as new trade routes to Asia and the Americas were established, and the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.

The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass education in [[Standard German]] in schools. Gradually, Low German came to be politically viewed as a mere dialect spoken by the uneducated. The proportion of the population who can understand and speak it has decreased continuously since [[World War II]].

===Low Franconian===
{{Further|Low Franconian}}
The [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] dialects fall within a linguistic category used to classify a number of historical and contemporary West Germanic varieties most closely related to, and including, the [[Dutch language]]. Consequently, the vast majority of the Low Franconian dialects are spoken outside of the German language area. Low Franconian dialects are spoken in the Netherlands, Belgium, South Africa, Namibia, and Suriname, and along the [[Lower Rhine]] in Germany, in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]. The region in Germany encompasses parts of the [[Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region]].

The Low Franconian dialects have three different standard varieties: In the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname, it is Dutch, which is itself a Low Franconian language. In South Africa, it is [[Afrikaans]], which is also categorised as Low Franconian. During the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Early Modern Period]], the Low Franconian dialects now spoken in Germany, used [[Middle Dutch]] or Early Modern Dutch as their [[literary language]] and [[Dachsprache]]. Following a 19th-century change in Prussian language policy, use of Dutch as an official and public language was forbidden; resulting in [[Standard German]] taking its place as the region's official language.<ref>Heinz Eickmans, ''Aspekte einer niederrheinischen Sprachgeschichte'', in: Werner Besch, Anne Betten, Oskar Reichmann, Stefan Sonderegger (eds.), ''Sprachgeschichte: Ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache'', 2nd ed., 3. Teilband, (series: HSK 2.3), Walter de Gruyter, 2003, here p. 2636.</ref><ref>Georg Cornelissen: Das Niederländische im preußischen Gelderland und seine Ablösung durch das Deutsche, Rohrscheid, 1986, p. 93.</ref> As a result, these dialects are now considered German dialects from a socio-linguistic point of view.<ref>Jan Goossens: Niederdeutsche Sprache – Versuch einer Definition. In: Jan Goossens (Hrsg.): Niederdeutsch – Sprache und Literatur. Karl Wachholtz, Neumünster, 1973, p. 9–27.</ref>

The Low Franconian dialects in Germany are divided by the [[Uerdingen line]] (north of which the word for "I" is pronounced as "ik" and south of which as "ich") into northern and southern Low Franconian. The northern variants comprise [[Kleverlandish]], which is most similar to Standard Dutch. The other ones are transitional between Low Franconian and [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]], but closer to Low Franconian.

===High German===
{{Main|High German languages}}

[[File:Mitteldeutsche Mundarten.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Central German]] dialects]]
[[File:Fränkisches Sprachgebiet.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Franconian (linguistics)|Franconian]] dialects (The [[Rhenish fan]]) 
1. [[Low Franconian]]
{{legend|FFFF00|Northern Low Franconian}}
''[[Uerdingen line|ik–ich line]]''
{{legend|F0E68C|Southern Low Franconian}}
''[[Benrath line|maken–machen line]]'' 
2. Middle Franconian
{{legend|ADFF2F|[[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]]}}
''Dorp–Dorf line''
{{legend|9ACD32|[[Moselle Franconian]]*}}
{{legend|006400|[[Moselle Franconian|Moselle]]: [[Luxembourgish]]*}}
''[[Sankt Goar line|dat–das line]]''
{{legend|228B22|[[Rhenish Franconian|Rhenish]]: [[Hessian dialects|Hessian]]}}
{{legend|008000|[[Rhenish Franconian|Rhenish]]: [[Palatine German language|Palatine]]*}}
''[[Speyer line|Appel–Apfel line]]'' 
3. [[High Franconian]]
{{legend|00008B|[[East Franconian]]}}
{{legend|1E90FF|[[South Franconian]]**
 *[[Lorraine Franconian]] in France **[[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] in France}}]]
The High German dialects consist of the [[Central German]], [[High Franconian German|High Franconian]] and [[Upper German]] dialects. The High Franconian dialects are transitional dialects between Central and Upper German. The High German varieties spoken by the [[Ashkenazi Jew]]s have several unique features and are considered as a separate language, [[Yiddish]], written with the [[Hebrew alphabet]].

====Central German====
The [[Central German]] dialects are spoken in Central Germany, from [[Aachen]] in the west to [[Görlitz]] in the east. Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German dialects.

=====West Central German=====
The West Central German dialects are the [[Central Franconian dialects]] ([[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] and [[Moselle Franconian dialects|Moselle Franconian]]) and the [[Rhenish Franconian dialects]] ([[Hessian dialects|Hessian]] and [[Palatine German language|Palatine]]). These dialects are considered as
* German in Germany and Belgium
* [[Luxembourgish]] in Luxembourg
* [[Lorraine Franconian]] in [[Moselle (department)|Moselle]], France
* [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] (in a [[Rhenish Franconian]] variant) in [[Alsace bossue]], France
* [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] or [[Kerkrade dialect]] in the Netherlands.
* [[Transylvanian Saxon dialect|Transylvanian Saxon]] in [[Transylvania]], Romania (considered a variant of German)
* [[Banat Swabian dialect|Banat Swabian]] in [[Banat]], Romania (considered a variant of German)
Luxembourgish as well as Transylvanian Saxon and Banat Swabian are based on [[Moselle Franconian]] dialects.

=====East Central German=====
Further east, the non-[[Franconian (linguistics)|Franconian]], East Central German dialects are spoken ([[Thuringian dialect|Thuringian]], [[Upper Saxon German|Upper Saxon]], [[Erzgebirgisch]] (dialect of the [[Ore Mountains]]) and [[East Central German#Nordobersächsisch-Südmärkisch|North Upper Saxon–South Markish]], and earlier, in the then German-speaking parts of [[Silesia]] also [[Silesian German|Silesian]], and in then German southern [[East Prussia]] also [[High Prussian dialect|High Prussian]]).

====High Franconian====
[[File:Oberdeutsche Mundarten.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Upper German]] and [[High Franconian German|High Franconian]] (transitional between Central and Upper German)]]
The [[High Franconian German|High Franconian dialects]] are transitional dialects between Central and Upper German. They consist of the [[East Franconian German|East]] and [[South Franconian German|South Franconian]] dialects.

=====East Franconian=====
The [[East Franconian]] dialects are spoken in the region of [[Franconia]]. Franconia consists of the [[Bavaria]]n districts of [[Upper Franconia|Upper]], [[Middle Franconia|Middle]], and [[Lower Franconia]], the region of [[South Thuringia]] (those parts of [[Thuringia]] south of the [[Thuringian Forest]]), and the eastern parts of the region of [[Heilbronn-Franken]] ([[Tauber Franconia]] and Hohenlohe) in northeastern [[Baden-Württemberg]]. East Franconian is also spoken in most parts of [[Saxony|Saxon]] [[Vogtland]] (in the [[Vogtland District]] around [[Plauen]], [[Reichenbach im Vogtland]], [[Auerbach/Vogtl.]], [[Oelsnitz/Vogtl.]] and [[Klingenthal]]). East Franconian is colloquially referred to as "Fränkisch" (Franconian) in Franconia (including Bavarian Vogtland), and as "Vogtländisch" ([[Vogtlandian]]) in Saxon Vogtland.

=====South Franconian=====
[[South Franconian]] is spoken in northern [[Baden-Württemberg]] and in the northeasternmost tip of [[Alsace]] (around [[Wissembourg]]) in France. In Baden-Württemberg, they are considered dialects of German, and in Alsace a South Franconian variant of [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]].

====Upper German====
The [[Upper German]] dialects are the [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] and [[Swabian German|Swabian]] dialects in the west and the [[Austro-Bavarian]] dialects in the east.

=====Alemannic and Swabian=====
[[File:Andermatt - Schwiizerdütsch (15922347261).jpg|thumb|upright=0.81|[[Swiss German]] restaurant sign in [[Andermatt]]: "Chuchichäschtli", in Standard German "Küchenkästlein"]]
[[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects are spoken in [[Switzerland]] ([[High Alemannic German|High Alemannic]] in the densely populated [[Swiss Plateau]] including [[Zürich]] and [[Bern]], in the south also [[Highest Alemannic German|Highest Alemannic]], and [[Low Alemannic German|Low Alemannic]] in [[Basel]]), Baden-Württemberg ([[Swabian German|Swabian]] and Low Alemannic, in the southwest also High Alemannic), [[Swabia (Bavaria)|Bavarian Swabia]] (Swabian, in the southwesternmost part also Low Alemannic), [[Vorarlberg]]/Austria (Low, High, and Highest Alemannic), [[Alsace]]/France (Low Alemannic, in the southernmost part also High Alemannic), [[Liechtenstein]] (High and Highest Alemannic), and in the [[Reutte District|district of Reutte]] in [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]], Austria (Swabian). The Alemannic dialects are considered
* German in [[Baden-Württemberg]] and [[Bavarian Swabia]], Germany
* Vorarlbergerisch in [[Vorarlberg]], Austria (considered dialects of German)
* [[Swiss German]] in Switzerland and Liechtenstein
* [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] in [[Alsace]], France
In Germany, the Alemannic dialects are often referred to as Swabian in [[Bavarian Swabia]] and in the historical region of [[Württemberg]], and as Badian in the historical region of [[Baden]].

The southernmost German-speaking municipality is in the Alemannic region: [[Zermatt]] in the [[Canton of Valais]], Switzerland, as is the capital of [[Liechtenstein]]: [[Vaduz]].

=====Austro-Bavarian=====
[[File:Austro Bavarian Languages-01.png|thumb|upright=0.81|The [[Austro-Bavarian]] dialects]]
The [[Austro-Bavarian]] dialects are spoken in [[Austria]] ([[Vienna]], [[Lower Austria|Lower]] and [[Upper Austria]], [[Styria]], [[Carinthia]], [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]], [[Burgenland]], and in most parts of [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]]), southern and eastern [[Bavaria]] ([[Upper Bavaria|Upper]] and [[Lower Bavaria]] as well as [[Upper Palatinate]]), and [[South Tyrol]]. Austro-Bavarian is also spoken in southwesternmost [[Saxony]]: in the southernmost tip of [[Vogtland]] (in the [[Vogtland District]] around [[Adorf]], [[Bad Brambach]], [[Bad Elster]] and [[Markneukirchen]]), where it is referred to as Vogtländisch ([[Vogtlandian]]), just like the [[East Franconian]] variant that dominates in Vogtland. There is also one single Austro-Bavarian village in Switzerland: [[Samnaun]] in the [[Canton of the Grisons]].

The northernmost Austro-Bavarian village is Breitenfeld (municipality of [[Markneukirchen]], Saxony), the southernmost village is [[Salorno sulla Strada del Vino]] (German: Salurn an der Weinstraße), South Tyrol.

==Regiolects==
* [[Berlin German|Berlinian]], the High German regiolect or dialect of [[Berlin]] with Low German substrate
* [[Missingsch]], a Low-German-coloured variety of High German.
* [[Ruhrdeutsch]] (Ruhr German), the High German regiolect of the [[Ruhr area]].

==Grammar==
{{Main|German grammar}}

German is a [[fusional language]] with a moderate degree of [[inflection]], with three [[grammatical gender]]s; as such, there can be a large number of words derived from the same root.

===Noun inflection===
{{further|Grammatical gender in German}}
{| class = "wikitable" style = "float: right; text-align: center"
|+ Declension of the [[Standard German]] definite article
|Case
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Masc.|Masculine}}
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Neu.|Neuter}}
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Fem.|Feminine}}
! scope = "col" | Plural
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Nominative]]
| style = "background-color: lavender" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: paleGreen; border-style: solid solid none solid" |{{lang|de|das}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: solid none none solid" | {{lang|de|die}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: solid solid none none" | {{lang|de|die}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Accusative]]
| style = "background-color: silver" | {{lang|de|den}}
| style = "background-color: paleGreen; border-style: none solid solid solid" | {{lang|de|das}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: none none solid solid" | {{lang|de|die}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: none solid solid none" | {{lang|de|die}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Dative]]
| style = "background-color: peachPuff; border-style: solid none solid solid" | {{lang|de|dem}}
| style = "background-color: peachPuff; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|dem}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: solid solid none solid" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: silver" | {{lang|de|den}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Genitive]]
| style = "background-color: paleTurquoise; border-style: solid none solid solid" | {{lang|de|des}}
| style = "background-color: paleTurquoise; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|des}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: none none solid solid" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|der}}
|}
{{clear}}
[[German nouns]] inflect by case, gender, and number:
* four [[grammatical case|cases]]: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], and [[dative case|dative]].
* three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, and neuter. For the majority of nouns (especially masculine and neuter ones), the gender is not predictable from the word's shape. [[Affix|Affixes]] sometimes reveal grammatical gender: for instance, nouns ending in {{lang|de|-ung}} (-ing), {{lang|de|-schaft}} (-ship), {{lang|de|-keit}} or {{lang|de|heit}} (-hood, -ness) are feminine, nouns ending in {{lang|de|-chen}} or {{lang|de|-lein}} ([[diminutive]] forms) are neuter and nouns ending in {{lang|de|-ismus}} ([[-ism]]) are masculine. However, most words do not have strictly gendered affixes.
* two numbers: singular and plural.

This degree of inflection is considerably less than in [[Old High German]] and other old [[Indo-European languages]] such as [[Latin]], [[Ancient Greek]], and [[Sanskrit]], and it is also somewhat less than, for instance, [[Old English]], modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], or Russian. The three genders have collapsed in the plural. With four cases and three genders plus plural, there are 16 permutations of case and gender/number of the article (not the nouns), but there are only six forms of the [[article (grammar)|definite article]], which together cover all 16 permutations. In nouns, inflection for case is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns only in the genitive and in the dative (only in fixed or archaic expressions), and even this is losing ground to substitutes in informal speech.{{sfn|Barbour|Stevenson|1990|pp=160–3}} Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative, and accusative in the singular. Feminine nouns are not declined in the singular. The plural has an inflection for the dative. In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: {{lang|de|-s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e}}.

=== Compounding ===
Like the other Germanic languages, German forms noun [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]] in which the first noun modifies the category given by the second: {{lang|de|Hundehütte}} ("dog hut"; specifically: "dog kennel"). Unlike English, whose newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written "open" with separating spaces, German (like some other Germanic languages) nearly always uses the "closed" form without spaces, for example: {{lang|de|Baumhaus}} ("tree house"). Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds in theory (see also [[English compounds]]). The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is {{lang|de|[[Rinderkennzeichnungs- und Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz|Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]}}, which, literally translated, is "beef labelling supervision duties assignment law" [from {{lang|de|Rind}} (cattle), {{lang|de|Fleisch}} (meat), {{lang|de|Etikettierung(s)}} (labelling), {{lang|de|Überwachung(s)}} (supervision), {{lang|de|Aufgaben}} (duties), {{lang|de|Übertragung(s)}} (assignment), {{lang|de|Gesetz}} (law)]. However, examples like this are perceived by native speakers as excessively bureaucratic, stylistically awkward, or even satirical. On the other hand, even this compound could be expanded by any native speaker.

===Verb inflection===
{{Main|German verbs}}

The inflection of standard German verbs includes:
* Two main [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] classes: [[Germanic weak verb|weak]] and [[Germanic strong verb|strong]] (as in English). Additionally, there is a third class, known as mixed verbs, whose conjugation combines features of both the strong and weak patterns.
* Three [[grammatical person|persons]]: first, second and third.
* Two [[grammatical number|numbers]]: singular and plural.
* Three [[grammatical mood|moods]]: [[realis mood|indicative]], [[imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] (in addition to [[infinitive]]).
* Two [[voice (grammar)|voices]]: active and passive. The passive voice uses auxiliary verbs and is divisible into static and dynamic. Static forms show a constant state and use the verb ''to be'' (sein). Dynamic forms show an action and use the verb ''to become'' (werden).
* Two [[grammatical tense|tenses]] without auxiliary verbs ([[present tense|present]] and [[preterite]]) and four tenses constructed with auxiliary verbs ([[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], [[pluperfect]], [[future tense|future]] and [[future perfect]]).
* The distinction between [[grammatical aspect]]s is rendered by combined use of the subjunctive or preterite marking so the plain indicative voice uses neither of those two markers; the subjunctive by itself often conveys reported speech; subjunctive plus preterite marks the conditional state; and the preterite alone shows either plain indicative (in the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for either reported speech or the conditional state of the verb, when necessary for clarity.
* The distinction between perfect and [[continuous and progressive aspects|progressive aspect]] is and has, at every stage of development, been a productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but strangely enough it is now rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.
* Disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common prefixes (''{{Wikt-lang|de|blicken}}'' [to look], ''{{Wikt-lang|de|erblicken}}'' [to see – unrelated form: {{Wikt-lang|de|sehen}}]).

====Verb prefixes====
The meaning of basic verbs can be expanded and sometimes radically changed through the use of a number of prefixes. Some prefixes have a specific meaning; the prefix '''{{lang|de|zer-}}''' refers to destruction, as in {{lang|de|'''zer'''reißen}} (to tear apart), {{lang|de|'''zer'''brechen}} (to break apart), {{lang|de|'''zer'''schneiden}} (to cut apart). Other prefixes have only the vaguest meaning in themselves; '''{{lang|de|ver-}}''' is found in a number of verbs with a large variety of meanings, as in {{lang|de|'''ver'''suchen}} (to try) from {{lang|de|suchen}} (to seek), {{lang|de|'''ver'''nehmen}} (to interrogate) from {{lang|de|nehmen}} (to take), {{lang|de|'''ver'''teilen}} (to distribute) from {{lang|de|teilen}} (to share), {{lang|de|'''ver'''stehen}} (to understand) from {{lang|de|stehen}} (to stand).

Other examples include the following:
{{lang|de|haften}} (to stick), {{lang|de|'''ver'''haften}} (to detain); {{lang|de|kaufen}} (to buy), {{lang|de|'''ver'''kaufen}} (to sell); {{lang|de|hören}} (to hear), {{lang|de|'''auf'''hören}} (to cease); {{lang|de|fahren}} (to drive), {{lang|de|'''er'''fahren}} (to experience).

Many [[German verbs]] have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function. In [[finite verb]] forms, it is split off and moved to the end of the clause and is hence considered by some to be a "resultative particle". For example, {{lang|de|mitgehen}}, meaning "to go along", would be split, giving {{lang|de|Gehen Sie mit?}} (Literal: "Go you with?"; Idiomatic: "Are you going along?").

Indeed, several [[parenthetical referencing|parenthetical]] clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement (ankommen = to arrive, er kam an = he arrived, er ist angekommen = he has arrived):
: {{lang|de|Er '''kam''' am Freitagabend nach einem harten Arbeitstag und dem üblichen Ärger, der ihn schon seit Jahren immer wieder an seinem Arbeitsplatz plagt, mit fraglicher Freude auf ein Mahl, das seine Frau ihm, wie er hoffte, bereits aufgetischt hatte, endlich zu Hause '''an'''.}}
A selectively literal translation of this example to illustrate the point might look like this:
: He "came" on Friday evening, after a hard day at work and the usual annoyances that had time and again been troubling him for years now at his workplace, with questionable joy, to a meal which, as he hoped, his wife had already put on the table, finally home "to".

===Word order===
German word order is generally with the [[V2 word order]] restriction and also with the [[SOV word order]] restriction for subordinate as well as for main [[clause]]s including an [[auxiliary verb]]. As to subordinate clauses, all verb forms occur at the very end. For [[yes–no questions]], exclamations, and wishes, the [[finite verb]] usually has the first position.

German requires a verbal element (main verb, modal verb or auxiliary verb as finite verb) to appear [[V2 word order|second in the sentence]]. The verb is preceded by the [[topic–comment|topic]] of the sentence or an [[adverbial]] of flexible length. The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence. For a sentence without an auxiliary, these are several possibilities:

: {{lang|de|Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch.}} (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal [[subject-verb-object]] order)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann.}} (The book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern.}} (The book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab mir der alte Mann gestern.}} (The book gave [to] me the old man yesterday)
: {{lang|de|Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch.}} (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book; normal order)
: {{lang|de|Gestern gab der alte Mann mir das Buch.}} (Yesterday gave the old man [to] me the book; [[verb-subject-object]] order)
: {{lang|de|Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern.}} ([To] me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for someone else, it was another date))

While the subject typically precedes the object, the position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object or another argument. In a [[sentence (linguistics)|declarative sentence]] in English, if the subject does not occur before the predicate, the sentence could well be misunderstood.

However, German's flexible word order allows one to emphasise specific words:

Normal word order:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro.}}
:: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office.

Second variant in normal word order:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat sein Büro gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: The manager entered his office yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.
: This variant accentuates the time specification and that he carried an umbrella.

Object in front:
:: {{lang|de|Sein Büro betrat der Direktor gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: His office entered the manager yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.
: The object {{lang|de|Sein Büro}} (his office) is thus highlighted; it could be the topic of the next sentence.

Adverb of time in front:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern betrat der Direktor um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro. (aber heute ohne Schirm)}}
:: Yesterday entered the manager at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office. (but today without umbrella)

Both time expressions in front:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro}}.
:: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager with an umbrella in the hand his office.
: The full-time specification {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr}} is highlighted.

Another possibility:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand}}.
:: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager his office with an umbrella in the hand.
: Both the time specification and the fact he carried an umbrella are accentuated.

Swapped adverbs:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat mit einem Schirm in der Hand gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro.}}
:: The manager entered with an umbrella in the hand yesterday at 10 o'clock his office.
: The phrase {{lang|de|mit einem Schirm in der Hand}} is highlighted.

Swapped object:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock his office with an umbrella in the hand.
: The time specification and the object {{lang|de|sein Büro}} (his office) are lightly accentuated.

The flexible word order also allows one to use language "tools" (such as [[poetic meter|poetic metre]] and [[figures of speech]]) more freely.

====Auxiliary verbs====
When an [[auxiliary verb]] is present in the main clause, it appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end. This occurs notably in the creation of the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect tense]]. Many word orders are still possible:

:{{lang|de|Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben.}} (The old man has [to] me today the book given.)
:{{lang|de|Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben.}} ('''''The book''''' has the old man [to] me today given.)
:{{lang|de|Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben.}} ('''''Today''''' has the old man [to] me the book given.)

The main verb may appear in first position to put stress on the action itself. The [[auxiliary verb]] is still in second position.

:{{lang|de|Gegeben hat mir der alte Mann das Buch heute.}} ('''''Given''''' has me the old man the book '''today'''.) The bare fact that the book has been given is emphasised, as well as 'today'.

====Modal verbs====
Sentences using [[modal verb]]s as finite verbs place the infinitive at the end. For example, the English sentence "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" ({{lang|de|Soll er nach Hause gehen?}}). Thus, in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses, the infinitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following (highly contrived) English sentence: "What did you bring that book that I do not like to be read to out of up for?"

====Multiple infinitives====
German subordinate clauses have all verbs clustered at the end, with the finite verb normally in the final position of the cluster. Given that auxiliaries encode [[future]], [[passive voice|passive]], [[modality (semiotics)|modality]], and the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], very long chains of verbs at the end of the sentence can occur. In these constructions, the past participle formed with {{lang|de|ge-}} is often replaced by the infinitive.

: ''{{lang|de|Man nimmt an, dass der Deserteur wohl erschossen}}V {{lang|de|worden}}psv {{lang|de|sein}}perf {{lang|de|soll}}mod''
: One suspects that the deserter probably shot become be should.
: ("It is suspected that the deserter probably had been shot")
: {{lang|de|Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel hatte machen lassen}}
: He knew not that the agent a picklock had make let
: {{lang|de|Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel machen lassen hatte}}
: He knew not that the agent a picklock make let had
: ("He did not know that the agent had had a picklock made")

The order at the end of such strings is subject to variation, but the second one in the last example is unusual.

== Vocabulary ==
Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.{{sfn|Leao|2011|p=25}} However, there is a significant number of loanwords from other languages, in particular [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[French language|French]], and most recently [[English language|English]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~deutsch/Grammatik/Wortbildung/Fremdwoerter.html |title=Foreign Words (Fremdwörter) |website=dartmouth.edu |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=23 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223221137/https://www.dartmouth.edu/~deutsch/Grammatik/Wortbildung/Fremdwoerter.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In the early 19th century, [[Joachim Heinrich Campe]] estimated that one fifth of the total German vocabulary was of French or Latin origin.<ref>Uwe Pörksen, German Academy for Language and Literature's Jahrbuch [Yearbook] 2007 (Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, pp. 121–130)</ref>

Latin words were already imported into the predecessor of the German language during the [[Roman Empire]] and underwent all the characteristic phonetic changes in German. Their origin is thus no longer recognisable for most speakers (e.g., {{lang|de|Pforte}}, {{lang|de|Tafel}}, {{lang|de|Mauer}}, {{lang|de|Käse}}, {{lang|de|Köln}} from Latin {{lang|la|porta}}, {{lang|la|tabula}}, {{lang|la|murus}}, {{lang|la|caseus}}, {{lang|la|Colonia}}). Borrowing from Latin continued after the fall of the Roman Empire during [[Christianisation]], mediated by the church and monasteries. Another important influx of Latin words can be observed during [[Renaissance humanism]]. In a scholarly context, the borrowings from Latin have continued until today, in the last few decades often indirectly through borrowings from English. During the 15th to 17th centuries, the influence of Italian was great, leading to many Italian loanwords in the fields of architecture, finance and music. The influence of the French language in the 17th to 19th centuries resulted in an even greater import of French words. The English influence was already present in the 19th century, but it did not become dominant until the second half of the 20th century.

Thus, [[Notker Labeo]] translated the Aristotelian treatises into pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000.{{sfn|Hattemer|1849|p=5}} The tradition of loan translation revitalised in the 17th and 18th century with poets like [[Philipp von Zesen]] or linguists like [[Joachim Heinrich Campe]], who introduced close to 300 words, which are still used in modern German. Even today, there are movements that promote the substitution of foreign words that are deemed unnecessary with German alternatives.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://vds-ev.de/anglizismenindex |title = Verein Deutsche Sprache e.V. – Der Anglizismen-Index |publisher = Walter Krämer |website=vds-ev.de |access-date = 15 March 2010 |archive-date = 10 March 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100310142212/http://vds-ev.de/anglizismenindex/ |url-status = dead }}</ref>

As in other Germanic languages, there are many pairs of [[synonym]]s due to the enrichment of the Germanic vocabulary with [[loanword]]s from Latin and Latinised Greek. These words often have different connotations from their Germanic counterparts and are usually perceived as more scholarly.
* {{lang|de|Historie, historisch}} – "history, historical", ({{lang|de|Geschichte, geschichtlich}})
* {{lang|de|Humanität, human}} – "humaneness, humane", ({{lang|de|Menschlichkeit, menschlich}}){{efn|{{lang|de|menschlich}}, and occasionally {{lang|de|human}}, may also mean "human, pertaining to humans", whereas {{lang|de|Menschlichkeit}} and {{lang|de|Humanität}} never mean "humanity, human race", which translates to {{lang|de|Menschheit}}.}}
* {{lang|de|Millennium}} – "millennium", ({{lang|de|Jahrtausend}})
* {{lang|de|Perzeption}} – "perception", ({{lang|de|Wahrnehmung}})
* {{lang|de|Vokabular}} – "vocabulary", ({{lang|de|Wortschatz}})
* {{Lang|de|Diktionär}} – "dictionary, wordbook", ({{Lang|de|Wörterbuch}}){{efn|In modern German, {{lang|de|Diktionär}} is mostly considered archaic.}}
* {{Lang|de|probieren}} – "to try", ({{Lang|de|versuchen}})
* {{Lang|de|proponieren}} – "to propose", ({{Lang|de|vorschlagen}})

[[File:German dictionary.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Deutsches Wörterbuch]]'' (1st vol., 1854) by the [[Brothers Grimm]]]]

The size of the vocabulary of German is difficult to estimate. The {{lang|de|[[Deutsches Wörterbuch]]}} (''German Dictionary''), initiated by the [[Brothers Grimm]] ([[Jacob Grimm|Jacob]] and [[Wilhelm Grimm]]) and the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language, already contained over 330,000 headwords in its first edition. The modern German scientific vocabulary is estimated at nine million words and word groups (based on the analysis of 35 million sentences of a [[Text corpus|corpus]] in Leipzig, which as of July 2003 included 500{{nbsp}}million words in total).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/html/inhalt_next.html |title = Ein Hinweis in eigener Sache |website = wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de |date = 7 January 2003 |access-date = 15 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110515064508/http://wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/html/inhalt_next.html |archive-date = 15 May 2011 }}</ref>

==Orthography==
{{Main|German orthography|German braille}}

[[File:Oesterreichische Schulschrift 1995, 2 - Schraegschrift.jpg|right|thumb|Austria's standardised [[cursive]]]]
[[File:Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift.png|thumb|Germany's standardised cursive]]

Written texts in German are easily recognisable as such by distinguishing features such as [[Germanic umlaut|umlauts]] and certain [[German orthography|orthographical]] features, such as the capitalisation of all nouns, and the frequent occurrence of long compounds. Because legibility and convenience set certain boundaries, compounds consisting of more than three or four nouns are almost exclusively found in humorous contexts. (English also can string nouns together, though it usually separates the nouns with spaces: as, for example, "toilet bowl cleaner".)

In German orthography, nouns are capitalised, which makes it easier for readers to determine the function of a word within a sentence. This convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related [[Luxembourgish]] language and several insular dialects of the [[North Frisian language]]), but it was historically common in Northern Europe in the early modern era, including in languages such as Danish which abolished the capitalisation of nouns in 1948, and English for a while, into the 1700s.

===Present===
Before the [[German orthography reform of 1996]], ''ß'' replaced ''ss'' after [[vowel length|long vowels]] and [[diphthong]]s and before consonants, word-, or partial-word endings. In reformed spelling, ''ß'' replaces ''ss'' only after long vowels and diphthongs.

Since there is no traditional capital form of ''ß'', it was replaced by ''SS'' (or ''SZ'') when capitalisation was required. For example, {{lang|de|Maßband}} (tape measure) became {{lang|de|MASSBAND}} in capitals. An exception was the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalising names. To avoid confusion with similar names, lower case ''ß'' was sometimes maintained (thus "{{lang|de|KREßLEIN}}" instead of "{{lang|de|KRESSLEIN}}"). [[Capital ß]] (ẞ) was ultimately adopted into German orthography in 2017, ending a long orthographic debate (thus "{{lang|de|KREẞLEIN}} and {{lang|de|KRESSLEIN}}").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1033265/germanys-century-long-debate-over-a-missing-letter-in-its-alphabet |website=Quartz |title=Germany has ended a century-long debate over a missing letter in its alphabet|last=Ha|first=Thu-Huong|date=20 July 2017|language=en|access-date=5 December 2017|quote=According to the council's 2017 spelling manual: When writing the uppercase [of ß], write SS. It's also possible to use the uppercase ẞ. Example: Straße – STRASSE – STRAẞE.|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122004645/https://qz.com/1033265/germanys-century-long-debate-over-a-missing-letter-in-its-alphabet/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly transcribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the keyboard or other medium used. In the same manner, ß can be transcribed as ss. Some [[operating systems]] use key sequences to extend the set of possible characters to include, amongst other things, umlauts; in [[Microsoft Windows]] this is done using [[Alt codes]]. German readers understand these transcriptions (although they appear unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available, because they are a makeshift and not proper spelling. (In Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein, city and family names exist where the extra e has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g., ''Raesfeld'' {{IPA|de|ˈraːsfɛlt|}}, ''Coesfeld'' {{IPA|[ˈkoːsfɛlt]}} and ''Itzehoe'' {{IPA|[ɪtsəˈhoː]}}, but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than [[proper noun]]s.)

{{Listen
|filename = German alphabet-2.ogg
|title = German alphabet
|description = (Listen to a German speaker recite the alphabet in German)
}}

There is no general agreement on where letters with umlauts occur in the sorting sequence. Telephone directories treat them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e. Some dictionaries sort each umlauted vowel as a separate letter after the base vowel, but more commonly words with umlauts are ordered immediately after the same word without umlauts. As an example in a [[telephone directory|telephone book]] {{lang|de|Ärzte}} occurs after {{lang|de|Adressenverlage}} but before {{lang|de|Anlagenbauer}} (because Ä is replaced by Ae). In a dictionary {{lang|de|Ärzte}} comes after {{lang|de|Arzt}}, but in some dictionaries {{lang|de|Ärzte}} and all other words starting with ''Ä'' may occur after all words starting with ''A''. In some older dictionaries or indexes, initial ''Sch'' and ''St'' are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after ''S'', but they are usually treated as S+C+H and S+T.

Written German also typically uses an alternative opening inverted comma ([[quotation mark]]) as in {{lang|de|„Guten Morgen!“}}.

===Past===
[[File:Fraktur-ru.jpg|thumb|A Russian dictionary from 1931, showing the "German alphabet" – the 3rd and 4th columns of each half are [[Fraktur]] and [[Kurrent]] respectively, with the footnote explaining [[typographic ligature|ligatures]] used in Fraktur]]
{{Further|2nd Orthographic Conference (German)|Antiqua–Fraktur dispute|German orthography reform of 1944}}
Until the early 20th century, German was printed in [[blackletter]] [[typeface]]s (in [[Fraktur]], and in [[Schwabacher]]), and written in corresponding [[penmanship|handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or [[sans-serif]] [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]] typefaces used today, and the handwritten forms in particular are difficult for the untrained to read. The printed forms, however, were claimed by some to be more readable when used for [[Germanic languages]].{{sfn|Reinecke|1910|p=55}} The [[Nazism|Nazis]] initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher because they were considered [[Aryan]], but abolished them in 1941, claiming the letters were Jewish.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bormann |first=Martin |date=8 January 1941 |title=Der Bormann-Brief im Original |trans-title=The original Bormann letter |url=http://ligaturix.de/bormann.htm |access-date=20 November 2020 |publisher=[[Nazi Party|NSDAP]] |language=de |quote=Facsimile of Bormann's Memorandum The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP [[letterhead]] is printed in Fraktur. "For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement: It is wrong to regard or to describe the so-called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so-called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced. Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools. The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script. On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script. |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111185607/http://ligaturix.de/bormann.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It is also believed this script was banned, as the German government understood Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during World War II.{{sfn|Kapr|1993|p=81}}

The Fraktur script however remains present in everyday life in pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and antiquity.

A proper use of the long s ({{lang|de|langes s}}), [[long s|ſ]], is essential for writing German text in [[Fraktur]] typefaces. Many [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]] typefaces also include the long s. A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but nowadays it is rarely used in Antiqua typesetting. Any lower case "s" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example, in differentiating between the words {{lang|de|Wachſtube}} (guard-house) and {{lang|de|Wachstube}} (tube of polish/wax). One can easily decide which "s" to use by appropriate hyphenation, ({{lang|de|Wach-ſtube}} vs. {{lang|de|Wachs-tube}}). The long s only appears in [[lower case]].

==Literature==
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2026}}{{Main|German literature}}

The German language is used in German literature and can be traced back to the [[Middle Ages]], with the most notable authors of the period being [[Walther von der Vogelweide]] and [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]].
The {{lang|de|[[Nibelungenlied]]}}, whose author remains unknown, is also an important work of the epoch. The fairy tales collected and published by [[Brothers Grimm|Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm]] in the 19th century became famous throughout the world.

Reformer and theologian [[Martin Luther]], who translated the Bible into High German (a regional group or German varieties at southern and therefore ''higher'' regions), is widely credited for attributed to the basis for the modern [[Standard German]] language. Among the best-known poets and authors in German are [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], [[Heinrich von Kleist|Kleist]], [[E.T.A. Hoffmann|Hoffmann]], [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]], [[Heinrich Heine|Heine]] and [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]. Fourteen German-speaking people have won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]: [[Theodor Mommsen]], [[Rudolf Christoph Eucken]], [[Paul von Heyse]], [[Gerhart Hauptmann]], [[Carl Spitteler]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Nelly Sachs]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Heinrich Böll]], [[Elias Canetti]], [[Günter Grass]], [[Elfriede Jelinek]], [[Herta Müller]] and [[Peter Handke]], making it the second most awarded linguistic region (together with French) after English.

{| class="wikitable" style="align:center;"
|-
! [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] (1749–1832)
! [[Friedrich Schiller]] (1759–1805)
! [[Brothers Grimm]] (1785–1863)
! [[Thomas Mann]] (1875–1955)
! [[Hermann Hesse]] (1877–1962)
|- align=center
| [[File:Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein - Goethe in the Roman Campagna - Google Art Project.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Gerhard von Kügelgen 001.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Grimm1.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Thomas Mann 1929.jpg|x150px]]
| [[File:Hermann Hesse 1927 Photo Gret Widmann.jpg|x150px]]
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Language|Switzerland|Austria|Luxembourg}}
* [[Outline of German language]]
* [[Denglisch]]
* [[Deutsch (disambiguation)]]
* [[German name#Surnames|German family name etymology]]
* [[German toponymy]]
* [[Germanism (linguistics)]]
* [[German exonyms]]
* [[List of German expressions in English]]
* [[List of German words of French origin]]
* [[List of pseudo-German words in English]]
* [[List of terms used for Germans]]
* [[List of countries and territories where German is an official language]]
* [[Names of Germany]]
* [[DDR German]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="eurostat">{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7008563/3-24092015-AP-EN.pdf/bf8be07c-ff9d-406b-88f9-f98f5199fe5a |title=More than 80% of primary school pupils in the EU were studying a foreign language in 2013 |date=24 September 2015 |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=3 May 2016 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411083259/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/7008563/3-24092015-AP-EN.pdf/bf8be07c-ff9d-406b-88f9-f98f5199fe5a |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="MLA-2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227234416/http://www.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf |archive-date=2015-02-27 |url-status=live |title=Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2013 |last1=Goldberg |first1=David |last2=Looney |first2=Dennis |date=1 February 2015 |website=www.mla.org |location=New York City |last3=Lusin |first3=Natalia |access-date=7 July 2015}}</ref>
}}

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* {{cite journal |last1=Nerius |first1=Dieter |title=Die Rolle der II. Orthographischen Konferenz (1901) in der Geschichte der Deutschen Rechtschreibung |journal=Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie |date=January 2000 |issue=1 |article-number=3 |doi=10.37307/j.1868-7806.2000.01.03 |issn=0044-2496}}
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* {{cite book |last=Salmons |first=Joe |title=A history of German : what the past reveals about today's language |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-969793-9 |edition=1st |location=Oxford}}
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* {{cite book |last=Sanders |first=Willy |title=Sachsensprache, Hansesprache, Plattdeutsch: Sprachgeschichtliche Grundzüge des Niederdeutschen |date=1982 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=3-525-01213-6 |location=Göttingen |language=de |trans-title=Saxon language, Hanseatic language, Low German: Linguistic-historical basics of Low German}}
* {{cite book |last=Scherer |first=Wilhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MYACAAAAQAAJ |title=Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache |publisher=[[Franz Duncker]] |year=1868 |location=[[Berlin]] |language=de |trans-title=On the history of the German language |author-link=Wilhelm Scherer |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=29 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129190618/https://books.google.com/books?id=MYACAAAAQAAJ |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Calvin |title=An Anthology of German Literature |date=1992 |publisher=D. C. Heath and Company |id={{ASIN|1010180266|country=de}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Swadesh |first=Morris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7LxaLP5xogC |title=The Origin and Diversification of Language |date=1971 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-20-236982-2 |access-date=28 July 2020 |archive-date=29 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129190624/https://books.google.com/books?id=c7LxaLP5xogC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Upward |first=Chris |title=Spelling Reform in German |journal=Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society |year=1997 |volume=J21 |url=http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j21/german.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923054752/https://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j21/german.php |archive-date=23 September 2014}}
* {{cite book |last1=Von Polenz |first1=Peter |title=Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart |trans-title=German language history from the late Middle Ages to the present |volume=Band III: 19. und 20. Jahrhundert |series=de Gruyter Studienbuch |date=1999 |publisher=de Gruyter |location=Berlin; New York |isbn=978-3-11-016426-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b1KF3f-aGR4C |language=de |chapter=6.5. Inter- und übernationale Beziehungen}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wagner |first=Claudio |year=2000 |title=Las áreas de "bocha", "polca" y "murra". Contacto de lenguas en el sur de Chile |journal=Revista de Dialectología y Tradiciones Populares |language=es |trans-title=The "bocha", "polka" and "murra" areas. Language contact in southern Chile |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=185–196 |doi=10.3989/rdtp.2000.v55.i1.432 |s2cid=145209650 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Waterman |first=John |title=A history of the German language: with special reference to the cultural and social forces that shaped the standard literary language |date=1976 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-73807-9 |edition=Rev. |location=Seattle |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgermanl00wate/page/83}}
* {{cite journal |last=Weiss |first=Gerhard |doi=10.2307/3531328 |jstor=3531328 |title=Up-to-Date and with a Past: The "Duden" and its History |journal=Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=1995 |pages=7–12}}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesinger |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KRyfwnXjfdUC |title=Dialektologie. Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung |date=1982 |location=Berlin, New York |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-005977-9 |editor-last=Besch |editor-first=Werner |edition=1 |language=de |chapter=Die Einteilung der deutschen Dialekte |trans-chapter=The classification of the German dialects |editor-last2=Wiegand |editor-first2=Herbert Ernst |author-link1=Peter Wiesinger |access-date=29 June 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129191120/https://books.google.com/books?id=KRyfwnXjfdUC |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|collapsible=true|commons=Category:German language|b=Subject:German language|v=Topic:German Language|n=no|s=y|species=no|voy=German phrasebook|iw=yes|d=Q188|wikt=Category:German language}}

=== Dictionaries ===

* [https://www.dwds.de/ DWDS]
* [https://www.lexilogos.com/english/german_dictionary.htm German]
* [https://www.duden.de/ Duden]
* [https://en.langenscheidt.com/chinese-german/ Langenscheidt]

=== Texts ===
{{Wikisource-inline|list=
** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=German Language |short=x |noicon=x}}
** [[Mark Twain]], [[s:The Awful German Language|The Awful German Language]], 1880
** [[Carl Schurz]], [[s:The German Mothertongue|The German Mothertongue]], 1897
** {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Germany, Language and Literature of |short=x |noicon=x}}}}

* [[iarchive:VerbreitungDerDeutschenSprache|Dissemination of the German language in Europe around 1913 (map, 300 dpi)]]

{{Description of German}}
{{Germanic languages}}
{{Languages of Germany}}
{{Languages of Switzerland}}
{{Languages of Austria}}
{{Languages of Belgium}}
{{Languages of Namibia}}
{{Germany topics}}
{{Languages of Europe}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:German language| ]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:High German languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Austria]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:Languages of Liechtenstein]]
[[Category:Languages of Luxembourg]]
[[Category:Languages of Namibia]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Languages of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]]
[[Category:Stress-timed languages]]
[[Category:Verb-second languages]]

2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election

2026-03-25T09:05:07Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|State legislative assembly election}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election
| country = India
| type = parliamentary
| ongoing = no
| turnout = 83.02% ({{decrease}} 1.31 [[Percentage point|pp]])
| previous_election = 2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election
| previous_year = 2011
| next_election = 2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election
| next_year = 2021
| opinion_polls = 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election#Surveys and polls
| election_date = {{Start date|df=yes|2016|04|4}} — {{End date|df=yes|2016|05|5}}
| seats_for_election = All 294 seats in the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| majority_seats = 148
| image1 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Mamata Banerjee - Kolkata 2011-12-08 7531 Cropped.JPG|bSize= 100|cWidth=100|cHeight=120|oLeft=0|oTop=0}}
| leader1 = [[Mamata Banerjee]]
| party1 = All India Trinamool Congress
| alliance1 = -
| leaders_seat1 = [[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]]
| seats1 = '''211'''
| seat_change1 = {{increase}} 27
| popular_vote1 = '''24,564,523'''
| percentage1 = '''44.91%'''
| swing1 = {{increase}} 5.98 [[Percentage point|pp]]
| image2 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Abdul Mannan (Indian politician).jpeg|bSize=140|cWidth=100|cHeight=120|oLeft=30|oTop=35}}
| leader2 = [[Abdul Mannan|Mohammad Abdul Mannan]]
| leaders_seat2 = [[Champdani Assembly constituency|Champdani]]
| party2 = Indian National Congress
| alliance2 = [[Secular Democratic Alliance|Mahajot]]
| seats2 = 44
| seat_change2 = {{increase}} 2
| popular_vote2 = 6,700,938
| percentage2 = 12.25%
| swing2 = {{increase}} 3.16%
| image3 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Dr. Surjya Kanta Mishra at a meeting to assess implementation of safe drinking water, rural sanitation and NREGA schemes, in Kolkata on June 01, 2007.jpg|bSize=120|cWidth=100|cHeight=120|oLeft=10|oTop=0}}
| leader3 = [[Surya Kanta Mishra]]
| leaders_seat3 = [[Narayangarh Assembly constituency|Narayangarh]] (''lost'')
| party3 = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
| alliance3 = [[Secular Democratic Alliance|Mahajot]] {{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = ''Parties''
| '''[[Left Front (West Bengal)|LF]]''' {{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = ''Parties''
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| [[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
| [[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|[[Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)|DSP]]
}}
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| [[Independent politician|IND]]
}}
| seats3 = 26
| seat_change3 = {{decrease}} 14
| popular_vote3 = 1,42,16,327
| percentage3 = 19.75%
| swing3 = {{decrease}} 10.33%
| map_image = {{Switcher|[[File:2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly Election Results Map.svg|300px]]|Partywise result|[[File:2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly Election Alliance Wise Result.svg|300px]]|Alliance wise result}}
| map_size = 300px
| map_caption = Seatwise Result Map of the election
| title = [[Chief Minister]]
| before_election = [[Mamata Banerjee]]
| before_party = Trinamool Congress
| after_election = [[Mamata Banerjee]]
| after_party = Trinamool Congress
| posttitle =
| map2_image = {{Switcher|[[File:India West Bengal Assembly election 2016.svg|350px]]|Partywise results by constituency|[[File:West Bengal State Assembly election Alliance wise Result in 2016.svg|350px]]|Alliance wise results by constituency}}
| registered = 65,939,006
| image_size = 160x160px
| outgoing_members = 2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election#By constituency
| elected_members = 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election#Results by Constituency
| leader_since1 = 1998
| leader_since2 = 2015
| leader_since3 = 2016
| last_election1 = 38.93%, 184 seats
| last_election2 = 9.09%, 42 seats
| last_election3 = 30.08%, 40 seats
| vote_type = Coalition
| 1blank = Alliance seats
| 1data1 = '''211'''
| 1data2 = 77
| 1data3 = 77
}}

'''Legislative Assembly elections''' were held in 2016 for all [[List of constituencies of the West Bengal Vidhan Sabha|294 seats]] of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly|''Vidhan Sabha'']] in the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]]. The [[All India Trinamool Congress]] under [[Mamata Banerjee]] won 211 seats, and thus returned to power with an enhanced majority. As in the [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011 election]], the election was held in six phases, with the first phase divided into two days.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/west-bengal-poll-schedule-who-benefits-and-how/|title=West Bengal election schedule: Who benefits and how|date=9 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/6333-west-bengal-assembly-election-schedule.html|title=Assembly Election Result 2016, Assembly Election Schedule Candidate List, Assembly Election Opinion/Exit Poll Latest News 2016|website=infoelections.com|access-date=2016-04-10}}</ref> The first phase was held in [[Red corridor|Naxalite-Maoist affected red corridor areas]] with two polling dates: 4 April and 11 April. The other phases were held on 17, 21, 25, 30 April and 5 May. The result of the election was declared on 19 May.

In the previous election in 2011, the [[All India Trinamool Congress]] in a coalition with [[Indian National Congress|INC]] won a majority and ended the 34-year rule of the [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]] government in the state.

== Background ==
In the previous assembly election in 2011, the [[All India Trinamool Congress]], under the leadership of Mamata Banerjee, won a majority and ended the 34-year rule of the [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]] government. During 2011 election, the main theme of TMC was ''paribartan'' (meaning "change"), implying it was time to change the Left Front reign of 34-years in the state. However, during the five year rule of TMC, urban population, in particular, were in general unhappy with the government.<ref name="the wire">{{cite web|url=http://thewire.in/2016/04/14/critical-challenges-lie-ahead-for-trinamool-congress-to-retain-west-bengals-vote-29553/|title=Critical Challenges Lie Ahead for Trinamool Congress to Retain West Bengal's Vote|last=Mahaprashasta|first=Ajoy Ashirwad|date=14 April 2016|work=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]]|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419233829/http://thewire.in/2016/04/14/critical-challenges-lie-ahead-for-trinamool-congress-to-retain-west-bengals-vote-29553/|archive-date=19 April 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Also, newspapers reported that chief minister Banerjee has been only trying to consolidate votes from the sizable Muslim minority.<ref name="hindu-muslim">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-muslims-and-paribartan/article8517367.ece | title= Mamata, Muslims and paribartan|last=Gupta|first=Smita|date=26 April 2016|newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref>

In January 2016, the Election Commission of India urged the central government to allow it to carry out a limited delimitation exercise in West Bengal to ensure voting rights to people who came to India following the [[India-Bangladesh enclaves|exchange of enclaves between India and Bangladesh]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/west-bengal-polls-election-commission-seeks-nod-for-delimitation-in-enclaves/articleshow/50452516.cms|title=West Bengal polls: Election Commission seeks nod for delimitation in enclaves|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=5 January 2016 }}</ref> As per updated voter list for the year 2016 published by the Election Commission of India in January 2016, West Bengal has surpassed the rest of the country in elector-population ratio with 0.68. The final electoral roll in West Bengal for 2016 with 6.55 crore voters has 3.39 crore male and 3.16 crore female voters.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/Bengal-elector-population-ratio-jumps/article13988385.ece | title=Bengal elector-population ratio jumps | date=8 January 2016 | newspaper=The Hindu | access-date=26 July 2020 }}</ref>

===Major issues===

Prior to the West Bengal elections, on 3 January 2016, a mob turned violent and vandalised Kaliachak Police station, block development office and public property in [[Kaliachak Assembly constituency|Kaliachak]], [[Malda district]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/malda-flare-up-why-the-bjp-is-making-such-an-issue-of-it/|title=Malda flare-up: Why the BJP is making such an issue of it|date=12 January 2016}}</ref> Mamata Banerjee's government was severely criticised for not handling the situation better.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/kaliachak-in-malda-turns-ghost-town-48-hrs-after-violence-302304-2016-01-06|title=48 hours after communal riots, Kaliachak in Malda turns ghost town|first=Soudhriti|last=Bhabani|date=January 6, 2016|website=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/801459/it-was-localised-violence-in-a-crime-prone-area-why-some-newspapers-were-low-key-on-the-malda-violence|title=Why did the media ignore the Malda communal violence?|first=Ipsita|last=Chakravarty|website=Scroll.in|date=6 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://thewire.in/2016/01/08/as-elections-come-closer-communal-pot-bubbles-in-west-bengal-18855/ |title = As Elections Come Closer, the Communal Pot Bubbles in West Bengal {{!}} The Wire |access-date=12 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331152126/http://thewire.in/2016/01/08/as-elections-come-closer-communal-pot-bubbles-in-west-bengal-18855/ |archive-date=31 March 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The [[Saradha Group financial scandal]], the [[Narada sting operation|Narada Sting operation]] (which showcased the prominent ministers & MPs of the ruling party of accepting bribes), lack of any major industrial investments, and law & order issue surfaced as major issues and proved to be an acid test for Trinamool Congress. The [[Kolkata flyover collapse]] also happened during the poll process.

== Schedule ==
Assembly elections in West Bengal are to be held in phases from 4 April to 5 May 2016.<ref name="infoelections.com">{{Cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/6333-west-bengal-assembly-election-schedule.html|title=Assembly Election Results Dates Candidate List Opinion/Exit Poll Latest News, Political Consulting Survey Election Campaign Management Company India|website=infoelections.com}}</ref>
{{wide image|2016 West Bengal State assembly polling dates.png|300px|Voting phases.}}

===Election dates by constituency===
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 100%;font-size: 90%;"
|-
! Phase
! Date
! No. of constituencies
! Voter turnout
|- style="text-align:center"
| 1(a)
| 4 April 2016
| 18
| 84.22%<ref name="ndtv.com">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections-2016/west-bengal-elections-2016/news/west-bengal-assembly-polls-2016-86-voter-turnout-in-6th-phase-of-west-bengal-polls/articleshow/52155376.cms|title=86% voter turnout in 6th phase of West Bengal polls |website=The Times of India|date=6 May 2016 }}</ref>
|- style="text-align:center"
| colspan="4"| Nayagram, Gopiballavpur, Jhargram, Salboni, Medinipur, Binpur, Bandwan, Balarampur, Baghmundi, Joypur, Purulia, Manbazar, Kashipur, Para, Raghunathpur, Ranibandh, Raipur, Taldangra.
|-style="text-align:center"
| 1(b)
|11 April 2016
| 31
| 83.73%<ref name="ndtv.com"/>
|- style="text-align:center"
| colspan="4"|Dantan, Keshiary, Kharagpur Sadar, Narayangarh, Sabang, Pingla, Kharagpur, Debra, Daspur, Ghatal, Chandrakona, Garbeta, Keshpur, Saltora, Chhatna, Bankura, Barjora, Onda, Bishnupur, katulpur, Indus, Sonamukhi, Pandabeshwar, Durgapur Purba, Durgapur Paschim, Raniganj, Jamuria, Asansol Dakshin, Asansol Uttar, Kulti, Barabani
|- style="text-align:center"
| 2
| 17 April 2016
| 56
| 83.05%<ref name="ndtv.com"/>
|- style="text-align:center"
| colspan="4"| Kumargram, Kalchini, Alipurduars, Falakata, Madarihat, Dhupguri, Maynaguri, Jalpaiguri, Rajganj, Dabgram-Fulbari, Mal, Nagrakata, Kalimpong, Darjeeling, Kurseong, Matigara-Naxalbari, Siliguri, Phansidewa, Chopra, Islampur, Goalpokhar, Chakulia, Karandighi, Hemtabad, Kaliaganj, Raiganj, Itahar, Kushmandi, Kumarganj, Balurghat, Tapan, Gangarampur, Harirampur, Habibpur, Gazole, Chanchal, Harishchandrapur, Malatipur, Ratua, Manikchak, Maldaha, English Bazar, Mothabari, Sujapur, Baisnabnagar, Dubrajpur, Suri, Bolpur, Nanoor, Labpur, Sainthia, Mayureswar, Rampurhat, Hansan, Nalhati, Murarai.
|- style="text-align:center"
| 3
| 21 April 2016
| 62
| 82.28%<ref name="ndtv.com"/>
|- style="text-align:center"
| colspan="4"|Farakka, Samserganj, Suti, Jangipur, Raghunathganj, Sagardighi, Lalgola, Bhagawangola, Raninagar, Murshidabad, Nabagram, Khargram, Burwan, Kandi, Bharatpur, Rejinagar, Beldanga, Baharampur, Hariharpara, Nowda, Domkal, Jalangi, Karimpur, Tehatta, Palashipara, Kaliganj, Nakashipara, Chapra, Krishnanagar Uttar, Nabadwip, Krishnanagar Dakshin, Santipur, Ranaghat Uttar Paschim, Krishnaganj, Ranaghat Uttar Purba, Ranaghat Dakshin, Chakdaha, Kalyani, Haringhata, Chowrangee, Entally, Beleghata, Jorasanko, Shyampukur, Maniktala, Kashipur-Belgachhia, Khandaghosh, Bardhamandakshin, Raina, Jamalpur, Monteswar, Kalna, Memari, Bardhaman Uttar, Bhatar, Purbasthali Dakshin, Purbasthali Uttar, Katwa, Ketugram, Mangalkot, Ausgram, Galsi.
|- style="text-align:center"
| 4
| 25 April 2016
| 49
| 81.25%<ref name="ndtv.com"/>
|- style="text-align:center"
| colspan="4"| Bagda, Bangaon Uttar, Bangaon Dakshin, Gaighata, Swarupnagar, Baduria, Habra, Ashoknagar, Amdanga, Bijpur, Naihati, Bhatpara, Jagatdal, Noapara, Barrackpur, Khardaha, Dum Dum Uttar, Panihati, Kamarhati, Baranagar, Dum Dum, Rajarhat New Town, Bidhannagar, Rajarhat Gopalpur, Madhyamgram, Barasat, Deganga, Haroa, Minakhan, Sandeshkhali, Basirhat Dakshin, Basirhat Uttar, Hingalganj, Bally, Howrah Uttar, Howrah Madhya, Shibpur, Howrah Dakshin, Sankrail, Panchla, Uluberia Purba, Uluberia Uttar, Uluberia Dakshin, Shyampur, Bagnan, Amta, Udaynarayanpur, Jagatballavpur, Domjur.
|- style="text-align:center"
| 5
| 30 April 2016
| 53
| 81.66%<ref name="ndtv.com"/>
|- style="text-align:center"
| colspan="4"|Gosaba, Basanti, Kultali, Patharpratima, Kakdwip, Sagar, Kulpi, Raidighi, Mandirbazar, Jaynagar, Baruipur Purba, Canning Paschim, Canning Purba, Baruipur Paschim, Magrahat Purba, Magrahat Paschim, Diamond Harbour, Falta, Satgachhia, Bishnupur, Sonarpur Dakshin, Bhangar, Kasba, Jadavpur, Sonarpur Uttar, Tollygunge, Behala Purba, Behala Paschim, Maheshtala, Budge Budge, Metiaburuz, Kolkata Port, Bhowanipore, Rashbehari, Ballygunge, Uttarpara, Sreerampur, Champdani, Singur, Chandannagar, Chunchura, Balagarh, Pandua, Saptagram, Chanditala, Jangipara, Haripal, Dhanekhali, Tarakeswar, Pursurah, Arambag, Goghat, Khanakul.
|- style="text-align:center"
| 6
| 5 May 2016
| 25
| 86.76%<ref name="ndtv.com"/>
|- style="text-align:center"
| colspan="4"|Mekliganj, Mathabhanga, Cooch behar Uttar, Cooch behar Dakshin, Sitalkuchi, Sitai, Dinhata, Natabari, Tufanganj, Tamluk, Panskura Purba, Panskura Paschim, Moyna, Nandakumar, Mahisadal, Haldia, Nandigram, Chandipur, Patashpur, Kanthi Uttar, Bhagabanpur, Khejuri, Kanthi Dakshin, Ramnagar, Egra.
|}

On 4 March 2016, [[Election Commission of India]] announced that 22 assembly constituencies in West Bengal would have [[Voter-verified paper audit trail]] (VVPAT) machines attached along with [[Indian voting machines|EVM]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/ErrorPage.html?aspxerrorpath=/newsite/mainpage.aspx|title=Untitled Page|website=pib.gov.in}}</ref> [[Voter-verified paper audit trail]] (VVPAT) machines were to be in place in more than 5,993 polling stations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/over-1-4-lakh-non-bailable-warrants-executed-in-bengal-election-commission-1286559|title=Over 1.4 Lakh Non-Bailable Warrants Executed In Bengal: Election Commission|website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref name="infoelections.com" />

{| class="wikitable" | align="center"
|-
! colspan="3" | Assembly constituencies of West Bengal having [[Voter-verified paper audit trail|VVPAT]] facility with [[Indian voting machines|EVM]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/current/PN16_04032016.pdf|title=VVPAT usage in 64 seats in 5 states Schedule for the General Elections to the Legislative Assemblies of Assam, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Puducherry.}}</ref>
|-
| [[Cooch Behar Dakshin Assembly constituency|CoochBehar Dakshin]]|| [[Alipurduars Assembly constituency|Alipurduar]]|| [[Jalpaiguri Assembly constituency|Jalpaiguri]] (SC)
|-
| [[Siliguri Assembly constituency|Siliguri]]|| [[Raiganj Assembly constituency|Raiganj]]|| [[Balurghat Assembly constituency|Balurghat]]
|-
|[[English Bazar Assembly constituency|Englishbazar]]|| [[Murshidabad Assembly constituency|Murshidabad]]|| Krishnanagar
|-
|[[Barasat Assembly constituency|Barasat]]||[[Jadavpur Assembly constituency|Jadavpur]]|| [[Ballygunge Assembly constituency|Ballygunge]]
|-
|[[Chowrangee Assembly constituency|Chowrangee]]|| [[Howrah Madhya Assembly constituency|Howrah madhya]]|| [[Chandannagar Assembly constituency|Chandannagore]]
|-
|[[Tamluk Assembly constituency|Tamluk]] ||[[Medinipur Assembly constituency|Medinipur]]||[[Purulia Assembly constituency|Purulia]]
|-
|[[Bankura Assembly constituency|Bankura]]||[[Bardhaman Dakshin Assembly constituency|Bardhaman dakshin]]||[[Behala Paschim Assembly constituency|Behala Paschim]]
|-
|[[Suri Assembly constituency|Suri]]|| ||
|}

== Parties and alliances ==
=== Candidates ===
[[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]] released its candidate list on 5 March, the same day the elections were announced.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/6337-west-bengal-tmc-candidate-list.html|title=West Bengal Assembly Election TMC Candidate List 2016|work=Infoelection}}</ref>

On 10 March, [[BJP]] released its first candidate list of 52 members.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/6335-west-bengal-bjp-candidate-list.html|title=West Bengal Assembly Election BJP Candidate List 2016|work=Infoelection}}</ref>

Left Front consisting of [[CPI(M)]], [[CPI]], [[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]] and [[All India Forward Bloc]] along with [[Indian National Congress|INC]] released their respective candidate list in several rounds after consultations and bargaining.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/6338-wset-bengal-cpm-candidate-list.html|title=West Bengal Assembly Election Left Front Candidate List 2016|work=Infoelection}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/6336-west-bengal-congress-candidate-list.html|title=West Bengal Assembly Election Congress Candidate List 2016|work=Infoelection}}</ref>

=== Contesting Parties ===
'''[[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress+]]'''
*[[All India Trinamool Congress]] (AITC)
*[[Jana Andolan Party]]

'''[[Secular Democratic Alliance|Mahajot]]'''
*[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPIM)
*[[Communist Party of India]] (CPI)
*[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|Revolutionary Socialist Party]] (RSP)
*[[All India Forward Bloc]] (AIFB)
*[[Revolutionary Communist Party of India]] (RCPI)
*[[Marxist Forward Bloc]] (MFB)
*[[Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)|Democratic Socialist Party]] (DSP(PC))
*[[Indian National Congress]] (INC)
*[[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] (RJD)
*[[Janata Dal (United)]] (JD(U))
*[[Nationalist Congress Party]] (NCP)
*[[Communist Party of Bharat]] (CPB)
*Bharat Nirman Party (Led by [[Lakshman Chandra Seth]])<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160506185245/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1160506/jsp/bengal/story_84109.jsp#.VzdJleT1bGs] Living former Members of the House of Commons</ref>
*Save Democracy Forum
*[[Independent Politician|Independent Candidate]]

'''[[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]]'''
*[[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP)
*[[Gorkha Janmukti Morcha]] (GJM)

=== Alliance(s) ===
Following the heavy defeats in the 2011 Assembly elections and the 2014 Indian General Election, the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] welcomed ideas of the alliance even with parties not conforming to the communist ideology in general. The first signs came in the [[Siliguri Municipal Corporation]] election in 2015, when the [[CPI(M)]] made some local understanding with [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] to keep TMC and BJP out of power; resulting in CPI(M) leader [[Ashok Bhattacharya]] being appointed as the [[Mayor]] of Siliguri. This success then got popularity as 'Siliguri Model'.

After the success of the model, in the long run, some Congress and CPI(M) leaders advocated for a Left-Congress alliance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/6939-left-congress-alliance-in-west-bengal-elections-2016.html|title=Left-Congress alliance in West Bengal Elections 2016, hinted Left leaders|work=infoelections}}</ref> on the grounds that on summing up individual voteshare of the Congress & Left Front in state polled during the 2014 general elections, were large enough in many areas to defeat the Trinamool Congress. The precedence of the [[UPA-Left Coordination Committee|Left Front providing outside support to the UPA-I government in 2004-2008]] was cited in support. This gradually materialized into an "alliance" between INC and [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]] in all the seats except a few in [[Murshidabad district]] and [[Maldah district]].

Given the political history of West Bengal, the materialisation of an alliance between the Congress & the CPI(M), 2 parties that have been bitter rivals of each other in the state since India's independence in 1947 & have a history of unleashing political violence against each other's cadres, (like [[Sainbari murder|1970 Sainbari murders]], during the [[Emergency (India)|Emergency era]] & the [[1993 Kolkata firing]]) took the political circles of the state by surprise. After much dispute and secession of 2 far-left groups : [[SUCI(C)]] and [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|CPI(ML)L]] from the [[Left Front (West Bengal)|Left Front]], both Congress and Communists formed an understanding basis of what they called "seat-sharing", strongly objecting to the use of the word-"alliance". Trinamool Congress claimed that by forging an electoral understanding with the Left Front in the state, the Congress party was insulting the memory of those party workers who had died in political violence perpetrated by the Left Front, & Mamata Banerjee's allegation in 1998 about the state Congress having become a 'B-team' of the Left Front (due to which she broke away from the Congress to create her own party), stood vindicated. The CPI(M) (which had famously refused the Congress' proposal of making veteran Communist leader and one of its founders [[Jyoti Basu]] the country's prime minister in 1990, 1991 & 1996 in order not to been seen deviating from the cause of establishing the ''[[dictatorship of the proletariat]]'') was similarly accused of compromising with its ideological stance & indulging in hypocrisy by the TMC & BJP for entering into seat-sharing agreement with the Congress.

The ruling [[All India Trinamool Congress]] announced its candidate list for all the 294 seats, as they were fighting alone this time. But after the announcement, the candidate from [[Kalimpong Assembly constituency|Kalimpong]] and former [[Gorkha Janmukti Morcha]] leader, Harka Bahadur Chettri, stated that he will fight as an Independent candidate under the entity of his newly formed political party, [[Jana Andolan Party]], and will be supported by the Trinamool Congress.

The [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] announced its candidate list for 291 seats in several phases, leaving 3 seats of the Darjeeling Hills for their allies, the [[Gorkha Janmukti Morcha]].

== Seat Allotment ==
=== {{legend2|{{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}|[[Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress+]]}} ===
{| class="wikitable" width="50%" style="text-align:center;
| colspan="6" {{Party color cell|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
| colspan="6" | '''[[All India Trinamool Congress|All India Trinamool Congress-led Alliance]]'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Party
! Flag
! Symbol
! Leader
! Seats
|-
| {{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
| [[File:All India Trinamool Congress flag.svg|50px|border]]
| [[File:All India Trinamool Congress symbol 2021.svg|50px|center]]
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
| 293
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Jana Andolan Party}}
|
|
| Harka Bahadur Chettri
| 1
|-
!colspan="5"| Total
!294
|}

=== {{legend2|{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}}|[[Left Front-led Alliance|Mahajot]]}} ===
{| class="wikitable" width="50%" style="text-align:center;
| colspan="6" {{Party color cell|Secular Democratic Alliance}}
|-
| colspan="6" | '''[[Left Front-led Alliance|Mahajot]]'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Party
! Flag
! Symbol
! Leader
! Seats
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}}
| [[File:CPI(M) Flag.jpg|50x50px]]
| [[File:CPI(M) Election symbol.png|50px]]
| [[Surya Kanta Mishra]]
| 143+5
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
| [[File:Indian National Congress Flag.svg|50px]]
| [[File:Hand INC.svg|50px]]
| [[Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury]]
| 75+17
|-
| {{Full party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
| [[File:All India Forward Bloc flag.svg|50px]]
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Lion.svg|50px]]
| [[Debabrata Biswas (politician)|Debabrata Biswas]]
| 22+3
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
| [[File:RSP-flag.svg|50px]]
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Spade and Stoker.png|50px]]
| Manoj Bhattacharya
| 11+8
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
| [[File:CPI-banner.svg|50px]]
| [[File:CPI symbol.svg|50px]]
| [[Prabodh Panda]]
| 11
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)}}
| [[File:DSP-flag.svg|50x50px]]
|
| Prabodh Chandra Sinha
| 2
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
| [[File:RJD Flag.svg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Hurricane Lamp.png|50x50px]]
|
| 1
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|dab=yes}}
| [[File:Janata Dal (United) Flag.svg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Arrow.svg|50x50px]]
|
| 1+1
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
| [[File:NCP-flag.svg|50x50px]]
| [[File:Nationalist Congress Party Election Symbol.png|50x50px]]
|
| 1
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|
|
|
| 10
|-
!colspan="5"| Total
!277+17
|}
NOTE: A total of 311 candidates were fielded. These candidates contested 277 unique seats. In 17 of those seats, there were two candidates each, making a total of 34 candidates across those constituencies. Overall, the alliance contested all 294 assembly seats.
====Friendly Fights====
{| class="wikitable" style="line-height:20px;text-align:center;"
! Sl. No.
! Parties Involved
! #
! Constituency Name
|-
! 1
| rowspan="5"|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] and [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
! 58
| [[Jangipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Jangipur]]
|-
! 2
! 75
| [[Domkal Assembly constituency|Domkal]]
|-
! 3
! 88
| [[Krishnaganj Assembly constituency|Krishnaganj (SC)]]
|-
! 4
! 60
| [[Sagardighi Assembly constituency|Sagardighi]]
|-
! 5
! 73
| [[Hariharpara Assembly constituency|Hariharpara]]
|-
! 6
| rowspan="3"|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] and [[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
! 46
| [[Harishchandrapur Assembly constituency|Harishchandrapur]]
|-
! 7
! 64
| [[Murshidabad Assembly constituency|Murshidabad]]
|-
! 8
! 291
| [[Rampurhat Assembly constituency|Rampurhat]]
|-
! 9
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]] and [[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]]
! 29
| [[Islampur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Islampur]]
|-
! 10
| rowspan="8"|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] and [[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
! 11
| [[Kalchini Assembly constituency|Kalchini (ST)]]
|-
! 11
! 12
| [[Alipurduars Assembly constituency|Alipurduars]]
|-
! 12
! 47
| [[Malatipur Assembly constituency|Malatipur]]
|-
! 13
! 57
| [[Suti Assembly constituency|Suti]]
|-
! 14
! 59
| [[Raghunathganj Assembly constituency|Raghunathganj]]
|-
! 15
! 67
| [[Burwan Assembly constituency|Burwan (SC)]]
|-
! 16
! 69
| [[Bharatpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bharatpur]]
|-
! 17
! 74
| [[Naoda Assembly constituency|Nowda]]
|}

=== {{legend2|{{party color|National Democratic Alliance (India)}}|[[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]]}} ===
{| class="wikitable" width="50%" style="text-align:center;
| colspan="6" {{Party color cell|National Democratic Alliance}}
|-
| colspan="6" | '''[[National Democratic Alliance]]'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Party
! Flag
! Symbol
! Leader
! Seats
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| [[File:BJP Flag.svg|50px]]
| [[File:Lotos flower symbol.svg|40x40px]]
| [[Dilip Ghosh (politician)|Dilip Ghosh]]
| 291
|-
| {{Full party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|
|
| [[Bimal Gurung]]
| 3
|-
!colspan="5"| Total
!294
|}

==Candidates==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" | District
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Constituency
| colspan="3" style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}}"|
| colspan="3" style="background:{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}}"|
| colspan="3" style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}"|
|-
! colspan="3" | [[Trinamool Congress|AITC+]]
! colspan="3" | [[Secular Democratic Alliance|Mahajot]]
! colspan="3" | [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
|-
| rowspan="9" | [[Cooch Behar district|Cooch Behar]]
!1
|[[Mekliganj Assembly constituency|Mekliganj (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Arghya Roy Pradhan]]
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|[[Paresh Chandra Adhikary]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Dadhiram Ray
|-
!2
|[[Mathabhanga Assembly constituency|Mathabhanga (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Binay Krishna Barman]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Khagen Chandra Barman
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Sushil Barman]]
|-
!3
|[[Cooch Behar Uttar Assembly constituency|Cooch Behar Uttar (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Parimal Barman
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|[[Nagendra Nath Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Sukumar Roy (politician)|Sukumar Roy]]
|-
!4
|[[Cooch Behar Dakshin Assembly constituency|Cooch Behar Dakshin]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Mihir Goswami]]
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|Debasis Banik
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Nikhil Ranjan Dey]]
|-
!5
|[[Sitalkuchi Assembly constituency|Sitalkuchi (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Hiten Barman]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Namadipti Adhikary
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Baren Chandra Barman]]
|-
!6
|[[Sitai Assembly constituency|Sitai (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Jagadish Chandra Barma Basunia|Jagadish Basunia]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Keshab Chandra Ray
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Bhaben Chandra Ray
|-
!7
|[[Dinhata Assembly constituency|Dinhata]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Udayan Guha]]
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|Akshay Thakur
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sachindra Nath Adhikari
|-
!8
|[[Natabari Assembly constituency|Natabari]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Rabindra Nath Ghosh]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Tamser Ali
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Ali Hossain
|-
!9
|[[Tufanganj Assembly constituency|Tufanganj]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Fazal Karim Miah]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Shyamal Chowdhury
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Bivas Sen Ishore
|-
| rowspan="5" | [[Alipurduar district|Alipurduar]]
!10
|[[Kumargram Assembly constituency|Kumargram (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[James Kujur]]
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|[[Manoj Kumar Oraon]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Leos Kujur
|-
!11
|[[Kalchini Assembly constituency|Kalchini (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Wilson Champramary]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Avijit Narjinary
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bishal Lama]]
|-
!12
|[[Alipurduars Assembly constituency|Alipurduars]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Sourav Chakraborty (politician)|Sourav Chakraborty]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Biswa Ranjan Sarkar
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Kushal Chatterjee
|-
!13
|[[Falakata Assembly constituency|Falakata (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Anil Adhikari (politician)|Anil Adhikari]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Kshitish Chandra Ray
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Narayan Chandra Mondal
|-
!14
|[[Madarihat Assembly constituency|Madarihat (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Padam Lama
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|Kumari Kujur
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Manoj Tigga]]
|-
| rowspan="7" | [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]]
!15
|[[Dhupguri Assembly constituency|Dhupguri (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Mitali Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Mamata Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Agun Roy
|-
!16
|[[Maynaguri Assembly constituency|Maynaguri (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Ananta Deb Adhikari]]
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|Chhaya Dey
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Biswajit Roy
|-
!17
|[[Jalpaiguri Assembly constituency|Jalpaiguri (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Dhartimohan Roy
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Sukhbilas Barma]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Tapan Roy
|-
!18
|[[Rajganj Assembly constituency|Rajganj (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Khageswar Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Satyendra Nath Mondal
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Prakash Chandra Roy
|-
!19
|[[Dabgram-Phulbari Assembly constituency|Dabgram-Phulbari]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Goutam Deb]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Dilip Singh
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Rathindra Bose
|-
!20
|[[Mal Assembly constituency|Mal (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Bulu Chik Baraik]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Augustus Kerketta
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Mahesh Bagey
|-
!21
|[[Nagrakata Assembly constituency|Nagrakata (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Sukra Munda]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Joseph Munda]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[John Barla]]
|-
|[[Kalimpong district|Kalimpong]]
!22
|[[Kalimpong Assembly constituency|Kalimpong]]
|{{Party name with color|Jana Andolan Party}}
|[[Harka Bahadur Chhetri]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of Revolutionary Marxists}}
|Kishore Pradhan
|{{Party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|[[Sarita Rai]]
|-
| rowspan="5" | [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]]
!23
|[[Darjeeling Assembly constituency|Darjeeling]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Sharda Rai Subba
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of Revolutionary Marxists}}
|Govind Chhetri
|{{Party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|[[Amar Singh Rai]]
|-
!24
|[[Kurseong Assembly constituency|Kurseong]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Shanta Chhetri]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of Revolutionary Marxists}}
|Arun Kumar Ghatani
|{{Party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|[[Rohit Sharma (West Bengal politician)|Rohit Sharma]]
|-
!25
|[[Matigara-Naxalbari|Matigara-Naxalbari (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Amar Sinha
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Sankar Malakar|Shankar Malakar]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Anandamoy Barman]]
|-
!26
|[[Siliguri Assembly constituency|Siliguri]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Bhaichung Bhutia]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Ashok Bhattacharya]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Gita Chatterjee
|-
!27
|[[Phansidewa Assembly constituency|Phansidewa (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Carolus Lakra
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Sunil Chandra Tirkey]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Durga Murmu]]
|-
| rowspan="9" | [[Uttar Dinajpur district|Uttar Dinajpur]]
!28
|[[Chopra Assembly constituency|Chopra]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Hamidul Rahman]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Akramul Hoque
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sajen Ram Singha
|-
!29
|[[Islampur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Islampur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Abdul Karim Chowdhury]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Kanaia Lal Agarwal]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Saumya Roop Mandal
|-
!30
|[[Goalpokhar Assembly constituency|Goalpokhar]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Md. Ghulam Rabbani|Ghulam Rabbani]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Afjal Hosen
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Debashis Sarkar
|-
!31
|[[Chakulia Assembly constituency|Chakulia]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Alema Noorie
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|[[Ali Imran Ramz]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Ashim Kumar Mridha
|-
!32
|[[Karandighi Assembly constituency|Karandighi]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Manodeb Sinha]]
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|Gokul Roy
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Abdul Jalil
|-
!33
|[[Hemtabad Assembly constituency|Hemtabad (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Sabita Kshetry
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Debendra Nath Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Bhanu Ram Barman
|-
!34
|[[Kaliaganj Assembly constituency|Kaliaganj (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Basanta Roy
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Pramatha Nath Ray]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Rupak Roy
|-
!35
|[[Raiganj Assembly constituency|Raiganj]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Purnendu Dey
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Mohit Sengupta]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Pradip Sarkar
|-
!36
|[[Itahar Assembly constituency|Itahar]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Amal Acharjee]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|[[Srikumar Mukherjee]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Yunish Hoque
|-
| rowspan="6" | [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|Dakshin Dinajpur]]
!37
|[[Kushmandi Assembly constituency|Kushmandi (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Rekha Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|[[Narmada Chandra Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Ranjit Kumar Roy
|-
!38
|[[Kumarganj Assembly constituency|Kumarganj]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Toraf Hossain Mandal]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Mafuja Khatun]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Manas Sarkar
|-
!39
|[[Balurghat Assembly constituency|Balurghat]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Sankar Chakraborty|Shankar Chakraborty]]
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|[[Biswanath Chowdhury]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Gautam Chakraborty
|-
!40
|[[Tapan Assembly constituency|Tapan (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Bachchu Hansda]]
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|Raghu Urow
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Krishna Kujur
|-
!41
|[[Gangarampur Assembly constituency|Gangarampur (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Satyendra Nath Ray]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Goutam Das]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sanatan Karmakar
|-
!42
|[[Harirampur Assembly constituency|Harirampur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Biplab Mitra]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Rafikul Islam]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Phani Bhushan Mahata
|-
| rowspan="14" | [[Malda district|Malda]]
!43
|[[Habibpur Assembly constituency|Habibpur (ST)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Amal Kisku
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Khagen Murmu]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Pradip Baskey
|-
!44
|[[Gazole Assembly constituency|Gazole (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Sushil Chandra Roy
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Dipali Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sudhangshu Sarkar
|-
!45
|[[Chanchal Assembly constituency|Chanchal]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Soumitra Ray
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Asif Mehbub]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Dipankar Ram
|-
!rowspan=2|46
|rowspan=2|[[Harishchandrapur Assembly constituency|Harishchandrapur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|[[Tajmul Hossain]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Mostaque Alam]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Sanvarlal Kedia
|-
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|Alam Mohammad Rafiqul
|-
!rowspan=2|47
|rowspan=2|[[Malatipur Assembly constituency|Malatipur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Moazzem Hossain
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Alberuni Zulkarnain]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Saumitra Sarkar
|-
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|[[Abdur Rahim Boxi|Abdur Rahim Bakshi]]
|-
!48
|[[Ratua Assembly constituency|Ratua]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Shehnaz Quadery
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Samar Mukherjee (Malda politician)|Samar Mukherjee]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sanjay Saha
|-
!49
|[[Manikchak Assembly constituency|Manikchak]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Sabitri Mitra]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Md. Mottakin Alam|Mottakin Alam]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Shibendu Shekhar Roy
|-
!50
|[[Maldaha Assembly constituency|Maldaha]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Dulal Sarkar
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Bhupendra Nath Halder]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Gopal Chandra Saha]]
|-
!51
|[[English Bazar Assembly constituency|English Bazar]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Krishnendu Narayan Choudhury|Krishnendu Choudhury]]
|{{Party name with color|Independent|shortname=IND}}
|[[Nihar Ranjan Ghosh]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Suman Banerjee
|-
!52
|[[Mothabari Assembly constituency|Mothabari]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Mohammad Nazrul Islam
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Sabina Yeasmin]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Shyam Chand Ghosh
|-
!53
|[[Sujapur Assembly constituency|Sujapur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Abu Nasar Khan
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Isha Khan Choudhury]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Nandan Kumar Ghosh
|-
!54
|[[Baisnabnagar Assembly constituency|Baisnabnagar]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Asit Bose
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Azizul Haque
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Swadhin Kumar Sarkar]]
|-
| rowspan="32" | [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]]
!55
|[[Farakka Assembly constituency|Farakka]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Mohammad Mustafa
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Mainul Haque]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Indranath Upadhyay
|-
!56
|[[Samserganj Assembly constituency|Samserganj]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Amirul Islam (politician)|Amirul Islam]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Touab Ali
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Milan Ghosh
|-
!rowspan=2|57
|rowspan=2|[[Suti Assembly constituency|Suti]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|[[Emani Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Humayun Reza]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Samrat Ghosh
|-
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|Nezamuddin
|-
!rowspan=2|58
|rowspan=2|[[Jangipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Jangipur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|[[Jakir Hossain (politician)|Jakir Hossain]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Somnath Singha Ray
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Sudhan Kumar Das
|-
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Md. Sohrab|Mohammad Sohrab]]
|-
!rowspan=2|59
|rowspan=2|[[Raghunathganj Assembly constituency|Raghunathganj]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Abul Kasem Molla
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Akhruzzaman]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Golam Modashbar
|-
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|Abul Hasnat
|-
!rowspan=2|60
|rowspan=2|[[Sagardighi Assembly constituency|Sagardighi]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|[[Subrata Saha]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Aminul Islam
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Debsharan Ghosh
|-
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Rajab Ali Mallick
|-
!61
|[[Lalgola Assembly constituency|Lalgola]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Chand Mohammad
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Abu Hena (Indian politician)|Abu Hena]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Amar Kumar Das
|-
!62
|[[Bhagabangola Assembly constituency|Bhagabangola]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Abu Sufian Sarkar
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Mahasin Ali]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Mehebub Alam
|-
!63
|[[Raninagar Assembly constituency|Raninagar]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Humayun Kabir
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Firoza Begam]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Basu Basak
|-
!rowspan=2|64
|rowspan=2|[[Murshidabad Assembly constituency|Murshidabad]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Ashim Krishna Bhatta
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Shaoni Singha Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|[[Gouri Shankar Ghosh]]
|-
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|Bivas Chakraborty
|-
!65
|[[Nabagram Assembly constituency|Nabagram (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Dilip Saha
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Kanai Chandra Mondal]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sushanta Marjit
|-
!66
|[[Khargram Assembly constituency|Khargram (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Madhab Chandra Marjit
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Ashis Marjit|Ashish Marjit]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sumanta Mondal
|-
!rowspan=2|67
|rowspan=2|[[Burwan Assembly constituency|Burwan (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Shasthi Charan Mal
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Protima Rajak]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Amiya Kumar Das
|-
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|Binoy Sarkar
|-
!68
|[[Kandi Assembly constituency|Kandi]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Santanu Sen
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Apurba Sarkar]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Binay Bhushan Das
|-
!rowspan=2|69
|rowspan=2|[[Bharatpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bharatpur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Khadem Dastagir
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Kamalesh Chatterjee]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Iman Kalyan Mukherjee
|-
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|[[Id Mohammad]]
|-
!70
|[[Rejinagar Assembly constituency|Rejinagar]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Begum Siddika
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Rabiul Alam Chowdhury]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Bankim Karmakar
|-
!71
|[[Beldanga Assembly constituency|Beldanga]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Golam Kibria Mia
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Safiujjaman Seikh|Sheikh Safiujjaman]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Alok Ghosh
|-
!72
|[[Baharampur Assembly constituency|Baharampur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Sujata Banerjee
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Manoj Chakraborty]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Mala Bhattacharya
|-
!rowspan=2|73
|rowspan=2|[[Hariharpara Assembly constituency|Hariharpara]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|[[Niamot Sheikh]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Alamgir Mir Palash
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Tulsi Prasad Sukul
|-
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Insar Ali Biswas
|-
!rowspan=2|74
|rowspan=2|[[Naoda Assembly constituency|Naoda]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Masud Karim
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Abu Taher Khan]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Sajal Bhaumik
|-
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|Abdul Bari Molla
|-
!rowspan=2|75
|rowspan=2|[[Domkal Assembly constituency|Domkal]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Soumik Hossain
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Anisur Rahman (politician, born 1952)|Anisur Rahman]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|rowspan=2|Nanda Dulal Pal
|-
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Abdur Rahaman Sheikh
|-
!76
|[[Jalangi Assembly constituency|Jalangi]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|Alok Das
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Abdur Razzak (Murshidabad politician)|Abdur Razzak]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Chandan Mondal
|-
| rowspan="17" | [[Nadia district|Nadia]]
!77
|[[Karimpur Assembly constituency|Karimpur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Mahua Moitra]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Samarendranath Ghosh
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Subhasis Bhattacharya
|-
!78
|[[Tehatta Assembly constituency|Tehatta]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Gouri Sankar Dutta|Gouri Shankar Dutta]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Ranjit Kumar Mandal
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Arjun Kumar Biswas
|-
!79
|[[Palashipara Assembly constituency|Palashipara]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Tapas Kumar Saha]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[S. M. Saadi]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Bibhas Mondal
|-
!80
|[[Kaliganj Assembly constituency|Kaliganj]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Nasiruddin Ahamed]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Hasanuzzaman Sk|Hasanuzzaman Sheikh]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Saikat Sarkar
|-
!81
|[[Nakashipara Assembly constituency|Nakashipara]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Kallol Khan]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Tanmay Ganguly
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Anup Kumar Mondal
|-
!82
|[[Chapra, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Chapra]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Rukbanur Rahman]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Shamsul Islam Mollah
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sutirtha Chakraborty
|-
!83
|[[Krishnanagar Uttar Assembly constituency|Krishnanagar Uttar]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Abani Mohan Joardar]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Ashim Kumar Saha
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Chanchal Kumar Biswas
|-
!84
|[[Nabadwip Assembly constituency|Nabadwip]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Pundarikakshya Saha]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Sumit Biswas
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Gautam Pal
|-
!85
|[[Krishnanagar Dakshin Assembly constituency|Krishnanagar Dakshin]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Ujjal Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Meghlal Sheikh
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Mahadev Sarkar
|-
!86
|[[Santipur Assembly constituency|Santipur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Ajoy Dey]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Arindam Bhattacharya (politician)|Arindam Bhattacharya]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Swapan Kumar Dam
|-
!87
|[[Ranaghat Uttar Paschim Assembly constituency|Ranaghat Uttar Paschim]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Parthasarathi Chatterjee]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Shankar Singha]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Anal Biswas
|-
!88
|[[Krishnaganj Assembly constituency|Krishnaganj (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Satyajit Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Mrinal Biswas
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Sujit Kumar Biswas
|-
!89
|[[Ranaghat Uttar Purba Assembly constituency|Ranaghat Uttar Purba (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Samir Kumar Poddar]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Babusona Sarkar
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Nikhil Ranjan Sarkar
|-
!90
|[[Ranaghat Dakshin Assembly constituency|Ranaghat Dakshin (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Abir Biswas|Abir Ranjan Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Rama Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Susmit Ranjan Haldar
|-
!91
|[[Chakdaha Assembly constituency|Chakdaha]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Ratna Ghosh Kar]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Biswanath Gupta
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Pradip Kumar Sarkar
|-
!92
|[[Kalyani Assembly constituency|Kalyani (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Ramendra Nath Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|[[Alokesh Das]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Ranajit Kumar Biswas
|-
!93
|[[Haringhata Assembly constituency|Haringhata (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Nilima Nag|Nilima Nag Mallick]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Ajoy Das
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Suresh Sikdar
|-
|rowspan="33" | [[North 24 Parganas district|North 24 Parganas]]
!94
|[[Bagdah Assembly constituency|Bagdah (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Upendra Nath Biswas|Upendranath Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Dulal Chandra Bar]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Biva Majumdar
|-
!95
|[[Bangaon Uttar Assembly constituency|Bongaon Uttar (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Biswajit Das (politician)|Biswajit Das]]
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|Sushanta Bowali
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|K. D. Biswas
|-
!96
|[[Bangaon Dakshin Assembly constituency|Bongaon Dakshin (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Surajit Kumar Biswas]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Ramendranath Audhya
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Swapan Majumder]]
|-
!97
|[[Gaighata Assembly constituency|Gaighata (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Pulin Bihari Ray]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|[[Kapil Krishna Thakur]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Shankar Thakur
|-
!98
|[[Swarupnagar Assembly constituency|Swarupnagar (SC)]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Bina Mondal]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|Dhiman Sarkar
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|Mihir Kumar Bagchi
|-
!99
|[[Baduria Assembly constituency|Baduria]]
|-
!100
|[[Habra Assembly constituency|Habra]]
|-
!101
|[[Ashoknagar Assembly constituency|Ashokenagar]]
|-
!102
|[[Amdanga Assembly constituency|Amdanga]]
|-
!103
|[[Bijpur Assembly constituency|Bijpur]]
|-
!104
|[[Naihati Assembly constituency|Naihati]]
|-
!105
|[[Bhatpara Assembly constituency|Bhatpara]]
|-
!106
|[[Jagatdal Assembly constituency|Jagatdal]]
|-
!107
|[[Noapara Assembly constituency|Noapara]]
|-
!108
|[[Barrackpur Assembly constituency|Barrackpur]]
|-
!109
|[[Khardaha Assembly constituency|Khardaha]]
|-
!110
|[[Dum Dum Uttar Assembly constituency|Dum Dum Uttar]]
|-
!111
|[[Panihati Assembly constituency|Panihati]]
|-
!112
|[[Kamarhati Assembly constituency|Kamarhati]]
|-
!113
|[[Baranagar Assembly constituency|Baranagar]]
|-
!114
|[[Dum Dum Assembly constituency|Dum Dum]]
|-
!115
|[[Rajarhat New Town Assembly constituency|Rajarhat New Town]]
|-
!116
|[[Bidhannagar Assembly constituency|Bidhannagar]]
|-
!117
|[[Rajarhat Gopalpur Assembly constituency|Rajarhat Gopalpur]]
|-
!118
|[[Madhyamgram Assembly constituency|Madhyamgram]]
|-
!119
|[[Barasat Assembly constituency|Barasat]]
|-
!120
|[[Deganga Assembly constituency|Deganga]]
|-
!121
|[[Haroa Assembly constituency|Haroa]]
|-
!122
|[[Minakhan Assembly constituency|Minakhan (SC)]]
|-
!123
|[[Sandeshkhali Assembly constituency|Sandeshkhali (ST)]]
|-
!124
|[[Basirhat Dakshin Assembly constituency|Basirhat Dakshin]]
|-
!125
|[[Basirhat Uttar Assembly constituency|Basirhat Uttar]]
|-
!126
|[[Hingalganj Assembly constituency|Hingalganj (SC)]]
|-
| rowspan="31" |[[South 24 Parganas district|South 24 Parganas]]
!127
|[[Gosaba Assembly constituency|Gosaba (SC)]]
|-
!128
|[[Basanti Assembly constituency|Basanti (SC)]]
|-
!129
|[[Kultali Assembly constituency|Kultali (SC)]]
|-
!130
|[[Patharpratima Assembly constituency|Patharpratima]]
|-
!131
|[[Kakdwip Assembly constituency|Kakdwip]]
|-
!132
|[[Sagar, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Sagar]]
|-
!133
|[[Kulpi Assembly constituency|Kulpi]]
|-
!134
|[[Raidighi Assembly constituency|Raidighi]]
|-
!135
|[[Mandirbazar Assembly constituency|Mandirbazar (SC)]]
|-
!136
|[[Jaynagar Assembly constituency|Jaynagar (SC)]]
|-
!137
|[[Baruipur Purba Assembly constituency|Baruipur Purba (SC)]]
|-
!138
|[[Canning Paschim Assembly constituency|Canning Paschim (SC)]]
|-
!139
|[[Canning Purba Assembly constituency|Canning Purba]]
|-
!140
|[[Baruipur Paschim Assembly constituency|Baruipur Paschim]]
|-
!141
|[[Magrahat Purba Assembly constituency|Magrahat Purba (SC)]]
|-
!142
|[[Magrahat Paschim Assembly constituency|Magrahat Paschim]]
|-
!143
|[[Diamond Harbour Assembly constituency|Diamond Harbour]]
|-
!144
|[[Falta Assembly constituency|Falta]]
|-
!145
|[[Satgachhia Assembly constituency|Satgachia]]
|-
!146
|[[Bishnupur, South 24 Parganas Assembly constituency|Bishnupur (SC)]]
|-
!147
|[[Sonarpur Dakshin Assembly constituency|Sonarpur Dakshin]]
|-
!148
|[[Bhangar Assembly constituency|Bhangar]]
|-
!149
|[[Kasba, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Kasba]]
|-
!150
|[[Jadavpur Assembly constituency|Jadavpur]]
|-
!151
|[[Sonarpur Uttar Assembly constituency|Sonarpur Uttar]]
|-
!152
|[[Tollyganj Assembly constituency|Tollygunge]]
|-
!153
|[[Behala Purba Assembly constituency|Behala Purba]]
|-
!154
|[[Behala Paschim]]
|-
!155
|[[Maheshtala Assembly constituency|Maheshtala]]
|-
!156
|[[Budge Budge Assembly constituency|Budge Budge]]
|-
!157
|[[Metiaburuz Assembly constituency|Metiaburuz]]
|-
| rowspan="11" | [[Kolkata district|Kolkata]]
!158
|[[Kolkata Port Assembly constituency|Kolkata Port]]
|-
!159
|[[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]]
|-
!160
|[[Rashbehari Assembly constituency|Rashbehari]]
|-
!161
|[[Ballygunge Assembly constituency|Ballygunge]]
|-
!162
|[[Chowrangee Assembly constituency|Chowrangee]]
|-
!163
|[[Entally Assembly constituency|Entally]]
|-
!164
|[[Beleghata Assembly constituency|Beleghata]]
|-
!165
|[[Jorasanko Assembly constituency|Jorasanko]]
|-
!166
|[[Shyampukur Assembly constituency|Shyampukur]]
|-
!167
|[[Maniktala Assembly constituency|Maniktala]]
|-
!168
|[[Kashipur-Belgachhia]]
|-
|rowspan="16" | [[Howrah district|Howrah]]
!169
|[[Bally Assembly constituency|Bally]]
|-
!170
|[[Howrah Uttar]]
|-
!171
|[[Howrah Madhya]]
|-
!172
|[[Shibpur Assembly constituency|Shibpur]]
|-
!173
|[[Howrah Dakshin]]
|-
!174
|[[Sankrail Assembly constituency|Sankrail (SC)]]
|-
!175
|[[Panchla Assembly constituency|Panchla]]
|-
!176
|[[Uluberia Purba]]
|-
!177
|[[Uluberia Uttar|Uluberia Uttar (SC)]]
|-
!178
|[[Uluberia Dakshin]]
|-
!179
|[[Shyampur Assembly constituency|Shyampur]]
|-
!180
|[[Bagnan Assembly constituency|Bagnan]]
|-
!181
|[[Amta Assembly constituency|Amta]]
|-
!182
|[[Udaynarayanpur Assembly constituency|Udaynarayanpur]]
|-
!183
|[[Jagatballavpur Assembly constituency|Jagatballavpur]]
|-
!184
|[[Domjur Assembly constituency|Domjur]]
|-
| rowspan="18" | [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]]
!185
|[[Uttarpara Assembly constituency|Uttarpara]]
|-
!186
|[[Sreerampur Assembly constituency|Sreerampur]]
|-
!187
|[[Champdani Assembly constituency|Champdani]]
|-
!188
|[[Singur Assembly constituency|Singur]]
|-
!189
|[[Chandannagar Assembly constituency|Chandannagar]]
|-
!190
|[[Chunchura Assembly constituency|Chunchura]]
|-
!191
|[[Balagarh Assembly constituency|Balagarh (SC)]]
|-
!192
|[[Pandua Assembly constituency|Pandua]]
|-
!193
|[[Saptagram Assembly constituency|Saptagram]]
|-
!194
|[[Chanditala Assembly constituency|Chanditala]]
|-
!195
|[[Jangipara Assembly constituency|Jangipara]]
|-
!196
|[[Haripal Assembly constituency|Haripal]]
|-
!197
|[[Dhanekhali Assembly constituency|Dhanekhali (SC)]]
|-
!198
|[[Tarakeswar Assembly constituency|Tarakeswar]]
|-
!199
|[[Pursurah Assembly constituency|Pursurah]]
|-
!200
|[[Arambag Assembly constituency|Arambagh (SC)]]
|-
!201
|[[Goghat Assembly constituency|Goghat (SC)]]
|-
!202
|[[Khanakul Assembly constituency|Khanakul]]
|-
| rowspan="16" | [[Purba Medinipur district|Purba Medinipur]]
!203
|[[Tamluk Assembly constituency|Tamluk]]
|-
!204
|[[Panskura Purba]]
|-
!205
|[[Panskura Paschim]]
|-
!206
|[[Moyna Assembly constituency|Moyna]]
|-
!207
|[[Nandakumar Assembly constituency|Nandakumar]]
|-
!208
|[[Mahisadal Assembly constituency|Mahisadal]]
|-
!209
|[[Haldia Assembly constituency|Haldia (SC)]]
|-
!210
|[[Nandigram Assembly constituency|Nandigram]]
|-
!211
|[[Chandipur Assembly constituency|Chandipur]]
|-
!212
|[[Patashpur Assembly constituency|Patashpur]]
|-
!213
|[[Kanthi Uttar Assembly constituency|Kanthi Uttar]]
|-
!214
|[[Bhagabanpur Assembly constituency|Bhagabanpur]]
|-
!215
|[[Khejuri Assembly constituency|Khejuri (SC)]]
|-
!216
|[[Kanthi Dakshin Assembly constituency|Kanthi Dakshin]]
|-
!217
|[[Ramnagar, Purba Medinipur Assembly constituency|Ramnagar]]
|-
!218
|[[Egra Assembly constituency|Egra]]
|-
|[[Paschim Medinipur district|Paschim Medinipur]]
!219
|[[Dantan Assembly constituency|Dantan]]
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Jhargram district|Jhargram]]
!220
|[[Nayagram Assembly constituency|Nayagram (ST)]]
|-
!221
|[[Gopiballavpur Assembly constituency|Gopiballavpur]]
|-
!222
|[[Jhargram Assembly constituency|Jhargram]]
|-
| rowspan="14" | [[Paschim Medinipur district|Paschim Medinipur]]
!223
|[[Keshiary Assembly constituency|Keshiary (ST)]]
|-
!224
|[[Kharagpur Sadar Assembly constituency|Kharagpur Sadar]]
|-
!225
|[[Narayangarh Assembly constituency|Narayangarh]]
|-
!226
|[[Sabang Assembly constituency|Sabang]]
|-
!227
|[[Pingla Assembly constituency|Pingla]]
|-
!228
|[[Kharagpur Assembly constituency|Kharagpur]]
|-
!229
|[[Debra Assembly constituency|Debra]]
|-
!230
|[[Daspur Assembly constituency|Daspur]]
|-
!231
|[[Ghatal Assembly constituency|Ghatal]]
|-
!232
|[[Chandrakona Assembly constituency|Chandrakona (SC)]]
|-
!233
|[[Garbeta Assembly constituency|Garbeta]]
|-
!234
|[[Salboni Assembly constituency|Salboni]]
|-
!235
|[[Keshpur Assembly constituency|Keshpur]]
|-
!236
|[[Medinipur Assembly constituency|Medinipur]]
|-
|[[Jhargram district|Jhargram]]
!237
|[[Binpur Assembly constituency|Binpur (ST)]]
|-
| rowspan="9" | [[Purulia district|Purulia]]
!238
|[[Bandwan Assembly constituency|Bandwan (ST)]]
|-
!239
|[[Balarampur, Purulia Assembly constituency|Balarampur]]
|-
!240
|[[Baghmundi Assembly constituency|Baghmundi]]
|-
!241
|[[Joypur, Purulia Assembly constituency|Joypur]]
|-
!242
|[[Purulia Assembly constituency|Purulia]]
|-
!243
|[[Manbazar Assembly constituency|Manbazar (ST)]]
|-
!244
|[[Kashipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Kashipur]]
|-
!245
|[[Para Assembly constituency|Para (SC)]]
|-
!246
|[[Raghunathpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Raghunathpur (SC)]]
|-
| rowspan="12" | [[Bankura district|Bankura]]
!247
|[[Saltora Assembly constituency|Saltora (SC)]]
|-
!248
|[[Chhatna Assembly constituency|Chhatna]]
|-
!249
|[[Ranibandh Assembly constituency|Ranibandh (ST)]]
|-
!250
|[[Raipur, Bankura Assembly constituency|Raipur (ST)]]
|-
!251
|[[Taldangra Assembly constituency|Taldangra]]
|-
!252
|[[Bankura Assembly constituency|Bankura]]
|-
!253
|[[Barjora Assembly constituency|Barjora]]
|-
!254
|[[Onda Assembly constituency|Onda]]
|-
!255
|[[Bishnupur, Bankura Assembly constituency|Bishnupur]]
|-
!256
|[[Katulpur|Katulpur (SC)]]
|-
!257
|[[Indas Assembly constituency|Indas (SC)]]
|-
!258
|[[Sonamukhi Assembly constituency|Sonamukhi (SC)]]
|-
| rowspan="16" |[[Purba Bardhaman district|Purba Bardhaman]]
!259
|[[Khandaghosh Assembly constituency|Khandaghosh (SC)]]
|-
!260
|[[Bardhaman Dakshin]]
|-
!261
|[[Raina Assembly constituency|Raina (SC)]]
|-
!262
|[[Jamalpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Jamalpur (SC)]]
|-
!263
|[[Monteswar Assembly constituency|Monteswar]]
|-
!264
|[[Kalna Assembly constituency|Kalna (SC)]]
|-
!265
|[[Memari Assembly constituency|Memari]]
|-
!266
|[[Bardhaman Uttar|Bardhaman Uttar (SC)]]
|-
!267
|[[Bhatar Assembly constituency|Bhatar]]
|-
!268
|[[Purbasthali Dakshin]]
|-
!269
|[[Purbasthali Uttar]]
|-
!270
|[[Katwa Assembly constituency|Katwa]]
|-
!271
|[[Ketugram Assembly constituency|Ketugram]]
|-
!272
|[[Mangalkot Assembly constituency|Mangalkot]]
|-
!273
|[[Ausgram Assembly constituency|Ausgram (SC)]]
|-
!274
|[[Galsi Assembly constituency|Galsi (SC)]]
|-
| rowspan="9" | [[Paschim Bardhaman district|Paschim Bardhaman]]
!275
|[[Pandabeswar Assembly constituency|Pandabeswar]]
|-
!276
|[[Durgapur Purba]]
|-
!277
|[[Durgapur Paschim]]
|-
!278
|[[Raniganj, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Raniganj]]
|-
!279
|[[Jamuria Assembly constituency|Jamuria]]
|-
!280
|[[Asansol Dakshin Assembly constituency|Asansol Dakshin]]
|-
!281
|[[Asansol Uttar Assembly constituency|Asansol Uttar]]
|-
!282
|[[Kulti Assembly constituency|Kulti]]
|-
!283
|[[Barabani Assembly constituency|Barabani]]
|-
| rowspan="11" | [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]]
!284
|[[Dubrajpur Assembly constituency|Dubrajpur (SC)]]
|-
!285
|[[Suri Assembly constituency|Suri]]
|-
!286
|[[Bolpur Assembly constituency|Bolpur]]
|-
!287
|[[Nanoor Assembly constituency|Nanoor (SC)]]
|-
!288
|[[Labpur Assembly constituency|Labpur]]
|-
!289
|[[Sainthia Assembly constituency|Sainthia (SC)]]
|-
!290
|[[Mayureswar Assembly constituency|Mayureswar]]
|-
!291
|[[Rampurhat Assembly constituency|Rampurhat]]
|-
!292
|[[Hansan Assembly constituency|Hansan]]
|-
!293
|[[Nalhati Assembly constituency|Nalhati]]
|-
!294
|[[Murarai Assembly constituency|Murarai]]
|}

==Voting==
79.22% voting was recorded in the third phase of West Bengal polls held on 21 April 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/7373-west-bengal-election-fourth-phase-live-voting-updates.html|title=Assembly Election Results Dates Candidate List Opinion/Exit Poll Latest News, Political Consulting Survey Election Campaign Management Company India|website=infoelections.com}}</ref>
79.51% voting was recorded in second phase of West Bengal polls.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/assams-85-has-pollsters-riveted/article8462872.ece|title=Assam's 85% has pollsters riveted|newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 April 2016|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/zyVwmJTO0g3FarxLge56AJ/Second-day-of-polling-in-Assam-West-Bengal-begins.html|title=Assam, West Bengal see high voter turnout in assembly elections|author1=Anuja|first2=Gyan |last2=Varma|date=11 April 2016|website=mint}}</ref>

==Surveys and polls==
===Exit poll===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;font-size:80%;line-height:20px;"
|-
! rowspan="2" class="wikitable" style="width:180px;" | Polling Agency
| bgcolor= "{{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}" |
| bgcolor="{{party color|Sanjukta Morcha}}" |
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| style="background:gray;" |
|-
! class="wikitable" style="width:70px;"| [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
! class="wikitable" style="width:70px;"| [[Secular Democratic Alliance|SDA]]
! class="wikitable" style="width:70px;"| [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
! class="wikitable" style="width:70px;"| Others
|-
![[ABP News]]–[[Nielsen Corporation|Nielsen]]
| style="background:#B0F4B0"|163
|126
|1
|4
|-
![[India Today]]-Axis
| style="background:#B0F4B0"|243
|44
|4
|3
|-
![[Times Now]]–[[CVoter]]
| style="background:#B0F4B0"|167
|120
|4
|3
|-
![[News 24 (India)|News 24]]–Today's Chanakya
| style="background:#B0F4B0"|210
|70
|14
| {{dash}}
|-
![[NDTV]]
| style="background:#B0F4B0"|184
|103
|5
|2
|-
!'''BRACE'''-[[News Time]]-খবর ৩৬৫ দিন
| style="background:#B0F4B0"|214
|72
|3
|5
|}

==Result==
=== Results by Parties ===

The election results were announced along with other four state assemblies on 19 May 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=NDTV Live Results|url=http://www.ndtv.com/elections|access-date=19 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://infoelections.com/infoelection/index.php/kolkata/180-wbresult2011.html|title=Assembly Election Results Dates Candidate List Opinion/Exit Poll Latest News, Political Consulting Survey Election Campaign Management Company India|website=infoelections.com}}</ref> [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]] won 211 seats, and thus was reelected with an enhanced majority. They also became the first ruling party to win without an ally since 1962 in West Bengal.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/west-bengal/after-sweeping-polls-in-west-bengal-tmcs-legislative-party-to-meet-in-kolkata-today_1887311.html | title=It's 'Mamata wave' in West Bengal as voters reject Congress-Left alliance | publisher=[[Zee News]] | work=Ritesh K Srivastava | date=20 May 2016 | access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption='''Vote share by alliance'''
|label1 = [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC+]]
|value1 = 44.91
|color1 = {{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|label3 = [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
|value3 = 10.67
|color3 = {{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}
|label2 = [[Secular Democratic Alliance|SDA]]
|value2 = 39.16
|color2 = {{party color|Sanjukta Morcha}}
|label4 = [[None of the above|NOTA]]
|value4 = 1.52
|color4 = White
|label5 = [[Independent politician|IND]]
|value5 = 1.49
|color5 = Black
|label6 = Others
|value6 = 2.26
|color6 = #C1C1C1
}}

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = '''Vote share by Party'''
| label1 = [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
| value1 = 44.91
| color1 = {{party color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
| label4 = [[Bharatiya Janata party|BJP]]
| value4 = 10.16
| color4 = {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| label3 = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| value3 = 19.75
| color3 = {{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
| label2 = [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| value2 = 12.25
| color2 = {{party color|Indian National Congress}}
| label6 = [[Independent politician|IND]]
| value6 = 2.16
| color6 = Black
| label5 = [[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
| value5 = 2.82
| color5 = {{party color|All India Forward Bloc}}
| label7 = [[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
| value7 = 1.67
| color7 = {{party color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
| label8 = [[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
| value8 = 1.45
| color8 = {{party color|Communist Party of India}}
| label9 = [[Gorkha Janmukti Morcha|GJM]]
| value9 = 0.47
| color9 = {{party color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
| label10 = [[Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)|DSP]]
| value10 = 0.31
| color10 = {{party color|Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)}}
| label11 = [[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]]
| value11 = 0.13
| color11 = {{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
| label12 = [[Samajwadi Party|SP]]
| value12 = 0.08
| color12 = {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}
| label13 = [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]
| value13 = 0.03
| color13 = {{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
| label14 = [[None of the above|NOTA]]
| value14 = 1.52
| color14 = White
| label15 = Others
| value15 = 2.29
| color15 = #C1C1C1
}}

<section begin="Results" />{{election table|sortable=yes}}
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Parties and coalitions
! colspan="3" |2016 West Bengal Bidhan Sabha Election
! colspan="3" |Seats
|- valign="top"
! Votes
!%||'''±'''[[Percentage point|pp]]|| Contested || Won ||'''+/−'''
|-
| {{party color cell|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|[[All India Trinamool Congress]] (AITC) ||{{formatnum:24564523}}
|44.91
|{{increase}}||293 || 211
||{{nowrap|{{increase}}27}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
| [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPM) ||{{formatnum:10802058}}
|19.75||{{nowrap|{{decrease}}}}||148||26
||{{decrease}}14
|-
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
| [[Indian National Congress]] (INC)
|{{formatnum:6700938}}
|12.25|||{{increase}}||92|| 44
||{{increase}}2
|-
| {{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) ||{{formatnum:5555134}}
|10.16||{{increase}}||291||3
||{{increase}}3
|-
| {{party color cell|All India Forward Bloc}}
|[[All India Forward Bloc]] (AIFB)
|{{formatnum:1543764}}
|2.82
|{{decrease}}1.98
|25
|2
|{{decrease}}9
|-
| {{party color cell|Independent politician}}
|[[Independent politician|Independents]] (IND)||{{formatnum:1184047}}
|2.16||{{decrease}}0.97|| 371
|1
||{{decrease}}1
|-
| {{party color cell|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|Revolutionary Socialist Party]] (RSP)
|{{formatnum:911004}}
|1.67
|{{decrease}}1.33
|19
|3
|{{decrease}}4
|-
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India}}
|[[Communist Party of India]] (CPI)
|{{formatnum:791925}}
|1.45
|{{decrease}}0.35
|11
|1
|{{decrease}}1
|-
| {{party color cell|Socialist Unity Centre of India}}
|[[Socialist Unity Centre of India]] (SUCI)||{{formatnum:365996}}
|0.67||{{increase}}0.23|| 182
|0
||{{decrease}}1
|-
| {{party color cell|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|[[Gorkha Janmukti Morcha]] (GOJAM)
|{{formatnum:254626}}
|0.47
|{{decrease}}0.25
|5
|3
|{{Steady}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)}}
|[[Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)|Democratic Socialist Party]] (DSP)
|{{formatnum:167576}}
|0.31
|{{decrease}}0.04
|2
|0
|{{decrease}}1
|-
| {{party color cell|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]] (NCP)
|{{formatnum:69898}}
|0.13
|{{increase}}0.10
|1
|0
|{{Steady}}
|-
| {{party color cell|Samajwadi Party}}
|[[Samajwadi Party]] (SP)
|{{formatnum:46402}}
|0.08
|{{decrease}}0.66
|23
|0
|{{decrease}}1
|-
| {{party color cell|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|[[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] (RJD)
|{{formatnum:15439}}
|0.03
|{{decrease}}0.02
|1
|0
|{{Steady}}
|-
| {{party color cell|None of the Above}}
|[[None of the above|None of the Above]] (NOTA)
|{{formatnum:831848}}
|1.52
|{{increase}}1.52
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#E9E9E9" |
|-
|- class="unsortable" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"
! colspan="9" |
|-
| colspan="2" |'''Total'''|| '''{{formatnum:54697791}}'''
|'''100.0'''
| bgcolor="#E9E9E9" |
|'''2255'''
| '''294''' ||'''±0'''
|-
! colspan="9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" |Valid votes
| align="right" |{{formatnum:54697791}}
| align="right" |99.92
| colspan="4" rowspan="5" style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" |Invalid votes
| align="right" |{{formatnum:44622}}
| align="right" |0.08
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" |'''Votes cast / turnout'''
| align="right" |'''{{formatnum:54742413}}'''
| align="right" |'''83.02'''
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" |Abstentions
| align="right" |{{formatnum:11196593}}
| align="right" |16.98
|-
| style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" |'''Registered voters'''
| align="right" | '''{{formatnum:65939006}}'''
|colspan="1" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|-
|}<section end="Results" />

===Results by polling phase===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
!rowspan=2|Phase
!rowspan=2|Seats
|bgcolor="{{party color|Trinamool Congress}}"|
|bgcolor="{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}}"|
|bgcolor="{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}"|
|bgcolor="{{party color|Independent}}"|
|-
!class="wikitable"|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
!class="wikitable"|[[Secular Democratic Alliance|SDA]]
!class="wikitable"|[[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
!class="wikitable"|Others
|-
|-
!First A
|18
| {{party color cell|Trinamool Congress}}16
|2
|0
|0
|-
!First B
|31
| {{party color cell|Trinamool Congress}}20
|10
|1
|0
|-
!Second
|56
|25
|{{party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}26
|5
|0
|-
!Third
|62
| {{party color cell|Trinamool Congress}}38
|24
|0
|0
|-
!Fourth
|49
| {{party color cell|Trinamool Congress}}42
|7
|0
|0
|-
!Fifth
|53
| {{party color cell|Trinamool Congress}}49
|4
|0
|0
|-
!Sixth
|25
| {{party color cell|Trinamool Congress}}21
|4
|0
|0
|-
! Total
! 294
|{{party color cell|Trinamool Congress}}211
|77
|6
|0
|}

===Results by region===
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="75%" style="text-align:center;"
!rowspan="3"|Region
!rowspan="3"|District
!rowspan="3"|Seats
|colspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Trinamool Congress}}"|
|colspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}}"|
|colspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}"|
|colspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Independent}}"|
|-
!colspan="2" class="wikitable"|[[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
!colspan="2" class="wikitable"|[[Secular Democratic Alliance|SDA]]
!colspan="2" class="wikitable"|[[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
!colspan="2" class="wikitable"|Others
|-
!Won
!±
!Won
!±
!Won
!±
!Won
!±
|-
! rowspan=7| North Bengal
| [[Cooch Behar district|Cooch Behar]]
|9
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |8
|{{up}} 3
|1
|{{down}} 3
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Alipurduar district|Alipurduar]]
|5
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |4
|{{up}} 2
|0
|{{down}} 2
|1
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]]
|7
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |6
|{{up}} 2
|1
|{{down}} 2
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]]
|6
|0
|{{down}} 3
|3
|{{up}} 3
|3
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Uttar Dinajpur district|Uttar Dinajpur]]
|9
|4
|{{down}} 1
|style="background:{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}} ; color:white;" |5
|{{up}} 2
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{down}} 1
|-
| [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|Dakshin Dinajpur]]
|6
|2
|{{down}} 3
|style="background:{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}} ; color:white;" |4
|{{up}} 3
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Malda district|Malda]]
|12
|0
|{{down}} 9
|style="background:{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}} ; color:white;" |11
|{{up}} 8
|1
|{{up}} 1
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
! colspan=2|Total || 54 || 24 || {{down}} 9 || style="background:{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}} ; color:white;" | 25 || {{up}} 9 || 5 || {{up}} 1 || 0 || {{down}} 1
|-
! rowspan=9| South Bengal
| [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]]
|22
|4
|{{down}} 11
|style="background:{{party color|Secular Democratic Alliance}} ; color:white;" |18
|{{up}} 11
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Nadia district|Nadia]]
|17
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |13
|{{down}} 1
|4
|{{up}} 1
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[North 24 Parganas district|North 24 Parganas]]
|33
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |27
|{{down}} 2
|6
|{{up}} 2
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[South 24 Parganas]]
|31
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |29
|{{up}} 2
|2
|{{down}} 2
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Kolkata district|Kolkata]]
|11
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |11
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Howrah district|Howrah]]
|16
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |15
|{{down}} 1
|1
|{{up}} 1
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]]
|18
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |16
|{{steady}}
|2
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Purba Medinipur district|Purba Medinipur]]
|16
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |13
|{{down}} 3
|3
|{{up}} 3
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Paschim Medinipur district|Paschim Medinipur]]
|19
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |17
|{{up}} 7
|1
|{{down}} 8
|1
|{{up}} 1
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
! colspan=2|Total || 183 || style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |145 || {{down}} 9 || 37 || {{up}} 8 || 1 || {{up}} 1 || 0 || {{steady}}
|-
! rowspan=4| Rarh Banga
| [[Purulia district|Purulia]]
|9
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |7
|{{steady}}
|2
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Bankura district|Bankura]]
|12
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |7
|{{down}} 1
|5
|{{up}} 1
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Bardhaman district|Bardhaman]]
|25
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |19
|{{up}} 4
|6
|{{down}} 4
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
| [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]]
|11
|style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |9
|{{up}} 1
|2
|{{down}} 1
|0
|{{steady}}
|0
|{{steady}}
|-
! colspan=2|Total || 57 || style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |42 || {{up}} 4 || 15 || {{down}} 4 || 0 || {{steady}} || 0 || {{steady}}
|-
! colspan=2|Total
!294
! style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |211
! {{down}} 14
!77
! {{up}} 13
!6{{efn|NDA won 6 seats: BJP won 3 seats and its ally GJM won 3 seats.}}
! {{up}} 2
!0
! {{down}} 1
|}

=== Results by constituency ===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="2" |Constituency
! colspan="4" |Winner
! colspan="4" |Runner-up
! rowspan="2" data-sort-type=number|Margin
|-
! No.
! Name
! Candidate
! colspan="2" |Party
! data-sort-type=number|Votes
! Candidate
! colspan="2" |Party
! data-sort-type=number|Votes
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Cooch Behar district|'''Cooch Behar district''']]
|-
|1
|[[Mekliganj Assembly constituency|Mekliganj]] (SC)
|[[Arghya Roy Pradhan]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|74,823
|[[Paresh Chandra Adhikary]]
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|68,186
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |6,637
|-
|2
|[[Mathabhanga Assembly constituency|Mathabhanga]] (SC)
|[[Binay Krishna Barman]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|96,383
|Khagen Chandra Barman
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|64,465
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |31,918
|-
|3
| [[Cooch Behar Uttar Assembly constituency|Cooch Behar Uttar]] (SC)
|[[Nagendra Nath Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|97,629
|Parimal Barman
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|85,336
| style="background:{{party color|All India Forward Bloc}} ; color:white;" |12,293
|-
|4
| [[Cooch Behar Dakshin Assembly constituency|Cooch Behar Dakshin]]
|[[Mihir Goswami]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|82,849
|Debasis Banik
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|64,654
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |18,195
|-
|5
|[[Sitalkuchi Assembly constituency|Sitalkuchi]] (SC)
|[[Hiten Barman]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|1,01,647
|Namadipti Adhikary
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|86,164
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |15,483
|-
|6
|[[Sitai Assembly constituency|Sitai]] (SC)
|[[Jagadish Chandra Barma Basunia|Jagadish Barma Basunia]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|1,03,410
|Keshab Chandra Ray
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|78,159
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |25,251
|-
|7
|[[Dinhata Assembly constituency|Dinhata]]
|[[Udayan Guha]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|1,00,732
|Akshay Thakur
|{{Party name with color|All India Forward Bloc}}
|78,939
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |21,793
|-
|8
|[[Natabari Assembly constituency|Natabari]]
|[[Rabindra Nath Ghosh]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|93,257
|Tamser Ali
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|77,100
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |16,157
|-
|9
|[[Tufanganj Assembly constituency|Tufanganj]]
|[[Fazal Karim Miah]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|85,052
|Shyamal Chowdhury
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|69,782
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |15,270
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Alipurduar district|'''Alipurduar district''']]
|-
|10
|[[Kumargram Assembly constituency|Kumargram]] (ST)
|[[James Kujur]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|77,668
|Manoj Kumar Oraon
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|71,515
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |6,153
|-
|11
|[[Kalchini Assembly constituency|Kalchini]] (ST)
|[[Wilson Champramary]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|62,061
|[[Bishal Lama]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|60,550
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |1,511
|-
|12
|[[Alipurduars Assembly constituency|Alipurduars]]
|[[Sourav Chakraborty (politician)|Sourav Chakraborty]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|89,695
|Biswa Ranjan Sarkar
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|77,737
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |11,958
|-
|13
|[[Falakata Assembly constituency|Falakata]]
|[[Anil Adhikari (politician)|Anil Adhikari]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|86,647
|Kshitish Chandra Ray
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|69,808
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |16,839
|-
|14
|[[Madarihat Assembly constituency|Madarihat]]
|[[Manoj Tigga]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|66,989
|Padam Lama
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|44,951
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |22,038
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Jalpaiguri district|'''Jalpaiguri district''']]
|-
|15
|[[Dhupguri Assembly constituency|Dhupguri]] (SC)
|[[Mitali Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|90,781
| [[Mamata Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|71,517
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |19,264
|-
|16
|[[Maynaguri Assembly constituency|Maynaguri]] (SC)
|[[Ananta Deb Adhikari]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|1,00,837
|Chhaya Dey
|{{Party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|65,930
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |34,907
|-
|17
|[[Jalpaiguri Assembly constituency|Jalpaiguri]] (SC)
|[[Sukhbilas Barma]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|94,553
|Dhartimohan Roy
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|89,396
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |5,157
|-
|18
|[[Rajganj Assembly constituency|Rajganj]] (SC)
|[[Khageswar Roy]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|89,785
|Satyendra Nath Mondal
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|75,108
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |14,677
|-
|19
|[[Dabgram-Phulbari Assembly constituency|Dabgram-Phulbari]]
|[[Goutam Deb]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|1,05,769
|Dilip Singh
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|81,958
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |23,811
|-
|20
|[[Mal Assembly constituency|Mal]] (ST)
|[[Bulu Chik Baraik]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|84,877
|Augustus Kerketta
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|66,415
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |18,462
|-
|21
|[[Nagrakata Assembly constituency|Nagrakata]] (ST)
|[[Sukra Munda]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|57,306
|[[Joseph Munda]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|54,078
| style="background:{{party color|Trinamool Congress}} ; color:white;" |3,228
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Kalimpong district|'''Kalimpong district''']]
|-
|22
|[[Kalimpong Assembly constituency|Kalimpong]]
|[[Sarita Rai]]
|{{Party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|67,693
|Harka Bahadur Chhetri
|{{Party name with color|Jana Andolan Party}}
|56,262
| style="background:{{party color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |11,431
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Darjeeling district|'''Darjeeling district''']]
|-
|23
|[[Darjeeling Assembly constituency|Darjeeling]]
|[[Amar Singh Rai]]
|{{Party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|95,386
|Sarda Rai Subba
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|45,473
| style="background:{{party color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |49,913
|-
|24
|[[Kurseong Assembly constituency|Kurseong]]
|[[Rohit Sharma (West Bengal politician)|Rohit Sharma]]
|{{Party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|86,947
|[[Shanta Chhetri]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|53,221
| style="background:{{party color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |33,726
|-
|25
|[[Matigara-Naxalbari Assembly constituency|Matigara-Naxalbari]] (SC)
|[[Sankar Malakar|Shankar Malakar]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|86,441
|Amar Sinha
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|67,814
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |18,627
|-
|26
|[[Siliguri Assembly constituency|Siliguri]]
|[[Ashok Bhattacharya]]
|{{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|78,054
| [[Bhaichung Bhutia]]
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|63,982
| style="background:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}} ; color:white;" |14,072
|-
| 27
| [[Phansidewa Assembly constituency|Phansidewa]] (ST)
| [[Sunil Chandra Tirkey]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|73,158
|Carolus Lakra
|{{Party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|66,084
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |7,074
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Uttar Dinajpur district|'''Uttar Dinajpur district''']]
|-
|28
|[[Chopra Assembly constituency|Chopra]]
|[[Hamidul Rahman|Hamidul Rahaman]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|74390
|Akramul Hoque
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|57530
|16860
|-
|29
|[[Islampur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Islampur]]
|[[Kanaia Lal Agarwal]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|65559
|Abdul Karim Chowdhury
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|57841
|7718
|-
|30
|[[Goalpokhar Assembly constituency|Goalpokhar]]
|[[Md. Ghulam Rabbani]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|64869
| Afjal Hosen
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|57121
|7748
|-
|31
|[[Chakulia Assembly constituency|Chakulia]]
|[[Ali Imran Ramz|Ali Imran Ramz (Victor)]]
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|64185
|Ashim Kumar Mridha
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|36656
|27529
|-
|32
|[[Karandighi Assembly constituency|Karandighi]]
|[[Manodeb Sinha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|54599
|Gokul Roy
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|51367
|3232
|-
|33
|[[Hemtabad Assembly constituency|Hemtabad]]
|[[Debendra Nath Roy]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|80419
|Sabita Kshetry
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|67283
|13136
|-
|34
|[[Kaliaganj Assembly constituency|Kaliaganj]]
|[[Pramatha Nath Ray]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|112868
|Basanta Roy
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|66266
|46602
|-
|35
|[[Raiganj Assembly constituency|Raiganj]]
|[[Mohit Sengupta]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|87983
|Purnendu Dey
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|36736
|51247
|-
|36
|[[Itahar Assembly constituency|Itahar]]
|[[Amal Acharjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|88507
|[[Srikumar Mukherjee]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|69387
|19120
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|'''Dakshin Dinajpur district''']]
|-
|37
|[[Kushmandi Assembly constituency|Kushmandi]]
|[[Narmada Chandra Roy]]
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|68965
|Rekha Roy
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|65436
|4529
|-
|38
|[[Kumarganj Assembly constituency|Kumarganj]]
|[[Toraf Hossain Mandal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|64501
|Mafuja Khatun
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|61005
|3496
|-
|39
|[[Balurghat Assembly constituency|Balurghat]]
|[[Biswanath Chowdhury|Biswanath Choudhury]]
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|60590
|[[Sankar Chakraborty|Shankar Chakravorti]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|59140
|1450
|-
|40
|[[Tapan Assembly constituency|Tapan]]
|[[Bachchu Hansda]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|72511
|Raghu Urow
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|68110
|4401
|-
|41
|[[Gangarampur Assembly constituency|Gangarampur]]
|[[Goutam Das (politician)|Goutam Das]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|80401
|Satyendra Nath Roy
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|69668
|10733
|-
|42
|[[Harirampur Assembly constituency|Harirampur]]
|[[Rafikul Islam]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|71447
|[[Biplab Mitra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|66943
|4504
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Malda district|'''Malda district''']]
|-
|43
|[[Habibpur Assembly constituency|Habibpur]]
|[[Khagen Murmu]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|64095
|Amal Kisku
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|61583
|2512
|-
|44
|[[Gazole Assembly constituency|Gazole]]
|[[Dipali Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|85949
|Sushil Chandra Roy
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|65347
|20602
|-
|45
|[[Chanchal Assembly constituency|Chanchal]]
|[[Asif Mehbub]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|92590
|Soumitra Ray
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|40222
|52368
|-
|46
|[[Harishchandrapur Assembly constituency|Harishchandrapur]]
|[[Mostaque Alam]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|60047
|[[Tajmul Hossain]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|42190
|17857
|-
|47
|[[Malatipur Assembly constituency|Malatipur]]
|[[Alberuni Zulkarnain]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|50643
|[[Abdur Rahim Boxi]]
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|48043
|2610
|-
|48
|[[Ratua Assembly constituency|Ratua]]
|[[Samar Mukherjee (Malda politician)|Samar Mukherjee]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|96587
|Shehnaz Quadery
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|53312
|43275
|-
|49
|[[Manikchak Assembly constituency|Manikchak]]
|[[Md. Mottakin Alam]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|78472
|[[Sabitri Mitra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|65869
|12603
|-
|50
|[[Maldaha Assembly constituency|Maldaha]]
|[[Bhupendra Nath Halder]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|88243
|Dulal Sarkar
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|54934
|33309
|-
|51
|[[English Bazar Assembly constituency|English Bazar]]
|[[Nihar Ranjan Ghosh]]
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|107183
|[[Krishnendu Narayan Choudhury]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|67456
|39727
|-
|52
|[[Mothabari Assembly constituency|Mothabari]]
|[[Sabina Yeasmin]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|69089
|Md. Najrul Islam
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|30915
|38174
|-
|53
|[[Sujapur Assembly constituency|Sujapur]]
|[[Isha Khan Choudhury]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|97332
|Abu Nasar Khan Choudhury
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|50252
|47080
|-
|54
|[[Baisnabnagar Assembly constituency|Baisnabnagar]]
|[[Swadhin Kumar Sarkar]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|70,185
| Azizul Haque
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|65,688
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |4,497
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Murshidabad district|'''Murshidabad district''']]
|-
|55
|[[Farakka Assembly constituency|Farakka]]
|[[Mainul Haque]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|83314
|Md. Mustafa
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|55147
|28167
|-
|56
|[[Samserganj Assembly constituency|Samserganj]]
|[[Amirul Islam (politician)|Amirul Islam]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|48381
|Touab Ali
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|46601
|1780
|-
|57
|[[Suti Assembly constituency|Suti]]
|[[Humayun Reza]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|84017
|Emani Biswas
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|80067
|3950
|-
|58
|[[Jangipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Jangipur]]
|[[Jakir Hossain (politician)|Jakir Hossain]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|66869
|Somnath Singha Ray
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|46236
|20633
|-
|59
|[[Raghunathganj Assembly constituency|Raghunathganj]]
|[[Akhruzzaman]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|78497
|Abul Kasem Molla
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|54711
|23786
|-
|60
|[[Sagardighi Assembly constituency|Sagardighi]]
|[[Subrata Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|44817
|Aminul Islam
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|39603
|5214
|-
|61
|[[Lalgola Assembly constituency|Lalgola]]
|[[Abu Hena (Indian politician)|Abu Hena]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|100110
|Chand Mohammad
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|46635
|53475
|-
|62
|[[Bhagabangola Assembly constituency|Bhagabangola]]
|[[Mahasin Ali]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|105037
|Abu Sufian Sarkar
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|68732
|36305
|-
|63
|[[Raninagar Assembly constituency|Raninagar]]
|[[Firoza Begam]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|111132
|Dr. Humayun Kabir
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|62750
|48382
|-
|64
|[[Murshidabad Assembly constituency|Murshidabad]]
|[[Shaoni Singha Roy]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|94579
|Ashim Krishna Bhatta
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|69440
|25139
|-
|65
|[[Nabagram Assembly constituency|Nabagram]]
|[[Kanai Chandra Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|99545
|Dilip Saha
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|61102
|38443
|-
|66
|[[Khargram Assembly constituency|Khargram]]
|[[Ashis Marjit]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|88913
|Madhab Chandra Marjit
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|55740
|33173
|-
|67
|[[Burwan Assembly constituency|Burwan]]
|[[Protima Rajak]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|55906
|Shasthi Charan Mal
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|40904
|15002
|-
|68
|[[Kandi Assembly constituency|Kandi]]
|[[Apurba Sarkar]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|81723
|[[Santunu Sen|Santanu Sen]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|60943
|20780
|-
|69
|[[Bharatpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bharatpur]]
|[[Kamalesh Chatterjee]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|59789
|Khadem A Dastegir
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|48772
|11017
|-
|70
|[[Rejinagar Assembly constituency|Rejinagar]]
|[[Rabiul Alam Chowdhury]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|79770
|Humayun Kabir
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|74210
|5560
|-
|71
|[[Beldanga Assembly constituency|Beldanga]]
|[[Seikh Safiujjaman]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|87017
|Golam Kibria Mia
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|56736
|30281
|-
|72
|[[Baharampur Assembly constituency|Baharampur]]
|[[Manoj Chakraborty]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|127762
|Sujata Banerjee
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|35489
|92273
|-
|73
|[[Hariharpara Assembly constituency|Hariharpara]]
|[[Niamot Sheikh]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|71502
|Alamgir Mir
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|66499
|5003
|-
|74
|[[Naoda Assembly constituency|Naoda]]
|[[Abu Taher Khan]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|62639
|Masud Karim
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|43377
|19262
|-
|75
|[[Domkal Assembly constituency|Domkal]]
|[[Anisur Rahman (politician, born 1952)|Anisur Rahaman]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|71703
|Soumik Hossain
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|64813
|6890
|-
|76
|[[Jalangi Assembly constituency|Jalangi]]
|[[Abdur Razzak (Murshidabad politician)|Abdur Razzak Mandal]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|96250
|Alok Das
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|70983
|25267
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Nadia district|'''Nadia district''']]
|-
|77
|[[Karimpur Assembly constituency|Karimpur]]
|[[Mahua Moitra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90989
|Samarendranath Ghosh
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|75000
|15989
|-
|78
|[[Tehatta Assembly constituency|Tehatta]]
|[[Gouri Sankar Dutta]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|97611
|Ranjit Kumar Mandal
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|80215
|17394
|-
|79
|[[Palashipara Assembly constituency|Palashipara]]
|[[Tapas Kumar Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|82127
|S.M.Sadi
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|76568
|5559
|-
|80
|[[Kaliganj Assembly constituency|Kaliganj]]
|[[Hasanuzzaman Sk]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|85125
|[[Nasiruddin Ahamed]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|83898
|1227
|-
|81
|[[Nakashipara Assembly constituency|Nakashipara]]
|[[Kallol Khan]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|88032
|Tanmay Ganguli
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|81782
|6250
|-
|82
|[[Chapra, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Chapra]]
|[[Rukbanur Rahman]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|89556
|Shamsul Islam Mollah
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|76093
|13463
|-
|83
|[[Krishnanagar Uttar Assembly constituency|Krishnanagar Uttar]]
|[[Abani Mohan Joardar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|82864
|Asim Kumar Saha
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|69949
|12915
|-
|84
|[[Nabadwip Assembly constituency|Nabadwip]]
|[[Pundarikakshya Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|102228
|Sumit Biswas
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|66432
|35397
|-
|85
|[[Krishnanagar Dakshin Assembly constituency|Krishnanagar Dakshin]]
|[[Ujjal Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|80711
|Meghlal Sheikh
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|67897
|12814
|-
|86
|[[Santipur Assembly constituency|Santipur]]
|[[Arindam Bhattacharya (politician)|Arindam Bhattacharya]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|103566
|[[Ajoy Dey]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84078
|19488
|-
|87
|[[Ranaghat Uttar Paschim Assembly constituency|Ranaghat Uttar Paschim]]
|[[Shankar Singha|Sankar Singha]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|109607
|Parthasarathi Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|86187
|23420
|-
|88
|[[Krishnaganj Assembly constituency|Krishnaganj]]
|[[Satyajit Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|114626
|Mrinal Biswas
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|70698
|43928
|-
|89
|[[Ranaghat Uttar Purba Assembly constituency|Ranaghat Uttar Purba]]
|[[Samir Kumar Poddar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93215
|Babusona Sarkar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|78243
|14972
|-
|90
|[[Ranaghat Dakshin Assembly constituency|Ranaghat Dakshin]]
|[[Rama Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|104159
|[[Abir Biswas|Abir Ranjan Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
| [[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|86906
|17253
|-
|91
|[[Chakdaha Assembly constituency|Chakdaha]]
|[[Ratna Ghosh Kar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94241
|Biswanath Gupta
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|70588
|23653
|-
|92
|[[Kalyani Assembly constituency|Kalyani]]
|[[Ramendra Nath Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|95795
|[[Alakesh Das]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|69700
|26095
|-
|93
|[[Haringhata Assembly constituency|Haringhata]]
|[[Nilima Nag]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94530
|Ajoy Das
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|73181
|21349
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[North 24 Parganas district|'''North 24 Parganas district''']]
|-
| 94
| [[Bagdah Assembly constituency|Bagdah]]
|[[Dulal Chandra Bar]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|102026
|[[U. N. Biswas|Upendra Nath Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|89790
|12236
|-
|95
|[[Bangaon Uttar Assembly constituency|Bangaon Uttar]]
|[[Biswajit Das (politician)|Biswajit Das]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|95822
|Sushanta Bowali
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|62630
|33192
|-
|96
|[[Bangaon Dakshin Assembly constituency|Bangaon Dakshin]]
|[[Surajit Kumar Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|92379
|Ramendranath Audhya
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|65475
|26904
|-
|97
|[[Gaighata Assembly constituency|Gaighata]]
|[[Pulin Bihari Ray]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93812
|Kapil Krishna Thakur
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|64240
|29572
|-
|98
|[[Swarupnagar Assembly constituency|Swarupnagar]]
|[[Bina Mondal|Bina Mandal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93807
|Dhiman Sarkar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|81866
|11941
|-
|99
|[[Baduria Assembly constituency|Baduria]]
|[[Abdur Rahim Quazi]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|98408
|Amir Ali
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|76163
|22245
|-
|100
|[[Habra Assembly constituency|Habra]]
|[[Jyotipriya Mallick]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|101590
|Ashis Kantha Mukherjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|55643
|45947
|-
|101
|[[Ashoknagar Assembly constituency|Ashokenagar]]
|[[Dhiman Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|98042
|Satyasebi Kar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|75143
|22899
|-
|102
|[[Amdanga Assembly constituency|Amdanga]]
|[[Rafiqur Rahaman]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|96193
|[[Abdus Sattar (West Bengal politician)|Abdus Sattar]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|73228
|22965
|-
|103
|[[Bijpur Assembly constituency|Bijpur]]
|[[Subhranshu Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|76842
|Rabindra Nath Mukherjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|28888
|47954
|-
|104
|[[Naihati Assembly constituency|Naihati]]
|[[Partha Bhowmick]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|74057
|Gargi Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|45429
|28628
|-
|105
|[[Bhatpara Assembly constituency|Bhatpara]]
|[[Arjun Singh (politician, born 1962)|Arjun Singh]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|59253
|Jitendra Shaw
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|30318
|28935
|-
|106
|[[Jagatdal Assembly constituency|Jagatdal]]
|[[Parash Dutta]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|76712
|Haripada Biswas
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|49667
|27045
|-
|107
|[[Noapara Assembly constituency|Noapara]]
|[[Madhusudan Ghose]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|79548
|Manju Basu
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|78453
|1095
|-
|108
|[[Barrackpore Assembly constituency|Barrackpore]]
|[[Silbhadra Dutta]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|58109
|Debasish Bhowmick
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|50790
|7319
|-
|109
|[[Khardaha Assembly constituency|Khardaha]]
|[[Amit Mitra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|83688
|[[Asim Dasgupta]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|62488
|21200
|-
|110
|[[Dum Dum Uttar Assembly constituency|Dum Dum Uttar]]
|[[Tanmoy Bhattacharya]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|91959
|[[Chandrima Bhattacharya]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|85410
|6549
|-
|111
|[[Panihati Assembly constituency|Panihati]]
|[[Nirmal Ghosh]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|73545
|Sanmoy Bandyopadhyay
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|70515
|3030
|-
|112
|[[Kamarhati Assembly constituency|Kamarhati]]
|[[Manash Mukherjee]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|62194
|[[Madan Mitra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|57996
|4202
|-
|113
|[[Baranagar Assembly constituency|Baranagar]]
|[[Tapas Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|76531
|Sukumar Ghosh
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|60431
|16100
|-
|114
|[[Dum Dum Assembly constituency|Dum Dum]]
|[[Bratya Basu]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|81579
|Palash Das
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|72263
|9316
|-
|115
|[[Rajarhat New Town Assembly constituency|Rajarhat New Town]]
|[[Sabyasachi Dutta]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90671
|Narendra Nath Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|81478
|9193
|-
|116
|[[Bidhannagar Assembly constituency|Bidhannagar]]
|[[Sujit Bose (politician)|Sujit Bose]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|66130
|[[Arunava Ghosh]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|59142
|6988
|-
|117
|[[Rajarhat Gopalpur Assembly constituency|Rajarhat Gopalpur]]
|[[Purnendo Bose|Purnendu Basu]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|72793
|[[Nepaldev Bhattacharjee|Nepaldeb Bhattacharjee]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|65919
|6874
|-
|118
|[[Madhyamgram Assembly constituency|Madhyamgram]]
|[[Rathin Ghosh]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|110271
|Tapas Majumder
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|74467
|35804
|-
|119
|[[Barasat Assembly constituency|Barasat]]
|[[Chiranjeet Chakraborty|Chiranjeet Chakrabarti]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|99667
|Sanjib Chattopadhyay
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|74668
|24999
|-
|120
|[[Deganga Assembly constituency|Deganga]]
|[[Rahima Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|97412
|Md. Hasanoor Jaman Chowdhury
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|71422
|25990
|-
|121
|[[Haroa Assembly constituency|Haroa]]
|[[Haji Nurul Islam]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|113001
|Imtiaz Hossain
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|70594
|42407
|-
|122
|[[Minakhan Assembly constituency|Minakhan]]
|[[Usha Rani Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|103210
|Dinabandhu Mondal
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|60612
|42598
|-
|123
|[[Sandeshkhali Assembly constituency|Sandeshkhali]]
|[[Sukumar Mahata]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|96556
|Nirapada Sardar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|58366
|38190
|-
|124
|[[Basirhat Dakshin Assembly constituency|Basirhat Dakshin]]
|[[Dipendu Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|88085
|[[Samik Bhattacharya]]
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|64027
|24058
|-
|125
|[[Basirhat Uttar Assembly constituency|Basirhat Uttar]]
|[[Rafikul Islam Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|97828
|A.T.M. Abdullah
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|97336
|492
|-
|126
|[[Hingalganj Assembly constituency|Hingalganj]]
|[[Debes Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94753
|Anandamay Mandal
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|64449
|30304
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[South 24 Parganas|'''South 24 Parganas district''']]
|-
|127
|[[Gosaba Assembly constituency|Gosaba]]
|[[Jayanta Naskar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90716
|Uttam Kumar Saha
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|71045
|19671
|-
|128
|[[Basanti Assembly constituency|Basanti]]
|[[Gobinda Chandra Naskar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90522
|[[Subhas Naskar]]
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|73915
|16607
|-
|129
|[[Kultali Assembly constituency|Kultali]]
|[[Ram Sankar Halder]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|73932
|Gopal Majhi
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|62212
|11690
|-
|130
|[[Patharpratima Assembly constituency|Patharpratima]]
|[[Samir Kumar Jana]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|107595
|Phanibhushan Giri
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|93802
|13793
|-
|131
|[[Kakdwip Assembly constituency|Kakdwip]]
|[[Manturam Pakhira]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|104750
|Rafik Uddin Molla
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|79831
|24919
|-
|132
|[[Sagar, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Sagar]]
|[[Bankim Chandra Hazra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|112812
|Asim Kumar Mandal
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|94741
|18071
|-
|133
|[[Kulpi Assembly constituency|Kulpi]]
|[[Jogaranjan Halder]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84036
|Rejaul Haque Khan
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|72581
|11455
|-
|134
|[[Raidighi Assembly constituency|Raidighi]]
|[[Debashree Roy|Debasree Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|101161
|[[Kanti Ganguly]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|99932
|1229
|-
|135
|[[Mandirbazar Assembly constituency|Mandirbazar]]
|[[Joydeb Halder]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94339
|Sarat Chandra Haldar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|69400
|24939
|-
|136
|[[Jaynagar Assembly constituency|Jaynagar]]
|[[Biswanath Das]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|64582
|Sujit Patwari
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|49531
|15051
|-
|137
|[[Baruipur Purba Assembly constituency|Baruipur Purba]]
|[[Nirmal Mondal|Nirmal Chandra Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|92313
|Sujoy Mistry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|71951
|20362
|-
|138
|[[Canning Paschim Assembly constituency|Canning Paschim]]
|[[Shyamal Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93498
|Arnab Roy
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|74772
|18726
|-
|139
|[[Canning Purba Assembly constituency|Canning Purba]]
|[[Saokat Molla]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|115264
|Ajijer Rahaman Molla
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| 60230
|55034
|-
|140
|[[Baruipur Paschim Assembly constituency|Baruipur Paschim]]
|[[Biman Banerjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|99945
|Safiuddin Khan
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|63413
|36542
|-
|141
|[[Magrahat Purba Assembly constituency|Magrahat Purba]]
|[[Namita Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|89486
|Chandan Saha
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|79926
|9560
|-
|142
|[[Magrahat Paschim Assembly constituency|Magrahat Paschim]]
|[[Giasuddin Molla]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|87482
|Khalid Ebadullah
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|71593
|15889
|-
|143
|[[Diamond Harbour Assembly constituency|Diamond Harbour]]
|[[Dipak Kumar Halder]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|96833
|[[Abul Hasnat (Magrahat Paschim politician)|Abul Hasnat]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|81796
|15037
|-
|144
|[[Falta Assembly constituency|Falta]]
|[[Tamonash Ghosh]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94381
|Bidhan Parui
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|70801
|23580
|-
|145
|[[Satgachhia Assembly constituency|Satgachia]]
|[[Sonali Guha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|100171
| Paramita Ghosh
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|82899
|17272
|-
|146
|[[Bishnupur, South 24 Parganas Assembly constituency|Bishnupur]]
|[[Dilip Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|107129
|Aloke Sardar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|76499
|30360
|-
|147
|[[Sonarpur Dakshin Assembly constituency|Sonarpur Dakshin]]
|[[Jiban Mukhopadhyay]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|97455
|Tarit Chakraborty
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|82426
|15029
|-
|148
|[[Bhangar Assembly constituency|Bhangar]]
|[[Abdur Razzak Molla]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|102087
|Abdur Rasid Gazi
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|83963
|18124
|-
|149
|[[Kasba, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Kasba]]
|[[Javed Ahmed Khan]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|91679
|Shatarup Ghosh
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|79795
|11884
|-
|150
|[[Jadavpur Assembly constituency|Jadavpur]]
|[[Sujan Chakraborty]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|98977
|[[Manish Gupta (politician)|Manish Gupta]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84035
|14942
|-
|151
|[[Sonarpur Uttar Assembly constituency|Sonarpur Uttar]]
|[[Firdousi Begum]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|101939
|[[Jyotirmoyee Sikdar]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|77059
|24880
|-
|152
|[[Tollyganj Assembly constituency|Tollygunge]]
|[[Aroop Biswas]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90603
|Madhuja Sen Roy
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|80707
|9896
|-
|153
|[[Behala Purba Assembly constituency|Behala Purba]]
|[[Sovan Chatterjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|96621
|Ambikesh Mahapatra
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|72327
|24294
|-
|154
|[[Behala Paschim Assembly constituency|Behala Paschim]]
|[[Partha Chatterjee (politician)|Partha Chatterjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|102114
|Kaustav Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|93218
|8896
|-
|155
|[[Maheshtala Assembly constituency|Maheshtala]]
|[[Kasturi Das]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93675
|[[Samik Lahiri]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|81223
|12452
|-
|156
|[[Budge Budge Assembly constituency|Budge Budge]]
|[[Ashok Kumar Deb]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84058
|Sk. Mujibar Rahaman
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|76899
|7159
|-
|157
|[[Metiaburuz Assembly constituency|Metiaburuz]]
|[[Abdul Khaleque Molla]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|79749
|Monirul Islam
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|61773
|17976
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Kolkata district|'''Kolkata district''']]
|-
|158
|[[Kolkata Port Assembly constituency|Kolkata Port]]
|[[Firhad Hakim]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|73459
|Rakesh Singh
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|46911
|26548
|-
|159
|[[Bhabanipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bhabanipur]]
|[[Mamata Banerjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|65520
|[[Deepa Dasmunshi]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|40219
|25301
|-
|160
|[[Rashbehari Assembly constituency|Rashbehari]]
|[[Sovandeb Chattopadhyay|Sobhandeb Chattopadhyay]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|60857
|Ashutosh Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|46304
|14553
|-
|161
|[[Ballygunge Assembly constituency|Ballygunge]]
|[[Subrata Mukherjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|70083
|Krishna Debnath
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|54858
|15225
|-
|162
|[[Chowrangee Assembly constituency|Chowrangee]]
|[[Nayna Bandyopadhyay]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|55119
|[[Somen Mitra]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|41903
|13216
|-
|163
|[[Entally Assembly constituency|Entally]]
|[[Swarna Kamal Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|75841
|Debesh Das
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|47853
|27988
|-
|164
|[[Beleghata Assembly constituency|Beleghata]]
|[[Paresh Paul]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84843
|Rajib Biswas
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|58664
|26179
|-
|165
|[[Jorasanko Assembly constituency|Jorasanko]]
|[[Smita Bakshi]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|44766
|Rahul Sinha
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|38476
|6290
|-
|166
|[[Shyampukur Assembly constituency|Shyampukur]]
|[[Shashi Panja]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|53507
|Piyali Pal
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|40352
|13155
|-
|167
|[[Maniktala Assembly constituency|Maniktala]]
|[[Sadhan Pande]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|73157
|Rajib Majumder
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|47846
|25311
|-
|168
|[[Kashipur-Belgachhia Assembly constituency|Kashipur-Belgachia]]
|[[Mala Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|72264
|Kaninika Bose (Ghosh)
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|46454
|25810
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Howrah district|'''Howrah district''']]
|-
|169
|[[Bally Assembly constituency|Bally]]
|[[Baishali Dalmiya]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|52702
|Saumendranath Bera
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|37299
|15403
|-
|170
|[[Howrah Uttar Assembly constituency|Howrah Uttar]]
|[[Laxmi Ratan Shukla]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|61917
|Santosh Kumar Pathak
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|34958
|26959
|-
|171
|[[Howrah Madhya Assembly constituency|Howrah Madhya]]
|[[Arup Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|91800
|Amitabha Dutta
|bgcolor=#003366|
|[[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]]
|38806
|52994
|-
|172
|[[Shibpur Assembly constituency|Shibpur]]
|[[Jatu Lahiri]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|88076
|Jagannath Bhattacharyya
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|61062
|27014
|-
|173
|[[Howrah Dakshin Assembly constituency|Howrah Dakshin]]
|[[Brajamohan Mazumder]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93689
|Arindam Basu
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|77495
|16194
|-
|174
|[[Sankrail Assembly constituency|Sankrail]]
|[[Sital Kumar Sardar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|86212
|Samir Malick
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|71455
|14757
|-
|175
|[[Panchla Assembly constituency|Panchla]]
|[[Gulsan Mullick]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|101126
|Doli Roy
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|69199
|31927
|-
|176
|[[Uluberia Purba Assembly constituency|Uluberia Purba]]
|[[Haider Aziz Safwi]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|72192
|Sabiruddin Molla
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|55923
|16269
|-
|177
|[[Uluberia Uttar Assembly constituency|Uluberia Uttar]]
|[[Nirmal Maji|Dr. Nirmal Maji]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|79390
|Amiya Kumar Mondal
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|65208
|14182
|-
|178
|[[Uluberia Dakshin Assembly constituency|Uluberia Dakshin]]
|[[Pulak Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|95902
|Md.Nasiruddin
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|60558
|35344
|-
|179
|[[Shyampur Assembly constituency|Shyampur]]
|[[Kalipada Mandal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|108619
|Amitabha Chakraborty
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|82033
|26586
|-
|180
|[[Bagnan Assembly constituency|Bagnan]]
|[[Arunava Sen (politician)|Arunava Sen]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|97834
|Mina Mukherjee Ghosh
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|67637
|30197
|-
|181
|[[Amta Assembly constituency|Amta]]
|[[Asit Mitra]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|89149
|Tushar Kanti Sil
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84645
|4504
|-
|182
|[[Udaynarayanpur Assembly constituency|Udaynarayanpur]]
|[[Samir Kumar Panja]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94828
|Saroj Ranjan Karar
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|71070
|23758
|-
|183
|[[Jagatballavpur Assembly constituency|Jagatballavpur]]
|[[Abdul Ghani (Indian politician)|Muhammad Abdul Ghani]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|103348
|Baidyanath Basu
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|78667
|24681
|-
|184
|[[Domjur Assembly constituency|Domjur]]
|[[Rajib Banerjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|148768
|Pratima Dutta
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|41067
|107701
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Hooghly district|'''Hooghly district''']]
|-
|185
|[[Uttarpara Assembly constituency|Uttarpara]]
|[[Prabir Kumar Ghosal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84918
|Srutinath Praharaj
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|72918
|12000
|-
|186
|[[Sreerampur Assembly constituency|Sreerampur]]
|[[Sudipto Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|74995
|Subhankar Sarkar
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|65088
|9907
|-
|187
|[[Champdani Assembly constituency|Champdani]]
|[[Abdul Mannan (West Bengal politician)|Abdul Mannan]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|81330
|Muzaffar Khan
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|74048
|7282
|-
|188
|[[Singur Assembly constituency|Singur]]
|[[Rabindranath Bhattacharjee|Rabindranath Bhattacharya]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|96212
|[[Rabin Deb]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|75885
|20327
|-
|189
|[[Chandannagar Assembly constituency|Chandannagar]]
|[[Indranil Sen]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|75727
|Goutam Sarkar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|73613
|2114
|-
|190
|[[Chunchura Assembly constituency|Chunchura]]
|[[Asit Mazumdar|Asit Mazumder]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|118501
|Pranab Kumar Ghosh
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|88817
|29684
|-
|191
|[[Balagarh Assembly constituency|Balagarh]]
|[[Ashim Kumar Majhi]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|96472
|Panchu Gopal Mondal
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|78635
|17837
|-
|192
|[[Pandua Assembly constituency|Pandua]]
|[[Sk. Amjad Hossain]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|91489
|[[Syed Rahim Nabi]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90097
|1392
|-
|193
|[[Saptagram Assembly constituency|Saptagram]]
|[[Tapan Dasgupta]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|88208
|Dilip Nath
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|69641
|18567
|-
|194
|[[Chanditala Assembly constituency|Chanditala]]
|[[Swati Khandoker]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|91874
|Sk. Azim Ali
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|77698
|14176
|-
|195
|[[Jangipara Assembly constituency|Jangipara]]
|[[Snehasis Chakraborty]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|99324
|Pobitra Singha Roy
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|75719
|23605
|-
|196
|[[Haripal Assembly constituency|Haripal]]
|[[Becharam Manna]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|110899
|Jogiyananda Mishra
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|79424
|31475
|-
|197
|[[Dhanekhali Assembly constituency|Dhanekhali]]
|[[Ashima Patra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|125298
|Pradip Majumdar
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|66654
|58644
|-
|198
|[[Tarakeswar Assembly constituency|Tarakeswar]]
|[[Rachhpal Singh]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|97588
|Surajit Ghosh
|bgcolor=#00B2B2|
|[[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]]
|69898
|27690
|-
|199
|[[Pursurah Assembly constituency|Pursurah]]
|[[M Nuruzzaman|M. Nuruzzaman]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|105275
|Pratim Singha Roy
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|76148
|29127
|-
|200
|[[Arambag Assembly constituency|Arambagh]]
|[[Krishna Chandra Santra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|107579
|Asit Malik
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|71122
|36457
|-
|201
|[[Goghat Assembly constituency|Goghat]]
|[[Manas Majumdar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|102958
|Biswanath Karak
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|72072
|30886
|-
|202
|[[Khanakul Assembly constituency|Khanakul]]
|[[Iqbal Ahmed (politician)|Iqbal Ahmed]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|106878
|Islam Ali Khan
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|63391
|43487
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Purba Medinipur district|'''Purba Medinipur district''']]
|-
|203
|[[Tamluk Assembly constituency|Tamluk]]
|Ashok Dinda
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|95432
|Nirbed Ray
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94912
|520
|-
|204
|[[Panskura Purba Assembly constituency|Panskura Purba]]
|[[Sheikh Ibrahim Ali]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|85334
|Biplab Roy Chowdhury
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|80567
|4767
|-
|205
|[[Panskura Paschim Assembly constituency|Panskura Paschim]]
|[[Firoja Bibi]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|92427
|Chittaranjan Dasthakur
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|89282
|3145
|-
|206
|[[Moyna Assembly constituency|Moyna]]
|[[Sangram Kumar Dolai]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|100980
|Manik Bhowmik
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|88856
|12124
|-
|207
|[[Nandakumar Assembly constituency|Nandakumar]]
|[[Sukumar De]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|98549
|Siraj Khan
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|87683
|10866
|-
|208
|[[Mahisadal Assembly constituency|Mahisadal]]
|[[Sudarshan Ghosh Dastidar|Sudarsan Ghosh Dastidar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94827
|Subrata Maiti
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|78118
|16709
|-
|209
|[[Haldia Assembly constituency|Haldia]]
|[[Tapasi Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|101330
|Madhurima Mandal
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|79837
|21493
|-
|210
|[[Nandigram Assembly constituency|Nandigram]]
|[[Suvendu Adhikari]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|134623
|Abdul Kabir Sheikh
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|53393
|81230
|-
|211
|[[Chandipur Assembly constituency|Chandipur]]
|[[Amiya Kanti Bhattacharjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|95982
|Mangal Chand Pradhan
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|86328
|9654
|-
|212
|[[Patashpur Assembly constituency|Patashpur]]
|[[Jyotirmoy Kar]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|103567
|Makhanlal Nayak
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|73679
|29888
|-
|213
|[[Kanthi Uttar Assembly constituency|Kanthi Uttar]]
|[[Banasri Maity]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|103783
|Chakradhar Maikap
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|85207
|18576
|-
|214
|[[Bhagabanpur Assembly constituency|Bhagabanpur]]
|[[Ardhendu Maity]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|111201
|Hemangshu Shekhar Mahapatra
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|79258
|31943
|-
|215
|[[Khejuri Assembly constituency|Khejuri]]
|[[Ranajit Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|103699
|Asim Kumar Mandal
|bgcolor=#939393|
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|61214
|42485
|-
|216
|[[Kanthi Dakshin Assembly constituency|Kanthi Dakshin]]
|[[Dibyendu Adhikari]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93359
|Uttam Pradhan
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|59469
|33890
|-
|217
|[[Ramnagar, Purba Medinipur Assembly constituency|Ramnagar]]
|[[Akhil Giri]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|107081
|Tapas Sinha
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|78828
|28253
|-
|218
|[[Egra Assembly constituency|Egra]]
|[[Samares Das]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|113334
|Shaikh Mahmud Hossain
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)|DSP]]
|87378
|25956
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Paschim Medinipur district|'''Paschim Medinipur district''']]
|-
|219
|[[Dantan Assembly constituency|Dantan]]
|[[Bikram Chandra Pradhan]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|95641
|Sisir Kumar Patra
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|66381
|29260
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Jhargram district|'''Jhargram district''']]
|-
|220
|[[Nayagram Assembly constituency|Nayagram]]
|[[Dulal Murmu]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|98395
|Bakul Murmu
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|55140
|43255
|-
|221
|[[Gopiballavpur Assembly constituency|Gopiballavpur]]
|[[Churamani Mahato|Churamani Mahata]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|100323
|[[Pulin Bihari Baske]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|50765
|49558
|-
|222
|[[Jhargram Assembly constituency|Jhargram]]
|[[Sukumar Hansda]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|99233
|Chunibala Hansda
|bgcolor=#8A0000|
|JP(N)
|44005
|55228
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Paschim Medinipur district|'''Paschim Medinipur district''']]
|-
|223
|[[Keshiary Assembly constituency|Keshiary]]
|[[Paresh Murmu]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|104890
|Biram Mandi
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|64141
|40749
|-
|224
|[[Kharagpur Sadar Assembly constituency|Kharagpur Sadar]]
|[[Dilip Ghosh (politician)|Dilip Ghosh]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|61,446
|[[Gyan Singh Sohanpal]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|55,137
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |6,308
|-
|225
|[[Narayangarh Assembly constituency|Narayangarh]]
|[[Prodyut Kumar Ghosh]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|99311
|[[Surjya Kanta Mishra]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|85722
|13589
|-
|226
|[[Sabang Assembly constituency|Sabang]]
|[[Manas Bhunia]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|126987
|Nirmal Ghosh
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|77820
|49167
|-
|227
|[[Pingla Assembly constituency|Pingla]]
|[[Somen Mahapatra|Saumen Kumar Mahapatra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|104416
|Prabodh Chandra Sinha
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Democratic Socialist Party (Prabodh Chandra)|DSP]]
|80198
|24218
|-
|228
|[[Kharagpur Assembly constituency|Kharagpur]]
|[[Dinen Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|85630
|Sk Sajahan Ali
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|66531
|19099
|-
|229
|[[Debra Assembly constituency|Debra]]
|[[Selima Khatun]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90773
|[[Sheikh Jahangir Karim]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|78865
|11908
|-
|230
|[[Daspur Assembly constituency|Daspur]]
|[[Mamata Bhunia]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|113603
|Swapan Santra
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|84864
|28739
|-
|231
|[[Ghatal Assembly constituency|Ghatal]]
|[[Shankar Dolai]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|107682
|Kamal Chandra Dolui
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|88203
|19479
|-
|232
|[[Chandrakona Assembly constituency|Chandrakona]]
|[[Chhaya Dolai]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|117172
|Santinath Bodhuk
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|78791
|38381
|-
|233
|[[Garbeta Assembly constituency|Garbeta]]
|[[Ashis Chakraborty]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|110501
|Sorforaj Khan
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|49344
|61157
|-
|234
|[[Salboni Assembly constituency|Salboni]]
|[[Srikanta Mahata]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|120485
|Shyam Sundar Pandey
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|67583
|52902
|-
|235
|[[Keshpur Assembly constituency|Keshpur]]
|[[Seuli Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|146579
|Rameswar Doloi
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|45428
|101151
|-
|236
|[[Medinipur Assembly constituency|Medinipur]]
|[[Mrigendra Nath Maiti]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|106774
|[[Santosh Rana]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|73787
|32987
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Jhargram district|'''Jhargram district''']]
|-
|237
|[[Binpur Assembly constituency|Binpur]]
|[[Khagendranath Hembram]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|95804
|Dibakar Hansda
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|46481
|49323
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Purulia district|'''Purulia district''']]
|-
|238
|[[Bandwan Assembly constituency|Bandwan]]
|[[Rajib Lochan Saren]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|104323
|Besra Susanta
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|84016
|20307
|-
|239
|[[Balarampur, Purulia Assembly constituency|Balarampur]]
|[[Santiram Mahato|Shantiram Mahato]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|82086
|Jagadish Mahato
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|71882
|10204
|-
|240
|[[Baghmundi Assembly constituency|Baghmundi]]
|[[Nepal Mahata]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|88707
|Samir Mahato
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|80120
|8587
|-
|241
|[[Joypur, Purulia Assembly constituency|Joypur]]
|[[Shaktipada Mahato]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|85026
|Dhirendra Nath Mahato
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|76263
|8763
|-
|242
|[[Purulia Assembly constituency|Purulia]]
|[[Sudip Kumar Mukherjee]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|81365
|Dibyajyoti Prasad Singh Deo
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|76454
|4911
|-
|243
|[[Manbazar Assembly constituency|Manbazar]]
|[[Sandhya Rani Tudu]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|93642
|Ipil Murmu
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|83967
|9675
|-
|244
|[[Kashipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Kashipur]]
|[[Swapan Kumar Beltharia]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|87483
|Sudin Kisku
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|67905
|19578
|-
|245
|[[Para Assembly constituency|Para]]
|[[Umapada Bauri]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84337
|Dinanath Bauri
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|70459
|13878
|-
|246
|[[Raghunathpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Raghunathpur]]
|[[Purna Chandra Bauri]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|83688
|Satyanarayan Bauri
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|67546
|16142
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Bankura district|'''Bankura district''']]
|-
|247
|[[Saltora Assembly constituency|Saltora]]
|[[Swapan Bauri|Swapan Bouri]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84979
|Sasthi Charan Bouri
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|72456
|12523
|-
|248
|[[Chhatna Assembly constituency|Chhatna]]
|[[Dhirendra Nath Layek]]
|bgcolor=#FF3333|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|73648
|Subhasis Batabyal
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|71231
|2417
|-
|249
|[[Ranibandh Assembly constituency|Ranibandh]]
|[[Jyotsna Mandi]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|92181
|[[Deblina Hembram]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|68868
|23313
|-
|250
|[[Raipur, Bankura Assembly constituency|Raipur]]
|[[Birendra Nath Tudu]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|89841
|Dilip Kumar Hansda
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|63119
|26722
|-
|251
|[[Taldangra Assembly constituency|Taldangra]]
|[[Samir Chakraborty]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|87236
|Amiya Patra
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|73567
|13669
|-
|252
|[[Bankura Assembly constituency|Bankura]]
|[[Shampa Daripa]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|83486
|Minati Misra
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|82457
|1029
|-
|253
|[[Barjora Assembly constituency|Barjora]]
|[[Sujit Chakraborty]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|86873
|[[Soham Chakraborty]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|86257
|616
|-
|254
|[[Onda Assembly constituency|Onda]]
|[[Arup Kumar Khan]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|80603
|Manik Mukherjee
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|69755
|10848
|-
|255
|[[Bishnupur, Bankura Assembly constituency|Bishnupur, Bankura]]
|[[Tushar Kanti Bhattacharya]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|76641
|Shyamaprasad Mukherjee
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|75750
|891
|-
|256
|[[Katulpur Assembly constituency|Katulpur]]
|[[Shyamal Santra]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|98901
|Akshay Santra
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|77653
|21248
|-
|257
|[[Indas Assembly constituency|Indas]]
|[[Gurupada Mete]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94940
|Dilip Kumar Malik
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|76103
|18837
|-
|258
|[[Sonamukhi Assembly constituency|Sonamukhi]]
|Ajit Ray
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|86125
|Dipali Saha
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|77406
|8719
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Purba Bardhaman district|'''Purba Bardhaman district''']]
|-
|259
|[[Khandaghosh Assembly constituency|Khandaghosh]]
|[[Nabin Chandra Bag]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90151
|Asima Roy
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|86949
|3202
|-
|260
|[[Bardhaman Dakshin Assembly constituency|Bardhaman Dakshin]]
|[[Rabiranjan Chattopadhyay]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|91882
|Ainul Haque
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|62444
|29438
|-
|261
|[[Raina Assembly constituency|Raina]]
|[[Nepal Ghorui]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94323
|Khan Basudeb
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|93875
|448
|-
|262
|[[Jamalpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Jamalpur]]
|[[Samar Hazra]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|85491
|Ujjal Pramanick
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84068
|1423
|-
|263
|[[Monteswar Assembly constituency|Monteswar]]
|[[Sajal Panja]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84134
|Chaudhuri Md. Hedayatullah
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|83428
|706
|-
|264
|[[Kalna Assembly constituency|Kalna]]
|[[Biswajit Kundu]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|97430
|Sukul Chandra Sikdar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|72169
|25261
|-
|265
|[[Memari Assembly constituency|Memari]]
|[[Nargis Begum|Begum Nargis]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94406
|Debashis Ghosh
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|85523
|8883
|-
|266
|[[Bardhaman Uttar Assembly constituency|Bardhaman Uttar]]
|[[Nisith Kumar Malik]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|102886
|Aparna Saha
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|91381
|11505
|-
|267
|[[Bhatar Assembly constituency|Bhatar]]
|[[Subhash Mondal]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|92544
|Bamacharan Banerjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|86264
|6280
|-
|268
|[[Purbasthali Dakshin Assembly constituency|Purbasthali Dakshin]]
|[[Swapan Debnath]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|104398
|Abhijit Bhattacharyya
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|66732
|37666
|-
|269
|[[Purbasthali Uttar Assembly constituency|Purbasthali Uttar]]
|[[Pradip Kumar Sahu|Pradip Kumar Saha]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|84549
|Tapan Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|81721
|2828
|-
|270
|[[Katwa Assembly constituency|Katwa]]
|[[Rabindranath Chatterjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|91489
|Shyama Majumdar
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|90578
|911
|-
|271
|[[Ketugram Assembly constituency|Ketugram]]
|[[Sekh Sahonawez]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|89441
|Abul Kadar Syed
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|80712
|8729
|-
|272
|[[Mangalkot Assembly constituency|Mangalkot]]
|[[Siddiqullah Chowdhury]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|89812
|Choudhury Sahajahan
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|77938
|11874
|-
|273
|[[Ausgram Assembly constituency|Ausgram]]
|[[Abhedananda Thander]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|90450
|Basudev Mete
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|84198
|6252
|-
|274
|[[Galsi Assembly constituency|Galsi]]
|[[Alok Kumar Majhi]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|95203
|Nandalal Pondit
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|84432
|10771
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Paschim Bardhaman district|'''Paschim Bardhaman district''']]
|-
|275
|[[Pandabeswar Assembly constituency|Pandabeswar]]
|[[Jitendra Tiwari]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|68600
|Gouranga Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|63130
|5470
|-
|276
|[[Durgapur Purba Assembly constituency|Durgapur Purba]]
|[[Santosh Debray]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|84200
|Pradip Mazumdar
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|75069
|9131
|-
|277
|[[Durgapur Paschim Assembly constituency|Durgapur Paschim]]
|[[Biswanath Parial]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|108533
|[[Apurba Mukherjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|63709
|44824
|-
|278
|[[Raniganj, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Raniganj]]
|[[Runu Dutta]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|74995
|Bano Nargis
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|62610
|12385
|-
|279
|[[Jamuria Assembly constituency|Jamuria]]
|[[Jahanara Khan]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|67214
|V. Sivadasan
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|59457
|7757
|-
|280
|[[Asansol Dakshin Assembly constituency|Asansol Dakshin]]
|[[Tapas Banerjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|71515
|Hemant Prabhakar
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|57232
|14283
|-
|281
|[[Asansol Uttar Assembly constituency|Asansol Uttar]]
|[[Moloy Ghatak]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|84715
|Nirmal Karmakar
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|60818
|23897
|-
|282
|[[Kulti Assembly constituency|Kulti]]
|[[Ujjal Chatterjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|68952
|Ajay Kumar Poddar
|bgcolor=#FF9933|
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|49464
|19488
|-
|283
|[[Barabani Assembly constituency|Barabani]]
|[[Bidhan Upadhyay]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|77464
|Shipra Mukherjee
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|53415
|24049
|-
| colspan="11" bgcolor="grey" align="center" | [[Birbhum district|'''Birbhum district''']]
|-
|284
|[[Dubrajpur Assembly constituency|Dubrajpur]]
|[[Chandra Naresh Bauri]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94309
|Bijoy Bagdi
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|54415
|39894
|-
|285
|[[Suri Assembly constituency|Suri]]
|[[Asok Kumar Chattopadhyay]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94036
|[[Ram Chandra Dome]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|62228
|31808
|-
|286
|[[Bolpur Assembly constituency|Bolpur]]
|[[Chandranath Sinha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|113258
|Tapan Hore
|bgcolor=#FF4A4A|
|[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]]
|63231
|50027
|-
|287
|[[Nanoor Assembly constituency|Nanoor]]
|[[Shyamali Pradhan]]
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|104374
|Gadadhar Hazra
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|78644
|25730
|-
|288
|[[Labpur Assembly constituency|Labpur]]
|[[Manirul Islam (Indian politician)|Manirul Islam]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|101138
|Syed Mahfuzul Karim
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|70825
|30313
|-
|289
|[[Sainthia Assembly constituency|Sainthia]]
|[[Nilabati Saha]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|103376
|Dhiren Bagdi
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|64765
|38611
|-
|290
|[[Mayureswar Assembly constituency|Mayureswar]]
|[[Abhijit Roy (politician)|Abhijit Roy]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|89210
|Arup Bag
|bgcolor=#FF0000|
|[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|50440
|38770
|-
|291
|[[Rampurhat Assembly constituency|Rampurhat]]
|[[Asish Banerjee]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|85435
|Syed Siraj Jimmi
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|64236
|21199
|-
|292
|[[Hansan Assembly constituency|Hansan]]
|[[Milton Rashid|Miltan Rasid]]
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|92619
|Asit Kumar Mal
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|76465
|16154
|-
|293
|[[Nalhati Assembly constituency|Nalhati]]
|[[Moinuddin Shams]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|83412
|Dipak Chatterjee
|bgcolor=#C24641|
|[[All India Forward Bloc|AIFB]]
|73084
|10328
|-
|294
|[[Murarai Assembly constituency|Murarai]]
|[[Abdur Rahaman Liton]]
|bgcolor=#3CB371|
|[[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]]
|94661
|Ali Mortuza Khan
|bgcolor=#00BFFF|
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|94381
|280
|}

== 2016–2021 by-elections==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
!S.No
!Date
!Constituency
!Previous MLA
! colspan="2" |Party before election
!Elected MLA
! colspan="2" |Party after election
|-
!263
|19 November 2016
|[[Monteswar Assembly constituency|Monteswar]]
|[[Sajal Panja]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=2}}
|Saikat Panja
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=6}}
|-
!216
|9 April 2017
|[[Kanthi Dakshin Assembly constituency|Kanthi Dakshin]]
|[[Dibyendu Adhikari]]
|[[Chandrima Bhattacharya]]
|-
!226
|21 December 2017
|[[Sabang Assembly constituency|Sabang]]
|[[Manas Bhunia]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|Geeta Rani Bhunia
|-
!107
|29 January 2018
|[[Noapara Assembly constituency|Noapara]]
|[[Madhusudan Ghose]]
|[[Sunil Singh (politician)|Sunil Singh]]
|-
!155
|28 May 2018
|[[Maheshtala Assembly constituency|Maheshtala]]
|[[Kasturi Das]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|[[Dulal Chandra Das]]
|-
!29
| rowspan="2" |18 April 2019
|[[Islampur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Islampur]]
|[[Kanaia Lal Agarwal]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Abdul Karim Chowdhury]]
|-
!23
|[[Darjeeling Assembly constituency|Darjeeling]]
|[[Amar Singh Rai]]
|{{Full party name with color|Gorkha Janmukti Morcha}}
|[[Neeraj Zimba]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
!43
|23 April 2019
|[[Habibpur Assembly constituency|Habibpur]]
|[[Khagen Murmu]]
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}}
|[[Joyel Murmu]]
|-
!74
| rowspan="3" |29 April 2019
|[[Naoda Assembly constituency|Naoda]]
|[[Abu Taher Khan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|[[Sahina Mumtaz Begum]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|-
!68
|[[Kandi Assembly constituency|Kandi]]
|[[Apurba Sarkar]]
|Shafiul Alam Khan
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
!88
|[[Krishnaganj Assembly constituency|Krishnaganj]]
|[[Satyajit Biswas]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=4}}
|[[Ashis Kumar Biswas|Ashish Kumar Biswas]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
!105
| rowspan="2" |6 May 2019
|[[Bhatpara Assembly constituency|Bhatpara]]
|[[Arjun Singh (politician, born 1962)|Arjun Singh]]
|[[Pawan Singh (politician)|Pawan Kumar Singh]]
|-
!176
|[[Uluberia Purba]]
|[[Haider Aziz Safwi]]
|[[Idris Ali (politician)|Idris Ali]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
!77
| rowspan="3" |25 November 2019
|[[Karimpur Assembly constituency|Karimpur]]
|[[Mahua Moitra]]
|[[Bimalendu Sinha Roy]]
|-
!34
|[[Kaliaganj Assembly constituency|Kaliaganj]]
|[[Pramatha Nath Ray|Pramatha Ray]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Tapan Deb Singha]]
|-
!224
|[[Kharagpur Sadar Assembly constituency|Kharagpur]]
|[[Dilip Ghosh (politician)|Dilip Ghosh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Pradip Sarkar (West Bengal politician)|Pradip Sarkar]]
|}

== See also ==
* [[Elections in India]]
* [[2016 elections in India]]
* [[List of constituencies of West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
* [[2019 Indian general election in West Bengal]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://eci.gov.in/files/category/94-west-bengal/ West Bangal General Legislative Election Results] at the ''[[Election Commission of India]]''

{{West Bengal assembly elections}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:West Bengal State Assembly Election, 2016}}
[[Category:2016 State Assembly elections in India]]
[[Category:State Assembly elections in West Bengal|2016]]
[[Category:2010s in West Bengal]]
[[Category:April 2016 in India]]
[[Category:May 2016 in India]]
[[Category:Mamata Banerjee]]

Richa Gangopadhyay

2026-03-22T14:35:20Z

Godrejsplende: Data

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Richa Gangopadhyay
| image = RichaGangopadhyay.jpg
| alt = Gangopadhyay smiling at camera
| caption = Gangopadhyay in 2016
| birth_name = Antara Gangopadhyay
| other_names = Richa Langella
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|3|20|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[New Delhi]], India
| citizenship = 
| spouse = Joe Langella
| children = 1
| education = [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]] ([[Washington University in St. Louis]]) BS, Communications, Theatre Arts minor ([[Eastern Michigan University]])
| title = [[Miss India USA|Miss India USA 2007]]
| occupation = Actress, [[Model (person)|model]]
| yearsactive = 2009–2013
| website =
}}

'''Richa Langella''' ({{née}} '''Antara Gangopadhyay'''; born 20 March 1986)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gulte.com/trends/2435/pic-talk-richa-gangopadhyay-turns-richa-langella |title=Pic Talk: Richa Gangopadhyay turns Richa Langella |work=Gulte.com |date=28 April 2020 |access-date=1 May 2020 |archive-date=2 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502003423/https://www.gulte.com/trends/2435/pic-talk-richa-gangopadhyay-turns-richa-langella |url-status=live }}</ref> is an Indian former actress and model who predominantly appeared in [[Telugu film]]s. She presently resides at [[Portland, Oregon]].

She was cast along with the prominent actors like [[Venkatesh Daggubati]], [[Nagarjuna (actor)|Nagarjuna]], [[Ravi Teja]], [[Prabhas]], [[Rana Daggubati]], [[Dhanush]], and [[Silambarasan]].

Her notable films include ''[[Leader (2010 film)|Leader]]'' (2010) and later worked on several commercially successful Telugu films such as ''[[Nagavalli (film)|Nagavalli]]'' (2010), ''[[Mirapakaay]]'' (2011), ''[[Sarocharu]]'' (2012), and ''[[Mirchi (film)|Mirchi]]'' (2013).

==Early life==
Richa Gangopadhyay was born on 20 March 1986, to a [[Bengali Brahmin]] family in [[New Delhi]]. Her family moved to the [[United States]] when she was only three.<ref name="Happy Birthday Richa Gangopadhyay: From Leader to Mirchi, here's looking at the actress' 5 best films">{{cite news |last1=The Times of India |title=Happy Birthday Richa Gangopadhyay: From Leader to Mirchi, here's looking at the actress' 5 best films |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/happy-birthday-richa-gangopadhyay-from-leader-to-mirchi-heres-looking-at-the-actress-5-best-films/photostory/74710394.cms |access-date=25 June 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=20 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625073207/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/happy-birthday-richa-gangopadhyay-from-leader-to-mirchi-heres-looking-at-the-actress-5-best-films/photostory/74710394.cms |archive-date=25 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=K. Janani DC chennai |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/showbiz/kollywood/richa-gangopadhyay-indian-roots-american-confidence-367 |title=Richa Gangopadhyay: Indian roots, American confidence! |work=Deccan Chronicle |date=13 September 2011 |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926221937/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/showbiz/kollywood/richa-gangopadhyay-indian-roots-american-confidence-367 |archive-date=26 September 2011}}</ref>

Her father works as the Vice President of Netshape Technologies, while her mother works as the Deputy director of the prestigious Institute of Museums and Library Services, having previously been nominated by [[Barack Obama|President Obama]] to serve as a member of the IMLS Board. Her parents settled in the U.S. in 1989 after she spent her first year in [[Coimbatore]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and Gangopadhyay was raised in [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Michigan]]

While attending [[Okemos High School]], as a junior, she was featured in the local media for founding a youth-tutoring program for at-risk children in [[Lansing]], which she ran for four years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.richagangopadhyay.com/news/miss-india-usa/200-plymouth-news |title=Plymouth News |publisher=Richagangopadhyay.com |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-date=1 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001064810/http://www.richagangopadhyay.com/news/miss-india-usa/200-plymouth-news |url-status=usurped }}</ref> She went on to major in Dietetics and Health Administration at [[Michigan State University]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-15/news-interviews/28133535_1_cancer-awareness-richa-gangopadhyay-cancer-awareness-campaign |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323185918/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-15/news-interviews/28133535_1_cancer-awareness-richa-gangopadhyay-cancer-awareness-campaign |archive-date=23 March 2012 |title=Richa: No skin show please! |date=15 March 2010 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 October 2011}}</ref> but graduated with a Bachelor of Science in communications with a minor in Theatre Arts. After completing her undergraduate studies, she completed her master's degree in Business Administration from the [[Olin Business School]] at [[Washington University in St. Louis]].

==Career==
===Early career and modeling (2005–08)===
In August 2007, Gangopadhyay won the Miss India Michigan pageant and in December of that year, was crowned [[Miss India USA]] 2007 at the 26th annual Miss India USA pageant, held at Royal Albert's Palace in [[New Jersey]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bihartimes.in/news08/Jan/5jan1.html |title=Richa Gangopadhyay is Miss India USA 2007 |work=Bihar Times |date=5 January 2008 |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923185248/http://www.bihartimes.in/news08/Jan/5jan1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Gangopadhyay also secured the title of Miss Photogenic. She represented the U.S. in the 17th Annual Miss India Worldwide Pageant held in Johannesburg, and secured a place in the Top 10.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://inhome.rediff.com/movies/2007/dec/31miss.htm |title=Meet the new Miss India USA |website=Rediff.com |date=31 December 2007 |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-date=13 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113111804/http://inhome.rediff.com/movies/2007/dec/31miss.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gangopadhyay left the U.S. in 2008 for Mumbai, India to embark on a career in films. She subsequently graduated with a diploma in acting from [[Anupam Kher]]'s acting school, Actor Prepares, and completed her portfolio, earning offers for work in fashion shows and for modeling. In early 2009, Gangopadhyay featured in a commercial for Dabur Vatika Almond Hair Oil alongside Bollywood actress [[Preity Zinta]], while also appearing in several print ads and TV commercials for Peter England People, Pepe Jeans, [[Malabar Gold and Diamonds|Malabar Gold]] and Kalaniketan.<ref name="idlebrain1">{{cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/richagangopadhyay.html |title=Richa Gangopadhyay interview – Telugu Cinema interview – Telugu film actress |publisher=Idlebrain.com |date=16 February 2010 |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-date=30 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030013923/http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/richagangopadhyay.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Public recognition and success in films (2010–2013)===
Gangopadhyay debuted with [[Rana Daggubati]] and [[Priya Anand]] in 2010 Telugu film ''[[Leader (2010 film)|Leader]]'', produced by [[AVM Productions]] and directed by [[Sekhar Kammula]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} She was recommended to an assistant director of ''Leader'', who in turn recommended her to Sekhar Kammula. Gangopadhyay went to [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] to audition for the film on her birthday. She was selected instantly, and the shooting started 2 days later.<ref name="idlebrain1"/> In the film, she played the role of Archana, a news reporter, daughter of a politician and love interest of the title character, played by debutant [[Rana Daggubati]]. The film opened in theatres worldwide to positive reviews and did well commercially, with Gangopadhyay's performance described as "pretty and charming" and "good in a performance oriented role" by critics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/feb/19/south-telugu-movie-review-leader.htm |title=Review: Leader comes at the right time |website=Rediff.com |date=19 February 2010 |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-date=6 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906033516/http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/feb/19/south-telugu-movie-review-leader.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-leader.html |title=Leader film review – Telugu cinema Review – RaNa Daggubati, Richa Gangopadhyay & Priya Anand |publisher=Idlebrain.com |date=19 February 2010 |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-date=12 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112014300/http://idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-leader.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After the success of the film, director [[P. Vasu]] signed her up to appear in ''[[Nagavalli (film)|Nagavalli]]'', a sequel to his 2005 film ''[[Chandramukhi]]''. The film featured an ensemble cast of [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]], [[Anushka Shetty]], [[Shraddha Das]] and [[Poonam Kaur]]. The film opened to mixed reviews, with Gangopadhyay's portrayal of a girl psychologically possessed by the ghost of Nagavalli, leading to critics dubbing her as "impressive" and "convincing".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/south-review-nagavalli/20101216.htm |title=Nagavalli is fascinating |website=Rediff.com |date=16 December 2010 |access-date=20 October 2011 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005180746/http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/south-review-nagavalli/20101216.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/nagavalli-review-review-telugu-14959469.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140123040306/http://www.sify.com/movies/nagavalli-review-review-telugu-14959469.html |archive-date=23 January 2014 |title=Movie Review:Nagavalli review |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=20 October 2011}}</ref>

Her first release in 2011 was the action film ''[[Mirapakaay]]'', starring opposite [[Ravi Teja]] for the first time. She was signed after the director of the film, [[Harish Shankar]], who had noticed her at the success party of her previous film ''Leader''. He initially offered her the role played by Deeksha as she was an [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|NRI]], but when they met to review the script, he was convinced that Gangopadhyay would do justice to the character of Vinamra, a traditional Telugu Brahmin girl.<ref>[http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-richa-on-her-sankranti-release-mirapakai/20110110.htm 'My character in Mirapakai is just too cute to handle'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310183448/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-richa-on-her-sankranti-release-mirapakai/20110110.htm |date=10 March 2011 }}. Rediff. 10 January 2011</ref> The film opened to good reviews with Gangopadhyay's performance being described as "good and just about hold her own in the dance sequences" by critics.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Gangopadhyay was next seen in two Tamil films; the first being ''[[Mayakkam Enna]]'', a drama film featuring [[Dhanush]] and directed by [[Selvaraghavan]], which earned her tremendous positive reviews and appreciation from all over. She then appeared alongside [[Silambarasan Rajendar|Silambarasan]] in [[Dharani (director)|Dharani]]'s ''[[Osthe]]'', the Tamil remake of the 2010 Hindi film ''[[Dabangg]]'', winning critical acclaim for her role as Neduvaali. In 2012, she made her debut in Bengali, her mother tongue, through the film ''[[Bikram Singha : The Lion Is Back]]'', opposite the prolific [[Prosenjit Chatterjee]], a remake of the Telugu film ''[[Vikramarkudu]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/review-bikram-singha--the-lion-is-back-(bangla)/961105/|title=Bikram Singha: The Lion Is Back (Bangla) review|work=indianexpress.com|access-date=28 August 2015}}</ref> She also featured in the Telugu films ''[[Sarocharu]]'',{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} ''[[Mirchi (film)|Mirchi]]'' and ''[[Bhai (2013 film)|Bhai]]'' opposite actors [[Ravi Teja]], [[Prabhas]] and [[Nagarjuna (actor)|Nagarjuna]], which were released in 2012 and 2013.

==Personal life==
In October 2013, she announced that she was taking a break from the film industry "for a while to finish up" her studies and move back to the United States to pursue her MBA and focus on her long-term career ambitions.<ref name="The Times of India">{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Richa-Gangopadhyay-to-take-a-break-from-films/articleshow/24470003.cms |title=Richa Gangopadhyay to take a break from films |work=The Times of India |date=21 October 2013 |access-date=26 August 2016 |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225190401/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Richa-Gangopadhyay-to-take-a-break-from-films/articleshow/24470003.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> She completed an [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]] degree from [[Washington University in St. Louis]] in May 2017.<ref name="Richaeducation">{{cite web |url=http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Education%26Careers/2016-05-03/Executive-MBA-program--The-new-mantra-of-success/225872 |title=Richa Gangopadhyay about Executive MBA program- The new mantra of success |work=The Hans India |date=3 May 2016 |access-date=26 August 2016 |archive-date=4 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604210423/http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Education%26Careers/2016-05-03/Executive-MBA-program--The-new-mantra-of-success/225872 }}</ref><ref name="The Times of India"/>

Gangopadhyay is married to her business school classmate Joe Langella.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/mayakkam-enna-actress-richa-gangopadhyay-engaged-to-college-sweetheart-joe-langella-1432291-2019-01-16 |title=Mayakkam Enna actress Richa Gangopadhyay engaged to college sweetheart Joe Langella |work=[[India Today]] |access-date=13 November 2019 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113143845/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/mayakkam-enna-actress-richa-gangopadhyay-engaged-to-college-sweetheart-joe-langella-1432291-2019-01-16 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=18 December 2019 |title='Mirchi' actress Richa Gangopadhyay gets married to college sweetheart Joe Langella |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/mirchi-actress-richa-gangopadhyay-gets-married-to-college-sweetheart-joe-langella/articleshow/72866349.cms/ |access-date=20 April 2020 |work=The Times of India |archive-date=22 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222185547/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/mirchi-actress-richa-gangopadhyay-gets-married-to-college-sweetheart-joe-langella/articleshow/72866349.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The couple have a son who was born in May 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mayakkam Enna star Richa Gangopadhyay introduces her son Luca. See adorable pics |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/mayakkam-enna-star-richa-gangopadhyay-introduces-her-son-luca-see-adorable-pics-1811429-2021-06-06 |url-status=live |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=India Today |date=6 June 2021 |language=en |archive-date=25 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725131804/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/mayakkam-enna-star-richa-gangopadhyay-introduces-her-son-luca-see-adorable-pics-1811429-2021-06-06 }}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role(s) !! Language
|-
| rowspan="2" |2010 || ''[[Leader (2010 film)|Leader]]'' || Archana || rowspan="3" | [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|-
| ''[[Nagavalli (film)|Nagavalli]]'' || Gowri
|-
| rowspan="3" |2011 || ''[[Mirapakay]]'' ||Vinamra
|-
| ''[[Mayakkam Enna]]'' || Yamini || rowspan="2" | [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| ''[[Osthe]]'' || Neduvaali Velan
|-
| rowspan="2" |2012 || ''[[Bikram Singha: The Lion Is Back|Bikram Singha]]'' || Madhu || [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|-
| ''[[Sarocharu]]'' || Vasudha || rowspan="3" | Telugu
|-
| rowspan="2" |2013 || ''[[Mirchi (film)|Mirchi]]'' || Maanasa
|-
| ''[[Bhai (2013 film)|Bhai]]'' || Radhika
|}

==Awards==
*2012: [[Edison Awards (Tamil)|Edison Award for Best Debut Actress]] – ''[[Mayakkam Enna]]''{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
* 2012: [[Edison Awards (Tamil)|Edison Award for Best Actress]] – ''[[Mayakkam Enna]]''{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
* 2012: [[Norway Tamil Film Festival Award for Best Actress]] for ''Mayakkam Enna''{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Twitter}}
* {{IMDb name|3855363}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gangopadhyay, Richa}}
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Michigan]]
[[Category:Female models from Michigan]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:American actresses of Indian descent]]
[[Category:American people of Bengali descent]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Bengali cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:American expatriate actresses in India]]
[[Category:Michigan State University alumni]]
[[Category:Olin Business School (Washington University) alumni]]
[[Category:21st-century American actresses]]
[[Category:Bengali Brahmins]]

Tinnu Anand

2026-03-22T08:38:19Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|Indian actor, writer and director (b. 1945)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Tinnu Anand
| image = Tinnu Anand 2.jpg
| caption = Anand in 2011
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang = 
| birth_name = Virender Raj Anand
| birth_date = 12 October 1945
| birth_place = [[Peshawar]], [[North-West Frontier Province]], [[British Raj]] (present-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], [[Pakistan]])
| father = [[Inder Raj Anand]]
| spouse = Shahnaz Anand
| children = 2 (Isha Anand & Diksha Anand)
| notable_works = ''[[Shahenshah (1988 film)|Shahenshah]]'' ''[[Kaalia]]'' ''[[Nayakan]]'' ''[[Kaalapani]]'' ''[[Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefire]]'' ''[[Anji (film)|Anji]]''
| relatives = [[Siddharth Anand]] (nephew) [[Mukul Anand]] (cousin) [[Agha (actor)|Agha]] (father-in-Law) [[Jalal Agha]] (brother-in-law)
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|director|writer|producer}}
| alma_mater = [[Mayo College]]
}}

'''Tinu Anand''' (born '''Virender Raj Anand''') is an Indian actor, director, writer and producer in [[Hindi cinema]] and a few [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] films.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-05-15 |title=Bollywood actor-director Tinu Anand gets flak for his threat to beat strays |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/bollywood-veteran-panned-for-threatening-to-beat-stray-dogs/articleshow/121168832.cms? |access-date=2026-01-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Personal life==
He is the son of veteran screenwriter [[Inder Raj Anand]], brother of producer Bittu Anand, cousin of director [[Mukul S. Anand|Mukul Anand]] and uncle of director [[Siddharth Anand]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Banan |first=Aastha Atray |date=3 November 2019 |title=Siddharth Anand: The camaraderie is a facade. Nobody is a friend |url=https://www.mid-day.com/sunday-mid-day/article/siddharth-anand-the-camaraderie-is-a-facade-nobody-is-a-friend-22022174 |access-date=25 July 2025 |work=Mid-Day}}</ref> He did his schooling from [[Mayo College]] in India. He is married to Shahnaz, daughter of veteran actor [[Agha (actor)|Agha]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-10-12 |title=Siddharh Anand: I feel low only when I have fought with my wife |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/siddharh-anand-i-feel-low-only-when-i-have-fought-with-my-wife/articleshow/44783183.cms?utm |access-date=2026-01-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Career ==
His father, [[Inder Raj Anand]], was a well-known writer in the Hindi film industry but did not want Tinnu Anand or his younger brother, Bittu Anand, to enter the profession. Recalling this period, Anand said that when he expressed his desire to direct films, his father was initially upset.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-07-04 |title=#BigInterview! Tinnu Anand: I was cast for the role that Amitabh Bachchan played in 'Saat Hindustani' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/biginterview-tinnu-anand-i-was-cast-for-the-role-that-amitabh-bachchan-played-in-saat-hindustani/articleshow/84102321.cms? |access-date=2026-01-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> However, he later accepted Anand’s determination and arranged for him to study under [[Satyajit Ray]]. Ray and Inder Raj Anand were friends, and Anand was subsequently taken under Ray’s mentorship.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pal |first=Chandrima |date=2019-02-18 |title=Satyajit Ray, Amitabh Bachchan, 'Pushpak' and three days as Crime Master Gogo: Meet Tinnu Anand |url=https://scroll.in/reel/913462/satyajit-ray-amitabh-bachchan-pushpak-and-three-days-as-crime-master-gogo-meet-tinnu-anand |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='दिवालिया होने वाले दिन कभी नहीं भूलते बिग बी', टीनू आनंद ने बताया आखिर क्यों महानायक हैं अमिताभ बच्चन |url=https://www.amarujala.com/entertainment/amitabh-bachchan-83th-birthday-tinnu-anand-talks-about-big-b-journey-and-bankrupt-told-why-he-is-mahanayak-2025-10-11 |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref>

Tinnu Anand was initially offered a role in K. Abbas' film ''[[Saat Hindustani]]''. Recalling the incident, Anand said:<blockquote>“In the evening, I was given the dirty job of offering Amitabh ₹5,000 for the entire film, whether it took a year or five. Amitabh reluctantly agreed, as he was desperate to act. He was given the role of the poet’s friend in ''Saat Hindustani''. When my father received a letter from [[Satyajit Ray]] saying that I could work with him, I had to give up ''Saat Hindustani''. I left for Calcutta, and Amitabh eventually got the role of the poet that I was supposed to play.”<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 June 2025 |title=Tinnu Anand recalls his 'dirty job' offering Rs 5,000 to Amitabh Bachchan for his first film 'Saat Hindustani' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/tinnu-anand-recalls-his-dirty-job-offering-rs-5000-to-amitabh-bachchan-for-his-first-film-saat-hindustani/articleshow/121757116.cms |access-date=4 January 2026 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> </blockquote>

Reflecting on working with actors who arrived late and worked limited hours, Anand said that he learned practical filmmaking techniques from action director [[Veeru Devgan]]. He recalled:

<blockquote>
“I give all the credit to Veeru Devgan, who taught me how to unlearn what I had learnt. He told me that if you want to survive in this industry with actors like these, you should learn how to shoot a film when the actor is not there. I felt very proud when I once showed Amitabh a scene between him and [[Amjad Khan (actor)|Amjad Khan]] in a dubbing studio. He was shocked and said, ‘But I never shot with Amjad.’”<ref>{{Cite web |last=Patcy N |title=I was given the dirty job of offering Amitabh Rs. 5,000 for the entire film |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2000/oct/11tinnu.htm |access-date=24 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824060659/http://www.rediff.com/ |archive-date=24 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
</blockquote>Anand worked as an assistant director to [[Satyajit Ray]] for nearly five years on several Bengali films, including ''[[Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne]]'' (1969), ''[[Aranyer Din Ratri]]'' (1970), ''[[Pratidwandi]]'' (1970), ''[[Seemabaddha]]'' (1971), and ''[[Ashani Sanket]]'' (1973).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Working with Satyajit Ray Was One of the Joys of Producing Shatranj Ke Khiladi |publisher=The Wire |url=https://thewire.in/film/satyajit-ray-shatranj-ke-khiladi |date=28 July 2017 |access-date=4 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710010951/https://thewire.in/film/satyajit-ray-shatranj-ke-khiladi |archive-date=10 July 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2008, Anand portrayed a significant role in the Hindi film ''[[Ghajini (2008 film)|Ghajini]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tinnu Anand |url=https://www.rediff.com/entertai/2000/oct/11tinnu.htm |website=Rediff.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720074107/http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2000/oct/11tinnu.htm |archive-date=20 July 2009 |access-date=24 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=From Amitabh to Aamir, the show goes on... |work=The Hindu |date=23 September 2002 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/09/23/stories/2002092300580100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091121075225/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/09/23/stories/2002092300580100.htm |archive-date=21 November 2009 |access-date=24 August 2017}}</ref>

In a later interview, Anand spoke about his early career and praised [[Amitabh Bachchan]] for his generosity and support during his formative years in the film industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interview with Tinnu Anand |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-interview-with-tinnu-anand/20130611.htm |website=Rediff.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614055548/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-interview-with-tinnu-anand/20130611.htm |archive-date=14 June 2013 |access-date=24 August 2017}}</ref>

==Filmography==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Year !!Film!!Notes
|-
!colspan="3"|Director
|-
|1979
|''[[Duniya Meri Jeb Mein]]''
|
|-
| 1981
| ''[[Kaalia]]''
|
|-
| 1984
| ''[[Yeh Ishq Nahin Aasaan]]''
|
|-
| 1988
|''[[Shahenshah (1988 film)|Shahenshah]]''
|
|-
|1989
|''[[Main Azaad Hoon]]''
|
|-
|1991
|''[[Jeena Teri Gali Mein]]''
|
|-
| 1998
| ''[[Major Saab]]''
|
|-
| 2003
|''[[Ek Hindustani]]''
| Unreleased
|-
!colspan="3"|Assistant Director
|-
| 1969
| ''[[Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne]]''
|
|-
|rowspan=2| 1970
|''[[Aranyer Din Ratri]]''
|
|-
| ''[[Pratidwandi]]''
|
|-
| 1971
|''[[Seemabaddha]]''
|
|-
| 1973
| ''[[Ashani Sanket]]''
|
|}

===As actor===
====Hindi films====
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1988
|''[[Dayavan]]''
|
|
|-
|1990
|''[[Agneepath (1990 film)|Agneepath]]''
|Nathu
|
|-
|rowspan="4"|1992
|''[[Mere Sajana Saath Nibhana]]''
|Dayal
|
|-
|''[[Chamatkar]]''
|Kunta
|
|-
|''[[Police Officer (film)|Police Officer]]''
|Ram Kishan Verma
|
|-
|''[[Khiladi (1992 film)|Khiladi]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="4"|1993
|''[[Damini]]''
| Shekhar's maternal uncle
|
|-
|''[[Kohra (1993 film)|Kohra]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kohra - Movie - - Box Office India |url=https://www.boxofficeindia.com/cast_crew.php?movieid=3841 |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=www.boxofficeindia.com}}</ref>
|Peter Gonsalves
|
|-
|''[[Krishan Avtaar]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Chandra Mukhi]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="4"|1994
|''[[Anjaam]]''
|Mohanlal
|
|-
|''[[Fauj]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fauj - Movie - - Box Office India |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/cast_crew.php?movieid=3091 |access-date=2025-01-04 |website=boxofficeindia.com}}</ref>
|Inspector Ramlakhan Yadav
|
|-
|''[[Stuntman (1994 film)|Stuntman]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Krantiveer]]''
|
|
|-
|1995
|''[[Ram Jaane]]''
|
|
|-
|1995
|''[[Trimurti (1995 film)|Trimurti]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="7"|1996
|''[[Ghatak: Lethal|Ghatak]]''
|Inspector
|
|-
|''[[Krishna (1996 Hindi film)|Krishna]]''
|Kobra
|
|-
|''[[Masoom (1996 film)|Masoom]]''
|Mama
|
|-
|''[[Army (1996 film)|Army]]''
|Pancham
|
|-
|''[[Papi Gudia]]''
| A Yadav / Ahulwalia Inspector in Doll Jail
|Special Appearance
|-
|''[[Halo (1996 film)|Halo]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Diljale]]''
|
|
|-
|1997
|''[[Ek Phool Teen Kante]]''
|
|Lead Role in a Comedy
|-
|rowspan="5"|1998
|''[[Share Bazaar (film)|Share Bazaar]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Miss 420]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Kabhi Na Kabhi]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[China Gate (1998 film)|China Gate]]''
|Capt. Bijon Dasgupta
|
|-
|''[[Saat Rang Ke Sapne]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2000
|''[[Hadh Kar Di Aapne]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Gang (2000 film)|Gang]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2001
|''[[Lajja (2001 film)|Lajja]]''
|Purushotam
|
|-
|''[[Chhupa Rustam]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|2002
|''[[Saathiya (film)|Saathiya]]''
|Building Owner
|
|-
|''[[Annarth]]''
|Dayal Bhai
|
|-
|''[[Shararat (2002 film)|Shararat]]''
|
|
|-
|2003
|''[[Tumse Milke Wrong Number]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2004
|''[[Paisa Vasool (2004 film)|Paisa Vasool]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Kyun! Ho Gaya Na...]]''
| Sandeep Malhotra
|
|-
|2005
|''[[Bluffmaster!]]''
|Parimal Bajaj
|
|-
|2006
|''Hindustan''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|2007
|''[[Kahiin To Hoga]]''
|Mr. Ahluwalia
|TV series
|-
|''[[Laaga Chunari Mein Daag]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Salaam-e-Ishq: A Tribute to Love]]''
|Babu
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|2008
|''[[Wafa: A Deadly Love Story]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Ugly Aur Pagli]]''
|Mallika's Father
|
|-
|''[[Ghajini (2008 film)|Ghajini]]''
|Satveer Kohli (Kalpana's Boss)
|
|-
|rowspan=2|2009
|''[[De Dana Dan]]''
|Himanshu Kakkar
|
|-
|''[[Victory (2009 film)|Victory]]''
|Vedpal (Coach)
|
|-
|rowspan=2|2010
|''[[Khatta Meetha (2010 film)|Khatta Meetha]]''
|Driver
|
|-
|''[[Dabangg]]''
|Shastri Master
|
|-
|2011
|''[[Monica (2011 film)|Monica]]''
|Assem Ray
|
|-
|2012
|''[[Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya]]''
|Bhatti
|
|-
|2012
|''[[Dabangg 2]]''
|Shastri Master
|
|-
|rowspan=3|2013
|''[[Rabba Main Kya Karoon]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Club 60]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Phata Poster Nikhla Hero]]''
|Director
|
|-
|2014
|''[[Hasee Toh Phasee]]''
|Mukesh Adnani
|
|-
|2015
|''[[Aisa Yeh Jahaan]]''
|Director
|
|-
|2019
|''[[Saaho]]''
|Prithvi Raj
|
|-
|2022
|''[[Janhit Mein Jaari]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="1" |2024
|''[[Merry Christmas (2024 film)|Merry Christmas]]''
|Yadhoom Uncle
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2025
| ''[[Crazxy]]''
|Gurudutt Prasad
|
|-
| ''[[Dil Dosti Aur Dogs]]''
| Counsellor
|
|-
|}

====Other language films====
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Language
!Notes
|-
|rowspan="2"|1987
|''[[Pushpaka Vimana (1987 film)|Pushpaka Vimana]]''
|Killer
|Sound
|Lead Role
|-
|''[[Nayakan]]''
|Ajith Kelkar
|Tamil
|
|-
|1991
|''[[Aditya 369]]''
|Prof. Ramdas
| Telugu
|
|-
|1994
|''[[Bombay (1995 film)|Bombay]]''
| Sakthi Samaj Head
| Tamil
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|1995
|''Emergency''
|
| Kannada
|
|-
|''[[Ghatotkachudu]]''
|Scientist
| Telugu
|
|-
|1996
|''[[Kaalapani]]''
| Ram Lakhan
| Malayalam
|
|-
|2004
|''[[Anji (film)|Anji]]''
|Bhatia
|Telugu
|
|-
| 2007
|''Framed''
|Professor
|English
|
|-
|2010
|''[[Gorosthaney Sabdhan (film)|Gorosthaney Sabdhan]]''
|Marcus Goodwin
| rowspan="2" |Bengali
|
|-
|2011
|''[[Gosainbaganer Bhoot]]''
|Manmatha Ukil
|
|-
|2015
|''[[Puli (2015 film)|Puli]]''
|Sage
| Tamil
|
|-
|2019
|''[[Saaho]]''
|Prithvi Raj
|Telugu
|
|-
|2022
|''[[Sita Ramam]]''
|Anand Mehta
|Telugu
|
|-
|2023
|''[[Salaar: Part 1 - Ceasefire]]''
|Gaikwad alias "Baba"
|Telugu
|
|-
|rowspan="1" |2024
|''[[Lucky Baskhar]]''
|Rajbir Lokhande
|Telugu
|
|-
| rowspan="1" | 2025
|''[[Good Bad Ugly]]''
|Mastaan Bhai
|Tamil
|
|}

====Television====
* ''[[Chiraiya]]'' (2026)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{BH person}}
{{Subject bar
|commons = yes
|commons-search =
|d = yes
|d-search =
|portal1 = Biography
|portal2 =
}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Anand, Tinnu}}
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Hindi-language film directors]]
[[Category:Film directors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Punjabi people]]
[[Category:Punjabi Hindus]]
[[Category:Mayo College alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]

Maratha invasions of Bengal

2026-03-19T07:02:01Z

Godrejsplende: Expanded article with relevant info

{{Short description|Maratha invasions in Bengal (1742–1751)}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| image = Echoes from Old Calcutta 028.tif
| caption = A [[Maratha Ditch]], constricted around forts and factories as protection against Maratha raids
| conflict = Maratha invasions of Bengal
| partof = the [[decline of the Mughal Empire]]
| date = April 1742 – March 1751
| place = [[Bengal Subah]] ([[Bengal]], [[Bihar]], parts of modern [[Odisha|Orissa]])
| territory = Territories south of [[Subarnarekha river]] ceded into the [[Nagpur State]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA15-IA82|year=2010|page=15|quote="In 1751,...promising cession of the province of Orissa...Orissa came under the Bhonsle's control."|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|access-date=10 June 2021|archive-date=27 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227193705/https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA15-IA82|url-status=live}}</ref>
| combatant1 = {{Tree list}}
*[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] [[Maratha Empire]]
**[[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]
{{Tree list/end}}'''Supported by''': [[Pashtuns|Afghan]] rebels
| combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Bengal Subah]] '''Supported by''': [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] [[Peshwa]]
| commander1 = '''[[Raghuji I]]'''{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
|title='''Commanders''':
| 1 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Janoji of Nagpur|Janoji Bhonsle]]
| 2 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Sabaji Bhonsle
| 3 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Mir Habib]] (from 1742)
| 4 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Bhaskar Ram Kolhatkar{{Assassinated}}
| 5 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Alibhai Qarawwal{{Assassinated}}
| 6 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Shahamat Khan{{Assassinated}}
| 7 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Buland Khan Ruhela
|8 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Sarandaz Khan{{KIA}}
|9 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Sayyid Nur{{POW}}
|10 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Dharmadas Hazari{{POW}}
|11 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Mohan Singh
|12 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Raghuji Gaikwad
|13 = [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Shesh Rao
}}<hr />{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
|title='''Afghan rebels''':
|1 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mustafa Khan{{WIA}} (from 1748)
|2 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Abdul Rasul Khan (from 1745){{KIA}}
}}
| commander2 = '''[[Alivardi Khan]]'''{{Collapsible list
| framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
| title='''Commanders''':
| 1 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Abdul Ali Khan
| 2 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Abdus Subhan Khan{{POW}}
| 3 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Ali Quli Khan
| 4 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Ataullah Khan
| 5 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Bar Khordar Beg
| 6 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Chitrasen Rai<ref>{{cite book |last=McLane |first=John R. |year=1993 |title=Land and local kinship in eighteenth-century Bengal |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=155–156 |isbn=0521410746}}</ref>
| 7 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Dost Muhammad Khan
| 8 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Durlabh Ram
| 9 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Fakhrullah Beg Khan
|10 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Haidar Ali Khan
|11 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mahdi Nisar Khan
|12 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mir Abdul Aziz
|13 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Mir Habib]]{{Turncoat}}
|14 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Mir Jafar]]
|15 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Mir Qasim|Mir Kazim Khan]]
|16 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mir Khairullah Khan
|17 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mirza Beg Khan
|18 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mirza Dawar Quli
|19 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mirza Hakim Beg
|20 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Muhammad Raza{{POW}}
|21 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Musahib Khan{{KIA}}
|22 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mustafa Khan{{Turncoat}} (Until 1745)
|23 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Raham Khan
|24 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Saif Khan
|25 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Sardar Khan{{Turncoat}} (Until 1748)
|26 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Saulat Jang
|27 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Shaikh Masum Khan{{KIA}}
|28 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Shamshir Khan{{Turncoat}} (Until 1748)
|29 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Siraj-ud-Daulah]]{{AWOL}}
|30 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Umar Khan
|31 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Zain ud-Din Ahmed Khan]]
}}<hr>[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] [[Balaji Baji Rao]] [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] Pilaji Jadav [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] Malhar Holkar
| strength1 = '''[[First Maratha invasion of Bengal|First invasion]]''': 10,000 or 12,000 or 20,000 cavalry<hr>'''[[Second Maratha invasion of Bengal|Second invasion]]''': 50,000 cavalry or 75,000<hr>'''[[Third Maratha invasion of Bengal|Third invasion]]''': 20,000 cavalry<hr>'''[[Fourth Maratha invasion of Bengal|Fourth invasion]]''': [[Siege of Barabati (1745)|Barabati]]: 14,000 or 20,000 cavalry 25,000 infantry 300 guns [[Battle of Naubatpur (1745)|Naubatpur]]: 12,000 [[Battle of Bhagalpur (1745)|Bhagalpur]]: 5,000–6,000 [[Cuttack]]: 8,000 cavalry 20,000 infantry<hr>'''[[Fifth Maratha invasion of Bengal|Fifth invasion]]''': [[Bihar]]: 5,000 cavalry 7,000 infantry [[Siege of Cuttack (1749)|Cuttack]]: 7,000–8,000 [[Balasore]]: 40,000{{Efn|Allied with [[Afghan insurrections in Bengal Subah|Afghan rebels]]}} [[Midnapore]]: 12,000 cavalry
| strength2 = '''[[First Maratha invasion of Bengal|First invasion]]''': 23,000–26,000<hr>'''[[Second Maratha invasion of Bengal|Second invasion]]''': 70,000 cavalry 100,000 musketeers<hr>'''[[Third Maratha invasion of Bengal|Third invasion]]''': Unknown<hr>'''[[Fourth Maratha invasion of Bengal|Fourth invasion]]''': [[Siege of Barabati (1745)|Barabati]]: 400 [[Battle of Naubatpur (1745)|Naubatpur]]: 14,000 or 20,000 [[Battle of Bhagalpur (1745)|Bhagalpur]]: 600 [[Cuttack]]: 7,000–8,000 cavalry 12,000 infantry<hr>'''[[Fifth Maratha invasion of Bengal|Fifth invasion]]''': [[Bardhaman|Burdwan]]: 8,000 [[Midnapore]]: 5,000–6,000 cavalry
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Maratha invasions of Bengal}}
| result = See [[#End of hostilities and aftermath|Aftermath]]
| casualties3 = [[Dutch East India Company]] factory in Bengal and Bihar, estimated that 400,000 civilians in Western Bengal and Bihar died in the overall conflict.<ref name="Chaudhuri253"/><ref name="Marshall73"/> ({{Approx.}} 1.4% of Bengal's population killed.)<ref name="Bhattacharya360"/>
}}

The '''Maratha invasions of Bengal''' (1742–1751), were the a series of raids by the [[Maratha Army|Maratha forces]] in the [[Bengal Subah]] ([[Bengal]], [[Bihar]], parts of modern [[Odisha|Orissa]]), after the successful campaign in the [[Carnatic region]] at the [[Siege of Trichinopoly (1741)|Battle of Trichinopoly]]. The campaigns were carried out under [[Raghuji I]] of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]].<ref name="Maharashtra1974">{{cite book |last=Government of Maharashtra |year=1974 |title=Maharashtra State Gazetteers: Wardha District |edition=2nd |location=Bombay |publisher=Director of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State |page=63 |oclc=77864804}}</ref> Between April 1742 to March 1751, the Marathas invaded Bengal five times in [[First Maratha invasion of Bengal|1742]], [[Second Maratha invasion of Bengal|1743]], [[Third Maratha invasion of Bengal|1744]], [[Fourth Maratha invasion of Bengal|1745]] and [[Fifth Maratha invasion of Bengal|1748]] respectively,<ref name="Mehta2005" /> causing widespread economic losses in the Bengal Subah.

The resurgent [[Maratha Empire]] emerging from [[Maharashtra]] quickly repulsed the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and subjugated them to the confines of [[Delhi]]. It was during this period they were at the doorsteps of the independent [[Bengal Subah]], particularly Orissa. They conducted raids within Bengal and plundered cities and villages and caused widespread devastation.<ref name="Chaudhuri253" /><ref name="Marshall73" /> However, due to their relentless attacks and raids the Nawab would be more partial towards signing the treaty eventually agreeing to cede [[Odisha|Orissa]] to the [[Maratha Empire]] to ensure peace for both states.<ref name="Sen2011" />

== Background ==
The Maratha invasions of Bengal were driven by Maratha imperialism, aiming to dismantle the declining [[Mughal Empire]]. Initiated by Peshwa [[Bajirao I|Baji Rao I]], the Marathas sought to expand their dominance, with [[Raghuji I|Raghuji Bhonsle]] targeting Bengal for its wealth and lack of Maratha tribute. Political instability in Bengal, coupled with invitations from ousted [[Sarfaraz Khan|Nawab Sarfaraz]]’s ({{Reign|1739|1740}}) allies, prompted Raghuji’s invasions.{{Sfn|Datta|1939|p=57}}

According to Muslim writers the invasions were encouraged by [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Nizam-ul-mulk]] to divert Maratha attention from [[Deccan]]. Contemporary Bengali works like Bhratacandra's ''[[Annada Mangal|Annadāmangala]]'' portray the invasions as Hindu resistance against Muslim oppression.<ref name=":4">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=58}}</ref> He presented the ''Bargis'' as agents of [[Shiva]].<ref name=":6">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bhattacharya|2020|p=362}} "Maratha atrocities against Hindus in Bengal prevented people from viewing the invaders as Hindu liberators although Bharatchandra did present the bargis as agents of Shiva."</ref> Bhratachandra's narrative could be biased as he was court poet of [[Krishnachandra Roy|Krishnanagar Zamidari]] and imprisoned by Nawab of Bengal after failing to pay tribute.{{Efn|Kalikinkar Datta asserts that Bharatachandra may be biased since he was court-poet of the Zamindar Krishnachandra who often had hostilities with Nawab. While Gangarama does not, however, stand on the same footing. His account is obviously one from the standpoint of the masses of the people. ({{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=58}})}} Another contemporary Hindu poet Gangarama’s ''[[Maharashta Purana|Mahārāştrapurāņa]]'' suggests initial public hope in Maratha intervention, followed by disappointment and eventual support for Bengal's Muslim government.<ref name=":4" /> The atrocities in against Hindus prevented viewing the Marathas as Hindu liberator.<ref name=":6" />

Lastly, seeking revenge against Alivardi Khan, the relatives and partisans of the former Nawab Sarfaraz Khan, invited Raghuji, to invade Alivardi's dominion. The ''[[Riyaz-us-Salatin]]'' asserts that Mir Habib went to invite the Marathas following the defeat of [[Lutfullah Tabrizi|Murshid Quli II]] in the [[Battle of Phulwari]]. The ''Siyar al-Mutaqherin'' by [[Ghulam Hussain Khan]], however, claims that Mir Habib was captured by the Marathas while engaged in [[Battle of Katwa (1742)|fighting at Katwa]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=211}}</ref>

== Invasions of Bengal ==
=== First invasion (1742) ===
{{Main|First Maratha invasion of Bengal}}
In 1742, Bengal experienced its initial encounter with the Maratha invasion. In April, Maratha forces under Bhaskar Ram sent by Raghuji Bhonsle to collect [[chauth]] tribute, invaded [[Bengal]] via [[Odisha]]. They advanced unopposed through Odisha and Panchet, near modern [[Raniganj]], reaching near Burdwan. Nawab Alivardi Khan rushed to Burdwan on 15 April but faced constant Maratha skirmishes and plundering, causing severe food shortages. He broke through to [[Katwa]] amid heavy losses and hardships. At Katwa, the Marathas had already plundered and burned granaries. A Maratha detachment under Mir Habib who had defected now with the Marathas, raided Nawab's capital [[Murshidabad]] in early May. Alivardi hurried back, arriving on 7 May; the Marathas retreated to Katwa, looting villages en route.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1943|pp=455—456}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1978|p=182}}</ref> As rains approached, the Marathas considered withdrawing, but Mir Habib convinced them to stay. They captured Hooghly, installed Shesh Rao as governor, and used Katwa as headquarters, aiming to expand beyond the [[Hooghly River]] toward [[Dhaka]]. During the 1742 rainy season, fighting paused, but Marathas ravaged [[Bardhaman|Burdwan]], Murshidabad, [[Nadia]], [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]], [[Midnapore]], [[Santhal Pargana division|Santal Parganas]], and Odisha up to [[Balasore]], committing atrocities. Gangaram wrote in his poems that the people fled with belongings, only to be [[Robbery|robbed]], [[Mutilation|mutilated]], or killed; women were abducted and [[Rape|raped]], villages burned.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1943|pp=456–458}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1978|p=183}}</ref> Many Bengalis migrated eastward for safety. Alivardi used the lull to regroup at camps near Murshidabad, reinforced by nephew the [[Nazim|Naib Nazim]] of [[Bihar]] [[Zain ud-Din Ahmed Khan|Zain-ud-Din Ahmed Khan]] and Saif Khan from [[Purnia]]. In late September 1742, he launched a surprise attack on Bhaskar Ram's camp at Katwa routing the Marathas. They fled across the [[Bhagirathi River|Bhagirathi]] and [[Ajay River|Ajay]] rivers; Alivardi pursued through Panchet, [[Bankura]], Midnapore, and Odisha, driving them beyond [[Chilika Lake]] by December. En route, Marathas plundered towns and killed Odisha's deputy governor Shaikh Masum at Jaipur. Alivardi appointed Abdul Nabi Khan as replacement and returned to Murshidabad on 10 February 1743 after two months in Odisha.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1943|p=458}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1978|p=184}}</ref>

[[Alivardi Khan]] successfully repelled the invasion, although not without the unfortunate consequence of [[Murshidabad]] and [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]] suffering from plundering.<ref name="Marshall72">{{cite book|title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828|author=P. J. Marshall|author-link=P. J. Marshall|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|page=72|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&pg=PA72|isbn=9780521028226}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Brijen Kishore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-MUAAAAIAAJ |title=Sirajuddaullah and the East India Company, 1756-1757: Background to the Foundation of British Power in India |date=1966 |publisher=Brill Archive |language=en |access-date=1 February 2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201053841/https://books.google.com/books?id=o-MUAAAAIAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Second invasion (1743) ===
{{Main|Second Maratha invasion of Bengal}}

[[Raghuji I]] lead the Marathas and attacked and captured [[Katwa]] and [[Chinsurah|Hooghly]] in [[Bengal]]. [[Alivardi Khan]] conscripted tribal and peasant levies from [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]]. He responded to the Maratha attack by attacking the Maratha camp at Katwa in the First Battle of Katwa from the rear, at nightfall leading to a Subah victory. The Marathas believing a much larger force had been mobilized, evacuated out of Bengal on 17 September 1742. [[Bhaskar Ram Kolhatkar|Bhaskar Pant]] the Maratha commander, was killed in action.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Tony |first=Jacques |title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges |date=30 November 2006 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-33536-5 |pages=516}}</ref> In 1743, Raghuji occupied Burdwan with his camp at Katwa.<ref name=":1">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|pp=61–75}}</ref>

=== Third invasion (1744) ===
{{Main|Third Maratha invasion of Bengal}}

The Marathas tried again in 1745 where they succeeded in occupying [[Orissa]] to take Katwa. The force of 20,000 horsemen ravaged [[Murshidabad]] and moved onwards to [[Katwa]]. The force was led by [[Raghuji Bhonsle]], the Maratha ruler of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]] where he and his force were defeated by [[Alivardi Khan]] at the Second Battle of Katwa.<ref name=":0" />

=== Fourth invasion (1745–1747) ===
{{Main|Fourth Maratha invasion of Bengal}}

The Battle of Burdwan oversaw [[Alivardi Khan]] heavily repulsing and defeating the [[Janoji Bhonsle]] led Marathas. By way of the jungles of north Birbhum and the Khargpur hills (south of Mungir), Raghuji arrived near Fatua which he pillaged heavily, and then turned south-west, plundering Shaikhpura and many villages in the Tikari zamindari, till he struck the Son river.<ref name=":1" /> An army was amassed to defend against the invading Maratha forces at Orissa after the dismissal of [[Mir Jafar]] by [[Alivardi Khan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tony |first=Jacques |title=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges |date=30 November 2006 |isbn=978-0-313-33536-5 |pages=232|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref>

=== Fifth invasion (1748–1751) ===
{{Main|Fifth Maratha invasion of Bengal}}

[[Janoji Bhonsle]] and [[Mir Habib]] enlisted in the army of Afghans at Rani Sarai to fight against Alivardi Khan at the [[Battle of Rani Sarai]]. [[Alivardi Khan]] was able to break the Afghan lines and make them retreat through the use of war elephants by his eager generals and eventually he won the battle.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Anil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ggduAAAAMAAJ |title=A Comprehensive History of India: 1712-1772 |publication-date=1978 |pages=187}}</ref>

== Campaign timeline ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Battle
! rowspan="2" |Time
! rowspan="2" |Location
! colspan="2" |Belligerents
! rowspan="2" |Result
|-
!Bengal Subah
!Maratha Empire
|-
| '''Siege of Barabati Fort'''
| 19 April 1742
| [[Barabati fort]], [[Cuttack]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Shaikh Masum Khan
|[[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Bhaskar Ram Kolhatkar]]}}
| '''Maratha''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=212}} "Bhaskar marched through Orissa unopposed and arrived in Cuttack. The fort of Barabati was captured on 19.4.1742."</ref>
|-
| '''Siege of Hoogly'''
| May 1742
| [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Muhammad Raza Khan
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Mir Habib]]|Shesh Rao}}
| '''Maratha''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Malik|1977|p=146}} "Mir Habib, by inveigling Muhammad Raza, the faujdar of Hugli, to an interview, seized him and secured possession of the fort through the help of 'Abul Hasan, a rich and influential merchant of the place."</ref>
|-
| '''[[Battle of Katwa (1742)]]'''
| 27 September 1742
| [[Katwa]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Bhaskar Ram Kolhatkar]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Rahim|1971|p=293}} "ভাস্কর পণ্ডিত মহা ধূমবামের সহিত দুর্গা পূজা করিতেছিলেন। আলীবর্দীর আক্রমণে ভীত হইয়া তিনি কাটোয়া হইতে পলায়ন করেন (২৭শে সেপ্টেম্বর, ১৭৪২)।" {{Translation|Bhaskar Pandit was worshipping Durga with great splendour. Fearing the attack of Alivardi, he fled from Katwa (September 27, 1742).}}</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Jaipur'''
| October
| [[Jeypore]], Odisha
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Shaikh Masum Khan{{KIA}}
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|Unknown}}
| '''Maratha''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=78}} "Bhaskar sent a detachment also to Orissa, where Alivardi's Deputy Governor, Shaikh Masum, bravely attempted to oppose it but was defeated and killed at Jaipur"</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Midnapore'''
| Pre-December 1742
| [[Balasore district|Balasore]], [[Odisha]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Alivardi Khan
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|Bhaskar Ram Kolhatkar}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=79}} "Bhaskar, thereupon, fled towards Balasore but soon turned back and had a fight with the Nawab, at a distance of about four miles from Midnapur, which resulted in his defeat with a loss of several soldiers"</ref>
|-
| '''Siege of Ghauspur Fort'''
| February 1743
| Fort of Ghauspur, [[Gaya, India|Gaya]], [[Bihar]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Ahmad Khan Qureshi
| [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] [[Peshwa]] of the [[Maratha Empire]]{{Bulleted list|[[Balaji Baji Rao]]}}
| '''Maratha''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=83}}</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Birbhum'''
| April 1743
| [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]] [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] [[Balaji Baji Rao]]
|[[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Raghuji I]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah–Peshwa''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=86}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Siege of Barabati (1745)]]'''
| May 1745
| [[Barabati fort]], [[Cuttack]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Durlabh Ram{{POW}} {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mir Abdul Aziz{{Surrendered}}
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Raghuji I]]}}
| '''Maratha''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ray|1960|p=14}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=94}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Battle of Naubatpur (1745)]]'''
| November 1745
| Muhib Alipur, near [[Naubatpur]], [[Bihar]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Raghuji I]]}}
'''Afghan rebels'''
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Rahim|1971|p=296}} "মারাঠাদেরকে অনুসরণ করিয়া আলীবর্দী বিহারে আসেন এবং মুহিব-আলীপুর নামক স্থানে ইহাদেরকে পরাজিত করেন (১৪ই নবেম্বর, ১৭৪৫)।"{{Break}}{{Translation|Alivardi followed the Marathas to Bihar and defeated them at a place called Muhib-Alipur (November 14, 1745).}}</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=97}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[Battle of Bhagalpur (1745)]]'''
| December 1745
| [[Bhagalpur]], [[Bihar]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Raghuji I]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=98}}</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Ranidighi'''
| 22 December 1745
| Ranidighi, near [[Katwa]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Raghuji I]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|pp=98–99}} "He soon marched against Raghuji, who had fled towards Katwah on hearing of his advance, and overtook him at Ranidighi (tank) near Katwah. A sharp engagement ensued, which resulted in the defeat of Raghuji with heavy losses in men and baggage, and compelled him to retreat to Nagpur"</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Midnapore'''
| 12 December 1746
| Near [[Midnapore]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Mir Jafar]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] Sayyid Nur
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Malik|1977|p=152}} "Mir Ja'afar defeated Saiyid Nur, the lieutenant of Mir Habib, near Midnapur on 12 December 1746."</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Burdwan'''
| February 1747
| [[Bardhaman|Burdwan]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Mir Jafar]] {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Ataullah Khan Sabet Jang {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Fakhruddin Beg Khan
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Janoji]]|[[Mir Habib]]}}
| '''Indecisive'''<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=101}} "Alivardi strongly censured this disgraceful retreat of Mir Jafar Khan, and sent a strong force under Ataullah Khan Sabet Jang and Fakhrullah Beg Khan to reinforce his party at Burdwan. They had an indecisive engagement with the Marathas under Janoji joined with those under Mir Habib."{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=84}}</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Burdwan'''
| March 1747
| [[Bardhaman|Burdwan]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Janoji of Nagpur|Janoji]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=102}} "He personally led his army to Burdwan and defeated the Marathas in a furiously contested battle."{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=90}} "But nothing daunted, this old man of seventy-one personally took command of his army, marched out of his camp, and after fighting a severely contested battle near Burdwan (March 1747) defeated Janoji and the entire Maratha army with heavy loss."</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Champanagar'''
| May 1748
| [[Champapuri|Champanagar]], [[Bihar]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Mir Habib]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=104}}</ref>
|-
| [[Battle of Rani Sarai|'''Battle of Rani Sarai''']]
| 16 April 1748
| Rani Sarai, near [[Barh]], Bihar
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Mir Habib]]|[[Janoji of Nagpur]]}}
'''Afghan rebels'''
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=105}} "Alivardi inflicted a crushing defeat on the allied Afghan and Maratha troops at Ranisarai, eight miles west of Barh, on the 18th of April, 1748."{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=95}} "After the crushing defeat of his Afghan allies at Ranisarai (16th April), Janoji with Mir Habib and all their troops slipped past the Nawab and turned towards Murshidabad."</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Midnapore'''
| March 1749
| Near [[Midnapore]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Dost Muhammad Khan {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Mir Kazim Khan
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Mir Habib]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=107}} "The Marathas had stopped in the jungles of Midnapur, where they were pursued and defeated by Dost Muhammad Khan, Mir Kazim Khan, and some other generals of the Nawab."</ref>
|-
| '''[[Siege of Cuttack (1749)]]'''
| May – June 1749
| [[Cuttack]], Odisha
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|Sayyid Nur{{POW}}|Sarandaz Khan{{KIA}}|Dharmadas Hazari{{POW}}}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=108}}</ref>
|-
| '''Maratha recapture of Cuttack'''
| June 1749
| [[Cuttack]], Odisha
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} Shaikh Abdus Subhan{{POW}}
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Mir Habib]]}}
| '''Maratha''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=97}}</ref>
|-
| '''Battle of Midnapore'''
| December 1750
| [[Midnapore]]
| {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Alivardi Khan]]
| [[File:Nagpur State flag.png|20px]] [[Kingdom of Nagpur]]{{Bulleted list|[[Mir Habib]]}}
| '''Bengal Subah''' victory<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=113}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|pp=100–101}}</ref>
|}

== Atrocities during Maratha invasions ==
There were a total of five invasions between 1742 and 1751.<ref name="Davies">{{cite book |author=C. C. Davies |year=1957 |chapter=Chapter XXIII: Rivalries in India |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ejh1RnNDt4C&pg=PG555 |editor=J. O. Lindsay |editor-link=J. O. Lindsay |title=The New Cambridge Modern History |title-link=The New Cambridge Modern History |volume=VII: The Old Regime 1713–63 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=555 |isbn=978-0-521-04545-2 |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423154207/https://books.google.com/books?id=7ejh1RnNDt4C&pg=PG555 |url-status=live }}</ref> The continuous conflict took a heavy toll on the population of Bengal.<ref name="Marshall73">{{cite book |author=Marshall |first=P. J. |author-link=P. J. Marshall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&pg=PA73 |title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=9780521028226 |page=73}}</ref> During that period of invasion by the Marathas, light cavalry called as "[[Bargi]]s", perpetrated atrocities against the local population of [[Bengalis]] and [[Biharis]]. As reported in [[Bardhaman Raj|Burdwan Estate]] and European sources, the Bargis are said to have plundered villages.<ref name="Davies"/> Jan Kersseboom, chief of the [[Dutch East India Company]] factory in Bengal, estimated that perhaps 400,000 civilians in Western Bengal and Bihar died in the overall conflict.<ref name="Chaudhuri253"/><ref name="Marshall73"/> According to Sabyasachi Bhattacharya in the Bengal region 14 out of every 1,000 people was killed resulting 350,000 deaths.<ref name="Bhattacharya360">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bhattacharya|2020|pp=359–360}} "The head merchant at the Dutch factory in Bengal guessed that 'close to 400,000 people were killed in Bengal and Bihar' during the Maratha invasions. If 350,000 of those deaths were in Bengal and if Bengal's population had been 24 million or so at the start, that would suggest 14 out of every 1,000 people died."
</ref> Contemporary accounts of the invasions report mass [[gang rape]] and [[Wartime sexual violence]] against women and [[Child sexual abuse|children]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNAUAAAAIAAJ&dq=rape&pg=PA23|title=Sirajuddaullah and the East India Company, 1756-1757: Background to the Foundation of British Power in India|last=Gupta|first=Brijen Kishore|date=1962|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=|location=|pages=23|language=en|quote=horrors perpetrated by the Marathas on women and children which included gang rape.|access-date=18 November 2021|archive-date=26 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226234608/https://books.google.com/books?id=fNAUAAAAIAAJ&dq=rape&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_M9AAAAMAAJ&q=maratha+invasion+bengal+rape|title=The Rape of India: A Biography of Robert Clive and a Sexual History of the Conquest of Hindustan|last=Edwardes|first=Allen|date=1966|publisher=Julian Press|isbn=|location=|pages=131|language=en|quote="'Tis reported that no fewer than 10 or a Dozen of 'em will rape a beautiful Woman, that they cut off the Cullions [testicles] of Men & embugger Children of both sexes thereafter selling them into slavery"|access-date=25 April 2021|archive-date=26 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226234605/https://books.google.com/books?id=j_M9AAAAMAAJ&q=maratha+invasion+bengal+rape|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynpDAAAAYAAJ&q=maratha+invasion+bengal+gang+rape|title=Seminar|last=|first=|date=1989|publisher=R. Thapar|isbn=|location=|pages=|language=en|quote=Repeated Maratha invasion of Bengal from the 1740s causing mass migration of people, ... in the beginning the Marathas raped and violated women, but later, the villagers took to guerrilla tactics to resist them|access-date=25 April 2021|archive-date=26 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226234605/https://books.google.com/books?id=ynpDAAAAYAAJ&q=maratha+invasion+bengal+gang+rape|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1BY9AAAAIAAJ&dq=gang+rape&pg=PA555|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|last=|first=|date=1970|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=|location=|pages=555|language=en|quote="they indulged in the unspeakable practice of gang-rape"|access-date=18 November 2021|archive-date=26 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226234603/https://books.google.com/books?id=1BY9AAAAIAAJ&dq=gang+rape&pg=PA555|url-status=live}}</ref> and mutilation of victims by the Marathas which included cutting off their hands and noses and [[Castration#Torture and war crimes|forced castrations]] The Marathas enslaved children in Bengal.<ref name=":3"/><ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C&dq=rape&pg=PA21|title=Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal|last=McDermott|first=Rachel Fell|date=2001-06-28|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803071-3|location=|pages=|language=en|quote=The Marathas plundered, stole, set fire to villages and crops, tortured the inhabitants, cutting off their victim's hands and noses, raping them, and drowning them.|access-date=18 November 2021|archive-date=26 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226234602/https://books.google.com/books?id=2PrChFaXgf0C&dq=rape&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the Bengalis in western Bengal also fled to take shelter in Eastern Bengal, fearing for their lives in the wake of the Maratha attacks.<ref name="hussain">{{cite book|title=History of Bangladesh, 1704-1971|volume=2|author=Aklam Hussain|publisher=[[University of Michigan]], [[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]|year=1997|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=53ZuAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9789845123372|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=23 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423154136/https://books.google.com/books?id=53ZuAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Zamindar]]s outside the affected districts and also from the districts that involved this conflict were affected by the Maratha raids.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McLane |first1=John R. |title=Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal |date=25 July 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52654-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YH6ijJnUPmcC |language=en |pages=166–167}}</ref>

Historians generally view [[Maharashta Purana]] particularly as a "contemporary mirror" of the Maratha plunders.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chatterjee |first=Kumkum |title=Performance Narratives and the Mughal Factor |date=2009-03-05 |work=The Cultures of History in Early Modern India: Persianization and Mughal Culture in Bengal |pages=104 |editor-last=Chatterjee |editor-first=Kumkum |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195698800.003.0004 |access-date=2025-06-20 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195698800.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-569880-0|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Dalrymple states that the Maharashta Purana presents a clear and vivid depiction of the invasions.{{sfn|Dalrymple|2020|p=73}}

Historian [[William Dalrymple]] quotes Gangaram's Maharashtra Purana, a contemporary account describing the atrocities committed by the Marathas in Bengal:{{sfn|Dalrymple|2020|p=73}}
{{blockquote|They constantly shouted, 'Give us rupees, give us rupees, give us rupees. When they got no rupees, they filled their victims' nostrils with water, or drowned them in tanks. When they demanded money and it was not given to them, they would put a man to death... Bungalows, thatched-roofed houses, Vishnu-mandapas, they burned them all, large and small Every Brahman or Vaishnava or sannyasi whom they saw they killed, and they slaughtered cows and women by the hundreds.}}

The Bargi atrocities were corroborated by contemporary Dutch and British accounts.<ref name="Marshall">{{cite book|title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828|author=P. J. Marshall|author-link=P. J. Marshall|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|pages=72–73|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&pg=PA72|isbn=9780521028226}}</ref><ref name="Chaudhuri253">{{cite book |author=Chaudhuri |first=Kirti N. |author-link=Kirti N. Chaudhuri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xt7Fgzq9e8C&pg=PA253 |title=The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660-1760 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=9780521031592 |page=253}}</ref> The atrocities devastated Bengal's economy, as many of the people killed in the Bargi raids included merchants, [[textile]] weavers,<ref name="Chaudhuri253"/> [[silk]] winders, and [[mulberry]] cultivators.<ref name="Marshall73"/> The [[Cossimbazar]] factory reported in 1742, for example, that the Bargis burnt down many of the houses where silk piece goods were made, along with weavers' [[loom]]s.<ref name="Chaudhuri253"/> In 1743 two [[Maratha Army|Maratha armies]] invaded - one belonged to Raghuji Bhosle, the other to [[Balaji Baji Rao|Balaji Rao]] again. Alivardi Khan was obliged to pay a subsidy and promise to pay him ''chauth'' (tax) in the future.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=P. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&pg=PA73 |title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-521-02822-6 |series=The New Cambridge History of India |volume=II.2 |page=70 |language=en |author-link=P. J. Marshall}}</ref>

Baneswar Vidyalankar's text ''Chitrachampu'' attributed the victories of the Marathas to "the wonderfully fast horses they ride." Bharatchandra's ''[[Annada Mangal|Annadamangal]]'' attributed the attacks to a particular communal factor which was the destruction of temples at [[Bhubaneswar]] by Alivardi's soldiers.{{sfn|McLane|2002|pp=166–167}}

Vaneshwar Vidyalankar, courtier of the [[Bardhaman Raj|Raja of Burdwan]] wrote in 1744 AD,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=55}}</ref>
<blockquote>"Shahu Rajah's troops are niggard of pity, slayers of pregnant women and infants, of Brahmans and the poor, fierce of spirit, expert in robbing the property of every one and in committing every sinful act. They created a local cataclysm and caused the extirpation of the people of the Bengal villages like an (ominous) comet .... In one day they can cross a hundred yojans. They slay the unarmed, the poor, women and children. They rob all property and abduct chaste wives. If it comes to a battle, they secretly flee away to some other country. Their main strength lies in their marvellously swift horses. Such was the tumultuous ocean of Bargi troops."</blockquote>

Gangarama writes in the same year regarding the Maratha brutality:
{{Blockquote|text=“As soon as Bhaskar arrived again, he summoned all his captains and ordered them, “Draw your swords and kill every man and woman that you see.” When the commander spoke thus, they plundered and slew on every side with shouts of kill ! kill ! ! Brahmans, Vaishnavs, Sannyasis, women and cows were slaughtered by the hundred.”<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.43007/page/n87/mode/1up 63–64]}}</ref>}}

The internal fights within the Alivardi Khan's military also contributed to their losses. For example, in 1748 [[Pathan]] soldiers rebelled and seized [[Patna]] which they controlled for some time. Another example is the ''[[faujdar]]'' of [[Purnia|Purnea]] who departed from Alivardi and created a small autonomous state.<ref>{{cite book | last=Markovits | first=C. | title=A History of Modern India, 1480-1950 | publisher=Anthem Press | series=Anthem South Asian Studies | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-84331-152-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2OKvG5wbaAC&pg=PA194 | access-date=2022-03-18 | page=194 | archive-date=18 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318115453/https://books.google.com/books?id=r2OKvG5wbaAC&pg=PA194 | url-status=live }}</ref> Apart from territorial losses, the Nawab of Bengal also suffered severe economic losses. Industries such as agriculture and trade were dislocated and a large number of people migrated from Western Bengal to the Northern and Eastern districts.<ref name="Mahajan">{{cite book | last=Mahajan | first=VD | title=Modern Indian History | publisher=S. Chand Limited | year=2020 | isbn=978-93-5283-619-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vDscEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 | quote=However, the Marathas were the greatest menace to Ali Vardi Khan. There were as many as five Maratha invasions in 1742, 1743, 1744, 1745 and 1748. | page=42 | access-date=18 March 2022 | archive-date=18 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318120553/https://books.google.com/books?id=vDscEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The further attacks took place in 1748 in Bihar, on Murshidabad in 1750, and in 1751 in Western Bengal.<ref name="Habib">{{cite book | last1=Habib | first1=I. | last2=Panikkar | first2=K.N. | last3=Byres | first3=T.J. | last4=Patnaik | first4=U. | title=The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib | publisher=Anthem Press | series=Anthem South Asian studies | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-84331-038-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejrBraqBaLQC&pg=PA233 | page=233 | access-date=18 March 2022 | archive-date=18 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318115455/https://books.google.com/books?id=ejrBraqBaLQC&pg=PA233 | url-status=live }}</ref>

== End of hostilities and aftermath ==
In 1751, the Marathas signed a peace treaty with the [[Nawab of Bengal]]. Negotiations for a treaty were conducted between Mirza Saleh, representing the Marathas, and [[Mir Jafar]], representing the Nawab. Mir Jafar introduced Mirza Saleh to the Nawab at [[Katwa]], after which they proceeded to Murshidabad to finalize the treaty's terms. The agreement was formally signed with the approval of the Nagpur court in May or June 1751, based on the mutually agreed conditions.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=114}}</ref> The terms reads as follows:

# [[Mir Habib]] the former courtier of Alivardi Khan, who had defected to the Marathas was made provincial governor of [[History of Odisha|Orissa]] under nominal control of the Nawab of Bengal.<ref name="Sengupta">{{cite book | last=Sengupta | first=N. | title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib | publisher=Penguin Books Limited | year=2011 | isbn=978-81-8475-530-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TI8GQioaoL4C&pg=PT156 | page=156 | access-date=18 March 2022 | archive-date=18 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318115455/https://books.google.com/books?id=TI8GQioaoL4C&pg=PT156 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="বাংলাদেশের ইতিহাস">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Rahim|1971|pp=293–299}}</ref>
# From October 1751, 1.2 million Rupees will be paid annually as the ''[[chauth]]'' of Bengal and Bihar, and the Marathas agreed not to invade [[Bengal]] again.<ref name="Maharashtra1974" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Gouripada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23aE18nmt-0C |title=History of Bagree-Rajya (Garhbeta): With Special Reference to Its Anti-British Role, from Late 18th Century Till the Present Times |date=1987 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-014-7 |language=en |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=6 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206051239/https://books.google.com/books?id=23aE18nmt-0C&newbks=0&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The Nawab of Bengal also paid Rs. 3.2 million to the Marathas, towards the arrears of ''chauth'' for the preceding years.<ref name="Mehta2005">{{Cite book |author1=Mehta |first=Jaswant Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&dq=marathas+in+bengal+chauth+mir+habib&pg=PA201 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. |year=2005 |isbn=9781932705546 |pages=195 |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423154208/https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA201&lpg=PA201&dq=marathas+in+bengal+chauth+mir+habib#q=marathas%20in%20bengal%20chauth%20mir%20habib |archive-date=23 April 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
# The territories beyond the [[Subarnarekha River]] near Jalasore was fixed as the boundary of the Bengal subah, and the Marathas. Marathas agreed to never cross the Subarnarekha River.<ref name="Sen2011">{{Cite book |author1=Sengupta |first=Nitish K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&dq=marathas+in+bengal+chauth+mir+habib&pg=PA162 |title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2011 |isbn=9780143416784 |pages=158–163 |quote=Alivardi showed exemplary courage and military skill in every frontal battle that took place between his forces and the Marathas, in each of which, almost without exception, he had the upper hand. |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227193242/https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA162&lpg=PA162&dq=marathas+in+bengal+chauth+mir+habib#q=marathas%20in%20bengal%20chauth%20mir%20habib |archive-date=27 February 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Thus ''de facto'' Maratha control over Orissa was established by 1751, while ''de jure'' it remained a part of [[Bengal Subah]] till 1752.<ref name="Sengupta" /> After the assassination of Mir Habib, the governor of Orissa in 1752, the Marathas formally incorporated Orissa in their dominion, as part of [[Nagpur kingdom]].<ref name="বাংলাদেশের ইতিহাস" />

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Datta |first=K. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ggduAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=A Comprehensive History of India: 1712-1772, edited by A. C. Banerjee and D. K. Ghase |date=1978 |publisher=People's Publishing House |editor-last=Banerjee |editor-first=A.C. |language=en |chapter=Bengal Subah (1707-1756) |editor-last2=Ghase |editor-first2=D. K.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_History_of_Bengal.html?id=DiUKAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=The History of Bengal |date=1943 |publisher=The University of Dhaka |volume=II |location=Ramna, Dhaka |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ivermee |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eMJEAAAQBAJ |title=Hooghly: The Global History of a River |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-78738-325-8 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Haque |first=Mohammed Anwarul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8eAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. |date=1980 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dalrymple |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUMIEAAAQBAJ |title=The Anarchy |date=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-5266-3401-6 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Datta |first=Kalikinkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKkbAAAAIAAJ |title=Alivardi and His Times |date=1939 |publisher=University of Calcutta |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rahim |first=M. A. |title=Bangladesher Itihas |date=1971 |publisher=M. Alam Iden Press |editor-last=Rahim |editor-first=M. A |editor-link=Muhammad Abdur Rahim |edition=1st |location=Dhaka |pages=285–305 |language=bn |trans-title=Bangladesh's History |editor-last2=Abdul Momin |editor-first2=Chowdhury |editor-link2=Abdul Momin Chowdhury |editor-last3=Mahmood |editor-first3=A. B Mahiuddin |editor-last4=Islam |editor-first4=Sirajul |editor-link4=Sirajul Islam}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Shejwalkar |first=T. S. |date=1941 |title=The Bengal Episode in Maratha History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931283 |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |volume=2 |issue=3/4 |pages=361–382 |issn=0045-9801}}
* {{Cite book |last=Malik |first=Zahiruddin |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Reign_of_Muhammad_Shah_1719_1748.html?id=S8W3AAAAIAAJ |title=The Reign of Muhammad Shah, 1719-1748 |date=1977 |publisher=Asia Publishing House |isbn=978-0-210-40598-7 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Bhabani Charan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37A9AAAAMAAJ |title=Orissa Under Marathas, 1751-1803 |date=1960 |publisher=Kitab Mahal |language=en |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/orissa-under-marathas-1960 |archive-date=2024-01-21}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.43007 |title=Fall Of The Mughal Empire 1739-1754 |date= |publisher=Orient Longman Ltd |year=1964 |edition=3rd |volume=I |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Comprehensive_History_of_Modern_Bengal.html?id=Z3GxzQEACAAJ |title=A Comprehensive History of Modern Bengal, 1700-1950 |date=2020 |publisher=The Asiatic Society |isbn=978-93-89901-95-5 |editor-last=Bhattacharya |editor-first=Sabyasachi |volume=I |location=Kolkata |language=en}}
{{refend}}
{{MarathaEmpire|state=expanded}}

[[Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Bengal Subah]]
[[Category:Bengal Subah]]
[[Category:1740s in India]]
[[Category:1750s in India]]
[[Category:1740s conflicts]]
[[Category:1750s conflicts]]
[[Category:Crime in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Mass murders in India]]
[[Category:Mass murders in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:1740s mass murders]]
[[Category:1750s mass murders]]
[[Category:Gang rape in India]]
[[Category:Gang rape in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Wartime sexual violence in Asia]]

Kalyani (raga)

2026-03-16T13:28:49Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|Musical scale (raga) in Carnatic music}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox ragam
| name = Kalyani
| synonym =
| image_name = Kalayana_Ragamala_painting.png
| image_alt = Kalayana Ragamala painting
| mela =
| chakra =
| type =
| arohanam = {{svaraC|S|R2|G3|M2|P|D2|N3|S'}}
| avarohanam = {{svaraC|S'|N3|D2|P|M2|G3|R2|S}}
| jeeva =
| chhaya =
| nyasa =
| vishesha =
| equivalent = [[Lydian mode]]
| similar =
}}

'''Kalyani''' is a [[melakarta]] [[ragam]] (parent musical scale) in the [[Carnatic music]]. It is the prati madhyama equivalent of the raga [[Sankarabharanam (raga)|Sankarabharanam]]. It was called Kalyan but is now more popularly called [[Yaman (raga)|Yaman]] in [[Hindustani Music]]. Its Western equivalent is the [[Lydian mode]].

== Kalyani in Carnatic music ==
In South Indian weddings it is a very prominently played ragam. The word ''Kalyani'' means ''she who causes auspicious things''. It is the 65th [[melakarta]] ragam under the [[Katapayadi]] [[Katapayadi sankhya|sankhya]]. It is also called ''Mechakalyani''. The notes for Kalyani are S R2 G3 M2 P D2 N3. Kalyani is the first Prathi Madhyama raga that was ever discovered. It was obtained by the process of Graha Bhedam or modal shift of tonic of the ancient Shadja Grama.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Raganidhi: A Comparative Study of Hindustani And Karnatak Ragas. Volume Three (K to P) |last=Rao |first=B.Subba |publisher=The Music Academy |year=1996 |location=Madras |pages=10}}</ref>

=== Specifics on this raga ===
Kalyani has scope for elaborate [[alapana]]. One should not remain too long on panchamam (pa) or alternate between shadjamam and panchamam too frequently. Kalyani is prominently known among the public. It is often performed at the beginning of concerts because it is considered auspicious.<ref name=":0" />

=== Structure and lakshana ===
[[File:Kalyani scale.gif|314px|thumb|Kalyani scale with Shadjam at C]]

It is the 5th ragam in the 11th chakra ''Rudra''. The mnemonic name is ''Rudra-Ma''. The mnemonic phrase is ''sa ri gu mi pa dhi (or 'di') nu''.<ref name="ragas">''Ragas in Carnatic music'' by Dr. S. Bhagyalekshmy, Pub. 1990, CBH Publications</ref> Its {{IAST|arohana-avarohana}} structure is as follows (see ''[[Swara#Svaras in Carnatic music|swaras in Carnatic music]]'' for details on below notation and terms):
* [[Arohana|{{IAST|arohana}}]]: {{svaraC|S|R2|G3|M2|P|D2|N3|S'|foot=yes}}
* [[Avarohana|{{IAST|avarohana}}]]: {{svaraC|S'|N3|D2|P|M2|G3|R2|S|foot=yes}}

The notes used in this scale are ''shadjam, chatushūruti rishabam, antara gandharam, prati madhyamam,panchamam, chatushruti dhaivatam, kakali nishadam''. It is a [[Sampurna raga]] in Carnatic music, that is to say, has all the seven notes: ''Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni''. It is the ''prati madhyamam'' equivalent of ''[[Sankarabharanam (raga)|Sankarabharanam]]'', which is the 29th ''melakarta''. This raga is very significant to the chart, because it is sung with all higher notes.

=== Janya ragams ===
Kalyani has many [[janya]] ragams (derived scales)associated with it, of which ''Hamir Kalyani'', ''[[Mohanakalyani]]'', ''[[Amritha Kalyani]]'', ''Saranga'', ''[[Nada Kalyani]]'', ''[[Sunadavinodini]]'' and ''[[Yamunakalyani]]'' are very popular. See ''[[List of Janya Ragas#Kalyani|List of Janya Ragams]]'' for full list of rāgams associated with Kalyani.

=== Related ragams ===
This section covers the theoretical aspects of Kalyani.

Kalyani's notes when shifted using [[Graha bhedam]], yields 5 other major Melakarta ragams, namely, ''[[Hanumatodi]]'', ''[[Dheerasankarabharanam|Sankarabharanam]]'', ''[[Natabhairavi]]'', ''[[Kharaharapriya]]'' and ''[[Harikambhoji]]''. For further details and an illustration of Graha bhedam of this ragam refer [[Dheerasankarabharanam#Related rāgams|Related ragams section in Sankarabharanam]] page.

== Popular compositions ==
Nearly every significant Carnatic composer (including the [[Trinity of Carnatic music]]) has composed several pieces in the Kalyani ragam. Kalyani is considered one of the "major" ragams of Carnatic music along with ''[[Dheerasankarabharanam|Sankarabharanam]]'', ''[[Hanumatodi|Todi]]'' and ''[[Kharaharapriya]]'' (the set of "major" rāgams is an informal grouping of the most popular [[Melakarta]] ragams used for elaboration and exploration, and which often form the centerpiece of a [[Carnatic music#Content|Carnatic music concert]] in the form of a ''[[Ragam Tanam Pallavi]] (RTP)'' or a ''[[Kriti (music)|Kriti]]''). See [[#Related_ragams|Related ragams section]] for further information on relationships between these ragams. The state anthem of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], ''[[Kayo Shri Gowri|Kayou Shri Gowri]]'' is also set in this raga.
Here is a short list of compositions in Kalyani:

*''Vanajakshiro'' is an [[Adi tala]] [[Varnam]] by [[Poochi Srinivasa Iyengar]]
*''Satura Kamini'' is a Pada[[varnam]] by Maharaja [[Swathi Thirunal]]
*''Nīvē Gathiyanī'' is a Tishra Matya [[Tala (music)|Tala]] [[Varnam]] by [[Syama Sastri]]
*''Vanajakshi Ninne Kori'' is an Ata [[Tala (music)|tala]] Tana[[varnam]] by Pallavi Gopala Iyer
*''Unnaiyanri Veraar'' is an [[Adi tala]] [[Varnam]] by Dr. [[Lalgudi Jayaraman]]
*''Nanmugaye Nee'' is a [[Varnam]] by Delhi V. Krishnamurthy
*''Sudati Ninne, an Ata [[Tala (music)|tala]] Tana[[varnam]]'' and a ''Jathiswaram'' by Ponniah Pillai of the [[Tanjore Quartet]]
*''Nidhi Chāla Sukhamā'', ''Ē Tāvunnarā'', ''Sundari Nī Divya'', ''Ammā Rāvammā'', ''Sandehamu Elara'', ''Bhajana Seyave'', ''Nammi Vacchina'', ''Rāmā Nīvādukonduvō'', ''Shivē Pāhimām'', ''Taramā Nī Mahima'', ''Endukō Nī Manasu'', ''Īsha Pāhimām'' and ''Vāsudēvayani'' by [[Tyagaraja]]
*''Ganapathē Mahāmathē'', ''Kumbhēshvarāya Namastē'', ''Srī Mangalāmbikē'', ''Kāmākshīm Kalyānīm Bhajarē'', ''Abhayāmbā Jagadambā'', ''Śrī Madhurāmbikē'', ''Kamalāmbāṃ Bhajarē'', ''Bhajarē Re Chittha'', ''Shiva Kāmeshwarīm Chinthayēham'' by [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]]
*''Kantimati Karunamrta'' by [[Subbarama Dikshitar]]
*''Parāmugam Yēnammā'', ''Himādri Suthē Pāhimaṃ'', ''Birāna Varālichi'', ''Dēvī Nannu Brovavammā'', ''Srī Kāmākshī Kāvavē'' and ''Thalli Ninnu Nēra Nammi'' by [[Syama Sastri]] in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
*''Ninnuvina Gathi Gana'' and ''Vina Anyayamu'' by [[Subbaraya Sastri]]
*''Adrisutavara'', ''Pankaja lōcana'', ''Pahimaṃ Śrī Vāgīśvari (Navarathri second day krithi)'', ''Paripahimamayi'', ''Sarasa Suvadana'' and ''Sevesyanandureswara'' by [[Swathi Thirunal]]
*''Madhava Hridhi'', ''Geetha Rasike Sugunalaye'', ''Bala Sarasa'' and ''Sarasija Bhava Jaye'' by [[Oothukkadu Venkata Kavi]]
*''Nee Sari Sati'' by Ponniah Pillai of the [[Tanjore Quartet]]
*''Nannu Brovamani Cheppave'', ''Bhajare Sri Ramam'' by [[Bhadrachala Ramadasu]]
*''Kathaya Kathaya'' by [[Narayana Teertha]]
*''Adinadu Eppadiyo'' by [[Muthu Thandavar]]
*''Kallu Sakkare KoLLiro'' (3rd Navaratna Malike), ''Kelano Hari Talano'', ''Nambi Kettavarillavo Rangayya'', ''Anjikinyatakayya'', ''Dayamado Ranga'' and ''Saranambe Vani'' by [[Purandara Dasa]]
*''Kailasapathe Mam Pahi'' and ''Shrimadadi Thyagaraja'' by [[Mysore Vasudevachar]]
*''Tiliyado Ninnata'' By Kalluru Subbannacharya(Vyasa Vitthala Dasa)
*''Unnai Allāl, Devī Srī Mīnalochanī, Vāyu Kumāran, Kanindharul Purindhāl, Sundarēshwaranē, Tēril Ērinān, Venkataramanā Pankaja, Annai Un Adiyinai and Chidambaram Ena Manam'' by [[Papanasam Sivan]]
*''Needu Charana Pankaja'' by Pallavi Gopala Iyer
*''Sadānandamē'' by [[Koteeswara Iyer]]
*''Mahātripurasundarī'' by [[Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar]]
*''Birana Brova Ide'' by Tarangambadi Panchanada Iyer
*''Kinthu Cheyvu Njaninnaho (Padam)'' by [[Swathi Thirunal]]
*''Gaddari Vagala/Iddari Sanduna (Padam)'', ''Vemarucherukuna/Na Manasu Vantidhe (Padam)'', ''Endhu Dachukondu (Padam)'' and ''Soyagamuna (Padam)'' by [[Kshetrayya]]
*''Thaiyale Unnai (Padam)'' and ''Edhai Kandu Nee (Padam)'' by Subbarama Iyer
*''Chittike Vesithe (Padam)'' by [[Sarangapani]]
*''Ellam Ariven (Padam)'' by [[Kavi Kunjara Bharati]]
*''Parengum Parthalum (Padam)'' by [[Ghanam Krishna Iyer]]
*''Virahani (Padam)'' by Sitarama Sharma
*''Entati Kuluke ([[Javali]])'' by [[Dharmapuri Subbarayar]]
*''Thaya Ragamalika [[Tillana]]'' by [[M. Balamuralikrishna|M Balamurali Krishna]] with Graha Bedam to [[Sankarabharanam (raga)|Shankarabharanam]], [[Mohanam]], [[Hindolam]] and [[Darbari Kanada]]

== Film songs ==
The most popular film composition set in Kalyani is "Mannavan Vandhanadi Thozhi" by K. V. Mahadevan rendered by P. Susheela,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thamizhisai.com/tamil-cinema/tamil-cinema-001/tc0001_thiruvarut-selvar.php |title=Thamizhisai - The land of Songs Music and performing Arts |website=www.thamizhisai.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330085109/http://www.thamizhisai.com/tamil-cinema/tamil-cinema-001/tc0001_thiruvarut-selvar.php |archive-date=2010-03-30}}</ref>" and ''Sindhanai Sei Maname'' by G. Ramanadhan. [[M. S. Viswanathan]] has composed numerous songs in Kalyani such as "''Isai Ketal Puvi''" from the movie ''[[Thavapudhalavan]]'', "''Indha Mandrathil''" from ''[[Policekaran Magal]]'', "''Maalai Sudum mananaal''" from ''[[Nichaya Thamboolam]]'', "''Kannan Vandhan''" from ''[[Ramu (1966 film)|Ramu]]'', "''Azhagennum Oviyam Inge''", "''Paar Magale Paar''", "''Varuvan Vadivelan''", "''Maduraiyil Parandha Meenkodi''", "''Mugathil Mugam paarkalam''". "''Amma Endrazhaikkaatha Uyirillaye''" by [[Ilayaraja]], "Manmadha Pournami" (P. Susheela) in Panchavankadu by G. Devarajan. The track ''Kalaivaniye'' in Sindhu Bhairavi is set in the Kalyani rāgam and sung without an avarohaṇam. The Bharathiar composition ''Veenai Adi Nee Enakku'' from the movie [[Ezhavathu Manithan]] is set in the Kalyani ragam. The Telugu movie [[Sankarabharanam (1980 film)|Sankarabharanam]] has a [[Shloka]] ''"Māṇikya Upalālayanti"'' set in this ragam. "''Aa Nimishathinte''" from the Malayalam movie [[Chandrakantham]] and "''Swarganandini''" from [[Lankadahanam]] composed by [[M. S. Viswanathan]] is set in Kalyani.

=== Tamil ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Song
! Movie
! Composer
! Singer
|-
| "Sindhanai Sei Maname"
| ''[[Ambikapathy (1957 film)|Ambikapathy]]''
| [[G. Ramanathan]]
| rowspan="2" | [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| "Ennarumai Kadhalikku Vennilaave"
| ''[[Ellarum Innattu Mannar]]''
| [[T. G. Lingappa]]
|-
| "Thenunnum Vandu Maamalarai Kandu"
| ''[[Amara Deepam (1956 film)|Amara Deepam]]''
| [[T. Chalapathi Rao]]
| [[A. M. Rajah]], [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| "Vennila Vaanil Varum"
| ''[[Mannippu]]''
| [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]]
| [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| "Mannavan Vandhaanadi"
| ''[[Thiruvarutchelvar]]''
| rowspan="3" | [[K. V. Mahadevan]]
| [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| "Va Va Va Enakkakava"
| ''[[Selvam (1966 film)|Selvam]]''
| Dharapurum Sundarrajan,[[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| "Naan Anuppuvadhu"
| ''[[Pesum Dheivam]]''
| rowspan="3" | [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| "Kan Pona Pokile"
| ''[[Panam Padaithavan]]''
| rowspan="10"|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]]
|-
| "Naan Enna Soliviten"
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Bale Pandiya (1962 film)|Bale Pandiya]]''
|-
| "Athikkai Kai Kai"
| [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[P. B. Sreenivas]], [[P. Susheela]], [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| "Indha Mandrathil Odi Varum"
| ''[[Policekaran Magal]]''
| [[P. B. Sreenivas]], [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Kalaimangai Uruvam Kandu"
| ''[[Maganey Kel]]''
| [[Sirkazhi Govindarajan]], [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]]
|-
| "Mugathil Mugam Paarkalam"
| ''[[Thanga Padhumai]]''
| [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[P. Leela]]
|-
| "Vetkamaai Irukudhadi"
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Paar Magaley Paar]]''
| [[P. Leela]], [[Soolamangalam Rajalakshmi]]
|-
| "Paar Magale Paar"
| [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|-
| "Maalai Soodum Mananaal"
| ''[[Nichaya Thaamboolam]]''
| [[P. Susheela]]
|-
|"Thulli Thirintha"
|''[[Kathiruntha Kangal]]''
|rowspan=2|[[P. B. Sreenivas]]
|-
| "Mouname Paarvayaal"
| ''[[Kodimalar]]''
| rowspan="9" | [[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|-
| "Isaikettal Puvi"
| ''[[Thavapudhalavan]]''
| rowspan="3" | [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| "Madhurayil Parantha"
| ''[[Poova Thalaiya (1969 film)|Poova Thalaiya]]''
|-
| "Kettadhum Koduppavane Krishna"
| ''[[Deiva Magan]]''
|-
| "Chithirai Maadham"
| ''[[Raman Ethanai Ramanadi]]''
| [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| "Kannan Vandhan"
| ''[[Ramu (1966 film)|Ramu]]''
| [[Seerkazhi Govindarajan]], [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| "Azhagenum Ooviyam"
| ''[[Oorukku Uzhaippavan]]''
| [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| "Varuvaan Vadivelan"
| ''[[Varuvan Vadivelan]]''
| rowspan=2|[[Vani Jairam]]
|-
| "Mannulagil Indru Devan"
| ''Punitha Anthoniyar''
|-
| "Iravu Mudinthuvidum"
| ''[[Anbu Karangal]]''
| rowspan="2" |[[R. Sudarsanam]]
| [[P. B. Sreenivas]],[[P. Susheela]]
|-
|"Kaaviri Penne Vaazhga"
|''[[Poompuhar (film)|Poompuhar]]''
|rowspan=2|[[T. M. Soundararajan]],[[P.Susheela]]
|-
| "Pasamalare"
| ''[[Neethibathi]]''
| rowspan=2|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|-
| "Tholil Vizhum Maalaye"
| ''[[Ullathil Nalla Ullam]]''
| rowspan="4" | [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Then Sindhuthey"
| ''[[Ponnukku Thanga Manasu]]''
| [[G. K. Venkatesh]]
|-
| "Va Kathirukka Neramillai"
|''[[Kathirukka Neramillai]]''
| rowspan="30" | [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|-
| "Sundari Kannal Oru Seithi"
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Thalapathy]]''
|-
| "Yamunai Aatrile"
| ''[[Mitali Banerjee Bhawmik]]''
|-
| "Vellai Pura Onru"
| ''[[Puthukavithai]]''
| rowspan="2" | [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Kannale Kadhal Kavithai"
| ''[[Athma (film)|Athma]]''
|-
| "Gangai Aatril Nindrukondu"
| ''[[Aayiram Nilave Vaa]]''
| [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| "Vaidhegi Raman"
| ''[[Pagal Nilavu]]''
| [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Janani Janani"
| ''[[Thaai Mookaambikai]]''
| rowspan="2" | [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|-
| "Maname Avan Vazhum"
| ''[[Pagalil Pournami]]''
|-
| "Alai Meethu Thadumaruthe"
| ''[[Anbulla Malare]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Vani Jairam]]
|-
| "Oru Devathai Vandhadhu"
| ''[[Naan Sonnathey Sattam]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Asha Bhosle]]
|-
| "Nathiyil Aadum"
| ''[[Kaadhal Oviyam]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]], [[Deepan Chakravarthy]]
|-
| "Devan Thantha Veenai"
| ''[[Unnai Naan Santhithen]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] (Solo Ver), ([[P. Jayachandran]], [[S. Janaki]]) (Duet Ver)
|-
| "Oru Vanavil pole"
| ''[[Kaatrinile Varum Geetham]]''
| [[P. Jayachandran]], [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Manjal Veyil"
| ''[[Nandu (film)|Nandu]]''
| [[Uma Ramanan]]
|-
| "Devan Kovil Deepam Ondru"
| ''[[Naan Paadum Paadal]]''
| [[S. N. Surendar]], [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Aararo Aararo"
| ''[[Anand (1987 film)|Anand]]''
| rowspan=2|[[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|-
| "Engirundho Azhaikkum"
| ''[[En Jeevan Paduthu]]''
|-
| "Malaiyoram Mayile"
| ''[[Oruvar Vaazhum Aalayam]]''
| [[Malaysia Vasudevan]], [[K. S. Chitra]]
|-
| "Siru Koottile Ulla"
| ''[[Paandi Nattu Thangam]]''
| [[K. S. Chitra]], [[Mano (singer)|Mano]]
|-
| "Naan Embathu Nee Allava"
| ''[[Soora Samhaaram]]''
| rowspan="2" | [[Arunmozhi]], [[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
| "Odai Kuyil Oru"
| ''[[Thalattu Padava]]''
|-
| "Amma Endruzhakatha"
| ''[[Mannan (film)|Mannan]]''
| rowspan="2" | [[K. J. Yesudas]]
|-
| "Kalaivaniye"
| ''[[Sindhu Bhairavi (film)|Sindhu Bhairavi]]''
|-
| "Oru Maalai Chandiran"
| ''[[Unnai Vaazhthi Paadugiren]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Minmini]]
|-
| "Kaatril Varum Geethame"
| ''[[Oru Naal Oru Kanavu]]''
| [[Ilaiyaraaja]], [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Sadhana Sargam]], [[Bhavatharini]]
|-
| "Nirpathuve Nadapathuve"
| ''[[Bharathi (2000 film)|Bharathi]]''
| [[Harish Raghavendra]]
|-
| "Yaar Veetil Roja"
| ''[[Idaya Kovil]]''
| rowspan="4" | [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
|-
| "Vanthal Mahalakshmi"
| ''[[Uyarndha Ullam]]''
|-
| "Vizhigal Meeno"
| ''[[Raagangal Maaruvathillai]]''
|-
| "Aazh Kadalil"
| ''Raagam Thedum Pallavi''
| [[T. Rajendar]]
|-
| "Vaigai nathiyil oru Paravai"
| ''[[Natchathiram]]''
| rowspan="2" | [[Shankar–Ganesh]]
| [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Yaradhu Sollamal Nenjalli"
| ''Nenjamellam Neeye''
| [[Vani Jairam]]
|-
| "Om Ganapathiye Ganapathiye"
| ''[[Marumagal (1986 film)|Marumagal]]''
| [[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]]
| [[Vani Jairam]] & Chorus
|-
| "Putham Puthu Olai"
| ''[[Vedham Pudhithu]]''
| [[Devendran]]
|rowspan=2| [[K. S. Chithra]]
|-
| "Azhagu Nilave"
| ''[[Pavithra (film)|Pavithra]]''
| rowspan="9" | [[A. R. Rahman]]
|-
| "Varaga Nadhikaraiyoram"
| ''[[Sangamam (1999 film)|Sangamam]]''
| [[Shankar Mahadevan]]

|-
| "Enthan Vaanil"
| ''[[Kadhal Virus]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Swarnalatha]] (Humming only)
|-
| "Kadhal Niagara"
| ''[[En Swasa Kaatre]]''
| Palakkad Sreeram, [[Harini (singer)|Harini]], [[Annupamaa]]
|-
| "Neethan En Desiya Geetham"
| ''[[Paarthale Paravasam]]''
| P. Balram, [[K. S. Chitra]]
|-
| "Sakthi Kodu"
| ''[[Baba (2002 film)|Baba]]''
| [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
|-
| "Methuvagathan"
| ''[[Kochadaiiyaan]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Sadhana Sargam]]
|-
| "Ey Maanburu Mangaiye"
| ''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]''
| [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]], [[Sujatha Mohan]], [[A. R. Rahman]]
|-
| "Yaarumilla Thaniarangil"
| ''[[Kaaviya Thalaivan (soundtrack)|Kaaviya Thalaivan]]''
| [[Swetha Mohan]], [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]]
|-
| "Kathal Ennum Keerthanam"
| ''En Aasai Rasathi''
| Dr. Chandilyan
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chitra]]
|-
| "Aayiram Piravigal"
| ''Aathi Thalam''
| Hendri Patrick
| [[K. J. Yesudas]](Male Vers),[[K. S. Chitra]](Female Vers)
|-
| "Mudhan Mudhalil"
| ''[[Aahaa..! (1997 film)|Aahaa..!]]''
| rowspan="4" | [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[K. S. Chitra]]
|-
| "Yen Nenjamoh"
| ''Santharpam''
| [[Uma Ramanan]]
|-
| "Gokulathu kanna"
| ''[[Gokulathil Seethai (film)|Gokulathil Seethai]]''
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chitra]], [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
|-
| "Enthan Uyire Enthan Uyire"
| ''[[Unnaruge Naan Irundhal]]''
| Krishnaraj, [[K. S. Chitra]]
|-
| "Katrin Mozhi"
| ''[[Mozhi (film)|Mozhi]]''
| rowspan="4" | [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
| Balram, [[Sujatha Mohan]]
|-
| "Pudhu Malar Thottu"
| ''[[Poovellam Un Vasam]]''
| [[Sriram Parthasarathy]]
|-
| "Naan Mozhi Arindhen"
| ''[[Kanden Kadhalai]]''
| [[Suresh Wadkar]]
|-
| "Oru Theithi Paarthal"
| ''[[Coimbatore Mappillai]]''
| [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[Sadhana Sargam]]
|-
| "Yen Pennendru"
| ''[[Love Today (1997 film)|Love Today]]''
| Shiva
| [[Mohammed Aslam]], [[Bombay Jayashri]]
|-
| "Kaadhal Aasai"
| ''[[Anjaan (2014 film)|Anjaan]]''
| rowspan="3" | [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]], [[Sooraj Santhosh]]
|-
| "Pogadhey Pogadhey"
| ''[[Deepavali (2007 film)|Deepavali]]''
| [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
|-
| "Never let me go"
| ''[[Pyaar Prema Kaadhal]]''
| Suranjan, [[Shweta Pandit]]
|-
| "Vizhigalin Aruginil"
| ''[[Azhagiya Theeye]]''
| colspan=2 style="text-align: center;" | [[Ramesh Vinayakam]]
|-
| "Kannanai Thedi"
| ''[[Marupadiyum Oru Kadhal]]''
| [[Srikanth Deva]]
| [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
|-
| "Ennena Seidhom Ingu"
| ''[[Mayakkam Enna]]''
| [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
|[[Harish Raghavendra]]
|-
| "Yen Aala Paakkaporaen"
| ''[[Kayal (film)|Kayal]]''
| [[D. Imman]]
| [[Shreya Ghoshal]],[[Ranjith (singer)|K.G. Ranjith]]
|-
| "Chillendra Chillendra"
| ''[[Thirumanam Enum Nikkah]]''
| [[Ghibran]]
|Ghibran,[[Sundar Narayana Rao]],[[Kaushiki Chakrabarty]],Munna Shaoukat Ali
|-
| "Natchathiram Nagargirathu"
| ''[[Natchathiram Nagargiradhu]]''
| [[Tenma]]
| [[Arivu]], [[Sharanya Srinivas]]
|}

=== Malayalam ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Song
! Movie
! Composer
! Lyricist
! Singer
|-
| "Mazhavil Kothumbil"
| ''[[Adhwaytham]]''
| [[M G Radhakrishnan]]
| [[Kaithapuram]]
| [[M G Sreekumar]]
|-
| "Mounam Swaramay"
| ''[[Ayushkaalam]]''
| [[Ousepachan]]
| [[Kaithapram Damodaran Namboothiri]]
| [[KJ Yesudas, KS Chithra]]
|-
| "Poonkatinodum"
| ''[[Poomukhappadiyil Ninneyum Kaathu]]''
| [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| [[Bichu Thirumala]]
| [[K.J. Yesudas , S. Janaki]]
|-
| "Polthinkal Kala"
| ''[[Kumarasambhavam]]''
| [[Devarajan]]
| [[O.N.V. Kurup]]
| [[K.J. Yesudas]]
|}

== Historical information ==
Yaman/Aiman is not an ancient raga. It is first mentioned in the literature in the late 16th century, by which time it was very popular: The [[Sahasras]] contains 45 [[dhrupad]] song-texts for Kalyan and five for Iman-Kalyan. According to [[Venkatamakhin]] (1620), Kalyan was a favourite melody to the Arabs, and [[Pundarika]] included Yaman among his 'Persian' Ragas.<ref name="Bor 1997">Bor 1997</ref>

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

== References ==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
{{reflist|30em}}

== Literature ==
{{Citation |last=Bor |first=Joep |title=[[The Raga Guide]] |publisher=Nimbus Records |place=Charlottesville,Virginia |year=1997}} 
{{Citation |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter |title=The Ragas of North India |publisher=Oxford and IBH Publishing Company |place=Calcutta |year=1968}}. 
{{Citation |last=Bagchee |first=Sandeep |title=Nād, Understanding Rāga Music |publisher=Eshwar (Business Publications Inc.) |place=Mumbai |year=1998}}. 
{{Citation |last=Bhatt |first=Balvantray |title=Bhāvaranga |publisher=Motilal Barnasidas |place=Varanasi |year=1964–1974}}. 
{{Citation |last=Gandharva |first=Kumar |title=Anūparāgavilāsa |publisher=Mauj Prakashan |place=Bombay |year=1965}}. 
{{Citation |last=Patwardhan |first=Vinayak Rao |title=Rāga Vijñāna |publisher=Sangeet Gaurav Granthamala |place=Poona |year=1961–74}}. 
{{Citation |last=Srivastava |first=Harichandra |title=Rāga Paricaya |publisher=SangeetSadan Prakashan |place=Allahabad |year=1973–79}}. 
{{Citation |last1=Telang |first1=Gokulanand |last2=Bhartendu |first2=Banwari Lal |title=Sangīta Rāga Aṣṭachāpa |publisher=Sangeet Karyalaya |place=Hathras |year=1962}}. 
{{Citation |last=Thakar |first=Vasant Vaman |title=Sangīta Rāga Darśana |publisher=Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal Prakashan |place=Prayag}}. 
{{Citation |last=Rao |first=B. Subba |title=Raganidhi |publisher=Music Academy |place=Madras |year=1964–66}}.

== External links ==
* {{Citation |last=Moutal |first=Patrick |title=Hindustāni Rāga-s Index |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd |place=New Delhi |year=1991 |id={{Listed Invalid ISBN|81-215-0525-7}}}}

{{Melakarta ragas|state=collapsed}}
{{Janya|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Melakarta ragas]]

Masoom Moradabadi

2026-03-14T22:54:48Z

Godrejsplende: started a page needs work!

{{Short description|Indian Urdu-language journalist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Masoom Moradabadi
| native_name = معصوم مرادآبادی
| image = Masoom Muradabadi.jpg
| birth_name = Masoom Ali Khan
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1961|09|15}}
| birth_place = [[Moradabad]], Uttar Pradesh, India
| occupation = Journalist, columnist, editor, calligrapher
| known_for = Urdu journalism, ''khaka nigari'' (biographical sketches)
| years_active = 1982–present
}}

'''Masoom Moradabadi''' ([[Urdu]]: {{Lang|ur|معصوم مرادآبادی}}, born 15 September 1961) is an Indian Urdu-language journalist, columnist, editor, and calligrapher. Active since the early 1980s, he is noted for his contributions to Urdu journalism and his literary biographical sketches (''khaka nigari''). Over a career spanning more than three decades, he has edited several Urdu publications, reported extensively on parliamentary affairs, and is widely recognized for promoting Urdu journalism and literary culture in India.

==Early life and education==
Masoom Moradabadi was born as Masoom Ali Khan on 15 September 1961 in the Katar Shahid neighborhood of [[Moradabad]], Uttar Pradesh.<ref name="RekhtaProfile">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rekhta.org/authors/masoom-muradabadi/profile|title=Profile of Masoom Muradabadi|website=[[Rekhta (website)|Rekhta]]|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref><ref name="AdbiMiras" /><ref name="Chehre2025">{{Cite book|title=Chehre Padha Karo|last=Moradabadi|first=Masoom|publisher=M. R. Publications|location=Daryaganj, New Delhi|year=2025|isbn=978-93-6058-448-1|page=406|language=ur}}</ref>

He received early education at Jamia Al-Huda and Nagar Palika Junior High School in Moradabad. After studying Persian at Madrasa Imdadiya, he moved to Delhi in 1977 and enrolled at Madrasa Aliya, [[Fatehpuri Mosque|Fatehpuri]], where he pursued Arabic and Persian. He later completed Urdu literary degrees including "Urdu Aalim" from Idara Adabiyat, Hyderabad (1984), "Adeeb-e-Kamil" from Jamia Urdu Aligarh (1985), and earned an M.A. in Urdu literature from [[Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University|Rohilkhand University]], Bareilly (1986–87).<ref name="AdbiMiras">{{Cite web|last=Najaf|first=Alizey|url=https://adbimiras.com/maya-naaz-sahafi-masoom-muradabadi-e-khususi-gugtagu-interviewd-by-alizey-najaf/|title=Maya Naaz Sahafi Masoom Moradabadi Se Khusoosi Guftagu|trans-title=A Special Conversation with Renowned Journalist Masoom Moradabadi|website=Adbi Miras|date=5 September 2022|language=ur|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>{{Sfn|Moradabadi|2025|p=406}}

== Career ==
Initially trained in calligraphy, a skill passed down from his maternal grandfather, Moradabadi shifted to journalism during the 1980s following the decline of traditional hand-written typesetting due to the emergence of Urdu software technologies.<ref name="AdbiMiras" />

He began his professional career in 1982 with the fortnightly journal ''Awaaz'', published by [[All India Radio]], where he worked as a calligrapher. During this period, he also started contributing talks to the Urdu Service's youth programme ''Nai Nasl Nai Roshni'', and several of his articles appeared in ''Awaaz''.<ref name="AdbiMiras" />{{Sfn|Moradabadi|2025|p=406}}

After brief stints in calligraphy and layout design, he joined the weekly ''Nai Duniya'' in 1986, where he received formal training in field reporting. He was the first Urdu journalist to report from inside the Babri Masjid and to conduct an interview with Bal Thackeray. In 1991, he founded the Urdu fortnightly ''Khabardar-e-Jadeed'', and in 2003 launched the daily ''Jadeed Khabar'', which operated in print until 2016 and now continues as a news portal.<ref name="AdbiMiras" />{{Sfn|Moradabadi|2025|pp=406–407}}

He has reported on Indian parliamentary proceedings for more than three decades and contributed columns and reports to various Urdu newspapers. His weekly columns have appeared in major Urdu dailies across India, and his writings are featured in literary journals such as ''Aaj Kal'', ''Aiwan-e-Urdu'', ''Naya Daur'', and ''Urdu Dunya''.<ref name="MOI2024">{{Cite web |date=12 July 2024 |title=Masoom Muradabadi |url=https://muslimsofindia.com/2024/07/12/masoom-muradabadi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250607131910/https://muslimsofindia.com/2024/07/12/masoom-muradabadi/ |archive-date=7 June 2025 |access-date=7 June 2025 |website=Muslims of India}}</ref>

Moradabadi has been recognized for his editorial and journalistic contributions by Urdu academies in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. In 2005, he was honoured with the Urdu Journalism Award by the Uttar Pradesh Urdu Academy.<ref name="RekhtaProfile" /><ref name="MG2005">{{Cite web|url=https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2005/16-31May05-Print-Edition/163105200554.htm|title=Community News|website=The Milli Gazette|date=16–31 May 2005|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

He has interviewed several prominent literary and cultural figures, including poets and fiction writers, which were later compiled in the book ''Bil-Mushaafa''.<ref name="RekhtaProfile" /><ref name="MOI2024" /><ref name="Interviews" />

As a journalist, he has traveled for literary and media engagements to the United States, United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, and Libya.<ref name="MOI2024" /><ref name="AdbiMiras" />
=== Media advisory committee ===
In 2016, Moradabadi was appointed as a member of the Rajya Sabha Media Advisory Committee by then Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, [[Mohammad Hamid Ansari]]. He represented the Urdu media in the 15-member committee chaired by senior journalist [[Neerja Chowdhury]].<ref name="MilliGazette">{{Cite web|url=https://www.milligazette.com/news/1-community-news/13951-men-women-in-news/|title=Men & Women In News|website=[[The Milli Gazette]]|date=21 March 2016|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

Moradabadi serves as General Secretary of the All India Urdu Editors Conference and the [[All India Muslim Majlis-e-Mushawarat]] (registered). He is also Secretary of the Delhi Union of Journalists and has served on advisory committees including the Parliament Media Advisory Committee (Rajya Sabha), Doordarshan Urdu Advisory Panel, and the Delhi Urdu Academy Governing Council.<ref name="AdbiMiras" />{{Sfn|Moradabadi|2025|p=408}}

He has contributed to efforts aimed at preserving and strengthening Urdu journalism in India.<ref name="MilliGazette" /><ref name="RekhtaProfile" />
=== Calligraphy ===
Moradabadi received early training in [[calligraphy]] from his maternal grandfather, Munshi Abdul Qayyum Khan, who once worked for [[Maulana Azad]]. He later refined his calligraphy skills at the [[Ghalib Academy, New Delhi|Ghalib Academy]] in New Delhi under notable calligraphers like Muhammad Khaliq Tonki and Yusuf Qasmi.<ref name="AdbiMiras" />
=== Tablighi Jamaat connection ===
Moradabadi's early exposure to the [[Tablighi Jamaat]] came through family and geography. As a teenager, he trained in Urdu calligraphy at the [[Ghalib Academy, New Delhi|Ghalib Academy]], located adjacent to the [[Nizamuddin Markaz Mosque|Nizamuddin Markaz]]. His uncle, Mohammad Abdul Malik Jamaee, was a founding member of the Jamaat and a close associate of its founder, [[Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi]].<ref name="Week2020">{{Cite web |title=Mounting Trouble: Tablighi Jamaat's negligence has cost India dearly but government also at fault |url=https://www.theweek.in/theweek/current/2020/04/09/mounting-trouble.html |last=Ahuja |first=Namrata Biji |website=The Week |date=9 April 2020 |access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

Despite his early proximity to the Markaz, Moradabadi publicly commented on the Jamaat’s role during the [[2020 Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot in Delhi|COVID-19]] outbreak in 2020. He acknowledged the leadership's failure to act preventively but emphasized that government agencies shared equal responsibility, and called for a judicial inquiry under [[Delhi High Court]] supervision.<ref name="Week2020" />

=== Interviews ===
Moradabadi has conducted interviews with a wide range of literary figures including poets such as [[Akhtar ul Iman]], [[Kaif Bhopali]], [[Habib Jalib]], [[Ali Sardar Jafri]], [[Ahmad Faraz]], [[Iftikhar Arif]], [[Muzaffar Warsi]], [[Bekal Utsahi]], [[Malikzada Manzoor Ahmad]], [[Bashir Badr]], [[Javed Akhtar]], [[Ata ul Haq Qasmi]], [[Surender Sharma]], and Salahuddin Parvez. Among fiction writers, he interviewed [[Joginder Paul]], Bhagwan Gidwani, [[Bhisham Sahni]], and [[Habib Tanvir]]. These were later compiled in his book Bil-Mushaafa.<ref name="MOI2024" /><ref name="Interviews">{{Cite web|url=https://www.baseeratonline.com/archives/210044|title='بالمشافہ': ایک تعارف|trans-title=Bil-Mushaafa: An Introduction|website=Baseerat Online|last=Muradabadi|first=Masoom|date=17 January 2024|access-date=7 June 2025|language=ur}}</ref>
=== Recognition ===
Moradabadi has received multiple awards for his journalistic work, including:{{Sfn|Moradabadi|2025|pp=407–408}}
* Maulana Abdul Wahid Siddiqui Award by [[Urdu Academy, Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh Urdu Academy]] (2005<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Khan |first=Shahid Ali |date=October 2005 |title=Maulana Abdul Wahid Siddiqui Award |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eNjAAAAMAAJ&q=%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85+%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C |journal=Kitaab Numa Monthly |language=ur |location=New Delhi |publisher=Maktaba Jamia |volume=45 |issue=10 |page=91}}</ref>)
* Delhi Urdu Academy Journalism Award (2006<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Iqbal |first=Muhammad Arif |date=March–April 2007 |title=Delhi Urdu Academy Awards 2006 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/urdu-book-review-shumara-number-137-138-mohammad-arif-iqbal-magazines |journal=Monthly Urdu Book Review |language=ur |location=New Delhi |volume=12 |issue=137–138 |page=28 |issn=0971-9288}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-08 |title=Award for Media (Print/Electronic) - Urdu Academy Delhi: Promoting Urdu Language & Culture in Delhi |url=https://urduacademydelhi.com/awards_sec/award-for-creative-writing-prose/ |access-date=2025-06-12 |website=urduacademydelhi.com |language=en-US}}</ref>)
* Abdul Razzaq Malihabadi Award, West Bengal Urdu Academy (2009)
* Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar Award (2013)
* Global Urdu Day Award (2013)
* Lifetime Journalism Service Award, West Bengal Urdu Academy (2022)<ref name="AdbiMiras" />

In addition to these honours, Moradabadi has been invited to speak at international forums. In 2024, he delivered a keynote address at the [[Indian Institute of Mass Communication]] (IIMC), where he emphasized the sacrifices made by Urdu journalists during India's freedom struggle, including figures like [[Maulvi Muhammad Baqir]], [[Maulana Azad]], and [[Hasrat Mohani]].<ref name="Awaz2024">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindi.awazthevoice.in/india-news/sacrifice-of-urdu-journalists-is-unforgettable-masoom-moradabadi-49434.html|title=Urdu Patrakaron Ka Balidan Avismarniya: Masoom Moradabadi|website=Awaz the Voice|date=25 September 2024|access-date=7 June 2025|language=hi}}</ref>

His book on [[Maulvi Muhammad Baqir]] was also featured in the theme pavilion of the 2023 [[New Delhi World Book Fair]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etemaaddaily.com/education-and-jobs-news/masoom-moradabadis-book-in-the-theme-pavilion-of-the-world-book-fair:84412|title=Masoom Moradabadi's book in the theme pavilion of the World Book Fair|website=[[Etemaad Daily]]|date=1 March 2023|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

In 2008, Moradabadi represented Indian Urdu journalism at the World Urdu Conference in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, organized by Maulana Azad National Urdu University and the Indian Consulate. The event featured major Urdu literary figures and highlighted global revival of Urdu.<ref name="ArabNews2008">{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/312768|title=Urdu Fest Puts Jeddah on Literary Map|last=Wahab|first=Siraj|website=[[Arab News]]|date=11 June 2008|access-date=11 June 2025|language=en}}</ref>

== Views ==
=== Advocacy for Urdu and journalism ===
Moradabadi has consistently advocated for the preservation and revival of Urdu journalism and language in India. In a 2010 panel at the India Islamic Cultural Centre, he attributed the decline of Urdu journalism to dwindling Urdu-medium schools and a lack of institutional support. He emphasized the role of journalism as a medium of social reform and the need for rigorous training and factual reporting.<ref name="Hindu2010">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Salvaging-pride/article16144629.ece|title=Salvaging Pride|website=The Hindu|date=25 August 2010|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref><ref name="AdbiMiras"/>

In February 2025, he strongly criticized Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister [[Yogi Adityanath]]'s remark calling Urdu learners "katthe mullahs" (ignorant clerics). Moradabadi described the statement as a reflection of the Chief Minister’s mindset and referenced Justice [[Anand Narain Mulla]], who famously said: "I can give up my religion, but not my mother tongue—Urdu."<ref name="DW">{{Cite web |date=21 February 2025 |title='اردو پڑھنے والے کٹھ ملا ہوتے ہیں'، وزیر اعلیٰ اتر پردیش |trans-title="Those who study Urdu are orthodox mullahs" – Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh |url=https://p.dw.com/p/4qpAj |access-date=7 June 2025 |website=DW Urdu |language=ur}}</ref> He also expressed concern about systemic sidelining of Urdu in BJP-ruled states, including the replacement of Urdu with Sanskrit in school curricula.<ref name="DW" />
=== Reform and political commentary ===
He has objected to attempts to mainstream [[Narendra Modi]] in Urdu media without addressing past communal violence. In 2012, he strongly criticized the Urdu weekly ''Nai Duniya'' for publishing a sympathetic interview with Modi, calling it an effort to whitewash historical wrongs.<ref name="TelegraphInterview2012">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/salmans-father-behind-interview/cid/400213|title=Salman's father behind interview|website=The Telegraph|date=27 July 2012|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

In 2013, amid the [[Muzaffarnagar riots]] in Uttar Pradesh, Moradabadi described the violence as part of a dual strategy by the ruling [[Samajwadi Party]] and [[Vishwa Hindu Parishad]], alleging that communal unrest was being stoked in regions where the SP lacked political dominance. He questioned why Chief Minister [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]] met VHP leader [[Ashok Singhal]] during the escalation and suggested the state allowed the violence to occur in order to later present itself as a saviour of minorities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chishti |first=Seema |date=13 September 2013 |title=On the ground, Muslims take stock of a new situation |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/on-the-ground-muslims-take-stock-of-a-new-situation/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314181051/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/on-the-ground-muslims-take-stock-of-a-new-situation/ |archive-date=14 March 2021 |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

In 2015, as spokesperson of the [[All India Muslim Majlis-e-Mushawarat]] (AIMMM), Moradabadi rejected media reports suggesting [[ISIS]] had a presence in India, calling them "baseless and misleading". He expressed concern that such narratives were being used to cast suspicion on Muslim youth and to justify arbitrary arrests. AIMMM, under his communication, emphasized that Indian Muslims had unanimously condemned ISIS and [[Al-Qaeda]] as un-Islamic and stood ready to resist their presence if it ever arose. The body also passed a resolution condemning terrorism globally while distinguishing between such groups and legitimate struggles like the one in Palestine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/reports-of-isis-presence-in-india-baseless-and-misleading-all-india-muslim-majlis-e-mushawarat/articleshow/50099180.cms|title=Reports of ISIS presence in India baseless and misleading: All India Muslim Majlis-e Mushawarat|website=The Times of India|date=9 December 2015|access-date=11 June 2025}}</ref>

In 2015, Moradabadi, criticized the [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]] for imposing an AIPMT dress code that barred headscarves. He called it a violation of religious freedom and warned it could deter Muslim girls from appearing for the exam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/cbse-s-exam-dress-code-for-aipmt-puts-muslim-aspirants-in-a-spot/story-QxUyamM024nvsLKiS6nkLO_amp.html|title=CBSE's exam dress code for AIPMT puts Muslim aspirants in a spot|last=Haq|first=Zia|website=Hindustan Times|date=14 July 2015|access-date=11 June 2025}}</ref>

In 2016, ahead of the Uttar Pradesh assembly elections, Moradabadi observed that Muslim voters were politically pivotal in over 150 constituencies with significant Muslim populations. He noted that despite [[Mayawati]] fielding a large number of Muslim candidates, the community remained skeptical due to her past alliances with the BJP, contrasting this with their historical trust in the Samajwadi Party under Mulayam Singh Yadav.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rai |first=Vatsalya |date=1 November 2016 |title=उत्तर प्रदेश में मुसलमान क्या करेंगे? |url=https://www.bbc.com/hindi/india-37836394 |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=[[BBC Hindi]] |language=hi}}</ref>

Following the 2017 Supreme Court verdict on instant [[Triple talaq in India|triple talaq]], Moradabadi criticized both the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]] for inaction and the Indian government for exploiting the issue for political gain. He urged Muslim leadership to embrace internal reform while accusing the Modi administration of using Muslim women’s rights as a diversion from unresolved communal violence cases such as the [[2017 Patan riots|Gujarat riots]], and lynching incidents involving [[2017 Alwar mob lynching|Pehlu Khan]] and [[2015 Dadri lynching|Mohammed Akhlaq]].<ref name="Telegraph2017">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/muslim-reform-pressure/cid/1502543|title=Muslim reform pressure|website=The Telegraph|date=24 August 2017|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref><ref name="TelegraphTalaq2017">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/questions-on-2002-lynchings/cid/1521530|title=Questions on 2002, lynchings|website=The Telegraph|date=23 August 2017|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

In September 2018, writing in ''Akhbar-e-Mashriq'' on the government's ordinance criminalizing instant triple talaq, Moradabadi argued that the new law would cause further hardship to Muslim women rather than provide relief. He questioned how a woman whose husband is jailed for triple talaq would manage the survival of her family, noting that since the Supreme Court had already invalidated instant triple talaq, the woman would be unable to remarry or seek closure. He criticized the ordinance as politically motivated and potentially punitive.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/metoo-movement-mj-akbar-sexual-harassment-5408174/|title=The Urdu Press: #MeToo and Akbar|website=The Indian Express|date=19 October 2018|access-date=11 June 2025}}</ref>

In June 2022, during widespread protests following [[2022 Muhammad remarks controversy|controversial remarks]] by [[BJP]] spokesperson [[Nupur Sharma]] about the [[Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)|Prophet Muhammad]], Moradabadi stated that Indian Muslims had lost trust in the government’s willingness to act impartially. He criticized the delayed response, noting that disciplinary action against BJP figures came only after international backlash from Gulf countries, not in response to domestic Muslim protests. He cautioned that while Muslims have deep emotional reverence for the Prophet, they should avoid street agitation, as it often harms their own interests.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/hindi/india-61767039|title=पैग़ंबर मोहम्मद पर टिप्पणी से बढ़ा विवाद कहां जाकर और कैसे थमेगा?|last=पाशा|first=दिलनवाज़|website=BBC Hindi|date=11 June 2022|access-date=11 June 2025|language=hi}}</ref>

=== Minority rights and state policy ===
In the lead-up to the 2014 elections, Moradabadi criticized the Congress for neglecting Muslim interests but encouraged tactical voting to counter the BJP’s rise.<ref name="IANS2014">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/elections/2014/Apr/07/bjp-manifesto-fascist-aims-at-creating-powerful-centre-595684.html|title='BJP Manifesto Fascist, Aims at Creating Powerful Centre'|website=The New Indian Express|date=8 April 2014|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref> He later dismissed the Modi government’s ₹100 crore madarsa modernization fund as symbolic and lacking follow-through on structural reforms proposed in the [[Sachar Committee]] report.<ref name="TelegraphBudget2014">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/five-fold-jump-in-madarsa-allocation/cid/163116|title=Five-fold jump in madarsa allocation|website=The Telegraph|date=11 July 2014|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

Moradabadi has also condemned extrajudicial killings and profiling of Muslims in terrorism cases. In 2009, he joined other Urdu journalists in demanding a re-investigation into the [[Batla House encounter case]], citing arbitrary arrests and prolonged detentions of Muslim youth.<ref name="TelegraphBatla2009">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/encounter-rebuff-to-singh-iftar-invite/cid/591795|title='Encounter' rebuff to Singh iftar invite|website=The Telegraph|date=19 September 2009|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

In 2016, Moradabadi criticized the renaming of the Ministry of Minority Affairs' office building from "Paryavaran Bhawan" to "Deendayal Antyodaya Bhawan" by then minister [[Najma Heptulla]]. Referring to the decision as "unfortunate", he questioned why a building dedicated to minority affairs could not be named after leaders from minority communities such as [[Maulana Azad]] or [[Mother Teresa]]. Speaking in his capacity as an invitee to the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]], he argued that naming institutions after ideologically affiliated figures marginalized the contributions of secular and inclusive icons.<ref name="HTRename1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/paryavaran-bhawan-renamed-deendayal-antyodaya-bhavan/story-glCatveR7hmzMj0La2VDsJ.html|title=Paryavaran Bhawan renamed Deendayal Antyodaya Bhavan|website=Hindustan Times|date=24 May 2016|access-date=11 June 2025}}</ref><ref name="HTRename2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/nation/paryavaran-bhawan-gets-pandit-deendayal-s-name/story-QynR0GxgBVuQxuTtJxr9PP.html|title=Paryavaran Bhawan gets Pandit Deendayal's name|website=Hindustan Times|date=24 May 2016|access-date=11 June 2025}}</ref>

=== Religious politics and sectarian dynamics ===
In 2014, Moradabadi accused cleric [[Mahmood Madani]] of legitimizing Narendra Modi’s image through symbolic gestures like defending his refusal to wear a skullcap. Muradabadi saw this as part of a broader BJP strategy to enlist religious endorsements from Muslim leadership.<ref name="Telegraph2014">{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/cleric-ruffles-minority-feathers/cid/191553|title=Cleric ruffles minority feathers|website=The Telegraph|date=22 April 2014|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

Earlier in 2011, during tensions involving the [[All India Ulema and Mashaikh Board|All India Ulama & Mashaikh Board]] (AIUMB), he expressed doubts about foreign funding and the financial transparency of Sufi institutions, warning of political and sectarian implications.<ref name="Hindu2011">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/churn-in-muslim-community-over-wahabi-charge/article2556098.ece|title=Churn in Muslim community over Wahabi charge|website=The Hindu|date=20 October 2011|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

Moradabadi has also challenged dominant media narratives about terrorism. In a 2005 article in ''[[The Milli Gazette]]'', he asserted that Hindu actors were also involved in insurgent activity in Jammu and Kashmir, a reality he claimed was often ignored in public discourse.<ref name="Masoom">{{Cite web|url=https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2005/01-15July05-Print-Edition/011507200512.htm|title=Hindu Jihadis Operating in J&K|website=The Milli Gazette|date=July 2005|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>
== Literary works ==
As of 2022, Moradabadi has authored approximately twelve books, four of which focus on Urdu journalism. He has also written numerous newspaper columns and feature articles.<ref name="AdbiMiras" />

In 2024, he published a [[monograph]] on noted Urdu journalist G.D. Chandan, titled Monograph on G.D. Chandan, issued by the Urdu Academy, Delhi. The book was listed among the top ten notable Urdu books of the year by [[The Wire (India)|The Wire]].<ref name="Wire2025">{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/books/the-10-urdu-books-from-2024-that-are-not-to-be-missed|title=The 10 Urdu Books From 2024 That Are Not to Be Missed|website=The Wire|date=1 January 2025|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

Moradabadi’s works have been praised for blending literary style with journalistic insight.<ref name="bharatexpress">{{Cite web|url=https://urdu.bharatexpress.com/national/senior-journalist-masoom-moradabadi-s-books-chehre-padha-karo-and-nigine-log-released-in-urdu-ghar-nak-177537|title=معصوم مرادآبادی کی تحریریں ادب و صحافت کا حسین امتزاج ہیں|website=Bharat Express Urdu|date=17 January 2024|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

=== Khaka Nigari (biographical sketches) ===
Masoom Moradabadi’s writings in the genre of ''khaka nigari'' (biographical sketches) have been noted for their stylistic blend of literary and journalistic features.<ref name="bharatexpress" /><ref name="BE" /> His collections include profiles of figures from politics, literature, science, and journalism.<ref name="Anjum" />

His early work ''Kya Hue Woh Log'' (2004) includes sketches of individuals such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Mohammad Ali Jauhar]], [[Subhas Chandra Bose]], [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], Muqeemuddin Farooqi, Haroon Rashid, [[Jaun Elia]], Haji Anis Dehlavi, and [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tabassum |first=Mughni |date=September 2007 |title=Kiya Huwe Woh Log by Sulaiman Athar Jawed |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/sabras-hyderabad-shumara-number-009-mughni-tabassum-magazines-22 |journal=Monthly Sabras |language=ur |location=Hyderabad, India |volume=69 |issue=9 |pages=47–48}}</ref>

His 2025 book ''Chehre Padha Karo'' features personalities such as [[Shamsur Rahman Faruqi]], [[Gopi Chand Narang]], [[Shamim Hanfi]], [[Dilip Kumar]], [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]], Obaid Siddiqi, and Mohammad Khaliq Tonki.<ref name="Anjum">{{Cite web|url=https://qindeelonline.com/masoom-moradabadi-ki-dou-kitaben/ |title=معصوم مرادآبادی کی دو کتابیں 'چہرے پڑھا کرو' اور 'نگینے لوگ' |last=Anjum |first=Suhail |website=Qindeel Online |date=19 May 2025 |access-date=11 June 2025}}</ref>

Its companion volume, ''Nageene Log'' (2025), contains sketches of figures including Athar Faruqi, Tahseen Munawwar, Moin Shadab, M. Afzal, Haqqani Al-Qasmi, Ahmad Ibrahim Alvi, Nadeem Siddiqui, Suhail Waheed, and Hakim Syed Ahmad Khan, as well as essays on Azhar Inayati, [[Popular Meeruthi]], Naeema Jafri Pasha, Shakeel Rasheed, [[Tariq Mansoor|Tariq Manzoor]], [[Akhtarul Wasey]], Shafi Kidwai, Mohsin Usmani, Shahpar Rasool, Azeem Akhtar, Maudood Siddiqui, Arif Aziz, and Hasan Zia.<ref name="Anjum" />

=== Urdu publishing and readership ===
Moradabadi has also played a role in sustaining Urdu literary publishing during a time of sharp decline in readership and institutional support. Reflecting on the downturn of Urdu book culture, he noted how Delhi’s once-vibrant [[Urdu Bazaar]]—home to over 100 printing presses—has largely vanished due to lack of demand.<ref name="HTUrduPublishing2022">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/delhi-news/urdu-publishers-struggle-to-stay-afloat-as-readership-bottoms-101668967995663.html|title=Urdu publishers struggle to stay afloat as readership bottoms|last=Sharma|first=Manoj|website=Hindustan Times|date=22 November 2022|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

In 2003, he founded Khabardar Publications in response to a fellow writer’s difficulties in publishing in Urdu. One of the first books he released was ''Shahar Mein Curfew'' by [[Vibhuti Narain Rai]], a novella portraying communal unrest. This effort reflected Moradabadi’s commitment to preserving Urdu’s literary space despite market challenges.<ref name="HTUrduPublishing2022" />

In 2022, Moradabadi participated in the bicentennial celebrations of Urdu journalism held in Kolkata by the West Bengal Urdu Academy. In his published reflections, he highlighted that [[Jam-i-Jahan-Numa|Jam-e-Jahan-Numa]], the world’s first Urdu newspaper, was launched in [[Kolkata]] on 27 March 1822 by publisher Harihar Dutta and edited by Sadasukhlal. He described Kolkata as the birthplace of newspapers in multiple Indian languages and emphasized its foundational role in Urdu media history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pervez |first=Shahid |date=8 June 2022 |title=From Nupur Sharma to Bhagwat speech to world's first Urdu newspaper |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/from-nupur-sharma-to-bhagwat-speech-to-worlds-first-urdu-newspaper-7957195/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329231304/https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/from-nupur-sharma-to-bhagwat-speech-to-worlds-first-urdu-newspaper-7957195/ |archive-date=29 March 2023 |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In 2023, Moradabadi publicly protested the sudden closure of the Maktaba Jamia outlet in Delhi’s historic Urdu Bazaar. The bookstore, long associated with [[Jamia Millia Islamia]] and originally envisioned by [[Zakir Husain]], had served generations of Urdu readers. Moradabadi was among the first to announce its closure on social media and played a key role in mobilizing public opinion against the decision. Following widespread criticism and protests, including by former [[Maulana Azad National Urdu University|MANUU]] Chancellor Firoz Bakht Ahmed, the shop was reopened. Moradabadi's advocacy underscored the vulnerability of Urdu institutions and the urgent need for community-led efforts to preserve them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/beyond-the-burqa/maktaba-jamia-reopens/|title=Maktaba Jamia reopens|last=Wajihuddin|first=Mohammed|website=The Times of India|date=12 September 2023|access-date=11 June 2025|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/beyond-the-burqa/maktaba-in-delhis-urdu-bazaar-is-now-shut-wake-up-jamia-millia/|title=Maktaba in Delhi's Urdu Bazaar is now shut: Wake up Jamia Millia|last=Wajihuddin|first=Mohammed|website=The Times of India|date=8 September 2023|access-date=11 June 2025|language=en}}</ref>

=== Political commentary and Urdu press engagement ===
As editor of Jadeed Khabar, Moradabadi has been a consistent voice on major political and communal developments in India. His editorial writings have appeared regularly in Urdu press roundups and national media digests.<ref name="Bihar Focus" /><ref name="Talk the talk" />

In December 2015, writing on the aftermath of the [[Babri Masjid demolition|Babari Masjid demolition]], he criticized the inaction on commitments made by political leaders in 1992, noting that "a massive structure has now been erected on the site, despite court orders to maintain status quo".<ref name="Talk the talk">{{Cite web |last=Chishti |first=Seema |date=11 December 2015 |title=The Urdu Press: Talk the talk |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-urdu-press-talk-the-talk/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317040637/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-urdu-press-talk-the-talk/ |archive-date=17 March 2016 |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

He also expressed concern over rising RSS influence in government affairs. In a 2015 editorial, he wrote: "The RSS had assured in 1948 that it would not interfere in politics. This assurance has now been breached," referring to meetings between top RSS and central government figures.<ref name="Bihar Focus">{{Cite web |date=18 September 2015 |title=The Urdu Press: Bihar Focus |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-urdu-press-bihar-focus/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228084157/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/the-urdu-press-bihar-focus/ |archive-date=28 December 2017 |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

On the political rise of [[AIMIM]], he remarked that the party’s attempts to mobilize [[Muslims in India|Muslims]], [[Dalit|Dalits]], and [[OBC quota|OBCs]] in a shared platform marked a significant shift in identity politics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2014 |title=From the Urdu Press: Black is Back |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/from-the-urdu-press-black-is-back/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119174616/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/from-the-urdu-press-black-is-back/ |archive-date=19 January 2022 |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

Reacting to the 2010 exile of painter [[M. F. Husain]], Moradabadi wrote that if Husain was compelled to renounce Indian citizenship, "it would be a black day in Indian history", arguing that India's failure to protect the artist would damage its democratic image globally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chishti |first=Seema |date=12 March 2010 |title=From the Urdu Press |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/from-the-urdu-press-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230910114510/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/from-the-urdu-press-2/ |archive-date=10 September 2023 |access-date=11 June 2025 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

=== Notable books ===
Moradabadi's major works include:<ref name="RekhtaProfile" />

;Authored
* ''Bil-Mushaafa'' (1996) – a compilation of interviews with prominent literary figures
* ''Kya Hue Woh Log'' (2004) – a collection of biographical sketches
* ''Urdu Sahafat aur Jang-e-Azadi 1857'' (2008) – a historical study on the role of Urdu journalism during the 1857 uprising (Hindi edition: ''1857 ki Kranti aur Urdu Patrakarita'')<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiatomorrow.net/2021/09/21/duj-felicitates-urdu-journalist-masoom-moradabadi/|title=DUJ Felicitates Urdu Journalist Masoom Moradabadi|website=India Tomorrow|date=21 September 2021|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>
* ''Urdu Sahafat ka Irtiqa'' (2013) – a study of the evolution of Urdu journalism
* ''Nawa-e-Khamosh'' (2019) – second volume of literary and biographical profiles
* ''Urdu Sahafat: Aaghaz ta 1857 ka Mukhtasar Jaiza'' (2020) – published by the National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language (NCPUL), New Delhi
* ''Jahan Noor Hi Noor Tha'' (2024) – travelogue of Hajj journey
* ''Tareekh-e-Moradabad'' (2023) – a historical monograph praised as a major scholarly contribution<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/urdu/national/state/uttar-pradesh/history-of-moradabad-historical-achievement-of-masoom-moradabadi-prof-akhtar-ul-was/na20230718153934082082958|title=History of Moradabad: Historical achievement of Masoom Moradabadi|website=ETV Bharat|date=18 July 2023|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>
* ''Sar Sayyed ka Qayam-e-Meerut'' (2024) – published by Sir Syed Academy, [[Aligarh Muslim University]]
* ''Chehre Padha Karo'' (2025) – {{ISBN|978-93-6058-448-1}}; a collection of literary and journalistic biographical sketches<ref name="BE">{{Cite web|url=https://urdu.bharatexpress.com/national/senior-journalist-masoom-moradabadi-s-books-chehre-padha-karo-and-nigine-log-released-in-urdu-ghar-nak-177537|title=Books Chehre Padha Karo and Nageene Log released at Urdu Ghar|website=Bharat Express Urdu|date=20 May 2025|access-date=7 June 2025}}</ref>

;Edited
* ''Maulana Iftikhar Faridi: Hayat-o-Khidmaat'' (2004)
* ''Urdu Sahafat ka Manzar Nama'' (2014) – edited volume on trends in Urdu journalism
* ''Javed Habib: Hujum se Tanhaai Tak'' (2015) – a biographical narrative
* ''Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar: Aankhon Dekhi Baatein'' (2020)
* ''Maulana Muhammad Ilyas aur Unki Tablighi Tehreek'' (2022)
* ''Auwaleen Shaheed Sahafi: Maulvi Muhammad Baqir'' (2023)
* ''Prof. Mohsin Usmani Nadvi ki Tasaneef: Ahl-e-Ilm o Adab ki Nazar Mein'' (2024)
* ''Munshi Abdul Qayyum Khan Khattāt'' (2025) – published by [[National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language|NCPUL]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moradabadi, Masoom}}
[[Category:Indian male journalists]]
[[Category:Indian columnists]]
[[Category:Indian editors]]
[[Category:Urdu-language journalists]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Indian writers]]
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Moradabad]]
[[Category:Indian Muslims]]

Maithili version of Indian Constitution

2026-03-13T04:54:20Z

Godrejsplende: put up entry

{{Short description|Translation of Indian Constitution in Maithili language}}
{{notability|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox book
| pub_date = November 26, 2024
| name = Maithili version of Indian Constitution
| country = India
| subject = [[Indian Constitution]]
| language = Maithili
| genre = Translation of Indian Constitution in [[Maithili language]]
}}
The '''Maithili version of the Indian Constitution''' is the translation of the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] in the native language [[Maithili language|Maithili]] of the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]].

== History ==
The official ''Maithili version of the Indian Constitution'' was launched by the [[president of India]] [[Droupadi Murmu]] on 26 November 2024 during the occasion of [[Constitution Day (India)|Constitution Day]] in the National capital [[New Delhi]]. It was launched in the presence of the prime minister [[Narendra Modi]], the opposition leader [[Rahul Gandhi]] and some other prominent leaders of the country.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Release of the Constitution in Sanskrit and Maithili |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2076894 |work=PIB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-26 |title=Translation of Constitution in Maithili, Sankrit lauded |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/constitution-translated-into-maithili-and-sanskrit-a-milestone-celebration/articleshow/115704935.cms |access-date=2024-11-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=2024-11-26 |title=President Murmu releases Maithili and Sanskrit versions of Constitution |url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/national/president-murmu-releases-maithili-and-sanskrit-versions-of-constitution-calls-it-living-progressive-document |access-date=2024-11-27 |website=National Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-26 |title=President Murmu unveils commemorative coin to mark 75 years of Constitution |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-murmu-unveils-commemorative-coin-to-mark-75-years-of-constitution/articleshow/115687184.cms |access-date=2024-11-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=2024-11-26 |title=Indian Constitution live, progressive document: Prez Murmu addresses Parliament on Samvidhan Divas |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2024/Nov/26/indian-constitution-live-progressive-document-prez-murmu-addresses-parliament-on-samvidhan-divas |access-date=2024-11-27 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In the year 2020, translator Shambhu Kumar Singh translated the book "''The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation by Granville Austin''" into Maithili language. The translation was published by the [[Central Institute of Indian Languages]] in the form of book "''Maithili translation of The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation by Granville Austin''".<ref>{{Cite web |title=CIIL Publications {{!}} Official Website of Central Institute of Indian Languages |url=https://www.ciil.gov.in/publications?page=34 |access-date=2024-11-27 |website=www.ciil.gov.in}}</ref>

The official translation of the Indian Constitution into Maithili was carried through the [[National Translation Mission]] of the [[Central Institute of Indian Languages|Indian Language Institute]], [[Mysore]] which is controlled by the Ministry of Education, [[Government of India]]. The National Translation Mission conducted several seminars and workshops at different educational institutions in the state of Bihar to prepare the official translation of the Indian Constitution in Maithili language. In 2024, the National Translation Mission conducted 10 days seminar at the campus of ''East and West Teachers Training College'', [[Saharsa]] of the [[Bhupendra Narayan Mandal University]]. In the final stage of the translation, the National Translation Mission conducted 11 days seminar and workshop at the campus of [[Anugrah Narayan College, Patna|Anugrah Narayan College]] in the Bihar state capital city [[Patna]] from 7 August 2024 to 17 August 2024 in which scholars like professor Ashok Kumar Mehta of [[Lalit Narayan Mithila University]] and professor Keshkar Thakur of [[Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University|Bhagalpur University]] participated as the subject specialists.<ref>{{Cite news |title=मैथिली में भारतीय संविधान का होगा अनुवाद |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/saharsa/news/indian-constitution-will-be-translated-into-maithili-132557242.html |work=[[Dainik Bhaskar]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-27 |title=Bihar News: मैथिली भाषियों के लिए हो अलग मिथिला राज्य: राबड़ी {{!}} Bihar News: There should be a separate Mithila state for Maithili speakers: Rabri |url=https://www.patrika.com/null/bihar-news-there-should-be-a-separate-mithila-state-for-maithili-speakers-rabri-19184808 |access-date=2024-11-27 |website=Patrika News |language=hi}}</ref>

In the year 2010, Maithili Sahitya Sansthan secretary Bhairava Lal Das also published the Maithili translation of the Indian Constitution from his own self.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-12-10 |title=Time to sustain Maithili's growth |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/time-to-sustain-maithilis-growth/articleshow/105865909.cms |access-date=2024-11-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Similarly on 24 June 2013, a translation of the Indian Constitution in Maithili language translated jointly by Nityanand Lal Das and Bhairava Lal Das was released by the principal secretary Vijay Prakash of the planning department at the auditorium of the Bihar Research Society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=मैथिली भाषा में भारतीय संविधान का हुआ अनुवाद - |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/patna-city-10504191.html |access-date=2024-11-27 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Maithili language]]
[[Category:Maithili literature]]
[[Category:Translations]]

{{Translation-stub}}

History of Jharkhand

2026-03-13T02:31:27Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|History of a region of India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}

The region have been inhabited since the [[Stone Age]].<ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6PcADgAAQBAJ&q=microlith+in+chota+nagpur+plateau&pg=PT14|title=India – Pre- historic and Proto-historic periods|first=India-Pre- historic and Proto-historic|last=periods|date=4 November 2016|publisher=Publications Division Ministry of Information & Broadcasting|via=Google Books|isbn=9788123023458}}</ref> [[Copper]] tools from the [[Chalcolithic]] period have been discovered.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal|url=http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/510/|title=Addenda to "The Copper Hoards of the Indian Subcontinent: Preliminaries for an Interpretation"|first=Paul|last=Yule|date=8 January 2019|journal=Man in Environment|volume=26|pages=117–120|via=crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de|doi=10.11588/xarep.00000510|access-date=7 September 2018|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305045917/http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/510/|url-status=dead}}</ref> This area entered the [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]] during the mid-2nd millennium BCE.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA220|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|first=Upinder|last=Singh|date=8 January 2019|publisher=Pearson Education India|via=Google Books|isbn=9788131711200}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The unrest axle: ethno-social movements in Eastern India |pages=32–35 |author=Gautam Kumar Bera |publisher= Mittal Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qrmTdshzKQC|isbn=978-81-8324-145-8|year=2008}}</ref>

The region was conquered by the [[Maurya Empire]], in 15th century Sultan Adil khan II (1457–1501) of Khandesh conquered it and assumed title of Shah e Jharkhand later (17th century) came under the control of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperors [[Akbar]]. Following the Mughal decline, the region came under the control of local rulers from the [[Chero]] caste and others, before its subjugation by the [[British East India Company]] in the late 18th century, succeeded by the [[British Raj]] from the mid-19th century, both encountering much local resistance. At this time the territory was covered by nine [[princely state]]s. Under the Raj, till [[1905]], the region fell within the [[Bengal Presidency]], most of it then being transferred to the [[Central Provinces]] and [[Orissa Tributary States]]; then in 1936 the whole region was assigned to the [[Eastern States Agency]].

Following Indian independence in 1947, the region was divided between the new states of [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], and [[Bihar]]. In 2000 a campaign led by the [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]] (JMM) for a separate state culminated with the passage of the [[Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000|Bihar Reorganisation Act]], creating [[Jharkhand]] as a new [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]].

==Prehistoric era==
Stone tools and [[microlith]]s from the [[Mesolithic]] and [[Neolithic]] periods have been discovered in the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] region.<ref name="auto"/> There are also ancient cave paintings in Isko, [[Hazaribagh district]] which are from the Meso-Chalcolithic period (9,000–5,000 BC).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/cave-paintings-lie-in-neglect/cid/605384|title=Cave paintings lie in neglect|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref> A group of megaliths proven to date back to beyond 3000 BCE was also found at [[Barkagaon]], about 25 km from [[Hazaribagh]] at Punkri Barwadih.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indroyc.com/2017/12/04/punkri-barwadih-megaliths/|title=Hazaribagh - Ancient megaliths aligned to the Sun|first=Indrajit Roy|last=Choudhury|date=3 December 2017|access-date=7 September 2018|archive-date=17 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917083342/https://indroyc.com/2017/12/04/punkri-barwadih-megaliths/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

During 2nd millennium BCE the use of Copper tools spread in [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] and these find complex are known as the [[Copper Hoard Culture]].<ref name="auto1"/> In the Kabra-Kala mound, at the confluence of the [[Son River|Son]] and [[North Koel River|North Koel]] rivers in [[Palamu district]], various objects have been found which date from the [[Neolithic]] to the medieval period. The [[Sherd|pot-sherds]] of redware, [[Black and red ware culture|black and red ware]], black ware, [[Slipware|black slipware]] and [[Northern Black Polished Ware|NBP ware]] are from the [[Chalcolithic]] to the late medieval period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asiranchi.org/activities-kabrakala.html|title=Kabra – Kala|website=www.asiranchi.org}}</ref>

==Ancient period==
{{Main|Iron Age in India}}
Barudih, located in the [[Singhbhum district]] of Jharkhand, yielded evidence of [[microlith]]s, [[Celt (tool)|Neolithic celts]], [[Slag|iron slags]], wheel made pottery, and iron objects (including a [[sickle]]). The earliest radio carbon dating give a range of 1401–837 BCE for this site.<ref name="auto2"/>

[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|Magadha and other Mahajanapadas in the Post Vedic period]]
Around {{circa|1200}}–1000 BCE, [[Rigvedic tribe|Vedic Aryans]] spread eastward to the fertile western [[Ganges]] plain and adopted [[Iron Age|iron tools]], which allowed for the clearing of forest and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] culture. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of cities and large states (called [[mahajanapada|''mahajanapadas'']]), as well as ''[[śramaṇa]]'' movements (including [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy of [[Brahminical Hinduism]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=82}} According to Bronkhorst, the Sramana culture arose in "greater Magadha," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, [[Kshatriya]]s were placed higher than [[Brahmin]]s, and it rejected [[Vedic priesthood|Vedic]] authority and rituals.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Long|2013|p=chapter II}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=31537|title=Review of Bronkhorst, Johannes, Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India|first=Alexander|last=Wynne|date=1 July 2011|publisher=H-Buddhism, H-Review|via=www.h-net.org}}</ref>

In Mahabharata, the region was referred as Kark Khand due to its location near [[Tropic of Cancer]].<ref name="Nagpuri Shist Sahitya">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.322091/2015.322091.Nagpuri-Sisth_djvu.txt|title=Nagpuri Shist Sahitya|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2023}}
In those days, the Jharkhand state was a part of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] and [[Anga]]. {{citation needed|date=August 2018}} [[Nanda Empire]] ruled the region during 4th century BCE. In [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] period, this region was ruled by a number of states, which were collectively known as the ''Atavika'' (forest) states. These conquered states fell under the [[hegemony]] of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya empire]] during [[Ashoka]]'s expansionist reign (c. 232 BCE). The Brahmi Inscription found in Karbakala in Palamu district and Saridkel in Khunti district which is from 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360485893|title=Inscriptions in Jharkhand: A Preliminary Study|author=Lalit Aditya|date=October 2018|access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref>
In ancient site of [[Saridkel]], burnt bricks houses, red ware pottery, copper tools, coins and iron tools were found which belong to early centuries CE.<ref name="asiranchicircle">{{Cite web|url=https://www.asiranchicircle.in/Attractions-Of-ASI/Asura-Site-Saridkhel.html|title=Asura Site Saridkhel|website=asiranchicircle|access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref>

[[Samudragupta]], while marching through the present-day Chota Nagpur region ([[North Chotanagpur division|North]] and [[South Chotanagpur division|South]]), directed the first attack against the kingdom of [[Dakshina Kosala]] in the Mahanadi valley.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft|page=[https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft/page/258 258]|title=Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions|first=Tej Ram|last=Sharma|date=8 January 1978|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
[[File:Gupta Empire, 320-550 CE.png|thumb|[[Gupta Empire]]]]

==Medieval period==
In the 7th century, Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] passed through the region. He described the kingdom as [[Karnasuvarna]] and [[Shashanka]] as its ruler. To the north of the kingdom was Magadha, Champa was in East, Mahendra in the west, and Orissa in the south.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxdkDwAAQBAJ&q=Sutiambe&pg=PT43|title=The Life and Times of Jaipal Singh Munda|isbn=9789352669431|last1=Kiro|first1=Santosh|date=15 September 2020|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan }}</ref> The region was also part of [[Pala Empire]]. A Buddhist monastery has been discovered in [[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]] which was built during Pala rule in 10th century.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/ranchi-news/10th-century-buddha-vihar-discovered-in-jharkhand-s-hazaribag-101614072362306-amp.html|title=10th century Buddha Vihar discovered in Jharkhand's Hazaribag|website=hindustantimes|date=23 February 2021|access-date=9 April 2022}}</ref> [[Bhim Karn]] was Nagvanshi king during medieval period. He defeated [[Raksel dynasty]] of Surguja when they Invaded the reign with cavalry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oneindia.com/2009/05/11/archaeologistsuncover-remains-of-ancient-empire-injharkhan.html|title=Archaeologists uncover remains of ancient empire in Jharkhand|date=11 May 2009|website=oneindia|access-date=3 October 2022}}</ref>

The medieval Jharkhand region was not much affected by the Muslim invasions due to its remoteness. [[Rohtas Fort, India|Rohtasgarh]] in southern Bihar was the furthest limit of Delhi Sultanate expansion during the medieval period, and although there was some conflict with Palamu, the interior portion of the plateau saw little Muslim activity. However the eastern part of Santal Parganas, namely the region around the Rajmahal Hills, was deemed of high strategic importance as it controlled access to Bengal from the direction of Bihar, including along the Ganga river, via the Teliagarhi Pass.
[[File:BhadraKali Temple.jpg|thumb|This is the Sahastrakoot Jinaya (1008 the Temple of [[Jainism|Jain]] statues) at Bhadrakali in [[Itkhori block|Itkhori]] (10th Tirthankar the birthplace of [[Shitalanatha|Shitalnath]]). It is worshipped by assuming the Sahasrara [[Lingam|shivling]]]]

[[File:Bhadrakali Itkhori.jpg|thumb|Idols of Bhadrakali temple in Itkhori]]
[[File:Khakparta Temple.jpg|thumb|Khakparta Temple, 9th century Shiva temple in Lohardaga]]

==Modern period==
By the end of medieval and the beginning of the modern period, this region was under the rule of many dynasties including [[Khokhra Chieftaincy|Nagvanshi]], [[Khayaravala dynasty|Khayaravala]], [[Namudag|Namudag Raj]], [[Ramgarh Raj]], [[Raksel]], [[Chero dynasty|Chero]], [[Dhanwar, Giridih|Raj Dhanwar]] and the [[Kharagdiha]] [[Zamindari]] estates of [[Koderma]], [[Parasnath|Gadi Palganj]], and [[Baghochia|Ledo Gadi]].

In [[Akbarnama]], the region of Chota Nagpur is described as Jharkhand. Sher Shah, when he conquered Bengal, had carried off his loot from Gaur to Rohtas by way of Jharkhand. Sher Shah also combined forces with Ujjainiya Rajputs to expel Mahrath Chero, the ruler of Palamu, from Rohtasgarh and the southern part of present Bihar, presumably the latest victory in a long series of Chero-Afghan rivalry. The Chero ruler later failed to pay tribute in grain to Sher Shah during his campaign against Humayun, and was thus invaded and defeated by Sher Shah's lieutenant [[Khawas Khan Marwat]]. Sher Shah also sought to use Jharkhand as a lesser backdoor between his base in southwest Bihar to western Bengal, and this became known to the Mughals and brought Jharkhand towards the attention of the Mughal rulers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Choudhary |first=Indra Kumar |date=2010 |title=Situating Shershah in Jharkhand |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44147498 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=71 |pages=312–318 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

During the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period, the region, then known as ''Khukhra'', was famous for its diamonds. [[Akbar]] was informed of a rebel Afghan sardar, [[Junaid Kararani]], whose hideout was [[Chota Nagpur States|Chota Nagpur]]. The [[Emperor]] also received information on diamonds being found in this area. Consequently, Akbar ordered [[Shahbaz Khan Kamboh]] to attack [[Khukhragarh|Khukhra]]. At that time, Raja [[Madhu Singh (king)|Madhu Singh]], the 42nd [[Nagvanshi dynasty|Nagvanshi]] king was ruling at Khukhra. Akbar's army defeated the king and a sum of rupees six thousand was fixed as its annual revenue payable to the Mughals. Till the reign of Akbar, Chota Nagpur had not come under the suzerainty of the Mughals and the Nagvanshi rulers had been ruling over this region as independent rulers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.119550/2015.119550.The-Nagbanshis-And-The-Cheros_djvu.txt|title=The Nagbanshis And The Cheros|website=archive.org|year=1969}}</ref>

The far northeastern part of present Jharkhand was also an important centre of Mughal authority. After the Mughal conquest of western Bengal in 1576, the town of Rajmahal became the initial capital of the Bengal Subah in 1595. Rajmahal, located near the pass through the hills and on the Ganga, was an ideal initial capital. The Mughals built many buildings in the city including a ''Diwan-e-Aam'', ''Diwan-e-Khas'', and many palaces and tanks.The capital of the Bengal Subah was shifted to Dhaka to deal with piracy and continuing resistance to Mughal rule in eastern Bengal, but Rajmahal remained important as controlling the Ganga as it turned from Bihar to Bengal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Choudhary |first=Indra Kumar |date=2014 |title=Rajmahal as a City of Medieval Jharkhand: A Historical Review (1595-1765) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158413 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=75 |pages=421–425 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

By the advent of the reign of [[Emperor]] [[Jahangir]], king [[Durjan Shah]] had come to power in Chota Nagpur. He refused to pay the annual revenue fixed by Akbar. Jahangir ordered [[Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang|Ibrahim Khan]] ([[governor]] of [[Bihar]]) to attack Khukhra. Jahangir's ''intentions'' were two-pronged: defeat Durjan Shah and acquire the diamonds found in the [[Sankh River]]. In 1615 AD, Ibrahim Khan marched against Khukhra and defeated Durjan Shah, took him as a captive to [[Patna]], and was finally imprisoned in the [[Gwalior fort]]. The imprisonment lasted for twelve years. Ultimately, Jahangir granted his release after realising Sal's skill of distinguishing real diamonds. The title of [[Shah]] was conferred on him by [[Emperor]] [[Jahangir]] and his kingdom restored. Durjan Shah shifted the capital from Khukhragarh to Doisa, also known as [[Navratangarh]]. The reign of Durjan Sal lasted for about thirteen years. He died in 1639 or 1640 AD.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiamike.com/india/jharkhand-f144/the-lost-kingdom-of-navratangarh-t233144/|title=The Lost Kingdom of Navratangarh|website=IndiaMike.com}}</ref> He was succeeded by King [[Ram Shah (king)|Ram Shah]] ruled from 1640 to 1663. He built [[Kapilnath Temple]] in 1643. He succeeded by his son [[Raghunath Shah]]. Thakur [[Ani Nath Shahdeo]] built Jagannath temple of Ranchi in 1691.<ref name="livehistoryindia">{{cite web|url=https://www.livehistoryindia.com/story/places/navratangarh-lost-kingdom-of-the-nagvanshis|title=Navratangarh: Lost Kingdom of the Nagvanshis|publisher=livehistoryindia|date=27 April 2019|access-date=28 September 2022}}</ref>
[[File:Nawratan gadh.jpg|thumb|[[Navratangarh|Navratangarh fort]]]]
[[File:IMGJagannathpur Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Jagannath temple, Ranchi|Jagannath temple]] at Ranchi built by king [[Ani Nath Shahdeo]]]]
In [[Palamu district]], the old [[fort]] in the plains, was built by the King of Raksel Rajput Dynasty. However, it was during the reign of King [[Medini Ray]] (1658–1674), who ruled from 1658 to 1674 in Palamau, the old fort was rebuilt into a defensive structure.{{Sfn|Lahiry|2014|p=24}} His rule extended to areas in South [[Gaya district|Gaya]] and [[Hazaribagh]]. He attacked Navratangarh ({{Convert|33|mi}}) and defeated it. With the war bounty, he constructed the lower fort close to [[Satbarwa block|Satbarwa]].<ref name="palamu.nic.in" /> Following the death of Medini Ray, there was rivalry within the royal family of the Chero dynasty which ultimately led to its downfall; this was engineered by the ministers and advisers in the court.{{Sfn|Lahiry|2014|p=29}}
[[File:Palamau_Fort.jpg|thumb|The present structure of the [[Palamu Forts|Palamau Fort]] was built in the 17th century CE.]]
[[Daud Khan Panni|Daud Khan]], who launched his invasion on 3 April 1660 from Patna, attacked south of Gaya district and finally arrived at the Palamu forts on 9 December 1660. The terms of surrender and payment of tribute were not acceptable to the [[Chero]]s; Daud Khan apparently wanted complete conversion of the Hindus to Islam. Following this, Khan mounted a series of attacks on the forts. Cheros defended the forts but ultimately lost and fled to the jungles. The temples were destroyed and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rule was re-imposed.<ref name="palamu.nic.in">{{Cite web |url=http://palamu.nic.in/palamufort.html |title=Palamufort |access-date=6 September 2018 |archive-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118184001/http://palamu.nic.in/palamufort.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Map of present-day Jharkhand region by Rennell, 1779.jpg|thumb|Administrative jurisdictions in 1770s]]
In 1765, the region came under the control of the [[British East India Company]] when Chitrajeet Rai's nephew, Gopal Rai, betrayed him and facilitated the Patna council of the East India Company to attack the fort. When the new fort was attacked by Captain Camac on 28 January 1771, the Chero soldiers fought valiantly but had to retreat to the old fort on account of water shortage. This helped the [[British army]] to occupy the new fort located on a hill without any struggle. The location was strategic and enabled the British to mount cannon-supported attacks on the old fort. The Cheros fought valiantly with their own cannons but the old fort was besieged by the British on 19 March 1771.{{Sfn|Lahiry|2014|p=30}} The fort was finally occupied by the British in 1772. The regions of [[Nagvanshi Kingdom|Nagvansh]] and [[Ramgarh Raj|Ramgarh]] also became parts of [[British Raj]].<ref name="latehar.nic.in">{{Cite web |url=http://latehar.nic.in/history.htm |title=Historical Background, Latehar District, Jharkhand |access-date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013031700/http://latehar.nic.in/history.htm |archive-date=13 October 2015 }}</ref>

The [[Kharagdiha]] kingdom, which was founded in 15th century when the [[Vishnuvridhi Bhumihars]] were able to influence and impress the [[Ghatwals and Mulraiyats|ghatwals]] of Kharagdiha Gadis, also came under the British Raj. After the [[Treaty of Allahabad]], this region, along with the rest of Suba Bengal, came under the rule of East India Company. The kingdom was considerably reduced. In 1809, the Maharajas of Kharagdiha became the Rajas of [[Dhanwar, Giridih|Dhanwar]]. The Kharagdiha gadis were semi-independent chiefdoms. Captain Camac found the rulers of these gadis very prominent in their chiefdoms, and as a result, these gadis were permanently settled as zamindari estates. [[Koderma]], [[Parasnath|Gadi Palganj]] and [[Baghochia|Ledo Gadi]] were notable zamindari estates in the district.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hazaribagh District Gazetteer |year=1905|publisher=The Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, Calcutta|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13551/page/n5}}</ref>

Other princely states in the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] came within the [[sphere of influence]] of the [[Maratha Empire]], but they became tributary states of East India Company as a result of the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]] known as [[Chota Nagpur Tributary States]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gazetteer - Chota Nagpur Tributary States Gazetteer. Statistics, 1901-02 - South Asia Archive|year=1905 |url=http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100009/231191}}</ref>

==Colonial era==
Then part of the larger [[Bengal Presidency]], came under British control after the [[Battle of Plassey]] (1757) and [[Battle of Buxar]] (1764). The region, rich in natural resources and forest wealth, became an important area for British economic interests.
*1766–1809: [[Chuar Rebellion|Chuar revolt]] by the [[Bhumij people|Bhumij]] ''zamindars'' and ''paiks'' of Dhalbhum and Barabhum.
*1772–1780: Paharia revolt
*1780–1785: [[Tilka Manjhi]] led the tribal revolt.
*1795–1800: [[Tamar block|Tamar]] revolt
*1795–1800: [[Munda people|Munda]] revolt under the leadership of Bishnu Manki.
*1800–1802: Munda revolt under the leadership of Dukhan Manki of [[Tamar block|Tamar]]
*1812: [[Bakhtar Say]] and [[Mundal Singh]] rebelled against British East India company in [[Gumla]].
*1819–1820: Chero revolt in Palamu under the leadership of Bhukan Singh.
*1831–1832: [[Kol uprising|Kol revolt]] under the leadership of Bindrai Manki and [[Budhu Bhagat]].
*1832–1833: [[Bhumij revolt]] under the leadership of [[Ganga Narayan Singh]] of [[Jungle Mahals]].
*1855: Santhals revolt against the revenue of [[Lord Cornwallis]].
[[File:Attack_by_600_Santhals_upon_a_party_of_50_sepoys,_40th_regiment_native_infantry.jpg|thumb|[[Santhal rebellion|Santhal Rebellion]], c. 1856, from the [[The Illustrated London News|Illustrated London News]]]]
*1855–1860: During the late 1850s, Sidhu had accumulated about ten thousand Santhal to run a parallel government against British rule. The basic purpose was to collect taxes by making his own laws. British Government had announced an award of Rs. 10,000 to arrest Sidhu and his brother Kanhu
*1856–1857: [[Thakur Vishwanath Shahdeo]], [[Pandey Ganpat Rai]], [[Tikait Umrao Singh]], [[Sheikh Bhikhari]], Nadir Ali, Jai Mangal Singh led a movement against the British Government during [[Indian rebellion of 1857|India's First War of Independence]], 1857, also called [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Mutiny]].<ref name=Ustad1997>{{cite journal | jstor=44143953 | title=The Role of Bishwanath Sahi of Lohardaga district, During the Revolt of 1857 in Bihar | author= Mathur Das Ustad | journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress | year=1997 | volume=58 | pages=493–500}}</ref>
*1857: [[Nilambar and Pitambar]] led a revolt against East India company.
*1868: Kharwar revolt under the leadership of Bhagirath, Dubai Gosai, and Patel Singh.

After the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], the [[Company rule in India|rule]] of the British [[East India Company]] was transferred to the Crown in the person of [[Queen Victoria]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Kaul|first=Chandrika|title=From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858–1947|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/independence1947_01.shtml|access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref> who, in 1876, was proclaimed [[Empress of India]]. In 1874, the Kherwar Movement under the leadership of Bhagirathi Manjhi gained prominence. The Cheros and Kharwars again rebelled against the British in 1882 but the attack was repulsed.<ref name="latehar.nic.in"/> Between 1895 and 1900, a movement against the British Raj was led by [[Birsa Munda]] (born 15 November 1875). Birsa Munda was captured by British forces and declared dead on 9 June 1900 in the Ranchi Jail, due to [[Cholera]], according to records of the British colonial government. All of these uprisings were quelled by the British through massive deployment of troops across the region.

[[File:Birsa Munda captured and conducted to Ranchi.jpg|thumb|[[Birsa Munda]] captured and conducted to Ranchi]]

In 1914, the [[Tana Bhagat]] resistance movement started, which gained the participation of more than 26,000 [[Adivasis]], and eventually merged with [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s [[Satyagraha]] and [[Civil Disobedience]] movement.

In October 1905, the exercise of British influence over the predominantly [[Hindi]]-speaking states of [[Chang Bhakar]], [[Jashpur]], [[Koriya]], [[Surguja]], and [[Udaipur]] was transferred from the Bengal government to that of the [[Central Provinces]], while the two [[Oriya language|Oriya]]-speaking states of [[Gangpur]] and [[Bonai]] were attached to the [[Orissa Tributary States]], leaving only [[Kharsawan]] and [[Saraikela]] answerable to the Bengal governor.<ref>Hunter, William Wilson, Sir, et al. (1908). ''[[Imperial Gazetteer of India]]'', Volume 12. 1908–1931; Clarendon Press, Oxford</ref>

In 1936, all nine states were transferred to the [[Eastern States Agency]], the officials of which came under the direct authority of the Governor-General of India, rather than under that of any Provinces.
[[File:Nehru bajaj sarojini khan azad1940a.jpg|thumb|right| [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Jamnalal Bajaj]], [[Sarojini Naidu]], [[Bacha Khan|Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], and [[Abul Kalam Azad|Maulana Azad]] at the 1940 Ramgarh Session of the Indian National Congress]]
In March 1940, INC 53rd Session<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aicc.org.in/new/congress-sessions.php |title=All India Congress Committee - AICC |access-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601092332/http://www.aicc.org.in/new/congress-sessions.php |archive-date=1 June 2013 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">Danik jagran Ranchi Page No.14, 2 October 2011</ref> was accomplished under the presidency of [[Abul Kalam Azad|Maulana Abul Qalam Azad]] at Jhanda Chowk, Ramgarh (now, Ramgarh Cant.). [[Mahatma Gandhi]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhimedia.org/cgi-bin/gm/gm.cgi?action=view&link=Images/Photographs/Personalities/Mahatma_Gandhi/1940&image=IMPHPEMG |title=Error |access-date=22 November 2018 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305002845/http://www.gandhimedia.org/cgi-bin/gm/gm.cgi?action=view&link=Images%2FPhotographs%2FPersonalities%2FMahatma_Gandhi%2F1940&image=IMPHPEMG |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Sardar Patel]], [[Dr. Rajendra Prasad]], [[Sarojini Naidu]], [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], [[Acharya J.B. Kripalani]], Industrialist [[Jamnalal Bajaj]] and other leaders<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mkgandhi-sarvodaya.org/gphotgallery/1933-1948/pages/g7.htm |title=Photo Gallery of Mahatma Gandhi (1933-1948)}}</ref> of Indian freedom movement attended the Ramgarh session.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianmovements.blogspot.in/2010/01/ramgarh-session-1940.html|title=RAMGARH SESSION-1940 }}</ref> Mahatma Gandhi also opened khadi and village industries exhibition at Ramgarh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhiserve.org/information/chronology_1940/chronology_1940.html |title=Chronology 1940 |access-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122215617/http://gandhiserve.org/information/chronology_1940/chronology_1940.html |archive-date=22 November 2018 }}</ref>



==Post-independence==
{{Main|Jharkhand movement|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|3 = Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000}}

After the Indian independence in 1947, the rulers of the states chose to accede to the [[Dominion of India]]. [[Changbhakar]], [[Jashpur State|Jashpur]], [[Koriya State|Koriya]], [[Surguja State|Surguja]], and [[Udaipur State]]s became part of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state; [[Gangpur State|Gangpur]] and [[Bonai]] became part of [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] state; and [[Kharsawan State|Kharsawan]] and [[Saraikela State|Saraikela]] became part of [[Bihar]] state.<ref>Eastern States Agency. List of ruling chiefs & leading personages Delhi: ''Agent to Governor-General, Eastern States,'' 1936</ref>

In 1928, Unnati Samaj, the political wing of Christian tribals submitted a memorandum to the [[Simon Commission]] to constitute a tribal state in Eastern India. A prominent leader like [[Jaipal Singh Munda]] and [[Ram Narayan Singh]] demanded a separate state. In 1955, [[Jharkhand Party]], led by Jaipal Singh Munda, submitted a memorandum to [[States Reorganization Commission]] for Jharkhand state for tribals, but it was rejected because the region had different languages, the tribals were in minority, Hindustani was majority language and adverse effect on economy of Bihar.<ref name="Concept Publishing Company">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nKqF_AgDd4gC&pg=PA117|title=Small States Syndrome in India|isbn=9788170226918|last1=Kumāra|first1=Braja Bihārī|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=1998|page=117}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OEeHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT251|title=Sensex Of Regional Parties|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|author=Aaku Srivastava|page=251|year=2022|isbn=978-9355212368}}</ref>

Later [[Sadan people]], the native various caste groups also joined the movement for separate state which strengthen the movement. In 1972, [[Binod Bihari Mahato]], [[Shibu Soren]] and [[A. K. Roy]] founded [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]] (JMM). [[Nirmal Mahto]], Prabhakar Tirkey, [[Surya Singh Besra|Surya Singh Besara]], Deosharan Bhagat and Praveen Prabhakar founded [[All Jharkhand Students Union]] (AJSU) in 1986. They gave a new momentum to the separate state movement of Jharkhand.

The Jharkhand Coordination Committee (JCC) led by [[Ram Dayal Munda]], [[Visweshwar Prasad Kesri|Dr. B.P. Keshri]], [[Binod Bihari Mahato]], Santosh Rana, [[Surya Singh Besra]] and Deosharan Bhagat tried to coordinate between different parties.In 1988 Dr. B.P. Keshri sent a memorandum to form Jharkhand state to Central Government.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z94JEAAAQBAJ|title=India′s Tribes Unfolding Realities|publisher=SAGE Publishing India|author=Vinay Kumar Srivastava|page=212|year=2020|isbn=978-9353886608}}</ref>

In July 1988, [[Bharatiya Janata party]] in the leadership of [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]], [[Lal Krishna Advani]] and [[Murli Manohar Joshi]] decided to demand separate state Vananchal composed of tribal regions of South Bihar. [[Inder Singh Namdhari]],
[[Samresh Singh]] and [[Rudra Pratap Sarangi]] were prominent leaders who organised several rallies to form a separate state Vananchal.<ref name="jagran2018">{{cite news|url=https://www.jagran.com/jharkhand/jamshedpur-jharkhand-state-in-existence-18322230.html|title=वनांचल की रूपरेखा, झारखंड का नाम|publisher=jagran|date=17 August 2018|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref>

The Centre government formed a Committee on the Jharkhand Matter in 1989. It stressed the need for greater allocation of the development funds for the area. JMM was contended with greater representation but AJSU stuck to its original demand of separate state. Due to differences, these parties parted from each other.

To pressurize the government to concede a separate state, AJSU introduced elements of violence in the movement and called for a complete boycott of the elections.On the other hand, JMM contested and won the elections. Jharkhand Area Autonomous Council (JAAC) Bill passed in Bihar legislative assembly in December 1994. JAAC was given the charge of 40 subjects including agriculture, rural health, public work, public health, and minerals. JAAC had the power to recommend legislation to the Assembly and to frame bylaws and regulations.<ref name="https">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fikvDwAAQBAJ&q=mukund+nayak|title=Unsung Heroes of Jharkhand Movement|isbn=9789352660001|last1=Sinha|first1=Anuj Kumar |date=January 1, 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |access-date=29 July 2019}}</ref>

In 1998, the [[Union government]] decided to send the Bill concerning formation of Jharkhand State to [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]] to which [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]] had famously remarked –“The state would be divided over my dead body”. [[BJP]], [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|JMM]], [[AJSU]], [[Indian National Congress|Congress]], a total of 16 political parties came together on one platform and formed 'All Party Separate State Formation Committee' to start the movement. The voting on Jharkhand Act was to be done on 21 September 1998 in Bihar legislation. On that day JMM and [[All Jharkhand Students Union|AJSU]] called for ''Jharkhand Bandh'' and organised a protest march.

In 1999, [[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bharatiya Janata party]], promised to form separate state Vananchal, if it wins the state election.<ref name="jagran2018"/> After the last Assembly election in the state resulted in a hung assembly, RJD's dependence on the Congress extended support on the precondition that RJD would not pose a hurdle to the passage of the [[Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000|Bihar reorganisation bill]] .

Finally, with the support from both RJD and Congress, the ruling coalition at the Centre led by the BJP which had made statehood a policy plank in the region in several previous elections, cleared the Bihar Reorganisation Act in the monsoon session of the Parliament in 2000, thus paving the way for the creation of a separate Jharkhand state comprising [[Chota Nagpur Division]] and [[Santhal Pargana Division]] of South Bihar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.traveljharkhand.com/jharkhand-tourism/jharkhand-overview/jharkhand-history.html|title=History of Jharkhand, Jharkhand History|author=gigisoftsolutions|work=traveljharkhand.com|access-date=20 July 2015}}</ref> [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]] formed the government with [[Babulal Marandi]] as chief minister. Later it was renamed as Jharkhand.<ref name="jagran2018" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/states/story/20000814-uttaranchal-vananchal-and-chhattisgarh-celebrate-their-statehood-777857-2000-08-14|title=Uttaranchal, Vananchal and Chhattisgarh celebrate their statehood|publisher=indiatoday|date=13 December 2012|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref>

==Post state formation==
Jharkhand's 23rd Foundation Day celebrated on 15 November 2023, completed 23 years. Preparations had been outstanding for the program to be organized on November 15 on the occasion of Jharkhand's 23rd Foundation Day.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jharkhand's 25th Foundation Day celebrated on 15 November 2025, completed 25 years |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/jharkhand/ranchi/jharkhand-foundation-day-november-15-hemant-soren-government-gift-worth-crores-offer-letter-to-18000-youth-grj |work=Prabhat Khabar}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of Monuments of National Importance in Jharkhand]]
* [[Jharkhand movement]]
* [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{Citation |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |year=2007 |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India |publisher=BRILL}}
* {{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Gavin D. |title=An introduction to Hinduism |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=0521438780}}
* {{cite book |last=Lahiry |first=Sangam |title=Pugmarks In Palamau |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckYlBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 |year=2014 |publisher=Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-93-81115-64-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Long |first=Jeffrey D. |year=2013 |title=Jainism: An Introduction |publisher=I.B. Tauris}}

{{History of India by State}}

[[Category:History of Jharkhand| ]]
[[Category:History of Bengal|*]]

Nalanda mahavihara

2026-03-10T21:07:30Z

Godrejsplende: minor edit

{{Short description|Buddhist monastery and centre of learning in India}}
{{Redirect|Nalanda|other uses|Nalanda (disambiguation)|the modern institute|Nalanda University}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Nalanda
| native_name =
| alternate_name = Nala, Nalaka, Nalakagrama, Nalendra<ref name="Scharfe2018">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Education in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|date=12 November 2018|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-474-0147-6|pages=148–150}}</ref><ref name="CabezonCabezón2013">{{cite book|author1=Jose Ignacio Cabezon|author2=José Ignacio Cabezón|title=The Buddha's Doctrine and the Nine Vehicles: Rog Bande Sherab's Lamp of the Teachings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty3O7BZYO5QC&pg=PA87|date=31 January 2013|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-995862-7|page=87}}</ref>
| image = Temple No.- 3, Nalanda Archaeological Site.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| alt =
| caption = Ruins at Nalanda Mahavihara
| map_type =
| map_alt =
| relief = yes
| coordinates = {{coord|25.13662|85.4426079}}
| location = [[Nalanda]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]
| region = Magadha
| type = [[Mahavihara]], monastery
| part_of =
| length = {{cvt|800|ft|order=flip}}
| width = {{cvt|1600|ft|order=flip}}
| area = {{cvt|12|ha}}
| height =
| builder = King [[Kumaragupta I]]
| material =
| built = 427 CE
| abandoned = Around 1400 CE<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buswell Jr. |first1=Robert |title=Nālanda |journal=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2013 |page=565 |isbn=978-0-691-15786-3 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-2844?rskey=UW22xF&result=3}}</ref>
| epochs =
| cultures =
| dependency_of =
| occupants =
| event = Likely attacked and ransacked by [[Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji]] in {{Circa|1200 CE}}.<ref name="Truschke 406–435">{{Cite journal |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |date=May 2018 |title=The Power of the Islamic Sword in Narrating the Death of Indian Buddhism |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/696567 |journal=History of Religions |language=en |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=406–435 |doi=10.1086/696567 |issn=0018-2710 |s2cid=165825418|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sen |first=Amartya |date=17 November 2021 |title=Nalanda and the pursuit of science |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/Nalanda-and-the-pursuit-of-science/article15519635.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217091040/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/Nalanda-and-the-pursuit-of-science/article15519635.ece |archive-date=17 February 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
| excavations = 1915–1937, 1974–1982<ref name="asi1">{{cite web | url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_bihar_nalanda.asp | title=Nalanda | publisher=Archaeological Survey of India | access-date=18 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140918045920/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_bihar_nalanda.asp | archive-date=18 September 2014 }}</ref>
| archaeologists = David B. Spooner, [[Hiranand Sastri]], Palak Shah, J. A. Page, M. Kuraishi, G. C. Chandra, N. Nazim, [[Amalananda Ghosh]]{{sfn|Le|2010|p=59}}
| condition = In ruins
| ownership = [[Government of India]]
| management = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| public_access = Yes
| website = {{URL|http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_bihar_nalanda.asp|ASI}}
| notes = [[Archaeological Survey of India|ASI]] No. N-BR-43<ref>{{cite web | url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_bihar.asp | title=Alphabetical List of Monuments – Bihar | publisher=Archaeological Survey of India | access-date=17 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103035254/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_bihar.asp | archive-date=3 November 2011 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
|child = yes
|Official_name = Archaeological Site of Nalanda ''Mahavihara'' at Nalanda, Bihar
|ID = 1502
|Year = 2016
|Criteria = Cultural: iv, vi
|Area = 23 ha
|Buffer_zone = 57.88 ha
}}
}}
'''Nalanda''' ([[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nālandā}}, {{IPA|sa|naːlən̪d̪aː|pron}}) was a renowned [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] ''[[mahavihara]]'' (great [[monastery]]) in medieval [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (modern-day [[Bihar]]), [[eastern India]].{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=1–5}}{{sfnp|Kumar|2018}}<ref name="nalandagoi">{{cite web |date=15 June 2023 |title=History {{!}} District Nalanda, Government of Bihar {{!}} India |url=https://nalanda.nic.in/en/history/ |access-date=2 June 2023 |website=nalanda.nic.in}}</ref> Widely considered to be among the greatest [[Ancient higher-learning institutions|centres of learning in the ancient world]] and often referred to as "the world's first residential university",<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43052754 | last= Cochrane |first=Steve |date=2009 |title=Asian Centres of Learning and Witness before 1000 CE.: Insights for Today |journal= Transformations| volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=30–39 |publisher=Sage Publications| doi= 10.1177/0265378809102174 | jstor= 43052754 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45436328 | last= Chandra Ray |first=Sunil |date=1954 |title=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=17 |pages=78–83 |publisher=Indian History Congress| jstor= 45436328 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283828/mode/2up?view=theater | last= Sankalia |first=Hasmukh |date=1934 |title=The University of Nalanda |location= Central Archaeology Library, New Delhi | publisher=B.G. Paul & Co. Publishers}}</ref> it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now [[Rajgir]]), roughly {{convert|90|km|mi|0}} southeast of Pataliputra (now [[Patna]]). Operating for almost a thousand years from 427 CE until around 1400 CE,{{sfn| Pinkney|
2014|pp=116–117 with footnotes}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Manoj |title=Ancient Nalanda University |url=https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-content/social_sciences/aih/MAAIH53.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055253/https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-content/social_sciences/aih/MAAIH53.pdf |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=6 November 2021}}</ref> Nalanda mahavihara played a vital role in promoting the patronage of arts, culture and academics during the 5th and 6th century CE, a period that has since been described as the "[[Golden Age of India]]" by scholars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ingalls |first=Daniel H. H. |date=1976 |title=Kālidāsa and the Attitudes of the Golden Age |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/599886 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=15–26 |doi=10.2307/599886 |jstor=599886 |issn=0003-0279|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The characterisation of Nalanda as a "university" in the modern sense has been challenged by scholars. They argue that while it was undoubtedly a major centre of learning, comparing it directly to a modern university is historically imprecise.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Debaditya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gT9sDwAAQBAJ&dq=history+of+universities+nalanda&pg=PT33 |title=The Idea of the University: Histories and Contexts |date=3 September 2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-429-81428-0 |language=en |quote=However, the impunity of populist narratives around the birth of the university-idea in Takshashila or Nalanda does beg a challenge on historical grounds. Though archaeological records and epigraphic-numismatic evidence have, beyond a doubt, proved the acclaim that both these places (as also Vallabhi, Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Jagaddala) enjoyed as centres of intellectual instruction, there may be precise historical arguments against discerning in them the early lineaments of a modern 'university}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lowe |first1=Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9DolDwAAQBAJ&dq=history+of+universities+nalanda&pg=PA40 |title=The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities |last2=Yasuhara |first2=Yoshihito |date=4 October 2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-54327-5 |pages=46 |language=en |quote="Obviously, these Pala foundations cannot be thought of as a 'federal university' as modern institutions are, such as the American state universities or the University of Wales in Britain. These share a name and an academic office which oversees teaching and the award of qualifications." "The institutions we have mentioned so far are among the best known and best documented, but were far from unique."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rury |first1=John L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jmdDwAAQBAJ&dq=history+development+of+universities%2C+nalanda+Springer&pg=PA313 |title=The [Oxford] Handbook of the History of Education |last2=Tamura |first2=Eileen H. |date=17 June 2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-934004-0 |pages=304 |language=en |quote="Asia's first modern universities were only founded much later, beginning in the sixteenth century, and often infused with significant elements drawn from the West,"}}</ref>

Nalanda was established by emperor [[Kumaragupta I]] of the [[Gupta Empire]] around 427 CE,{{sfn|Smith|2013|pp=111–112}} and was supported by numerous Indian and [[Java]]nese patrons – both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.{{sfn|Krishnan|2016|p=17}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=148–150 with footnotes}} Nalanda continued to thrive with the support of the rulers of the [[Pushyabhuti dynasty]] (r. 500–647 CE) and the [[Pala Empire]] (r. 750–1161 CE). After the fall of the Palas, the monks of Nalanda were patronised by the [[Pithipatis of Magadha]].<ref name=Auer2019>{{cite book |last1=Auer |first1=Blain |title=Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia |date=2019 |publisher=De Gruyter |page=68 |isbn=978-3-11-063168-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gz_EDwAAQBAJ&q=buddhasena}}</ref> Nalanda was attacked by Huns under [[Mihirakula]] in the 5th century and again sustained severe damage from an invasion by the [[Kingdom of Gauda|Gauda king of Bengal]] in the 8th Century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 February 2023 |title=Nalanda: The university that changed the world |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230222-nalanda-the-university-that-changed-the-world |access-date=13 April 2025 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> During the final invasion it was burnt down by [[Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji]] (c. 1200), but it managed to remain operational for decades (or possibly even centuries) following his raids.<ref name="Truschke 406–435">{{Cite journal |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |date=May 2018 |title=The Power of the Islamic Sword in Narrating the Death of Indian Buddhism |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/696567 |journal=History of Religions |language=en |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=406–435 |doi=10.1086/696567 |issn=0018-2710 |s2cid=165825418|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sen |first=Amartya |date=17 November 2021 |title=Nalanda and the pursuit of science |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/Nalanda-and-the-pursuit-of-science/article15519635.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217091040/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/Nalanda-and-the-pursuit-of-science/article15519635.ece |archive-date=17 February 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ANCIENT NALANDA UNIVERSIty's RUINS | District Nalanda, Government of Bihar | India |url=https://nalanda.nic.in/en/tourist-place/ancient-nalanda-universitys-ruins/}}</ref>

Over some 750 years, Nalanda's faculty included some of the most revered scholars of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. The historian [[William Dalrymple]] said of Nalanda that "at its apex, it was the undisputed scholarly centre of the Mahayana Buddhist world".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dalrymple |first1=William |title=The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World |date=2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9781408864418 |page=116 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGIfEQAAQBAJ&q=nalanda&pg=PA28}}</ref> The faculty and students associated with the monastery included [[Dharmapala of Nalanda|Dharmapala]], [[Nagarjuna]], [[Dharmakirti]], [[Asanga]], [[Vasubandhu]], [[Chandrakirti]], [[Xuanzang]], [[Śīlabhadra]], [[Vajrabodhi]], and [[Dharmasvamin]].{{sfn|Wayman|1984|p=43}}<ref name="KumarDriem2020">{{cite book|author1=Niraj Kumar|author2=George van Driem|author3=Phunchok Stobdan|title=Himalayan Bridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IhEHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA253|date=18 November 2020|publisher=KW|isbn=978-1-000-21549-6|pages=253–255}}</ref><ref name="Hodge2005">{{cite book|author=Stephen Hodge|title=The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: With Buddhaguhya's Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SY4GUaAUNEYC&pg=PA17|date=9 December 2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79654-9|page=17}}</ref>{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=240}}{{sfn|Joshi|1977|p=177}} The [[curriculum]] of Nalanda included major [[Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist philosophies]] like [[Madhyamaka]], [[Yogachara]] and [[Sarvastivada]], as well as subjects like the [[Vedas]], [[Vyākaraṇa|grammar]], [[Ayurveda|medicine]], [[Pramana|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]],{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā''}} [[astronomy]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumar |first=Pintu |date=2011 |title=The Ancient Nālandā Mahāvihāra: The Beginning of Institutional Education |url=https://cgscholar.com/bookstore/works/the-ancient-nalanda-mahavihara |journal=The Journal of the World Universities Forum |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=65–80 |doi=10.18848/1835-2030/CGP/v04i01/56731 |issn=1835-2030|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and [[alchemy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sumersingh |first1=DhirajsinghRajput |last2=Gokarn |first2=Rohit |last3=Jagtap |first3=ChandrashekharY |last4=Galib |first4=R |last5=Patgiri |first5=Bj |last6=Prajapati |first6=Pk |date=2016 |title=Critical Review of Rasaratna Samuccaya: A Comprehensive Treatise of Indian Alchemy |journal=Ancient Science of Life |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=12–18 |doi=10.4103/0257-7941.195412 |issn=0257-7941 |pmc=5255965 |pmid=28182027 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The mahavihara had a renowned [[Ancient library|library]] that was a key source for the Sanskrit texts that were transmitted to East Asia by pilgrims like [[Xuanzang]] and [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]].{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā'', ''Xuanzang'' and ''Yijing''}} Many texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and [[Vajrayana]]. They include the works of [[Dharmakirti]], the Sanskrit text ''[[Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra]]'' of [[Shantideva]], and the ''[[Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra|Mahavairocana Tantra]]''.<ref name="Śāntideva1998">{{cite book|author=Śāntideva|title=Translator's Note: The Bodhicaryāvatāra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-ifbE8kyGIC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283720-2|page=xxviii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hodge |first1=Stephen |title=The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi Tantra: With Buddhaguhya's Commentary |date=9 December 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79654-9 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SY4GUaAUNEYC |language=en}}</ref><ref name="lmjoshi146">{{cite book |author=Lal Mani Joshi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D. |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 |pages=146–147}}</ref>

The ancient site of Nalanda is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite news |date=15 July 2016 |agency=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=15 July 2016 |language=en |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1524 |title=Four sites inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List |work=whc.unesco.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716131638/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1524 |archive-date=16 July 2016 }}</ref> In 2010, the [[Government of India]] passed a resolution to revive the ancient university, and a contemporary institute, [[Nālandā University]], was established at Rajgir.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nalandauniv.edu.in/about-nalanda/history-and-revival/|title = History and Revival|newspaper=Nalanda University}}</ref> It has been listed as an [[Institute of National Importance]] by the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nalandauniv.edu.in/about-nalanda/vision/|title=Vision|website=Nalandauniv.edu.in|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

==Location==
Nalanda is about {{convert|16|km|mi|0}} north of the city of Rajgir and about {{convert|90|km|mi|0}} southeast of Patna, connected via NH 31, 20 and 120 to India's highway network.<ref name=nalandagoi/> It is about {{convert|80|km|mi|0}} northeast of [[Bodh Gaya]] – another important Buddhist site in Bihar. The Nalanda archaeological site is spread over a large area to the northwest of Bargaon (Nalanda) village, and is between the historical manmade lakes Gidhi, Panashokar and Indrapuskarani. On the south bank of the Indrapushkarani lake is the [[Nava Nalanda Mahavihara]] – a university founded in its memory.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Prasad|1988|p=184 with footnotes}} Similarly on the south west bank of the Indrapushkarani lake is [[Nalanda Open University]], the state university named after the ancient Nalanda University.

==Etymology==
''Mahavihara'' ({{IAST|Mahāvihāra}}) is the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] term for a great [[vihāra]] (centre of learning or Buddhist monastery) and is used to describe a monastic complex of viharas.

According to the early 7th-century [[Tang dynasty]] Chinese pilgrim, [[Xuanzang]], the local tradition explains that the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nālandā}} ([[Hindi]]/[[Magahi language|Magahi]]: नालन्दा) came from a ''[[nāga]]'' (serpent deity in Indian religions) whose name was ''Nalanda''. He offers an alternate meaning "charity without intermission", from "na-alam-da"; however, this split does not mean this.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=3 with footnote 2}} [[Hiranand Sastri]], an archaeologist who headed the excavation of the ruins, attributes the name to the abundance of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|nālas}} (lotus-stalks) in the area and believes that Nalanda would then represent ''the giver of lotus-stalks''.{{sfn|Hiranand Sastri|1986|pp=3–4}}

In some Tibetan sources, including the 17th-century work of [[Taranatha]], Nalanda is referred to as ''Nalendra'', and is likely synonymous with Nala, Nalaka, Nalakagrama found in Tibetan literature.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=2–3}}<ref name="Scharfe2018">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Education in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|date=12 November 2018|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-474-0147-6|pages=148–150}}</ref><ref name="CabezonCabezón2013">{{cite book|author1=Jose Ignacio Cabezon|author2=José Ignacio Cabezón|title=The Buddha's Doctrine and the Nine Vehicles: Rog Bande Sherab's Lamp of the Teachings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty3O7BZYO5QC&pg=PA87|date=31 January 2013|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-995862-7|page=87}}</ref>

==History ==
=== Early history of the city of Nalanda (1200 BCE–300 CE) ===
[[File:Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62.jpg|thumbnail|right|A map of Nalanda and its environs from Alexander Cunningham's 1861–62 ASI report which shows a number of ponds (''pokhar'') around the Mahavihara.]]
Archaeological excavations at sites near Nalanda, such as the Juafardih site about three kilometres away, have yielded black ware and other items. These have been carbon dated to about 1200 BCE. This suggests that the region around Nalanda in Magadha had a human settlement centuries before the birth of the Mahavira and the Buddha.<ref>{{Cite book|title=EXCAVATION AT JUAFARDIH, DISTRICT NALANDA|last=Tewari|first=Rakesh|publisher=ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA|year=2016|pages=6–8 Layers 13, the uppermost deposit of Period I, has provided a C14 date of 1354BCE it may thus be seen that the C14 dates of Period I and II are consistent and justifiably indicate that the conventional date bracket for NBPW requires a fresh review at least for the sites in Magadha region}}</ref>

Early Buddhist texts state that Buddha visited a town near Rajagriha (modern [[Rajgir]] – the capital of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]]) called Nalanda on his peregrinations.{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā''}}{{sfn|KA Nilakanta Sastri|1988|p=268}} He delivered lectures in a nearby mango grove named ''Pavarika'' and one of his two chief disciples, [[Sariputta|Shariputra]], was born in the area and later attained [[nirvana]] there.{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|p= 148}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p= 328}} These Buddhist texts were written down centuries after the death of the Buddha, are not consistent in either the name or the relative locations. For example, texts such as the ''Mahasudassana Jataka'' states that Nalaka or Nalakagrama is about a yojana (10 miles) from Rajagriha, while texts such as ''Mahavastu'' call the place Nalanda-gramaka and place it half a [[yojana]] away.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=2–3}} A Buddhist text ''Nikayasamgraha'' does state that emperor Ashoka established a ''vihara'' (monastery) at Nalanda. However, archaeological excavations so far have not yielded any monuments from Ashoka period or from another 600 years after his death.{{sfn|Pinkney|2014|pp=116–117 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=4–5}}

Chapter 2.7 of the Jaina text ''Sutrakritanga'' states that Nalanda is a "suburb" of capital Rajagriha, has numerous buildings, and this is where [[Mahavira]] (6th/5th century BCE) spent fourteen ''varshas'' – a term that refers to a traditional retreat during monsoons for the monks in Indian religions. This is corroborated in the ''Kalpasutra'', another cherished text in Jainism. However, other than the mention of Nalanda, Jaina texts do not provide further details, nor were they written down for nearly a millennium after Mahavira's death. Like the Buddhist texts, this has raised questions about reliability and whether the current Nalanda is same as the one in Jaina texts.{{sfn|Pinkney|2014|pp=116–117 with footnotes}} According to Scharfe, though the Buddhist and Jaina texts generate problems with place identification, it is "virtually certain" that the modern Nalanda is near or the site these texts are referring to.{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 148–149 with footnotes}}

Sariputta, a prominent disciple of the Buddha, was born and died in Nalanda. King [[Ashoka]] is said to have built the Sariputta stupa in Nalanda to honour him, and Sariputta's relics were also enshrined in stupas at Sanchi and Mathura.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/oapen-20.500.12657-77182 |title=The Return of the Buddha - Ancient Symbols for a New Nation |date=2014 |pages=239 |language=English |quote=The claims for the historicity of Nalanda are based on literary and epigraphical sources, which identify it as the birth-place of Buddha's disciple Säriputta. Ashoka is said to have built a temple in the third century BCE and the site owes its popularity as a university to the archaeologist Hasmukh D. Sankalia.}}</ref>

==== Faxian visit (399–412 CE) ====
When [[Faxian]], a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk, visited the city of Nalanda, there probably was no university yet. Faxian had come to India to acquire Buddhist texts, and spent 10 years in India in the early fifth century, visiting major Buddhist pilgrimage sites including the Nalanda area. He also wrote a travelogue, which inspired other Chinese and Korean Buddhists to visit India over the centuries; in it he mentions many Buddhist monasteries and monuments across India. However, he makes no mention of any monastery or university at Nalanda even though he was looking for Sanskrit texts and took a large number of them from other parts of India back to China. Combined with a lack of any archaeological discoveries of pre-400 CE monuments in Nalanda, the silence in Faxian's memoir suggests that Nalanda monastery-university did not exist around 400 CE.{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 148–149 with footnotes}}<ref name="Deeg">{{citation | last=Deeg | first=Max | title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History | chapter=Chinese Buddhist Travelers: Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2019 | doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.217 | isbn=978-0-19-027772-7 }}</ref>

=== Foundation (5th century) ===
{{See also|Gupta Empire}}
[[File:Nalanda, Buddhist university 04.jpg|thumb|left|Nalanda was founded by the Gupta emperors in the early 5th century and then expanded over the next 7 centuries.]]

Nalanda's dateable history begins in the 5th century. A seal discovered at the site identifies a monarch named [[Kumaragupta I|Shakraditya]] ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śakrāditya}} - r. c. 415–455 CE) as its founder and attributes the foundation of a [[sangharama]] (monastery) at the site to him.{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=166}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}} This is corroborated by the Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] travelogue.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}} The tradition of formalised Vedic learning "helped to inspire the formation of large teachings centres," such as Nalanda, Taxila, and [[Vikramashila]].<ref name="Frazier2011">{{Cite book |last1=Frazier |first1=Jessica |last2=Flood |first2=Gavin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nv_a5cMEwngC |title=The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies |date=30 June 2011 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |pages=34 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vasbinder |first1=Jan Wouter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTmoEAAAQBAJ |title=Fit For Purpose? The Futures Of Universities |last2=Sim |first2=Jonathan Y. H. |date=22 November 2022 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-12-6895-3 |pages=62 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Nalanda clay seal of Kumaragupta III.jpg|thumb|Nalanda clay seal of [[Kumaragupta III]]. The inscription is in Sanskrit, late-Gupta script, the man shown has [[Vaishnava]] mark on his forehead, and seal has Garuda-vahana on upper face.<ref>John F Fleet, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395/page/n461/mode/2up Nalanda clay seals of Kumaragupta III], ''Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum'' Vol.3</ref>]]
'''<big>Founder</big>'''

In the Indian tradition and texts, kings were called by many epithets and names. Scholars such as Andrea Pinkney and Hartmut Scharfe conclude that ''Shakraditya'' is same as Kumaragupta I. He was the emperor belonging to the [[Hindus|Hindu]] dynasty of the [[Gupta Empire|Guptas]].{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 148–149 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Pinkney|2014|pp=116 with footnotes, Quote: "Some of Nalanda's most important patrons included: (...) the Hindu Guptas (especially fifth century Kumaragupta, also known as Sakraditya, who reigned from 415–455), and Emperor Harsa (seventh century)."}} Further, numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda corroborate that [[Kumaragupta I]] was the founder patron of the Nalanda monastery-university.{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=166}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}}

His successors, [[Budhagupta]], Tathagatagupta, [[Narasimhagupta|Baladitya]], and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=5}} Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th centuries under the Guptas.{{sfn|Krishnan|2016|pp=162–163}} These Gupta-era contributions to Nalanda are corroborated by the numerous Buddhist and Hindu seals, artwork, iconography and inscriptions discovered at Nalanda, which are in the Gupta-style and Gupta-era scripts.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=330}}{{sfn|Pal|2019|pp=95–99}} During this period, the Gupta kings were not the only patrons of Nalanda. They reflect a broad and religiously diverse community of supporters. It is remarkable, states Scharfe, that "many donors were not Buddhists; the emblems on their seals show Lakshmi, Ganesha, Shivalinga and Durga".{{sfn|Scharfe |2002|pp= 149–150 with footnotes}}

Rulers in northeast India bequeathed villages to help fund Nalanda; the king of Sumatra contributed villages for the monastery's endowment. A special fund was also established to support scholars from China.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Elverskog |first=Johan |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2010 |location=Philadelphia |pages=1}}</ref>

=== Post-Gupta dynasty (550–750 CE) ===
[[File:Seal of Harshavardhana found in Nalanda.jpg|thumb|left|Seal of [[Harshavardhana|Harsha]] found in Nalanda<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sastri |first1=Hirananda |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.21 |date=1931 |pages=74–80 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56981/page/n104/mode/1up}}</ref>]]
After the decline of Gupta Empire, the most notable patron of the Nalanda Mahavihara was [[Harsha]] (known as Śīlāditya in some Buddhist records). He was a seventh-century emperor with a capital at [[Kannauj]] (Kanyakubja). According to Xuanzang, Harsha was a third generation Hindu king from the [[Vaishya]] caste, who built majestic Buddhist viharas, as well as three temples – Buddha, Surya and Shiva, all of the same size.<ref>Li Rongxi (1996), ''The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions'', Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 123–132, Quote: "Harṣavardhana (known as Xizeng, "Increment of Happiness"), is a descendant of the Vaiśya caste. His family had three kings that ruled over the country for (...)"</ref> He states (c. 637 CE), "a long succession of kings" had built up Nalanda till "the whole is truly marvellous to behold".{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=6}} Nalanda also continued to flourish during the rule of the [[Later Gupta dynasty]] however they do not seem to have provided active support and instead favoured the construction of Hindu monuments.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Frederick |title=The Art of Eastern India: 300 - 800 |date=1980 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-1-4529-1225-7 |page=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-gGxzx6wxIC}}</ref>

In accordance with the ancient Indian traditions of supporting temples and monasteries, inscriptions found at Nalanda suggest that it received gifts, including grants of villages by kings to support its work. Harsha himself granted 100 villages and directed 200 households from each of these villages to supply the institution's monks with requisite daily supplies such as of rice, butter, and milk. This supported over 1,500 faculty and 10,000 student monks at Nalanda.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=5}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=151}} These numbers, however, may be exaggerated. They are inconsistent with the much lower numbers (over 3000) given by Yijing, another Chinese pilgrim who visited Nalanda a few decades later. According to Asher, while the excavated Nalanda site is large and the number of viharas so far found are impressive, they simply cannot support 10,000 or more student monks. The total number of known rooms and their small size is such that either the number of monks must have been far less than Xuanzang's claims or the Nalanda site was many times larger than numerous excavations have so far discovered and what Xuanzang describes.{{sfn|Asher|2015|pp=5–21}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=151–152}}{{refn|group=note|The Nalanda site is not fully excavated, and the modern village of Bargaon may be on top of some of the ruins. (ASI reports, 1935–1937)}}

==== Xuanzang's visit (630–643 CE) ====
[[Xuanzang]] travelled around India between 630 and 643 CE,{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=110}} visiting Nalanda in 637 and 642, spending a total of around two years at the monastery.{{sfn|Wriggins|1996|p=237}} He was warmly welcomed in Nalanda where he received the Indian name of Mokshadeva{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=8}} and studied under the guidance of [[Shilabhadra]], the venerable head of the institution at the time. He believed that the aim of his arduous overland journey to India had been achieved as in Shilabhadra he had at last found an incomparable teacher to instruct him in [[Yogachara]], a school of thought that had then only partially been transmitted to China. Besides Buddhist studies, the monk also attended courses in grammar, logic, and Sanskrit, and later also lectured at the [[Mahavihara]].{{sfn|Wriggins|1996|p=124}}

[[File:大唐西域記（四庫）.jpg|thumb|right|A page from Xuanzang's ''[[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions]]'' or ''Dà Táng Xīyù Jì'']]
In the detailed account of his stay at Nalanda, the pilgrim describes the view out of the window of his quarters thus,{{sfn|Beal|2000|p=111}}
{{blockquote|Moreover, the whole establishment is surrounded by a brick wall, which encloses the entire convent from without. One gate opens into the great college, from which are separated eight other halls standing in the middle ''(of the Sangharama)''. The richly adorned towers, and the fairy-like turrets, like pointed hill-tops are congregated together. The observatories seem to be lost in the vapours ''(of the morning)'', and the upper rooms tower above the clouds.}}

Xuanzang returned to China with 657 Sanskrit texts and 150 relics carried by 20 horses in 520 cases. He translated 74 of the texts himself.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=110}}{{sfn|Wriggins|1996|pp=177}}

==== Yijing's visit (673–700 CE) ====
In the thirty years following Xuanzang's return, no fewer than eleven travellers from China and [[Korea]] are known to have visited Nalanda,{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=9}} including the monk [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]]. Unlike Faxian and Xuanzang, Yijing followed the sea route around Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. He arrived in 673 CE, and stayed in India for fourteen years, ten of which he spent at the Nalanda Mahavihara.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=144}} When he returned to China in 695, he had with him 400 Sanskrit texts and 300 grains of Buddha relics which were subsequently translated in China.{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā'' and ''Yijing''}}

Unlike Xuanzang, who also described the geography and culture of seventh-century India, Yijing's account primarily concentrates on the practice of Buddhism in India and detailed descriptions of the customs, rules, and regulations of the monks at the monastery. In his chronicle, Yijing notes that revenues from 200 villages (as opposed to 100 in Xuanzang's time) had been assigned toward the maintenance of Nalanda.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=151}} He described there being eight [[vihara]] with as many as 300 cells.{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=167}} According to him, Nalanda monastery has numerous daily ''Nikaya'' procedures and rules for the monks. He gives many examples. In one subsection he explains that the monastery has ten great pools. The morning begins with the ''ghanta'' (bell) being rung. Monks take their bathing sheets and go to one of these pools. They bathe with their underwear on, then get out slowly to avoid disturbing anyone else. They wipe their bodies, then wrap this 5-foot long and 1.5-foot wide sheet around the waist, change their clothes with this wrap in place. Then rinse, wring and dry the sheet. The entire procedure, says Yijing, is explained in the Buddhist Nikaya procedures. The day must begin with bathing, but bathing after meals is forbidden. The Nalanda Nikaya has many such daily procedures and rituals set out for the monks to follow.<ref>J. Takakusu, ''A Record of The Buddhist Religion by I-Tsing'', Oxford University Press, pp. 108–110</ref>

====Korean and Tibetan pilgrims====
[[File:Nalanda University Seal.jpg|thumb|Replica of the seal of Nalanda set in [[terracotta]] on display in the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] Museum in Nalanda]]

In addition to Chinese pilgrims, Buddhist pilgrims from Korea also visited India about the same time as Xuanzang and Yingji. The Chinese travelogues about India became known in the 19th century and have been well published. After the mid-20th century, the Korean pilgrim journeys have come to light. For example, monks such as Kyom-ik began visiting Indian monasteries by the mid-6th century. They too carried Indian texts and translated them, producing 72 ''chuan'' of translated texts. In the mid-7th century, the [[Silla]] (Korean: 신라) monk Hyon-jo visited and stayed at several Indian monasteries, including three years at Nalanda, his visit corroborated by Yingji. He sent his students Hye-ryun and Hyon-gak to Nalanda for studies, the latter died at Nalanda. They adopted Indian names to interact with the fellow students; for example, Hye-ryun was known as Prajnavarman and it is this name that is found in the records. According to Korean records, monks visited India through the ninth century – despite arduous travel challenges – to study at various monasteries, and Nalanda was the most revered.<ref>James Grayson (1980), ''The role of early Korean Buddhism in the history of East Asia'', Asiatische Studien : Zeitschrift der Schweizerischen Asiengesellschaft, ETH Zürich and Kyemyong University Taegu, pp. 57–60</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Kwangsu |last1=Lee |title=Trade and Religious Contacts Between India and Korea in Ancient Times | jstor=44143060| journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year= 1993 | pages=701–706|volume=54}}</ref>

In and after the 7th century, Tibetan monks such as [[Thonmi Sambhota]] came to Nalanda and other Indian monasteries to study, not only Buddhism, but Sanskrit language, grammar and other subjects. Sambhota is credited with applying the principles of Sanskrit and its grammar to remodel Tibetan language and its script. It was after Sambhota's first return from Nalanda that the Tibetan king adopted Buddhism and committed to making it the religion of his people.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=342–343 with footnotes}} Tibetan monks lived closer to Nepal, Sikkim and eastern India, with simpler travel itineraries than the Koreans and others. Tibetans continued to visit Magadha during the Pala era, and beyond through the 14th century, thereby participated in the crucible of ideas at Nalanda and other monasteries in Bihar and Bengal.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=350–351}} However, after the 8th century, it was the esoteric mandala and deities-driven Vajrayana Buddhism that increasingly dominated the exchange.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=342–343 with footnotes}}

===Pala dynasty (750–1200 CE)===
[[File:Khasarpana Lokesvara.jpg|thumb|upright|Avalokisteshvara in Khasarpana Lokesvara form from Nalanda, 9th-century.]]
The [[Pala Empire|Palas]] established themselves in eastern regions of India in the mid-8th century and reigned until the last quarter of the 12th century, they were a Buddhist dynasty. However, under the Palas, the traditional Mahayana Buddhism of Nalanda that inspired East Asian pilgrims such as Xuanzang was superseded by the then newly emerging [[Vajrayana]] tradition, a [[Tantra]]-imbibed, eros- and deity-inclusive esoteric version of Buddhism.<ref>Jacob Kinnard (1996), ''Reevaluating the Eighth-Ninth Century Pala Milieu: Icono-Conservatism and the Presence of Sakyamuni'', Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 19, Number 2, pp. 281–283, for context and critical historiography see pp. 281–297</ref> Nalanda continued to get support from the Palas, but they subscribed to Vajrayana Buddhism and they were prolific builders of new monasteries on Vajrayana mandala ideas such as those at [[Jagaddala]], [[Odantapura]], [[Somapura]], and [[Vikramashila]]. Odantapura was founded by [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala]], the progenitor of the royal line, only {{convert|6|mi|km|order=flip}} from Nalanda.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=349–352}} These competing monasteries, some just a few kilometres away from Nalanda likely drew away a number of learned monks from Nalanda.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=344–346}}{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=10}}

Inscriptions, literary evidence, seals, and ruined artwork excavated at the Nalanda site suggest that Nalanda remained active and continued to thrive under the Palas.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=10, 54–55}} Kings [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] and [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]] were active patrons. A number of 9th-century metallic statues containing references to Devapala have been found in its ruins as well as two notable inscriptions. The first, a [[Nalanda inscription|copper plate inscription]] unearthed at Nalanda, details an endowment by the [[Shailendra dynasty|Shailendra]] King, [[Balaputradeva]] of ''Suvarnadvipa'' ([[Sumatra]] in modern-day [[Indonesia]]). This [[Srivijaya]]n king, "attracted by the manifold excellences of Nalanda" had built a monastery there and had requested Devapala to grant the revenue of five villages for its upkeep, a request which was granted. The [[Ghosrawan]] inscription is the other inscription from Devapala's time and it mentions that he received and patronised a bhikṣu named Viradeva, who had studied all the Vedas in his youth, and who was later elected the head of Nalanda.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=152}}{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=268}}

Inscriptions issued between the 9th and 12th centuries attest gifts and support to Nalanda for the upkeep of the monastery, maintenance of the monks, copying of palm leaf manuscripts (necessary for preservation given the Indian tropical climate).{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=12–13}} One inscription also mentions the destruction of a Nalanda library of manuscripts by fire, and support for its restoration.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|pp=12–13}} Another 10th-century inscription quotes Bhadracari of the Sautrantikas tradition, attesting the activity of diverse schools of Buddhism at Nalanda.<ref>Gregory Schopen (1989), A Verse from the Bhadracarlpranidhdna in a 10th Century Inscription found at Nalanda, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 12, Number 1, pp. 149–150</ref> Another Nalanda inscription from the 11th century mentions a gift of "revolving bookcase".<ref>{{cite book | author=Gregory Schopen | title=Figments and Fragments of Mahayana Buddhism in India | chapter=Chapter XIII. A Note On The "Technology Of Prayer" And A Reference To A "Revolving Bookcase" In An Eleventh-Century Indian Inscription | publisher=University of Hawaii Press | year=2017 | doi=10.1515/9780824874629-015 | pages=345–349| isbn=978-0-8248-7462-9 }}</ref>

While the Palas continued to patronise Nalanda liberally, the fame and influence of Nalanda helped the Palas. The Srivijaya kingdom of southeast Asia maintained a direct contact with Nalanda and the Palas, thus influencing the 9th to 12th century art in Sumatra, Java, southern Thailand and regions that actively traded with the Srivijaya kingdom. The influence extended to the Indonesian Shailendra dynasty. The Indonesian bronzes and votive tablets from this period show the creativity of its people, yet the iconographic themes overlap with those found at Nalanda and nearby region. Monks from Indonesia, Myanmar and other parts of southeast Asia came to Nalanda during the Pala rule.{{sfn|Krishnan|2016|pp=173–189}}<ref>{{cite book | last=Lammerts | first=D.C. | title=Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern Southeast Asia | publisher=ISEAS Publishing, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | series=Nalanda-Sriwijaya series | year=2015 | isbn=978-981-4519-06-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgGhCgAAQBAJ | pages=298–299}}</ref>

=== Destruction during Afghan conquest (c. 1200 CE) ===
Archeological excavations at the site during 1920-1921 revealed a thick layer of ashes on the uppermost strata, across many buildings separated by some distance; this suggests that Nalanda was subject to a catastrophic fire.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Anand |year=2013 |title='Destruction' and 'Decline' of Nālandā Mahāvihāra: Prejudices and Praxis |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=23–49 |jstor=43854933}}</ref> This is held to be arson, blamed upon the troops of [[Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji]] who had plundered the region c. 1200 CE, and cited to be the leading cause of Nalanda's demise. A passage from [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani|Minhaj-i-Siraj]]'s ''[[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]]'' which actually describes the destruction of Odantapura Vihar (var. Bihar Sharif<ref name="anupam">{{cite journal |last1=Anupam |first1=Hitendra |year=2002 |title=Significance of Tibetan Sources in the Study of Odantapuri and Vikramsila Mahavihars |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=61 |pages=424–428 |jstor=44148119}}</ref>), a monastery just a few miles from Nalanda, is offered in support.<ref name=":1" /> While such a reading is misplaced, it is true that Nalanda was raided by Khalji.<ref name=":1" />

Tibetan records are another source of information about the events at Nalanda in the late 12th century and much of the 13th century. These were the decades of widespread systematic destruction of monasteries in this region, and historical records in Tibet affirm that monks from Nalanda and nearby monasteries such as the [[Vikramashila]] monastery who "survived the slaughter, fled to Tibet".{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=154–155, 157}} Among the Tibetan records, the most useful is the biography of the Tibetan monk-pilgrim [[Dharmasvamin]] discovered in 1936. It is useful because Dharmasvamin reports having met the fleeing monks and scholars during his travels. He visited Bihar about 1234, and spent one monsoon season at Nalanda. He described the conditions there in the decades after the sack of Nalanda and other Buddhist monasteries in the Magadha region of India. His account states that the destruction of Nalanda was not an accident or misunderstanding but a part of the widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries and monuments, including the destruction of Bodh Gaya. The vast manuscript libraries of Magadha had been mostly lost. Other Tibetan monks and he had shifted to Nepal, as the place to study, copy and move manuscripts to Tibet. According to his account, the Turushka-Qarluq (Turk) conquest extended from about 1193 to 1205, the destruction was systematic with "Turushka soldiers razing a monastery to the ground and throwing the stones into Ganges river". Fear of persecution was strong in the 1230s, and his colleagues dissuaded him from going to Magadha. According to George Roerich, "his [Chag lo-tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal, Dharmasvamin] account conveys something of the anxiety of [the Buddhist community of] those days."<ref name=Roerich1>{{cite book |translator=George Roerich |author=Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal | year= 1959| title= Biography of Dharmasvamin| publisher = KPJ Research Institute|pages= ii–vi, xxxix–lxv, 90–97}}</ref>

Chapter 10 of Dharmasvamin's biography describes Nalanda in ''c.'' 1235 CE. Dharmasvamin found it "largely damaged and deserted". Despite the perils, some had re-gathered and resumed their scholastic activities at Nalanda, but at a vastly smaller scale and with donations from a wealthy Brahmin layperson named Jayadeva.<ref name=Roerich1/>{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=150}} The monks were patronised by a local dynasty known as the [[Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya]] to which the king, Buddhasena, belonged.<ref name= Auer2019 /> His account states:

{{Blockquote|There resided a venerable and learned monk who was more than ninety years old, the Guru and Mahapandita [[Rahula Sribhadra]]. [[Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya|Raja Buddhasena of Magadha]] honored this Guru and four other Panditas, and about seventy venerable ones (monks).|Dharmasvamin (Translator: George Roerich)<ref>{{cite book |translator=George Roerich |author=Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal | year= 1959| title= Biography of Dharmasvamin| publisher = KPJ Research Institute|pages= xlii, 90–93}}</ref>}}

While he stayed there for six months under the tutelage of [[Rahula Shribhadra]], Dharmasvamin makes no mention of the legendary library of Nalanda which possibly did not survive the initial wave of Turko-Afghan attacks. He also reported that some structures had survived, with "eighty small viharas, built of bricks and many left undamaged" but "there was absolutely no one to look after them".<ref name=Roerich1/> He described the arrest of their patron Jayadeva by Muslim soldiers who threaten to kill him for supporting the monks of Nalanda. Jayadeva sent a message to the monks that the Turushka soldiers intended to kill Guru Rahulasribhadra and his students, and that they should flee.<ref>{{cite book |translator=George Roerich |author=Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal | year= 1959| title= Biography of Dharmasvamin| publisher = KPJ Research Institute|pages= 93–94}}</ref>

Dharmasvamin also provided an eyewitness account of an attack on an abandoned mahavihara by Muslim soldiers stationed at nearby [[Odantapura]] (now [[Bihar Sharif]]), which had been turned into a military headquarters. Only Dharmasvamin and his nonagenarian instructor stayed behind, hiding themselves while the rest of the monks fled.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=347}}{{sfn|Chos-dar|1959|loc=Introduction, p. XIX}}

The Buddhist monk [[Dhyānabhadra]], who was born in 1289, is recorded as attending Nalanda from the age of eight indicating that the university was still into the late thirteenth century.<ref name=prasad>{{cite book |last1=Nath Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781032117225 |pages=140–149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lbk6EAAAQBAJ&dq=Dhy%C4%81nabhadra&pg=PT135}}</ref>

Another Tibetan source is that of Lama [[Taranatha]], but this is from the late 16th century, and it is unclear what its sources were. The Taranatha account about Buddhism in India repeats the legendary accounts of Nalanda from the Buddha and Ashoka periods found in Xuanzang and other sources, then shifts to centuries of the 2nd millennium. It describes Islamic raids in 12th-century India, states that whole of Magadha fell to the Turushka (Turks, a common term for Muslims in historic Indic and Tibetan texts).{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=151}} Their armies, asserts Taranatha, destroyed Odantapuri as well as Vikramashila. As Taranatha's account was centuries after the events and there was no clear chain of sources within the Tibetan tradition of record-keeping, its reliability is questionable.<ref>{{cite book | author=A Truschke | editor1=Blain Auer | editor2= Ingo Strauch | title=Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia | chapter=The Power of the Islamic Sword in Narrating the Death of Indian Buddhism | publisher=De Gruyter | year=2019 | pages=418, 420}}</ref>

===Legendary accounts===
Tibetan texts such as the 18th-century work named ''Pag sam jon zang'' and 16th/17th-century Taranatha's account include fictional Tibetan legends. These include stories such as a king Cingalaraja had brought "all Hindus and Turuskas [Muslims]" up to Delhi under his control, and converted from Hinduism to Buddhism under the influence of his queen, and him restoring the monasteries.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Anand|last1=Singh|title='Destruction' and 'Decline' of Nālandā Mahāvihāra: Prejudices and Praxis| jstor =43854933| journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka|year= 2013 |pages=23–49|volume=58|issue=1}}</ref>

Others state that a southern king built thousands of monasteries and temples again, Muslim robbers murdered this king, thereafter Nalanda was repaired by Mudita Bhadra and a minister named Kukutasiddha erected a temple there.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tamrakar |first1=Dr Amit Kumar |last2=Jadon |first2=Jyoti |date=2022 |title=Library and education system in ancient Nalanda University |url=https://www.allstudyjournal.com/archives/2022.v4.i3.B.839 |journal=International Journal of Advanced Academic Studies |language=en |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=130–134 |doi=10.33545/27068919.2022.v4.i3b.839 |issn=2706-8927|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dokras |first=Dr Uday |date=1 January 2022 |title=Past and Present of the Ancient University of Nalanda |url=https://www.academia.edu/77326073 |journal=INAC}}</ref>

However, there is no evidence for the existence of such a king (or sultan), minister, Muslim robbers, thousands of Buddhist monuments built in India between the 13th and 19th century, or of any significant Nalanda repairs in or after the 13th century.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=343}}{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=15}}{{refn|group=note|Variants of similar fictional accounts about Nalanda before the 4th century are found in several Tibetan works and Chinese pilgrim accounts. There are fictional stories in Tibetan texts for post-12th-century era too, with names of ahistorical and unverifiable "kings", "sages", "arsonists", "thousands of new Buddhist monasteries and temples" and "Muslim robbers murdering a king". For example, the Taranatha account (''c.'' 1600 CE) in Chapters 19 and 20, describes the tale of Muditabhabhadra, Malikabuddhi and Kakutsiddha. It states that, after a Persian king from Kashmir and his Muslim army destroyed Magadha and "heavily damaged Sri Nalendra [Nalanda]", one king named Krisnaraja built twenty one centres of Buddhist doctrine in ''madhya-desha'' (central India) with one thousand ''caityas'' containing images of (Buddhist) deities, but Muslim robbers murdered him and his "blood flowed in the form of milk and flowers filled the sky"; then Muditabhabhadra rebuilt those damaged ''caityas'' leading all "householders and brahmanas" to revere the Buddha; thereafter Kakutsiddha built a temple at Nalanda and consecrated it with a great feast. Then "young naughty" monks teased two beggars, who became very angry, one of whom dug a deep pit and pursued sadhana for twelve years and gained magical powers. He performed a yajna and produced magical ashes. He gathered these ashes, then spread them near the Dharmaganja library of Nalanda, which started a fire to destroy the library's collection. However, from the ninth floor miraculous water poured out and all the literature on which this water reached remained unburnt. The two tirthika-arsonists escaped to Ha-sa-ma (Assam), a Buddhapaksha repaired the monuments again and "vastly learned monks" assembled and from their memorised literature rewrote the works that were burnt down in the library.<ref>{{cite book | author=Tāranātha (Jo-nang-pa) |translator-last=Chattopadhyaya |translator-first=Lama Chimpa alaka |translator-last2=Rinpochi |translator-first2=Lama S | title=Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | year=1990 | isbn=978-81-208-0696-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4yXn-lVdqGgC | pages= 137–143}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|Nalanda's library with palm-leaf manuscripts did have incidences of fire damage in its history. A 10th-century stone inscription notes a destruction by fire and subsequent restoration at the Mahavihara during the reign of [[Mahipala]] ({{reign|988|1038}}).{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=13}}}}

===Continued influence===
Johan Elverskog – a scholar of religious studies and history, states that it is incorrect to say Nalanda's end was sudden and complete by about 1202, because it continued to have some students well into the 13th century. Elverskog, relying on Arthur Waley's 1932 paper, states that this is confirmed by the fact a monk ordained in 13th-century Nalanda travelled to the court of [[Kublai Khan|Khubilai Khan]]. He adds that it is wrong to say that Buddhism ended in India around the 13th or 14th century or earlier, because "[Buddha] Dharma survived in India at least until the 17th-century".<ref>Johan Elverskog, ''Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road'', University of Pennsylvania Press (2011), pp. 1–3</ref>

==== Aftermath of its destruction and influence on Tibetan Buddhist Tradition ====
After the Islamic conquest, the destruction and the demise of Nalanda, other monasteries and Buddhist culture from the plains of Bihar and Bengal, the brand memory of "Nalanda" remained the most revered in [[Tibet]]. The last throne-holder of Nalanda, Shakyashri Bhadra of Kashmir,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xaRQAgAAQBAJ&dq=Shakya+Shri+Bhadra&pg=PT228|title=Opening the Treasure of the Profound: Teachings on the Songs of Jigten Sumgon and Milarepa|date=8 October 2013|publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-0-8348-2896-4|access-date=8 March 2022|via=Google Books}}</ref> fled to Tibet in 1204 at the invitation of the Tibetan translator ''Tropu Lotsawa'' (''Khro-phu Lo-tsa-ba Byams-pa dpal''). Some of the surviving Nalanda books were taken by fleeing monks to Tibet.<ref>{{harvnb|Kim|2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/himalaya_tibet.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320030350/http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/himalaya_tibet.html|url-status=dead|title=Buddhism and the Trade Routes|archive-date=20 March 2012|website=Asiasocietymuseum.org|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> He took with him several Indian masters: Sugataśrī, (an expert in Madhyamaka and Prajñāpāramitā); Jayadatta (Vinaya); Vibhūticandra (grammar and Abhidharma), Dānaśīla (logic), Saṅghaśrī (Candavyākaraṇa), Jīvagupta (books of Maitreya), Mahābodhi,(Bodhicaryāvatāra); and Kālacandra (Kālacakra).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/sakyasribhadra/2810|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423135132/http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/%C5%9A%C4%81kya%C5%9Br%C4%ABbhadra/TBRC_P1518|url-status=dead|title=Sakyasribhadra|archive-date=23 April 2016|website=The Treasury of Lives|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

In 1351, Tibetans committed to recreating a monastery in the heart of Tibet, staffing it with monk-scholars from diverse Buddhist schools, and name it the "Nalanda monastery" in the honour of the ancient Nalanda, according to the ''[[Blue Annals]]'' (Tibetan: དེབ་ཐེར་སྔོན་པོ).{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=342–343 with footnotes}} This institution emerged north of Lhasa in 1436 through the efforts of Rongtön Mawé Sengge, then expanded in the 15th century. It is now called the Tibetan Nalanda, to distinguish it from this site.<ref>Matthew Kapstein (1990), Mahamudra: The Quintessence of Mind and Meditation Review, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol 13, Number 1, pp. 105–106</ref>

Tibetan Buddhist tradition is regarded to be a continuation of the Nalanda tradition. The Dalai Lama states:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBAVJV8zn3oC&q=The+master+Nagarjuna+hailed+from+this+institution,+as+did+many+other+important&pg=PA15|title=Meditation on the Nature of Mind|first1=Dalai|last1=Lama|first2=Dalai Lama XIV|last2=Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho|first3=Khonton Peljor|last3=Lhundrub|first4=José Ignacio|last4=Cabezón|first5=Jose Ignacio|last5=Cabezon|date=17 May 2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-86171-628-9|access-date=8 March 2022|via=Google Books}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Tibetan Buddhism is not an invention of the Tibetans. Rather, it is quite clear that it derives from the pure lineage of the tradition of the Nalanda Monastery. The master Nagarjuna hailed from this institution, as did many other important philosophers and logicians...}}

The Dalai Lama refers to himself as a follower of the lineage of the seventeen Nalanda masters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fpmt.org/mandala/archives/mandala-for-2012/july/the-seventeen-pandits-of-nalanda-monastery/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120153048/https://fpmt.org/mandala/archives/mandala-for-2012/july/the-seventeen-pandits-of-nalanda-monastery/|url-status=dead|title=The Seventeen Pandits of Nalanda Monastery|archive-date=20 November 2017|website=FPMT|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

An [[Prajnaparamita#A.E1.B9.A3.E1.B9.ADas.C4.81hasrik.C4.81 Praj.C3.B1.C4.81p.C4.81ramit.C4.81|Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita]] Sutra manuscript preserved at the [[Tsetang|Tsethang monastery]] has superbly painted and well preserved wooden covers and 139 leaves. According to its colophon it was donated by the mother of the great pandita Sri Asoka in the second year of the reign of King Surapala, at the very end of the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asianart.com/articles/henss/index.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409073041/http://www.asianart.com/articles/henss/index.html|url-status=dead|title=Michael Henss: TIBET – Monasteries Open Their Treasure Rooms|archive-date=9 April 2009|website=Asianart.com|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
Nalanda still continued to operate into the 14th century as the Indian monk, [[Dhyānabhadra]] was said to have been a monk at Nalanda prior to his travels in East Asia.<ref name="prasad2021">{{cite book |last1=Nath Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-032-11722-5 |pages=140–149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lbk6EAAAQBAJ&dq=Dhy%C4%81nabhadra&pg=PT135}}</ref>

=== Under the East India Company and British Empire (1800–1947) ===
[[File:Buddha Statue, Nalanda, Alexander E Caddy, 1895.jpg|thumbnail|A statue of [[Gautama Buddha]] at Nalanda in 1895.]]After its decline, Nalanda was largely forgotten until [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] surveyed the site in 1811–1812 after locals in the vicinity drew his attention to some Buddhist and Hindu images and ruins in the area.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=15}} He, however, did not associate the mounds of earth and debris with famed Nalanda. That link was established by Major Markham Kittoe in 1847. [[Alexander Cunningham]] and the newly formed [[Archaeological Survey of India]] conducted an official survey in 1861–1862. Systematic excavation of the ruins by the ASI did not begin until 1915 and ended in 1937.<ref name="asi1" /> The first four excavations were led by Spooner between 1915 and 1919. The next two were led by Sastri in 1920 and 1921. The next seven seasons of archaeological excavations through 1928 were led by Page. These efforts were not merely digging, observation and cataloguing of discoveries, they included conservation, restoration and changes to the site such as drainage to prevent damage to unearthed floors.<ref name=mary/> After 1928, Kuraishi led two seasons of excavations, Chandra led the next four. The last season was led by Ghosh, but the excavations were abbreviated in 1937 for financial reasons and budget cuts. Chandra and final ASI team leaders noted that the "long row of monasteries extend further into the modern village of Bargaon" and the "extent of entire monastic establishment can only be determined by future excavations".<ref name=mary>Mary Stewart (1988), ''Nalanda Mahavihara: An Historiographic Study of Its Art and Archaeology, 1812–1938'', SOAS, University of London, pp. 120–177</ref>

===Post–independence (Post-1947)===
[[File:Rear View (2) of Baladitya Temple, Nalanda, by Joseph Beglar, 1872.jpg|thumb|Rear view of the ruins of the Baladitya Temple in 1872.]]Post independence, the second round of excavation and restoration took place between 1974 and 1982.<ref name="asi1" /> In 1951, the [[Nava Nalanda Mahavihara]] (''New Nalanda Mahavihara''), a modern centre for [[Pāli|Pali]] and [[Buddhism]] in the spirit of the ancient institution, was founded by the [[Government of Bihar]] near Nalanda's ruins at the suggestion of [[Rajendra Prasad]], India's first president.<ref name="nnm2">{{cite web|title=Getting to Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (NNM), Nalanda|url=http://www.nnm.ac.in/contact_us.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005083753/http://www.nnm.ac.in/contact_us.html|archive-date=5 October 2014|access-date=25 September 2014|publisher=Nava Nalanda Mahavihara}}</ref> It was [[Deemed university|deemed to be a university]] in 2006.<ref name="nnm1">{{cite web|title=Welcome to Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (NNM)|url=http://www.nnm.ac.in/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915173011/http://www.nnm.ac.in/index.html|archive-date=15 September 2014|access-date=25 September 2014|publisher=Nava Nalanda Mahavihara}}</ref>

1 September 2014 saw the commencement of the first academic year of a modern [[Nalanda University]], with 15 students, in nearby [[Rajgir]].<ref name="NUOpen">{{cite news|author=Singh, Santosh|date=1 September 2014|title=Nalanda University starts today with 15 students, 11 faculty members|agency=The Indian Express|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/nalanda-univ-starts-today-from-a-convention-centre-with-15-students-lodged-in-a-hotel/99/|url-status=live|access-date=3 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904021352/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/nalanda-univ-starts-today-from-a-convention-centre-with-15-students-lodged-in-a-hotel/99/|archive-date=4 September 2014}}</ref> Nalanda University (also known as Nalanda International University) is an international and research-intensive university located in the historical city of [[Rajgir]] in [[Bihar|Bihar, India]]. It was established by an Act of Parliament to emulate the famous ancient university of Nalanda, which functioned between the 5th and 13th centuries. The idea to resurrect Nalanda University was endorsed in 2007 at the [[East Asia Summit]], represented mostly by Asian countries including [[China]], [[Singapore]], [[Japan]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Vietnam]], apart from [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and as such, the university is seen as one of the flagship projects of the Government of India. It has been designated as an "[[Institutes of National Importance|Institution of National Importance]]" by the Parliament, and began its first academic session on 1 September 2014. Initially set up with temporary facilities in Rajgir, a modern campus spanning over {{convert|160|ha|acre|abbr=off}} is expected to be finished by 2020. This campus, upon completion, will be the largest of its kind in India, and one of the largest in Asia.<ref name="toireopen">{{cite news|date=1 September 2014|title=Nalanda University reopens|publisher=Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nalanda-University-reopens/articleshow/41410855.cms|url-status=live|access-date=10 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910105312/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nalanda-University-reopens/articleshow/41410855.cms|archive-date=10 September 2014}}</ref>

*

==The Mahavihara==
While its excavated ruins today only occupy an area of around {{convert|1600|by|800|ft|m|0|order=flip}} or roughly 12 hectares, Nalanda Mahavihara occupied a far greater area in medieval times. The subjects taught at Nalanda covered every field of learning, and it attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, [[Indonesia]], [[Persia]] and [[Turkey]].<ref name="NYT">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/opinion/09garten.html | title=Really Old School | date=9 December 2006 | author=Garten, Jeffrey E. | work=The New York Times | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105112058/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/09/opinion/09garten.html | archive-date=5 November 2011 | df=dmy-all |quote=Nalanda was also the most global university of its time, attracting pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient Universities in India |url=https://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ancient.pdf |publisher=[[All India Council for Technical Education]] |page=1}}</ref>

Although Nalanda is often labelled a Buddhist university, it had many facets that were not strictly or exclusively Buddhist. Its Gupta patrons, for instance, were adherents of Hinduism, not Buddhism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Westerhoff |first=Jan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYFZDwAAQBAJ |title=The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-873266-2 |pages=273 |language=en}}</ref>

=== The university ===
At its peak the school attracted scholars and students from near and far, with some travelling from [[Tibet]], [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[Central Asia]].{{sfn|Monroe|2000|pp=169}} The highly formalised methods of [[Śramaṇa|Shramanic]] studies helped the establishment of large teaching institutions such as [[Taxila]], Nalanda, and [[Vikramashila]],{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}} which are often characterised as India's early universities.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=148}}{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=174}}{{sfn|Wayman|1984|p=43}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=119}} Archaeological evidence also notes contact with the [[Shailendra dynasty]] of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex. Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the [[Gupta Empire]] in the 5th and 6th centuries, and later under [[Harsha]], the emperor of [[Kannauj]].{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=329}} The liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth and prosperity until the ninth century CE. The subsequent centuries were a time of gradual decline, a period during which the [[Vajrayana|tantric]] developments of Buddhism became most pronounced in eastern India under the [[Pala Empire]].{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=344}}

Much of our knowledge of Nalanda comes from the writings of pilgrim monks from Asia, such as [[Xuanzang]] and [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]], who travelled to the Mahavihara in the 7th century CE. [[Vincent Arthur Smith|Vincent Smith]] remarked that "a detailed history of Nalanda would be a history of Mahayanist Buddhism." Many of the names listed by Xuanzang in his travelogue as alumni of Nalanda are the names of those who developed the overall philosophy of Mahayana.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=334}} All students at Nalanda studied [[Mahayana]], as well as the texts of the eighteen ([[Hinayana]]) sects of Buddhism. Their curriculum also included other subjects, such as the [[Vedas]], logic, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, and [[Samkhya]].{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|loc=Entry for ''Nālandā''}}{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}}{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=332–333}}{{sfn|Walton|2015|p=122}}

Nalanda was destroyed three times but was rebuilt only twice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nālandā University in Rajgir, near Nalanda, Bihar, India Becomes the First Residential University: History of Information |url=https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=3935 |access-date= |website=www.historyofinformation.com}}</ref> It was ransacked and destroyed by an army of the [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] under [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]] in {{Circa|1202 CE}}.{{sfn|Chandra|2004|p=41}} While some sources note that the Mahavihara continued to function in a makeshift fashion after this attack, it was eventually abandoned altogether and forgotten until the 19th century, when the site was surveyed and preliminary excavations were conducted by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]. Systematic excavations commenced in 1915, which unearthed eleven monasteries and six brick temples neatly arranged on grounds {{convert|12|hectare|acres}} in area. A trove of sculptures, coins, seals, and inscriptions have also been discovered in the ruins, many of which are on display in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum, situated nearby. Nalanda is now a notable tourist destination, and a part of the Buddhist tourism circuit.

On 25 November 2010, the Indian government, through an Act of Parliament, 'resurrected' the ancient university through the Nalanda University Bill, with which they chose to create a new [[Nalanda University]] relatively nearby. It has been designated as an "International University of National Importance," and has accordingly been subject to intense government oversight, with both of its past chancellors explicitly citing Government actions for them leaving their post and courses being shut down due to members of the ruling party disapproving of them.

===The library===
[[File:Prajnaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top), Maitreya and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (bottom), Folios from a Dharanisamgraha (Compilation of Protective or Empowering Spells) LACMA M.72.1.20a-b.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35 |Prajnaparamita and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (top), Maitreya and Scenes from the Buddha's Life (bottom), Folios from a Dharanisamgraha, manuscript from Nalanda, circa 1075]]
[[File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Nalanda.jpeg|thumb|[[Avalokiteshvara]] [[Bodhisattva]]. ''Ashtasahasrika [[Prajnyaparamita]] Sutra'' manuscript from Nalanda's [[Pala Empire|Pala period]].]]

It is evident from the large numbers of texts that Yijing carried back with him after his 10-year residence at Nalanda, that the Mahavihara must have featured a well-equipped library. Traditional Tibetan sources mention the existence of a great library at Nalanda named ''Dharmaganja'' (''Piety Mart'') which comprised three large multi-storeyed buildings, the ''Ratnasagara'' (''Ocean of Jewels''), the ''Ratnodadhi'' (''Sea of Jewels''), and the ''Ratnaranjaka'' (''Jewel-adorned''). Ratnodadhi was nine storeys high and housed the most sacred manuscripts including the ''[[Prajnyaparamita]] Sutra'' and the ''[[Guhyasamaja]]''.{{sfn|Monroe|2000|p=174}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=159}}

The exact number of volumes in the Nalanda library is not known, but it is estimated to have been in the hundreds of thousands.{{sfn|Khurshid|1972|pp=21–65}} When a Buddhist scholar at Nalanda died, his manuscripts were added to the library collection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kumar|first=Pintu|title=The Ancient Nālandā Mahāvihāra: The Beginning of Institutional Education|journal=Journal of the World Universities Forum|date=2011|volume=4|issue=1|pages=65–79|via=Education Source|doi=10.18848/1835-2030/CGP/v04i01/56731}}</ref> The library not only collected religious manuscripts but also had texts on such subjects as [[grammar]], logic, literature, [[astrology]], [[astronomy]], and medicine.{{sfn|Bhatt|1995}}{{page needed|date=August 2017}} The Nalanda library must have had a classification scheme which was possibly based on a text classification scheme developed by the Sanskrit linguist, [[Pāṇini|Panini]].{{sfn|Patel|Kumar|2001|p=4}} Buddhist texts were most likely divided into three classes based on the [[Tripitaka]]'s three main divisions: the [[Vinaya Pitaka|Vinaya]], [[Sutta Pitaka|Sutra]], and the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka|Abhidhamma]].{{sfn|Taher|Davis|1994|p=37}}

===Curriculum===
In his biography of Xuanzang, Hwui-Li states that all the students of Nalanda studied the [[Great Vehicle]] (Mahayana) as well as the works of the eighteen [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya]] traditions of Buddhism. In addition to these, they studied other subjects such as the [[Vedas]], ''Hetuvidyā'' (Logic), ''Shabdavidya'' (Grammar and Philology), ''Chikitsavidya'' (Medicine), the works on magic (the [[Atharvaveda]]), and [[Samkhya]].{{sfn|Dutt|1962|pp=332–333}} According to Frazier, the Vedic studies included [[Vedas|Vedic texts]] and ritual, but also the different theoretical disciplines associated with the [[Vedanga|limbs]] or the sciences of the Vedas, which included disciplines such as linguistics, law, astronomy and reasoning.<ref name="Frazier2011"/>

Xuanzang himself studied a number of these subjects at Nalanda under Shilabhadra and others. Besides theology and philosophy, frequent debates and discussions necessitated competence in Logic. A student at the Mahavihara had to be well-versed in the systems of Logic associated with all the different schools of thought of the time as he was expected to defend Buddhist systems against the others. Other subjects believed to have been taught at Nalanda include law, astronomy, and city-planning.{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}}

Tibetan tradition holds that there were "four [[doxography|doxographies]]" ({{langx|bo-Latn|grub mtha'}}) which were taught at Nalanda:<ref name="berzin1">{{cite web | url=http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/abhidharma-tenet-systems/the-indian-tenet-systems/the-four-buddhist-tenet-systems-regarding-illusion | title=The Four Indian Buddhist Tenet Systems Regarding Illusion | date=2002 | access-date=11 July 2016 | author=Berzin, Alexander | author-link=Alexander Berzin (scholar) | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815193010/http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/abhidharma-tenet-systems/the-indian-tenet-systems/the-four-buddhist-tenet-systems-regarding-illusion | archive-date=15 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

# [[Sarvastivada]] [[Vaibhashika]]
# Sarvastivada [[Sautrantika]]
# [[Madhyamaka]], the Mahayana philosophy of [[Nagarjuna]]
# [[Chittamatra]], the Mahayana philosophy of [[Asanga]] and [[Vasubandhu]]

In the 7th century, [[Xuanzang]] recorded the number of teachers at Nalanda as being around 1510. Of these, approximately 1000 were able to explain 20 collections of sutras and shastras, 500 were able to explain 30 collections, and only 10 teachers were able to explain 50 collections. Xuanzang was among the few who were able to explain 50 collections or more. At this time, only the abbot [[Shilabhadra]] had studied all the major collections of sutras and shastras at Nalanda.{{sfn|Mookerji|1998|p=565}}

===Administration===
The Chinese monk [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] wrote that matters of discussion and administration at Nalanda would require assembly and consensus on decisions by all those at the assembly, as well as resident monks:{{sfn|Walser|2005|p=102}}

{{blockquote|If the monks had some business, they would assemble to discuss the matter. Then they ordered the officer, Vihārapāla, to circulate and report the matter to the resident monks one by one with folded hands. With the objection of a single monk, it would not pass. There was no use of beating or thumping to announce his case. In case a monk did something without consent of all the residents, he would be forced to leave the monastery. If there was a difference of opinion on a certain issue, they would give reason to convince (the other group). No force or coercion was used to convince.}}

Xuanzang also noted:{{sfn|Grousset|1971|p=159}}

{{blockquote|The lives of all these virtuous men were naturally governed by habits of the most solemn and strictest kind. Thus in the seven hundred years of the monastery's existence no man has ever contravened the rules of the discipline. The king showers it with the signs of his respect and veneration and has assigned the revenue from a hundred cities to pay for the maintenance of the religious.}}

=== Influence on Buddhism ===
{{BuddhasHolySites}}
A vast amount of what came to comprise [[Tibetan Buddhism]], both its [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana]] traditions, stems from the teachers and traditions at Nalanda. [[Shantarakshita]], who pioneered the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century was a scholar of Nalanda. He was invited by the Tibetan king, [[Trisong Detsen|Khri-sron-deu-tsan]], and established the monastery at [[Samye]], serving as its first abbot. He and his disciple [[Kamalashila]] (who was also of Nalanda) essentially taught Tibetans how to do philosophy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Śāntarakṣita|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/saantarak-sita/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=4 October 2015}}</ref> [[Padmasambhava]], who was also invited from Nalanda Mahavihara by the king in 747 CE, is credited as a founder of Tibetan Buddhism.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=11}}

The scholar [[Dharmakirti]] ({{circa|7th century}}), one of the Buddhist founders of Indian [[philosophical logic]], as well as one of the primary theorists of [[Buddhist atomism]], taught at Nalanda.{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=240}}

Other forms of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, [[Korea]] and Japan, flourished within the walls of the ancient school. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts such as the ''[[Shurangama Sutra]]'', an important sutra in East Asian Buddhism, with the Buddhist tradition at Nalanda.{{sfn|Dutt|1962|p=264}}{{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=111}} Ron Epstein also notes that the general doctrinal position of the sutra does indeed correspond to what is known about the Buddhist teachings at Nalanda toward the end of the Gupta period when it was translated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/authenticity.htm|title=The Shurangama Sutra (T. 945): A Reappraisal of its Authenticity|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127031858/http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/authenticity.htm|archive-date=27 November 2010|access-date=8 April 2011}}</ref>

Several Buddhist institutions overseas have chosen to call themselves Nalanda to acknowledge Nalanda's influence. These include Nalanda Buddhist Society in Malaysia<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nalanda.org.my/society/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114042341/https://www.nalanda.org.my/society/|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Buddhist Society – Nalanda Buddhist Society|archive-date=14 November 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> and [[Nalanda College, Colombo]], Sri Lanka,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandacollege.lk/index.php/about|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722221825/http://www.nalandacollege.lk/index.php/about|url-status=dead|title=About Nalanda College|archive-date=22 July 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> Nalanda Buddhist Education Foundation, Indonesia, Nalanda Buddhist Institute, Bhutan

=== World Heritage Sites Recognition ===
The Nalanda Mahavihara is recognised as a [[World Heritage Site]] by the [[UNESCO]] in 2016.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chaudhary |first1=Pranava Kumar |title=UNESCO declares Nalanda Mahavihara World Heritage Site |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/unesco-declares-nalanda-mahavihara-world-heritage-site/articleshow/53229398.cms |access-date=9 August 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=15 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1502|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927054041/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1502|archive-date=27 September 2018|access-date=8 January 2019|website=whc.unesco.org}}</ref>

== Notable scholars ==
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Tibet, c. 15th-16th century - Portrait of Dharmakirti - 2010.474 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|caption1=15th/16th-century sculpture of [[Dharmakirti]]
| image2 = Kamalashila .jpg|caption2=Tibetan depiction of [[Kamalaśīla]]
| image3 = Shantirakshita - Google Art Project.jpg|caption3= 8th-century Buddhist Abbot of [[Nalanda]], [[Śāntarakṣita]]
| image4 = Vajrabodhi, 14th century, Kamakura, National Museum,Tokyo.jpg|caption4=Painting of [[Vajrabodhi]], [[Japan]], 14th century
}}
Traditional sources state that Nalanda was visited by both [[Mahavira]] and the [[Buddha]] in {{circa}} 6th and 5th century BCE.<ref name=asi1 /> It is also the place of birth and nirvana of [[Shariputra]], one of the famous disciples of Buddha.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|p=148}}

Other historical figures associated with Nalanda include:

* [[Abhayakaragupta]], Vajrayana and Mahayana Buddhist monk at [[Vikramashila]] who also spent time at Nalanda<ref name=Bühnemann1992>{{cite journal |last1=Bühnemann |first1=Gudrun |title=Some Remarks on the Date of Abhayākaragupta and the Chronology of His Works |journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft |date=1992 |volume=142 |issue=1 |pages=120–127 |jstor=43379879 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43379879}}</ref>
* [[Ariyabalma]], 7th century [[Koreans|Korean]] [[Korean Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Su-Il |first1=Jeong |title=Ariyabalma |journal=The Silk Road Encyclopaedia |date=2016 |page=61 |isbn=978-1-62412-076-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UgOwDAAAQBAJ&q=The+Silk+Road+Encyclopedia+Jeong+Su-il}}</ref>
* [[Aryadeva]], student of Nagarjuna and proponent of Mahayana Buddhism{{sfn|Wayman|1984|p=43}}
* [[Asanga]], [[Mahayana]] Buddhist monk proponent of the Yogacarya school<ref name="KumarDriem2020"/>
* [[Atisha]], Vajrayana Buddhist scholar
* [[Buddhaguhya]], Vajrayana Buddhist monk and scholar<ref name="Hodge2005"/>
* [[Chandrakirti]], Mahayana Buddhist monk and student of Nagarjuna
* [[Chandragomin]], Mahayana Buddhist lay scholar
* [[Dharmakirti]], Mahayana Buddhist monk and logician{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=240}}
* [[Dharmapala of Nalanda|Dharmapala]], Mahayana Buddhist monk of the Yogacara school
* [[Dharmasvamin]], 13th-century Tibetan monk and possibly the last foreign monk to study at Nalanda{{sfn|Kumar|2025|p=59}}
* [[Dhyānabhadra]], Mahayana Buddhist monk and translator<ref name="prasad2021"/>
* [[Dignaga]], founder of [[Buddhist Logic]]
* [[Kamalaśīla]], Mahayana Buddhist monk and former abbot of Nalanda
* [[Maitripada]], Indian Buddhist [[Mahasiddha]]
* [[Nagarjuna]], formaliser of the concept of [[Shunyata]]{{sfn|Wayman|1984|p=43}}
* [[Naropa]], Buddhist Mahasiddha
* [[Prabhakāramitra]], Translator of Mahayana Buddhist texts who was active in [[Tang dynasty|Tang China]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donald |first1=Lopez |title=Prabhākaramitra |journal=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=20 July 2017 |isbn=978-0-691-15786-3 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-3283?rskey=brDoUT&result=1}}</ref>
* [[Prajñā (Buddhist monk)|Prajñā]], 9th century monk from [[Kingdom of Kapisa|Kapisa]] in modern-day [[Afghanistan]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jørgensen |first1=John J |title=Inventing Hui-neng, the Sixth Patriarch: Hagiography And Biography in Early Ch'an |date=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004145085 |page=648 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zTCoXPEXWNwC&dq=Praj%C3%B1%C4%81+kapisa+nalanda&pg=PA648}}</ref>
* [[Śākyaśribhadra]], abbot of Nalanda during the late 12th century<ref>{{cite journal |title=Śākyaśrībhadra |journal=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2014 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-3722}}</ref>
* [[Śāntarakṣita]], Mahayana Buddhist monk and former abbot of Nalanda
* [[Saraha]], one of the 84 [[Mahasiddhas]] active in the 8th century CE<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dowman |first1=Keith |title=Masters of Mahamudra: Songs and Histories of the Eighty-Four Buddhist Siddhas |date=1985 |publisher=SUNY Press |pages=66–70 |isbn=978-0-88706-158-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okPNx4B1eoEC&q=masters+of+mahamudra}}</ref>
* [[Shantideva]], composer of the Bodhisattvacarya
* [[Shilabhadra]], Mahayana Buddhist monk and the teacher of Xuanzang{{sfn|Joshi|1977|p=177}}
* [[Śubhakarasiṃha]], Buddhist monk of Nalanda who later travelled to [[China]] and translated Indian Buddhist texts<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buswell |first1=Robert |title=Śubhakarasimha |journal=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2014 |page=861 |isbn=978-0-691-15786-3 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-4275}}</ref>
* [[Subhūticandra]], Indian Buddhist scholar active in the 11th and 12th century<ref name=Deokar2012>{{cite journal |last1=Deokar |first1=Lata |title=Subhūticandra: A Forgotten Scholar of Magadha |journal=Journal of the Centre for Buddhist Studies, Sri Lanka |date=2012 |volume=10 |pages=137–154 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7228101}}</ref>
* [[Thonmi Sambhota]], 7th century Tibetan scholar who is traditionally credited with creating the [[Tibetan script]]{{sfn|Kumar|2025|p=54}}
* [[Vairocanavajra]], 12th-century Buddhist translator and alchemist who studied at Nalanda<ref name=Schaeffer2000>{{cite journal |last1=SCHAEFFER |first1=KURTIS |title=THE RELIGIOUS CAREER OF VAIROCANAVAJRA — A TWELFTH-CENTURY INDIAN BUDDHIST MASTER FROM DAKṢIṆA KOŚALA |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |date=2000 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=361–384 |doi=10.1023/A:1004844115222 |jstor=23496816 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23496816|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Vajrabodhi]], 7th–8th century Indian esoteric Buddhist monk and one of the patriarchs of [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]] and [[Shingon Buddhism]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lowe |first1=Roy |title=The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=70 |isbn=978-1-317-54327-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9DolDwAAQBAJ&q=vajrabodhi+nalanda&pg=PA70}}</ref>
* [[Vasubandhu]], brother of Asanga<ref name="KumarDriem2020"/>
* [[Wukong (monk)|Wukong]], 8th century Chinese Buddhist monk<ref>"L’itinéraire d’Ou-K’ong (751-790)." M. M. Sylvain Lévi and Édouard Chavannes. ''JA'', (1895) Sept.-Oct., pp. 350-359.</ref>
* [[Xuanzang]], 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar and traveller
* [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]], 7th century Chinese Buddhist traveller

==Excavated remains==
[[File:Nalanda, excavated remains.jpg|thumb|upright=2.0|A map of the excavated remains of Nalanda.]]
[[File:Nalanda Buddhist University Ruins, which flourished from 427 to 1197 CE, Nalanda, Bihar.jpg|thumbnail|Excavated ruins of the monasteries of Nalanda.]]
After its decline, Nalanda was largely forgotten until [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] surveyed the site in 1811–1812 after locals in the vicinity drew his attention to a vast complex of ruins in the area. He, however, did not associate the mounds of earth and debris with famed Nalanda. That link was established by Major Markham Kittoe in 1847. [[Alexander Cunningham]] and the newly formed [[Archaeological Survey of India]] conducted an official survey in 1861–1862.{{sfn|Le|2010|p=59}} Systematic excavation of the ruins by the ASI did not begin until 1915 and ended in 1937. The second round of excavation and restoration took place between 1974 and 1982.<ref name=asi1 />

The remains of Nalanda today extend some {{convert|1600|ft|m|0|order=flip}} north to south and around {{convert|800|ft|m|0|order=flip}} east to west. Excavations have revealed eleven monasteries (also known as [[Vihāra|vihara]]) and six major brick temples arranged in an ordered layout. A {{cvt|100|ft|order=flip}} wide passage runs from north to south with the temples to its west and the monasteries to its east.<ref name=asi1 /> Most structures show evidence of multiple periods of construction with new buildings being raised atop the ruins of old ones. Many of the buildings also display signs of damage by fire on at least one occasion.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=27}}

The map gives the layout of the excavated structures. Temple 3 in the south was the most imposing structure. Temple 12, 13, 14 face the monasteries and face east. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south-west corner of the buildings.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=28}} Temple 2 was to the east.

All the monasteries at Nalanda are very similar in layout and general appearance. Their plan involves a rectangular form with a central quadrangular court which is surrounded by a verandah which, in turn, is bounded by an outer row of cells for the monks – a typical design of [[Vihāra|vihara]] architecture. The central cell facing the entrance leading into the court is a shrine chamber. Its strategic position means that it would have been the first thing that drew the eye when entering the edifice. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south-west corner of the buildings.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=28}}
[[File:Nalanda, Buddhist university 05.jpg|thumb|Temple no. 3 (Sariputta Stupa)]]
[[File:Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of the 5th Stupa, c. 6th century CE.jpg|thumb|Conjectural Reconstruction of Temple no. 3, Nalanda University]]

'''Monastery 1''' is considered the oldest and the most important of the monastery group and shows as many as nine levels of construction. Its lower monastery is believed to be the one sponsored by Balaputradeva, the Srivijayan king, during the reign of Devapala in the 9th century (see [[Nalanda copper-plate of Devapala]]). The building was originally at least 2 storeys high and contained a colossal statue of a seated Buddha.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=19}}
'''Temple no. 3''' (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco figures including Buddha and the [[Bodhisattva]]s, scenes from the [[Jataka tales]]. The temple is surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have once rested.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=17}} According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which itself had Kushana era influences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.buddhistelibrary.org/en/albums/central/Dhamma_books/The_Anscestral_Stupas_of_Shwedagon.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129145843/http://www.buddhistelibrary.org/en/albums/central/Dhamma_books/The_Anscestral_Stupas_of_Shwedagon.pdf|url-status=dead|title=THE ANCESTRAL STUPAS OF SHWEDAGON, International Buddhist Conference, May 2007|archive-date=29 November 2016|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref> In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the museum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/archival4-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044658/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/archival4-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda archival-4|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Buddha Shakyamuni or the Bodhisattva Maitreya LACMA M.75.4.3 (1 of 2).jpg|thumbnail|upright|Buddha Shakyamuni or the Bodhisattva [[Maitreya]], gilt copper alloy, early 8th century, Nalanda]]
'''Temple no. 2''' notably features 211 sculptured religious and secular panels. These include [[Shiva]], [[Parvati]], [[Kartikeya]], and [[Gajalakshmi]], [[Kinnara]]s playing musical instruments, various representations of [[Makara (Hindu mythology)|Makaras]], as well as human couples in amorous postures, as well as scenes of art and of everyday life. Susan Huntington and Bhaskara Misra – scholars of Indian architecture and arts, state Temple 2 as a Hindu temple.<ref name=PhuocLe/> However, Huu Phuoc Le – a scholar of Buddhist architecture, questions this purely "Hindu affiliation", stating that it could be a temple based on the mandala principles, and one reflecting "Hindu-Buddhist syncretism" of the 8th to 12th century when Shaiva and Shakti deities were integrated into Vajrayana Buddhism.<ref name=PhuocLe>{{harvnb|Le|2010}}</ref> The site of Temple no. 13 features a brick-made smelting furnace with four chambers. The discovery of burnt metal and [[slag]] suggests that it was used to cast metallic objects. Birendra Nath Mishra also observed that the panels containing Hindu deities were attached to the structure with iron clamps indicating that they were probably added at a later date. In addition, only ten per cent of the panels contain Hindu deities. Temple no. 2 is also located outside of the monastic enclosure although it is close to it hence it can be inferred that the inclusion of Hindu deities at this site was a "Buddhist attempt at subordinate integration of Brahmanism to Buddhism without employing any confrontationist imagery".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nath Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=Archaeology of Religion in South Asia: Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina Religious Centres in Bihar and Bengal, c. AD 600–1200 |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781000416756 |pages=551–553 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TB4gEAAAQBAJ&q=prathamasivapura}}</ref>

To the north of Temple 13 lie the remains of '''Temple no. 14'''. An enormous image of the Buddha was discovered here. The image's pedestal features fragments of the only surviving exhibit of mural painting at Nalanda.{{sfn|Ghosh|1965|p=31–33}}

To the east of Temple 2, lie the remains of '''Sarai Temple''' in the recently excavated Sarai Mound. This multi-storeyed Buddhist temple with many stupas and shrines was enclosed by a massive wall enclosure. The remains in the sanctum suggest that the Buddha statue was around {{convert|80|ft|order=flip}} high.

Numerous sculptures, as well as many murals, copper plates, artworks, inscriptions, seals, coins, plaques, potteries and works in stone, bronze, stucco, and terracotta, have been unearthed within the ruins of Nalanda. The Buddhist sculptures discovered notably include those of the Buddha in different postures, [[Avalokiteshvara]], [[Jambhala]], [[Manjushri]], [[Marici (Buddhism)|Marichi]], and [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]]. Hindu sculptures of [[Vishnu]], Shiva-Parvathi, [[Ganesha]], [[Mahishasuramardini|Mahishasura Mardini]], and [[Surya]] have also been found in the ruins.<ref name=asi1 />

A '''Black Buddha temple''' (termed by locals as the Telia Bhairav, "tel" refers to use of oil) is near Temple 14 with has an ancient large black Buddha image in bhumisparha mudra. This the same temple termed Baithak Bhairab in Cunningham's 1861–62 ASI report.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eprints.nias.res.in/1135/1/2016-MBRajani-ArchivesofAsianArt.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114145251/http://eprints.nias.res.in/1135/1/2016-MBRajani-ArchivesofAsianArt.pdf|url-status=dead|title=The Expanse of Archaeological Remains at Nalanda: A Study Using remote sensing, MB Rajani, Archive of Asian Art, V 66, No. 1, pp. 1–23, 2016|archive-date=14 November 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>

==Surviving Nalanda manuscripts==
Fleeing monks took some of the Nalanda manuscripts. A few of them have survived and are preserved in collections such as those at:

* [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]{{sfn|Kim|2013|p=52}} Folios from a Dharanisamgraha, circa 1075.
* [[Asia Society]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://asiasocietymuseum.org/region_object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=1&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 | title=Five of the Leaves from an Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Manuscript | publisher=Asia Society | access-date=25 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714182939/http://asiasocietymuseum.org/region_object.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=1&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 | archive-date=14 July 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> This Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita manuscript records, in Sanskrit and Tibetan, the history of the manuscript from its creation at the famous Nalanda monastery in India through its use in Tibet by the compiler of the first Tibetan canon of Buddhism, Buton.
* [[Yarlung Valley|Yarlung Museum]], [[Tsetang]] (From the ''On ke ru Lha khang monastery'')<ref name="henss">{{cite web | url=http://www.asianart.com/articles/henss/13.html | title=Astasahahasrika Prajnaparamita Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript | access-date=25 September 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402025050/http://asianart.com/articles/henss/13.html | archive-date=2 April 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Astasahahasrika Prajnaparamita Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript, with 139 leaves and painted wooden covers. According to the colophon, this manuscript was donated by the mother of the great pandita Sri Asoka in the second year of the reign of King [[Surapala]] at end of the 11th century.

==Nalanda inscriptions==
A number of inscriptions were found during the excavation, which are now preserved in the Nalanda Museum. These include:
* Son of a minister of Yashovarman donated to the temple built by king Baladitya. 8th cent CE, basalt slab found in monastery 1.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-30-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044526/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-30-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Museum item-30|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
* Murnavarman constructed a {{convert|80|ft|m|order=flip|adj=mid|-high}} brass image of Buddha. 7th cent CE, basalt slab, found in Sarai mound.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-28-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044810/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-28-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Museum item-28|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
* Monk Vipulshrimitra built a monastery. Basalt slab, later half of 12th cent, found in the uppermost level of Monastery 7.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-31-big.jpg|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044816/http://www.nalandamuseumasi.com/images/gallery-item-31-big.jpg|url-status=dead|title=Nalanda Museum item-31|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=8 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Nalanda inscription|Donation of Balaputradeva, the king of Suvarnadvipa of Sailendra dynasty]]. 860 CE Copperplate found by Hirananda Shastri in 1921 in the antechamber of Monastery 1 at Nalanda.

==Tourism==
[[File:Xuanzang Memorial Hall.JPG|thumbnail|right|The Xuanzang Memorial Hall at Nalanda]]
Nalanda is a popular tourist destination in the state attracting a number of Indian and overseas visitors.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chatterjee|first1=Chandan|title=Nalanda route to prosperity — Varsity will boost trade, feel residents|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140901/jsp/bihar/story_18782156.jsp|access-date=10 September 2014|publisher=The Telegraph|date=1 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910122350/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140901/jsp/bihar/story_18782156.jsp|archive-date=10 September 2014}}</ref> It is also an important stop on the [[Buddhist pilgrimage sites|Buddhist tourism circuit]].<ref name=toireopen />

===Nalanda Archaeological Museum===
[[File:Nalanda Archaeologicall Museum India - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Nalanda Archaeological Museum]]
The [[Archaeological Survey of India]] maintains a museum near the ruins for the benefit of visitors. The museum, opened in 1917, exhibits the antiquities that have been unearthed at Nalanda as well as from nearby [[Rajgir]]. Out of 13,463 items, only 349 are on display in four galleries.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Archaeological Museum, Nalanda|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_nalanda.asp|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India|access-date=10 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627073309/http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_nalanda.asp|archive-date=27 June 2014}}</ref>

===Xuanzang Memorial Hall===
[[File:Xuanzang Memorial Hall Nalanda.jpg|thumb|Xuan Zang Memorial Hall]]
The Xuanzang Memorial Hall is an Indo-Chinese undertaking to honour the famed Buddhist monk and traveller. A relic, comprising a skull bone of the Chinese monk, is on display in the memorial hall.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chaudhary|first1=Pranava K|title=Nalanda gets set for relic|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Nalanda-gets-set-for-relic/articleshow/940043.cms|access-date=10 September 2014|publisher=Times of India|date=27 December 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106011503/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Nalanda-gets-set-for-relic/articleshow/940043.cms|archive-date=6 November 2015}}</ref>

===Nalanda Multimedia Museum===
Another museum adjoining the excavated site is the privately run Nalanda Multimedia Museum.<ref name=multimediamuseum>{{cite web|title=Nalanda Multimedia Museum|url=http://www.prachinbharat.com/page_id_2.html|publisher=Prachin Bharat|access-date=10 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073647/http://www.prachinbharat.com/page_id_2.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> It showcases the history of Nalanda through [[3D film|3-D animation]] and other multimedia presentations.<ref name=multimediamuseum/>

==Portrayals in popular culture==
* 1970: The song "O Mere Raja" from the Hindi film [[Johny Mera Naam]] was shot on location and features many parts of the excavated ruins.
* 2016: The joint Chinese-Indian production film [[Xuanzang (film)|Xuanzang]] uses shots from the ruins superimposed with [[Computer graphics|CGI imagery]] to depict [[Xuanzang]]'s entry into Nalanda Mahavihara and his meeting with the Indian Buddhist monk [[Śīlabhadra]].

==Gallery==

<gallery>
File:NALANDA UNIVERSITY FRONT VIEW.jpg|Entrance to the excavated remains
File:Plaque - Stupas and Inscription - Terracotta - Gupta Period Circa 5th-6th Century AD - Nalanda - Archaeological Museum - Nalanda - Bihar - Indian Buddhist Art - Exhibition - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2312.JPG|A seal, Gupta period c. 5th–6th century
File:Nalanda 08 Sariputta stupa (32140418232).jpg|Stupa of Sariputta (Temple 3)
File:Nalanda Temple 3 ei7-17.jpg|Stupa of Sariputta, secondary shrines
File:Nalanda - 017 Images on Tower (9253715372).jpg|Sculpted stucco panels on a tower, Stupa of Sariputta
File:Nalanda - 013 Stucco Buddha Image (9253751402).jpg|Stucco Buddha image at Nalanda, Stupa of Sariputta
File:Nalanda - 037 People on Monastic Ruins (9250761121).jpg|People on second story of an excavated monastery
File:Nalanda Monastery 4 ei7-02.jpg|Monastery 4 with well and stepped platform
File:Buddha - Bronze - Circa 8th-12th Century AD - Nalanda - Bihar - Bronze Gallery - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2416.JPG|A post-8th century bronze statue of Buddha from Nalanda
File:Nalanda - 023 Broken Section of Votive Stupa (9250881377).jpg|Details on one of numerous votive stupas at the site
File:Vajrapani - Basalt - Pala Period Circa 8th Century AD - Nalanda - Archaeological Museum - Nalanda - Bihar - Indian Buddhist Art - Exhibition - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2012-12-21 2278.JPG|Vajrapani – Basalt circa 8th century CE
File:Nalanda - 108 Skanda (9250196607).jpg|Skanda, Temple 2
File:Kubera 3, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D.jpg|[[Kubera]]
File:Jain Tirthankara, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D.jpg|[[Jain]] [[Tirthankara]], Bronze, from Nalanda, 10th century
File:Ganesha, Bronze, from Nalanda, Bihar, dating from 10th century A.D.jpg|[[Ganesha]], Bronze, from Nalanda, 10th century
File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Manjusri Bodhisattva.jpeg|Painting of Manjusri Bodhisattva from the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript written in the Ranjana script. Nalanda, Bihar, India, c. 700-1100 CE
File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Queen Maya Birth.jpeg|Painting of the miraculous birth of Gautama Buddha, out of the side of Queen Mahamaya from the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript, Pala Period. Nalanda, Bihar, India
File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Descending Trayastrimsa Heaven.jpg|Painting of Gautama Buddha having descended from Triyatrimsa Heaven from the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript, Nalanda, Bihar, India. Circa 700-1100 CE.
File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sravasti Miracle.jpeg|Painting of the Buddha supernaturally multiplying his body, referred to as the miracle at Sravasti. From the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript. Nalanda, Bihar, India. Circa 700-1100 CE.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|India}}
Related sites and places:
* [[Telhara, Nalanda district|Telhara]] – Telhara was the site of a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastery in ancient India
Ancient Indian learning centres:
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Jagaddala]], Bengal
* [[Odantapuri]], adjacent to Nalanda
* [[Pushpagiri Vihara]], Odissa
* [[Sharada Peeth]], Kashmir
* [[Somapura]], Bengal
* [[Taxila]], Punjab
* [[Teladhaka]], near Nalanda
* [[Vallabhi]], Gujarat
* [[Vikramashila]], Bihar
{{div col end}}
Others:
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Ancient higher-learning institutions]]
* [[List of Monuments of National Importance in Bihar]]
* [[Kurkihar hoard]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist|group=note}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book|last1=Asher|first1=Frederick M.|title=Nalanda: Situating the Great Monastery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oRCVrgEACAAJ|publisher=Marga|year=2015|isbn=978-93-83243-07-5}}


* {{cite book | last=Chandra | first=Satish | author-link=Satish Chandra (historian) | year=2004 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC | title=Volume 1 of Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals | publisher=Har-Anand Publications | isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Chos-dar|first1=Upasaka|translator=[[George Roerich]]|title=Biography of Dharmasvamin (Chag Lo Tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal), a Tibetan Monk Pilgrim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWGAOwAACAAJ|year=1959}} The account was narrated by Dharmasvamin to his student, Chos-dar.

* {{cite book |last=Dutt |first=Sukumar |title=Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture |year=1962 |publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd (Reprinted 1988) |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxRHYFd0fB4C |isbn=978-81-208-0498-2 }}

* {{cite book|last1=Ghosh|first1=Amalananda|author-link=Amalananda Ghosh|title=A Guide to Nalanda|date=1965|publisher=The Archaeological Survey of India|location=New Delhi|edition=5}}
* {{cite book | last=Grousset | first=Rene | author-link=René Grousset | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KR-iuwAACAAJ | title=In the Footsteps of the Buddha | year=1971 | orig-date=First published in French in 1929 | publisher=Orion Press | others=Translated from French by JA Underwood | isbn=978-0-7661-9347-5 }}

* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC | title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D. | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications | last=Joshi | first=Lal Mani | author-link=Lal Mani Joshi | year=1977 | isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 }}

* {{cite book | last=Krishnan | first=G.P. | title=Nalanda, Srivijaya and Beyond: Re-exploring Buddhist Art in Asia | publisher=Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore | year=2016 | isbn=978-981-09-9912-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Db4JkAEACAAJ }}
* {{cite book | last =Kumar | first =Pintu | year =2018 | title =Buddhist Learning in South Asia: Education, Religion, and Culture at the Ancient Sri Nalanda Mahavihara | publisher =Lexington Books}}

* {{cite book|last1=Minhaj-ud-Din|first1=Maulana|author-link1=Minhaj-i-Siraj|others=Translated by Major H. G. Raverty|title=Tabakat-i-Nasiri – A General History of the Muhammadan Dynasties of Asia Including Hindustan|page=552|date=1881|url=https://archive.org/stream/Tabakat-i-nasiri-AGeneralHistoryOfTheMuhammadanDynastiesOfAsia/}}

* {{cite journal| last= Pal| first= Sayantani| year=2019| journal=Pratna Samiksha| volume=10|title= Village Seals of Nalanda| pages=95–97}}


* {{cite book|last=Scharfe|first=Hartmut|title=Education in Ancient India|year=2002|publisher=Brill|series=Handbook of Oriental Studies|volume=16|isbn=978-90-04-12556-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7s19sZFRxCUC}}

* {{cite book|last1=Wriggins|first1=Sally Hovey|title=Xuanzang : a Buddhist pilgrim on the Silk Road|date=1996|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colo.|isbn=978-0-8133-2801-0|url=}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wink|first1=André|title=Al-Hind: the making of the Indo-Islamic world |volume=1 |date=2002|publisher=Brill|location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|edition=3rd}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Khurshid|first1=Anis|title=Growth of libraries in India|journal=International Library Review|date=January 1972|volume=4|issue=1|pages=21–65|doi=10.1016/0020-7837(72)90048-9}}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RyduAAAAMAAJ | title=Nalanda and its Epigraphic Material | publisher=Sri Satguru Publications | author-link=Hiranand Sastri | first1=Hiranand | last1=Sastri | year=1986 | location=New Delhi | isbn=978-81-7030-013-7 | orig-date=1942 | ref={{harvid|Hiranand Sastri|1986}} }}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoAwor58utYC | title=Age of the Nandas and Mauryas | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers | last=Sastri | first=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta | author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | year=1988 | orig-date=1967 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-81-208-0466-1 | ref={{harvid | KA Nilakanta Sastri | 1988}} }}
* {{cite book|url=http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/628534|last1=Taher|first1=Mohamed|last2=Davis|first2=Donald Gordon|title=Librarianship and library science in India : an outline of historical perspectives|date=1994|publisher=Concept Pub. Co.|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7022-524-9}}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jbmdowzuv0QC | title=History and Development of Libraries in India | publisher=Mittal Publications | last=Bhatt | first=Rakesh Kumar | year=1995 | isbn=978-81-7099-582-1 }}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjFfqpq7HhkC | title=Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications | last=Mookerji | first=Radha Kumud | author-link=Radha Kumud Mukherjee | year=1998 | isbn=978-81-208-0423-4 | orig-date=1951 | edition=2 }}
*{{cite journal|first1=Chandra Shekhar|last1=Prasad|title=Nalanda vis-à-vis the Birthplace of Śāriputra| jstor= 29756860|journal=East and West|year= 1988 |pages=175–188|volume=38|issue=1/4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Patel|first1=Jashu|last2=Kumar|first2=Krishan|title=Libraries and Librarianship in India|date=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-29423-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KXVrsPSzeNAC|language=en}}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&q=plunder&pg=PA177 | title=The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change. Volume 30, Issue 2 of Philosophy of the social sciences | publisher=Harvard University Press | last=Collins | first=Randall | author-link=Randall Collins | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-674-00187-9 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Beal|first1=Samuel|author-link1=Samuel Beal|title=The life of Hiuen-Tsiang|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1-136-37629-0|edition=New|orig-date=1911|series=Trubner's Oriental Series|volume=1|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofhiuentsian030569mbp}}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mcDEaAVpOD4C | title=The Wisdom of Buddhism | publisher=Psychology Press | last=Humphreys | first=Christmas | author-link=Christmas Humphreys | year=1987 | isbn=978-0-7007-0197-1 }}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BNIdOsp3KIgC | title=Buddhist Insight: Essays | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | last=Wayman | first=Alex | author-link=Alex Wayman | year=1984 | isbn=978-81-208-0675-7 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|author-link1=Hermann Kulke|author-link2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415485432/|edition=Fourth|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|access-date=1 October 2014|archive-date=4 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004064147/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415485432/|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book | author-link=Paul Monroe | first1=Paul | last1=Monroe | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PVokBXLGdx0C | title=Paul Monroe's encyclopaedia of history of education, Volume 1 | publisher=Genesis Publishing | year=2000 | isbn=978-81-7755-091-7 }}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FF6Wj2NXdxgC | title=Nāgārjuna in Context: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture | publisher=Columbia University Press | last=Walser | first=Joseph | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-231-13164-3 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Pinkney | first=Andrea M | title=Looking West to India: Asian education, intra-Asian renaissance, and the Nalanda revival | journal=Modern Asian Studies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=49 | issue=1 | year=2014 | doi=10.1017/s0026749x13000310 | pages=111–149| s2cid=144865654 }}
* {{cite book|title = Buddhist Architecture|last = Le|first = Huu Phuoc|publisher = Grafikol|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0-9844043-0-8|pages = 58–66|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Frazier|editor1-first=Jessica|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies|date=2011|publisher=Continuum|location=London|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nv_a5cMEwngC&pg=PA34}}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dEBY37og6PYC | title=A Global History of Architecture | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | last1=Jarzombek | first1=Mark M. | last2=Prakash | first2=Vikramaditya | author-link=Mark Jarzombek | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-470-90245-5 | last3=Ching | first3=Francis D.K. | author-link3=Frank Ching }}
* {{cite book|last1=Buswell|first1=Robert E. Jr.|last2=Lopez|first2=Donald S. Jr.|title=The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism|date=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6lgKmQ82WoC | title=Receptacle of the Sacred: Illustrated Manuscripts and the Buddhist Book Cult in South Asia | publisher=University of California Press | last=Kim | first=Jinah | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-520-27386-3 }}
* {{cite book | last=Smith | first=F Harold | title=The Buddhist Way of Life | publisher=Routledge | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-135-02930-2 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Walton|first1=Linda|title="Educational institutions" in The Cambridge World History Vol. 5|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-19074-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Abhay |title=Nalanda: How It Changed the World |date=2025 |publisher=Penguin Random House |isbn=9780670099627 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OOcc0QEACAAJ&q=nalanda+how+it+changed+the+world}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Nalanda Mahavihara}}

*[https://archive.org/details/ajf4729.0001.001.umich.edu The life of Hiuen-Tsiang (1914)] by Xuanzang's biographer, Hwui Li (translated by Samuel Beal), p. 105–113
*[https://archive.org/details/recordofbuddhist00ichi A record of the Buddhist religion as practised in India and the Malay archipelago (1896)] by Yijing (translated by J. Takakasu), searchable for Nalanda
*[https://archive.org/details/pagsamjonzang00jorgoog Pag Sam Jon Zang (Dpag bsam ljon bzaṅ), Part I: History of the Rise, Progress, and Downfall of Buddhism in India (1908)] by Sumpa Khan-po Yeçe Pal Jor (in Tibetan with an index in English, edited by Sarat Chandra Das)
*[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.281968 Tabakat-i-Nasiri – A General History of the Muhammadan Dynasties of Asia Including Hindustan] by Minhaj-i-Siraj (translated by Major H. G. Raverty), p. 552.
*[https://rajgir.co.in/ Rajgir {{!}} District Nalanda, Government of Bihar {{!}} India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128055130/https://rajgir.co.in/ |date=28 January 2023 }}
;Misc
*[https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?searchText=+Nalanda Seals and figurines from Nalanda] at the British Museum
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@25.1364553,85.4439231,886m/data=!3m1!1e3 Interactive walking tour] from Google
*{{ppn|n/naalandaa.htm|Nalanda}}

{{World Heritage Sites in India}}
{{Ancient Dharmic centres of Higher Learning}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Nalanda district}}
{{Patna Division topics}}
{{Tourist sites in Bihar}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nalanda| ]]
[[Category:Buddhist sites in Bihar]]
[[Category:Ancient universities of the Indian subcontinent]]
[[Category:Buddhist universities and colleges]]
[[Category:Buddhist libraries]]
[[Category:Former Buddhist temples]]
[[Category:Former populated places in India]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Bihar]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Nalanda district]]
[[Category:Education in Bihar]]
[[Category:Nalanda district]]
[[Category:Ruins in India]]
[[Category:5th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 5th century]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in India]]
[[Category:Ancient libraries]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures destroyed in the Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent]]
[[Category:5th-century religious buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures demolished in the 13th century]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan archaeological sites]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Nalanda district]]

Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary

2026-03-10T06:03:46Z

Godrejsplende: Done

{{Short description|Wildlife sanctuary in Meghalaya, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary
| alt_name = NWS
| iucn_category = IV
| image =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_size =
| map = India Meghalaya#India
| relief = yes
| mapframe = Yes
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| map_width =
| mapframe-zoom = 10
| location = [[Ri-Bhoi district]], [[Meghalaya]], India
| nearest_city = [[Shillong]] and [[Guwahati]]
| coordinates = {{coord|25|56|16.44|N|91|47|15|E|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
25° 56′ 16.44″ N, 91° 47′ 15″ E
| coords_ref =
| area = {{Convert|29|km|mile|abbr=on}}
| established = 1981
| visitation_year =
| governing_body =
| url =
| elevation_min = 200m
| elevation_max = 950m
}}

'''Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary''' is an [[IUCN protected area categories#Category IV – habitat or species management area|IUCN Category IV protected area]] located in [[Meghalaya]], [[Protected areas of India|India]]. It covers 29 square kilometers in [[Ri-Bhoi district]]. It was designated a wildlife sanctuary in 1981.

== History ==
As of 2025, Meghalaya has a protected area network of around 1133 km2, which is over 5% of the total geographical area of the state. These include two national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries, and one biosphere reserve area.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2017 |title=Protected Areas |url=https://megbiodiversity.nic.in/protected-areas |access-date=2025-11-11 |website=Meghalaya Biodiversity Board, Government of Meghalaya}}</ref>

The Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary was first created by the colonial British administration as 'Nongkhyllem Reserved Forest' in July 1909. The area was expanded by consequent notifications in 1913, 1933, and 1939. The eastern part of the reserve was converted into the 'Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary' in 1981 measuring 29 km2. The remaining part of the reserved forest was maintained as such.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2017/06/Nongkhyllem%20Reserved%20Forest%2C%20Meghalaya.pdf |title=The Gazette of India: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notification. S.O. 1816 |date=7 June 2017 |publisher=[[Government of India]] |location=New Delhi}}</ref> The latter consists of the Nongkhyllem Reserve Forest (9691 ha) and a portion of community-managed forest (2300 ha) which was acquired by the Meghalaya state government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BirdLife DataZone |url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/18286-nongkhyllem-and-adjacent-areas |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=datazone.birdlife.org |language=en}}</ref>

Initially, the conservation efforts focused on [[Gayal|mithun]] and [[clouded leopard]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-04-18 |title=Meghalaya's Green-Tech Foundation opposes tourism project in Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://nenews.in/meghalaya/meghalayas-green-tech-foundation-opposes-tourism-project-in-nongkhyllem-wildlife-sanctuary/23757/ |access-date=2025-10-29 |website=Northeast News |language=en-US}}</ref>

An Eco-Sensitive Zone was declared around the sanctuary by the India's Ministry of Forest, Environment and Climate Change in 2017.<ref name=":0" /> In 2021 it was rated the best protected areas in [[Northeast India]] out of 16, by a report on Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEE) on national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in India.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Laitphlang |first=David |date=19 January 2021 |title=Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary in Meghalaya is Northeast's best protected area |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/nongkhyllem-wildlife-sanctuary-in-meghalaya-is-northeast-s-best-protected-area-101611054720800.html |access-date=28 October 2025 |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> One of the reasons give was its continuity of a management plan since 2001 irrespective of the people posted there. The other reason was significant reduction in biotic interference due to community support.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2021-01-31 |title=Many Northeast wildlife habitats understaffed, says report |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/many-northeast-wildlife-habitats-understaffed-says-report/article33708546.ece |access-date=2025-11-06 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Geography ==
=== Geology ===
Meghalaya is part of an [[Archean]] plateau with undulating tablelands.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Choudhury |first=Anwaruddin |date=2006 |title=The Distribution and Status of Hoolock Gibbon, Hoolock hoolock, in Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland in Northeast India |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1896/0898-6207.20.1.79 |journal=Primate Conservation |language=en |volume=20 |pages=79–87 |doi=10.1896/0898-6207.20.1.79 |issn=0898-6207}}</ref>

=== Hydrology ===
The streams from the sanctuary join the rivers [[Umtrew river|Umtrew]], [[Umtasor]], and [[Umsaw]].

=== Climate ===
The sanctuary has a tropical monsoon climate with temperature ranging from 6 °C to 32 °C and average annual rainfall about 2000-3000mm.<ref name=":2" />

== Biology ==
The sanctuary's minimal biotic interaction is a positive factor for its biodiversity.<ref name=":0" />

=== Flora ===
The sanctuary consists of mainly [[tropical moist deciduous forest]], with parts of it being tropical semi-evergreen forest, [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|montane grasslands]], and large stretches of bamboo grooves.<ref name=":2" />

Naturally growing trees of economic importance consists of, [[terminalia bellirica]], [[terminalia chebula]], [[albizia lebbeck]], [[adina cordifolia]], [[schima wallichii]], [[shorea robusta]], [[anthoshorea assamica]], [[aesculus assamica]], [[aporosa wallichii]], cryptocarya andersonii, [[lagerstroemia parviflora]], [[bridelia retusa]], [[magnolia hodgsonii]], and [[gmelina arborea]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parkash |first=Vipin |date=2021-10-11 |title=Floristic and ethnic perspective on wild forest plant species of Nongkhyllem Reserve Forest, Nongpoh, Meghalaya, India |url=https://smujo.id/aje/article/view/9210 |journal=Asian Journal of Ethnobiology |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |doi=10.13057/asianjethnobiol/y040204 |issn=2580-4510|doi-access=free }}</ref> The forest department has created plantations of [[Shorea robusta|sal]] and [[teak]] in some parts.<ref name=":2" />

=== Fauna ===

There are at least 50 known species of mammals and 25 species of reptiles in the sanctuary. 30 of these mammals species are on the Schedule 1 of the [[Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2025 |title=Green-Tech Foundation makes visit to Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2025/04/23/green-tech-foundation-makes-visit-to-nongkhyllem-wildlife-sanctuary/ |access-date=28 October 2025 |work=[[The Shillong Times]]}}</ref> There are over 400 noted species of birds, including the endangered [[rufous-necked hornbill]]<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2025-05-10 |title=Meghalaya group opposes ecotourism project in wildlife sanctuary |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/meghalaya-group-opposes-ecotourism-project-in-wildlife-sanctuary/article69560913.ece |access-date=2025-10-28 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Editorial |date=17 April 2025 |title=Of Ecotourism |url=https://highlandpost.com/of-ecotourism/ |access-date=30 October 2025 |work=Highland Post}}</ref> and [[white-cheeked partridge]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://test.meghalayatourism.in/experiences/nature-&-wildlife/biodiversity-&-nature-trails/nongkhyllem-wildlife-sanctuary/ |access-date=2025-11-11 |website=Meghalaya Tourism}}</ref> At least 39 species of fishes have been documented in recent times. The sanctuary and its adjacent areas are ideal habitat for the endangered [[Tor putitora|Himalayan mahseer]], ''[[schistura sijuensis]], [[clarias magur]],'' and ''[[Pillaia indica]]''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Khynriam |first=Dimos |last2=Sen |first2=Nibedita |date=2016-12-01 |title=Taxonomic Studies on the Ichthyofauna of Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary and its Adjacent Areas, Ri-Bhoi District, Meghalaya |url=https://recordsofzsi.com/index.php/zsoi/article/view/117831 |journal=Records of the Zoological Survey of India |pages=445–476 |doi=10.26515/rzsi/v116/i4/2016/117831 |issn=2581-8686|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The large mammals that live here include, the [[Asian elephant]], [[tiger]], [[leopard]], [[clouded leopard]], [[leopard cat]], [[jungle cat]], [[fishing cat]], [[dhole]], [[Himalayan black bear]], [[sloth bear]], [[Hoolock gibbon]], [[slow loris]], [[capped langur]], [[rhesus macaque]], [[sambar deer]], [[muntjac]], [[gaur]], [[binturong]], and [[black giant squirrel]]. [[Wild boar]], [[civet]]s, and [[mongoose]], are also found in the sanctuary.<ref name=":2" />

According to [[BirdLife International]], the sanctuary is one of the 'Important Bird Area' (IBA) and is designated A1 (Threatened species) according to the IBA criteria.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2017 |title=Important Bird Areas |url=https://megbiodiversity.nic.in/important-bird-areas |access-date=2025-11-11 |website=Meghalaya Biodiversity Board, Government of Meghalaya}}</ref> Four species of hornbills are found in the area, rufous-necked hornbill, [[great hornbill]], [[Malabar pied hornbill]], and [[wreathed hornbill]]. In addition, there are various species of woodpeckers, bulbuls, laughingthrushes, and minivets, including winter visitors from higher biomes.<ref name=":6" /> The sanctuary and the reserve forest are surrounded by community-managed forests and wooded betel leaf farms. These collectively support the avian diversity and habitat. In addition, the agricultural woodlands supported more avian species than the protected areas.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Perinchery |first=Aathira |date=2018-08-18 |title=Meghalayan farms are also bird habitats |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/meghalayan-farms-are-also-bird-habitats/article24725751.ece |access-date=2025-11-06 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
{{Gallery|title=Lepidoptera in the sanctuary
| align=centre
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| File:Closed wing resting position of Elymnias peali Wood-Mason, 1883 - Brahmaputra Palmfly male WLB DSC 6807.jpg
| Brahmaputra palmfly
| class1=
| alt1=
| File:Open wing mud puddling activity of Cirrochroa aoris Doubleday, 1847 - Large Yeoman female WLB DSC 6715.jpg
| Large yeoman
| class2=
| alt2=
| File:Closed wing resting position of Ypthima baldus (Fabricius, 1775) - Common Five-ring WLB DSC 6716.jpg
| Common five-ring
| class3=
| alt3=
| File:Closed wing resting position of Allotinus unicolor C. & R. Felder 1865 - Plain Mottle WLB DSC 6736.jpg
| Plain mottle
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}}
In 2021 researchers found the [[Disk-footed bat]] for the first time in the Lailad area near the sanctuary. This was almost 1000 km from the nearest known habitat in [[Myanmar]]. It is one of at least 66 species of [[bat]]s found in the state.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Karmakar |first=Rahul |date=2021-04-18 |title=Meghalaya records India's first bat with sticky disks |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/meghalaya-records-indias-first-bat-with-sticky-disks/article34349748.ece |access-date=2025-10-28 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> A new species of bamboo-dwelling bat, found near the sanctuary, was classified as ''Glischropus meghalayanus'' in 2022. It was the first reported dwelling of the thick-thumbed bat in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Shiv Sahay |date=2022-06-15 |title=New species of bamboo-dwelling bat found in Meghalaya |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/new-species-of-bamboo-dwelling-bat-found-in-meghalaya/article65530247.ece |access-date=2025-10-28 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In 2024 researchers from [[Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment]] found the dung beetle species ''[[Onitis bordati]]'' in the sanctuary for the first time expanding its known range from [[Vietnam]] and [[Thailand]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-09-13 |title=New Dung Beetle Species Discovered In Meghalaya's Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://northeasttoday.in/northeast/new-dung-beetle-species-discovered-in-meghalayas-nongkhyllem-wildlife-sanctuary/ |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=Northeast Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karimbumkara |first=Seena Narayanan |last2=Priyadarsanan |first2=Dharma Rajan |date=2024-09-10 |title=Study on the genus Onitis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) of the Indian Subcontinent, with three new species from India |url=https://europeanjournaloftaxonomy.eu/index.php/ejt/article/view/2657 |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |volume=956 |pages=1–61 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2024.956.2657 |issn=2118-9773|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Management ==
The Meghalaya government manages the sanctuary under the Meghalaya Forest Regulation (Assam Regulation 7 of 1891 adopted by Meghalaya).<ref name=":2" />

== Recreation ==
There are no official figures for the annual visitors to the sanctuary. However, people from neighbouring villages often visit the area as its stewards.

The [[National Highway 6 (India)|NH6]] is located on the eastern side of the reserved forest. It has been developed into a four-lane highway since 2016. The nearest town is [[Nongpoh]], but the sanctuary is well connected to [[Shillong]] and [[Guwahati]].<ref name=":3" /> While travelling from Shillong, which is 80 km away, the sanctuary can be accssed through the forest beat offices at Adit point, Umtasor and Lailad. From the NH6, the sanctuary can reached through Umling, and then 17 km along the Umling-Patharkhmah road to reach Lailad.<ref name=":2" /> Meghalaya's SH3, which runs through the [[Eastern West Khasi Hills district|Eastern West Khasi Hills]] and [[Ri-Bhoi district|Ri-Bhoi]] districts, is on the western side of the reserved forest. It was converted into two-lane road in 2020.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Haorangbam |first=Arundeep Singha |last2=Pachuau |first2=Laldingliani |last3=Singh Bisht |first3=Madho |date= |year=2023 |title=Impacts, Perception and Attitude of the Fringe Population towards Wildlife of Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary–Reserved Forest, Meghalaya, Northeast India |journal=Journal of Himalayan Ecology and Sustainable Development |volume=18 |issue= |pages=158–176 |issn=0973-7502}}</ref> Shared taxis and buses are available between Shillong and Nongpoh. The [[Shillong Airport]] is approximately 67 km, and [[Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport|Guwahati Airport]] is at 61 km.<ref name=":6" />

=== Eco-tourism project ===
In 2025 the Government of Meghalaya proposed an eco-tourism infrastructure project, valued at approximately Rs 23.60 crore, within the wildlife sanctuary. The project designed by E-factor Experiences, based in [[Noida]], proposed to create a [[chalet]]-styled resort, interpretation centre, canopy-based skywalks, and water sports zone.<ref name=":1" />

Seven village around the sanctuary have also opposed the project due to lack of community consultation and obvious threat to the ecosystem. The village councils, [[Rangbah Shnong]], issued a joint statement against the project.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gupta |first=Somashis |date=2025-04-25 |title=Villagers Cry Foul Over Eco-Tourism Project at Nongkhyllem |url=https://eastindiastory.com/villagers-cry-foul-over-eco-tourism-project-at-nongkhyllem/ |access-date=2025-10-29 |website=East India Story |language=en-US}}</ref> Meghalaya-based organisation, The Green-Tech Foundation, also strongly opposed the project.<ref name=":0" /> The Hynniewtrep Youth Council (HYC) also called for the project to be scrapped.<ref name=":5" />

==See also==
* [[Narpuh Wildlife Sanctuary]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* Baker, E. C. S. (1907) Birds of the Khasi Hills, 2 parts. ''J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.'' 17: 783–795; 957–975.
* Biang La Nam Syiem (2021), [https://www.natureinfocus.in/environment/notes-from-nongkhyllem-and-a-khasi-folktale 'Notes From Nongkhyllem And A Khasi Folktale,'] ''Nature in Focus.''

[[Category:Protected areas]]
[[Category:Wildlife sanctuaries in Meghalaya]]

Awadh Samman

2026-03-06T17:49:26Z

Godrejsplende: further fixed formatting for consistency and corrected details

{{Short description|Award in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
The '''Awadh Samman''' is an award constituted by the [[Government of Uttar Pradesh|Government]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]], to honor exceptional and meritorious contribution in their chosen field/profession. Prominent recipients of award include [[Naushad]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Dilip Kumar]], [[Dev Anand]], [[Amitabh Bachchan]], [[Ashok Kumar]] [[Udit Narayan]] and [[A R Rahman]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indiaoz.com.au/bollywood/news/news18.shtml|title=Anil Kapoor Joins The Ranks|accessdate=2015-03-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030218101000/http://www.indiaoz.com.au/bollywood/news/news18.shtml|archivedate=18 February 2003}}</ref>

==''Zee News'' Awadh Samman Awardees for 2012==

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Description''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| K. A. Dubey Padmesh || || <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.padmeshji.com/awadhsamman12.htm|title=www.padmeshji.com|website=www.padmeshji.com|accessdate=24 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
|}

===Lifetime Achievement Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Description''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| [[Bharat Bhushan (yogi)]] || || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bharatyog.com/|title=Learn Yoga Postures, Learn Yoga Techniques, Learn Yoga Poses, Learning Yoga Techniques, India|website=www.bharatyog.com|accessdate=24 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
|}

===Literature===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Description''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| [[Ruchita Misra]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/topic/person/akhilesh-yadav-author-ruchita-misra-awarded-the-awadh-samman-for-the-inel-video-AKzlR62j2XY-59378-1.html|title=Author Ruchita Misra awarded the Awadh Samman for The (In)eligible Bachelors|accessdate=24 January 2024}}</ref> || || <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ruchitamisra.com/|title=Ruchita Misra | Official Website:: Author of The (In)eligible Bachelors|website=ruchitamisra.com|accessdate=24 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
|}

==''Zee News'' Awadh Samman Awardees for 2009==
Awards were presented at the [[Taj Hotel]] in [[Lucknow]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tvnext.in/news/161/ARTICLE/2524/2009-12-01.html|title=Zee News announces Awadh Samman winners|accessdate=2015-03-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206012151/http://www.tvnext.in/news/161/ARTICLE/2524/2009-12-01.html |archivedate=6 December 2009}}</ref>

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Description''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Draupadi alias Duiji Amma || for increasing awareness amongst women mine workers || Social Service
|-
| Dr. T C Thakur || for Modern Agricultural Techniques Research || Agriculture
|-
| Dr Nalinaksh Vyas || IIT Kanpur || Science & Technology
|-
| Nayantara Sehgal || eminent writer || Literature
|-
| Rooprekha Varma || former VC of Lucknow University Professor who has made a notable contribution in the field of education ||Education
|-
| Manjari Chaturvedi || for new experiments in Kathak || Dance
|-
| Dr Ramlakhan Singh || for specialized work on wild animals || Environment & Wild Life Conservation
|-
| Mohammed Shahid || for bringing laurels to India in Field Hockey || Sports
|-
| Vijay Jaddhari || || Seed Conservation & Rural Development
|-
| Tapsi Kushwaha || || Social Service & Environment
|-
| Manoj Sengar || || Social Awareness
|-
| Upendra Srivastava || Education
|}

===Lifetime Achievement Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Girija Devi || contribution to the world of Indian Classical Music
|-
| Birju Maharaj|| contribution to the world of Kathak
|}

===Special Achievement Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Yugratna Srivastava || for making a mark in the international arena in the field of Environment
|}

==Awardees for 2008==

{{Empty section|date=July 2010}}

==Awardees for 2007==

{{Empty section|date=July 2010}}

==''Sahara'' Awadh Samman Awardees for 2006==
Award was presented to recipients in a ceremony held at the Laxman Mela ground in [[Lucknow]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.articles-hub.com/index.php?article=70081|title=Hrithik Roshan-Hrithik donates award money|accessdate=2009-12-17}}</ref> Award included a Rs 1 Lakh & atrophy.

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Hrithik Roshan|| Cinema
|-
| Udit Narayan || Singer
|-
| Javed Siddiqui|| Writer
|-
| Lalit Khaitan || Industrialist
|}

==''Radico'' Awadh Samman Awardees for 2005==
Award was presented to recipients in a ceremony in [[Lucknow]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.radicokhaitan.com/corporateservices/Radico_April-June_8aug.pdf |title=Radico Awadh Samman 2005 and Radico Naaz-e-Awadh |accessdate=2009-12-17 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060710062511/http://www.radicokhaitan.com/corporateservices/Radico_April-June_8aug.pdf |archivedate=2006-07-10 }}</ref>

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Sharmila Tagore || film artist & chairperson of the Censor Board of India
|-
| Muzzafar Ali || filmmaker & designer
|}

===Naaz-e-Awadh===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Muzzafar Ali || Chikankari & Zardozi
|-
| Meera Ali || Chikankari & Zardozi
|}

==Awardees for 2004==

{{Empty section|date=July 2010}}

==''Sahara'' Awadh Samman Awardees for 2003==
Award was presented to recipients in a ceremony in [[Lucknow]].,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/278400.cms|title=Straight Answers-Lucknow Times-Cities-The Times of India|accessdate=2009-12-17 | work=The Times Of India|date=2003-11-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iasowaup.org/Performing%20Arts.html |title=Mrs. Malini Awasthi W/o Mr Avanish Awasthi batch of 1987 |accessdate=2009-12-17 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713135852/http://www.iasowaup.org/Performing%20Arts.html |archivedate=2010-07-13 }}</ref>

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Hrithik Roshan || Cinema
|-
| [[Malini Awasthi]] ||Singer
|}

==''IAAC'' Awadh Samman Awardees for 2002==
Awards were by [[Governor of Uttar Pradesh|Governor]] [[Vishnu Kant Shastri]] presented in a ceremony held at the Laxman Mela ground in [[Lucknow]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Anil-Raveena-get-Awadh-Samman/articleshow/12700377.cms|title=Anil, Raveena get Awadh Samman|accessdate=2009-12-17 | work=The Times Of India|date=2002-06-12}}</ref>

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Anil Kapoor || Cinema
|-
| Raveena Tandon || Cinema
|}

==Awadh Samman Awardees for 2001==
Award was presented to recipients in a ceremony in [[Lucknow]] by [[Governor of Uttar Pradesh|Governor]] [[Vishnu Kant Shastri]].,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rrtd.nic.in/mupapr162k1.htm|title=The Indian Express|accessdate=2009-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wegDAAAAMBAJ&q=what+is+Avadh+Samman&pg=PT84|title=Pratiyogita Darpan Nov 2007|accessdate=2009-12-17|last1=Darpan|first1=Pratiyogita|date=November 2007}}</ref> The award included Rs. 1 lakh, a citation and a memento.

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Ashok Kumar || Cinema
|-
| A.R.Rahman || Music
|-
| Javed Akhtar || Poetry/Lyrics
|}

==Awadh Samman Awardees for 1999==
Award was presented to recipients in a ceremony in [[Lucknow]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sabrang.com/cc/comold/oct99/cover6.htm|title=Right in action|accessdate=2009-12-17}}</ref>

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Ali Sardar Jafri || –
|}

==Awadh Samman Awardees for 1980==
Award was presented to recipients in a ceremony in [[Lucknow]] by [[Governor of Uttar Pradesh|Governor]] [[Vishnu Kant Shastri]] .<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.xomba.com/awards_won_amitabh_bachchan |title=Awards won Amitabh Bachchan |accessdate=2009-12-17 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826171150/http://www.xomba.com/awards_won_amitabh_bachchan |archivedate=2009-08-26 }}</ref>

===General Award===
{|
| '''Name''' || '''Field of Merit'''
|-
| Amitabh Bachchan || Cinema
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Civil awards and decorations of Uttar Pradesh]]

Stephen Hawking

2026-03-05T14:38:12Z

Godrejsplende: updated

{{Short description|English theoretical physicist (1942–2018)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Stephen Hawking
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|CH|CBE|FRS|FRSA}}
| image = Stephen Hawking.StarChild.jpg
| alt = Black-and-white photograph of Steven Hawking at NASA's StarChild Learning Center. He is a white man with short, dark hair wearing glasses and a suit. He is sitting down on his wheelchair with his arms crossed on his lap and is smiling at the camera.
| caption = Hawking, {{circa|1980}}
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1942|01|08}}
| birth_place = [[Oxford]], England
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|2018|03|14|1942|01|08}}
| death_place = [[Cambridge]], England
| resting_place = [[Westminster Abbey]]<ref name="HawkingWestminster">{{cite news |title=Stephen Hawking to Join Newton, Darwin in Final Resting Place |first=Estelle |last=Shirbon |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-hawking-ashes/stephen-hawking-to-join-newton-darwin-in-final-resting-place-idUSKBN1GW2GV |access-date=21 March 2018 |publisher=Reuters |location=London |date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321030924/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-hawking-ashes/stephen-hawking-to-join-newton-darwin-in-final-resting-place-idUSKBN1GW2GV |archive-date=21 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| education = {{ubl
| item_style = {{longitem}}
| [[University College, Oxford]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
| [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]] (PhD)
}}
| known_for = {{clist
| title = {{nobold|''See list''}}
| {{ubl
| item_style = {{longitem}}
| [[Hawking radiation]]
| ''[[A Brief History of Time]]''
| ''[[A Briefer History of Time (Hawking and Mlodinow book)|A Briefer History of Time]]''
| [[Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems|Penrose–Hawking theorems]]
| [[Black hole information paradox]]
| [[Micro black hole]]
| [[Primordial black hole]]
| [[Chronology protection conjecture]]
| [[No-hair theorem#Soft hair|Soft hair (No hair theorem)]]
| [[Bekenstein–Hawking formula]]
| [[Hawking energy]]
| [[Hawking–Page phase transition]]
| [[Gibbons–Hawking ansatz]]
| [[Gibbons–Hawking effect]]
| [[Gibbons–Hawking space]]
| [[Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term]]
| [[Hartle–Hawking state]]
| [[Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet]]}}
}}
| spouse = {{ubl
| {{marriage|[[Jane Hawking|Jane Wilde]]|14 July 1965|1995|end=div}}
| {{marriage|Elaine Mason|16 September 1995|2006|end=div}}
}}
| children = 3, including [[Lucy Hawking|Lucy]]
| awards = {{clist
| title = {{nobold|''See list''}}
| {{ubl
| item_style = {{longitem}}
| [[Adams Prize]] (1966)
| [[Eddington Medal]] (1975)
| [[The William Hopkins Prize|The William Hopkins Prize]] (1975)
| [[Maxwell Medal and Prize]] (1976)
| [[Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics|Heineman Prize]] (1976)
| [[Hughes Medal]] (1976)
| [[Albert Einstein Award]] (1978)
| [[Albert Einstein Medal]] (1979)
| [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society|RAS Gold Medal]] (1985)
| [[Dirac Medal (IOP)]] (1987)
| [[Wolf Prize]] (1988)
| [[Prince of Asturias Award]] (1989)
| [[Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences]] (1992)
| [[Andrew Gemant Award]] (1998)
| [[Naylor Prize and Lectureship]] (1999)
| [[Lilienfeld Prize]] (1999)
| [[Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)|Albert Medal]] (1999)
| [[Copley Medal]] (2006)
| [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] (2009)
| [[Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics]] (2012)
| [[BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award]] (2015)}}
}}
| website = {{Official URL}}
| fields = {{hlist|[[General relativity]]|[[quantum gravity]]}}
| workplaces = [[University of Cambridge]]
| thesis_title = Properties of Expanding Universes
| thesis_url = https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.11283
| thesis_year = 1966
| doctoral_advisor = [[Dennis W. Sciama]]<ref name="mathgene" />
| academic_advisors = Robert Berman{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=29}}
| doctoral_students = {{collapsible list
| title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| [[Bruce Allen (physicist)|Bruce Allen]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="allenphd" />
| [[Raphael Bousso]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="boussophd" />
| [[Bernard Carr]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="carrphd" /><ref name="rsbm" />
| [[Fay Dowker]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="dowkerphd" />
| [[Christophe Galfard]]<ref name="galfardphd" />
| [[Gary Gibbons]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="gibbonsphd" /><ref name="rsbm" />
| [[Thomas Hertog]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="hertogphd" />
| [[Raymond Laflamme]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="laflammephd" />
| [[Don Page (physicist)|Don Page]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="pagephd" />|[[Malcolm Perry (physicist)|Malcolm Perry]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="perryphd" /><ref name="rsbm" />
| [[Christopher Pope (physicist)|Christopher Pope]]|[[Marika Taylor]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref>{{cite thesis|degree=PhD|publisher=University of Cambridge|url=http://idiscover.lib.cam.ac.uk/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=44CAM_ALMA21433438300003606&context=L&vid=44CAM_PROD&search_scope=SCOP_CAM_ALL&tab=cam_lib_coll&lang=en_US|title=Problems in M theory|first=Marika Maxine|last=Taylor-Robinson|date=1998|id={{EThOS|uk.bl.ethos.625075}}|website=lib.cam.ac.uk|oclc=894603647|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501160856/http://idiscover.lib.cam.ac.uk/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=44CAM_ALMA21433438300003606&context=L&vid=44CAM_PROD&search_scope=SCOP_CAM_ALL&tab=cam_lib_coll&lang=en_US|archive-date=1 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>|[[Alan Yuille]]|[[Wu Zhongchao]]<ref name="mathgene" /><ref name="wuphd" />
| 27 others<ref name="mathgene" />
}}
| signature =
| signature_alt = Signature of Steven Hawking written as "S. Hawking".
}}
{{Cosmology|scientists}}
'''Stephen William Hawking''' (8{{nbsp}}January 1942{{snd}}14{{nbsp}}March 2018) was an English theoretical [[Astrophysics|astrophysicist]], [[cosmologist]], and author who was director of research at the [[Centre for Theoretical Cosmology]] at the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref name="rsbm">{{cite Q|Q63347107|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Auto2J-2" /><ref name="Auto2J-3" /> Between 1979 and 2009, he was the [[Lucasian Professor of Mathematics]] at Cambridge, widely viewed as one of the most prestigious academic posts in the world.<ref>{{cite news|title=Michael Green to become Lucasian Professor of Mathematics|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/6389935/Michael-Green-to-become-Lucasian-Professor-of-Mathematics.html|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=11 December 2012|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525172515/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/6389935/Michael-Green-to-become-Lucasian-Professor-of-Mathematics.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Hawking was born in [[Oxford]] into a family of physicians. In 1959, at the age of 17, he began his university education at [[University College, Oxford]], where he received a [[First Class Honours|first-class]] [[Honours degree|BA degree]] in physics. In 1962, he began his graduate work at [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]], where, in 1966, he obtained his PhD in [[applied mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]], specialising in [[general relativity]] and [[cosmology]]. In 1963, at age 21, Hawking was diagnosed with an early-onset slow-progressing form of [[motor neurone disease]] that gradually, over decades, paralysed him.<ref>{{cite news|date=26 November 2015|title=Mind over matter: How Stephen Hawking defied Motor Neurone Disease for 50 years|work=The Independent|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mind-over-matter-how-stephen-hawking-defied-motor-neurone-disease-for-50-years-6286313.html|url-status=live|access-date=15 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823050027/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mind-over-matter-how-stephen-hawking-defied-motor-neurone-disease-for-50-years-6286313.html|archive-date=23 August 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|date=7 January 2012|title=How Has Stephen Hawking Lived to 70 with ALS?|work=[[Scientific American]]|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/stephen-hawking-als/|url-status=live|access-date=23 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830050822/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/stephen-hawking-als/|archive-date=30 August 2015|quote=Q: How frequent are these cases of very slow-progressing forms of ALS? A: I would say probably less than a few percent.}}</ref> After the loss of his speech, he communicated through a [[speech-generating device]], initially through use of a handheld switch, and eventually by using a single [[Pectoral muscles|cheek muscle]].<ref>Stephen Hawking: An inspirational story of willpower and strength. Swagatham Canada https://www.swagathamcanada.com/inspirational/stephen-hawking-an-inspirational-story-of-willpower-and-strength/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106200001/https://www.swagathamcanada.com/inspirational/stephen-hawking-an-inspirational-story-of-willpower-and-strength/ |date=6 November 2021}} 26 October 2021</ref>

Hawking's scientific works included a collaboration with [[Roger Penrose]] on [[Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems|gravitational singularity theorems]] in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that [[black hole]]s emit [[Electromagnetic radiation|radiation]], often called [[Hawking radiation]]. Initially, Hawking radiation was controversial. By the late 1970s, and following the publication of further research, the discovery was widely accepted as a major breakthrough in theoretical physics. Hawking was the first to set out a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and [[quantum mechanics]]. Hawking was a vigorous supporter of the [[many-worlds interpretation]] of quantum mechanics.<ref>[[Gardner, Martin]] (September/October 2001). [http://www.csicop.org/si/show/multiverses_and_blackberries "Multiverses and Blackberries"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728035541/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/multiverses_and_blackberries|date=28 July 2016}}. "Notes of a Fringe-Watcher". ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]''. Volume 25, No. 5.</ref><ref>Price, Michael Clive (February 1995). [http://webarchiveproject.org/32699/ "THE EVERETT FAQ"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420235958/http://webarchiveproject.org/32699/|date=20 April 2016}}. Department of Physics, [[Washington University in St. Louis]]. Retrieved 17 December 2014.</ref> He also introduced the notion of a [[micro black hole]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hawking |first=S. |date=1 April 1971 |title=Gravitationally Collapsed Objects of Very Low Mass |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |language=en |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=75–78 |doi=10.1093/mnras/152.1.75 |doi-access=free |issn=0035-8711}}</ref>

Hawking achieved commercial success with several works of [[popular science]] in which he discussed his theories and cosmology in general. His book ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'' appeared on the ''[[The Sunday Times|Sunday Times]]'' bestseller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. Hawking was a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], a lifetime member of the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]], and a recipient of the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], the highest civilian award in the United States. In 2002, Hawking was ranked number 25 in the [[BBC]]'s poll of the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]''. He died in 2018 at the age of 76, having lived more than 50 years following his diagnosis of motor neurone disease.<ref name=Penrose>{{cite news| last=Penrose| first=Roger| author-link=Roger Penrose| title='Mind over matter': Stephen Hawking – obituary| date=14 March 2018| work=[[The Guardian]]| url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/mar/14/stephen-hawking-obituary}}</ref>

== Early life ==
=== Family ===
[[File:Stephen Hawking with his parents.png|left|thumb|Hawking with his parents Frank (left) and Isobel (right)]]
Stephen William Hawking was born on 8 January 1942<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2018/01/08/UPI-Almanac-for-Monday-Jan-8-2018/2171515208436/|title= UPI Almanac for Monday, 8 Jan 2018|work= [[United Press International]]|date=8 January 2018|access-date=21 September 2019| archive-date= 8 January 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180108222931/https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2018/01/08/UPI-Almanac-for-Monday-Jan-8-2018/2171515208436/|url-status=live|quote=…British physicist and author Stephen Hawking 1942 (age 76)}}</ref><ref name="whoswho" /> in [[Oxford]] to Frank and Isobel Eileen Hawking (''née'' Walker).{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=xiii, 2}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=21}} Hawking's mother was born into a family of doctors in [[Glasgow]], Scotland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12304843.Mind_over_matter_Stephen_Hawking/ |title=Mind over matter Stephen Hawking |website=[[The Herald (Glasgow)|The Herald]] |location=Glasgow |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530095207/http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12304843.Mind_over_matter_Stephen_Hawking/ |archive-date=30 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="SA">{{cite web|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/stephen-hawking-biography/|title=Stephen Hawking, "Equal to Anything!" [Excerpt]|author=Ferguson, Kitty|date=6 January 2012|publisher=Scientific American|access-date=21 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322021001/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/stephen-hawking-biography/|archive-date=22 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> His wealthy paternal great-grandfather, from [[Yorkshire]], over-extended himself buying farm land and then went bankrupt in the [[Great Depression of British Agriculture|great agricultural depression]] during the early 20th century.<ref name="SA" /> His paternal great-grandmother saved the family from financial ruin by opening a school in their home.<ref name="SA" /> Despite their families' financial constraints, both parents attended the [[University of Oxford]], where Frank read medicine and Isobel read [[Philosophy, Politics and Economics]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=21}} Isobel worked as a secretary for a medical research institute, and Frank was a medical researcher specialising in [[tropical diseases]].<ref name=Penrose/> Hawking said of his father, "I modelled myself on him. Because he was a scientific researcher, I felt that scientific research was the natural thing to do when one grew up. The only difference was that I was not attracted to medicine or biology because they seemed too inexact and descriptive. I wanted something more fundamental, and I found it in physics."<ref name="DesertIslandDiscs">{{cite news |last=Lawley |first=Sue |author-link=Sue Lawley |date=25 December 1992 |title=Desert Island Discs, Stephen Hawking |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0093xb2 |work=[[BBC Radio 4]]}}</ref>

In 1950, when Hawking's father became head of the division of [[parasitology]] at the [[National Institute for Medical Research]], the family moved to [[St Albans]], Hertfordshire.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=22}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=xiii}} There, the family was considered highly intelligent and somewhat [[Eccentricity (behavior)|eccentric]];{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=22}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=12}} meals were often spent with each person silently reading a book.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=22}} They lived a frugal existence in a large, cluttered, and poorly maintained house and travelled in a converted [[London taxicab]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=22–23}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=11–12}} During one of Hawking's father's frequent absences working in Africa,{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=13}} the rest of the family spent four months in [[Mallorca]] visiting his mother's friend Beryl and her husband, the poet [[Robert Graves]].{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=3}}

=== Primary and secondary school years ===
Hawking began his schooling at the [[Byron House School]] in [[Highgate]], London. He later blamed its "[[progressive education|progressive methods]]" for his failure to learn to read while at the school.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2013-12-07/stephen-hawking-im-happy-if-i-have-added-something-to-our-understanding-of-the-universe|title=Stephen Hawking: "I'm happy if I have added something to our understanding of the universe"|first=Stephen|last=Hawking|date=7 December 2013|website=Radio Times|access-date=6 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107095605/http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2013-12-07/stephen-hawking-im-happy-if-i-have-added-something-to-our-understanding-of-the-universe|archive-date=7 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=22}} In St Albans, the eight-year-old Hawking attended [[St Albans High School for Girls]] for a few months. At that time, younger boys could attend one of the houses.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=3}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=24}}

Hawking attended two [[Private schools in the United Kingdom|private (i.e. fee-paying) schools]], first Radlett School{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=24}} and from September 1952, [[St Albans School, Hertfordshire]],<ref name="whoswho" />{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=8}} after passing the [[eleven-plus]] a year early.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hawking |first=Stephen |title=My Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYYaAAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-345-53528-3 |access-date=9 September 2013}}</ref> The family placed a high value on education.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=22}} Hawking's father wanted his son to attend [[Westminster School]], but the 13-year-old Hawking was ill on the day of the scholarship examination. His family could not afford the school fees without the financial aid of a scholarship, so Hawking remained at St Albans.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=7–8}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=4}} A positive consequence was that Hawking remained close to a group of friends with whom he enjoyed board games, the manufacture of fireworks, [[Model aircraft|model aeroplanes]] and [[Model boats|boats]],{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=25–26}} and long discussions about Christianity and [[extrasensory perception]].{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=14–16}} From 1958 on, with the help of the mathematics teacher [[Dikran Tahta]], they built a computer from clock parts, an old [[telephone switchboard]] and other recycled components.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=26}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=19–20}} In 1959, he built a record player from spare parts: "My father would have regarded it as recklessly self-indulgent, to buy a record player, but I persuaded him that I could assemble one from parts that I could buy cheap. That appealed to him as a Yorkshireman."<ref name=DesertIslandDiscs/>

Although known at school as "Einstein", Hawking was not initially successful academically.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=25}} With time, he began to show considerable aptitude for scientific subjects and, inspired by Tahta, decided to study mathematics at university.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=17–18}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=27}}<ref name="Auto2J-5" /> Hawking's father advised him to study medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for mathematics graduates.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=41}} He also wanted his son to attend [[University College, Oxford]], his own ''alma mater''. As it was not possible to read mathematics there at the time, Hawking decided to study physics and chemistry. Despite his headmaster's advice to wait until the next year, Hawking was awarded a scholarship after taking the examinations in March 1959.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=27–28}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=42–43}}

=== Undergraduate years ===
In October 1959, at the age of 17, Hawking began his university education at University College, Oxford.<ref name="whoswho" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=28}} For the first eighteen months, he was bored and lonely{{snd}}he found the academic work "ridiculously easy".{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=46–47, 51}} His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said, "It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it."{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=29}} A change occurred during his second and third years when, according to Berman, Hawking made more of an effort "to be one of the boys". He developed into a popular, lively, and witty student, interested in classical music and science fiction.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=28}} This partially resulted from his decision to join Oxford's [[University College Boat Club (Oxford)|University College Boat Club]], where he [[coxswain (rowing)|coxed]] a [[rowing crew]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|Hawking|1992|p=44}} The rowing coach at the time noted that Hawking cultivated a daredevil image, steering his crew on risky courses that led to damaged boats.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=50}} Hawking estimated that he studied about 1,000 hours during his three years at Oxford. These unimpressive study habits made sitting his [[final examination|finals]] a challenge, and he decided to answer only [[theoretical physics]] questions rather than those requiring factual knowledge. A [[British undergraduate degree classification#First-class honours|first-class degree]] was a condition of acceptance for his planned graduate study in [[cosmology]] at the [[University of Cambridge]].{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=53}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=31}} Anxious, he slept poorly the night before the examinations, and the result was on the borderline between first- and second-class honours, making a ''[[oral exam|viva]]'' (oral examination) with the Oxford examiners necessary.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=31}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=54}}

Hawking was concerned that he was viewed as a lazy and difficult student. So, when asked at the ''viva'' to describe his plans, he said, "If you award me a First, I will go to Cambridge. If I receive a Second, I shall stay in Oxford, so I expect you will give me a First."{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=31}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=54–55}} He was held in higher regard than he believed; as Berman commented, the examiners "were intelligent enough to realise they were talking to someone far cleverer than most of themselves".{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=31}} After receiving a first-class [[Honours degree|BA degree]] in physics and completing a trip to [[Pahlavi Iran|Iran]] with a friend,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2016/04/my-dinner-with-dr-hawking/|title=My dinner with Dr. Hawking|first=Peter|last=Reuell|date=29 April 2016|website=Harvard Gazette}}</ref> he began his graduate work at [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]], in October 1962.<ref name="whoswho" />{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=56}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=31–32}}

=== Post-graduate years ===
Hawking's first year as a doctoral student was difficult. He was initially disappointed to find that he had been assigned [[Dennis William Sciama]], one of the founders of modern cosmology, as a supervisor rather than the noted astronomer [[Fred Hoyle]],{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=33}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=58}} and he found his training in mathematics inadequate for work in [[general relativity]] and cosmology.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=33–34}} After being diagnosed with [[motor neurone disease]], Hawking fell into a depression{{snd}}though his doctors advised that he continue with his studies, he felt there was little point.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=61–63}} His disease progressed more slowly than doctors had predicted. Although Hawking had difficulty walking unsupported, and his speech was almost unintelligible, an initial diagnosis that he had only two years to live proved unfounded. With Sciama's encouragement, he returned to his work.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=36}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=69–70}} Hawking started developing a reputation for intelligence and brashness after a lecture in June 1964, at which he publicly challenged the work of Hoyle and his student [[Jayant Narlikar]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=42}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=68–69}}

== Career ==

=== 1966–1975 ===
When Hawking began his doctoral studies, there was much debate in the physics community about the prevailing theories of the creation of the [[universe]]: the [[Big Bang]] and [[Steady State theory|Steady State]] theories.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=34}} Inspired by [[Roger Penrose]]'s theorem of a [[spacetime]] [[Gravitational singularity|singularity]] in the centre of [[Black hole|black holes]], Hawking applied the same thinking to the entire universe; and, during 1965, he wrote his thesis on this topic.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/10/stephen-hawkings-phd-thesis-explained-simply|title=Stephen Hawking's PhD thesis, explained simply|date=30 October 2017 |access-date=27 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213201244/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/10/stephen-hawkings-phd-thesis-explained-simply|archive-date=13 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=71–72}}

{{Multiple image
| image1 = Big Bang and Steady-State Theory.png
| image2 = Andrew Hamilton schwarzchild waterfall.gif
| caption1 = In the [[Big Bang]] theory regarding [[cosmogony|the origins]] of the [[universe]], the [[expansion of the universe|universe's expansion]] causes [[matter]] to dilute over [[time]] (depicted left-to-right), while in the [[Steady-state model]], continued [[matter creation]] ensures that the [[density]] remains [[gravitational constant|constant]] over time.
| total_width = 730
| caption2 = A representation of [[gravity]] pulling [[space]] past the [[event horizon]] of a [[black hole]] and towards its [[gravitational singularity]]
| align = center
}}

Hawking's thesis was approved in 1966.<ref name="hawkingphd" /> He also received a research fellowship at [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Gonville and Caius College]] at Cambridge;{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=43–44}} he obtained his PhD degree in applied mathematics and theoretical physics, specialising in general relativity and cosmology, in March 1966;{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=47}} and his essay "Singularities and the Geometry of Space–Time" shared top honours with one by Penrose to win that year's prestigious [[Adams Prize]].{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=xix}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=47}} In 1969, Hawking accepted a specially created Fellowship for Distinction in Science to remain at Caius.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=49}}

Collaborating with Penrose, Hawking extended the [[Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems|singularity theorem]] concepts first explored in his doctoral thesis. This included not only the existence of singularities, but also the theory that the universe might have started as a singularity. Their joint essay was the runner-up in the 1968 [[Gravity Research Foundation]] competition.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=101}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=61, 64}} In 1970, they published a proof that if the universe obeys the theory of general relativity, and fits any of the [[Friedmann equations|models]] of [[physical cosmology]] developed by [[Alexander Friedmann]], then it must have begun as a singularity.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=64–65}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=115–16}}<ref name="Q55872061" /> Hawking's early 1970s work with [[Brandon Carter]], [[Werner Israel]], and David C. Robinson strongly supported [[John Archibald Wheeler]]'s [[no-hair theorem]], that regardless of how a black hole is formed, it only exhibits three [[Physical property|properties]]: [[mass]], [[electrical charge]], and [[Rotating black hole|rotation]].{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=33}}<ref name="HawkingIsrael1989" />

Hawking's essay titled "Black Holes" won the [[Gravity Research Foundation]] Award in January 1971.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=35}} His first book, ''[[The Large Scale Structure of Space–Time]],'' written with [[George Francis Rayner Ellis|George Ellis]], was published in 1973.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=68}} Hawking was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1974|Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1974]], becoming one of the youngest scientists to become a Fellow.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=44}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=133}}

In 1973,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://projecteuclid.org/journals/communications-in-mathematical-physics/volume-31/issue-2/The-four-laws-of-black-hole-mechanics/cmp/1103858973.full |access-date=2026-02-05 |website=projecteuclid.org}}</ref> Hawking and [[James M. Bardeen]] developed the four [[laws of black hole mechanics]], drawing an analogy with [[thermodynamics]].{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=38}} Hawking's second law mentions [[Gravitational wave|gravitational waves]]—[[Wave|waves]] of [[Curved spacetime|warped spacetime]] caused by the changing [[gravitational field]] around two [[Black hole merger|black holes merging]].<ref name="Abac-testing2">{{cite journal |last1=Abac |first1=A.G. |last2=Abouelfettouh |first2=I. |display-authors=1 |date=September 10, 2025 |title=GW250114: Testing Hawking's Area Law and the Kerr Nature of Black Holes |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]] |volume=135 |issue=11 |arxiv=2509.08054 |doi=10.1103/kw5g-d732 |doi-access=free |article-number=111403}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Board |first=The Editorial |date=2016-02-16 |title=Opinion {{!}} The Chirp Heard Across the Universe |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/16/opinion/the-chirp-heard-across-the-universe.html |access-date=2026-02-05 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> First proposed by [[Oliver Heaviside]] in 1893, they were theoretical until they were [[First observation of gravitational waves|first observed in 2015]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rothman |first=Tony |title=The Secret History of Gravitational Waves |url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-secret-history-of-gravitational-waves |access-date=February 6, 2026 |website=American Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-02-11 |title=Scientists make first direct detection of gravitational waves |url=https://news.mit.edu/2016/ligo-first-detection-gravitational-waves-0211 |access-date=2026-02-06 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |language=en}}</ref> Hawking's law states that even though black holes lose [[energy]] (or "have an [[entropy]]") from gravitational waves and increasing [[angular momentum]] from their rotation, which can both reduce its [[surface area]], the total surface area of two merged black holes must increase or remain the same.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gravitational-wave detection verifies Stephen Hawking’s theorem |url=https://news.northwestern.edu/stories/2025/09/gravitational-wave-detection-verifies-stephen-hawkings-theorem |access-date=2026-02-05 |website=news.northwestern.edu |language=en}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| image1 = BBH gravitational lensing of gw150914.webm
| image2 = Warped Space and Time Around Colliding Black Holes (Courtesy Caltech-MIT-LIGO Laboratory, produced by SXS project).webm
| caption1 = A simulation of a [[black hole merger]]
| caption2 = A simulation showing [[gravitational waves]]—[[waves]] of [[warped spacetime|curved spacetime]]—forming due to the changing [[gravitational field]] around a merger
| align = center
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 750
}}

Around this time, Hawking moved into the study of [[quantum gravity]] and [[quantum mechanics]].{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=39}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=68}} This was spurred by a visit to Moscow, in which he talked with [[Yakov Zeldovich]] and [[Alexei Starobinsky]], whose work showed that, according to the [[uncertainty principle]], rotating black holes emit [[Particle|particles]].{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=146}} To Hawking's annoyance, his calculations to prove their work produced findings that contradicted his second law. It did, however, support [[Jacob Bekenstein]]'s 1972 theory that black holes have an entropy proportional to the [[area]] of the event horizon.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=146}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=41}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bekenstein |first1=A. |year=1972 |title=Black holes and the second law |journal=Lettere al Nuovo Cimento |volume=4 |issue=15 |pages=99–104 |doi=10.1007/BF02757029 |s2cid=120254309}}</ref> Hawking's law was nonetheless validated in 2025 by analysis of black hole merger [[GW250114]].<ref name="Abac-testing3">{{cite journal |last1=Abac |first1=A.G. |last2=Abouelfettouh |first2=I. |display-authors=1 |date=September 10, 2025 |title=GW250114: Testing Hawking's Area Law and the Kerr Nature of Black Holes |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]] |volume=135 |issue=11 |arxiv=2509.08054 |doi=10.1103/kw5g-d732 |doi-access=free |article-number=111403}}</ref><ref name=":123">{{Cite journal |last=Mingarelli |first=Chiara M. F. |date=September 10, 2025 |title=Landmark Black Hole Test Marks Decade of Gravitational-Wave Discoveries |url=https://physics.aps.org/articles/v18/160 |journal=Physics |publisher=American Physical Society (APS) |volume=18 |issue=160}}</ref>

In 1974, Hawking claimed that black holes emit [[Electromagnetic radiation|radiation]], known today as [[Hawking radiation]], which may continue until they exhaust their energy and [[Black hole#Evaporation|evaporate]].<ref name="Q54017915" /><ref name="Q55869076" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=69–73}} Initially, Hawking radiation was controversial. Following the publication of further research, by the late 1970s, the discovery was widely accepted as a significant breakthrough in theoretical physics.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=70–74}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=42–43}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=150–51}}[[File:Chandra image of Cygnus X-1.jpg|thumb|200x200px|A 2009 [[X-ray telescope]] photo of [[Cygnus X-1]], an [[Astrophysical X-ray source|x-ray source]] and black hole candidate in the [[Cygnus (constellation)|Cygnus constellation]]]]Hawking was appointed to the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished Visiting Professorship at the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech) in 1974.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=86–88}} He worked with a friend on the faculty, [[Kip Thorne]],{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=82, 86}}<ref name="rsbm" /> and engaged him in a [[scientific wager]] about whether the [[Astrophysical X-ray source|X-ray source]] [[Cygnus X-1]] was a black hole. The wager was an "insurance policy" against the proposition that black holes did not exist.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=86–88}} Hawking acknowledged that he had lost the bet in 1990, a bet that was the first of several he was to make with Thorne and others.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=150, 189, 219}} Hawking had maintained ties to Caltech, spending a month there almost every year since this first visit.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=95}}

=== 1975–1990 ===
Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a more academically senior post, as [[Reader (academic rank)|reader]] in gravitational physics. The mid-to-late 1970s were a period of growing public interest in black holes and the physicists who were studying them. Hawking was regularly interviewed for print and television.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=90}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=132–33}} He also received increasing academic recognition of his work.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=92}} In 1975, he was awarded both the [[Eddington Medal]] and the [[Pius XI Medal|Pius XI Gold Medal]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pas.va/en/about/pius-xi-medal.html|title=List of winners of Pius XI medal}}</ref> and in 1976 the [[Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics|Dannie Heineman Prize]], the [[Maxwell Medal and Prize]], and the [[Hughes Medal]].{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=162}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=xv}} He was appointed a professor with a chair in [[gravitational physics]] in 1977.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=91}} The following year, he received the [[Albert Einstein Medal]] and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=xiv}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=92}}

In 1979, Hawking was elected [[Lucasian Professor of Mathematics]] at the University of Cambridge.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=92}}<ref name="lucasian">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3248858/Stephen-Hawking-to-retire-as-Cambridges-Professor-of-Mathematics.html|title=Stephen Hawking to retire as Cambridge's Professor of Mathematics|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=23 October 2008|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316023008/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3248858/Stephen-Hawking-to-retire-as-Cambridges-Professor-of-Mathematics.html|archive-date=16 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> His inaugural lecture in this role was titled: "Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Physics?" and proposed [[N = 8 supergravity|''N'' = 8 supergravity]] as the leading theory to solve many of the outstanding problems physicists were studying.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=93–94}} His promotion coincided with a health-crisis which led to his accepting, albeit reluctantly, some nursing services at home.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=92–93}} At the same time, he was also making a transition in his approach to physics, becoming more intuitive and speculative rather than insisting on mathematical proofs. "I would rather be right than rigorous", he told Kip Thorne.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=96}} In 1981, he proposed that information in a black hole is irretrievably lost when a black hole evaporates. This [[Black hole information paradox|information paradox]] violates the fundamental tenet of quantum mechanics, and led to years of debate, including "[[the Black Hole War]]" with [[Leonard Susskind]] and [[Gerard 't Hooft]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=96–101}}<ref name="Susskind2008" />

[[Inflation (cosmology)|Cosmological inflation]]{{snd}}a theory proposing that following the Big Bang, the universe initially expanded incredibly rapidly before settling down to a slower expansion{{snd}}was proposed by [[Alan Guth]] and also developed by [[Andrei Linde]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=108–11}} Following a conference in Moscow in October 1981, Hawking and [[Gary Gibbons]]<ref name="rsbm" /> organised a three-week Nuffield Workshop in the summer of 1982 on "The Very Early Universe" at Cambridge University, a workshop that focused mainly on inflation theory.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=111–14}}<ref name="Auto2J-12" /><ref name="Q29398982" /> Hawking also began a new line of quantum-theory research into the origin of the universe. In 1981, at a [[Vatican City|Vatican]] conference, he presented work suggesting that there might be [[Shape of the universe|no boundary]]{{snd}}or beginning or ending{{snd}}to the universe.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=102–103}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=180}}

Hawking subsequently developed the research in collaboration with [[James Hartle|Jim Hartle]],<ref name="rsbm" /> and in 1983 they published a model, known as the [[Hartle–Hawking state]]. It proposed that prior to the [[Planck epoch]], the universe had no boundary in spacetime; before the Big Bang, [[time]] did not exist and the concept of the beginning of the universe is meaningless.<ref name="Q21707690" /> The initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models was replaced with a region akin to the [[North Pole]]. One cannot travel north of the North Pole, but there is no boundary there{{snd}}it is simply the point where all north-running lines meet and end.{{sfn|Baird|2007|p=234}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=180–83}} Initially, the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed universe, which had implications about the [[existence of God]]. As Hawking explained, "if the universe has no boundaries but is self-contained... then [[God]] would not have had any freedom to choose how the universe began."{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=129}}

Further work by Hawking in the area of [[Arrow of Time|arrows of time]] led to the 1985 publication of a paper theorising that if the no-boundary proposition were correct, then when the universe stopped expanding and [[Ultimate fate of the universe|eventually collapsed]], [[Time reversibility|time would run backwards]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=180–182}} A paper by Don Page and independent calculations by [[Raymond Laflamme]] led Hawking to withdraw this concept.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=182}}

In 1982, to finance his children's education and home-expenses, Hawking decided to write a popular book about the universe that would be accessible to the general public.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=134–35}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=205, 220–21}} Instead of publishing with an academic press, he signed a contract with [[Bantam Books]], a mass-market publisher, and received a large advance for his book.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=134}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=220–27}} A first draft of the book, called ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'', was completed in 1984.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=135}}

One of the first messages Hawking produced with his [[speech-generating device]] was a request for his assistant to help him finish writing ''A Brief History of Time''.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=175}} Peter Guzzardi, his editor at Bantam, pushed him to explain his ideas clearly in non-technical language, a process that required many revisions from an increasingly irritated Hawking.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=140–42}} The book was published in April 1988 in the US and in June in the UK, and it proved to be an extraordinary success, rising quickly to the top of best-seller lists in both countries and remaining there for months.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=143}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=243–45}}<ref name="g2009" /> The book was translated into many languages,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=143–44}} and as of 2009, has sold an estimated 9{{nbsp}}million copies.<ref name="g2009" />

Media attention was intense,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=143–44}} and a ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine-cover and a television special both described him as "Master of the Universe".{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=146}} Success led to significant financial rewards, but also the challenges of celebrity status.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=145–46}} Hawking travelled extensively to promote his work, and enjoyed partying into the late hours.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=143–44}} A difficulty refusing the invitations and visitors left him limited time for work and his students.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=149}} Some colleagues were resentful of the attention Hawking received, feeling it was due to his disability.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=147–48}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=230–31}}

=== 1990–2000 ===
In 1992, [[Chronology protection conjecture|Hawking conjectured]] that [[Time travel|travel into the past]] is effectively impossible. On 28 June 2009, as a [[tongue-in-cheek]] test of the conjecture, he [[Hawking's time traveller party|held a party open to all]], complete with food and drinks, but publicised the party only after it was over so that only time-travellers would know to attend; as expected, nobody showed up.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Billings|first1=Lee|title=Time Travel Simulation Resolves 'Grandfather Paradox'|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-travel-simulation-resolves-grandfather-paradox/|access-date=2 September 2016|work=[[Scientific American]]|date=2 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904053855/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/time-travel-simulation-resolves-grandfather-paradox/|archive-date=4 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

Hawking pursued his work in physics: in 1993, he co-edited a book on [[Euclidean quantum gravity]] with Gary Gibbons and published a collected edition of his own articles on black holes and the Big Bang.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=180}} In 1994, at Cambridge's [[Newton Institute]], Hawking and Penrose delivered a series of six lectures that were published in 1996 as "The Nature of Space and Time".{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=188}}

In 1997, he conceded a 1991 public scientific wager made with Kip Thorne and [[John Preskill]] of Caltech. Hawking had bet that Penrose's proposal of a "[[Cosmic censorship hypothesis|cosmic censorship conjecture]]"{{snd}}that there could be no "[[Naked singularity|naked singularities]]" unclothed within a horizon{{snd}}was correct.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=189–90}} After discovering his concession might have been premature, a more refined wager was made, specifying that such singularities would occur without extra conditions.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=190}} The same year, Thorne, Hawking, and Preskill made [[Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet|another bet]], this time concerning the [[black hole information paradox]].<ref name="Auto2J-18" /><ref name="concedbet" /> Thorne and Hawking argued that since general relativity made it impossible for black holes to radiate and lose information, the [[mass-energy]] and information carried by Hawking radiation must be "new", and not from inside the event horizon. Since this contradicted the quantum mechanics of microcausality,{{Explain|date=February 2026}} quantum mechanics theory would need to be rewritten. Preskill argued the opposite, that since quantum mechanics suggests that the information emitted by a black hole relates to information that fell in at an earlier time, the concept of black holes given by general relativity must be modified in some way.<ref name="presskill" />

Hawking also maintained his public profile, including bringing science to a wider audience. The documentary ''[[A Brief History of Time (film)|A Brief History of Time]]'', directed by [[Errol Morris]], premiered in 1991; the film contains material from the book as well as interviews with Hawking, his friends, family, and colleagues. Hawking had wanted the film to be scientific rather than biographical, but he was persuaded otherwise. The film, while a critical success, was not widely released.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=168–70}} A popular-level collection of essays, interviews, and talks titled ''[[Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays]]'' was published in 1993.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=178}} A six-part television series ''[[Stephen Hawking's Universe]]'' and a companion book appeared in 1997; as Hawking insisted, the focus was entirely on science.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=189}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=97}}

=== 2000–2018 ===
[[File:Gross Witten Hawking TIFR 2001.jpg|thumb|alt=Hawking outside, in his wheelchair, talking to David Gross and Edward Witten|Hawking with [[string theory|string theorists]] [[David Gross]] and [[Edward Witten]] in 2001|300x300px]]

Hawking continued his writings for a popular audience, publishing ''[[The Universe in a Nutshell]]'' in 2001,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=199–200}} and ''[[A Briefer History of Time (Hawking and Mlodinow book)|A Briefer History of Time]]'', which he wrote in 2005 with [[Leonard Mlodinow]] to update his earlier works with the aim of making them accessible to a wider audience, and ''[[God Created the Integers]]'', which appeared in 2006.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=222–23}} Along with Thomas Hertog at [[CERN]] and Jim Hartle, from 2006 on, Hawking developed a theory of [[top-down cosmology]], which says that the universe had not one unique initial state but many different ones, and therefore that it is inappropriate to formulate a theory that predicts the universe's current configuration from one particular initial state.<ref name="Auto2J-23" /> Top-down cosmology posits that the present "selects" the past from a superposition{{Explain|date=February 2026}} of many possible histories. In doing so, the theory suggests a possible resolution of the [[Fine-tuned universe|fine-tuning question]].<ref name="dt70" /><ref name="Q27442267" />

By 2003, consensus among physicists was growing that Hawking was wrong about the loss of information in a black hole.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=216–17}} In a 2004 lecture in Dublin, he conceded his 1997 bet with Preskill, but described his own, somewhat controversial solution to the information paradox problem, involving the possibility that black holes have more than one [[Spacetime topology|topology]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=217–20}}<ref name="presskill" /> In the 2005 paper he published on the subject, he argued that the information paradox was explained by examining all the alternative histories of universes, with the information loss in those with black holes being cancelled out by those without such loss.<ref name="concedbet" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=223–24}} In January 2014, he called the alleged loss of information in black holes his "biggest blunder".<ref>{{cite news |last=Kwong |first=Matt |date=28 January 2014 |title=Stephen Hawking's black holes 'blunder' stirs debate |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/stephen-hawking-s-black-holes-blunder-stirs-debate-1.2514299 |publisher=[[CBC News]] |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317142127/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/stephen-hawking-s-black-holes-blunder-stirs-debate-1.2514299 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> In August 2015, Hawking said that not all information is lost when something enters a black hole and there might be a possibility to retrieve information from a black hole according to his theory.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stephen Hawking says he has a way to escape from a black hole |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28090-stephen-hawking-says-he-has-a-way-to-escape-from-a-black-hole/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108151818/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn28090-stephen-hawking-says-he-has-a-way-to-escape-from-a-black-hole/ |archive-date=8 January 2017 |access-date=31 May 2017 |website=New Scientist}}</ref>[[File:Stephen Hawking 050506.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Stephen Hawking sitting in his wheelchair inside|upright|Hawking in 2006]]As part of another longstanding scientific dispute, Hawking had emphatically argued, and bet, that the [[Higgs boson]] would never be found.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=95, 236}} The particle was proposed to exist as part of the [[Higgs field]] theory by [[Peter Higgs]] in 1964. Hawking and Higgs engaged in a heated and public debate over the matter in 2002 and again in 2008, with Higgs criticising Hawking's work and complaining that Hawking's "celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do not have".{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=94–95, 236}} The particle was discovered in July 2012 at CERN following construction of the [[Large Hadron Collider]]. Hawking quickly conceded that he had lost his bet<ref name="Auto2J-42" /><ref name="Auto2J-43" /> and said that Higgs should win the [[Nobel Prize for Physics]],<ref name="Auto2J-44" /> which he did in 2013.<ref>{{cite news |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=8 October 2013 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24445325 |title=Higgs: Five decades of noble endeavour |work=BBC News |access-date=10 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611120757/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24445325 |archive-date=11 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2007, Hawking and his daughter [[Lucy Hawking|Lucy]] published ''[[George's Secret Key to the Universe]]'', a children's book designed to explain theoretical physics in an accessible fashion and featuring characters similar to those in the Hawking family.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=230–231}} The book was followed by [[George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt|sequels]] in 2009, 2011, 2014 and 2016.<ref name="books" /> Hawking created ''Stephen Hawking: Expedition New Earth'', a 2017 documentary on [[Space colonization|space colonisation]], as an episode of ''[[Tomorrow's World]]''.<ref>{{cite news |date=2 May 2017 |title=Tomorrow's World returns to BBC with startling warning from Stephen Hawking – we must leave Earth |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/05/02/tomorrows-world-returns-bbc-startling-warning-stephen-hawking/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505013510/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/05/02/tomorrows-world-returns-bbc-startling-warning-stephen-hawking/ |archive-date=5 May 2017 |access-date=5 May 2017 |work=The Telegraph}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 May 2017 |title=Stephen Hawking will test his theory that humans must leave Earth. Let's hope he's wrong. |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/nation-now/2017/05/04/stephen-hawking-test-his-theory-humans-must-leave-earth-lets-hope-hes-wrong/310545001/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504212324/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/nation-now/2017/05/04/stephen-hawking-test-his-theory-humans-must-leave-earth-lets-hope-hes-wrong/310545001/ |archive-date=4 May 2017 |access-date=5 May 2017 |work=USA Today}}</ref>

During his career, Hawking supervised 39 successful PhD students.<ref name="mathgene" /> As required by Cambridge University policy for professors who have reached the age of 67, Hawking retired as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 2009.<ref name="lucasian" /><ref name="Auto2J-11" /> Despite suggestions that he might leave the U.K. as a protest against public funding cuts to basic scientific research,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=238–39}} Hawking worked as director of research at the Cambridge University Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics.<ref name="tel2012" />[[File:Stephen Hawking in Stockholm, 2015.jpg|thumb|Hawking lecturing at the [[Stockholm Waterfront]] congress centre in 2015]]On 20 July 2015, Hawking helped launch [[Breakthrough Initiatives]], an effort to search for [[extraterrestrial life]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Katz |first=Gregory |title=Searching for ET: Hawking to look for extraterrestrial life |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20150720/eu--britain-extraterrestrials-e52c157915.html |date=20 July 2015 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=20 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722045619/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20150720/eu--britain-extraterrestrials-e52c157915.html |archive-date=22 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In his final broadcast interview, given October 2017, Hawking spoke of the [[GW170817#Scientific importance|scientific importance of GW170817]], a black hole merger.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Pallab |date=26 March 2018 |title=Stephen Hawking's final interview: A beautiful Universe |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43499024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326232419/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43499024 |archive-date=26 March 2018 |access-date=26 March 2018 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> The interview was broadcast in April 2018, after his death, as the [[Smithsonian Channel|Smithsonian TV Channel]] documentary ''Leaving Earth: Or How to Colonize a Planet''.<ref>{{cite news |last=Taylor |first=Dan |date=24 March 2018 |title=Stephen Hawking's incredible last words will stun you |url=https://www.morningticker.com/2018/03/stephen-hawkings-astonishing-last-words-will-stun-you/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325061251/https://www.morningticker.com/2018/03/stephen-hawkings-astonishing-last-words-will-stun-you/ |archive-date=25 March 2018 |access-date=24 March 2018 |work=MorningTicker.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Tasoff |first=Harrison |date=13 March 2018 |title=4 Smithsonian Space Documentaries You Don't Want to Miss |url=https://www.space.com/39950-smithsonian-channel-space-specials.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325232411/https://www.space.com/39950-smithsonian-channel-space-specials.html |archive-date=25 March 2018 |access-date=24 March 2018 |website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> Hawking's final paper, ''A smooth exit from [[eternal inflation]]?'', was posthumously published in the ''[[Journal of High Energy Physics]]'' on 27 April 2018.<ref name="Q55878494">{{Cite Q|Q55878494}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2 May 2018 |title=Hawking's last paper co-authored with ERC grantee posits new cosmology |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-05/erc-hlp043018.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502163440/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-05/erc-hlp043018.php |archive-date=2 May 2018 |access-date=3 May 2018 |work=EurekAlert!}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Staff ([[University of Cambridge]]) |date=2 May 2018 |title=Taming the multiverse—Stephen Hawking's final theory about the big bang |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-05-multiversestephen-hawking-theory-big.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502161819/https://phys.org/news/2018-05-multiversestephen-hawking-theory-big.html |archive-date=2 May 2018 |access-date=2 May 2018 |website=[[Phys.org]]}}</ref> In October 2018, one of his final research studies, entitled ''Black Hole Entropy and Soft Hair'',<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haco |first1=Sasha |last2=Hawking |first2=Stephen W. |last3=Perry |first3=Malcolm J. |last4=Strominger |first4=Andrew |year=2018 |title=Black Hole Entropy and Soft Hair |journal=Journal of High Energy Physics |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=2018 |issue=12 |page=98 |arxiv=1810.01847v2 |bibcode=2018JHEP...12..098H |doi=10.1007/jhep12(2018)098 |issn=1029-8479 |doi-access=free}}</ref> was published, and dealt with the "mystery of what happens to the information held by objects once they disappear into a black hole".<ref>{{cite web |last=Nield |first=David |date=12 October 2018 |title=The Very Last Paper Stephen Hawking Worked on Has Just Been Published Online – He continued the quest to understand black holes until the end. |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/stephen-hawking-last-paper-continues-understanding-of-black-holes |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012033035/https://www.sciencealert.com/stephen-hawking-last-paper-continues-understanding-of-black-holes |archive-date=12 October 2018 |access-date=12 October 2018 |work=ScienceAlert.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |date=23 October 2018 |title=Stephen Hawking's Final Paper: How to Escape From a Black Hole – In a study from beyond the grave, the theoretical physicist sings (mathematically) of memory, loss and the possibility of data redemption. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/23/science/stephen-hawking-final-paper.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024003617/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/23/science/stephen-hawking-final-paper.html |archive-date=24 October 2018 |access-date=23 October 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Also in October, Hawking's last book was published, [[Brief Answers to the Big Questions (book)|''Brief Answers to the Big Questions'']], containing his final comments on what he believed were the most important questions facing humankind.<ref name="WP-20181015">{{cite news |last=Stanley-Becker |first=Isaac |title=Stephen Hawking feared race of 'superhumans' able to manipulate their own DNA |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/10/15/stephen-hawking-feared-race-of-superhumans-able-to-manipulate-their-own-dna/ |date=15 October 2018 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015124821/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2018/10/15/stephen-hawking-feared-race-of-superhumans-able-to-manipulate-their-own-dna/ |archive-date=15 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=AP News |author-link=AP News |date=15 October 2018 |title=In Posthumous Message, Hawking Says Science Under Threat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2018/10/15/world/europe/ap-eu-britain-stephen-hawking.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016034207/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2018/10/15/world/europe/ap-eu-britain-stephen-hawking.html |archive-date=16 October 2018 |access-date=15 October 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Staff |date=2018 |title=Brief Answers to the Big Questions – Hardcover – 16 October 2018 by Stephen Hawking |url=https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1984819194 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527195909/https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1984819194 |archive-date=27 May 2020 |access-date=15 October 2018 |work=[[Amazon (company)|Amazon]]}}</ref>
== Personal views ==
=== Relevance of philosophy ===
{{See also|Contemporary philosophy}}
At Google's Zeitgeist Conference in 2011, Stephen Hawking said that "philosophy is dead". He believed that philosophers "have not kept up with modern developments in science", "have not taken science sufficiently seriously and so Philosophy is no longer relevant to knowledge claims", "their art is dead" and that scientists "have become the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest for knowledge". He said that philosophical problems can be answered by science, particularly new scientific theories which "lead us to a new and very different picture of the universe and our place in it".<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 May 2011 |title=Stephen Hawking tells Google 'philosophy is dead' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/8520033/Stephen-Hawking-tells-Google-philosophy-is-dead.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622072517/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/8520033/Stephen-Hawking-tells-Google-philosophy-is-dead.html |archive-date=22 June 2018 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref> His view was both praised and criticised.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=Callum D. |date=2012 |title=The death of Philosophy: a response to Stephen Hawking |journal=South African Journal of Philosophy |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=384–404 |doi=10.1080/02580136.2012.10751783 |issn=0258-0136 |s2cid=144498480}}</ref> He said, "Love, faith, and morality belong to a different category to physics. You cannot deduce how one should behave from the laws of physics. But one could hope that the logical thought that physics and mathematics involves would guide one also in one's moral behavior."<ref name="DesertIslandDiscs" />

=== Future of humanity ===
In 2006, Hawking posed an open question on the Internet: "In a world that is in chaos politically, socially and environmentally, how can the human race sustain another 100 years?", later clarifying: "I don't know the answer. That is why I asked the question, to get people to think about it, and to be aware of the dangers we now face."<ref>{{cite news |last=Sample |first=Ian |date=2 August 2006 |title=The great man's answer to the question of human survival: Er, I don't know |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2006/aug/03/scientists.spaceexploration |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314230514/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2006/aug/03/scientists.spaceexploration |archive-date=14 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

Hawking expressed concern that life on Earth is at risk from a sudden [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]], a [[Genetically modified virus|genetically engineered virus]], [[global warming]], an [[asteroid collision]], or other dangers humans have not yet thought of.<ref name="nyt2007" /><ref name="telegraph planet Earth">{{cite news |title=Prof Stephen Hawking: disaster on planet Earth is a near certainty |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/12107623/Prof-Stephen-Hawking-disaster-on-planet-Earth-is-a-near-certainty.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225616/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/12107623/Prof-Stephen-Hawking-disaster-on-planet-Earth-is-a-near-certainty.html |archive-date=2 April 2018 |access-date=2 April 2018 |work=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref><ref name="WP-20181015" /> Hawking stated: "I regard it as almost inevitable that either a nuclear confrontation or environmental catastrophe will cripple the Earth at some point in the next 1,000 years".<ref name="WP-20181015" /> He also thought that a planet-wide disaster need not result in [[human extinction]] if the human race were to be able to colonise additional planets before the disaster.<ref name="telegraph planet Earth" /> Hawking viewed spaceflight and the colonisation of space as [[Space and survival|necessary for the future of humanity]].<ref name="nyt2007" /><ref name="Auto2J-31" />

Hawking stated that, given the vastness of the universe, [[Extraterrestrial life|aliens]] likely exist, but that contact with them should be avoided.<ref name="Auto2J-30" /><ref name="alien" /> He warned that aliens might pillage Earth for resources. In 2010, he said: "If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] landed in America, which [[Native American genocide in the United States|didn't turn out well]] for the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]."<ref name="alien" />

Hawking warned that [[superintelligent]] [[artificial intelligence]] could be pivotal in steering humanity's fate, stating that "the potential benefits are huge... Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history. It might also be the last, unless we learn how to avoid the risks."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hawking |first1=Stephen |last2=Tegmark |first2=Mark |last3=Wilczek |first3=Frank |date=1 May 2014 |title=Stephen Hawking: 'Transcendence looks at the implications of artificial intelligence – but are we taking AI seriously enough?' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-transcendence-looks-at-the-implications-of-artificial-intelligence-but-are-we-taking-9313474.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002023652/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-transcendence-looks-at-the-implications-of-artificial-intelligence-but-are-we-taking-9313474.html |archive-date=2 October 2015 |access-date=3 December 2014 |work=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2 December 2014 |title=Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-30290540 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030054329/http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-30290540 |archive-date=30 October 2015 |access-date=3 December 2014 |work=BBC News}}</ref> He feared that "an extremely intelligent future AI will probably [[Instrumental convergence|develop a drive]] to survive and acquire more resources as a step toward accomplishing whatever goal it has", and that "the real risk with AI isn't malice, but competence. A super-intelligent AI will be extremely good at accomplishing its goals, and if those goals aren't [[AI alignment|aligned]] with ours, we're in trouble".<ref name=":1">{{Cite magazine |last=stevenson |first=matt |date=8 October 2015 |title=Answers to Stephen Hawking's AMA are Here! |url=https://www.wired.com/brandlab/2015/10/stephen-hawkings-ama/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502051006/https://www.wired.com/brandlab/2015/10/stephen-hawkings-ama/ |archive-date=2 May 2023 |access-date=28 April 2023 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> He also considered that the enormous wealth generated by machines needs to be redistributed to prevent exacerbated [[economic inequality]].<ref name=":1" />

Hawking was concerned about the future emergence of a race of "superhumans" that would be able to [[Human enhancement|design their own evolution]]<ref name="WP-20181015" /> and, as well, argued that [[computer virus]]es in today's world should be considered a new form of life, stating that "maybe it says something about [[human nature]], that the only form of life we have created so far is purely destructive. Talk about creating life in our own image."{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=179}}

=== Religion and atheism ===
Hawking did not rule out the existence of God, writing in ''A Brief History of Time'': "Is [[Theory of everything|the unified theory]] so compelling that it brings about its own existence?",{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=130}} also stating "If we discover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason{{snd}}for then we should know the mind of God";<ref name="sample" /> in his early work, Hawking spoke of God in a metaphorical sense. In the same book, he suggested that the existence of God was not [[Creationism|necessary to explain the origin of the universe]]. Later discussions with [[Neil Turok]] led to the realisation that the existence of God was also compatible with an open universe.{{sfn|Yulsman|2003|pp=174–176}} He said: "All my work has shown is that you don't have to say that the way the universe began was the personal whim of God. But you still have the question, 'Why does the universe bother to exist?' If you like, you can define God as the answer to that question."<ref name="DesertIslandDiscs" />

Hawking was an [[Atheism|atheist]].<ref name="atheist" /><ref name="Auto2J-52" /> In a 2011 interview, Hawking regarded the [[Human brain|brain]] "as a computer which will stop working when its components fail", and the concept of an [[afterlife]] as a "[[Fairy tale|fairy story]] for people [[Fear of the dark|afraid of the dark]]".<ref name="NYT=20180314" /><ref name="sample" /> In 2011, narrating the first episode of the American television series ''[[Curiosity (TV series)|Curiosity]]'' on the [[Discovery Channel]], Hawking declared:

{{blockquote|We are each free to believe what we want and it is my view that the simplest explanation is there is no God. No one created the universe and no one directs our fate. This leads me to a profound realisation. There is probably no heaven, and no afterlife either. We have this one life to appreciate the grand design of the universe, and for that, I am extremely grateful.<ref name="Auto2J-50" /><ref name="Auto2J-51" />}}

Hawking's association with atheism and [[freethinking]] was in evidence from his university years onwards, when he had been a member of Oxford University's [[secular humanism|humanist]] group. He was later scheduled to appear as the keynote speaker at a 2017 [[Humanists UK]] conference.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 March 2019 |title=Humanists UK mourns death of Stephen Hawking |url=https://humanism.org.uk/2018/03/14/humanists-uk-mourns-death-of-stephen-hawking/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923073018/https://humanism.org.uk/2018/03/14/humanists-uk-mourns-death-of-stephen-hawking/ |archive-date=23 September 2020 |access-date=18 March 2019 |work=[[Humanists UK]]}}</ref> In a 2014 interview, he said:

{{blockquote|Before we understand science, it is natural to believe that God created the universe. But now science offers a more convincing explanation. What I meant by 'we would know the mind of God' is, we would know everything that God would know, if there were a God, which there isn't. I'm an atheist.<ref name="atheist">{{cite news|last1=Boyle|first1=Alan|title='I'm an Atheist': Stephen Hawking on God and Space Travel|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/im-atheist-stephen-hawking-god-space-travel-n210076|access-date=12 January 2017|work=NBC News|date=23 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125223518/http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/im-atheist-stephen-hawking-god-space-travel-n210076|archive-date=25 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

In addition, Hawking stated:

{{blockquote|If you like, you can call the laws of science 'God', but it wouldn't be a personal God that you would meet and put questions to.<ref name="WP-20181015" />}}

=== Politics ===
Hawking was a longstanding [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] supporter,{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=195}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=223}} His endorsement of them in the [[2017 United Kingdom general election|2017 UK general election]] cited the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]'s proposed cuts to the [[National Health Service]] (NHS), but he was openly critical of Labour's ability to win a general election under party leader [[Jeremy Corbyn]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Griffin, Andrew |date=6 June 2017 |title=Stephen Hawking announces he is voting Labour: 'The Tories would be a disaster' |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-jeremy-corbyn-labour-theresa-may-conservatives-endorsement-general-election-a7774016.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605165406/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-jeremy-corbyn-labour-theresa-may-conservatives-endorsement-general-election-a7774016.html |archive-date=5 June 2017 |access-date=6 June 2017 |newspaper=The Independent}}</ref> Hawking once recorded a video tribute to the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] candidate in the [[2000 United States presidential election|2000 U.S. presidential election]], [[Al Gore]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=195}}

Hawking supported [[universal health care]],{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=242}} and maintained that without the NHS, he would not have survived into his 70s.<ref name="bbc20/8/2017">{{cite news |date=20 August 2017 |title=Hawking v Hunt: What happened? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/health-40990288 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314204857/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/health-40990288/stephen-hawking-i-wouldn-t-be-here-without-the-nhs |archive-date=14 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |work=BBC News}}</ref> He especially feared [[Privatization|privatisation]] of healthcare in the UK, stating: "The more profit is extracted from the system, the more private [[Monopoly|monopolies]] grow and the more expensive healthcare becomes. The NHS must be preserved from commercial interests and protected from those who want to privatise it."<ref>{{cite news |last=Triggle |first=Nick |date=19 August 2017 |title=Stephen Hawking: I'm worried about the future of the NHS |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-40967309 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315091333/http://www.bbc.com/news/health-40967309 |archive-date=15 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Hawking criticized the Conservatives for wanting to privatise the NHS, and for cutting funding to it as a result.<ref>{{cite news |last=Campbell |first=Denis |date=18 August 2017 |title=Stephen Hawking blames Tory politicians for damaging NHS |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/18/stephen-hawking-blames-tory-politicians-for-damaging-nhs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315005120/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/18/stephen-hawking-blames-tory-politicians-for-damaging-nhs |archive-date=15 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> He was also in favor of increasing the numbers of doctors and nurses in the NHS.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kennedy |first=Maev |date=27 August 2017 |title=Jeremy Hunt continues war of words with Stephen Hawking over NHS |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/aug/27/jeremy-hunt-continues-war-of-words-with-stephen-hawking-over-nhs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315005109/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/aug/27/jeremy-hunt-continues-war-of-words-with-stephen-hawking-over-nhs |archive-date=15 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

Before the [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|2014 referendum]] on [[Scottish independence]] from the UK, Hawking was one of two hundred public figures who signed a letter endorsing a vote against independence.<ref name="Auto2J-56" /> Voters ultimately agreed with them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Picheta |first=Rob |date=2022-11-23 |title=Scotland blocked from holding independence vote by UK’s Supreme Court |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/23/uk/scottish-indepedence-court-ruling-gbr-intl |access-date=2026-02-09 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Hawking similarly denounced [[Brexit]], the UK's withdrawal from the [[European Union]] (EU). He predicted it would weaken the UK's contribution to global scientific efforts; he claimed modern scientific research requires international collaboration, and that freedom of movement within Europe, [[Freedom of movement for workers in the European Union|as is guaranteed]] to [[European Union citizenship|EU citizens]], encourages the spread of ideas.<ref>{{cite news |last=Radford |first=Tim |date=31 May 2016 |title=Trump's popularity inexplicable and Brexit spells disaster, says Stephen Hawking |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/may/31/stephen-hawking-donald-trump-popularity-inexplicable-and-brexit-spells-disaster |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531170538/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/may/31/stephen-hawking-donald-trump-popularity-inexplicable-and-brexit-spells-disaster |archive-date=31 May 2016 |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hawking |first=Stephen |date=2016-07-29 |title=Our attitude towards wealth played a crucial role in Brexit. We need a rethink |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jul/29/stephen-hawking-brexit-wealth-resources |access-date=2026-02-09 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Voters decided in favor of withdrawal in a [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|2016 referendum]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Referendum Results - BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/eu_referendum/results |access-date=2026-02-09 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> Later that year, as pro-Brexit Prime Minister [[Theresa May]] honoured Hawking at the [[Pride of Britain Awards]], he told her: "please don't ask me to help with Brexit."<ref name="polviews">{{cite news |date=14 March 2018 |title=Stephen Hawking's political views |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-43399019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317031315/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-43399019 |archive-date=17 March 2018 |access-date=19 March 2018 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

Hawking encouraged action to prevent [[climate change]].<ref name="ind2007" /> He feared U.S. president [[Donald Trump]]'s policies on global warming: "By [[Climate change denial|denying]] the [[Scientific consensus on climate change|evidence for climate change]], and pulling out of the [[Paris Agreement]], Donald Trump will cause avoidable [[Effects of climate change|environmental damage]] to [Earth], endangering the natural world, for us and our children."<ref>{{cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Pallab |date=2 July 2017 |title=Hawking says Trump's climate stance could damage Earth |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-40461726 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314232752/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-40461726 |archive-date=14 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Hawking also theorized that climate change could lead Earth "to become like [[Venus]], with a temperature of two hundred and fifty degrees [<nowiki/>[[Celsius]]], and raining [[sulphuric acid]]".<ref>{{cite news |last=Eleftheriou-Smith |first=Loulla-Mae |date=3 July 2017 |title=Stephen Hawking says Donald Trump could turn Earth into Venus-like planet with 250C and sulphuric acid rain |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-donald-trump-paris-climate-change-agreement-earth-brink-global-warming-us-fossil-a7820336.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319063733/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-donald-trump-paris-climate-change-agreement-earth-brink-global-warming-us-fossil-a7820336.html |archive-date=19 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |work=[[The Independent]]}}</ref>

Furthermore, Hawking supported [[nuclear disarmament]]{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=195}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=223}} and [[stem cell]] research.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=223}}<ref name="Auto2J-37" /> He believed the U.S.' [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] was a [[Legality of the Iraq War#War of aggression|war crime]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=223}}<ref name="Auto2J-34" /> He was also critical of the [[Government of Israel|Israeli government]]'s actions in the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]], stating they are "likely to lead to disaster", and once boycotted an academic conference in Israel over the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|occupation]] of [[Palestine]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sherwood |first1=Harriet |last2=Kalman |first2=Matthew |last3=Jones |first3=Sam |date=9 May 2013 |title=Stephen Hawking: Furore deepens over Israel boycott |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/may/08/hawking-israel-boycott-furore |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516185837/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/may/08/hawking-israel-boycott-furore |archive-date=16 May 2022 |access-date=16 May 2022 |work=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In the 2010s, Hawking accused then-[[Secretary of State for Health and Social Care]] [[Jeremy Hunt]] of [[cherry picking]] evidence to support debased scientific claims.<ref name="bbc20/8/2017" />

== Personal life ==
=== Marriages ===

Hawking met his future wife, [[Jane Hawking|Jane Wilde]], at a party in 1962. The following year, Hawking was diagnosed with [[motor neurone disease]] (MND; also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig's disease). In October 1964, the couple became engaged, while aware of Hawking's new physical limitations and shortened life expectancy.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=xiv}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=37–40}} Hawking later recalled: "Before I got motor neuron disease, I was bored with life. But the prospect of an early death made me realize life was really worth living."<ref name="DesertIslandDiscs" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=40}} The two were married on 14 July 1965 in their shared hometown of St Albans.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=43–44}}{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
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| footer = Hawking being presented by his daughter [[Lucy Hawking]] at the lecture he gave for [[NASA]]'s 50th anniversary, 2008
| image1 = Stephen hawking and lucy hawking nasa 2008.jpg
| image2 = Stephen hawking 2008 nasa cropped.jpg
}}

The couple resided in Cambridge, within Hawking's walking distance to the [[Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics]] (DAMTP). During their first years of marriage, Jane lived in London during the week as she completed her degree at [[Westfield College]]. They travelled to the United States several times for conferences and physics-related visits. Jane began a PhD programme through Westfield College in [[Medieval Spanish literature#Lyric poetry of the Middle Ages|medieval Spanish poetry]] (completed in 1981). The couple had three children: Robert, born May 1967,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=45–47}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=92–98}} [[Lucy Hawking|Lucy]], born November 1970,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=65}} and Timothy, born April 1979.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=92}}

Hawking rarely discussed his illness and physical challenges—even, in a precedent set during their courtship, with Jane.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=37–39, 77}} His disabilities meant that the responsibilities of home and family rested firmly on his wife's shoulders, leaving him more time to think about physics.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=78}} Upon his appointment in 1974 to a year-long position at Caltech, Jane proposed that a graduate or post-doctoral student live with them and help with his care. Hawking accepted, and [[Bernard Carr]] travelled with them as the first of many students who fulfilled this role.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=82–83}}<ref name="black" /> The family spent a generally happy and stimulating year in Pasadena.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=83–88}}

Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a new home and a new job, as reader. [[Don Page (physicist)|Don Page]], with whom Hawking had begun a close friendship at Caltech, arrived to work as the live-in graduate student assistant. With Page's help and that of a secretary, Jane's responsibilities were reduced so she could return to her doctoral thesis and her new interest in singing.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=89–90}}

Around December 1977, Jane met organist Jonathan Hellyer Jones when singing in a church choir. Hellyer Jones became close to the Hawking family, and by the mid-1980s, he and Jane developed romantic feelings for each other.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=91}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=xiv, 79}}{{sfn|Hawking|2007|pp=279–80}} According to Jane, her husband was accepting of the situation, stating "he would not object so long as I continued to love him".{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=91}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=79}}{{sfn|Hawking|2007|p=285}} Jane and Hellyer Jones were determined not to break up the family, and their relationship remained platonic for a long period.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=91–92}}

By the 1980s, Hawking's marriage had been strained for many years. Jane felt overwhelmed by the intrusion into their family life of the required nurses and assistants.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=164–65}} The impact of his celebrity status was challenging for colleagues and family members, while the prospect of living up to a worldwide fairytale image was daunting for the couple.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=185}}<ref name="dt70" /> Hawking's views of religion also contrasted with her strong Christian faith and resulted in tension.<ref name="dt70" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=80–81}}<ref name="obs2004" /> After a [[tracheotomy]] in 1985, Hawking required a full-time nurse and nursing care was split across three shifts daily. In the late 1980s, Hawking grew close to one of his nurses, Elaine Mason, to the dismay of some colleagues, caregivers, and family members, who were disturbed by her strength of personality and protectiveness.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=145}} In February 1990, Hawking told Jane that he was leaving her for Mason{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=165}} and departed the family home.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=x–xix}} After his divorce from Jane in 1995, Hawking married Mason in September.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=x–xix}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=186–87}}

In 1999, Jane published a memoir, ''Music to Move the Stars'', about her marriage and its breakdown. Its revelations caused a sensation in the media but, as was his usual practice regarding his personal life, Hawking made no public comment except to say that he did not read biographies about himself.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=187, 192}} After his second marriage, Hawking's family felt excluded and marginalised from his life.<ref name="obs2004" /> For a period of about five years in the early 2000s, his family and staff became increasingly worried that he was being [[Disability abuse|physically abused]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=197}} Police investigations took place, but were closed as Hawking refused to make a complaint.<ref name="sundaytimes" />

In 2006, Hawking and Mason quietly divorced,<ref name="Auto2J-25" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=225}} and Hawking resumed closer relationships with Jane, his children, and his grandchildren.<ref name="dt70" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=225}} Reflecting on this happier period, a revised version of Jane's book, re-titled ''Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen'', was published in 2007,<ref name="sundaytimes" /> and was made into a film, ''[[The Theory of Everything (2014 film)|The Theory of Everything]]'', in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title=Eddie Redmayne wins first Oscar for 'Theory of Everything'|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-awards-oscars-actor/eddie-redmayne-wins-first-oscar-for-theory-of-everything-idUSKBN0LR0AF20150223|access-date=7 March 2015|work=Reuters|date=10 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201132243/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-awards-oscars-actor/eddie-redmayne-wins-first-oscar-for-theory-of-everything-idUSKBN0LR0AF20150223|archive-date=1 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Disability ===
Hawking had a rare early-onset, slow-progressing form of MND, which gradually [[Paralysis|paralysed]] him over decades.<ref name=":0" /> During his final year at Oxford, he had experienced increasing clumsiness, including a fall on some stairs and difficulties when rowing.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=32}}<ref name="Auto2J-6" /> The problems worsened, and his speech became slightly [[dysarthria|slurred]]. His family noticed the changes when he returned home for Christmas, and medical investigations were begun.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=59}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=34–35}} He was diagnosed with MND at age 21, in 1963; doctors gave him a life expectancy of two years.{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=59–61}}

In the late 1960s, Hawking's physical abilities declined: he began to use crutches and could no longer give lectures regularly.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=48–49}} As he slowly lost the ability to write, he developed compensatory visual methods, including seeing equations in terms of geometry.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=76–77}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=124–25}} Werner Israel later compared the achievements to [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] composing an entire symphony in his head.<ref name="Auto2J-8" />{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=124}} Hawking was unwilling to accept help or make concessions for his disabilities. He preferred to be regarded as "a scientist first, [[popular science]] writer second, and, in all the ways that matter, a normal human being with the same desires, drives, dreams, and ambitions as the next person".{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=viii}} Jane Hawking later noted: "Some people would call it determination, some obstinacy. I've called it both at one time or another."{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=48}} He required much persuasion to accept the use of a [[wheelchair]] at the end of the 1960s,{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=117}} but ultimately became notorious for the wildness of his wheelchair driving.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=162}} Hawking was popular among his colleagues, but his illness, as well as his reputation for brashness, distanced him from some.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=48}}

When Hawking first began using a wheelchair he was using standard [[Motorized wheelchair|motorised]] models, or "powerchairs". The earliest surviving example of these chairs was made by BEC Mobility and sold by [[Christie's]] in November 2018 for £296,750.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://onlineonly.christies.com/s/shoulders-giants-newton-darwin-einstein-hawking/motorised-wheelchair-52/62112 |title=A motorised wheelchair |date=November 2018 |access-date=18 June 2019 |archive-date=18 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618110459/https://onlineonly.christies.com/s/shoulders-giants-newton-darwin-einstein-hawking/motorised-wheelchair-52/62112 |url-status=live}}</ref> Hawking continued to use this type of chair until the early 1990s, at which time his ability to use his hands to drive a wheelchair deteriorated. Hawking used a variety of different chairs from that time, including a DragonMobility Dragon elevating powerchair from 2007;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/50th/NASA_lecture_series/hawking.html |title=NASA Lecture Series – Dr. Stephen Hawking |date=21 April 2008 |access-date=18 June 2019 |archive-date=23 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623172731/https://www.nasa.gov/50th/NASA_lecture_series/hawking.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> a Permobil C350 from 2014; and then a Permobil F3 from 2016.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.accessandmobilityprofessional.com/exclusive-stephen-hawkings-powerchair-provider-permobil-pays-tribute-physics-titan/ |title=Stephen Hawking's powerchair provider Permobil pays tribute to physics titan |date=15 March 2018 |access-date=18 June 2019 |archive-date=18 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618110459/https://www.accessandmobilityprofessional.com/exclusive-stephen-hawkings-powerchair-provider-permobil-pays-tribute-physics-titan/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Stephen Hawking - San Francisco ALS convention.jpg|thumb|Hawking at an [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis|ALS]] convention in San Francisco in the 1980s|386x386px]]

Hawking's speech deteriorated, and by the late 1970s he could be understood by only his family and closest friends. To communicate with others, someone who knew him well would interpret his speech into intelligible speech.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=81–82}} Spurred by a dispute with the university over who would pay for the ramp needed for him to enter his workplace, Hawking and his wife campaigned for improved [[Accessibility|access and support]] for those with disabilities in Cambridge,{{sfn|Mialet|2003|pp=450–51}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=79, 149}} including adapted student housing at the university.{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=273–74}} In general, Hawking had ambivalent feelings about his role as a [[disability rights]] champion: while wanting to help others, he also sought to detach himself from his illness and its challenges. His lack of engagement in this area led to some critics saying he was not doing enough, although White and Gribbin noted: "just by staying alive and continuing to work at the intense rate he and the world have grown used to, he is an inspiration to handicapped people everywhere".{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=193–94}}

During a visit to CERN on the border of France and Switzerland in mid-1985, Hawking contracted [[pneumonia]], which in his condition was life-threatening; he was so ill that Jane was asked if [[life support]] should be terminated. She refused, but the consequence was a [[tracheotomy]], which required round-the-clock nursing care and caused the loss of what remained of his speech.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=135–36}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=232–36}} The NHS was ready to pay for a [[nursing home]], but Jane was determined that he would live at home. The cost of the care was funded by an American foundation.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=136–37}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=235–36}} Nurses were hired for the three shifts required to provide the round-the-clock support he required. One of those employed was Elaine Mason, who was to become Hawking's second wife.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=139}}

For his communication, Hawking initially raised his eyebrows to choose [[Partner-assisted scanning|letters on a spelling card]],{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=136}} but in 1986 he received a computer program called the "Equalizer" from Walter Woltosz, CEO of Words Plus, who had developed an earlier version of the software to help his mother-in-law, who also had ALS and had lost her ability to speak and write.<ref name="Medeiros" /> In a method he used for the rest of his life, Hawking could now simply press a switch to [[Speech-generating device|select phrases, words or letters]] from a bank of about 2,500–3,000 that were [[Switch access scanning|scanned]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=137–38}}{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|pp=236–37}} The program was originally run on a [[desktop computer]]. Elaine Mason's husband, David, a [[Computer engineering|computer engineer]], adapted a small computer and attached it to his wheelchair.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=140}}

Released from the need to use somebody to interpret his speech, Hawking commented that "I can communicate better now than before I lost my voice."{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=140–41}} The voice he used had an American accent and is no longer produced.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=138}}<ref name="Auto2J-15" /> Despite the later availability of other voices, Hawking retained this original voice, saying that he preferred it and identified with it.<ref name="Auto2J-16" /> Originally, Hawking activated a switch using his hand and could produce up to [[Typing#Alphanumeric entry|15 words per minute]].{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=175}} Lectures were prepared in advance and were sent to the [[speech synthesis]]er in short sections to be delivered.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=138}}

Hawking gradually lost the use of his hand, and in 2005 he began to control his communication device with movements of his [[Pectoral muscles|cheek muscles]],{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=224}}<ref name="tech" /><ref name="hacked" /> with a rate of about one word per minute.<ref name="tech" /> With this decline there was a risk of him developing [[locked-in syndrome]], so Hawking worked with [[Intel Corporation|Intel]] researchers on systems that could translate his [[Neural oscillation|brain patterns]] or facial expressions into switch activations. After several prototypes did not perform as planned, they settled on an [[Predictive text|adaptive word predictor]] made by the London-based startup [[SwiftKey]], which used a system similar to his original technology. Hawking had an easier time adapting to the new system, which was further developed after inputting large amounts of Hawking's papers and other written materials and uses predictive software similar to other smartphone keyboards.<ref name="dt70" /><ref name="Medeiros">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/01/intel-gave-stephen-hawking-voice/|title=How Intel Gave Stephen Hawking a Voice|first=Joao|last=Medeiros|date=13 January 2015|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|access-date=14 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314050104/https://www.wired.com/2015/01/intel-gave-stephen-hawking-voice/|archive-date=14 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hacked" /><ref name="start" />

[[File:Relative time (2886233692) (Stephen Hawking cropped).jpg|thumb|Hawking in 2008|left|274x274px]]By 2009, he could no longer drive his wheelchair independently, but the same people who created his new typing mechanics were working on a method to drive his chair using movements made by his chin. This proved difficult, since Hawking could not move his neck, and trials showed that while he could indeed drive the chair, the movement was sporadic and jumpy.<ref name="Medeiros" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=240}} Near the end of his life, Hawking experienced increased breathing difficulties, often resulting in his requiring the usage of a [[ventilator]], and being regularly hospitalised.<ref name="dt70" />

Hawking continued to travel widely, including trips to Chile, [[Easter Island]], South Africa, Spain (to receive the [[Fonseca Prize]] in 2008),{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=233}}<ref name="Auto2J-29" /> Canada,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=239}} and numerous trips to the U.S.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=269}} For practical reasons related to his disability, Hawking increasingly travelled by private jet, and by 2011, that had become his only mode of international travel.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=197, 269}}

==== Disability outreach ====
Starting in the 1990s, Hawking accepted the mantle of role model for disabled people, lecturing and participating in fundraising activities.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=164, 178}} At the turn of the century, he and eleven other humanitarians signed the ''Charter for the Third Millennium on Disability'', which called on governments to prevent disability and protect the rights of disabled people.<ref name="Auto2J-19" />{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=196}} In 1999, Hawking was awarded the [[Lilienfeld Prize|Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize]] of the [[American Physical Society]].<ref name="Auto2J-20" />

In August 2012, Hawking narrated part of the [[2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony|opening ceremony]] of the [[2012 Summer Paralympics]] in London.<ref name="Auto2J-54" /> In September 2013, he expressed support for the legalisation of [[assisted suicide]] for the terminally ill.<ref name="Auto2J-55" /> In August 2014, Hawking was given the [[Ice Bucket Challenge]]—in which someone pours a bucket of ice water over their head on video, before challenging someone else—to promote ALS/MND awareness and research funding; as he had pneumonia in 2013, he did not have ice poured over him, but his children accepted the challenge on his behalf.<ref name="Auto2J-57" />

=== Plans for a trip to space ===
[[File:Physicist Stephen Hawking in Zero Gravity NASA.jpg|alt=Hawking, without his wheelchair, floating weightless in the air inside a plane|thumb|Hawking taking a [[zero-gravity]] flight in a [[reduced-gravity aircraft]], April 2007|300x300px]]
In late 2006, Hawking stated that one of his greatest unfulfilled desires was to travel to space.<ref name="Auto2J-32" /> On hearing this, [[Richard Branson]] offered a free flight into space with [[Virgin Galactic]], which Hawking immediately accepted. Besides personal ambition, he was motivated by the desire to increase public interest in [[spaceflight]] and to show the potential of people with disabilities.<ref name="nyt2007" /> On 26 April 2007, Hawking flew aboard a [[reduced-gravity aircraft|specially-modified]] [[Boeing 727-200]] jet operated by [[Zero Gravity Corporation|Zero-G Corp]] off the coast of Florida to experience weightlessness.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=232–33}} Fears that the manoeuvres would cause him undue discomfort proved incorrect, and the flight was extended to eight [[Parabolic arch|parabolic arcs]].<ref name="Auto2J-32" /> It was described as a successful test to see if he could withstand the [[G-force|g-forces]] involved in spaceflight.<ref>{{cite news | url =https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1549898/Branson-to-help-Hawking-live-space-dream.html | title =Branson to help Hawking live space dream | last1 =Leonard | first1 =T. | last2 =Osborne | first2 =A. | date =27 April 2007 | website =The Telegraph | access-date =15 March 2018 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20180316081851/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1549898/Branson-to-help-Hawking-live-space-dream.html | archive-date =16 March 2018 | url-status=live | df =dmy-all}}</ref> At the time, the date of Hawking's trip to space was projected to be as early as 2009, but [[Private spaceflight|commercial flights to space]] did not commence before his death.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2018/03/14/stephen-hawking-experienced-freedom-weightlessness-during-kennedy-space-center-visit/424663002/ | title = Stephen Hawking felt freedom of weightlessness during KSC visit | last = Dean | first = James | date = 14 March 2018 | website = [[USA Today]] | access-date = 15 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180315200338/https://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2018/03/14/stephen-hawking-experienced-freedom-weightlessness-during-kennedy-space-center-visit/424663002/ | archive-date = 15 March 2018 | url-status=live | df = dmy-all}}</ref>

=== Mention in Jeffrey Epstein email ===
{{Further|Epstein files}}
{{see also|List of people named in the Epstein files}}

Hawking was mentioned in court documents released in 2024 during the trial of [[Ghislaine Maxwell]], a British [[Child prostitution|child sex trafficker]] who conspired with American financier [[Jeffrey Epstein]] (who [[Death of Jeffrey Epstein|died]] in 2019<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-06 |title=Who entered Epstein's jail tier the night of his death? Newly released video logs appear to contradict official accounts. - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/epstein-files-jail-cell-death-video-logs/ |access-date=2026-02-09 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref>). The documents included an email Epstein sent in 2015, asking friends of Epstein's alleged victim, [[Virginia Giuffre]], to disprove supposed allegations of Giuffre's that Hawking participated in an "underage [[orgy]]" in the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]], where [[Little Saint James|Epstein lived]]. Epstein said he "can issue a reward” to them if they can "prove her allegations are false". The email implies it was written in response to a "new version" of the claim regarding Hawking. Neither Giuffre (who died in 2025<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-26 |title=Virginia Giuffre, one of Jeffrey Epstein's most prominent abuse survivors, dies by suicide |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/virginia-giuffre-one-jeffrey-epsteins-prominent-abuse-survivors-dies-s-rcna203027 |access-date=2026-02-09 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>) nor anyone else has ever publicly accused Hawking of sexual misconduct.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bekiempis|first=Victoria|date=2024-01-04|title=Jeffrey Epstein: documents linking associates to sex offender unsealed|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/jan/03/jeffrey-epstein-list-names-released|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=February 1, 2026|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Booth |first=Robert |date=January 5, 2024 |title=Prince Andrew, Clinton, Hawking: what do the Epstein documents say about key people? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/jan/05/prince-andrew-clinton-hawking-what-do-the-epstein-documents-say-about-key-people |access-date=February 6, 2026 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Goodwin |first=Grace Eliza |title=What the unsealed Jeffrey Epstein documents say — and don't say — about Stephen Hawking |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/stephen-hawking-jeffrey-epstein-documents-unsealed-2024-1 |date=January 4, 2024|access-date=February 6, 2026 |website=[[Business Insider]] |language=en-US}}</ref> According to physicist [[Lisa Randall]]—who was found in 2026 to have corresponded with Epstein—in 2006, Hawking and Epstein were both present at a conference on gravity. Randall describes both her correspondence and Epstein's appearance at the conference as resulting from Epstein's public financing of scientific efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Travis|last=Andersen|title='What does fun consist of? For you?' Harvard physicist traded emails with Jeffrey Epstein for years, documents show|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2026/02/04/metro/harvard-epstein-docs-lisa-randall-emails/ |date=February 4, 2026|access-date=February 6, 2026 |website=[[Boston Globe]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Death ==
Hawking died at his home in Cambridge on 14 March 2018, at the age of 76.<ref>{{cite Q|Q56551506|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="NYT=20180314">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=Stephen Hawking Dies at 76; His Mind Roamed the Cosmos |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/obituaries/stephen-hawking-dead.html |date=14 March 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314041252/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/obituaries/stephen-hawking-dead.html |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Penrose" /> His family stated that he "died peacefully".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/award-winning-scientist-stephen-hawking-dies-76/story?id=53729818|first=Karma|last=Allen|title=Stephen Hawking, author of 'A Brief History of Time,' dies at 76|date=14 March 2018|work=ABC News|access-date=14 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314070052/https://abcnews.go.com/International/award-winning-scientist-stephen-hawking-dies-76/story?id=53729818|archive-date=14 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sfgate.com/world/article/Physicist-Stephen-Hawking-dies-after-living-with-12751523.php|title=Physicist Stephen Hawking dies after living with ALS for 50-plus years|first=Robert|last=Barr|work=San Francisco Chronicle|access-date=14 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314072346/https://www.sfgate.com/world/article/Physicist-Stephen-Hawking-dies-after-living-with-12751523.php|archive-date=14 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> He was eulogised by figures in science, entertainment, politics, and other fields.{{efn|group=lower-alpha|Attributed to multiple references:<ref>{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=Stephen Hawking's Beautiful Mind |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/science/stephen-hawking-timeline.html |date=14 March 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=15 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314233440/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/science/stephen-hawking-timeline.html |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Mlodinow |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Mlodinow |title=Stephen Hawking, Force of Nature |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/opinion/stephen-hawking-death-.html |date=14 March 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315020924/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/opinion/stephen-hawking-death-.html |archive-date=15 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.foxnews.com/science/we-lost-a-great-one-today-world-reacts-to-stephen-hawkings-death-on-social-media/ |title='We lost a great one today': World reacts to Stephen Hawking's death on social media |first=Benjamin |last=Brown |publisher=Fox News Channel |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314080723/http://www.foxnews.com/science/2018/03/14/world-reacts-to-stephen-hawkings-death-on-social-media.html |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=14 March 2018 |title=Stephen Hawking: Tributes pour in for 'inspirational' physicist |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43398187 |work=BBC News |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314155046/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43398187 |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} The [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Gonville and Caius College]] flag flew at [[half-mast]] and a [[book of condolence]]s was signed by students and visitors.<ref>{{cite news |last=Marsh |first=Sarah |date=14 March 2018 |title=Cambridge colleagues pay tribute to 'inspirational' Hawking |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/mar/14/cambridge-students-pay-tribute-to-inspirational-hawking |work=The Guardian |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314170905/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/mar/14/cambridge-students-pay-tribute-to-inspirational-hawking |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=14 March 2018 |title=Queue of people sign book of condolence at Stephen Hawking's former college |url=http://home.bt.com/news/uk-news/queue-of-people-sign-book-of-condolence-at-stephen-hawkings-former-college-11364258015099 |publisher=BT News |agency=Press Association |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315134506/http://home.bt.com/news/uk-news/queue-of-people-sign-book-of-condolence-at-stephen-hawkings-former-college-11364258015099 |archive-date=15 March 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=Stephen Hawking Taught Us a Lot About How to Live |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/science/stephen-hawking-life.html |date=15 March 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=15 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314225714/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/14/science/stephen-hawking-life.html |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> A tribute was made to Hawking in the closing speech by [[International Paralympic Committee|IPC]] President [[Andrew Parsons (sports administrator)|Andrew Parsons]] at the [[2018 Winter Paralympics closing ceremony|closing ceremony]] of the [[2018 Winter Paralympics|2018 Paralympic Winter Games]] in [[Pyeongchang County|Pyeongchang]], South Korea.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/paralympics/news/ipc-to-pay-tribute-to-stephen-hawking-during-pyeongchang-paralympics-closing-ceremony|title=IPC to Pay Tribute to Stephen Hawking During PyeongChang Paralympics Closing Ceremony|access-date=20 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320105643/https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/paralympics/news/ipc-to-pay-tribute-to-stephen-hawking-during-pyeongchang-paralympics-closing-ceremony|archive-date=20 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

His private funeral took place on 31 March, at [[Church of St Mary the Great, Cambridge|Great St Mary's Church]], Cambridge.<ref name="CNWS-20180331">{{cite news |last=Elliott |first=Chris |title=The day Cambridge said goodbye to Stephen Hawking – one of our city's greatest ever academics |url=https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/stephen-hawking-funeral-14479609 |date=31 March 2018 |work=[[Cambridge News]] |access-date=31 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331235000/https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/stephen-hawking-funeral-14479609 |archive-date=31 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=The Associated Press |title=At Stephen Hawking Funeral, Eddie Redmayne and Astronomer Royal Give Readings |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/31/world/europe/stephen-hawking-funeral-eddie-redmayne.html |date=31 March 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=31 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331164552/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/31/world/europe/stephen-hawking-funeral-eddie-redmayne.html |archive-date=31 March 2018 |url-status=live |author-link=The Associated Press}}</ref> Guests at the funeral included ''[[The Theory of Everything (2014 film)|The Theory of Everything]]'' actors [[Eddie Redmayne]] and [[Felicity Jones]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]] guitarist and astrophysicist [[Brian May]], and model [[Lily Cole]].<ref name="BBC-20180331">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-43582950 Prof Stephen Hawking funeral: Legacy 'will live forever'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618045542/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-43582950 |date=18 June 2018}}. [[BBC News]]. Published 31 March 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2018.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-43604754 |title=Famous guests attend Prof Stephen Hawking's funeral |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228140419/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-43604754 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |url-status=live |work=BBC News |date=31 March 2018}}</ref> In addition, actor [[Benedict Cumberbatch]], who played Stephen Hawking in ''[[Hawking (2004 film)|Hawking]]'', astronaut [[Tim Peake]], [[Astronomer Royal]] [[Martin Rees]] and physicist [[Kip Thorne]] provided readings at the service.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/benedict-cumberbatch-to-take-lead-role-in-stephen-hawking-memorial-service-7k6wmvbk7 |title=Benedict Cumberbatch to take lead role in Stephen Hawking memorial service |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228191841/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/benedict-cumberbatch-to-take-lead-role-in-stephen-hawking-memorial-service-7k6wmvbk7 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |url-status=live |newspaper=The Sunday Times |date=10 June 2018}}</ref> Although Hawking was an atheist, the funeral took place with a traditional [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] service.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/stephen-hawking-funeral-his-city-stops-to-salute-genius-who-unlocked-secrets-of-the-universe/ |title=Stephen Hawking funeral: His city stops to salute genius who unlocked secrets of the universe |date=31 March 2018 |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026051714/https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/stephen-hawking-funeral-his-city-stops-to-salute-genius-who-unlocked-secrets-of-the-universe/ |archive-date=26 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.space.com/40178-stephen-hawking-funeral-cambridge-university.html |title=Stephen Hawking Mourned by Hundreds at Cambridge Funeral |website=[[Space.com]] |date=3 April 2018 |access-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405055850/https://www.space.com/40178-stephen-hawking-funeral-cambridge-university.html |archive-date=5 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Following the cremation, a service of thanksgiving was held at [[Westminster Abbey]] on 15 June 2018, after which his ashes were [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey#Nave|interred in]] the Abbey's [[nave]], between the graves of Sir [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Charles Darwin]].{{efn|group=lower-alpha|Attributed to multiple references:<ref name="HawkingWestminster" /><ref name="BBC-20180331" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/press/news/2018/march/professor-stephen-hawking-to-be-honoured-at-the-abbey|title=Professor Stephen Hawking to be honoured at the Abbey – Westminster Abbey|first=PixelToCode|last=pixeltocode.uk|access-date=20 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329230419/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/press/news/2018/march/professor-stephen-hawking-to-be-honoured-at-the-abbey|archive-date=29 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Castle |first1=Stephen |title=Stephen Hawking Enters 'Britain's Valhalla,' Where Space Is Tight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/15/world/europe/uk-stephen-hawking-westminster-abbey.html |access-date=21 July 2019 |work=The New York Times |date=15 June 2018 |quote=when Stephen Hawking's ashes were interred there on Friday, they were placed between the remains of Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin |archive-date=2 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102094722/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/15/world/europe/uk-stephen-hawking-westminster-abbey.html |url-status=live}}</ref>}}

[[File:Stephen_Hawking%27s_grave_at_Westminster_Abbey.jpg#/media/File:Stephen_Hawking's_grave_at_Westminster_Abbey.jpg|thumb|Stephen Hawking's memorial stone in [[Westminster Abbey]], featuring the [[Bekenstein–Hawking entropy equation|Bekenstein–Hawking formula]]|link=File:Stephen_Hawking's_grave_at_Westminster_Abbey.jpg|270x270px]]
Inscribed on his memorial stone are the words: "Here lies what was mortal of Stephen Hawking 1942–2018" and his most famed equation, the [[Bekenstein–Hawking entropy equation|Bekenstein–Hawking formula]], used in discussing entropy in [[black hole thermodynamics]]:<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/stephen-hawkings-ashes-buried-westminster-abbey-1120478|title=Stephen Hawking's Ashes Buried in Westminster Abbey|work=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=16 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616033931/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/stephen-hawkings-ashes-buried-westminster-abbey-1120478|archive-date=16 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|group=lower-alpha|By considering the effect of a black hole's [[event horizon]] on [[virtual particle]] production, Hawking found in 1974, much to his surprise, that [[Hawking radiation|black holes emit]] [[black-body radiation]] associated with a temperature that can be expressed (in the [[Schwarzschild metric|nonspinning case]]) as:

:<math>T = \frac{\hbar c^3}{8 \pi G M k},</math>

where <math>T</math> is [[Black hole thermodynamics|black hole temperature]], <math>\hbar</math> is the [[reduced Planck constant]], <math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]], <math>G</math> is the [[Newtonian constant of gravitation]], <math>M</math> is the [[mass]] of the black hole, and <math>k</math> is the [[Boltzmann constant]]. This relationship between concepts from the disparate fields of [[general relativity]], [[quantum mechanics]] and [[thermodynamics]] implies the existence of deep connections between them and may presage their [[Theory of everything|unification]]. It is inscribed on Hawking's memorial stone.<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/06/15/stephen-hawkings-farewell-as-his-ashes-were-buried-his-voice-was-beamed-into-space/ | title= Stephen Hawking's farewell: As his ashes were buried, his voice was beamed into space | last= Bever | first= Lindsey | date= 15 June 2018 | newspaper= Washington Post | access-date= 31 July 2018 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180731123652/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/06/15/stephen-hawkings-farewell-as-his-ashes-were-buried-his-voice-was-beamed-into-space/ | archive-date= 31 July 2018 | url-status=live | df= dmy-all}}</ref>

The equation's most fundamental implication can be obtained as follows. According to thermodynamics, this temperature is associated with an [[entropy]], <math>S</math>, such that <math>T = M c^2/2 S,</math> where <math>M c^2</math> is the energy of a (nonspinning) black hole as expressed with [[Mass–energy equivalence|Einstein's formula]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Walecka|first= John Dirk|title= Introduction to General Relativity|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2V-ulG8RMtoC&pg=PA305|year= 2007|publisher= World Scientific|isbn= 978-981-270-584-6|page= 305|access-date= 31 July 2018|archive-date= 6 May 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240506010722/https://books.google.com/books?id=2V-ulG8RMtoC&pg=PA305#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status= live}}</ref> Combining equations then gives:

:<math>S = \frac{4 \pi G M^2 k}{\hbar c}.</math>

Now, the [[Schwarzschild radius|radius of a nonspinning black hole]] is given by <math>r = \frac{2 G M}{c^2},</math> and since its [[Surface area of a sphere|surface area]] is just <math>A = 4 \pi r^2,</math> <math>S</math> can be expressed in terms of surface area as:<ref name="Highfield2002" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Griffin |first1=Andrew |title=Stephen Hawking death: The equation the professor asked to be put on his tombstone |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-death-dies-equation-discovery-tombstone-radiation-nobel-a8254966.html |access-date=17 March 2018 |work=[[The Independent (UK)|The Independent]] |date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317083125/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-death-dies-equation-discovery-tombstone-radiation-nobel-a8254966.html |archive-date=17 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
:<math>S_\text{BH} = \frac{k c^3}{4 \hbar G} A,</math>
where the subscript BH stands for either "black hole" or "Bekenstein–Hawking". This can be expressed more simply as a proportionality between two [[dimensionless]] ratios:
:<math>\frac{S_\text{BH}}{k} = \frac{1}{4} \frac{A}{l_\text{P}^2},</math>
where <math>l_\text{P} = \sqrt{\hbar G / c^3}</math> is the [[Planck length]].

[[Jacob Bekenstein]] had conjectured the proportionality; Hawking confirmed it and established the constant of proportionality at <math>1/4</math>.<ref name=Penrose/><ref name="Q55869076" /> Calculations based on [[string theory]], first carried out in 1995, have been found to yield the same result.<ref>{{Cite Q|Q29013523}}</ref>

This relationship is conjectured to be valid not just for black holes, but also (since [[Entropy (information theory)|entropy is proportional to information]]) as an [[Bekenstein bound|upper bound]] on the amount of information that can be contained in any volume of space, which has in turn spawned deeper reflections on the possible [[Holographic principle|nature of reality]].}}<math display="block">S_\text{BH} = \frac{k_\text{B} A}{4 \ell_\text{P}^2}</math>He directed that the equation be his [[epitaph]] at least fifteen years before his death.<ref name="Highfield2002">{{citation|newspaper=Telegraph Media Group|title=A simple formula that will make a fitting epitaph|author=Roger Highfield|date=20 February 2002|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/4768008/A-simple-formula-that-will-make-a-fitting-epitaph.html|author-link=Roger Highfield (historian)|access-date=16 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318041106/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/4768008/A-simple-formula-that-will-make-a-fitting-epitaph.html|archive-date=18 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{citation|first=Stuart|last=Clark|author-link=Stuart Clark (author)|year=2016|title=The Unknown Universe|publisher=Pegasus|isbn=978-1-68177-153-3|page=281}}</ref>

In June 2018, it was announced that a speech of Hawking's, set to music by Greek composer [[Vangelis]], would be beamed into space from a [[European Space Agency]] [[satellite dish]] in Spain in the direction of the nearest black hole, [[A0620-00|1A 0620-00]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Stephen Hawking's words will be beamed into space |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-44481914 |access-date=20 October 2018 |agency=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022020836/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-44481914 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 8 November 2018, an auction of 22 personal possessions of Hawking, including his doctoral thesis (''Properties of Expanding Universes'', PhD thesis, Cambridge University, 1965) and wheelchair, took place, and fetched about £1.8 million.<ref>{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Stephen Hawking personal effects fetch £1.8 m at auction |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-46144363 |date=8 November 2018 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=8 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108222932/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-46144363 |archive-date=8 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT-2011108">{{cite news |last=Fortin |first=Jacey |title=Stephen Hawking's Wheelchair and Thesis Fetch More Than $1 Million at Auction |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/08/science/stephen-hawking-wheelchair-auction-.html |date=8 November 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=8 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109053105/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/08/science/stephen-hawking-wheelchair-auction-.html |archive-date=9 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Proceeds from the auction sale of the wheelchair went to two charities, the [[Motor Neurone Disease Association]] and the Stephen Hawking Foundation;<ref>{{cite web |last=Lawless |first=Jill |title=Stephen Hawking's wheelchair, thesis for sale |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-10-stephen-hawking-wheelchair-thesis-sale.html |date=22 October 2018 |work=[[Phys.org]] |access-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022103946/https://phys.org/news/2018-10-stephen-hawking-wheelchair-thesis-sale.html |archive-date=22 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> proceeds from the other items went to his estate.<ref name="NYT-2011108" />

In March 2019, it was announced that the [[Royal Mint]] would issue a commemorative [[Fifty pence (British coin)|50p coin]], only available as a commemorative edition,<ref>[https://www.royalmint.com/our-coins/events/stephen-hawking/celebrating-the-life-of-stephen-hawking-2019-uk-50p-brilliant-uncirculated-coin/ "Celebrating the Life of Stephen Hawking 2019 UK 50p Brilliant Uncirculated Coin."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423134212/https://www.royalmint.com/our-coins/events/stephen-hawking/celebrating-the-life-of-stephen-hawking-2019-uk-50p-brilliant-uncirculated-coin/ |date=23 April 2022}} [[The Royal Mint]]. Retrieved 3 December 2022.</ref> in honour of Hawking.<ref>{{cite news |last=McRae |first=Mike |title=UK Put a Black Hole on a 50p Coin to Honour Stephen Hawking, And It Looks Stunning |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/the-royal-mint-has-put-a-black-hole-onto-a-50p-coin-to-honour-stephen-hawking |date=13 March 2019 |work=ScienceAlert.com |access-date=13 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330055736/https://www.sciencealert.com/the-royal-mint-has-put-a-black-hole-onto-a-50p-coin-to-honour-stephen-hawking |archive-date=30 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The same month, Hawking's nurse, Patricia Dowdy, was struck off the nursing register for "failures over his care and financial misconduct".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-suffolk-47540621|title=Hawking's nurse struck off over his care|date=12 March 2019|access-date=12 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190312175445/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-suffolk-47540621|archive-date=12 March 2019|url-status=live|work=BBC News}}</ref>

In May 2021, it was announced that an Acceptance-in-Lieu agreement between HMRC, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, Cambridge University Library, Science Museum Group, and the Hawking Estate, would see around 10,000 pages of Hawking's scientific and other papers remain in Cambridge, while objects including his wheelchairs, speech synthesisers, and personal memorabilia from his former Cambridge office would be housed at the Science Museum.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=Stuart |date=27 May 2021 |title=Hawking Archive saved for the nation |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/HawkingArchive |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=University of Cambridge |language=en |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530091116/https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/HawkingArchive |url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2022, the "Stephen Hawking at Work" display opened at the [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]], London as the start of a two-year nationwide tour.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explore incredible objects from Stephen Hawking's office at the Science Museum |url=https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/about-us/press-office/explore-incredible-objects-stephen-hawkings-office-science-museum |access-date=7 June 2022 |website=Science Museum |date=8 January 2022 |language=en |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331035915/https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/about-us/press-office/explore-incredible-objects-stephen-hawkings-office-science-museum |url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2024, the Hawking Building was opened to the public at the [[Science_and_Innovation_Park#National_Collections_Centre|Science and Innovation Park]] as a new facility to house the Science Museum's National Collection Centre which includes about 80% of the museum's object collection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hawking Building opens for public tours as new home for Science Museum Group collection|url=https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/about-us/press-office/hawking-building-opens-public-tours-new-home-science-museum-group-collection }}</ref>

== Media depictions ==
{{Further|Stephen Hawking in popular culture}}Hawking appeared in multiple documentary films, including ''[[God, the Universe and Everything Else]]'' (1988),<ref>{{cite news |title=Watch this: 'God, the Universe and Everything Else' with Carl Sagan, Stephen Hawking and Arthur C. Clarke |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/7/22/3173928/watch-this-god-the-universe-and-everything-else |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209080842/https://www.theverge.com/2012/7/22/3173928/watch-this-god-the-universe-and-everything-else |archive-date=9 December 2021 |access-date=19 August 2019 |work=The Verge}}</ref> ''The Real Stephen Hawking'' (2001),{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=196}} ''Stephen Hawking: Profile'' (2002),{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=221}} and ''[[Hawking (2013 film)|Hawking]]'' (2013),<ref name="NYT-20130913" /> and the documentary series ''Stephen Hawking, Master of the Universe'' (2008).<ref name="Auto2J-26" />

Appearing on the radio programme ''[[Desert Island Discs]]'' in 1992, Hawking chose multiple musical works that "[sum] up my life": Mozart's [[Requiem (Mozart)|Requiem]]; [[The Beatles]]' "[[Please Please Me]]"; [[Edith Piaf|Édith Piaf]]'s "[[Non, je ne regrette rien]]"; [[Francis Poulenc]]'s [[Gloria (Poulenc)|Gloria]]; [[Johannes Brahms]]' [[Violin Concerto (Brahms)|Violin Concerto]]; [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[String Quartet No. 15 (Beethoven)|String Quartet No. 15]]; [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Die Walküre]]'', Act 1; and "O Principe, che a lunghe carovane", a segment of [[Giacomo Puccini]]'s opera ''[[Turandot]]''. For a book, he chose [[George Eliot]]'s ''[[Middlemarch]]''.<ref name="DesertIslandDiscs" />

In 1993, Hawking's synthesiser voice was recorded for use in the [[Pink Floyd]] song "[[Keep Talking (Pink Floyd song)|Keep Talking]]",{{sfn |Larsen |2005 |pp=xiii, 94}}{{sfn |Ferguson |2011 |p=178}} and in 1999, it was recorded for an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]''.{{sfn |Ferguson |2011 |p=192}} Hawking copyrighted the voice, and allowed it to be used in ''The Theory of Everything'', in which he was portrayed by [[Eddie Redmayne]] in an [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]]-winning role.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Setoodeh |first1=Ramin |date=28 October 2014 |title=How Eddie Redmayne Became Stephen Hawking in 'The Theory of Everything' |url=https://variety.com/2014/film/news/eddie-redmayne-theory-of-everything-stephen-hawking-1201340498/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226190152/http://variety.com/2014/film/news/eddie-redmayne-theory-of-everything-stephen-hawking-1201340498/ |archive-date=26 February 2015 |access-date=24 February 2015 |website=Variety}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mialet |first=Hélène |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGCBQPZMyqIC&pg=PA211 |title=Hawking Incorporated: Stephen Hawking and the Anthropology of the Knowing Subject |date=28 June 2012 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-52226-5 |location=Chicago, Illinois |page=211 |access-date=14 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506010702/https://books.google.com/books?id=sGCBQPZMyqIC&pg=PA211#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=6 May 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Edgar |first=James |date=30 May 2014 |title='Have you still got that American voice?' Queen asks Stephen Hawking |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/queen-elizabeth-II/10866057/Have-you-still-got-that-American-voice-Queen-asks-Stephen-Hawking.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806021149/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/queen-elizabeth-II/10866057/Have-you-still-got-that-American-voice-Queen-asks-Stephen-Hawking.html |archive-date=6 August 2015 |access-date=12 July 2015 |work=The Telegraph}}</ref>[[File:Monty Python Live 02-07-14 12 55 10 (14415565317).jpg|thumb|Hawking in [[Monty Python]]'s "[[Galaxy Song]]" video at the comedy troupe's 2014 reunion show, ''[[Monty Python Live (Mostly)]]''|270x270px]]

Hawking played a [[Holography|holographic]] simulation of himself in an episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' in 1993.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=177–78}}{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=93–94}} Hawking also guest-starred in the sitcoms ''[[Futurama]]'' and ''[[The Big Bang Theory]]''.<ref name="dt70" /><ref name="bbc-bbt" /> Broadcast in March 2018, before his death, Hawking was the voice of The Book Mark II on ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' radio series, and he was a guest of [[Neil deGrasse Tyson]] on ''[[StarTalk (2015 TV series)|StarTalk]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tufnell |first1=Nicholas |date=9 March 2018 |title=The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy' is back with the original cast |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/the-hitchhikers-guide-to-the-galaxy-is-back-with-the-original-cast/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315070553/https://www.cnet.com/news/the-hitchhikers-guide-to-the-galaxy-is-back-with-the-original-cast/ |archive-date=15 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |publisher=[[CNET]]}} and {{cite web |date=4 March 2018 |title=StarTalk Season 4, Episode 20: Stephen Hawking |url=http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/startalk/videos/stephen-hawking/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315070500/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/startalk/videos/stephen-hawking/ |archive-date=15 March 2018 |access-date=14 March 2018 |publisher=National Geographic Partners, LLC}}</ref> Hawking was featured at the ''[[Monty Python Live (Mostly)]]'' show in 2014, shown in a pre-recorded video singing Monty Python's "[[Galaxy Song]]" and [[Brian Cox (physicist)|Brian Cox]] with his wheelchair.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McAfee |first1=Melonyce |date=14 April 2015 |title=Stephen Hawking sings Monty Python's 'Galaxy Song' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/14/entertainment/feat-stephen-hawking-sings-galaxy-song/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113163207/http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/14/entertainment/feat-stephen-hawking-sings-galaxy-song/ |archive-date=13 January 2017 |access-date=12 January 2017 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Grow |first1=Korry |date=14 April 2015 |title=Hear Stephen Hawking Sing Monty Python's 'Galaxy Song' |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/videos/hear-stephen-hawking-sing-monty-pythons-galaxy-song-20150414 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113162206/http://www.rollingstone.com/movies/videos/hear-stephen-hawking-sing-monty-pythons-galaxy-song-20150414 |archive-date=13 January 2017 |access-date=12 January 2017 |magazine=Rolling Stone}}</ref>

Hawking advertised multiple products, including a wheelchair brand,{{sfn |Ferguson |2011 |p=196}} [[NS&I|National Savings]],<ref name="Auto2J-38" /> [[British Telecom]], [[Specsavers]], [[Egg Banking]],<ref name="Auto2J-39" /> and [[Go Compare]].<ref name="Auto2J-40" /> In 2015, he applied to trademark his name.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Buchanan |first1=Rose Troup |date=20 March 2015 |title=Professor Stephen Hawking to trademark name |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/professor-stephen-hawking-to-trademark-name-10142840.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402053152/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/professor-stephen-hawking-to-trademark-name-10142840.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=2 April 2015 |work=The Independent}}</ref>

In 2022, Google featured Hawking in a [[Google Doodle]] on the occasion of his 80th birthday.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isim0ysZ6X4 |title=Stephen Hawking's 80th Birthday |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107114502/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Isim0ysZ6X4 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |via=YouTube |date=4 January 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== Awards and honours ==
Hawking received numerous awards and honours. Already early in the list, in 1974 he was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] (FRS).<ref name="rsbm" /> At that time, his nomination read:

{{blockquote|Hawking has made major contributions to the field of general relativity. These derive from a deep understanding of what is relevant to physics and astronomy, and especially from a mastery of wholly new mathematical techniques. Following the pioneering work of Penrose he established, partly alone and partly in collaboration with Penrose, a series of successively stronger theorems establishing the fundamental result that all realistic cosmological models must possess singularities. Using similar techniques, Hawking has proved the basic theorems on the laws governing black holes: that stationary solutions of Einstein's equations with smooth event horizons must necessarily be axisymmetric; and that in the evolution and interaction of black holes, the total surface area of the event horizons must increase. In collaboration with G. Ellis, Hawking is the author of an impressive and original treatise on "Space-time in the Large".}}

The citation continues, "Other important work by Hawking relates to the interpretation of cosmological observations and to the design of gravitational wave detectors."<ref name="royal" />

Hawking was also a member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] (1984),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stephen William Hawking |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/stephen-william-hawking |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en |archive-date=30 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130134309/https://www.amacad.org/person/stephen-william-hawking |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[American Philosophical Society]] (1984),<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Stephen+Hawking&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=search.amphilsoc.org |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519152448/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Stephen+Hawking&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |url-status=live}}</ref> and the U.S. [[National Academy of Sciences]] (1992).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stephen Hawking |url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/62159.html |access-date=19 May 2022 |website=www.nasonline.org |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519152448/http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/62159.html |url-status=live}}</ref> He was awarded Honorary membership in 1992, of the [[Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society]].<ref>Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society Volume 152 2013-14</ref> In the [[1989 Birthday Honours]], he was appointed a [[Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour]] (CH).{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=149}}<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=48837 |date=16 June 1989 |page=18 |supp=y}}</ref> [[File:Barack Obama speaks to Stephen Hawking (cropped).jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of Barack Obama talking to Stephen Hawking in the White House|U.S. president [[Barack Obama]] and Hawking in the [[White House]] in 2009, when Hawking received the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]|left|286x286px]]In 1981, Hawking was awarded the American [[Franklin Medal]],{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=274}} and in the [[1982 New Year Honours]], appointed a [[Order of the British Empire|Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE).{{sfn|Larsen|2005|pp=x–xix}}{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=114}}<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=48837 |date=30 December 1981 |page=8 |supp=y}}</ref> He then received five more honorary degrees,{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=146}} the [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] (1985),{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=xvi}} the [[Dirac Medal (IOP)|Paul Dirac Medal]] (1987){{sfn|Ferguson|2011|p=146}} and, jointly with Penrose, the prestigious [[Wolf Prize]] (1988).{{sfn|White|Gribbin|2002|p=279}} In 1986, he was appointed an Academician at the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{Citation |title=List of Deceased Academicians at the Pontifical Academy of Sciences |url=https://www.pas.va/en/academicians/deceased/hawking.html}}</ref> He reportedly declined a [[Knighthood (UK)|knighthood]] in the late 1990s in objection to the UK's science funding policy.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Peterkin |first=Tom |date=15 June 2008 |title=Stephen Hawking Warns Government over 'Disastrous' Science Funding Cuts |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3344540/Stephen-Hawking-warns-Government-over-disastrous-science-funding-cuts.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225846/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3344540/Stephen-Hawking-warns-Government-over-disastrous-science-funding-cuts.html |archive-date=2 April 2018 |access-date=2 April 2018 |work=The Telegraph}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Guyoncourt |first=Sally |date=14 March 2018 |title=Why Professor Stephen Hawking Never Had a Knighthood |url=https://inews.co.uk/news/science/why-professor-stephen-hawking-never-had-a-knighthood/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616001932/https://inews.co.uk/news/science/why-professor-stephen-hawking-never-had-a-knighthood/ |archive-date=16 June 2018 |access-date=15 June 2018 |work=I News}}</ref> In 2002, following a UK-wide vote, the [[BBC]] included Hawking in their list of the [[100 Greatest Britons]].<ref>{{cite web |date=21 August 2002 |title=100 great British heroes |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2208671.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104074956/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2208671.stm |archive-date=4 November 2010 |access-date=10 May 2016 |website=BBC News}}</ref> He was awarded the [[Copley Medal]] from the [[Royal Society]] (2006),<ref name="Auto2J-45" /> the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], which is America's highest civilian honour (2009),<ref name="presidential" /> and the Russian [[Fundamental Physics Prize|Special Fundamental Physics Prize]] (2013).<ref name="FPP-Dec2012" />

Several buildings have been named after him, including the Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in [[San Salvador]], El{{nbsp}}Salvador,<ref name="Auto2J-46" /> the Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge,<ref name="Auto2J-47" /> and the [[Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics#Stephen Hawking Centre at Perimeter Institute|Stephen Hawking Centre]] at the [[Perimeter Institute]] in Canada.<ref name="Auto2J-48" /> Given Hawking's association with time, he unveiled the mechanical "Chronophage" (or time-eating) [[Corpus Clock]] at [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] in September 2008.{{sfn|Ferguson|2011|pp=237–38}}<ref name="Auto2J-49" /> In July 2017, Hawking was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from [[Imperial College London]].<ref>{{cite web |date=17 July 2017 |title=Stephen Hawking awarded Imperial College London's highest honour |url=http://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/180588/stephen-hawking-awarded-imperial-college-londons/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314174613/http://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/180588/stephen-hawking-awarded-imperial-college-londons/ |archive-date=14 March 2018 |access-date=19 July 2017 |publisher=[[Imperial College London]]}}</ref>

Hawking received the 2015 [[BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award]] in Basic Sciences shared with [[Viatcheslav Mukhanov]] for discovering that the galaxies were formed from quantum fluctuations in the early Universe. At the 2016 [[Pride of Britain Awards]], Hawking received the lifetime achievement award "for his contribution to science and British culture".<ref name="Corkery" /> After receiving the award from Theresa May, Hawking humorously requested that she not seek his help with Brexit.<ref name="Corkery">{{cite news |last=Corkery |first=Claire |date=1 November 2016 |title=Pride of Britain 2016: Stephen Hawking makes Brexit joke at PM Theresa May's expense |url=https://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/727766/Pride-of-Britain-awards-2016-Stephen-Hawking-Brexit-Theresa-May-Carol-Vorderman |work=Express |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315070543/https://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/727766/Pride-of-Britain-awards-2016-Stephen-Hawking-Brexit-Theresa-May-Carol-Vorderman |archive-date=15 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== The Hawking Fellowship ===
{{Main|Hawking Fellowship}}

In 2017, the [[Cambridge Union|Cambridge Union Society]], in conjunction with Hawking, established the [[Hawking Fellowship|Professor Stephen Hawking Fellowship]]. The fellowship is awarded annually to an individual who has made an exceptional contribution to the [[STEM]] fields and social discourse,<ref>{{cite web |title=2018 Hawking Fellowship |url=https://www.varsity.co.uk/science/16135 |website=Varsity |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=9 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230809023824/https://www.varsity.co.uk/science/16135 |url-status=live}}</ref> with a particular focus on impacts affecting the younger generations. Each fellow delivers a lecture on a topic of their choosing, known as the "Hawking Lecture".<ref>{{cite web | last1=Phelan | first1=David |title=Jony Ive Hawking Fellowship |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidphelan/2018/11/20/apples-jony-ive-talks-about-the-iphone-design-and-nearly-giving-up/?sh=626763341175 |website=Forbes |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728012103/https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidphelan/2018/11/20/apples-jony-ive-talks-about-the-iphone-design-and-nearly-giving-up/?sh=626763341175 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Hawking himself accepted the inaugural fellowship, and he delivered the first Hawking Lecture in his last public appearance before his death.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stephen Hawking's Biography |url=https://www.hawking.org.uk/biography |website=Hawking.org.uk |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905203335/https://www.hawking.org.uk/biography |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hawking in Pictures |url=https://www.hawking.org.uk/in-pictures/30?position=26 |website=Hawking.org.uk |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=7 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807234618/https://www.hawking.org.uk/in-pictures/30?position=26 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Medal for Science Communication ===
{{Main|Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication}}

Hawking was a member of the advisory board of the [[Starmus Festival]], and had a major role in acknowledging and promoting science communication. The [[Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication]] is an annual award initiated in 2016 to honour members of the arts community for contributions that help build awareness of science.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.starmus.com/stephen-hawking-medals-for-science-communication/|title=Stephen Hawking Medals For Science Communication|publisher=STARMUS|access-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007112326/http://www.starmus.com/stephen-hawking-medals-for-science-communication/|archive-date=7 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Recipients receive a medal bearing a portrait of Hawking by [[Alexei Leonov]], and the other side represents an image of Leonov himself performing the [[Extravehicular activity#First spacewalk|first spacewalk]] along with an image of the "[[Red Special]]", the guitar of Brian May (with music being another major component of the Starmus Festival).<ref>[https://www.starmus.com/stephen-hawking-medal-for-science-communication "Stephen Hawking medal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105000758/https://www.starmus.com/stephen-hawking-medal-for-science-communication/ |date=5 November 2019}}. Starmus. Retrieved 19 August 2019</ref>

The [[Starmus Festival#2016|Starmus III Festival]] in 2016 was a tribute to Stephen Hawking and the book of all Starmus III lectures, "Beyond the Horizon", was also dedicated to him. The first recipients of the medals, which were awarded at the festival, were chosen by Hawking himself: composer [[Hans Zimmer]], physicist [[Jim Al-Khalili]], and the science documentary film ''[[Particle Fever]]'' (2013).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Davis |first1=Nicola |title=Winners of inaugural Stephen Hawking medal announced |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jun/16/winners-of-inaugural-stephen-hawking-medal-announced-hans-zimmer-jim-al-khalili-particle-fever |website=The Guardian |date=16 June 2016 |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-date=8 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208231459/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jun/16/winners-of-inaugural-stephen-hawking-medal-announced-hans-zimmer-jim-al-khalili-particle-fever |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Publications ==
=== Popular books ===
* ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'' (1988)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays]]'' (1993)<ref name="KirkusBaby" />
* ''[[The Universe in a Nutshell]]'' (2001)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[On the Shoulders of Giants (book)|On the Shoulders of Giants]]'' (2002)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[God Created the Integers]]: The Mathematical Breakthroughs That Changed History'' (2005)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[The Dreams That Stuff Is Made of: The Most Astounding Papers of Quantum Physics and How They Shook the Scientific World]]'' (2011)<ref>{{cite news|title=How Physics got Weird|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204791104577110461358473418|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=5 December 2016|access-date=11 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220070538/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204791104577110461358473418|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[My Brief History]]'' (2013)<ref name="books" /> Hawking's memoir.
* [[Brief Answers to the Big Questions (book)|''Brief Answers to the Big Questions'']] (2018)<ref name="WP-20181015" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Griffin |first=Andrew |title=Stephen Hawking's final work will try to answer some of the biggest questions in the universe – Book will collect the late professor's most profound and celebrated writings |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-book-final-death-latest-big-questions-universe-discovery-a8354301.html |date=16 May 2018 |work=[[The Independent]] |access-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016032608/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-book-final-death-latest-big-questions-universe-discovery-a8354301.html |archive-date=16 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Co-authored ====
* ''[[The Nature of Space and Time]]'' (with [[Roger Penrose]]) (1996)
* ''[[The Large, the Small and the Human Mind]]'' (with Roger Penrose, [[Abner Shimony]] and Nancy Cartwright) (1997)
* ''The Future of Spacetime'' (with [[Kip Thorne]], [[Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov|Igor Novikov]], [[Timothy Ferris]] and introduction by [[Alan Lightman]], [[Richard H. Price]]) (2002)
* ''[[A Briefer History of Time (Hawking and Mlodinow book)|A Briefer History of Time]]'' (with [[Leonard Mlodinow]]) (2005)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[The Grand Design (book)|The Grand Design]]'' (with [[Leonard Mlodinow]]) (2010)<ref name="books" />

==== Forewords ====
* ''[[Black Holes and Time Warps|Black Holes & Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy]]'' ([[Kip Thorne]], and introduction by [[Frederick Seitz]]) (1994)
* ''[[The Physics of Star Trek]]'' ([[Lawrence Krauss]]) (1995)

=== Children's fiction ===
Co-written with his daughter [[Lucy Hawking|Lucy]].
* ''[[George's Secret Key to the Universe]]'' (2007)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt]]'' (2009)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[George and the Big Bang]]'' (2011)<ref name="books" />
* ''[[George and the Unbreakable Code]]'' (2014)
* ''[[George and the Blue Moon]]'' (2016)

=== Films and series ===
* ''[[A Brief History of Time (film)|A Brief History of Time]]'' (1992)<ref name="Auto2J-58" />
* ''[[Stephen Hawking's Universe]]'' (1997)<ref name="Auto2J-59" />{{sfn|Larsen|2005|p=79}}
* ''[[Hawking (2004 film)|Hawking]]'' – BBC television film (2004) starring [[Benedict Cumberbatch]]
* ''[[Horizon (BBC TV series)|Horizon]]: The Hawking Paradox'' (2005)<ref name="Auto2J-60" />
* ''[[Masters of Science Fiction]]'' (2007)<ref name="art" />
* ''Stephen Hawking and the Theory of Everything'' (2007)
* ''[[Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe]]'' (2008)<ref name="Auto2J-61" />
* ''[[Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking]]'' (2010)<ref name="Auto2J-62" />
* ''[[Brave New World with Stephen Hawking]]'' (2011)<ref name="Auto2J-63" />
* ''Stephen Hawking's Grand Design'' (2012)<ref name="Auto2J-64" />
* ''[[The Big Bang Theory]]'' (2012, 2014–2015, 2017)
* ''[[Hawking (2013 film)|Stephen Hawking: A Brief History of Mine]]'' (2013)<ref name="Auto2J-65" />
* ''[[The Theory of Everything (2014 film)|The Theory of Everything]]'' – Feature film (2014) starring [[Eddie Redmayne]]<ref name="Auto2J-66" />
* ''[[Genius by Stephen Hawking]]'' (2016)

=== Selected academic works ===
* {{Cite Q|Q55872061|doi-access=free|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q21706376|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q56453197|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q54017915|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q29398982|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q21707690|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q56551504|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q21651473|ref=none}}
* {{Cite Q|Q55878494|ref=none}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biography|Physics}}
* [[List of people who have declined a British honour]]
* [[List of things named after Stephen Hawking]]
* [[List of contributors to general relativity]]
* ''[[On the Origin of Time]]'', a book by Thomas Hertog about Hawking's theories
* [[Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|1=22em|refs=
<ref name="whoswho">{{Who's Who | title=Hawking, Prof. Stephen William | id = U19510 | year = 2015 | edition = online [[Oxford University Press]]|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.19510|author=Anon}}</ref>
<ref name="mathgene">{{MathGenealogy|id=78459}}</ref>
<ref name="hawkingphd">{{cite Q|Q42307084}}</ref>
<ref name="allenphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Bruce |last=Allen |title=Vacuum energy and general relativity |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1983 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=5544 |author-link=Bruce Allen (physicist) |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=5544 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="boussophd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Raphael |last=Bousso |title=Pair creation of black holes in cosmology |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1997 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=18697 |author-link=Raphael Bousso |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=18697 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="carrphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Bernard John |last=Carr |title=Primordial black holes |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1976 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=6798 |author-link=Bernard Carr |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=6798 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="dowkerphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Helen Fay |last=Dowker |title=Space-time wormholes |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1991 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=7858 |author-link=Fay Dowker |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=7858 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="galfardphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Christophe Georges Gunnar Sven |last=Galfard |title=Black hole information & branes |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=2006 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=28782 |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=28782 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="gibbonsphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Gary William |last=Gibbons |title=Some aspects of gravitational radiation and gravitational collapse |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1973 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=8671 |author-link=Gary Gibbons |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=8671 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="hertogphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Thomas |last=Hertog |title=The origin of inflation |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=2002 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=23554 |author-link=Thomas Hertog |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=23554 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="laflammephd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Raymond |last=Laflamme |title=Time and quantum cosmology |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1988 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=10575 |author-link=Raymond Laflamme |access-date=5 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=10575 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="pagephd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Don Nelson |last=Page |title=Accretion into and emission from black holes |publisher=California Institute of Technology |year=1976 |url=https://thesis.library.caltech.edu/7179/ |author-link=Don Page (physicist) |access-date=6 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221222836/https://thesis.library.caltech.edu/7179/ |archive-date=21 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="perryphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Malcolm John |last=Perry |title=Black holes and quantum mechanics |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1978 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=12538 |author-link=Malcolm Perry (physicist) |access-date=6 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=12538 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="wuphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Zhongchao |last=Wu |title=Cosmological models and the inflationary universe |publisher=University of Cambridge |year=1984 |url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=15549 |author-link=Wu Zhongchao |access-date=7 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092707/http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=15549 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="royal">{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqDb=Catalog&dsqCmd=show.tcl&dsqSearch=(RefNo==%27EC%2F1974%2F12%27) |title=Certificate of election: Hawking, Stephen, EC/1974/12 |publisher=The Royal Society |location=London |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-2">{{cite web |url=http://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/outreach/stephen_hawking.php |title=Centre for Theoretical Cosmology: Outreach Stephen Hawking |publisher=University of Cambridge |access-date=23 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830050418/http://www.ctc.cam.ac.uk/outreach/stephen_hawking.php |archive-date=30 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-3">{{cite web |url=http://www.hawking.org.uk/about-stephen.html |title=About Stephen |publisher=Stephen Hawking Official Website |access-date=23 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830050622/http://www.hawking.org.uk/about-stephen.html |archive-date=30 August 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-5">{{cite news |access-date=5 March 2012 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/jan/05/guardianobituaries.obituaries |title=Dick Tahta |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=5 January 2007 |last1=Hoare |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Love |first2=Eric |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108183855/http://www.theguardian.com/news/2007/jan/05/guardianobituaries.obituaries |archive-date=8 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-6">{{cite news |last=Donaldson |first=Gregg J. |title=The Man Behind the Scientist |url=http://www.mdtap.org/TT/1999.05/1-art.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050511104943/http://www.mdtap.org/TT/1999.05/1-art.html |archive-date=11 May 2005 |publisher=Tapping Technology |date=May 1999 |access-date=23 December 2012}}</ref>
<ref name="Q55872061">{{cite Q|Q55872061|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-8">{{cite web |last=Ridpath |first=Ian |title=Black hole explorer |website=New Scientist |date=4 May 1978 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmxb4_WjDUYC&pg=PA307 |access-date=9 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118130119/https://books.google.com/books?id=kmxb4_WjDUYC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA307 |archive-date=18 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="HawkingIsrael1989">{{cite book |editor1-first=S.W. |editor1-last=Hawking |editor2-first=W. |editor2-last=Israel |title=Three Hundred Years of Gravitation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vq787qC5PWQC |date=30 March 1989 |page=278 |chapter=Astrophysical Black Holes |author=R.D. Blandford |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-37976-2}}</ref>
<ref name="Q54017915">{{cite Q|Q54017915}}</ref>
<ref name="Q55869076">{{cite Q|Q55869076}}</ref>
<ref name="black">{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Hawking |title=Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NU9SoEwgdskC&pg=PT20 |year=1994 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-553-37411-7 |page=20 |access-date=23 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118042933/https://books.google.com/books?id=NU9SoEwgdskC&pg=PT20 |archive-date=18 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-11">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cambridgeshire/8282358.stm |title=Hawking gives up academic title |work=BBC News |date=30 September 2009 |access-date=1 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003123417/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cambridgeshire/8282358.stm |archive-date=3 October 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Susskind2008">{{cite book |first=Leonard |last=Susskind |title=The Black Hole War: My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f3_rnRVxGIsC&pg=PT9 |date=7 July 2008 |publisher=Hachette Digital, Inc. |isbn=978-0-316-01640-7 |pages=9, 18 |access-date=23 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118114717/https://books.google.com/books?id=f3_rnRVxGIsC&pg=PT9 |archive-date=18 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-12">See Guth (1997) for a popular description of the workshop, or ''The Very Early Universe'', {{isbn|0-521-31677-4}} eds Gibbons, Hawking & Siklos for a detailed report.</ref>
<ref name="Q29398982">{{cite Q|Q29398982}}</ref>
<ref name="Q21707690">{{cite Q|Q21707690}}</ref>
<ref name="sample">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/may/15/stephen-hawking-interview-there-is-no-heaven |title=Stephen Hawking: 'There is no heaven; it's a fairy story' |last=Sample |first=Ian |date=15 May 2011 |work=The Guardian |access-date=17 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920002119/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/may/15/stephen-hawking-interview-there-is-no-heaven |archive-date=20 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-15">{{cite news |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/assistive-communication/ |title=Getting Back the Gift of Gab: Next-Gen Handheld Computers Allow the Mute to Converse |work=[[Scientific American]] |date=10 August 2009 |first=Larry |last=Greenemeier |access-date=11 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512014319/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/assistive-communication/ |archive-date=12 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-16">{{cite news |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-06-15-hawking_x.htm |title=Stephen Hawking says pope told him not to study beginning of universe |date=15 June 2006 |work=USA Today |access-date=12 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830051417/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-06-15-hawking_x.htm |archive-date=30 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="g2009">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/jul/30/stephen-hawking-brief-history-time |title=How God propelled Stephen Hawking into the bestsellers lists |work=The Guardian |date=31 July 2009 |access-date=5 March 2012 |last=Radford |first=Tim |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216162104/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2009/jul/30/stephen-hawking-brief-history-time |archive-date=16 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="dt70">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking/8989060/Stephen-Hawking-driven-by-a-cosmic-force-of-will.html |title=Stephen Hawking: driven by a cosmic force of will |first=Roger |last=Highfield |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=3 January 2012 |location=London |access-date=7 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109233720/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking/8989060/Stephen-Hawking-driven-by-a-cosmic-force-of-will.html |archive-date=9 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="obs2004">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2004/apr/04/features.review17 |title=Brief History of a first wife |first=Tim |last=Adams |work=[[The Observer]] |date=4 April 2004 |location=London |access-date=12 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229104010/https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2004/apr/04/features.review17 |archive-date=29 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-18">{{cite web |url=http://www.theory.caltech.edu/%7Epreskill/info_bet.html |title=Black hole information bet |last1=Hawking |first1=S.W. |last2=Thorne |first2=K.S. |last3=Preskill |location=Pasadena, California |date=6 February 1997 |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511005759/http://www.theory.caltech.edu/%7Epreskill/info_bet.html |archive-date=11 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="concedbet">{{cite Q|Q21651473}}</ref>
<ref name="presskill">{{cite web |title=John Preskill's comments about Stephen Hawking's concession |url=http://www.theory.caltech.edu/~preskill/jp_24jul04.html |access-date=29 February 2012 |first=John |last=Preskill |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226230538/http://www.theory.caltech.edu/%7Epreskill/jp_24jul04.html |archive-date=26 February 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-19">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/441912.stm |title=Call for global disability campaign |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] |date=8 September 1999 |location=London |access-date=12 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212172028/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/441912.stm |archive-date=12 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-20">{{cite web |url=http://www.aps.org/programs/honors/prizes/lilienfeld.cfm |title=Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize |publisher=American Physical Society |access-date=29 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026184057/http://www.aps.org/programs/honors/prizes/lilienfeld.cfm |archive-date=26 October 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="sundaytimes">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article1751518.ece |title=Welcome back to the family, Stephen |work=The Times |date=6 May 2007 |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203111754/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article1751518.ece |archive-date=3 December 2008}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-23">{{cite news |last=Highfield |first=Roger |title=Stephen Hawking's explosive new theory |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=26 June 2008 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3345641/Stephen-Hawkings-explosive-new-theory.html |access-date=9 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205075721/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/3345641/Stephen-Hawkings-explosive-new-theory.html |archive-date=5 February 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Q27442267">{{cite Q|Q27442267}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-25">{{cite news |title=Hawking and second wife agree to divorce |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=20 October 2006 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1531891/Hawking-and-second-wife-agree-to-divorce.html |access-date=18 March 2007 |last=Sapsted |first=David |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918192735/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1531891/Hawking-and-second-wife-agree-to-divorce.html |archive-date=18 September 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="books">{{cite web |title=Books |url=http://www.hawking.org.uk/books.html |website=Stephen Hawking Official Website |access-date=28 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313143137/http://www.hawking.org.uk/books.html |archive-date=13 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-26">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/tvandradioblog/2008/mar/04/lastnightstvstephenhawking |title=Last night's TV: Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe |first=Sam |last=Wollaston |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=4 March 2008 |location=London |access-date=10 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214115520/http://www.theguardian.com/culture/tvandradioblog/2008/mar/04/lastnightstvstephenhawking |archive-date=14 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="bbc-bbt">{{cite news |title=Professor Stephen Hawking films Big Bang Theory cameo |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-17337778 |access-date=12 March 2012 |work=BBC News |date=12 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314075539/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-17337778 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-29">{{cite web |url=http://www.usc.es/en/cursos/conciencia/premio_fonseca2008.html |title=Fonseca Prize 2008 |publisher=University of Santiago de Compostela |access-date=7 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605080757/http://www.usc.es/en/cursos/conciencia/premio_fonseca2008.html |archive-date=5 June 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-30">{{cite news |title=Stephen Hawking takes a hard line on aliens |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/apr/26/stephen-hawking-issues-warning-on-aliens |access-date=24 February 2012 |first=Leo |last=Hickman |date=25 April 2010 |work=The Guardian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101101210/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/apr/26/stephen-hawking-issues-warning-on-aliens |archive-date=1 January 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="alien">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8642558.stm |work=BBC News |title=Stephen Hawking warns over making contact with aliens |date=25 April 2010 |access-date=24 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100512190757/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8642558.stm |archive-date=12 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="nyt2007">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/01/science/01hawking.html |title=Stephen Hawking Plans Prelude to the Ride of His Life |first=Dennis |last=Overbye |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=1 March 2007 |location=New York |access-date=9 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510193359/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/01/science/01hawking.html |archive-date=10 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-31">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1359562/Colonies-in-space-may-be-only-hope-says-Hawking.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |title=Colonies in space may be only hope, says Hawking |date=16 October 2001 |access-date=5 August 2007 |last=Highfield |first=Roger |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426232042/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1359562/Colonies-in-space-may-be-only-hope-says-Hawking.html |archive-date=26 April 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-32">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6594821.stm |title=Hawking takes zero-gravity flight |date=27 April 2007 |access-date=17 June 2012 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908124951/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6594821.stm |archive-date=8 September 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-34">{{cite news |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-11-03-hawking-iraq_x.htm |title=Scientist Stephen Hawking decries Iraq war |work=[[USA Today]] |date=3 November 2004 |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014172446/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-11-03-hawking-iraq_x.htm |archive-date=14 October 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="ind2007">{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/prophet-of-doomsday-stephen-hawking-ecowarrior-433064.html |title=Prophet of Doomsday: Stephen Hawking, eco-warrior – Climate Change – Environment |first=Geoffrey |last=Lean |work=The Independent |date=21 January 2007 |location=London |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410020827/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/prophet-of-doomsday-stephen-hawking-ecowarrior-433064.html |archive-date=10 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-37">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2006/jul/24/genetics.europeanunion |title=Hawking urges EU not to stop stem cell funding |first=Debbie |last=Andalo |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=24 July 2006 |location=London |access-date=18 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830065725/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2006/jul/24/genetics.europeanunion |archive-date=30 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-38">{{cite news |last=Haurant |first=Sandra |title=Savings: Heavyweight celebrities endorse National Savings |url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2008/jun/03/savings |access-date=25 February 2013 |date=3 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902101611/http://www.theguardian.com/money/2008/jun/03/savings |archive-date=2 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-39">{{cite news |title=Could Hawking's parody be sincerest form of flattery? |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/comment/4454268/Could-Hawkings-parody-be-sincerest-form-of-flattery.html |publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited |access-date=19 February 2013 |date=13 June 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110135451/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/comment/4454268/Could-Hawkings-parody-be-sincerest-form-of-flattery.html |archive-date=10 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-40">{{cite news |last=Usborne |first=Simon |title=Stephen Hawking, Go Compare and a brief history of selling out |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/stephen-hawking-go-compare-and-a-brief-history-of-selling-out-8434612.html |work=The Independent |access-date=19 February 2013 |date=1 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225045616/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/advertising/stephen-hawking-go-compare-and-a-brief-history-of-selling-out-8434612.html |archive-date=25 February 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-42">{{cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/07/why-some-physicists-bet-against-the-higgs-boson/259977/ |title=Why Some Physicists Bet Against the Higgs Boson |first=Robert |last=Wright |work=The Atlantic |date=17 July 2012 |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407230110/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/07/why-some-physicists-bet-against-the-higgs-boson/259977/ |archive-date=7 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-43">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/video/2012/jul/05/stephen-hawking-higgs-boson-bet-video |title=Stephen Hawking loses Higgs boson particle bet – Video |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=5 July 2012 |location=London |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920001935/http://www.theguardian.com/science/video/2012/jul/05/stephen-hawking-higgs-boson-bet-video |archive-date=20 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-44">{{cite news |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/higgs-boson-stephen-hawking |title=Higgs boson breakthrough should earn physicist behind search Nobel Prize: Stephen Hawking |work=[[National Post]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=1 April 2013 |archive-date=6 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506010733/https://nationalpost.com/news/higgs-boson-stephen-hawking |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="tech">{{cite news |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21323-the-man-who-saves-stephen-hawkings-voice |title=The man who saves Stephen Hawking's voice |date=30 December 2011 |first=Catherine |last=de Lange |work=New Scientist |access-date=18 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150830051611/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21323-the-man-who-saves-stephen-hawkings-voice/ |archive-date=30 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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<ref name="start">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18749963 |title=Start-up attempts to convert Prof Hawking's brainwaves into speech |date=7 July 2012 |publisher=BBC |access-date=29 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103164251/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-18749963 |archive-date=3 November 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-45">{{cite web |url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/news/oldest-space-travelled-science-prize-awarded-to-hawking |title=Oldest, space-travelled, science prize awarded to Hawking |date=24 August 2006 |publisher=The Royal Society |access-date=29 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122080730/http://www.cam.ac.uk/news/oldest-space-travelled-science-prize-awarded-to-hawking |archive-date=22 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="presidential">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/aug/13/obama-hawking-medal-freedom |title=Obama presents presidential medal of freedom to 16 recipients |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=13 August 2009 |access-date=5 March 2012 |first=Ewen |last=MacAskill |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907034301/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/aug/13/obama-hawking-medal-freedom |archive-date=7 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="FPP-Dec2012">{{cite web |title=2013 Fundamental Physics Prize Awarded to Alexander Polyakov |url=http://breakthroughprize.org/News/11 |publisher=Fundamental Physics Prize |access-date=11 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150119124934/https://breakthroughprize.org/News/11 |archive-date=19 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-46">{{cite journal |last1=Komar |first1=Oliver |last2=Buechner |first2=Linda |title=The Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador Central America Honours the Fortitude of a Great Living Scientist |journal=Journal of College Science Teaching |volume=XXX |issue=2 |date=October 2000 |url=http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hall/5046/article.html |access-date=28 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730162105/http://geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hall/5046/article.html |archive-date=30 July 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-47">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/cambridgeshire/content/articles/2007/04/18/hawking_building_feature.shtml |title=The Stephen Hawking Building |date=18 April 2007 |access-date=24 February 2012 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323041242/http://www.bbc.co.uk/cambridgeshire/content/articles/2007/04/18/hawking_building_feature.shtml |archive-date=23 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-48">{{cite press release |title=Grand Opening of the Stephen Hawking Centre at Perimeter Institute |url=http://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/outreach/general-public/special-events/grand-opening-2011 |access-date=6 June 2012 |publisher=Perimeter Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229222647/http://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/outreach/general-public/special-events/grand-opening-2011 |archive-date=29 December 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-49">{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridgenetwork.co.uk/news/time-to-unveil-corpus-clock/ |title=Time to unveil Corpus Clock |publisher=Cambridgenetwork.co.uk |date=22 September 2008 |access-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125092708/http://www.cambridgenetwork.co.uk/news/time-to-unveil-corpus-clock/ |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="tel2012">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/7528596/Professor-Stephen-Hawking-to-stay-at-Cambridge-University-beyond-2012.html |title=Professor Stephen Hawking to stay at Cambridge University beyond 2012 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=26 March 2010 |location=London |access-date=9 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109152243/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/7528596/Professor-Stephen-Hawking-to-stay-at-Cambridge-University-beyond-2012.html |archive-date=9 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-50">{{cite web |title=Stephen Hawking – There is no God. There is no Fate |website = YouTube| date=15 August 2011 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7L7VTdzuY7Y |access-date=4 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816163357/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7L7VTdzuY7Y |archive-date=16 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-51">{{cite news |last=Lowry |first=Brian |date=4 August 2011 |title=Curiosity: Did God Create the Universe? |url=https://variety.com/2011/tv/reviews/curiosity-did-god-create-the-universe-1117945762/ |work=Variety |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314104714/http://variety.com/2011/tv/reviews/curiosity-did-god-create-the-universe-1117945762/ |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-52">{{cite magazine|accessdate=15 May 2021|title=Stephen Hawking's Thoughts on Atheism, God and Death|url=https://time.com/5199149/stephen-hawking-death-god-atheist/|magazine=Time|archive-date=18 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518213616/https://time.com/5199149/stephen-hawking-death-god-atheist/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-54">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19411225 |title=Paralympics: Games opening promises 'journey of discovery' |publisher=BBC |date=29 August 2012 |access-date=29 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829190233/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19411225 |archive-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="NYT-20130913">{{cite news |last=DeWitt |first=David |title=The Brilliance of His Universe |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/13/movies/hawking-a-documentary-on-stephen-hawking.html |date=13 September 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=13 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512065226/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/13/movies/hawking-a-documentary-on-stephen-hawking.html |archive-date=12 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-55">{{cite news |last=Duffin |first=Claire |title=We don't let animals suffer, says Prof Stephen Hawking, as he backs assisted suicide |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/10315476/We-dont-let-animals-suffer-says-Prof-Stephen-Hawking-as-he-backs-assisted-suicide.html |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |date=17 September 2013 |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314110102/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/10315476/We-dont-let-animals-suffer-says-Prof-Stephen-Hawking-as-he-backs-assisted-suicide.html |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-56">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/aug/07/celebrities-open-letter-scotland-independence-full-text |title=Celebrities' open letter to Scotland – full text and list of signatories |website=The Guardian |location=London |date=7 August 2014 |access-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817131736/http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/aug/07/celebrities-open-letter-scotland-independence-full-text |archive-date=17 August 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-57">{{cite news |last=Culzac |first=Natasha |date=29 August 2014 |title=Stephen Hawking, MND sufferer, does ice bucket challenge with a twist |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/stephen-hawking-mnd-sufferer-does-ice-bucket-challenge-with-a-twist-9698539.html |work=The Independent |access-date=29 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829225734/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/stephen-hawking-mnd-sufferer-does-ice-bucket-challenge-with-a-twist-9698539.html |archive-date=29 August 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="KirkusBaby">{{cite web |title=Black Holes and Baby Universes |url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/stephen-hawking/black-holes-and-baby-universes/ |date=20 March 2010 |website=Kirkus Reviews |access-date=18 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804061005/http://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/stephen-hawking/black-holes-and-baby-universes/ |archive-date=4 August 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-58">{{cite web |url=http://www.errolmorris.com/film/bhot.html |title=A Brief History of Time: Synopsis |publisher=Errol Morris |access-date=18 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629001731/http://errolmorris.com/film/bhot.html |archive-date=29 June 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-59">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/program/stephen-hawkings-universe/ |title=Stephen Hawking's Universe |publisher=PBS |access-date=26 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506191518/http://www.pbs.org/program/stephen-hawkings-universe/ |archive-date=6 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-60">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/hawking_prog_summary.shtml |title=The Hawking Paradox |publisher=BBC |access-date=9 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309094958/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/hawking_prog_summary.shtml |archive-date=9 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="art">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/review-television-masters-dc/masters-of-science-fiction-too-artistic-for-abc-idUSN0242298520070803?rpc=92 |title="Masters of Science Fiction" too artistic for ABC |access-date=7 December 2012 |last=Richmond |first=Ray |work=Reuters |date=3 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314174143/https://www.reuters.com/article/review-television-masters-dc/masters-of-science-fiction-too-artistic-for-abc-idUSN0242298520070803?rpc=92 |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-61">{{cite news |last=Walton |first=James |date=4 March 2008 |title=Last night on television: Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe (Channel 4) – The Palace (ITV1) |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/3671613/Last-night-on-television-Stephen-Hawking-Master-of-the-Universe-Channel-4-The-Palace-ITV1.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314110110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/3671613/Last-night-on-television-Stephen-Hawking-Master-of-the-Universe-Channel-4-The-Palace-ITV1.html |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-62">{{cite web |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/stephen-hawking/about/about.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325010542/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/stephen-hawking/about/about.html |archive-date=25 March 2011 |title=Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking |work=Discovery Channel |access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-63">{{cite news |last=Moulds |first=Josephine |date=17 October 2011 |title=Brave New World with Stephen Hawking, episode one, Channel 4, review |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8824454/Brave-New-World-with-Stephen-Hawking-episode-one-Channel-4-review.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314110105/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8824454/Brave-New-World-with-Stephen-Hawking-episode-one-Channel-4-review.html |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-64">{{cite web |url=https://press.discovery.com/uk/dsc/programs/hawking-grand-design/ |title=Stephen Hawking's Grand Design |publisher=Discovery Channel UK |access-date=25 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427010043/http://press.discovery.com/uk/dsc/programs/hawking-grand-design/ |archive-date=27 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-65">{{cite news |last=Wollaston |first=Sam |date=9 December 2013 |title=Stephen Hawking: A Brief History of Mine – TV review |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/dec/09/stephen-hawking-brief-history-mine-tv-review |work=The Guardian |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314104715/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/dec/09/stephen-hawking-brief-history-mine-tv-review |archive-date=14 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto2J-66">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.ew.com/article/2014/08/06/stephen-hawking-theory-of-everything-trailer |title=Eddie Redmayne plays Stephen Hawking in 'Theory of Everything' trailer |first=Jeff |last=Labrecque |magazine=Entertainment Weekly |date=6 August 2014 |access-date=6 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150809000049/http://www.ew.com/article/2014/08/06/stephen-hawking-theory-of-everything-trailer |archive-date=9 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Baird |first=Eric |title=Relativity in Curved Spacetime: Life Without Special Relativity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bU4xUMuJlukC |year=2007 |publisher=Chocolate Tree Books |isbn=978-0-9557068-0-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Kitty |title=Stephen Hawking: His Life and Work |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZLMWpujVUcC |year=2011 |publisher=Transworld |isbn=978-1-4481-1047-6 |access-date=23 February 2016 |archive-date=6 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506010709/https://books.google.com/books?id=nZLMWpujVUcC |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |first=Jane |last=Hawking |title=Travelling to Infinity: My Life With Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kd_nLQAACAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Alma |isbn=978-1-84688-115-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hawking |first=Stephen W. |title=Stephen Hawking's A brief history of time: a reader's companion |url=https://archive.org/details/stephenhawkingsb00step_0 |url-access=registration |year=1992 |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=978-0-553-07772-8 |bibcode=1992bhtr.book.....H }}
* {{cite book |last=Larsen |first=Kristine |title=Stephen Hawking: a biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yL3RBMEI5OgC |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |isbn=978-0-313-32392-8 }}
* {{cite book |first=Hélène |last=Mialet |editor1-first=Kevin C. |editor1-last=Knox |editor2-first=Richard |editor2-last=Noakes |chapter=Is the end in sight for the Lucasian chair? Stephen Hawking as Millennium Professor |title=From Newton to Hawking: A History of Cambridge University's Lucasian Professors of Mathematics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QGX_rAeia4kC |year=2003 |pages=425–460 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-66310-6 }}
* {{cite book |last1=White |first1=Michael |last2=Gribbin |first2=John |year=2002 |title=Stephen Hawking: A Life in Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoE6FAnDtRYC |edition=2nd |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-08410-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Yulsman |first=Tom |title=Origins: the quest for our cosmic roots |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eh3_GfqlDlMC |year=2003 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-7503-0765-9 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=Hawking|n=Category:Stephen Hawking|v=no|s=no|b=General Astronomy/Black Holes in Hiding}}
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* {{Official website|http://www.hawking.org.uk/}}
* {{In Our Time|Professor Stephen Hawking Collection|p06132wb|Stephen Hawking}}
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* [https://hayadan.com/hawking-lecture-huji-14120610 Lecture at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem] – 2006

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The Kerala Ceramics Limited

2026-03-05T14:10:30Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|Indian ceramics products manufacturing company}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name = The Kerala Ceramics Limited
| logo = Kerala ceramics Kundara.jpg
| type = [[Public Sector]]
| founded = {{Start date and age|1963}}
| founder =
| hq_location = [[Kundara]]
| hq_location_city = [[Kollam]]
| hq_location_country = [[India]]
| key_people = * Managing Director: Syamala. S
* Manager(Personnel & Administration)i/c: Divin George
| industry = [[Manufacturing]]
| products = [[Kaolin|Spray dried Kaolin]] Earthenware
| num_employees =
| num_employees_year =
| revenue = {{Increase}} {{INRConvert|9.81|c|lk=on}} (2020-21)
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| homepage = [https://www.keralaceramics.com/ www.keralaceramics.com]
}}
'''The Kerala Ceramics Limited''' is a fully owned [[Government of Kerala]] ceramics products manufacturing company, situated at [[Kundara]] in [[Kollam]] city, [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dmg.kerala.gov.in/docs/pdf/adm%20report/administration_report_06_07.pdf|title=Administration Report - Department of Mining & Geology|publisher=Government of Kerala|access-date=2019-11-28}}</ref> The company produce earthenware and spray dried coating grade, as well as filler grade Kaolin for paint, paper manufacturing industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/kerala-red-carpet-for-china-cuba/358517/2|title=Kerala red carpet for China, Cuba|publisher=The Indian Express|date=2008-09-08|access-date=2019-11-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2009/feb/22/sifl-selected-best-performing-industry-27610.html|title=SIFL selected best performing industry|publisher=The New Indian Express|date=2009-02-22|access-date=2019-11-28}}</ref>

==History==
The company was actually started operations in 1937 during the reign of [[Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma]] as the King of [[Travancore]]. A mining and refining unit and a porcelain wares manufacturing unit were started. In 1963, the [[Government of Kerala]] led by Chief Minister [[R. Sankar]] incorporated the facility, as 'The Kerala Ceramics Limited' under Companies Act with its registered Office at [[Kundara]], Kollam by amalgamating these two units.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.keralaceramics.com/company.htm|title=Company|publisher=The Kerala Ceramics Limited|access-date=2019-11-28}}</ref>

The units in Kerala Ceramics have a capacity to manufacture 18000 [[tonne]]s of [[Kaolin]]. Kaolex and Kaofil are the two major types of Kaolin produced at Kundara plant. In 2017, the Kerala Government under the leadership of [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] started revival of [[Kerala Ceramics Limited]] and has registered operational profit in the financial year 2018–19, after a long journey of operational loss.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/apr/11/17-psus-in-kerala-register-operational-profit-as-13-clock-net-profit-1962900.html|title=17 PSUs in Kerala register operational profit as 13 clock net profit|publisher=The New Indian Express|date=2019-04-11|access-date=2019-11-28}}</ref>

==Renovation==
In 2017, [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] led [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]] Government in [[Kerala]] commissioned a temporary [[Liquefied petroleum gas|LPG]] plant. This helped to reduce the production cost from ₹8,500 to ₹5,000-₹5,500. This enabled the company to generate $70 million in annual sales from a loss-making past. The newly renovated refining and filter pass plants will be inaugurated by [[List of chief ministers of Kerala|Chief Minister]] Pinarayi Vijayan on 22 September 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/renovated-facilities-for-kerala-ceramics/article32657025.ece|title=Renovated facilities for Kerala Ceramics|publisher=The Hindu Express|date=2020-09-21|access-date=2020-09-21}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Kollam|state=collapsed}}
{{Public Sector Undertakings in Kerala|state=collapsed}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kerala Ceramics Limited}}
[[Category:Government-owned companies of Kerala]]
[[Category:Companies based in Kollam]]
[[Category:Ceramics manufacturers of India]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1963]]
[[Category:1963 establishments in Kerala]]

{{India-company-stub}}
[[Category:Companies based in Kerala]]

Kaalangalil Aval Vasantham (1976 film)

2026-03-04T04:49:18Z

Godrejsplende: New A Biography V1

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Kaalangalil Aval Vasantham 1976 poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[S. P. Muthuraman]]
| screenplay = [[Panchu Arunachalam]]
| story = C. N. Muthu
| producer = S. Baskar
| starring = [[R. Muthuraman]] [[Chandrakala]] [[Srividya]]
| cinematography = Babu
| editing = R. Vittal
| music = [[Vijaya Bhaskar]]
| studio = Vijayabaskar Productions
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1976|04|13|ref1=}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Kaalangalil Aval Vasantham''''' ({{Translation|Among seasons, she is spring}})<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |author-link=Baradwaj Rangan |date=12 March 2016 |title=Lyrics from a laundry list |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/baradwaj-rangan-remembers-the-list-song-25-years-after-kabhi-tu-chhalia-lagta-hai/article8341588.ece |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008182247/https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/baradwaj-rangan-remembers-the-list-song-25-years-after-kabhi-tu-chhalia-lagta-hai/article8341588.ece |archive-date=8 October 2022 |access-date=16 November 2025 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref> is a 1976 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by [[S. P. Muthuraman]] and produced by S. Baskar. The screenplay was written by [[Panchu Arunachalam]] from a story by C. N. Muthu. The film stars [[R. Muthuraman]], [[Chandrakala]] and [[Srividya]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=முத்துராமன் |first=எஸ்.பி. |author-link=S. P. Muthuraman |date=16 December 2015 |title=சினிமா எடுத்துப் பார் 37: காலங்களில் அவள் வசந்தம் |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/66376-37.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112222026/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/66376-37.html |archive-date=12 November 2020 |access-date=12 November 2020 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref> It was released on 13 April 1976.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 April 1976 |title=காலங்களில் அவள் வசந்தம் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_107/4.jp2/full/1000,1477/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123213619/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_107/4.jp2/full/1000,1477/0/default.jpg |archive-date=23 January 2025 |access-date=14 June 2024 |work=Navamani |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Sisters Rajalakshmi (Raji) and Kalpana live with their father, and are often visited by their uncle Santhanam from Singapore. Kalpana, the younger one is in love with Ravi. Raji is about to be married, bur the groom dies in an accident, leaving her mentally troubled obsessing herself with marriage and groom. On the persuasion of her father, Kalpana is asked to marry in the hope that at least his younger daughter would be happy. With initial hesitance she later agrees. Soon after she is married her father dies, leaving the mentally challenged sister in her and his son in law's responsibility.

The three of them shift to Ooty, where situations worsen and it becomes difficult to look after her sister. They consult a psychiatrist who says that she has a superficial disorder, which could be cured by getting her married since the cause for this trouble was due to the marriage that did not take place. No one wishes to marry the mentally challenged Raji.

Troubled, Kalpana decides to have her husband, Ravi, marry her sister. After initially disapproving Ravi marries Raji for the sake of his wife. This slowly heals Raji. She believes that Ravi is her husband and one fine day she is completely cured and even recovers her memory. Kalpana is rejoiced to see her sister back to her normal self. She tells her what happened but deliberately conceals the truth that she got her husband married to her sister. The situation deteriorates when Raji discovers that her husband is having an affair with her sister. Her uncle too comes to visit her and she confides to him about her ill fate. He knows the truth but is helpless.

When Ravi is critically injured, Kalpana in panic starts hospitalising her husband forgetting that her sister is near. Raji is shocked to learn that her sister is the wife of her husband. She pretends to be mentally deranged and goes to Singapore with her uncle.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[R. Muthuraman]] as Ravi
* [[Chandrakala]] as Kalpana
* [[Srividya]] as Raji
* [[S. A. Ashokan]] as Santhanam
* [[Senthamarai (actor)|Senthamarai]]
* Jeyachandran
* [[Thengai Srinivasan]]
* [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]] as Kalyani
* [[C. I. D. Sakunthala|A. Sakunthala]] as Radha
* [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] as Kumar (cameo)
}}

== Production ==

The film's shoot began on 28 September 1975 at Modern Theatres.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 September 1975 |title=முத்துராமன், சந்திரகலா இணைந்து நடிக்கும் படம் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_14/4.jp2/full/1000,1525/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250205041540/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_14/4.jp2/full/1000,1525/0/default.jpg |archive-date=5 February 2025 |access-date=3 October 2025 |work=Navamani |pages=4 |language=Ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref> After shooting some scenes at Modern Theatres, the team decided to shift the rest of the film at Ooty as Arunachalam wrote the script in such a way that the story is set there. The first day of shoot was held at Lovedale Railway Station then next day a marriage procession was shot at a lake near Kamaraj Nagar. The scene where Muthuraman saves Srividya from Jayachandran was shot at a dam near [[Pykara]] while the song "Mudhal Mudhal Varum" was shot falls near Samiyar Thottam.<ref name="nava">{{cite news |date=11 March 1976 |title=ஊட்டியில் 'காலங்களில் அவள் வசந்தம்' படபிடிப்பு |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_76/4.jp2/full/1000%2C1471/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251116084518/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_76/4.jp2/full/1000%2C1471/0/default.jpg |archive-date=16 November 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025 |work=Navamani |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref> The film's shoot ended in April 1976.<ref>{{cite news |date=11 April 1976 |title=காலங்களில் அவள் வசந்தம் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_106/4.jp2/full/1000,1457/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251111174737/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_106/4.jp2/full/1000,1457/0/default.jpg |archive-date=11 November 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025 |work=Navamani |pages=4 |language=Ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
Music was by [[Vijaya Bhaskar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaalangalil aval Vasantham Tamil Film Ep Vinyl Record by M S Viswananthan |url=https://mossymart.com/product/kaalangalil-aval-vasantham-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-m-s-viswananthan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924062803/https://mossymart.com/product/kaalangalil-aval-vasantham-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-m-s-viswananthan/ |archive-date=24 September 2021 |access-date=24 September 2021 |website=Mossymart}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Saravanan |title=Vani Jayaram's Tamil Film Songs Chronology |url=http://vanijairam.com/Pages/Vani1976.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160618110118/http://www.vanijairam.com/Pages/Vani1976.html |archive-date=18 June 2016 |access-date=27 June 2016 |website=vanijairam.com}}</ref> The song "Anbenum Sudaral" is set to the [[Carnatic raga]] Poorvikalyani.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 August 2013 |title=தமிழ்த்திரை இசையில் ராகங்கள் : [ 9 ] : T.சௌந்தர் |url=https://inioru.com/%e0%ae%a4%e0%ae%ae%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b4%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%a4%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%a4%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b0%e0%af%88-%e0%ae%87%e0%ae%9a%e0%af%88%e0%ae%af%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b2%e0%af%8d-%e0%ae%b0%e0%ae%be%e0%ae%95-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827091253/https://inioru.com/%e0%ae%a4%e0%ae%ae%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b4%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%a4%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%a4%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b0%e0%af%88-%e0%ae%87%e0%ae%9a%e0%af%88%e0%ae%af%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b2%e0%af%8d-%e0%ae%b0%e0%ae%be%e0%ae%95-2/ |archive-date=27 August 2021 |access-date=24 September 2021 |website=Inioru |language=ta}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singers !! Length
|-
| "Paadum Vandae" || [[Vani Jairam]] || 04:09
|-
| "Muthal Muthal" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], Vani Jairam || 03:59
|-
| "Manamagale Manamagale" || Vani Jairam || 04:17
|-
| "Manamagale Manamagale" — Sad || Vani Jairam || 04:16
|-
| "Anbenum Sudaral" || Vani Jairam || 02:24
|-
| "Paadhum" || Vani Jairam || 04:18
|}

== Critical reception ==
Kanthan of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' appreciated S. P. Muthuraman's direction and cast performances, especially Srividya's, but felt R. Muthuraman was underutilised and criticised the writing.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=காந்தன் |date=2 May 1976 |title=காலங்களில் அவள் வசந்தம் |url=https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1976/may/02-05-1976/p57.jpg |url-status=dead |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |language=ta |page=57 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220728034029/https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1976/may/02-05-1976/p57.jpg |archive-date=28 July 2022 |access-date=12 October 2022}}</ref> Naagai Dharuman of ''Navamani'' praised the direction, acting and cinematography.<ref>{{cite news |last=தர்மன் |first=நாகை |date=9 May 1976 |title=காலங்களில் அவள் வசந்தம் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_132/4.jp2/full/1000,1419/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251116084952/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_22_4_132/4.jp2/full/1000,1419/0/default.jpg |archive-date=16 November 2025 |access-date=16 November 2025 |work=Navamani |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

{{S. P. Muthuraman}}

[[Category:1976 Indian films]]
[[Category:1976 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1976 films]]
[[Category:Films about mental health]]
[[Category:Films about sisters]]
[[Category:Films directed by S. P. Muthuraman]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vijaya Bhaskar]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Panchu Arunachalam]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Bahala Chennagide

2026-03-03T21:40:05Z

Godrejsplende: small changes

{{short description|2001 film by M. S. Rajshekar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Bahala Chennagide
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[M. S. Rajashekar]]
| story = [[E. V. V. Satyanarayana]]
| producer = Ganapathi Prasad [[S. Ramanathan (film director)|S. Ramanathan]] [[Shivaram]] [[Chandulal Jain]]
| starring = [[Shiva Rajkumar]] [[Shashi Kumar]] [[Jaya Seal]]
| music = [[Koti (composer)|Koti]]
| cinematography = Prasad Babu
| editing = S. Manohar
| studio = Chitra Jyothi
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2001|7|25}}
| runtime = 123 min
| language = Kannada
| country = India
}}

'''''Bahala Chennagide''''' ({{translation|Very Good}})<ref name=toi /> is a 2001 Indian [[Kannada language]] drama film starring [[Shiva Rajkumar]], [[Shashi Kumar]] and [[Jaya Seal]]. The film is directed by [[M.S.Rajshekar]]. It is a remake of the Telugu language film ''[[Chala Bagundi]]'' (2000) directed by [[E. V. V. Satyanarayana]].<ref name=toi>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-07-27/bangalore/27230650_1_kannada-film-karnataka-film-chamber-film-industry|title=Kannada film industry 'Bahala Chennagide'|website=Times of India|access-date=11 November 2024|archive-date=5 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005051004/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-07-27/bangalore/27230650_1_kannada-film-karnataka-film-chamber-film-industry|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=October 2025}}

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Shiva Rajkumar]] as Krishna
* [[Shashi Kumar]] as Shivaji
* [[Jaya Seal]] as Vidya
* [[Ruchita Prasad]]
* [[Shivaram]]
* [[Ramesh Bhat]] as Seetapathi
* Ashok Badaradinni
* [[Shani Mahadevappa]]
* Jayakumar
* [[Padma Vasanthi]] as Saraswathi
* Ashwini
* Shivangi Chaudhary
* Aravind
* [[Honnavalli Krishna]]
* [[Dingri Nagaraj]]
* Rajaram as Rajaram
* Umesh Hegde
* Vijay
* Master Santhosh
* Master Chandan
}}
==Production==
This was the final film produced by Chandulal Jain before his death in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/chandulal-jain-no-more-2577278|title=Chandulal Jain no more|website=Deccan Herald|access-date=11 November 2024|date=17 December 2009}}</ref>
==Soundtrack==
All the songs are composed and scored by [[Koti (composer)|Koti]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/bahala-chennagide/xM2DMeSizMY_|title=Bahala Chennagide|website=JioSaavn|date=25 July 2001 |access-date=11 November 2024}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
! Sl No !! Song title !! Singer(s) || Lyrics
|-
| 1 || "Srikara Idu" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], Lata Hamsalekha || Doddarange Gowda
|-
| 2 || "Kanda Odane" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[Harini (singer)|Harini]] || [[K. Kalyan]]
|-
| 3 || "Hosa Ragadali" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[M. D. Pallavi Arun]] || Doddarange Gowda
|-
| 4 || "Holi Holi" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[K. S. Chithra]] || K. Kalyan
|-
| 5 || "Chori Chori" || [[Devan Ekambaram]], Harini || K. Kalyan
|-
| 6 || "Bombatu Brotheru" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam || Bangi Ranga
|}
==Reception==
''Indiainfo'' wrote "Of course, there are the usual quota of songs, comedy and sentiments present in the film. After a long time Shivraj's performance is worth mentioning, Shashi Kumar has also done a decent job, Jay seal and Ruchita are okay. Ramesh Bhatt and Ashok Badardinni have some good comic scenes, Kalyan's songs are also okay. Overall, this Telugu remake of Chaala Baagundi is Bahala Chennagide".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.indiainfo.com/kannada/reviews/bahala.html|title=Bahala Chennagide|website=Indiainfo|access-date=11 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031225154813/http://movies.indiainfo.com/kannada/reviews/bahala.html|archive-date=25 December 2003|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

{{M. S. Rajashekar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bahala Chennagide}}
[[Category:2001 films]]
[[Category:2001 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2001 Indian films]]
[[Category:Kannada remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Koti (composer)]]
[[Category:2001 drama films]]

{{2000s-Kannada-film-stub}}
{{2000s-romantic-comedy-film-stub}}

Krishna Garadi

2026-03-03T19:08:10Z

Godrejsplende: improved lead for consistency

{{Short description|1986 Telugu film by Vijaya Bapineedu}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| image = krga.jpg
| name = Krishna Garadi
| director = [[Vijaya Bapineedu]]
| editing = Atmaram
| cinematography = N. S. Raju
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Krishna (Telugu actor)|Krishna]]
* [[Jaya Prada]]
* [[Kaikala Satyanarayana]]
* [[Rao Gopala Rao]]
}}
| music = Chakravarthy
| writer = {{plainlist|
* Vijaya Bapineedu
* Kasi Viswanath}}
| producer = {{plainlist|
* Atluri Radhakrishna Murthy
* Kommana Narayana Rao}}
| studio = Srinivasa Productions
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| released = {{Film date|1986|01|03|df=yes}}
}}
'''''Krishna Garadi''''' is a 1986 Indian [[Telugu film]] starring [[Ghattamaneni Krishna|Krishna]] in two different roles alongside [[Jaya Prada]], [[Kaikala Satyanarayana]] and [[Rao Gopala Rao]] in the key roles. Scripted and directed by Vijaya Bapineedu, the film had musical score by Chakravarthy. The film was released on 3 January 1986.<ref name="krishnagarudi">{{cite web|url=https://indiancine.ma/ZWY/info|title=Krishna Gaardi info|website=indiancine.ma|access-date=4 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tvwiz.in/app/app/channelProgram/0/1817691/OnTV|title=Krishna Garadi film info|access-date=5 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=5 July 2020|title=Krishna Garadi Telugu film info|url=https://moviegq.com/movie/krishna-garadi-4512|last=MovieGQ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=moviebuff.com|access-date=5 July 2020|url=https://www.moviebuff.com/krishna-garadi|title=Krishna Garadi on moviebuff}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* [[Krishna Ghattamaneni]] as Krishna
* [[Jaya Prada]] as Chittemma
* [[Kaikala Satyanarayana]] as Narayana
* [[Rao Gopala Rao]] as Idea Appa Rao
* [[Jaggayya]] as Bahadur
* [[Nutan Prasad]]
* [[Sowcar Janaki]] as Janaki
* [[Poornima (Telugu actress)|Poornima]] as Padma
* [[Jayamalini]]
*[[Mada Venkateswara Rao|Mada]] as Devadasu
*[[Potti Prasad]] as Ramadasu
*[[Nirmalamma]] as Idea Appa Rao's mother
*[[Rallapalli (actor)|Rallapalli]] as Venkatasamy
*[[Anuradha (actress)|Anuradha]]
*Balaji as Sekhar
*[[Allu Ramalingaiah]] as Lingaiah
*[[P. J. Sarma|P.J. Sarma]]

== Songs ==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Title
! Singer(s)
|-
| "Naa Kallalo"
| [[P. Susheela]], Lalitha Sagari
|-
| "Chikkani Cheekatlo"
| M. Ramesh, P. Susheela
|-
| "Sathyabhama Nenenuro"
| P. Susheela
|-
| "Chinthalakari"
| M. Ramesh, P. Susheela
|-
| "Rukminamma"
| M. Ramesh, P. Susheela, [[S. P. Sailaja]]
|}

== Release ==
The film was released on 3 January 1986.<ref name="krishnagarudi" />
[[File:Krga2.jpg|thumb|upright|Krishna Garadi logo contest poster]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|tt0355665}}

[[Category:1986 films]]
[[Category:1986 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1986 Indian films]]

{{1980s-Telugu-film-stub}}

Pondatti Sonna Kettukanum

2026-03-03T05:02:56Z

Godrejsplende: quick cleaned up intro for accuracy also and corrected details for clarity

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{infobox film
| image = Pondatti Sonna Kettukanum.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[V. Sekhar]]
| writer = V. Sekhar
| producer = K. Parthiban Vetriyur K. Sethu A. Rajendran
| starring = [[Vagai Chandrasekhar|Chandrasekhar]] [[Bhanupriya]]
| cinematography = G. Rajendran
| editing = A. P. Manivannan
| music = Chandrabose
| studio = Jayalakshmi Art Creations
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1991|11|28|ref1=}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Pondatti Sonna Kettukanum''''' ({{Translation|Obey your wife}}) is a 1991 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[comedy drama]] film written and directed by [[V. Sekhar]]. The film was produced by K. Parthiban, Vetriyur K. Sethu and A. Rajendran under Jayalakshmi Art Creations. The film stars [[Bhanupriya]] and [[Vagai Chandrasekhar|Chandrasekhar]], with [[Goundamani]], [[Senthil]], [[Charle]] and [[Chinni Jayanth]] portraying supporting roles.

The cinematography and editing was handled by G. Rajendran and A. P. Manivannan. The soundtrack was composed by [[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]]. The film was released on 28 November 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pondatti Sonna Kettukkanum ( 1991 ) |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/filmography.cgi?name=pondatti%20sonna%20kettukkanum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215221607/http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/filmography.cgi?name=pondatti%20sonna%20kettukkanum |archive-date=15 February 2011 |access-date=12 January 2022 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{More plot|date=September 2023}}
The film revolves around how women are treated in a male chauvinist family setting. The father-in-law Dharmalingam (Goundamani) and mother-in-law (Manorama) look down upon their 3 daughters-in-law Thangam, Indira and Girija.

Things get worse when Dharmalingam and his youngest son torture their mute daughter-in-law on coming to know that her father died leaving behind a huge debt and even try to kill her and her baby.

Taking things into their hands, the 3 daughters-in-law decide to reform their husbands and ultimately their father-in-law and mother-in-law culminating into a happy, comical ending for everyone.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Bhanupriya]] as Indira
*[[Vagai Chandrasekhar|Chandrasekhar]] as Indira's husband / Dharamalingam's 3rd son.
*[[Goundamani]] as Dharmalingam
*[[Senthil]] as Villager
*[[Kumarimuthu]] as Villager.
*[[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]] as Dharmalingam's wife
*[[Charle]] Dharamalingam's 1st son.
*[[Chinni Jayanth]] Dharamalingam's 2nd son.
*Vetri Vigneshwar as Dharmalingam 4th son.
*[[Kovai Sarala]] as Thangam.
*Devishree as Girija
*[[Thideer Kannaiah]] as police constable.
*[[Meera (Malayalam actress)|Meera]] as Meenakshi
*MLA Thangaraj as police officer
}}

==Production==
The film was based on events that happened in Sekhar's next door neighbour's life.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=12 February 1995 |title=கதைதான் என் படத்தின் ஹீரோ! |trans-title=Story is the hero of my film! |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1995-02-12/page/n41/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230506160908/https://archive.org/details/kalki1995-02-12/page/n41/mode/2up |archive-date=6 May 2023 |access-date=15 August 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=40–41 |language=Ta}}</ref>
== Soundtrack ==
Soundtrack was composed by [[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]] and lyrics were written by [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] and [[Muthulingam (poet)|Muthulingam]].{{cn|date=February 2024}}

*Pondatti Sonna – Mano, Chithra, Deepan Chakravarthy, Lalitha Sagari
*Chinna Chinna Varigal – S. P. Balasubramaniam
*Jolluthan Jolluthan – S. P. Balasubramaniam, Chithra
*Vanthale therku – P. Susheela, S. Janaki, Vani Jayaram,
*Naanthaan Di – S. P. Shailaja
*Ponne poovamma– P. Susheela

== Reception ==
C. R. K. of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' gave a mixed review for the film citing that film which promised to revolve around a revolutionary woman but breaks anticipation around it and the film wanders around aimlessly. He also noted that Bhanupriya and Chandrasekhar were wasted but appreciated Goundamani's performance.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=சி.ஆர்.கே. |date=19 January 1992 |title=பொண்டாட்டி சொன்ன கேட்டுக்கணும் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1992-01-19/page/n9/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230505054458/https://archive.org/details/kalki1992-01-19/page/n9/mode/2up |archive-date=5 May 2023 |access-date=6 December 2022 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=8 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The film ran for over 100 days in theatres,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=1 January 1993 |title=Run-of-the-mill fare |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19930101&printsec=frontpage |access-date=1 September 2023 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=7 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and Manorama won the Cinema Express Award for Best Comedy Actress.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 February 1992 |title='Chinnathambhi' bags Cinema Express award |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VZBlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lJ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1432%2C722114 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510080013/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VZBlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lJ4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=1432%2C722114 |archive-date=10 May 2024 |access-date=13 May 2024 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref>

== Remakes ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}}
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Language
|-
|1992
|''[[Pellam Chepithe Vinali]]''
|Telugu
|-
|1993
|''[[Hendthi Helidare Kelabeku]]''
|Kannada
|-
|1997
|''[[Kottappurathe Koottukudumbam]]''
|Malayalam
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
{{V. Sekhar}}

[[Category:1991 Indian films]]
[[Category:1991 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1991 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:1991 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by V. Sekhar]]
[[Category:Films scored by Chandrabose (composer)]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Chaklong

2026-03-02T04:15:55Z

Godrejsplende: made a stub added tags

{{Short description|Wedding rituals of Ahom people}}
'''Chaklong wedding''', also known as '''Saklong wedding''', is a traditional [[Ahom people|Ahom]] marriage system. It is still practiced by many Ahom people today.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prakash |first=Col Ved |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWL1pa8TUFYC&dq=saklang&pg=PA894 |title=Encyclopaedia of North-East India |date=2007 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-269-0704-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dāsa |first=Yogeśa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eV4tAAAAMAAJ&q=saklang |title=Folklore of Assam |date=1972 |publisher=National Book Trust, India}}</ref>

[[File:Choklong5.jpg|thumb|Chaklong]]

==Etymology==

Terwiel noted that contemporary Ahom priests were unable to provide a clear etymology of the term "Chaklang." He suggested that it may derive from the Ahom word ''chak'' (related to Sanskrit ''chakra'', meaning "wheel") combined with ''long'' ("great" or "large").<ref>{{cite journal |last=Terwiel |first=B. J. |year=1996 |title=Recreating the Past: Revivalism in Northeastern India |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=281 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003014 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/152/2/article-p275_5.xml|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==History==
The Choklong wedding system is an Ahom ritual of marriage. The Chaklang custom, considered a social tradition among the Ahoms, has been practiced since the era of the Ahom kings. An illustrative example is the marriage of Swargadev Rajeswar Singha to Princess Kuranganayani of Manipur. As per Ahom myth, it dates back to the marriage of Lengdon with the eldest daughter of Ak-Kai-Mo-Hung, Nang-Hun-Pha. The matrimonial process commenced with Lengdon sending ceremonial gifts of betel leaves and areca nuts, presented on ''sarai'' platters with stands and wrapped in red cloth, which is regarded as the origin of the Chaklang tradition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chaklang {{!}} Traditional Ahom Marriage |url=http://www.assaminfo.com/culture/3/chaklang-traditional-ahom-marriage.htm |access-date=2023-10-10 |website=Assam Info}}</ref>

Some modern scholars have examined the extent to which present-day Chaklang rituals reflect earlier Tai-Ahom practices. Anthropologist B. J. Terwiel observed that a central ritual feature of the ceremony—a large circular ''mandala'' made of multicoloured rice powder constructed on the floor around which the marriage rites are performed—is not attested in other Tai marriage customs or ethnographic descriptions. He suggested that the use of such a ''mandala'' may represent a later incorporation influenced by Hindu religious practice rather than an original Tai element.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Terwiel |first=B. J. |year=1996 |title=Recreating the Past: Revivalism in Northeastern India |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=281 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003014 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/152/2/article-p275_5.xml|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Terwiel further noted that in a Chaklang ceremony he witnessed in February 1980, several ritual elements described in earlier detailed accounts were absent. In particular, he observed the absence of the recitation of ancestral feats and triumphs extending back at least seven generations in the Tai language, which had been described as an essential component of the ceremony in published works. He also recorded that a series of Ahom ritual phrases and prayers documented in earlier descriptions were not performed. Instead, the ceremony he witnessed was conducted entirely in Assamese. Terwiel interpreted these discrepancies as evidence that certain components of the ritual may have been reconstructed in the context of modern revivalist practice.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Terwiel |first=B. J. |year=1996 |title=Recreating the Past: Revivalism in Northeastern India |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=281 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003014 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/152/2/article-p275_5.xml|doi-access=free }}</ref> He also recorded that contemporary Ahom priests and scholars were unable to provide a clear etymology of the term "Chaklang," which he interpreted as indicative of modern revival and reinterpretation of the ritual.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Terwiel |first=B. J. |year=1996 |title=Recreating the Past: Revivalism in Northeastern India |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=281 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003014 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/152/2/article-p275_5.xml|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Rituals==
Among the Ahoms, intermarriage within the same clan is prohibited.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saikia |first=Yasmin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC&dq=Among+the+Ahoms%2C+intermarriage+within+the+same+clan+is+prohibited.&pg=PA132 |title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India |date=2004-11-09 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8616-2 |language=en}}</ref> Numerous traditions observed during Ahom weddings are shared with other Assamese communities, including the ''joron'' ceremony, ''daiyan'', and ''gathiyan''.<ref name="gogoi">{{Cite book |last=Gogoi |first=Padmeswar |title=Tai-Ahom Religion and Customs |date=1976 |publisher=Publication Board, Assam}}</ref>

A suitable girl is identified, and the boy's family approaches her family with a ''Sodhanibhar'', which includes betel nuts and leaves, rice, ducks, and other items. If the proposal is accepted, a date is set for the girl's family to visit the boy's household. Subsequently, a wedding date is agreed upon.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ratra |first1=Amiteshwar |last2=Kaur |first2=Praveen |last3=Chhikara |first3=Sudha |title=Marriage and Family: In Diverse and Changing Scenario |date=2006 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |isbn=978-81-7629-758-5}}</ref>

==Wedding ceremony==
[[File:Three Ahom priests during Chaklang (চকলঙ).jpg|thumb|Three Ahom priests (Molung) during Chaklang]]

During the ceremony, the bridegroom is seated in the courtyard, while the bride circles him seven times before taking her place beside him. They then move to a private room where one end of a cloth is tied around the bride's neck and the other to the bridegroom's waist. Nine vessels filled with water are arranged on plantain leaves. The ''Siring phukam'' (master of ceremonies) recites from the ''Choklong puthi'', and three cups containing milk, honey, and rice frumenty are presented to the couple to inhale.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gogoi |first=Nitul Kumar |title=Continuity and Change Among the Ahom |date=2006 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-281-9}}</ref>

The couple then exchange knives, and each secretly places a ring into a basket of uncooked rice for the other to retrieve and wear. Afterward, they pay respects to the bride's parents and assembled guests, completing the marriage.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ratra |first1=Amiteshwar |last2=Kaur |first2=Praveen |last3=Chhikara |first3=Sudha |title=Marriage and Family: In Diverse and Changing Scenario |date=2006 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications}}</ref>

Two days before the wedding, the priest performs rituals at a river or tank in honour of the deity Khoakham. Offerings of rice, eggs, betel nuts, and betel leaves are made, and a ritual fishing using a bamboo implement is conducted. If a fish is caught, it is cooked and served to the couple as a protective rite.<ref name="gogoi" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gogoi |first=Nitul Kumar |title=Continuity and Change Among the Ahom |date=2006 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref>

On the day preceding the wedding, the ''deoban'' ceremony venerates various Ahom deities. The priest recites from sacred texts concerning marital duties and recounts the ancestral histories of both families, traditionally spanning seven generations. The couple then participates in customary rites including exchange of rings, consumption of ''panchamrita'', and symbolic games.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gajrani |first=S. |title=History, Religion and Culture of India |date=2004 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |isbn=978-81-8205-065-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gogoi |first=Pushpa |title=Tai of North East India |date=1996 |publisher=Chumphra Printers and Publishers}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ahom kingdom]]
[[Category:Culture of Assam]]
[[Category:Wedding traditions]]
[[Category:Cultural history of Assam]]
[[Category:Indian wedding traditions]]
{{improve categories|date=November 2023}}

Kalibabur Bari

2026-03-01T23:09:50Z

Godrejsplende: minor fix details after review further

{{Short description|Place in Janai, Hoogly, West Bengal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{coord missing|West Bengal}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Refimprove|date=March 2012}}
{{Local|date=March 2012}}
}}

'''Kali Babur Bari''' ( কালী বাবুর বাড়ি, জনাই) is located in [[Janai, Hooghly|Janai]], [[Hooghly district|Hoogly]], [[West Bengal]].

== Origin of the Kali Babu's (Maharaja Kaliprasad Mukhopadhayay's) family ==
According to the information available in the "Malebandhan" Pustika, Maharaja Adisur From Kanauj brought with him five most renowned Brahmins among which the most famous was Gangananda who was a disciple of Shri Harsha and it is during this period that Debibar Ghatak created "Malebandhan" and added Upadhyay as the surname, which later modified into Mukhopadhyay (supreme of all the upadhyay's) or Mukherjee (in the later British era).As such Gangananda Bhattacharya Upadhayay was the 1st man in the famous family of Janai.

The two reasons for the popularity of Janai village includes: 1. A sweet named "Monohara" that is famous in all over Bengal, and 2. The story of assessts, grandeur and kindness of the royal family of Janai.

"Monohora", the sweet which literally in Bengali means one who steals the heart till date continues to be a favourite among sweet lovers. Unlike other sweetmeats, the genesis of this fascinating sweet remains unknown still one of the legends associated with Monohora biography is that one of the Moiras ( a caste group associated with sweetmeat business; nowadays it is referred to confectioners) from Moira para (neighbourhood of the Moiras) was entrusted by a member of the royal family of Janai to prepare a sweetmeat. The zamindar left for some work and returned behind his scheduled arrival. The Moira was worried that the sandesh would go bad. He coated a lump of Sandesh in a thick sugar syrup so that the sandesh would not go bad. When the zamindar returned, he tasted the sweet and remarked that the sweet has stolen his heart and hence the name Monohora ( in Bengali it literally implies "je mon ke horon korechche"- one who has stolen my heart).

== Maharaja Kaliprasad Mukhopadhayay ==

In 1834, Maharaja Kaliprasad Mukhopadhayay, a Dewan of the [[East India Company]] build the Janai Palace near the bank of Saraswati River, on a cremation ground along with a gigantic "Thakur Dalaan" with seven arches and representing Indo-Catholic architecture, aimed for Durga Puja offerings and henceforth started the most magnificent Durga Puja of the village. On one side of the palace there still exists two temples dedicated in the name of Lord Shiva. Maharaja Kaliprasad Mukhopadhayay earned his reputation in the society by propagating and participating in nationwide religious activities. Kaliprasad was married to Smt. Pitambari Devi of Hoogly and had three sons: Durga Charan, Abhaya Charan, Gouri Charan.

== Descendants of Maharaja Kaliprasad Mukhopadhayay ==

'''1.''' '''Late Shri Durga Charan Mukhopadhyay'''
: Late Shri Durga Charan Mukhopadhyay died at a very early age leaving behind his beautiful wife Tripura Sundari Devi and two sons Purna Chandra and Atul Chandra (Advocate by profession and also patronized "Bengal Drama Society" and founded "Social Improvement Society" in 1868 where several respected European and Bengali socialites joined for the upliftment of Bengali art and culture).

'''2.''' '''Late Babu Purna Chandra Mukhopadhyay'''
: The Elder son of Durga Charan Mukhopadhyay joined as an advocate General under Peter Paul. Later he established the "Mukherjee & Dev" solicitor firm with Raja Shailendra Kishore Dev of Sova Bazar. Innovation of scientific method of blue cultivation by introduction of steam plough was first done by this man who was a first class Freemason. Later he was appointed as the Honorary magistrate of Calcutta and Sealdah Police Court and as the first Indian Chief Justice of [[Supreme Court of India]]. He was the first person in Bengal to initiate the Bengali Cultural theaters when theaters in eastern region of the country was not much in vogue. Patronizing Bengali Cultural theaters in 1857, he established a Drama Workshop in his own residence at Janai and dramatised "Shakuntala" and Dina Bandhu Mitra's "Nabin Tapaswini" was the first time ever in the History Of Bengal.Considering his interest in Spiritualism he formed the "United Association of Spiritualist" along with Pyari Chand Mitra, Dwijendra Nath Tagore and several British Patrons.

'''3.''' '''Late Babu Bhutnath Mukherjee'''
: When the elder son of Purna Chandra Mukhopadhyay, Haripada Mukhopadhayay, who was an expert in homeopathy, left at the age of 54 (being invalid from the age of 16) the entire family responsibilities was entrusted upon Bhutnath Mukherjee, who was a specialist in agriculture and forestry. He established a garden House called "Hawa Khana" for conducting research for improved productivity of agricultural crops and farming. He was the mentor of Zamindar Sabha aimed for the improvement of his territory and well being of his Prajas (subjects). His only son , Late Babu Sambhunath Mukherjee, was a poet and singer. He was a sole proprietor of Sri-Sakti press, one of the renowned press of eastern India in his times, and published the first ever Bengali magazine for women, "Ananya". He was married to Late Smt. Gayatri Devi, from the royal family of Hemnagar, Mymensingh (now in Bangladesh).

Sambhunath and Gayatri left five sons: Somnath, Sundarnath, Suronath, Satinath and Sibapada as successors along with two daughters Sree and Indrani who were married to other renowned families of West Bengal. The 7th Generation of Maharaja Kaliprasad Mukherjee comprises 4 sons Subhendu, Sougata, Sohan, Samrat and three daughters—Suvosree, Surosree and Debasree altogether.

Kalibabur Bari's [[Durga Puja]] at Janai is one of the oldest pujas in West Bengal. The specialty of the puja can be mentioned as Aparajita puja and Beranjali on the day of [[Dashami]]. This puja of a renowned aristocratic zamindar family formerly started at the reign of East India Company. The former zamindar Ishwar Kaliprasad Mukhopadhyay who initiated the puja was the diwan of East India Company. From that time till today the puja is continuing its grandeur and pomp.

== Citations==
* Sashtri, S.N.(1935) 'The Family History of Bengal', Hoogly & Howrah, Din Granthakar, Vol 2(1), p119.
* Mitra, S.K. (1968) 'Hoogly Jelar Itihash O Banga Samaj', Mitrani Prakashan, Vol.3(1), p1256.
* Kalibabur Bari (2014), Available online at: http://kalibaburbari.wix.com/kalibaburbari
* Durga Puja Online (2013), available online at: http://www.durgapujaonline.com/2010/10/kalibabur-bari-at-janai.html
* Bose, K (2021), 'Family Durga Puja's of Janai and Baksha', available online: https://kinjalbose.com/2021/10/12/family-durga-pujas-in-janai-and-baksha/
* Bengal's Rural heritage homes (2022), available online: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/bengals-rural-heritage-homes-set-to-welcome-back-puja-tourists/articleshow/94427284.cms
* Bonedi Family| Bonedi Barir Durga Puja (2023), available online: https://www.durgautsav.com/photo/bonedi-family/

[[Category:Palaces in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Hooghly district]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Hooghly district]]

Sayyid brothers

2026-02-28T15:22:03Z

Godrejsplende: revise

{{Short description|Nobles in the Mughal Empire}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
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| image1 = A seated portrait of Sayyid Abdullah Khan holding court Early 18th century The British Museum.jpg
| caption1 = Syed Husain Ali Khan
| image2 = Farrukhsiyar receiving Husain Ali Khan ca. 1715 British Library.jpg
| caption2 = Syed Hassan Ali Khan
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The '''Sayyid brothers''' were [[Hassan Ali Khan Barha|Abdullah Khan II]] and [[Hussain Ali Khan Barha|Syed Hussain Ali Khan]], two powerful [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] nobles who were active during the [[decline of the Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faruqui |first=Munis D. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/princes-of-the-mughal-empire-15041719/F72D1C99851C722D72AD95F71505DEC4 |title=The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719 |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02217-1 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139135474}}</ref>

They were originally [[Punjabi Muslims]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Umar |first=Muhammad |date=1994 |title=The Barha Saiyids and Associated Clans (summary) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44143392 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=55 |pages=432–435 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> belonging to the [[Sadaat-e-Bara]] clan of the [[Barha dynasty]], who claimed to be [[Sayyid]]s or the descendants of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&dq=sayyid+barha+indian+muslim&pg=PA175 |title=A History of Modern India, 1480-1950 |date=2002 |publisher= Anthem |author1= Claude Markovits |author2=Maggy Hendry |author3=Nisha George |isbn=9781843310044 }}</ref> Their claim was generally not accepted, and they were said to be descendants of peasants from [[Punjab]] who migrated to the eastern part of [[Muzaffarnagar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=A. |first=Kolff, Dirk H. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/717564639 |title=Naukar, Rajput, and sepoy : the ethnohistory of the military labour market in Hindustan, 1450-1850 |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-52305-2 |oclc=717564639 |quote=As another example of such soldiers of marginal peasant origin, the Barha Sayyids, a celebrated troop of soldiers under the Mughals deserve attention. They were said to be the descendants of the families who had, at an uncertain date, moved from their homes in Panjab to a sandy and infertile tract of what is now the eastern part of the Muzaffarnagar district}}</ref> According to historian [[Richard M. Eaton]], they were "as native to India as were [[Jats]], [[Rajputs]] or [[Marathas]]."<ref>{{Cite book |author=Eaton, Richard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WpCMEAAAQBAJ |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=2020 |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-0-14-198539-8 |language=en|page=342|quote=On one side were the Saiyid brothers, whose Baraha clan of Indian Muslims was as native to India as were Jats, Rajputs or Marathas.}}</ref>

The brothers became highly influential in the Mughal court after [[Aurangzeb]]'s death in 1707 and became de facto sovereigns of the empire when they began to seat and unseat emperors.<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=193}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz16lub2uRgC&q=sayyid%20brotherhood%20barha |title=Mohammad Yasin |date=1958 |publisher=Upper India Publishing House |page=18}}</ref> They restored Mughal authority to [[Ajmer]] in [[Rajasthan]] with the surrender of [[Maharaja Ajit Singh]], and the Jat leader [[Churaman]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jVx6EAAAQBAJ&dq=puppet+syed+brothers&pg=PA119 |title= The Wonder That Is Urdu |page= 119 |author= Krishna S. Dhir |date= 2022 |publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 9788120843011 }}</ref> During their rule, the Sikh rebel [[Banda Singh Bahadur]] was captured and executed. The Sayyids engaged in recruitment of soldiers, very few of whom were not Sayyids, or inhabitants of [[Jansath|Barha]], or non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-VbRAAAAMAAJ&q=khafi+khan+the+syeds+barha+non-muslims |title= Discovery of Pakistan |author= Abdul Aziz |date= 1964 |publisher= the University of Michigan |page= 136 }}</ref>

Emperor [[Bahadur Shah I]] died in 1712, and his successor [[Jahandar Shah]] was assassinated on the orders of the Sayyid brothers. In 1713, Jahandar's nephew [[Farrukhsiyar]] (r. 1713–1719) became the emperor also with the help of the brothers. His reign marked the ascendancy of the brothers, who monopolised state power and reduced the emperor to a figurehead. The brothers conspired to send [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Nizam-ul-Mulk]] to the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], away from the Mughal court to reduce his influence. In 1719, the brothers blinded, deposed and murdered Farrukhsiyar. They then arranged for his first cousin, [[Rafi ud-Darajat]], to be the next ruler in February 1719. When Rafi ud-Darajat died of lung disease in June, they made his elder brother, [[Rafi ud-Daulah]] (Shah Jahan II), ruler. After the latter died of lung disease in September, [[Muhammad Shah]] (r. 1719–1748) ascended the throne at the age of 17 with the Sayyid brothers as [[regent]]s until 1720.

To restore his de facto power, Muhammad Shah arranged for the brothers to be killed with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk. Syed Hussain Ali Khan was murdered at [[Fatehpur Sikri]] in 1720, and Syed Hassan Ali Khan was fatally poisoned in 1722.<ref name="Shaharyar_Begums_2000">{{cite book|title=The Begums of Bhopal|first=Shaharyar M. |last=Khan|edition=illustrated|publisher=I.B.Tauris|year=2000|isbn=978-1-86064-528-0|page=18}}</ref>

== Early appointments of the Syed brothers ==
[[File:Bhavanidas. The Emperor Aurangzeb Carried on a Palanquin ca. 1705–20 Metripolitan Museum of Art..jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] leads his final expedition (1705).]]

The two brothers, who now come into such prominence came from the old military aristocracy. Besides the prestige of the Syed lineage and the personal renown acquired by their own valor, they were the sons of [[Abdullah Khan Barha]]<ref>''Later Mughals'' by [[William Irvine (historian)|William Irvine]]</ref> who was chosen by Aurangzeb as the first [[Subedar]] of [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur]] in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and then [[Subedar]] of [[Ajmer]]. Abdullah Khan had risen in the service of [[Ruhullah Khan]], Aurangzeb's ''[[Mir Bakhshi]]'' (top government official), and finally, on receiving the rank of an imperial [[Mansabdar]], attached himself to the eldest [[Bahadur Shah I|Prince Muazzam]].

In 1697, Syed Hassan Ali Khan was [[Faujdar]] (military commander) of [[Sultanpur, Uttar Pradesh|Sultanpur]], Nazarbar in Baglana, and was appointed [[Subahdar]] (governor) of [[Khandesh]] in 1698 to halt [[Maratha]] expansion in the region. Later he was appointed ruler of [[Hoshangabad]], [[Khandesh]] (Maharashtra). He was responsible for attacking [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]] during the final campaign against the [[Maratha|Marathas]] in 1705 and attended the funeral of Aurangzeb in 1707.

Hassan's younger brother, Hussain Ali Khan, who is known to have greater energy than his elder brother, had during the reign of Aurangzeb held charge first of [[Ranthambore Fort|Ranthambore]], in [[Ajmer]], and then of [[Hindaun]]-[[Bayana]], in [[Agra]].

==Role in the Mughal war of succession (1707–1709)==
[[File:The Emperor Bahadur Shah Mounted on an elephant. End of 17cent. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.jpg|thumb|267x267px|The Emperor [[Bahadur Shah I]] (1643–1712)|left]]
After Prince Mu'izz ud-Din [[Jahandar Shah]], the eldest of Emperor [[Bahadur Shah I|Bahadur Shah]]'s sons, had been appointed in 1694–95 to [[Multan]] province, Syed Hassan Ali Khan and his brother followed him there. Seeking to claim honor against the [[Baloch people|Baloch]] zamindar in an expedition, Jahandar Shah sought not to allow this, and assigned them under [[Isa Khan Main]], his Punjabi Muslim administrator. Consequently, the Sayyids quit the service and went to [[Lahore]], where they lived in comparative poverty, waiting for employment from [[Munim Khan II]], the [[Nazim]] (convenor) of that place.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muzaffar Alam (1986) |title=The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India | publisher=Oxford University Press, Bombay | page= 21 }}</ref>

When Emperor Aurangzeb died and Prince Muhammad Mu'azzam Shah Alam, reached Lahore on his march to Agra to contest the throne, the Sayyids presented themselves and allied with Shah Alam. In the [[Battle of Jajau]] on 18 June 1707, they served in the [[Vanguard (military tactics)|vanguard]] where their brother, Syed Nur ud-Din Ali Khan, was left dead on the field, and Syed Hussain Ali Khan was severely wounded. Though their rank was raised to 4,000, and the elder brother received his father's title of ''Syed Mian'', they were not treated with high favour either by the new emperor or his vizier.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=they+served+in+the+vanguard+and+fought+valiantly+on+foot+,+as+was+the+Sayyid+habit+on+an+emergency+.&pg=PA204 |title= Later Mughal |author= William Irvine |date= 1971 |page= 204 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri }}</ref>[[File:Bahadur Shah (1643-1712) on horseback.jpg|thumb|Bahadur Shah on horseback.]]The two Sayyids quarrelled with Khanazad Khan, the Vizier Munim Khan's second son, and offended Jahandar Shah, though the conflict was settled from a visit by the vizier, there is little doubt that this difference helped to keep them out of employment. The morning after the Battle of Jajau, the Prince Jahandar Shah visited their quarters to condole with them on the death of their brother, Syed Nur ud-Din Ali Khan. Syed Hussain Ali Khan responded aggressively, which angered Jahandar Shah and so refrained from making any recommendation to his father in their favour. However, Syed Shujaat Khan Barha held the province of Ajmer, and another Sayyid Hussain Barha was made faujdar of Amber.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x6mgAAAAMAAJ&dq=bahadur+shah+i+sayyids+of+barha&pg=PA335 |title=Calcutta Review Volume 52|date=1871 |publisher=Indiana University |page=335 }}</ref>

In April 1708, Prince [[Azim-ush-shan]] nominated the younger brother Syed Hussain Ali Khan, to represent him as the governor of [[Bihar]], in the capital [[Patna|Azimabad]] (Patna). In October 1708, Syed Hassan Ali Khan was named subah of [[Ajmer]], (then in a disturbed state owing to the Rajput rising) which displeased Syed Shuja'at Ali Khan Barha. When Syed Hassan Ali Khan almost reached Delhi, to raise new troops and make other preparations, Emperor [[Bahadur Shah I|Bahadur Shah]], changed his mind and Shuja'at Ali Khan Barha was received again into favour and maintained in his government. Sayyid Saeed Khan Barha was placed in charge of the [[Kachhwaha|Kachawa]] capital at [[Amber, India|Amber]].<ref>{{cite book |title= Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs & the Deccan |author= Satish Chandra |date=1993 |page=99}}</ref> Prince Azim-ush-shan made Syed Hassan Ali Khan his deputy of [[Allahabad]] in January 1711. Khan-i Jahan Barha was made the faujdar of Moradabad.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WU9uAAAAMAAJ&q=abdullah+barha+banda+singh |title= Banda Bahadur and His Times |author=Raj Pal Singh · |date=1998 |publisher=Harman Publishing House |isbn= 9788186622254 }}</ref>

== Farrukhsiyar's request to the Sayyids ==
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2025}}
[[File:The Emperor Farrukhsiyar on his balcony 1715-1719, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.jpg|thumb|326x326px|Mughal Emperor [[Farrukhsiyar]]]]
When Prince [[Farrukhsiyar]] first arrived at Azimabad, Syed Hussain Ali Khan was away recapturing the Rohtas fort of [[Bihar]], which about this time had been seized by Muhammad Raza ''Rayat Khan''. The Sayyids had felt annoyed on hearing that Farrukhsiyar had issued coin and caused the [[khutba]] to be read in his father, Prince Azim-ush-shan's, name, without waiting to learn the result of the impending struggle at [[Lahore]]. On returning to headquarters, he declined the Prince's overtures. The Prince's mother made a private visit to the Sayyid's mother, mentioning that the Sayyids were in their position due to the kindness of the Prince's father. That father, two brothers, and two uncles had been killed, and the Prince's own means were insufficient for any enterprise. The mother said "let Syed Hussain Ali Khan then choose his own course, either let him aid Prince Farrukhsiyar to recover his rights and revenge his father's death, or else let him place the Prince in chains and send him a prisoner to Emperor [[Jahandar Shah]]". The Sayyid's mother called her son into the harem and told him that "whatever was the result he would be a gainer: if defeated, his name would stand recorded as a hero till Judgment Day; if successful, the whole of Hindustan would be at their feet and above them none but the Emperor". Finally she exclaimed, "If you adhere to Emperor Jahandar Shah, you will have to answer before the Great Judge for disavowing your mother's claim upon you."

Syed Hussain Ali Khan then swore a binding oath that he would espouse the Prince's cause. The following night Prince Farrukhsiyar presented himself at the Khan's house, saying that he had come either to be seized and sent to Emperor Jahandar Shah or to enter into an agreement for the recovery of the throne. The Sayyid decided to fight on Prince Farrukhsiyar's behalf. He wrote at once to his elder brother, Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha, at [[Allahabad]], inviting him to join the same side, and Prince Farrukhsiyar addressed a [[firman]] to him making many promises, and authorising him to expend the Bengal treasure, then at Allahabad, on the enlistment of troops. The two chief postings in the Empire, those of ''Vizier'' and of ''Amir ul Umara'' were formally promised to the two brothers as their reward in case of success. Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha, on being superseded at Allahabad, gives in his allegiance to Prince Farrukhsiyar.

== Mughal succession crises of 1712 ==
At first Syed Hassan Ali Khan's intention was to submit to [[Jahandar Shah]], to whom he sent letters professing his loyalty and offering his services. Three months before the death of Emperor Bahadur Shah, he had gone to [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]] to restore order. In this he was not successful and the pay of his soldiers fell into arrears. The men raised a disturbance, and Syed Hassan Ali Khan's took shelter within the fort of [[Allahabad]] and promised to pay the troops once he reached the city. On the return march, word came of Emperor Bahadur Shah's death. While Syed Hassan Ali Khan was still in expectation of a favourable reply to his letter to Jahandar Shah, he was surprised to learn that Jahandar had lost favor from his own government and that a new governor (the province had been granted to a Raji Muhammad Khan, subah of [[Allahabad]]) was nominated, Syed Abdul Ghafoorr.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Farrukhsiyar Procession in front of the Great Mosque of Delhi.png|thumb|left|328x328px|Farrukhsiyar arrives at the friday congregation]]

Syed Abdul Ghafoor obtained contingents from one or two zamindars and collected altogether 6,000 to 7,000 men. When he drew near to Karra Manikpur, Syed Abul Hasan Khan, a Sayyid of Bijapur, who was Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha's ''Bakhshi'', advanced at the head of 3,000 men to bar his progress. With Abul Hasan Khan's (who was allied to Syed Hassan Ali Khan) victory at the Battle of Sarai Alam Chand on 2 August 1712, it became clear that the Sayyids were allied against to Prince [[Farrukhsiyar]], the new contender for the throne. Jahandar Shah confirmed Sayyid Hassan Ali Khan as governor of Allahabad.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-3RDAAAAYAAJ&q=farrukhsiyar+allahabad+confirmed |title=Journal of Indian History: Volume 61 |date= 1983 |page= 111 |publisher=University of Allahabad. Department of Modern Indian History, more }}</ref>

Prince Farrukhsiyar, meanwhile, had marched out with an army along with Syed Hussain Ali Khan from Patna to Allahabad to join Syed Hassan Ali Khan. Emperor Jahandar Shah learning of the defeat of his general, Syed Abdul Ghafoor sent his own son Prince Azzu-ud-Din along with Generals Lutfullah Khan and Khwaja Hussain ''Khan Dauran'' to face this army. The Second Battle of Khajwah was fought in [[Fatehpur District]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] on 28 November 1712. Prince Farrukhsiyar defeated Prince Azzu-ud-Din, and the General Lutfullah Khan of Panipat, Sayyid Muzaffar Khan Barha, the maternal uncle of Abdullah Khan, Sayyid Hassan Khan, the son of Hussain Ali Khan, and Sayyid Mustafa Khan, who were on the opposite side, joined the faction of Farrukhsiyar.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=khan+i+jahan+barha&pg=PA219 |title= Later Mughal |author= William Irvine |date= 1971 |page= 291 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri }}</ref> This forced Jahandar Shah and his vizier to initiate the [[Battle of Agra]] on 10 January 1713, Prince Farrukhsiyar again won and became the Emperor of the Mughal Empire succeeding his uncle Jahandar Shah. Farrukhsiyar's revolt against Jahandar Shah was a risky pusuit, and his victory was due to the resources of the two Sayyid brothers.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119444/page/n21/mode/2up?q=saiyids |title= The Reign Of Muhammad Shah 1919-1748 |date= 1977 |author= Malik, Zahiruddin |page= 10 }}</ref>

== Rise of the Sayyid brothers ==
After his victory at the Battle of Agra in 1713, once Emperor [[Farrukhsiyar]] reached Delhi from Agre, conferred many new appointments and new titles on his generals and noblemen. Syed Hassan Ali Khan was awarded titles ''Nawab Qutb-ul-mulk, Yamin-ud-daulah, Syed Mian Saani, Bahadur Zafar Jung, Sipah-salar, Yar-i-wafadar'' and became Vizier. Syed Hussain Ali Khan was appointed first ''Bakhshi'' with the titles of ''Umdat-ul-mulk, Amir-ul-Umara, Bahadur, Feroze Jung, Sipah Sardar''.

The ''Amir-ul-Umara'' Hussain Ali Khan, was inclined to the use of exaggerated and insolent language. Flatterers in the train of Hussain Ali Khan used to recite the verses in the emperor's presence:<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=verses&pg=PA219 |title= Later Mughal |author= William Irvine |date= 1971 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri }}</ref>

{{Quote|text="The whole world and all creation seeks the shelter of your umbrella, 
Kings of the world earn crowns through your emprize."}}

== Rajputana Campaign of 1714 ==
[[File:Maharaja Ajit Singh of Marwar.jpg|thumb|[[Ajit Singh of Marwar]]]]
The [[Rajput]] states had been in veiled revolt from the imperial authority for 50 years. [[Ajit Singh of Marwar|Ajit Singh]], Maharaja of Marwar, had taken advantage of the Mughal civil war to expel the Mughal commander from [[Marwar]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119114/page/n77/mode/2up| title= Parties And Politics At The Mughal Court |author= Satish Chandra |date= 1959 |page= 30 }}</ref> Former Emperor Bahadur Shah had been unable to reduce Ajit's power. Ajit Singh, after forbidding the slaughtering cows by Muslims for food and also the call for prayer from the Alamgiri Mosque, had entered imperial territory and taken possession of [[Ajmer]]. The Rana of [[Udaipur]] and [[Jai Singh II]] were acting in close cooperation with him, and the latter had defeated Hussain Khan Barha of Mewat in the Battle of Sambhar.<ref>{{cite book |title= Journal of the Rajasthan Institute of Historical Research: Volume 12 |page= 21 |publisher= Rajasthan Institute of Historical Research |date= 1975 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3RVDAAAAYAAJ&q=sambher }}</ref> Early in Emperor [[Farrukhsiyar]]'s reign it was determined that this encroachment must be put an end by marching against him.

Syed Hussain Ali Khan left Delhi on 6 January 1714 and Ajit Singh, "upon learning of the march of this army, was alarmed at its strength and at the prowess of the Sayyids."<ref>{{cite book |title= The History of India as Told by Its Own Historian- Muhammadan period · Volume 3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=RXxDAAAAYAAJ&q=history+of+india+by+its+own+historians+mir+jumla |author= Sir Henry Miers Elliot |date= 1952 |publisher= the University of Virginia |page= 62 }}</ref> In Ajmer, Syed Hussain Ali Khan burnt the villages belonging to Marwar, while those belonging to Amber State were left unharmed. The country was thus settled and brought under imperial rule gradually.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=t3IbAAAAIAAJ&q=In+the+country+around+Ajmer+,+the+deserted+villages+belonging+to+Jodhpur+were+burnt+,+while+those+belonging+to+Amber+State+.. |title= Rajasthan [district Gazetteers].: Ajmer & Supplement (2 v)|page=75 |publisher= Rajasthan (India) |date=1966 }}</ref> Syed Hussain Ali Khan overran Jodhpur and compelled the rebel Ajit Singh to flee and take refuge in the hills.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&dq=mir+jumla+farrukhsiyar&pg=PA456 |title= The Cambridge Shorter History of India |author= CUP Archive |publisher= CUP Archive |page= 456 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=S8W3AAAAIAAJ&q=mir+bakhshi+ajit+singh |title= The reign of Muhammad Shah, 1719-1748 |author= Zahiruddin Malik, Zahir Uddin Malik |date= 1977 |page= 49 |publisher= Asia Publishing House |isbn= 9780210405987 }}</ref> After a brief campaign, Raghunath, a ''munshi'' in the service of Ajit Singh came to negotiate peace with Syed Hussain Ali Khan. The terms were that Ajit Singh should give one of his daughters in marriage to Farrukhsiyar. [[Roshan-ud-Daulah]] arrived at court on 18 May 1714 with the news.

== Rebellion of Churaman Jat ==

On the advice of the Syed brothers, the emperor Farrukhsiyar had sent [[Sawai Jai Singh|Jai Singh]], Maharaja of Amber, who had taken part in his father's campaigns against the Jats as a boy, in an expedition against [[Churaman]] [[Jats|Jat]], resulting in a siege that lasted 12 months.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9EduAAAAMAAJ&q=sayyid+brothers+churaman |title= History of Shekhawats |date= 2001 |author= Ranbir Sinh |publisher= the University of Michigan |page= 30 |isbn= 9788186782743 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KubCD2jHjEsC&dq=jai+singh+churaman+siege&pg=PA66 |title= Northern India, Rajasthan, Agra, Delhi: A Travel Guide |author= Ward, Philip |date= 1989 |publisher= Pelican Publishing |isbn= 9781455609710 }}</ref> The Sayyids appointed their uncle Sayyid Khan-i-Jahan Barha to command a second army.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x6mgAAAAMAAJ&dq=barha+sayyids+jat&pg=PA335 |title= Calcutta Review: Volume 52 |date= 1871 |publisher= Indiana University |page= 335 }}</ref> Churaman made overtures to the Wazir Qutb-ul-Mulk, offering tribute and surrendered his fortresses.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=churaman+negotiate&pg=PA326 |title= Later Mughal |date= 1971 |author= William Irvine |page= 326 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri }}</ref> Churaman Jat became a new favorite of the Sayyids, which became a useful ally until the death of the Sayyids.<ref>{{cite book |title= Social and Political History of the Jats, Bharatpur Upto 1826 |page= 22 |publisher= the University of Michigan |date= 2006 |author= Ram Pande }}</ref>

== Court factions ==
The early Mughals were Turco-Mongol origin,<ref name="Berndl">{{Cite book |last1=Berndl |first1=Klaus |title=National Geographic Visual History of the World |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7922-3695-5 |pages=318–320}}</ref> and gradually absorbed Indian culture along with Central Asian influences.<ref name="Foltz">{{cite journal |last1=Foltz |first1=Richard |title=THE CENTRAL ASIAN NAQSHBANDĪ CONNECTIONS OF THE MUGHAL EMPERORS |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |date=July 1996 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=229–239 |doi=10.1093/jis/7.2.229 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jis/article-abstract/7/2/229/773952?redirectedFrom=PDF |accessdate=26 August 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The influence of Indian culture was extremely pronounced, as the Mughals successively married into the Hindu Rajput dynasties<ref>{{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Marc Jason |year=2017 |title=South Asia in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7OQWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=79 |isbn=978-0-19-976034-3}}</ref><ref name="Mohammada">{{cite book|first=Malika|last=Mohammada|title=The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India|publisher=Aakar Books|year=2007|page=300|isbn=978-81-89833-18-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&pg=PA300}}</ref> and became Indianised, and all the Mughal emperors since Akbar had high-caste Hindu Rajput wives, and in most cases, mothers, including Jahangir and Shah Jahan.<ref name="Lefèvre">{{cite journal |last1=Lefèvre |first1=Corinne |title=Recovering a Missing Voice from Mughal India: The Imperial Discourse of Jahāngīr (r. 1605–1627) in His Memoirs |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |date=2007 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=452–489 |doi=10.1163/156852007783245034 |jstor=25165207 |s2cid=153839580 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25165207 |accessdate=26 August 2020}}</ref> There were also significant [[Turkish people|Turkish]] and [[Iranian peoples|Irani]] officials in the Mughal court, and many of the Mughal princesses and wives that were a part of the large Mughal royal harem were of [[Persians|Persian]] or [[Turkish people|Turkish]] descent.<ref>{{cite book | isbn=81-269-0085-7 | title=History of Modern India: 1707 A.D. To Upto 2000 A.D. | last1=Chaurasia | first1=Radhey Shyam | year=2002 | publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist }}</ref>

[[File:India, Mughal Dynasty - Husain Ali Khan Entertaining His Brothers (The Sayyid Brothers) - 2013.334 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|Hussain Ali Khan entertaining his brothers|left]]
As Farrukhsiyar was unable to overthrow the Sayyid brothers by himself, he raised the emperor's party with the aim to overthrow the Sayyids.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VoNDAAAAYAAJ&q=farrukhsiyar+overthrow+sayyid+brothers |title= A New History of Indo-Pakistan, Since 1526 |author= Kaushar Ali |date= 1977 |publisher= Aziz Publishers }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AZdCrUxFAHEC&dq=emperor%27s+party+sayyid+brothers&pg=PA195 |page= 195 |author= Ashvini Agrawal |date= 1983 |title= Studies in Mughal History |publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 9788120823266 }}</ref> For this task he chose Khan-i Dauran (an Indian Muslim of Agra),<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=khan+dauran+native+agra&pg=PA262 |page= 262 |author= William Irvine |year= 1971 |title= Later Mughal |publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri }}</ref> Mir Jumla,<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2js6AwAAQBAJ&dq=khan+dauran&pg=PT732 |title= Mission to Tibet: The Extraordinary Eighteenth-Century Account of Father Ippolito Desideri S. J. |author= Michael J Sweet |date= 2010 |publisher= Wisdom Publications |isbn= 9780861719303 }}</ref> Shaista Khan (Inayatullah Kashmiri, an old Alamgiri noble),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_RtAAAAMAAJ&q=About+this+time+it+was+learnt+that+Shaista+Khan+,+the+maternal+uncle+of+the+late+Farrukhsiyar+,+was+raising+troops+and |title= The Forgotten Mughals:A History of the Later Emperors of the House of Babar, 1707-1857 |author= G. S. Cheema |date= 2002 |page=142|publisher= Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn= 9788173044168 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dohDAAAAYAAJ&q=The+emperor+felt+the+need+of+raising+the+old+%27+Alamgiri+nobles+%27+as+a+counterpoise+to+the+Sayyids |title= A Study of Eighteenth Century India: Political history, 1707-1761 |date= 1976 |publisher= Saraswat Library }}</ref> and later, Itiqad Khan,<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dohDAAAAYAAJ&q=farrukhsiyar+chose+khan+dauran |title= A Study of Eighteenth Century India: Political history, 1707-1761 |date= 1976 |author= Jagadish Narayan Sarkar |publisher= Saraswat Library }}</ref> the last whom he chose as the future Wazir. Itiqad Khan was related by marriage to Farrukhsiyar's mother, who was also of Kashmiri descent.<ref>{{cite book |title= Journal and Proceedings Volume 73, Parts 1-3 |page= 306 |date= 1907 |publisher= Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal }}</ref>

There were other blocs of power such as the Irani faction, related by marriage to the court. The leader of this faction, Zulfiqar Khan, was a Shi'a Persian noble born in India, and it relied on Indian power-holders of various origin. The faction, during the year-long reign of Jahandar Shah, found opposition to Kolkatash Khan.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119444/page/n35/mode/2up?q=saiyids |title= The Reign Of Muhammad Shah 1919-1748 |author= Zahiruddin Malik |date= 1977 |page= 24 }}</ref> With the overthrow of Jahandar Shah, and the execution of Zulfiqar Khan by the Sayyid Brothers,<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_z5uAAAAMAAJ&q=zulfiqar+khan+beheaded+syed+brothers |title= Mini Mughals |page= 28 |date= 1989 |author= Muni Lal |publisher= Konark Publishers |isbn= 9788122001747 }}</ref> an Indo-Muslim party came into ascendance under the Sayyid faction.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119444/page/n33/mode/2up?q=ascendancy |title= The Reign Of Muhammad Shah 1919-1748 |author= Zahiruddin Malik |date= 1977 |page= 23 }}</ref> The Sayyid party which ruled during the reign of Farrukhsiyar was a powerful faction linked by ties of blood and marriage. The Sayyid party was distinct from other factions as the Sayyid leaders recruited very few who were neither Sayyids, nor Muslim.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-VbRAAAAMAAJ&q=khafi+khan+the+syeds+barha+non-muslims |title= Discovery of Pakistan |author= Abdul Aziz |date= 1964 |publisher= the University of Michigan |page= 136 }}</ref> As the bulk of their troops were their own Sayyid clanmen, the Sayyids had greater strength and cohesion than other factions in the Mughal court. The Sayyids had developed a sort of common brotherhood among themselves and took up the cause of every individual as an insult to the whole group.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz16lub2uRgC&q=sayyid+brothers+among+themselves+and+look+up+the+cause+of+every+individual |title= A Social History of Islamic India, 1605-1748 |page=18 |author=Mohammad Yasin |date=1958 }}</ref> They were strongly united around their leaders, Qutb-ul-Mulk and ''Amir-ul-Umara'' Hussain Ali Khan. The unique privilege of the Sayyids in leading the imperial vanguard also gave them an advantage over other parts of the Mughal military and exalted their sense of social pride.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119444/page/n43/mode/2up?q=saiyid|title= The Reign Of Muhammad Shah 1919-1748 |author= Zahiruddin Malik |date= 1977 |page= 32 }}</ref>

The Sayyid party continuously tried to counteract Farrukhsiyar's plots to attain self-rule.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AZdCrUxFAHEC&dq=emperor%27s+party+sayyid+brothers&pg=PA195 |page= 195 |author= Ashvini Agrawal |date= 1983 |title= Studies in Mughal History |publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 9788120823266 }}</ref> Another bloc, the Turanis, also formed an opposition to Sayyid rule. The Turanis were not in a position to sufficiently act as a power pressure group against the Sayyids, or to bargain from a position of strength, and Farrukhsiyar did not trust the group as he suspected they would attempt to weaken him.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119444/page/n41/mode/2up?q=saiyids |title= The Reign Of Muhammad Shah 1919-1748 |author= Zahiruddin Malik |date= 1977 |page= 30 }}</ref> There was a continual struggle for power between the Indian Muslim, Irani and Turani blocs at court, and each attempted to win the favour of the emperor in order to counter the other factions.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&q=zulfiqar |title= History of Modern India: 1707 A.D. to Upto 2000 A.D. |page= 5 |author= Radhey Shyam Chaurasia |publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Dist |date= 2002 |isbn= 9788126900855 }}</ref><ref>''History of Modern India: 1707 A.D. to Up to 2000 A.D.'' by Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, Atlantic Publishers & Dist, {{ISBN|81-269-0085-7}}</ref>

== Farrukhsiyar's struggles with the Sayyids ==
[[File:India in 1700 Joppen.jpg|thumb|right|The Sayyid Brothers had considerably reduced the power of Mughal Empire until they were finally overthrown by [[Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I|Nizam-ul-Mulk]].]]

The Sayyids saw [[Farrukhsiyar]]'s accession to the throne as their doing, and resented the grant of any sharing of power to other persons. On the other hand, the small group of Farrukhsiyar's intimates, men who had known him from his childhood and stood on the most familiar terms with him, such as [[Khan Dowran VII|Khan-i Dauran]],<ref>{{cite book |title= History of the Shekhawats |author= Ranbir Sinh |page=30 |publisher= the University of Michigan |date=2001 }}</ref> were aggrieved at their exclusion from a share in the spoils, but did not believe they were strong enough to counter the Sayyids openly. Their plan, therefore was to work upon the weak-minded Farrukhsiyar by telling him:

<blockquote>
"The Sayyids look upon you as their creation, and think nothing of you or your power. They hold the two chief civil and military officers, their relations and friends have the principal other offices, and the most profitable land assignments (jagirs). Their power will go on increasing, until should they enter on treasonable projects, there will be no one to resist them."<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bw_gAAAAMAAJ&dq=islam+khan+farrukhsiyar+convert&pg=PA56 |title= Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal:Volume 72 |page=52 |author= William Irvine |year= 1904 |publisher= Bishop's College Press }}</ref>
</blockquote>

Neither Farrukhsiyar nor his favorites dared to attack them openly, and Farrukhsiyar was obliged to submit to the Sayyid brothers, but continued his intrigues.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&dq=mir+jumla+of+farrukhsiyar&pg=PA456 |title= The Cambridge Shorter History of India |page= 456 |publisher= CUP Archive |author= CUP }}</ref> Farrukhsiyar had obtained the throne largely due to the martial kills of the Sayyid Brothers, who, from Barha had provided contingents to the imperial armies. Even as Emperor, he lacked revenues to fund his own forces, as he could not confront the Syed Brothers. Further, the Syed Brothers threatened to enthrone another imperial family member whenever Farrukhsiyar proved too demanding. Farrukhsiyar was forced to turn to other nobles, who were to be raised on an equal position to them.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bhKMDwAAQBAJ&dq=so+he+could+not+confront+the+Sayyid+brothers.+Further,+they+threatened+to+enthrone&pg=PA212 |title= A Short History of the Mughal Empire |page=212 |author= Michael Fischer |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |date=2015 |isbn= 9780857727770 }}</ref> The Sayyid Brothers, resisted the raising of other nobles to power.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bw_gAAAAMAAJ&dq=islam+khan+farrukhsiyar+convert&pg=PA56 |title= Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal:Volume 72 |page=52 |author= William Irvine |year= 1904 |publisher= Bishop's College Press }}</ref> During the Mir Bakhshi's absence during the Rajputana campaign, Farrukhsiyar started raising funds to raise troops for Khwaja Asim Khan-i Dauran and Ubaidullah Mir Jumla II in opposition to the Sayyid brothers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&dq=khan+dauran+mir+jumla&pg=PA267 |title=The Mughal Empire: Part 1, Volume 5|page=267 |author=John F. Richards, Gordon Johnson |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521566032 }}</ref> Khan-i Dauran was put at the head of 5,000 Wala-Shahis, while Mir Jumla was given 5,000 Mughal troops, recruited by his adopted son, Amanat Khan.

Being a man of the sword and a soldier, Syed Hassan Ali Khan had no natural taste for civil and financial administration, and found no opportunity in acquiring such experience. The Sayyids had historically served military roles rather than as administrators. This Wazir was endowed with virtues of courage and generosity, but lacked the zeal for public service and resisted the drudgery of office work.<ref>{{cite book |title= A Mughal Statesman Of The Eighteenth Century: Khan-i-Dauran |author= Zahiruddin Malik |date=1973 |publisher= Aligarh Muslim University |page=40 }}</ref> Ratan Chand, a [[Hindu]] [[Bania (caste)|Baniya]] of [[Jansath]] near the Sayyids home was appointed instead by Abdullah to his clerical work and trusted him with the financial affairs of the state that was meant for the Wazir. He had been recently created a [[Raja]] with the rank of 2,000 zat in 1712 by Farrukhsiyar,<ref>Rajvanshi Samaj ki mahan vibhitiyan, Ghaziabad, 7 May 2017</ref> and came to be regarded as a very effective administrator.<ref>History of Origin of Some Clans in India, Mangal Sen Jindal, Pub. Sarup and Sons, 1992</ref><ref>The Kingmaker of the Mughal Empire (2018) Avnish Rajvanshi Productions</ref><ref>''A Sketch of the History of Hindustán from the First Muslim Conquest to the Fall of the Mughal Empire'' by [[Henry George Keene (1826–1915)|Henry George Keene]], published by W. H. Allen & Co., 1885</ref> He was even entrusted with appointment of [[Qadi|kazi]]s. While it was usually the Wazir who brought candidates to the Emperor, Mir Jumla instead independently did this. As the Wazir suffered in influence, the Sayyids felt aggrieved, and Abdullah Khan now wrote letters to his brother to return to Delhi with all possible speed from his campaign in Rajputana. The Mir Bakhshi reached the capital on 16 July 1714.

Mir Jumla, having no real strength of character, made excuses during talks and drew to one side. While Khan Dauran was frightened that if he should ever be called on to take the lead, he may lose his life in the attempt to destroy the Sayyids. As for the Emperor, his own troops were much weaker to the Sayyids. The imperial and Wala-shahi troops comprised many low-caste men and mere artisans held commands. As the Emperor was aware of the unity and the firm resolve of the Syed Brothers, decided once more to resume friendly relations with them. In December 1714, the Syed Brothers assembled their troops and possessed themselves of the gates of the citadel containing the Emperor's palace, proposing terms of reconciliation.

[[File:A PORTRAIT OF LUTFULLAH KHAN SADIQ.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Lutfullah Khan Sadiq Panipati]]
The Sayyid Brothers' terms were that they would not reconciliate unless Mir Jumla and Khan-i Dauran were dismissed. [[Islam Khan V]], Sayyid Hussain Khan Barha, Sayyid Shujaat Khan Barha and Khwaja Jafar would negotiate a settlement whereby Mir Jumla was forced out of office in [[Delhi]] and sent to [[Bihar]] on 16 December 1714.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0kOAAAAQAAJ&dq=syed+brothers+atrocities&pg=PA684 |page=684 |title=The illustrated history of the British empire in India and the East ... to the suppression of the Sepoy mutiny in 1859. With a continuation to the end of 1878:Volume 2 |author=Edward Henry Nolan |date=1878 }}</ref> However, Khan-i Dauran was spared due to the intercession of his brother Khwaja Jafar, who was a holy man, who swore that Khan-i Dauran would never act against the Sayyid Brothers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bw_gAAAAMAAJ&dq=islam+khan+farrukhsiyar+convert&pg=PA56 |title= Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal:Volume 72 |date=1904 |publisher=Bishop's College Press |author= William Irvine }}</ref> [[Ansari (Panipat)|Lutfullah Khan Sadiq]], Farrukhsiyar's closest advisor,<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=f_RtAAAAMAAJ&q=sayyid+brothers+deprived+ministers+lutfullah+khan+sadiq |title= The Forgotten Mughals:A History of the Later Emperors of the House of Babar, 1707-1857|page=117 |author= G. S. Cheema |date=2002 |publisher= Manohar Publishers & Distributors|isbn= 9788173044168}}</ref> who was despised by the Sayyid Brothers, was deprived of his rank, and his mansions and gardens were confiscated.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=Why+should+they+not+,+in+order+to+obtain+the+removal+of+Mir+Jumla+,+propose+that+one+of+the+two+brothers+leave&pg=PA300 |title= Later Mughals |page= 301 |author= William Irvine |year= 1971 }}</ref> Successive agents chosen by Farrukhsiyar gave up the attempt and went over to the Sayyids as they were seen to be more capable in protecting their own interests.<ref>{{cite book |title= textsCambridge History Of India, Vol. 4, The Mughul Period |author= Baig |page=336 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>

Syed Hussain Ali Khan entered the palace with his men, observing the same precautions as in the case of Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha. Some months before this time Hussain Ali Khan had obtained in his own favour a grant of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] provinces, but he had meant to exercise the government through a deputy, [[Daud Khan Panni]]. Now it was proposed that Hussain Ali Khan would leave court and take over charge of the Deccan himself. Khan-i Dauran was appointed as the deputy of Hussain Ali Khan in his duties as Mir Bakhshi.

==Deccan campaigns==
Sayyid Hussain Ali Khan was appointed the Viceroy of the Deccan. In an unprecedented measure, he was given a grand seal which gave him full authority to assign jagirs in the Deccan, appoint and dismiss officers and commandants of the great fortresses, which were previously jealously guarded by the Mughal royals in order to serve as a counterweight against overly ambitious provincials.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&dq=daud+khan+panni+killed&pg=PA267 |title= The Mughal Empire: Part 1, Volume 5 |author= John F. Richards, Gordon Johnson |date= 1993 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |page= 267 |isbn= 9780521566032 }}</ref>

He rejected his predecessor Daud Khan Panni's agreements of tribute to the Marathas.<ref>{{cite book |title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II |author= Satish Chandra |date= 2005 |page= 281 }}</ref> Farrukhsiyar sent Daud Khan Panni, the newly appointed governor of Burhanpur,<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=20duAAAAMAAJ&q=Daud+Khan+Panni+,+the+newly+appointed+Governor+of+Burhanpur+. |title= Madhya Pradesh, District Gazetteers: East Nimar |page= 70 |publisher= Government Central Press |author= V. S. Krishnan, P. N. Shrivastav |year= 1969 }}</ref> a secret message to attack and kill Hussain Khan, if possible. Daud Khan Panni attempted to gain the backing of the Marathas in order to attack Hussain Khan, while the Nizam left in disgust.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vZxXAAAAMAAJ&q=Nizamul+-+Mulk+left+in+disgust+in+1715 |title= The Commerce of Cambay from the Earliest Period to the Nineteenth Century |page= 84 |author= Vengalil A. Janaki |date= 1980 |publisher= Department of Geography, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda ; copies can be had from University Publications Sales Unit }}</ref> However, at the Battle of Burhanpur, Daud Khan was easily defeated and killed by Hussain Khan, who captured Farrukhsiyar's letters to the rebel at his camp.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&dq=daud+khan+panni+killed&pg=PA267 |title= The Mughal Empire: Part 1, Volume 5 |author= John F. Richards, Gordon Johnson |date= 1993 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |page= 267 |isbn= 9780521566032 }}</ref> The Marathas had remained inactive during the battle.

Hussain Khan was eager to establish his firm hold over the Deccan. Without much precaution, he declared hostility to the Marathas.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&dq=hussain+shahu&pg=PA75 |title= Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813 |page= 75 |author= Jaswant Mehta |date= 2005 |publisher= Publisher:New Dawn Press, Incorporated |isbn= 9781932705546 }}</ref> As a result, Maratha raiding and indecisive open warfare continued.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&dq=husain+indecisive+warfare+marathas&pg=PA269 |title= The Mughal Empire: Part 1, Volume 5 |author= John F. Richards, Gordon Johnson |date= 1993 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9780521566032 }}</ref> In 1717, his general Zulfiqar Beg sent 4,000 horse and 2,000 infantry to punish Khandoji Dabhade, who was defeated and killed.<ref>{{cite book |page= 56 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=STxAAAAAMAAJ&q=Khandoji |title= Eighteenth Century Deccan |date= 1963 |author= Setumadhava Rao Pagdi, P. Setu Madhava Rao |publisher= the University of Michigan | isbn=9788171543670 }}</ref> In order to avenge his death, Syed Hussain Ali Khan sent Muhakkam Singh, the son of Churaman Jat (who was loyal to the Barha Sayyids), and his brother Saif-ud-Din Khan Barha, to punish the Marathas. Dahbade and his Marathas, who were plundering [[Khandesh]], were defeated at a battle near [[Ahmadnagar]]. The army dispersed and fled, after which Syed Hussain Ali Khan ravaged the Maratha territory up to the suburbs of [[Satara (city)|Satara]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=STxAAAAAMAAJ&q=Muhakamsingh+spread+devastation+to+the+gates+of+Satara+. |title= Eighteenth Century Deccan |page= 56 |author= Setumadhava Rao Pagdi, P. Setu Madhava Rao |date= 1963 |publisher= Popular Prakashan |isbn= 9788171543670 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nf1tAAAAMAAJ&q=husain+Chandrasen+Jadhav |title=The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society: Volume 87 |page= 14 |publisher= Mythic Society (Bangalore, India) |date= 1996 }}</ref> In these campaigns he was assisted by the Maratha chiefs Chandrasen Jadhav and Nemaji Sindhia.

In 1717, fearing that the Sayyid brothers would replace him, Farrukhsiyar blinded three princes who had the potential to be raised to the throne, including his younger brother.<ref>{{cite book |title= Baji Rao: the Warrior Peshwa |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5KohEAAAQBAJ&dq=farrukhsiyar+blinded+three+princes&pg=PT18 |publisher= Roli Books |author= Jaiwant E Paul |date= 2017 | isbn=9789351941200 }}</ref>

=== Negotiating ===

Sayyid brothers were accused of treachery due to their abilities to negotiate peace with the [[Maratha Confederacy]].

== Short-reign emperors ==

=== Enthronement of Rafi-ad-Darajat ===
[[File:Rafi ud-Darajat of India (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Rafi ud-Darajat]]|252x252px]]

The Sayyid Brothers raised [[Rafi ud-Darajat|Rafi-ud-Darajat]] to the throne, a grandson of [[Bahadur Shah I]], who was 20 years old. Rafi-ud-Darajat was no more than a show-piece, as he could not be served food and water without the permission of the Sayyid Brothers. Hussain Ali Khan exercised complete authority.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QhuAAAAMAAJ&q=Rafi-ud-Darajat+guards+meals |title= Muslim Society in Northern India During the Eighteenth Century |page=355 |author= Muhammad Umar |date=1998 |publisher= Available with the author |isbn= 9788121508308 }}</ref> As Rafi-ad-Darajat was in an advanced stage of consumption, he was deposed on June 4, 1719 and died a week later after his deposition.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQk9AAAAIAAJ&dq=sayyid+brothers+shah+jahan+ii&pg=PA457 |page=457 |title= The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive }}</ref>

=== Rebellion of Prince Nikusiyar ===
The rivals of the Syed Brothers proclaimed [[Neku Siyar|Nikusiyar]], another puppet-king, as emperor. Abdullah Khan favoured Nikusiyar, against the wishes of Hussain Khan. Hussain's view prevailed, and the Syed Brothers defeated Nikusiyar and his allies. Hussain Khan besieged Agra in June, and Nikusiyar surrendered in August.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NoUYYLKmz7EC&q=mitra |title= Modern India |author= Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri |date= 1950 |publisher= S. Viswanathan }}</ref> Nikusiyar was sent to prison where he died.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=S9kbAAAAMAAJ&q=niku+siyar |title= Outline History of the Islamic World|page= 69 |author= Masudul Hasan, Abdul Waheed |date= 1974 |publisher= Ferozsons }}</ref> His supporter, Mitrasen, committed suicide and the Sayyid Brothers fought Jai Singh of Jaipur. At Fatehpur Sikri, they divided the spoils of Agra amongst themselves.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQk9AAAAIAAJ&dq=sayyid+brothers+shah+jahan+ii&pg=PA457 |page=457 |title= The Cambridge Shorter History of India |publisher=CUP Archive }}</ref>

=== Enthronement of Shah Jahan II ===
[[File:Shah Jahan II of India.jpg|thumb|Shah Jahan II|left|255x255px]]
Rafi-ud-Daulah was enthroned as Shah Jahan II. He, too, lived within the fort, as a prisoner of the Sayyid Brothers, and was not allowed independence even in his private life. [[Inayatullah Kashmiri]], who was the maternal uncle of [[Farrukhsiyar]], raised an army for overthrowing the Sayyids. But in June, 1719, Inayatullah Khan was seized at Delhi and thrown into prison.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yoI8AAAAIAAJ&dq=rafi-ad-darajat+sayyid+brothers&pg=PA339 |title=The Cambridge History of India |date=1955 |page=340 }}</ref>

==End of the Sayyid brothers==
{{See also|Battle of Balapur}}
Contemporary evidence suggests that public opinion did not approve of Farrukhsiyar, but turned against the Sayyid Brothers after his execution. The way in which members of the imperial family were treated provoked an outburst of anger.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NXsBAAAAMAAJ&q=munim+khan+1719 |title=A Mughal Statesman of the Eighteenth Century, Khan-i-Dauran, Mir Bakshi of Muhammad Shah, 1719-1739 |page=37 |author= Zahiruddin Malik |date=1973 |publisher=the] Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University |isbn=9780210405444 }}</ref> The rising power of the Sayyid brothers aroused the jealousy of other nobles, including the Iranis and Turanis, whose status had been reduced. As a result, they formed a force of counter-revolution against the Sayyid brothers under the leadership of [[Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I|Nizam-ul-Mulk]]. To subdue the counter-revolution, the Sayyid brothers shifted Nizam-ul-mulk from Delhi and he was appointed as Subahdar of [[Malwa]]. In due course Nizam captured the forts of [[Asirgarh]] and [[Burhanpur]] in the Deccan. Moreover, Nizam had also killed Mir Alam Ali Khan, the adopted son of Syed Hussain Ali Khan, who was the Deputy Subahdar of the Deccan.

[[File:Asaf Jah I of Hyderabad.jpg|thumb|362x362px|Nizam-ul-Mulk was instated as the [[Grand Vizier]] of the [[Mughal Empire]], by [[Muhammad Shah]] on 21 February 1722, to overthrow the Sayyid Brothers.]]Meanwhile, in [[Delhi]], a plot was devised against the Sayyid brothers. Syed Hussain Ali Khan was ultimately killed by Haider Beg of the [[Dughlats|Dughlat clan]] on 9 October 1720. Syed Hassan Ali Khan with a big army set out to avenge his brother's murder but he was defeated at Shahpur (later [[Palra, Gurgaon#Geography|Hasanpur]] in Haryana) on 15–16 November 1720 and was imprisoned.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ctx4pwLrIoC&dq=rafi+ud+daulah+death&pg=PA141 |title=History of India |page=142 |author=Sir Roper Lethbridge |date=1879 |publisher=the University of Michigan }}</ref> Bringing the protracted career of the Sayyid brothers to an end.

==Aftermath==
Sayyid Abdullah Khan remained a prisoner in the citadel of Delhi for another two years, under the charge of Haider Quli Khan. He was "treated with respect, receiving delicate food to eat and fine clothes to wear". But so long as he survived, the Mughals remained uneasy, not knowing what sudden change of fortune might happen. Thus the nobles never ceased their efforts in alarming Muhammad Shah.<ref>{{cite book |title= Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material · Volume 1 |page= 675 |date= 1999 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |author= S.R. Sharma }}</ref>

The Barha Sayyids held their ground at the Battle of Hasanpur, then retreated and evacuated their families to Jansath (friendly territory of the Sayyids). One of the relative of Qutb-ul-Mulk was discovered while taking refuge in a house attached to the Sayyids. She was taken to Muhammad Shah's mother, who proposed her marriage to the emperor, but Qutb-ul-Mulk objected, and the idea was dropped by Muhammad.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=muhammad+shah&pg=RA1-PA92 |title= Later Mughal |page= 93 |author= William Irvine |date= 1971|publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7QhuAAAAMAAJ&q=daughter+najmuddin+ali+khan |title= Muslim Society in Northern India During the Eighteenth Century |author= Muhammad Umar |date= 1998 |publisher= the University of Michigan |page= 22 |isbn= 9788121508308 }}</ref>

In order to reduce the power of the Turani nobles, Muhammad Shah thought of using the services of Qutb-ul-Mulk after setting him free and raising him to a high mansab. But Qutb-ul-Mulk's opponents had him poisoned to death on 12 October 1722.<ref>{{cite book |title= Muslim Society in Northern India During the Eighteenth Century |page= 280 |author= Muhammad Umar |publisher= the University of Michigan |date= 1998 |isbn= 9788121508308 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7QhuAAAAMAAJ&q=He+sent+a+message+to+Abdullah+Khan+in+this+regard+and+received+an+encouraging+reply+from+him}}</ref> In 1723 Muhammad Shah released Sayyid Najmuddin Ali Khan Barha from prison to defeat Hamid Khan and [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Nizam-ul-Mulk]] in their separatist policy in [[Gujarat]], and as a result Najmuddin Ali Khan Barha was given the governorship of [[Ajmer]] after the defeat of Hamid Khan.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IrzuyqW1aRwC&dq=hamid+khan+sarbuland+khan&pg=PA508 |title= Hyderabad Affairs:Volume 4 |page=508 |date=1883 |author=Moulvi Syed Mahdi Ali|publisher=Harvard University }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Saadat-e-Bara]], a community of [[Sayyid]]s, which had considerable influence during the reign of the [[Mughal Empire]]
* [[Saadat Ali Khan I|Saadat Khan]] He played a major role in the overthrow of the Sayyid Brothers
* [[Sadaat-e-Bilgram]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sayyid Brothers}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100829090350/http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/ips/misc/mughal.html Mughal dynasty genealogy]

[[Category:Assassinated military personnel]]
[[Category:Assassinated nobility]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Mughal generals]]
[[Category:People from Muzaffarnagar]]
[[Category:Regents in India]]
[[Category:Brother duos]]
[[Category:People assassinated in the 18th century]]
[[Category:18th-century Mughal Empire people]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian nobility]]

Thiruvathirakkali

2026-02-27T03:38:15Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|Group dance of women in Kerala}}
[[File:Thiruvathirakali.JPG|thumb|alt=Thiruvathirakali|Thiruvathirakali]]
[[File:Kaikottikkali at Sri Kurumbakkavu, Poikkattussery VID 20250207 192820 4K.webm|thumb|alt=Thiruvathirakali|Thiruvathirakali at Sri Kurumbakkavu, Poikkattussery]]
'''Thiruvathirakali''' is a unique group dance of women in [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=px5BAAAAMAAJ|title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala: An Introduction|first=A. Sreedhara|last=Menon|date=September 19, 1978|publisher=East-West Publications|via=Google Books}}</ref> The dance is performed by women in small groups, both as part of and apart from religious rituals.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R9IQDAAAQBAJ|title=My Mother Called Me Unni: A Doctor's Tale of Migration|first=Dr Venugopal K.|last=Menon|date=November 24, 2015|publisher=Outskirts Press|isbn=9781478761716 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bj8CEAAAQBAJ |title=Artograph Vol 02 Iss 02 (2020 Mar-Apr) - Multiple Authors, Hareesh N Nampoothiri, Meera Sreenarayanan, Priyanka B, Sandra Pisharody, Sethunath UN, Sreedevi N Nampoothiry, NEWNMEDIA™ - Google Books |date=2020-06-01 |accessdate=2022-09-19|last1=Authors |first1=Multiple |last2=Nampoothiri |first2=Hareesh N. |last3=Sreenarayanan |first3=Meera |last4=Priyanka |first4=B. |last5=Pisharody |first5=Sandra |last6=Sethunath |first6=U. N. |last7=Nampoothiry |first7=Sreedevi N. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5gNOdw9E_0C|title=Liberalization's Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India|first=Ritty A.|last=Lukose|date=November 13, 2009|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0822391241 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Generally on [[Onam]] and [[Thiruvathira]] day in the month of [[Dhanu (month)|Dhanumas]], women perform this art form by singing the praises of [[Shiva]] [[Parvati]] in Shiva temples etc. Thiruvathirakali is especially for women who observe Thiruvathira Vradam.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sF2mDwAAQBAJ|title=Paru Remembers: Memories of life in a Tharavad|first=Nakhat Yasmin|last=Ahmed|date=July 31, 2019|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=9781645875635 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5sDPbKUaz0C|title=The Rough Guide to Kerala|first=Rough|last=Guides|date=November 1, 2010|publisher=Rough Guides UK|isbn=9781405388047 |via=Google Books}}</ref> This art form is also known as Kaikottikali and Kummikali with slight variations.

The dance is believed to bring a long and auspicious married life and marriage of choice. This play is performed at night on Thiruvathira day. The first Thiruvathira after the marriage of girls is called Poothiruvathira.

==Ceremonies and Rituals==
In ancient times, this dance was performed for 28 days starting from Thiruvathira day till Thiruvathira in the next month. In some places, an 11-day program is performed during the month of Dhanum.

Ceremonies begin with the eating of a special meal called Ettangadi on Makairyam day, the day before Thiruvathira day. The ingredients of Ettangadi are sorghum, yam, kachil, berry, yam, lentil, sugar, and honey. It is eaten the night before. But this ceremony is not observed today.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D3kRAQAAIAAJ|title=Nammuṭe pāṭṭukaḷ|first=Māṭaśśēri|last=Mādhavavāriyar|date=September 19, 1968|publisher=Sāhityapr̲avartaka Sahakaraṇasaṅghaṃ|via=Google Books}}</ref>

Dasapushkas are collected in front of the house during the day. Thiruvathirakali starts after sunset. After Thiruvathira nakshatramudhi at midnight, the dancers sing devotional songs and bring dasa flowers along with Ashtamangalyam holding the lamp to the house. Later they wear these flowers in their hair. This is called half-breeding. The flowers are lit by singing songs praising the deities of each flower. Crows are also seen.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpERAQAAIAAJ|title=ഇലത്താളവും നിലവിളക്കും|first=S. K.|last=Marar|date=September 19, 1962|via=Google Books}}</ref>

The girls dance in a circle around a lit candle to the beat of the song, clapping each other's hands. Sarees and blouses are the attire used for Thiruvathirakali. A group of girls playing Thiruvathira will see a heroine. The heroine sings the first line and the ensemble responds to the same line. The group members step and clap their hands to the rhythm of the song. Lasyabhava is a shadow throughout the game. The steps in the game performed during the [[Puja (Hinduism)|pooja]] are very simple. This makes it easy for even the uninitiated to participate in the game.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Dances of India]]
[[Category:Dances of Kerala]]

Fossil parks in India

2026-02-22T05:47:47Z

Godrejsplende: Page updated with relevant improvements

{{short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
The [[Geological Survey of India]] (GSI) currently maintains two [[List of protected areas in India|protected areas]] bearing rich fossil deposits.

* [[Shivalik Fossil Park]], near Saketi, [[Himachal Pradesh]] is notable for its life-size models of the [[vertebrate]]s that might have roamed the [[Sivalik Hills]] 1.5—2.5 million years ago.
* [[Mandla Plant Fossils National Park]], near [[Dindori, Madhya Pradesh]] is a park that attempts to preserve the fossil remains of a primordial forest that covered the region 40—150 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mandla Plant Fossils National Park {{!}} Bandhavgarh National Park|url=https://www.remotelands.com/destination/bandhavgarh-national-park|website=Remote Lands}}</ref>

Both parks, numerous fossil displays and models in [[List of zoos in India|Indian zoological parks]], are part of the Geological Survey's charter program to educate the general public on the Earth's evolutionary history. One of the more comprehensive displays is that of the Natural History Museum of the [[Nehru Zoological Park]], [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]].

The GSI also manages the following fossil parks:

* [[National Fossil Wood Park, Tiruvakkarai]] in [[Tamil Nadu]].
* [[National Fossil Wood Park, Sathanur]], in Tamil Nadu

Other fossil parks in India include:

* [[Dinosaur Fossils National Park]], Dhar, Madhya Pradesh
* [[Indroda Dinosaur and Fossil Park]], Gujarat
* [[Ghughua Fossil Park]], Madhya Pradesh
* [[Salkhan Fossils Park]], Uttar Pradesh
* [[Akal Wood Fossil Park]], Rajasthan
* [[Amkhoi Fossil Park]], West Bengal
*[[Rajmahal Hills Fossil Park]], Bihar
* [[Wadadam Fossil Park|Wadadham Fossils Park]], Wadadam, Sironcha, Gadchiroli, Maharashtra

==See also==
* [[List of fossil sites]] ''(with link directory)''
* [[Archaeological sites in India]]
* [[Tourism in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Archaeological sites in India}}
{{Tourism in India}}
{{Geography of India}}

[[Category:Fossil parks in India| ]]
[[Category:Paleontological sites of Asia]]
[[Category:Lists of protected areas of India]]
[[Category:Paleontology in India]]

{{India-protected-area-stub}}
{{Paleo-site-stub}}

Abdullah Bukhari

2026-02-21T14:22:54Z

Godrejsplende: fixed citations and fixed typos as per guidelines

{{Short description|Indian imam (1922–2009)}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image= File:SyedAbdullahBukhari.jpeg
| caption=
| other_name =
| office =[[Shahi Imam]] [[Jama Masjid, Delhi]]
| term_start = 8 July 1973
| term_end = 14 October 2000
| predecessor = Hameed Bukhari
| successor = [[Ahmed Bukhari]]
| birth_date= 1922
| birth_place=
| death_date= July 8, 2009 at age 87
| death_place= [[New Delhi]], India
| buried=
| title=
| lineage =
| nationality = [[India]]n
| occupation = Shahi Imam of [[Jama Masjid, Delhi]]
| alma_mater =
| website=
}}

'''Abdullah Bukhari''' ({{Transliteration|ur|''Sayyid ʿAbdu l-Lāh Buxārī''}}; 1922–2009) was the 12th [[Shahi Imam]] of the [[Jama Masjid, Delhi]].<ref name=TheHindu>[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/Former-Shahi-Imam-of-Jama-Masjid-passes-away/article16551942.ece Profile and obituary of Syed Abdullah Bukhari] in [[The Hindu]] newspaper</ref><ref name=Dawn>[https://www.dawn.com/news/854691 Ex-Shahi Imam of Delhi Jama Masjid dies at 87 on Dawn newspaper]</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi/abdullah-bukhari-the-legend-of-jama-masjid-is-dead/story-Y1sX434JtEGwt3reLQ4kQP.html |title = Abdullah Bukhari, the legend of JAMA Masjid, is dead|date = 8 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://zeenews.india.com/videos/shahi-imam-abdullah-bukhari-passes-away_3005.html |title = Shahi Imam Abdullah Bukhari passes away|date = 8 July 2009}}</ref>

==Early life and career==
He was born in [[Rajasthan]] and completed his ''Senior Cambridge'' from New Delhi and was appointed ''Naib-Shahi Imam'' in 1946. He was appointed to the office of the ''Shahi Imam'' on Sunday, 8 July 1973 AD after the Eleventh Shahi Imam Maulana ''Syed Hameed Bukhari''.<ref name=TheHindu/><ref>{{cite web|title=Jama Masjid|url=http://www.jmuf.org/about_jamia.htm|access-date=2013-06-20|archive-date=2011-11-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117181151/http://www.jmuf.org/about_jamia.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Association with politics==
India's [[Prime minister]] [[Morarji Desai]] offered to him the position of [[Vice President of India]] after he won the 1977 elections defeating [[Indira Gandhi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Rediff Interview/Shahi Imam Syed Ahmed Bukhari|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2000/nov/29inter.htm|publisher=rediff.com website}}</ref> "He was one of the strong voices that opposed the [[The Emergency (India)|Emergency in 1975]]. He protested against the targeting of Muslims when they were asked to undergo 'nasbandi' (vasectomy)."<ref name=TheHindu/>

==Death==
Syed Abdullah Bukhari was hospitalized with breathing difficulties, as well as heart and kidney issues, on 9 June 2009. He died a month later, on 8 July, of a heart attack and was buried the same day in the family burial ground in the [[Walled city of Delhi]]. He was survived by four sons and two daughters.

''[[The Hindu]]'' said "He is believed to have risked his life to rescue Muslims from rioters following Partition and made arrangements for their relief and rehabilitation. He also encouraged them to remain in the country."<ref name=TheHindu/>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

{{Mosques in India}}

{{authority control}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-rel}}
{{succession box|before= Hameed Bukhari |title =[[Shahi Imam]] [[Jama Masjid, Delhi]]|years=8 July 1973 – 14 October 2000|after=[[Ahmed Bukhari]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bukhari, Syed Abdullah}}
[[Category:1922 births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century imams]]
[[Category:Indian Quran reciters]]
[[Category:Indian imams]]
[[Category:21st-century imams]]
[[Category:Indian Islamic religious leaders]]
[[Category:Shahi Imams of Jama Masjid]]

{{India-reli-bio-stub}}

Digambara

2026-02-15T22:54:25Z

Godrejsplende: quick improved section per standard format and updated info after review

{{Short description|One of the two major schools of Jainism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
[[File:Mahavir.jpg|thumb|The famous idol of '''[[Mahavira|Shree Mahavir Swami]]''' at [[Shri Mahaveer Ji temple|Shri Digambar Jain Atishay Kshetra, Shri Mahavir Ji]] depicting [[Digambara monk|Digambar]] Iconography.]]
[[File:Acharya KundaKunda.jpg|thumb|Image depicting Acharya [[Kundakunda]] ]]
{{Jainism}}
'''''Digambara''''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|ˈ|g|ʌ|m|b|ər|ə}}; "sky-clad") is one of the two major [[Jain schools and branches|schools of Jainism]], the other being ''[[Śvetāmbara]]'' (white-clad). The [[Sanskrit]] word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing nor wearing any clothes.<ref name="Long2013p17">{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long |title=Jainism: An Introduction|year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-392-6 |pages=17–18|language=en}}</ref> Nakedness was the ideal practice of lord [[Mahavira]] and his immediate followers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barodia |first=U D |title=History and Literature of Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScFKAAAAMAAJ&dq=nakedness&pg=PA52 |publisher=Jain Graduates' Association|date=1909 }}</ref> Mahavira emphasised the importance of nakedness for monks.<ref name=":2" /> It symbolizes complete detachment and is an ideal form of conduct.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dalsukh Malvania |first=C C Shah, Rishabhdas Ranka |year=1977 |title=Mahavira and his Teaching |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/008019/281 |publisher=Bhagwan Mahavir 2500th Nirvan Mahotsava Samiti}}</ref> Mahavira believed that renouncing clothes made the body immune to external influences like heat and cold, increasing resilience. Without clothes, a monk would avoid the distractions of acquiring, maintaining, and washing garments, allowing him to focus on spiritual growth and self-discipline.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Balbir |first=Nalini|year=1982 |title=Review: SC Jain's 'Structure and Functions of Soul in Jainism'|journal=Numen |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=138 |doi=10.2307/3269941 |jstor=3269941 |issn=0029-5973}}</ref>

Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards female monastics, their legends, and the texts they consider as important. Digambaras maintain that women cannot attain nirvana. However, Śvetāmbaras differ and maintain that women as well as [[eunuch]]s can attain nirvana, having more inclusivity.<ref name="Dundas2002">{{cite book|author=Paul Dundas|title=The Jains|year=2002|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-26606-2|pages=53–59, 64–80, 286–287 with footnotes 21 and 32|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Wiley2009">{{cite book|author=Kristi L. Wiley|title=The A to Z of Jainism|year=2009|publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-6821-2|pages=83–84|language=en}}</ref><ref name="JainFischer1978">{{cite book|author1=Jyotindra Jain|author2=Eberhard Fischer|title=Jaina Iconography|year=1978|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-05259-3|pages=1–2, 8–9, xxxiv–xxxv|language=en}}</ref>

[[Digambara monk]]s believe in the virtue of non-attachment and non-possession of any material goods. Monks carry a community-owned ''picchi'', which is a broom made of fallen [[peacock]] feathers for removing and thus saving the life of insects in their path or before they sit.<ref name="Long2013p17"/>

The Digambara literature can be traced only to the first millennium, with its oldest surviving sacred text being the mid-second century ''[[Shatkhandagama|Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama]]'' ("Scripture in Six Parts") of Dharasena (the [[Moodabidri]] manuscripts).<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Dundas|title=The Jains|year=2002| publisher=Routledge |isbn= 978-0-415-26605-5|pages=63–65|language=en}}</ref> One of the most important scholar-monks of the Digambara tradition was [[Kundakunda]].

Digambara Jain communities are currently found in most parts of India like [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Delhi]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="JainFischer1978"/><ref name="Long2013p60">{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-392-6|pages=60–61|language=en}}</ref>

==Nomenclature==
According to [[Heinrich Zimmer]], the word ''Digambara'' is a combination of two [[Sanskrit Language|Sanskrit]] words: ''dik'' (दिक्) (space, sky) and ''ambara'' (अम्बर) (garment), referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=210}}

==Core philosophy==
===''Aparigraha'' – non-attachment===
{{anchor|aparigraha}}{{Main|Aparigraha}}

One of the main principle in Jainism is ''aparigraha'' which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=112}} For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=117, 152}} The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the [[Śvētāmbara]] tradition.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=117, 152}} For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=112}} According to Natubhai Shah, ''aparigraha'' applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=112–113}}

===''Ahimsa'' – non-violence===
{{anchor|ahiṃsā}}{{Main|Ahimsa in Jainism}}

The principle of ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}} It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}} In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}}{{sfn|Markham|Lohr|2009|p=71}} Jain texts such as ''[[Ācārāṅga Sūtra]]'' and ''[[Tattvartha Sutra|Tattvarthasūtra]]'' state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}} Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.{{sfn|Markham|Lohr|2009|p=71}}{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}

Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.{{sfn|Price|2010|p=90}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}} It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}}{{efn|This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.{{sfn|Flügel|2002|pp=1266–1267}}}}

Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=160–162}}

The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=160}}{{sfn|Sundararajan|Mukherji|1997|pp=392–417}}{{sfn|Izawa|2008|pp=78–81}}{{sfn|Sethia|2004|p=2}}{{sfn|Winternitz|1993|p=409}} The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=88–89, 257–258}} Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad [[Karma in Jainism|karma]] which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}{{sfn|Granoff|1992}}

Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the ''Ahiṃsā'' doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=162–163}}{{sfn|Lorenzen|1978|pp=61–75}} According to [[Paul Dundas|Dundas]], the Jain scholar [[Jinadattasuri]] wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=163}}

However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=162–163}}{{efn|Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation.{{sfn|Olson|2014|pp=1–7}}}}

===''Anekāntavāda'' – many-sided reality===
[[File:Medieval Jain temple Anekantavada doctrine artwork.jpg|thumb|Jain temple painting explaining Anekantavada with [[Blind men and an elephant]]]]
{{Main|Anekantavada}}

The second main principle of Jainism is ''anekāntavāda'',{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} from ''anekānta'' ("many-sidedness," etymologically "[[Privative a|non]]-oneness" or "not being one") and ''vada'' ("doctrine").{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}} The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are ''Naya'', "partial expression of the truth".{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are ''syāt'', or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Mark Owen |last=Webb |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |title=Jain philosophy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221042158/http://www.iep.utm.edu/jain/ |archive-date=21 February 2015 |access-date=22 February 2015 |url-status=live |encyclopedia=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |issn=2161-0002}}</ref> It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} It suggests that the great error is belief in ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.{{sfn|Schwartz|2018}} The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the ''Samaññaphala Sutta''. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (''syāt'').{{sfn|Matilal|1990|pp=301–305}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=205–218}} These texts identify ''anekāntavāda'' as a key difference from the [[Buddha]]'s teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.{{sfn|Matilal|1998|pp=128–135}} The permanent being is conceptualized as ''[[Jiva (Jainism)|jiva]]'' (soul) and ''[[ajiva]]'' (matter) within a dualistic ''anekāntavāda'' framework.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–99, 104–105, 229–233}}

According to [[Paul Dundas]], in contemporary times the ''anekāntavāda'' doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of [[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute reality]] and human existence.{{sfn|Sethia|2004|pp=86–91}} He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=98–106}} Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=233}}

==History and Influence==
[[File:S-TN-36 Ovamalai Kallvettu Hill Mangulam Madurai.jpg|thumb|The longest inscription at the site, and the earliest known Tamil-Brāhmī inscription. It records the gift by the Pandya king Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ of a monastery to the senior Jain monk Nanta-siri Kuvaṉ.]]
The history of the ''Digambara'' tradition includes its divergence from the early Jain ''sangha'', a period of significant royal patronage in [[Southern India]], and the subsequent formation of various sub-sects.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}

===Origins and Schism===
[[File:Djtradition marhiaji.jpg|thumb|Stela at Marhiaji, [[Jabalpur]], showing the transmission of the oral tradition, erected on the 2500th anniversary of Mahavira's ''nirvana'']]
The Digambaras and Śvetāmbara disagree on how the Digambara subtradition started in Jainism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46–48}} According to Digambaras, they are the original followers of [[Mahavira]] and Śvetāmbara branched off later in the time of [[Bhadrabahu]] when their forecast twelve-year famine triggered their migration from central India.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46–48}} One group of Jain monks headed west and north towards Rajasthan], while the second group headed south towards Karnataka. The former became Śvetāmbara and retained their "heretic" beliefs and practices such as wearing "white clothes" they adopted there, say the Digambaras.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46–48}}

In contrast, according to Śvetāmbara, they are the original followers, and Digambaras arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (about 1st century CE) because of an arrogant man named [[Sivabhuti]] who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46–48}} However, according to [[Jinabhadra]] Gaṇi Kshamashramana, in his work Viśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya, from which this account of the sect's creation is derived, he explicitly states that Sivabhuti was the eighth heretic who is regarded as the founder 'Bodiya ditthi' or Botika sect, also known as the Digambara sect.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pruthi |first=raj |title=Jainism and Indian civilization |date=2004 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-81-7141-796-4 |editor-last=Raj Kumar |series=Culture and civilization series |location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jaina |first=Hīrālāla |title=Jaina tradition in Indian thought |date=2002 |publisher=Sharada Publishing House |isbn=978-81-85616-84-1 |editor-last=Jaina |editor-first=Dharmacandra |edition=1. |location=Delhi |pages=50–51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhaky |first=Madhusudan |title=The Temples in Kumbhāriyā |publisher=[[American Institute of Indian Studies]] |year=2001 |isbn=9788173044342 |edition=2nd |pages=162}}</ref> He is accused of starting the Digambara tradition with what Śvetāmbara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by the Śvetāmbara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=46–48}}

The earliest version of this Digambara story appears in the 10th century CE, while the earliest version of the Śvetāmbara story appears in the 5th century CE.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=47–48}}

Oldest archeological evidence of Digambara Jains dates to the Mangalam Jain inscriptions which mention that workers of [[Nedunjeliyan I|Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ I]], a [[Pandyan]] king of [[Sangam period]], ({{circa|270 BCE}}) made stone beds for Digambara Jain monks. It further details the name of the workers who made the stone beds. For example, an inscription shows that Kaṭalaṉ Vaḻuti, a worker ({{lang|ta|பணஅன்}} – accountant; he was also a relative) of Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ, made a stone bed for the Jain monk Nanta-siri Kuvaṉ.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tamilvu.org/tdb/titles_cont/inscription/html/mankulam.htm | title=மாங்குளம் தமிழ்க் கல்வெட்டுக்கள் | publisher=[[Tamil Virtual University]] | accessdate=23 February 2014 | language=Tamil}}</ref>

In 1943, [[Heinrich Zimmer]] proposed that the Greek records of 4th-century BCE mention [[gymnosophists]] (naked philosophers) which may have links to the tradition of "naked ascetics" or Digambara.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=210}} In 2011, [[Patrick Olivelle]] stated that the context in which the Greek records mention gymnosophists include ritual suicide by cremation traceable to ancient [[Brahmanism]], rather than the traditional Jain ritual of embracing death by starvation and taking samadhi by voluntarily sacrificing everything including food and water (''sallekhana'').{{sfn|Olivelle|2011|pp=207–208 with footnotes}} Tirthankara statues found in Mathura and dated to 2nd-century CE or after are naked.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=113–115}} The oldest Tirthankara statue wearing a cloth is dated to the 5th century CE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=444}} ''Digamabara'' statues of Tirthankara belonging to Gupta period feature half-closed eyes.{{sfn|Umakant Premanand Shah|1987|p=4}}

Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Śvetāmbara iconography starts appearing.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=16}}

According to ''Digambara'' texts, after liberation of [[Mahavira]], three ''Anubaddha Kevalīs'' attained ''[[Kevala Jnana|Kevalajñāna]]'' (omniscience) sequentially – [[Indrabhuti Gautama|Gautama]] ''[[Ganadhara|Gaņadhara]]'', ''Acharya'' [[Sudharmaswami|Sudharma]] Swami, and [[Jambusvami]] in next 62 years.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=xi–xii}} During the next hundred years, five ''Āchāryas'' had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called ''Śruta Kevalīs'', the last of them being ''Āchārya'' Bhadrabahu.{{sfn|Pereira|1977|p=5}}{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=xii}} Spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders is known as ''[[Pattavali]]''.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=335}} Digambara tradition consider Dharasena to be the 33rd teacher in succession of Gautama, 683 years after the ''[[Moksha (Jainism)|nirvana]]'' of Mahavira.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=79}}

=== Golden Age: Royal Patronage ===
[[File:Shravanabelagola Hillview.jpg|thumb|The [[Gommateshwara statue]] dated 978–993 on [[Vindhyagiri Hill]]]]
The ''Digambara'' tradition received significant royal patronage in the [[Deccan]] and South India from approximately the mid-first millennium CE onwards, particularly from the [[Western Ganga]], [[Rashtrakuta]], and [[Chalukya]] dynasties.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}} This support allowed ''Digambara'' acharyas to hold positions of influence and led to the creation of durable artistic and architectural works.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}

Under the Rashtrakuta dynasty, the scholar [[Jinasena]] served as a preceptor to King [[Amoghavarsha I]] (r. 814–878 CE).{{citation needed|date=November 2025}} Jinasena and his disciple [[Guṇabhadra (Jain monk)|Gunabhadra]] authored the [[Mahāpurāṇa]], a foundational text that includes the [[Adipurana]] (lives of the first ''tirthankara'') and [[Uttarapurana]].{{citation needed|date=November 2025}} This period also corresponds with the excavation of several Jain caves at [[Ellora]], such as the ''Indra Sabha'' (Cave 32), which contain ''Digambara'' iconography.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}

In the Digambara tradition, the following lineage of teachers is revered: [[Mahavira]], [[Indrabhuti Gautama|Gautama]], [[Kundakunda]],{{sfn|Jaini|1991|pp=31–32}} [[Bhadrabahu]], [[Umaswati|Umaswami]], [[Samantabhadra (Jain monk)|Samantabhadra]], [[Siddhasena Divakara]], [[Pujyapada]], [[Manatunga]], [[Virasena]],<ref>Satkhandagama : Dhaval (Jivasthana) Satparupana-I (Enunciation of Existence-I) An English Translation of Part 1 of the Dhavala Commentary on the Satkhandagama of Acarya Pushpadanta & Bhutabali Dhavala commentary by Acarya Virasena English tr. by Prof. Nandlal Jain, Ed. by Prof. Ashok Jain {{ISBN|978-81-86957-47-9}}</ref> [[Jinasena]], and [[Nemichandra]].{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Kundakunda is considered the most significant scholar monk of the Digambara tradition of Jainism. He authored [[Prakrit]] texts such as the ''[[Samayasāra]]'' and the ''[[Pravacanasāra]]''. Other prominent ''[[Acharya]]s'' of this tradition were, [[Virasena]] (author of a commentary on the ''[[Dhavala]]''), [[Samantabhadra (Jain monk)|Samantabhadra]] and [[Siddhasena Divakara]]. The ''[[Satkhandagama]]'' and ''[[Kasayapahuda]]'' have major significance in the ''Digambara'' tradition.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

There have been several Digambara monastic lineages that all trace their descent to Mahavira. The historical lineages included ''[[Mula Sangha]]'' (further divided into ''Nandi'', ''Sena'', ''Simha'' and ''Deva'' Sanghas) and now largely extinct [[Kashtha Sangha]] (which included ''Mathura'' sangha, ""Lat-Vagad" etc.), Dravida Sangh.{{sfn|Carrithers|Humphrey|1991|p=170}} The text Darshana-Sara of Devasena discusses the supposed differences among the orders.{{sfn|Nagraj|1986|p=433}} The ''Mula sangha'' orders include ''Deshiya Gana'' (Bhattarakas of Shravanabelgola etc.) and ''[[Balatkara Gana]]'' (Bhattarakas of [[Humcha]], and numerous lineages of North/Central India) traditions.<ref>Vidaydgar Johrapurkar, Bhaṭṭāraka Sampradaya, Solapur, 1958</ref> The ''[[Bhattaraka]]s'' of [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Mudbidri]] belong to ''Deshiya Gana'' and the ''Bhattaraka'' of [[Humbaj]] belongs to the ''Balatkara Gana''.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=299}}

===Medieval and Modern Eras (Sub-sects)===
In 17th-century, ''adhyatma'' movement in [[Agra]] led to rise of ''terapanthi'' and ''bisapanthi'' sub-sects based on the differences over acceptance of authority of ''[[bhattaraka]]s''.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=215}}{{sfn|Singh|Ghosh|Nath|1996|pp=258–259}}{{sfn|Martin|1838|p=216}}{{sfn|Carrithers|Humphrey|1991|p=205}} King [[Jai Singh II]] (1688–1743) of [[Amer kingdom]] built separate temples for the two sub-sects in his newly established capital of [[Jaipur]].{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=215}} ''Terapanthis'', led by scholars like [[Pandit Todarmal]] and [[Banarasidas]], rejected the authority of ''bhattarakas''.{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=215}}<ref>Ardhakathanaka: Half a tale, a Study in the Interrelationship between Autobiography and History, Mukunda Lath (trans. and ed.), Jaipur 2005. {{ISBN|978-8129105660}}</ref><ref>John E. Cort "A Tale of Two Cities: On the Origins of Digambara Sectarianism in North India." L. A. Babb, V. Joshi, and M. W. Meister (eds.), Multiple Histories: Culture and Society in the Study of Rajasthan, 39–83. Jaipur: Rawat, 2002.</ref>

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| header = Jain Digambara Sects<ref name=hvg>{{Cite book|last=Glasenapp|first=Helmuth|title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|isbn=9788120813762|page=382|year=1999}}</ref>
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{{Tree list}}

* [[Jainism|Jain Sangh]]
** {{Tree list/final branch}}Digambara
*** [[Mula Sangh]]
**** Great Schools
***** Nandi Gana
****** [[Balatkara Gana]]
****** {{Tree list/final branch}}Desiya Gana
***** Sena Gana
***** Simha Gana
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}Deva Gana
**** Other Mula Sangh branches (extinct)
**** {{Tree list/final branch}} [[Kashtha Sangh]] (exists)
*** {{Tree list/final branch}}Present Sects
****[[Taran Panth]]
**** [[Bispanthi]]
**** [[Digambar Terapanth]]
**** {{Tree list/final branch}}Other
***** [[Kanji Swami]] Panth established by ex-[[Sthanakvasi]] monk.
***** Gumanpanth
***** {{Tree list/final branch}}Totapanth
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
[[File:Acharya5.jpg|thumb|''[[Acharya]]'' [[Vidyasagar (Jain monk)|Vidyasagar]], a prominent [[Digambara monk]]]]
Modern ''Digambara'' community is divided into various sub-sects viz. ''[[Digambara Terapanth|Terapanthi]]'', ''Bispanthi'', ''[[Taranpanthi]]'' (or ''Samayiapanthi''), ''Gumanapanthi'', ''Totapanthi'' and ''[[Kanji Panth|Kanjipanthi]]''.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|pp=51–56}} Both the ''terapanthis'' and ''bisapanthis'' worship with ''ashta-dravya'' which includes ''jal'' (water), ''chandan'' (sandal), ''akshata'' (sacred rice), ''pushp'' (yellow rice), ''deep'' (yellow dry coconut), ''dhup'' (''kapoor'' or cloves) and ''phal'' (almonds).{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=52}} ''Bisapanthi'' religious practices include ''[[aarti]]'' and offerings of flowers, fruits and ''[[Prasad (food offering)|prasad]]'' whereas ''terapanthis'' don't use them.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=52}} ''Bispanthis'' worship minor gods and goddesses like ''[[Yaksha]]'' and ''[[Yakshini]]'' like [[Bhairava]] and [[Kshetrapala]] whereas ''terapanthis'' do not.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=52}} ''Bisapanthis'' accept ''bhattarakas'' as their religious leaders but ''terapanthis'' do not.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=52}} ''Terapanthis'' occur in large numbers in [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]].{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=52}} Bisapanthis are concentrated in Rajasthan, [[Gujarat]], Maharastra and South India.{{sfn|Sangave|1980|p=52}}

==Scripture and literature==
The ''Digambara'' sect of Jainism rejects the texts and canonical literature of the ''[[Śvetāmbara]]'' sect.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=79–80}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2009|p=444}} They believe that the words of Mahavira neither survive nor could be recorded. The original teachings went through a rapid period of decline, state the Digambaras, and Śvetāmbara claims of preserving the sacred knowledge and ancient ''angas'' is false.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=79–80}}

According to the ''Digambaras'', their 33rd ''achārya'' was Dharasena who knew portions 12th Anga, the Drṣṭivada,<ref name=":3" /> that contained material from the Purvas that dealt with karma theory. Dharasena (ca. 137 C.E.) taught what he remembered from this text to his disciples, Puspadanta and Bhutabali, who wrote the ''[[Shatkhandagama|Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama]]'' ("Scripture in Six Parts").<ref name=":3" /> Dharasena's teachings that have survived are Satkhaṇḍāgama and ''Kasayapahuda'' (Treatise on the Passions), which were written on palm leaves near a cave in Mount Girnar (Gujarat) and a copy of which with a 12th-century commentary came to [[Tulu Nadu]] (south Karnataka).{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=63–65, 79–80}} This has survived as the Mudbidri manuscripts, which were used by regional Jains not for reading and study, but as an object of devotional worship for centuries.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=63–65, 79–80}} In the 19th century, the fragile and decaying manuscript was copied and portions of it leaked to scholars between 1896 and 1922 despite objections of Digambara monks. It is considered to be the oldest known ''Digambara'' text ultimately traceable to the 2nd-century.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=63–65, 79–80}}

These two oldest known Digambara tradition texts – ''Satkhandagama'' and ''Kasayapahuda'' – are predominantly a treatise about the soul and [[Karma]] theory, written in Prakrit language. Philologically, the text belongs to about the 2nd-century, and has nothing that suggests it is of "immemorial antiquity".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=63–65, 79–80}} In details, the text is quite similar in its teachings to those found in ''Prajnapana'' – the 4th ''upanga'' – of Śvetāmbaras.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=79–80}} Between the two, the poetic meter of ''Satkhandagama'' suggests it was composed after the Śvetāmbara text.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=79–80}}

Digambaras, unlike Śvetāmbaras, do not have a canon. They do have a quasi-canonical literature grouped into four literary categories called ''anuyoga'' (exposition) since the time of the Digambara scholar Rakshita.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=80}} The ''prathmanuyoga'' (first exposition) contains the universal history, the ''karananuyoga'' (calculation exposition) contains works on cosmology, the ''charananuyoga'' (behaviour exposition) includes texts about proper behaviour for monks and lay people, while the ''dravyanuyoga'' (entity exposition) contains metaphysical discussions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=80}} In the Digambara tradition, it is not the oldest texts that have survived in its temples and monasteries that attract the most study or reverence, but the late 9th-century ''Mahapurana'' (universal history) of Jinasena that is the most revered and cherished.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=80–81}} The ''Mahapurana'' includes not only religious history, but also the sociological history of the Jaina people – including the Jain caste system and its origins as formulated by [[Rishabhanatha]] – from the Digambara Jaina perspective.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=32, 229–239}} The ''Digamabara'' tradition maintains a long list of revered teachers, and this list includes Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena, Akalanka, Vidyanandi, Somadeva and Asadhara.{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=28}}

The Digambara scriptures consist of post-canonical texts authored by various mendicant leaders, categorized into four sections known as Anuyogas ("Expositions"). These holy scriptures where written by great acharyas from 100 to 800 AD and are established on the original agam sutras.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shah |first=Dhanvant |title=Prabuddha Jivan 2015 Year 63 Ank 01 to 03 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/526000/145?highlight=digambar%20agama |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=jainqq.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jain |first=Narendra |title=Portrait of Jain Religion |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/001926/65 |access-date=2025-03-19 |website=jainqq.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Arun Kumar |date=2009 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |title=Faith & Philosophy of Jainism|isbn=978-81-7835-723-2 |language=en}}</ref> Notable works from each category are listed below.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Wiley |first=Kristi L |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.429151/page/n21/mode/2up |title=The A To Z Of Jainism (2006) Ac 7117 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810868212}}</ref>

* '''Prathamanuyoga ("Primary Expositions"). Biographies of the Tirthankaras and famous mythological figures.'''

# Padmapurāṇa of [[Ravisena]] (7th century).
# [[Ādi purāṇa|Adipurāṇa]] of [[Jinasena II|Jinasena]] (8th century).
# Harivamsapurāna of [[Jinasena II|Jinasena]] (8th century).
# Uttarapurāna of Gunabhadra (9th century).

* '''Karaṇānuyoga ("Expositions on Technical Matters"). Texts on cosmology, astronomy, karma, and mathematics.'''

# Trilokaprajñapti (Tiloyapaṇṇatti) of Yativṛşabha (ca. 6th- 7th centuries).
# Dhavala and Mahādhavalā of [[Virasena]], commentaries on the [[Satkhandagama|Şatkhaṇḍāgama]] (9th century).
# Jayadhavala of [[Virasena]] and [[Jinasena II|Jinasena]], commentary on the Kaşayaprabhṛta (9th century).
# Gommatasära and Trilokasära of Nemicandra-Siddhantacakravarti (11th century).

* '''Carananuyoga ("Expositions on Conduct"). Texts on mendicant and lay conduct.'''

# Mülăcăra of Vaṭṭakera (ca. 2nd century).
# Bhagavati Ārādhanā of Śivārya (ca. 2nd century).
# Niyamasära of [[Kundakunda]] (ca. 2nd or 3rd century).
# Pravacanasăra of [[Kundakunda]] (ca. 2nd or 3rd century).
# Samayasara of [[Kundakunda]] (ca. 2nd or 3rd century).
# Ratnakaranda-Śrāvakācāra of [[Samantabhadra (Jain monk)|Samantabhadra]] (2th century).

* '''Dravyanuyoga ("Expositions on Substances"). Texts on philosophy and logic.'''

# Tattvärthädhigama Sutra/Tattvärtha Sutra of [[Umaswati|Umǎsvāmī]] (ca. 2nd century).
# Pañcāstikāyasāra of [[Kundakunda]] (ca. 2nd or 3rd century).
# Nyāyāvatāra and Sanmatisūtra of Siddhasena Divakara (5th century).
# Aptamimāmsā of [[Samantabhadra (Jain monk)|Samantabhadra]] (5th century).
# Various works by later authors, such as Akalanka (8th centu- ry) and Vidyananda (9th century).

==Practices==
===Monasticism===
{{Main|Digambara monk}}
The lifestyle and behavioral conduct of a ''Digambara'' monk is guided by a code called ''mulacara'' (''mulachara''). This includes 28 ''mūla guņas'' (primary attributes) for the monk.{{sfn|Pramansagar|2008|p=189–191}} The oldest text containing these norms is the 2nd-century ''[[Mulachara]]'' attributed to Vattekara, that probably originated in the Mathura region.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=80}}

These are: 5 ''mahāvratas'' (great vows); 5 ''samitis'' (restraints); 5 ''indriya nirodha'' (control of the five senses); 6 ''āvaśyakas'' (essential observations); and 7 ''niyamas'' (rules).{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2013|pp=189–191, 196–197}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! No.
! ''Guna'' (attribute)
! Remarks
|- style="background:#ffedcd;"
|rowspan="5"|''Mahavratas''- Five Great Vows{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2011|p=93–100}}{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=26}}
|1. ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|Ahimsa]]''
|Neither injure, nor ask, nor encourage another to injure any living being through actions, words or thoughts. This includes injury caused by cooking, starting a fire to cook, plucking a fruit, or any conduct that harms living beings{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=27–28}}
|- style="background:#ffedcd;"
|2. [[Satya]]
| To speak the truth, to remain silent if his speaking the truth will lead to injury to living beings{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=29}}
|- style="background:#ffedcd;"
|3. ''[[Asteya]]''
| Not to take anything unless given, and not accepting anything more than what is necessary and needed{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=30}}
|- style="background:#ffedcd;"
|4. ''[[Brahmacharya]]''
|No sex, no natural or unnatural sexual gratification through action (viewing, participating, encouraging), words (hearing, reciting, reading, writing), or thoughts{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=30–31}}
|- style="background:#ffedcd;"
|5. ''[[Aparigraha]]''
|Renunciation of all worldly things, property, want, and all possessions external to soul{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=31–32}}
|- style="background:#ffe4b3;"
|rowspan="5"|''Samiti''- Regulations{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=144–145}}{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=32–38}}
|6. ''irya''
|Walk carefully on much trodden paths, after viewing land to the extent of four cubits (2 yards). Do not walk in the dark or on the grass to avoid accidental injury to other living beings.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=33}} He should not run to save himself if charged by a wild animal or if a violent person is about to injure him, as running can cause injury to other living beings.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=33}}
|- style="background:#ffe4b3;"
|7. ''bhasha''
| Avoid slander, back-biting, false speech. He must avoid intentionally long or short statements that mislead or help create misunderstanding, doubts, misinformation, hypocrisy, bad blood or conceit in his audience.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=34–35}}
|- style="background:#ffe4b3;"
|8. ''esana''
|To never accept objectionable food nor eat more palatable items from those received.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=35–36}}
|- style="background:#ffe4b3;"
|9. ''adana-nikshepana''
|Carefulness in the handling the ''pichchi'' (feather bundle to remove insects in his path) and ''kamandalu'' (hollow vegetable gourd to filter water)
|- style="background:#ffe4b3;"
|10. ''pratishṭapan''
|To excrete body waste after carefully brushing aside insects and other living beings.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=37–38}}
|- style="background:#faba00;"
|rowspan="1"|''Indrinirodha''{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2013|pp=189–191, 196–197}}
|11–15. Control of the five senses
|Shedding all attachment and aversion towards the sense objects pertaining to touch (''sparśana''), taste (''rasana''), smell (''ghrāṇa''), sight (''cakśu''), and hearing (''śrotra''). The ''sadhu'' (monk) must eradicate all desires and activities that please the mind through his senses.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=38–39}} He must end all ties, relationships and entanglements with his family and friends before he renounced.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=38–39}}
|- style="background:#ffd280;"
|rowspan="6"|''Avasyakas'' – Essential observations{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=143}}{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2013|pp=189–191, 196–197}}
|16. ''[[Sāmāyika]]''
|Practice equanimous dispassion towards everything for eighteen ''ghari'' a day (1 ''ghari'' = about 24 minutes){{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=38–39}}
|- style="background:#ffd280;"
|17. ''stuti''
|Salute the divine (''[[Tirthankaras]]'')
|- style="background:#ffd280;"
|18. ''vandana''
|Medidate upon and adore ''acharyas'', ''gurus'', idols and images of gods{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|pp=26, 38–39}}<ref name="CaillatBalbir2008p236">{{cite book|author1= Colette Caillat|author2= Nalini Balbir|title=Jaina Studies |year=2008|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3247-3|pages=236–241 with footnotes|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Wiley2009p226">{{cite book |author=Kristi L. Wiley |title=The A to Z of Jainism |year=2009 |publisher=Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-6337-8 |pages=226–227 }}</ref>
|- style="background:#ffd280;"
|19. ''[[Pratikramana]]''
| Confession, repentance and self-censure for having violated any vows and rules of conduct;<ref name="Wiley2009p170">{{cite book|author=Kristi L. Wiley|title=The A to Z of Jainism|year=2009|publisher=Scarecrow|isbn=978-0-8108-6337-8|page=170|language=en}}</ref> dissociate one's soul from any virtuous or evil ''karmas'', in the current or past lives.
|- style="background:#ffd280;"
|20. ''Pratikhayan''
|Recite mantra that lists and promises future renunciation of food, drink and comforts and to forfend future faults<ref name="Williams1991p184">{{cite book|author=Robert Williams|title=Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras|year=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0775-4|pages=184|language=en}}</ref>
|- style="background:#ffd280;"
|21. ''[[Kayotsarga]]''
|Giving up attachment to the body for a limited period of time.<ref name="Williams1991p184"/> Typically, this is a standing naked and motionless posture of a form common in [[Bahubali]] iconography.{{sfn|Umakant Premanand Shah|1987|pp=79–80}}
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|rowspan="7"|''Niyama''- Rules{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2013|pp=189–191, 196–197}}{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=46–47}}
|22. ''adantdhavan''
|Never clean teeth{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=47–48}}
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|23. ''bhushayan''
|Sleep on hard ground
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|24. ''asnāna''
|Never bathe{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=46–47}}
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|25. ''stithi-bhojan''
|Eat food in standing posture, accept food in open palms (no utensils){{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=47–48}}
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|26. ''{{lang|sa-Latn|ahara}}''
|Eat food once a day,{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=48–49}} drink water only when eating meal{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=36}}
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|27. ''keśa-lonch''
|To periodically pluck all hair on his body by his own hand.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=44–45}}
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|28. nudity
|Remain completely nude all the time (''digambara''){{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=45–46}}
|- style="background:#ffdb9a;"
|}

''Digambara'' monks do not wear any clothes as it is considered to be ''parigraha'' (possession), which ultimately leads to attachment.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=45}} The monks carry ''picchi'', a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects to avoid causing injury and ''Kamandalu'' (the gourd for carrying pure, sterilized water).{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2009|p=316}}{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=36}} The head of all monastics is called ''[[Acharya|Āchārya]]'', while the saintly preceptor of saints is the ''upādhyāya''.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=21}} The ''Āchārya'' has 36 primary attributes (''mūla guņa'') in addition to the 28 mentioned above.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2013|pp=189–191, 196–197}}

The monks perform ''kayotsarga'' daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, and toes directed forward.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=210}}

===Nuns===
Female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as ''[[aryika]]s''.{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1926|p=141}} Digambara nuns, unlike the monks in their tradition, wear clothes. Given their beliefs such as non-attachment and non-possession, the Digambara tradition has held that women cannot achieve salvation (moksha) as men can, and the best a nun can achieve is to be reborn as a man in the next rebirth.<ref name="Long2013p17"/> The monks are held to be of higher status than nuns in Digambara monasteries, states Jeffery Long.<ref name="Long2013p17"/> From the Digambara monk's perspective, both Digambara nuns and Śvetāmbara monastic community are simply more pious Jain laypeople, who do not or are unable to fully practice the Jain monastic vows.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=49–50}}

Digambara nuns are relatively rare in comparison to the nuns found in Śvetāmbara traditions. According to a 1970s and 1980s survey of Jain subtraditions, there were about 125 Digambara monks in India and 50 Digambara nuns.<ref name="Howard2019pt105">{{cite book |author=Veena R. Howard |title=The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Indian Philosophy and Gender |year=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4742-6959-9 |pages=105–106 }}</ref> This compared to 3,400 nuns and 1,200 monks in the Śvetāmbara tradition.<ref name="Howard2019pt105"/>

===Digambar akhara===
{{anchor | Digambar akhara}}

The '''Digambar Akhara''', which along with other [[akhara]]s, also participates in various inter-sectarian (''[[sampradaya]]'') religious activities including [[Kumbh Mela]]s, is completely unrelated to Digambar Jain tradition, even though they also practice nudity.<ref name=relDis1>[South Asian Religions on Display: Religious Processions in South Asia and in the Diaspora, Knut A. Jacobsen, ISBN hardback 978-0-415-4373-3, ISBN ebook ISBN hardback 978-0-203-93059-5]</ref>

===Worship===
[[File:7th - 12th century Mahavira flanked by 24 Tirthankaras in Cave 4, Badami Jain cave temple Karnataka.jpg|thumb|Adinatha image (Badami caves)]]
The ''Digambara'' Jains worship completely nude idols of ''tirthankaras'' (omniscient beings) and ''[[siddha]]'' (liberated souls). The ''tirthankara'' is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the ''Kayotsarga'' posture.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=209–210}}
{{blockquote|The truly "sky-clad" (''digambara'') Jaina statue expresses the perfect isolation of the one who has stripped off every bond. His is an absolute "abiding in itself," a strange but perfect aloofness, a nudity of chilling majesty, in its stony simplicity, rigid contours, and abstraction.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=213}}|[[Heinrich Zimmer]]}}

<gallery>
Kizhavalavu (Kilavalavu) -Jain Sculptures.JPG|Kizhavalavu ([[Keelavalavu]]) Sculptures
Gommateshvara Bahubali.jpg|The {{convert|57|ft|m}} high [[Gommateshwara statue]], [[Shravanabelagola]]
Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg|''Tirthankara'' statues at [[Siddhachal Caves]] inside [[Gwalior Fort]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]
Jain statue of Parshvanath, Naugaza temple, Alwar district, Rajasthan, India.jpg|''Tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]] statue, [[Rajasthan]]
</gallery>

== Comparison with ''Śvetāmbara'' Tradition ==
In 1124 CE, a fierce debate between [[Śvetāmbara]]s and Digambaras happened. The background of the debate goes back to the 1124 CE [[Chaturmasya|cāturmāsya]] of Ācārya Vādidevasūri, a celebrated disciple of Ācārya Municandrasūri, a Śvetāmbara monk. Vādidevasūri was popular for winning debates against several philosophers in Western and North-Western India. Vādidevasūri was in Karnavati (modern-day [[Ahmedabad]]'s old city) for his 4 months-long stay during the rainy season. During the same time, Kumudcandra, a Digambara monk and the preceptor of Jayakeśi, a Kadamba ruler, was also in the city for his 4 months-long stay during the rainy season. As per medieval Digambara records, Kumudcandra was of formidable intellect and very popular in the Digambara community.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Prabhachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabhavaka Charitra |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/002516/197}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Merutungasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabandha Chintamani |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/023249/149}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=Food and Freedom |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/269706/5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mahaprajna |first=Muni |title=New Dimensions in Jaina Logic |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/007010/183}}</ref>
As described in Ācārya Prabhācandrasūri's [[Prabhavakacarita|Prabhāvakacarita]], Kumudcandra and his disciples tried creating several problems in Vādidevasūri's sangha there. This was probably because the former could not digest the popularity of Vādidevasūri in the Śvetāmbara sangha there. The latter, however, maintained equanimity and did not retaliate. The situation got serious when Kumudcandra and some of his disciples harassed Sādhvī Sarasvatīśrījī, a senior nun in Vādidevasūri's sangha, while she was walking on the road. After mocking her, some disciples and palanquin-bearers of Kumudcandra demanded she dance if she wanted to pass. After the humiliation, she requested Vādidevasūri to take appropriate action and that if this went unanswered, the entire Jaina sangha would crumble.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12" />
Vādidevasūri wrote to Kumudcandra and informed him that he would have a debate with him in the court of [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]], in [[Patan, Gujarat|Patan]]. Vādidevasūri wrote to the Jaina sangha at Patan, seeking permission to hold an open public debate between the Śvetāmbaras and the Digambaras. The sangha accepted his letter and wrote back that they would be highly honored to host the debate and that 300 male devotees and 700 female devotees would hold [[Fasting in Jainism#Types of fasting|āyaṃbila]] fast until the day of the debate, praying for his victory.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12" />

Vādidevasūri reached Patan, and was soon followed by Kumudcandra. The situation was heavily influenced by politics. Rājamātā Minaladevi was in unconditional support of Kumudcandra.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheth |first=Chimanlal Bhailal |title=Jainism in Gujarat AD 1100 to 1600 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/034896/34}}</ref> Apart from her, Kumudcandra was also supported by several courtiers and laymen. [[Prabhavakacarita|Prabhāvakacarita]] names Keśava as one of his supporters, while it names poet Śrīpāla and Bhānu as Vādidevasūri's supporters. Thāhaḍ and Nāgadeva, two [[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|Śrāvakas]] of Vādidevasūri's sangha expressed their wish to spend as much wealth as required for this event. However, Vādidevasūri informed them that spending of any wealth was not required for this event. Thāhaḍ informed him that Kumudcandra's disciples had offered bribe to Gāngila, a minister in [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]]'s court. Vādidevasūri did not pay attention to it and told him that it would surely be won by the one who has the blessings of God and his preceptor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Merutungasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabandha Chintamani |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/023249/150}}</ref> The terms set by Rājamātā Minaladevi were unfair. If Vādidevasūri lost, all Śvetāmbaras would have convert to the Digambara sect. If Kumudcandra lost, the Digambaras would have to leave [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]]'s kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prabhachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabhavaka Charitra |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/002516/200}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |last=Merutungasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabandha Chintamani |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/023249/151}}</ref>

On [[Vaishakha|Vaiśākha]] [[Purnima|Pūrṇimā]] of 1124 CE, the debate began. Kumudcandra mocked a young [[Hemachandra|Hemacandrasūri]], who was accompanying Vādidevasūri, by calling him an infant and unfit for this debate. A witty Hemacandrasūri responded by saying that he was dressed, while an infant is one who is naked, aiming at Kumudcandra's Digambara lifestyle (staying nude) and that Kumudcandra, and not he, was an infant.<ref name=":32" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jain |first=Sudarshanlal |title=Sraman 2013 01 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/525083/71}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Anandsagarsuri |first=Acharya |title=Kalikal Sarvagna Hemchandracharya |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/006724/31}}</ref> Several exchanges took place between both Vādidevasūri and Kumudcandra. The former was very well-versed with Jaina scriptures and tenets and made sure that no possibility was left unexplored during the debate. Within mere 16 days of the debate's conception, and several instances where Kumudcandra and his disciples faltered, the debate moved towards the subject of women's emancipation which Śvetāmbaras firmly believe in, while Digambaras don't. Digambaras, unable to provide a strong reason to support their heretical belief that women could not achieve emancipation, lost.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thaker |first=Jayant P |title=Laghu Prabandha Sangraha |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/009675/146}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dhaky |first=M. A. |title=Nirgrantha-1 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/522701/92}}</ref> Similar faults were observed when the subject of kevalins' hunger came up.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=Food and Freedom |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/269706/6}}</ref> Vādidevasūri was well-learned and astute and eventually, he triumphed.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":32" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Prabhachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabhavaka Charitra |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/002516/202}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Velankar |first=Hari Damodar |title=Jinaratnakosha Part 01 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/016002/284}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Choksi |first=Vadilal Jivabhai |title=Sirisirwal Kaha Part 01 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/032881/28}}</ref>
Vādidevasūri reminded [[Jayasimha Siddharaja]] that it was his duty to ensure no one insulted the defeated. The king ordered all Digambaras to immediately leave his kingdom and carried a royal procession to a nearby temple. Śvetāmbaras celebrated this victory and several devotees donated lakhs of gold coins in the temple. As a mark of respect, the ceremonial parasol over Vādidevasūri was carried by the king himself. This record is accepted as historically true, due to its narration found in [[Prabhavakacarita|Prabhāvakacarita]], a historical text. While Vādidevasūri went on to write several scriptures and consecrate several major pilgrimage sites, Digambaras, once again, lost all presence in the kingdom of Gujarat.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prabhachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabhavaka Charitra |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/002516/203}}</ref><ref name=":32" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hemachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Kavyanushasana |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/001067/274}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheth |first=Chimanlal Bhailal |title=Jainism in Gujarat AD 1100 to 1600 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/034896/35}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Burgess |first=Jas |title=Indian Antiquary Vol 11 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/032503/282}}</ref> Previously, Digambaras had lost another debate against [[Bappabhattisuri|Ācārya Bappabhattisuri]] over the ownership of [[Girnar Jain temples]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prabhachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabhavaka Charitra |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/002516/131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Merutungasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabandha Chintamani |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/023249/232}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Upadhye |first=A. N. |title=Jaina Bibliography Part 01 |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/016035/672}}</ref>

Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as:
* Śvetāmbaras believe that Parshvanatha, the 23rd [[tirthankara]], taught only Four restraints (a claim, scholars say is confirmed by the ancient Buddhist texts that discuss Jain monastic life).
These are as follows
1. Ahimsa – nonviolence, non-injury, and absence of desire to harm any life forms.
2. Satya – truthful in one's thoughts, speech and action.
3. Asteya – non-stealing". One must not steal, nor have the intent to steal, another's property through action, speech, and thoughts.
4. Aparigraha – the virtue of non-possessiveness or non-greediness.

Mahavira inserted 5th vow ie Brahmacharya – sexual restraint or practice of celibacy. Renunciation of sex and marriage. This was thought to be understood to within 4th vow of Aparigraha, but was more specified as 5th vow of Brahmacharya.

Mahāvīra taught Five vows.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=211}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=5}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=31–33}} The Digambara sect disagrees with the Śvetāmbara interpretations,{{sfn|Jaini|2000|pp=27–28}} and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=5}} However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught by [[Mahavira]]. The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believe [[Parshvanatha]] taught one vow less (the Four vows except [[Brahmacharya]]) than [[Mahavira]]. However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in the [[Ācārāṅga Sūtra]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jaina Sutras, Part I (SBE22): Contents |url=https://sacred-texts.com/jai/sbe22/sbe2201.htm |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=sacred-texts.com}}</ref>
* Digambaras believe that both Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra remained unmarried, whereas Śvetāmbara believe the 23rd and 24th tirthankar did indeed marry. According to the Śvetāmbara version, Parshvanāth married Prabhavati,{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=12}} and Mahāvīraswāmi married Yashoda who bore him a daughter named Priyadarshana.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=73–74}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=21}} The two sects also differ on the origin of [[Trishala]], Mahāvīra's mother,{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|pp=73–74}} as well as the details of Tirthankara's biographies such as how many auspicious dreams their mothers had when they were in the wombs.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=17}}
* Digambara believe Rishabha, [[Vasupujya]] and [[Neminatha]] were the three ''tirthankaras'' who reached omniscience while in sitting posture and other tirthankaras were in standing ascetic posture. In contrast, Śvetāmbaras believe it was Rishabha, Nemi and Mahāvīra who were the three in sitting posture.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|pp=79–80}}
* According to Śvetāmbara Jain texts, from ''Kalpasūtras'' onwards, its monastic community has had more ''sadhvis'' than ''sadhus'' (female than male mendicants). In ''Tapa Gacch'' of the modern era, the ratio of ''sadhvis'' to ''sadhus'' (nuns to monks) is about 3.5 to 1.{{sfn|Cort|2001a|p=47}} In contrast to Śvetāmbara, the Digambara sect monastic community has been predominantly male.{{sfn|Flügel|2006|pp=314–331, 353–361}}
* In the Digambara tradition, a male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve his soul's liberation from rebirths through asceticism. Women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can they achieve spiritual liberation in the Digambara sect of Jainism.{{sfn|Long|2013|pp=36–37}}{{sfn|Harvey|2016|pp=182–183}} The Śvetāmbaras disagree with the Digambaras, believing that women can also achieve liberation from ''[[saṃsāra]]'' through ascetic practices.{{sfn|Harvey|2016|pp=182–183}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=55–59}}
* The Śvetāmbaras state the 19th Tirthankara [[Māllīnātha]] was female.{{sfn|Vallely|2002|p=15}} However, Digambara reject this, and worship Mallinatha as a male.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=56}}
* According to ''Digambara'' texts, after attaining ''[[Kevala Jnana]]'' (omniscience), ''[[Arihant (Jainism)|arihant]]'' (omniscient beings) are free from human needs like hunger, thirst, and sleep.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2009|p=314}} In contrast, Śvetāmbara texts preach that it is not so.

==Criticism==
=== Padmanabh Jaini ===
Padmanabh Jaini, a renowned [[Jain]] scholar, after researching the scriptures of the Digambara sect described several points of critique: -<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Gender and Salvation |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft138nb0wk&chunk.id=d0e6969&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e6841&brand=ucpress |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=publishing.cdlib.org}}</ref>
#'''Rituals and ascetic practices''': Jaini points out that an emphasis on extreme ascetic practices such as public nudity and rejection of all possessions leads to a diminished focus on spiritual growth and a greater focus on the less important ritualistic practices.<ref name=":0" />
#'''Layperson-ascetic dichotomy''': Jaini critiques the sharp distinction between the ascetics and laypeople which leads to a lack of spiritual agency among people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |page=208 |title=The Jaina Path of Purification |date=1998 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-1578-0 |language=en}}</ref>
#'''Scriptural authority''': Jaini questions the Digambara reliance on a highly limited set of scriptures that do not fully represent Jain principles and teachings as followed by the [[Svetambara]] sect. Jaini questions the Digambara rejection of the Śvētāmbara canonical scriptures. He argues that this rejection leads to a lack of unity and a fragmentation within Jainism. He also points out that the Digambaras' reliance on later texts as authentic scriptures might lack historical and textual rigor.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |page=25 |title=The Jaina Path of Purification |date=1998 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-1578-0 |language=en}}</ref>
#'''Gender and nudity''': Jaini strongly argues that the practice of public nudity may reinforce patriarchal attitude and limit female spiritual agency. Digambaras hold that women must be reborn as men to attain salvation, which Jaini criticizes for its gender exclusivity and inequality.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jaini |first=Padmanabh S. |page=223 |title=The Jaina Path of Purification |date=1998 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-1578-0 |language=en}}</ref> He argues that female nudity is not equally valued or allowed in the Digambara tradition which greatly limits female spiritual agency as Digambara belief states that ''[[moksha]]'' cannot be attained without nudity. Further, he states that male nudity leads to masculinization of spirituality. Jaini also mentions that the Digambara sect has historically been male-dominated with women facing several barriers in the path to spirituality and its evolution.<ref name=":0" /> His views are seconded by Paul Dundas who states that Digambara rejection of clothing could also signify their rejection of female bodily experience, as clothing is often associated with female modesty and domesticity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=The Jains |date=2003-09-02 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-50165-6 |language=en}}</ref>
#'''Historical development''': Jaini also deliberates that the Digambara tradition may have arisen in response to [[Hinduism]], [[Ājīvika]]s, and [[Buddhism]], rather than purely from within [[Jainism]].<ref name=":1" />

=== Nalini Balbir ===
[[Nalini Balbir]], another renowned scholar of [[Jainism]], has criticised the Digambara views on liberation of women and advocates for a more inclusive and gender-equal interpretation of the scriptures. She lists her criticism in the following manner: –

# '''Gender bias''': Balbir sees the Digambara belief of women not being capable of attaining liberation in their current birth as gender discrimination.
# '''Biological determinism''': Digambara scriptures attribute spiritual limitations of women to their biology and consider them as unholy. Balbir criticizes this view as narrow and outdated perspective.
# '''Lack of scriptural basis''': Balbir argues that the narrative describing women not being able to attain liberation is not supported by ancient Jain scriptures ([[Śvetāmbara#Āgamas or Canonical Literature|Śvetāmbara canon]]) and is based on later commentaries.
# '''Contradiction with Jain principles''': Balbir points out that this view is in contradiction to the fundamental Jain principle of equality and the potential for all living beings to attain liberation.

Balbir states that:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Balbir |first=Nalini |title=Women in Jainism |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/269551/7}}</ref>
{{Blockquote
| text =The Digambara sect's view that women cannot achieve liberation in their present birth is a 'biological determinism' that is not supported by Jain scriptures. This view is a 'patriarchal interpretation' that has been 'superimposed' on the original teachings of Mahavira.
| author =Nalini Balbir
| title =Women in Jainism (2005)
}}

=== Kristi L. Wiley ===
Kristi L. Wiley, a scholar of [[Jainism]], has also criticized the Digambara sect's views on liberation of women. Specifically, she highlights the following points of critique:{{sfn|Wiley|2009|p=206}}

# '''Exclusionary''' '''practices and patriarchal interpretations''': Women are excluded from the highest spiritual status in Jainism (achieving liberation) by Digambara sect's scriptures. Wiley sees Digambara interpretations of Jain scriptures as patriarchal and biased against women.
# '''Lack of agency''': Digambaras deny the fundamental agency of achieving liberation (the highest status in Jain spirituality) through their own efforts, instead requiring them to rely on male intermediaries.
# '''Inconsistencies with Jain principles''': Wiley points out that these views are inconsistent with the fundamental principle of 'equal potential of all living beings to achieve liberation'. She adds that such views may constitute to 'symbolic violence' against women.
# '''Textual manipulation''': She alleges that the male-dominated Digambara sect has selectively interpreted and manipulated existing and ancient Jain texts to support their views by ignoring passages that highlight women's spiritual potential.

=== Other religions ===
Scriptures of other religions and schools of thought such as [[Buddhism]], [[Islam]], and [[Sikhism]] also criticize and condemn public nudity followed by Digambara monks.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=12XEBENpExoC&q=Naked |title=The Ādi Granth: Or, Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs |date=1877 |publisher=Wm. H. Allen |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Guide To Buddhism A To Z |url=https://www.buddhisma2z.com/content.php?id=288#:~:text=The%20Buddha%20made%20it%20a,I,305). |access-date=2024-08-01 |website=www.buddhisma2z.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nudity |url=https://www.alislam.org/articles/nudity/ |access-date=2024-08-01 |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion}}
*[[Nudity in religion]]
*[[God in Jainism]]
*[[Kshullak]]
*[[Jain philosophy]]
*[[Timeline of Jainism]]
*[[Digambar Jain Mahasabha]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist|20em}}

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==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Jainism topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Digambara| ]]
[[Category:Nudity in religion]]
[[Category:Schools of Jainism]]

C. P. Johnstone

2026-02-15T21:58:34Z

Godrejsplende: updated details

{{Short description|English cricketer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = C. P. Johnstone
| image = CP Johnstone, cricketer.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| fullname = Conrad Powell Johnstone
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1895|8|19|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Sydenham, London]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1974|6|23|1895|8|19|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Eastry]], [[Kent]]
| heightft =
| heightinch =
| heightcm =
| heightm =
| batting = Left-handed
| bowling = Right-arm medium
| role =
| family =
| club1 = [[Cambridge University Cricket Club|Cambridge University]]
| year1 = {{nowrap|1919–1920}}
| club2 = [[Kent County Cricket Club|Kent]]
| year2 = {{nowrap|1919–1933}}
| club3 = [[Europeans cricket team|Europeans (India)]]
| year3 = {{nowrap|1925/26–1947/48}}
| club4 = [[Tamil Nadu cricket team|Madras]]
| year4 = {{nowrap|1926/27–1944/45}}
| club5 = [[Marylebone Cricket Club]]
| year5 = {{nowrap|1929–1939}}
| type1 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| debutdate1 = 21 May
| debutyear1 = 1919
| debutfor1 = Cambridge Univ.
| debutagainst1 = [[Australian Imperial Force Touring XI|Australian Imperial Forces]]
| lastdate1 = 11 January
| lastyear1 = 1948
| lastfor1 = Europeans
| lastagainst1 = Indians
| columns = 1
| column1 = [[First-class cricket|First-class]]
| matches1 = 110
| runs1 = 5,482
| bat avg1 = 30.62
| 100s/50s1 = 6/29
| top score1 = 135
| deliveries1 = 6,435
| wickets1 = 103
| bowl avg1 = 27.43
| fivefor1 = 3
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 6/28
| catches/stumpings1 = 42
| source = http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/15603.html ESPNcricinfo
| date = 23 February
| year = 2018
}}
'''Conrad Powell Johnstone''' {{post-nominals|CBE}} (19 August 1895 – 23 June 1974), known as '''CP Johnstone''' or '''Con Johnstone''', was an English businessman and amateur sportsman who played [[first-class cricket]] between 1919 and 1948. After serving in the [[First World War]] he spent much his working life in India and is regarded as one of the key players in the development of cricket in [[Madras]]. He served in the [[First World War]], played first-class cricket in both England and India and was also a noted golfer as well as the President of [[Kent County Cricket Club]] in later life.

==Early life==
Johnstone was born at [[Sydenham, London|Sydenham]] in south-east London, the son of William and Katherine Johnstone.<ref name=lewis225>Lewis P (2013) ''For Kent and Country'', pp.225–227. Brighton: Reveille Press.</ref> His father was a "Gentlemen of independent means"<ref name=lewis225quote>Lewis ''Op. cit.'', p.225.</ref> and Johnstone was educated at Hartford House school before going to [[Rugby School]] where he played cricket in the school team in 1912 and 1913.<ref name=wisden75>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/228559.html Johnstone, Conrad Powell], Obituaries in 1974, ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'', 1975. Retrieved 2018-02-24.</ref> He captained Rugby in his final year and also represented the school in the [[Rackets (sport)|racquet pairs]]. He played three times for the [[Kent County Cricket Club]] Second XI in the [[Minor Counties Championship]] in July 1914 and was admitted to [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]] in 1914 but his education was interrupted by the outbreak of war in Europe.<ref name=lewis225 />

==War service==
Johnstone volunteered for military service in August 1914 soon after the outbreak of [[World War I]]. He was commissioned into the 3rd Battalion, [[Highland Light Infantry]] (HLI) as a [[2nd Lieutenant]]. His uncle was serving in the same battalion. Johnstone completed his training at the battalion's depot at [[Portsmouth]] before being appointed as a temporary [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|lieutenant]] in February 1915 and being posted to France the following month, attached to 1st Battalion, HLI, part of the Sirhind Brigade in the [[3rd (Lahore) Division]].<ref name=lewis225 />

His battalion saw action at [[Second Ypres]] later in 1915, and Johnstone was wounded in the neck on 1 May, breaking two ribs and puncturing a lung. He spent the next 15 months recovering from the wounds before being posted back to the HLI in August 1916. A commission in the Regular Army followed and Johnstone was posted to the 17th Battalion, [[Lancashire Fusiliers]] at [[Arras]] in November, seeing action in the Somme in 1917. He was wounded again in October that year, this time by shell fire. After more recuperation he was passed fit for home service and took up a position as an instructor with the 6th Officer Cadet Battalion at [[Oxford]] for the remainder of the war.<ref name=lewis225 />

==Professional life, cricket and India==
After resigning his Army commission in May 1919, Johnstone returned to [[Pembroke College, Cambridge]], studying for a law degree.<ref name=sanmar>The Sanmar Group (2013) [http://sanmargroup.com/matrix/MatrixPDFs/2013-April-Matrix.pdf CP Johnstone], Legends from the South, ''Matrix'', April 2013, pp.30–31. Retrieved 2018-02-24.</ref> He graduated in 1920 having been credited with four terms study due to his war service. He played [[cricket]] for the [[Cambridge University Cricket Club|University team]], making his [[first-class cricket]] debut for the team in May 1919 against the [[Australian Imperial Force Touring XI|Australian Imperial Forces]] at [[Fenner's]]. He won a [[Blue (university sport)|Blue]] in both cricket and golf, captaining the Cambridge team to an unexpected victory in the university golf match, and made his Kent First XI debut in 1919 against [[Hampshire County Cricket Club|Hampshire]].<ref name=lewis225 /><ref name=wisden75 /><ref name=ca>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/13/13800/13800.html Con Johnstone], CricketArchive. Retrieved 2018-02-23.</ref><ref name=times31mar20>University Golf, ''[[The Times]]'', 1920-03-20, p.7.</ref><ref name=times1jul74>Woodcock J (1974) Mr C. P. Johnstone, ''[[The Times]]'', 1974-07-01, p.16.</ref>

After graduating Johnstone was employed by a liquor manufacturer in [[Calcutta]] and then for a number of years by [[Burmah Shell]] in [[Madras]] as a manager.<ref name=lewis225 /> He spent the 1925 summer in England, played 12 times during the season for Kent and was awarded his [[county cap]].<ref name=lewis225 /><ref name=ca /> Further appearances for the county followed in 1929, but the majority of his cricket was played in India playing particularly for the [[Europeans cricket team|Europeans]] and for [[Madras Cricket Club]]. He captained Madras in the inaugural [[Ranji Trophy]] in 1934 was captain in 1940/41 when the team were runners-up in the competition, losing to [[Bombay cricket team|Bombay]] in the final, and played regularly in [[Madras Presidency Matches]] from 1925/26 to 1947/48, captaining the Europeans team for much of the period.<ref name=sanmar /><ref name=ca /><ref name=lakshimi111>Lakshmi CS (2004) ''The Unhurried City: Writings on Chennai'', p.111–112. Mumbai: Penguin Books India.</ref> When Madras entered the Madras League for the first time in 1939 Johnstone was the captain and a key player on the team and captained the Madras team throughout the period.<ref name=ci27may12>Ramnarayan V (2012) [http://www.espncricinfo.com/dreamfields/content/story/566331.html An MCC of our own], ESPN, 2012-05-27. Retrieved 2018-02-24.</ref><ref name=hindu8dec09>Srinivasan TM (2009) [http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Pitch-for-the-city/article12077991.ece Pitch for the city], ''[[The Hindu]]'', 2009-12-08. Retrieved 2018-02-24.</ref> Johnstone played both against [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] when it toured Madras in 1926/27<ref name=hindu17sep00>Muthiah S (2000) [http://www.thehindu.com/2000/09/17/stories/1317106f.htm In C.P. Johnstone's country]{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, ''[[The Hindu]]'', 2000-09-17. Retrieved 2018-02-24.</ref> and for the club in five matches as well as for other teams on occasion.<ref name=ca /> He remained in the Reserve of Officers until 1937.<ref name=lewis225 />

Johnstone is credited as a significant factor in the development of cricket in Madras.<ref name=sanmar /><ref name=times1jul74 /><ref name=hindu8dec09 /> He has been described as having played a "pioneering role" in the growth of the sport<ref name=sanmar30>The Sanmar Group, ''Op. cit.'', p.30.</ref> who was able to provide talented young players with employment in Burmah Shell, providing them with the opportunity to play cricket with a stable income behind them.<ref name=sanmar /> Players such as [[M. J. Gopalan]], who became a double Indian international in both cricket and [[field hockey|hockey]], benefited in this way.<ref name=sanmar /><ref name=lakshimi103>Lakshimi ''Op. cit.'', p.103.</ref><ref name=hindu3apr03>Thyagarajan S (2003) [https://web.archive.org/web/20030915093630/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/04/03/stories/2003040300140400.htm Support for sport — the tradition continues], ''[[The Hindu]]'', 2003-04-03. Retrieved 2018-02-24.</ref><ref name=wi6aug15>Ramnarayan V (2015) [https://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/de-saram-dias-memories-mj-gopalan-trophy/175170 From de Saram to Dias – Memories of the MJ Gopalan Trophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224173406/https://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/de-saram-dias-memories-mj-gopalan-trophy/175170 |date=24 February 2018 }}, ''[[Wisden India]]'', 2015-08-06. Retrieved 2018-02-24.</ref><ref name=miw>Kesavan M (2010) ''Men in White'', pp.74–75. Penguin Books India.</ref> Johnstone was President of Madras Cricket Club in 1947 towards the end of his playing career.<ref name=sanmar /> As a player he was described as "an excellent all-round cricketer",<ref name=sanmar30 /> who batted left-handed, often opening the batting, bowled right-arm medium pace and was an "excellent"<ref name=sanmar30 /> and "brilliant"<ref name=hindu10apr00>Muthiah S (2000) [http://www.thehindu.com/2000/04/10/stories/13101287.htm Madras Miscellany]{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, ''[[The Hindu]]'', 2000-04-10.</ref> slip fielder. Australian international [[Keith Miller]] described how a particular catch taken by Johnstone, then aged 50, in a match at Madras in 1945 was "the best catch that ever dismissed me".<ref name=quotehindu00>Quoted in Muthiah (2000) and The Sanmar Group, p.30.</ref> As a captain he was described as an "astute leader of men"<ref name=sanmar30 /> and as an administrator he was involved in setting up the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] as well as playing an important role in "cementing European-Indian relations",<ref name=sanmar31>The Sanmar Group, ''Op. cit.'', p.31.</ref> particularly when the exclusive Madras Cricket Club, which had been largely controlled by Europeans, became the democratic [[Tamil Nadu Cricket Association|Madras Cricket Association]].<ref name=sanmar /> The [[cricket pavilion]] at the [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]] was named after him in 1997.<ref name=hindu10apr00 />

As well as his involvement with cricket, Johnstone was Chairman of the Madras Chamber of Commerce and was involved in organisations such as the [[Madras Club]] and the Indian Roads and Transport Development Association.<ref name=sanmar /> He was appointed a [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in the [[1948 New Year Honours]] for services to cricket in Madras.<ref name=lewis225 /><ref name=wisden75 />

==Later life==
Johnstone returned to England in 1948.<ref name=sanmar /> He was a member of the General Committee at Kent, particularly involved with the development of young players, and was President of the club in 1967, the year the county won the [[Friends Provident Trophy|Gillette Cup]] for the first time.<ref name=lewis225 /><ref name=wisden75 /><ref name=sanmar /> He died at his home at [[Eastry]] in [[Kent]] in June 1974, aged 78, after watching [[India national cricket team|India]] play [[England cricket team|England]] in a [[Test cricket|Test match]] at [[Lord's]].<ref name=ci>[http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/15603.html Conrad Johnstone], ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 2018-02-23.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{cricinfo|id=15603}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Johnstone, C. P.}}
[[Category:1895 births]]
[[Category:1974 deaths]]
[[Category:English cricketers]]
[[Category:People educated at Rugby School]]
[[Category:Kent cricketers]]
[[Category:Cambridge University cricketers]]
[[Category:Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu cricketers]]
[[Category:Europeans cricketers]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Free Foresters cricketers]]
[[Category:Gentlemen cricketers]]
[[Category:South Zone cricketers]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Highland Light Infantry officers]]
[[Category:Lancashire Fusiliers officers]]
[[Category:Military personnel from the London Borough of Lewisham]]
[[Category:Cricketers from the London Borough of Lewisham]]
[[Category:People from Sydenham, London]]
[[Category:20th-century English sportsmen]]

Havildar

2026-02-13T22:19:17Z

Godrejsplende: Expanded content with additional details

{{short description|Rank in the Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani armies}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{hatnote|For the Anglo-Indian pundit known as "The Havildar", see [[Hyder Shah]].}}
{{Infobox military rank
| name = Havildar
| native_name =
| image = {{nobreak|[[File:India-Army-OR-6.svg|80px]] [[File:03.Pakistan Army-SGT.svg|80px]]}}
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Indian and Pakistani rank insignia
| image2 =
| image_size2 =
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| image3 =
| image_size3 =
| alt3 =
| caption3 =
| country = {{flag|India}} {{flag|Pakistan}}
| service branch = Army
| abbreviation =
| rank group = [[Enlisted rank]]
| rank =
| NATO rank =
| Non-NATO rank =
| pay grade =
| formation =
| abolished =
| higher rank = [[Junior commissioned officer|Naib subedar]]
| lower rank = [[Naik (military rank)|Naik]]
| equivalents = [[Sergeant]] [[Daffadar]]
| history =
}}

'''Havildar''' or '''havaldar''' ([[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]: {{lang|hi|हविलदार}} or {{lang|hi|हवलदार}} ([[Devanagari]]), {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|حوالدار}}}} ([[Persian script|Perso-Arabic]])) is a rank in the Indian and Pakistani armies, equivalent to [[sergeant]]. It is not used in cavalry and armoured units, where the equivalent is [[daffadar]].

Like a British sergeant, a havildar wears three rank [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]]s.<ref name=havildar>{{cite web |title=Indian army ranks |url=http://www.ranksofthearmy.com/indian-army-ranks/ |publisher=Ranks of the army |access-date=19 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202134124/http://www.ranksofthearmy.com/indian-army-ranks/|archive-date=2 February 2014}}</ref>

==History==
"Havildar" is a [[Persian language|Persian]] word in origin and means "person in charge", or more loosely "chief", from the [[Arabic]] {{lang|ar|حواله}} ("charge", "responsibility") and the Persian {{lang|fa|دار}} (dâr, "holder"). Historically, a havildar was a senior commander, being in charge of a fort during the times of the [[Mughal Empire]]. It was used as the equivalent of a sergeant in the [[British Indian Army]], which has led to its current usage.

==Appointments==
===Indian Army===
Havildars could be further appointed to positions of higher authority. The appointments of company quartermaster havildar and company havildar major existed in the [[British Indian Army]].<ref name=ranks/> Historically, the two senior-most havildars of a company became the CQMH and the CHM. However, these were just appointments and the commanding officer could promote or demote any of these ranks at his discretion.<ref name=ranks/> These appointments still technically exist in the modern [[Indian Army]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/RTI/rti/DSR/DSR_VOLUME_1/CHAPTER_04/53.htm |title=JCOs, WOs, OR AND NON-COMBATANTS (ENROLLED) |access-date=2015-12-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109212304/http://indianarmy.nic.in/Site/RTI/rti/DSR/DSR_VOLUME_1/CHAPTER_04/53.htm |archive-date=2014-11-09 }}</ref> However, havildars are now promoted directly to [[junior commissioned officer]] rank, as the duties of these historical appointments are now carried out by JCOs.<ref name=havildar/><ref name=ranks/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aftkolkata.nic.in/upload/court/Court-54.pdf|title=Info|website=aftkolkata.nic.in|access-date=2020-07-18|archive-date=9 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209150232/http://aftkolkata.nic.in/upload/court/Court-54.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Rules of the Raj hindering havildars' promotion | publisher=The New Indian Express | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article283262.ece | author=M K Sunil Kumar | orig-year=21 November 2010 | date=16 May 2012 | access-date=4 December 2014 | archive-date=10 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810105154/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article283262.ece | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianarmy.gov.in/writereaddata/documents/psdte311212.pdf |title=Data |website=www.indianarmy.gov.in |access-date=2020-07-18 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034548/http://www.indianarmy.gov.in/writereaddata/documents/psdte311212.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Company Quartermaster Havildar.gif|60px]]The company quartermaster havildar (CQMH), equivalent to a [[company quartermaster sergeant]], assisted the [[quartermaster]] in managing the company stores. The insignia was three chevrons with an [[Lion Capital of Asoka|Ashoka lion]] emblem above.<ref name=ranks>{{cite web|title=India Military Ranks|url=http://orbat.com/site/ranks/india.html|publisher=Ravi Rikhye|access-date=19 January 2014|date=28 April 2002|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728185238/http://orbat.com/site/ranks/india.html|archive-date=28 July 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Company Havildar Major.gif|60px]]The company havildar major (CHM) was the most senior [[non-commissioned officer]] in a [[Company (military unit)|company]], equivalent to a [[company sergeant major]].<ref name=ranks/> The insignia was an Ashoka lion emblem.<ref name=ranks/>

[[File:Regimental Quartermaster Havildar.gif|60px]]The regimental quartermaster havildar (RQMH) was equivalent to a [[regimental quartermaster sergeant]].<ref name=ranks/>

[[File:Regimental Havildar Major.gif|60px]]The regimental havildar major (RHM) was equivalent to a [[regimental sergeant major]].<ref name=ranks/>

=== Pakistan Army ===
Senior havildars might also be appointed company quartermaster havildar, company havildar major, battalion quartermaster havildar or battalion havildar major in the [[Pakistan Army]]. All of these appointments have different insignia and may vary from unit to unit.

[[File:04.Pakistan_Army-SSG.svg|60px]]
Company quartermaster havildar

[[File:05.Pakistan_Army-SFC.svg|60px]]
Company havildar major

[[File:06.Pakistan_Army-MSG.svg|60px]]
Battalion quartermaster havildar

[[File:07.Pakistan_Army-SGM.svg|60px]]
Battalion havildar major

==References==

{{Reflist}}

{{Military of India}}
{{Pakistan Army template}}

[[Category:Urdu words and phrases]]
[[Category:Hindi words and phrases]]
[[Category:Military of the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Pakistan Army ranks]]
[[Category:Military ranks of British India]]
[[Category:Military ranks of the Indian Army]]

Ratilal Chandaria

2026-02-10T02:57:27Z

Godrejsplende: Done

{{Infobox person
| name = Ratilal Chandaria
| image = 
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1922|10|24}}
| birth_place = [[Nairobi]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2013|10|13|1922|10|24}}
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], India
| other_names =
| occupation = Industrialist
| known_for =
| spouse = Vijayalakshmi
}}
'''Ratilal Chandaria''' (1922-2013) was an industrialist and philanthropist of [[Indian people|Indian]] origin who resided in different parts of the world. He worked to modernize the [[Gujarati language]].

== Life ==
He was born on October 24, 1922, to Premchandbhai and Punjibai. He studied in [[Nairobi]] and later moved to [[Mombasa]]. He came to [[India]] with his parents when [[World War II]] started. He left to study and joined the family business thereafter. He married Vijayalakshmi in 1943 at [[Jamnagar]], India. He went back to Nairobi in 1946 and expanded his business activities. He travelled extensively in Africa and Europe and turned his family business into an industry. He moved to [[Dar-es-Salaam]] in 1960 and later to [[London]] in 1965. He lived in [[Geneva]] for a while and later moved to [[Singapore]] in 1975.<ref name=dna>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/ahmedabad/report-gujarati-lexicon-founder-ratilal-chandaria-no-more-1903908|title=Gujarati Lexicon founder Ratilal Chandaria no more|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |place=Ahmedabad |date=2013-10-15|accessdate =2014-02-25}}</ref><ref name=ioj>{{cite web|url=http://www.jainology.org/2346/chandaria-r-p-obituary/|title=Obituary: Shri Ratilal Premchand Chandaria|work=Institute of Jainology|date=2013-10-16|accessdate =2014-02-25}}</ref><ref name=ix>{{cite news|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/gujaratilexicon-founder-ratilal-chandaria-passes-away/1182733/|title=GujaratiLexicon founder Ratilal Chandaria passes away|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=2013-10-15|accessdate=2014-02-25}}</ref>
He died on October 13, 2013, in [[Mumbai]]. It was a day of [[Dusshera]], the same day he was born, according to the [[Hindu calendar]].<ref name=dna/><ref name=ioj/><ref name=ix/>

== Philanthropy ==
He extensively worked for the development of the Gujarati language, his mother tongue. He spent 18 years developing a Gujarati dictionary. He founded [http://www.gujaratilexicon.com GujaratiLexicon], Digital Bhagwadgomandal and other initiatives to digitise and contemporise Gujarati. GujaratiLexicon is the largest Gujarati language resource portal in the world, while ''Bhagwadgomandal'' is a landmark encyclopedia and lexicon of Gujarati digitised by GujaratiLexicon which is archived in the US [[Library of Congress]] and [[British Library]] Catalogue.<ref name=dna/><ref name=ioj/><ref name=ix/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/bhagwadgomandal-goes-online/articleshow/4356926.cms?referral=PM|title=Bhagwadgomandal goes online|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=2009-04-04|access-date=2014-02-25}}</ref>

He cofounded the Institute of Jainology, a UK-based institute specialising in the study of [[Jainism]] in 1985 with Nirmal Sethia. He served as chairman until 2012.<ref name=ioj/> He served in many social, cultural and religious institutions like [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]], Indian Gymkhana, and the International Forum of Overseas Indians.<ref name=dna/><ref name=ioj/><ref name=ix/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.gujaratilexicon.com/ GujaratiLexicon], Gujarati language resource portal
* [http://www.bhagvadgomandal.com/ Digital Bhagwadgomandal]
* [http://www.jainology.org Institute of Jainology]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chandaria, Ratilal}}
[[Category:1922 births]]
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:Gujarati language]]
[[Category:Indian industrialists]]
[[Category:People from Gujarat]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian philanthropists]]

Vaccine Maitri

2026-02-08T15:34:41Z

Godrejsplende: added info

{{Short description|Vaccination initiative by the Indian government}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
[[File:Indian-vaccine-to-covid-19.svg|thumb|Countries that received doses of the Indian-made [[BBV152|Covaxin]] as of 6{{spaces}}March 2021]]

'''Vaccine Maitri''' ("Vaccine Friendship")<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-05 |title=Vaccine Maitri: Consignment of covid vaccines airlifted for Guyana, Jamaica |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/vaccine-maitri-consignment-of-covid-vaccines-airlifted-for-guyana-jamaica-nicaragua-11614930238803.html |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=mint}}</ref> is a [[humanitarian]] initiative undertaken by the [[Government of India|Indian government]] to provide [[COVID-19 vaccine]]s to countries around the world.<ref name="hbl-maitri">{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/variety/vaccine-maitri-a-sanjeevini-for-the-world/article33989241.ece |title=Vaccine Maitri: A Sanjeevini for the world |date=4 March 2021 |access-date=10 March 2021 |publisher=[[The Hindu Business Line]]}}</ref> The government started providing vaccines from 20 January 2021. As of 21{{spaces}}February 2022, India had delivered around 16.29 crore (162.9 million) doses of vaccines to 96 countries.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ministry of External Affairs – Government of India |url=https://www.mea.gov.in/vaccine-supply.htm |website=Ministry of External Affairs – Government of India}}</ref> Of these, 1.43 crore (14.3 million) doses were gifted to 98 countries by the [[Government of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=India Led with Compassion During COVID-19, Sharing 300 Million Vaccines Globally: Union Minister of Commerce & Industry Shri Piyush Goyal |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2124745 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250427145516/https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2124745 |archive-date=2025-04-27 |access-date=2025-11-16 |website=www.pib.gov.in}}</ref> The remaining 10.71 crore were supplied by the vaccine producers under its commercial and 4.15 crore were supplied by [[COVAX]] obligations. In late March 2021, the [[Government of India]] temporarily froze exports of the [[Covishield]], citing [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|India's own COVID crisis]] and the domestic need for these vaccines.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-03-24 |title=Coronavirus: India temporarily halts Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine exports |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-56513371 |access-date=2021-05-19}}</ref>
The Health Minister of India, [[Mansukh Mandaviya]] announced in September that India will resume the export of vaccines from October to the rest of the world.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-09-21|title=Covid vaccine: India to resume vaccine exports from October|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-58634570|access-date=2021-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=India Pledges Support To UN To Ensure Syria Gets Covid Vaccines|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-pledges-support-to-un-to-ensure-syria-gets-covid-vaccines-2382459|access-date=2021-03-23|website=NDTV.com}}</ref>
[[File:Oxford AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine (Indian version) 2021 L.jpeg|thumb|250px|]]

200,000 doses of COVID-19 vaccines were gifted by India to the [[UN peacekeepers]] on 27 March to be distributed to all peacekeeping missions.<ref>[https://www.livemint.com/news/world/indias-gift-to-un-peacekeepers-200-000-covid-vaccine-doses-11616728538185.html India's 'gift' to UN peacekeepers: 200,000 Covid vaccine doses], Mint, 26 March 2021.</ref>

==Vaccines==
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Covishield (2021) K (cropped).jpg
| image2 = Bharat Biotech Covaxin Bangalore BESTpedia.jpg
| direction = vertical
| caption1 = A vial of Covishield, the Indian-manufactured version of the AstraZeneca vaccine.
| caption2 = A vial of Covaxin
}}
India has two approved COVID-19 vaccines: [[Covishield]] and [[Covaxin]]. Both of them were exported and used in foreign grants by the Government of India.

===Covishield===
On 1 January 2021, the [[Drug Controller General of India]], approved the emergency or conditional use of [[Covishield]].<ref>{{cite news |title=COVID-19 vaccine Covishield gets approval from DCGI's expert panel |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/coronavirus-serum-institute-of-indias-covid-19-vaccine-covishield-likely-to-be-approved-for-emergency-use-in-india/article33472324.ece |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=1 January 2021}}</ref> Covishield is developed by the [[University of Oxford]] and its spin-out company, [[Vaccitech]].<ref>{{cite news |title=AstraZeneca's COVID-19 vaccine authorised for emergency supply in the UK |url=https://www.astrazeneca.com/media-centre/press-releases/2020/astrazenecas-covid-19-vaccine-authorised-in-uk.html |access-date=2 January 2021 |agency=AstraZeneca |publisher=AstraZeneca |date=30 December 2020}}</ref>

===Covaxin===
On 2 January 2021, [[Covaxin]] India's first COVID-19 vaccine, developed by [[Bharat Biotech]] in association with the [[Indian Council of Medical Research]] and [[National Institute of Virology]] received approval from the Drug Controller General of India for its emergency or conditional usage.<ref>{{cite news |title=Expert panel recommends Bharat Biotech's Covaxin for restricted emergency use |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/expert-panel-clears-bharat-biotechs-covaxin-amid-uk-virus-strain-what-you-need-to-know-3240500.html |access-date=2 January 2021 |publisher=News18 |date=2 January 2021}}</ref>

==Vaccine supply==
India kicked off international shipment of the vaccines on 20 January 2021, only four days after starting its own vaccination program.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Bhattacherjee |first=Kallol |date=2021-01-20 |title=Coronavirus {{!}} India begins COVID-19 vaccine shipment for six countries-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/coronavirus-vaccines-sent-by-india-reach-bhutan-and-maldives/article33617617.ece |access-date=2021-03-15 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Bhutan and Maldives were the first countries to receive vaccines as a grant by India. This was quickly followed by shipments to Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Seychelles.<ref name=":1" /> By mid-March 2021, India was also supplying vaccines on a commercial basis to countries including Canada,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-03 |title=Covid-19: Canada receives 500,000 doses of Covishield vaccine made in India |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/covid19-canada-receives-500-doses-of-made-in-india-covishield-vaccine-101614795096065.html |access-date=2021-03-15 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> the UK,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Acharya |first=Bhargav |date=2021-03-03 |title=UK to receive 10 million AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine doses from India's Serum Institute |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-britain-india-idUSKCN2AV0A2 |access-date=2021-03-15}}</ref> and Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Das |first=Krishna N. |date=2021-01-26 |title=Exclusive: Saudi Arabia to get three million AstraZeneca shots in about a week from India |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-india-saudi-idUSKBN29V0A9 |access-date=2021-03-15}}</ref>

The [[Serum Institute of India]] was selected as a key supplier of cost-effective COVID-19 vaccines to the [[COVAX]] initiative,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-03 |title=WHO-led Covax vaccine scheme agrees to new supply deal with Serum Institute of India |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/world/who-led-covax-vaccine-scheme-agrees-new-supply-deal-with-serum-institute-of-india7173379/ |access-date=2021-03-15 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref> 19.8 million doses of [[Covishield]] vaccines were supplied by India to various countries through the initiative.<ref name=":0"/>

In May, when COVAX was already short 140 million doses,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mazumdar |first=Tulip |date=2021-05-17 |title=India's Covid crisis hits Covax vaccine-sharing scheme |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-57135368 |access-date=2021-05-19}}</ref> the Serum Institute announced that it expected to maintain its suspension of vaccine deliveries to COVAX through the end of 2021<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Findlay |first1=Stephanie |last2=Pilling |first2=David |date=18 May 2021 |title=Indian vaccine maker extends freeze on export of Covid jabs |url=https://www.ft.com/content/63fbbb79-f657-4e6c-b190-cffd0d630593 |access-date=2021-05-19 |website=Financial Times}}</ref> due to the second wave of COVID-19 in India<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-05-26|title=Covid-19: Has India's deadly second wave peaked?|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57225922|access-date=2021-07-23}}</ref> and the US ban on export of key raw materials.<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-covid-19-vaccination-in-poorer-nations-has-slowed-posing-global-risks-11618826934 "Why Covid-19 Vaccination in Poorer Nations Has Slowed, Posing Global Risks"]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. Retrieved 24 April 2021.</ref>

As of 21 February 2022, India had exported total 16,29,63,500 doses including 1,42,67,000 vaccine provided as grant, 10,71,48,000 as commercial, and 4,15,48,500 through COVAX to 96 nations.<ref name=":0"/>
{{Static row numbers}}
{| class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers" style="text-align:right;"
|- class="static-row-header" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:bottom;"
! rowspan=2 | Country
! rowspan=2 | Total{{efn|name=fn1|Quantity in Lakhs}}
! colspan=2 | Grant
! colspan=2 | Commercial
! colspan=2 | COVAX
|- class="static-row-header" style="text-align:center;vertical-align:bottom;"
!Doses{{efn|name=fn1}}!!Date!!Doses{{efn|name=fn1}}!!Date!!Doses{{efn|name=fn1}}!!Date
|-
| Bangladesh || 225.928 || 33.000 || (20) 21-Jan-21; (12) 26 March 21; (1) 2 April 2021 || 150.008 || (50) 25-Jan-21; (20) 22-Feb-21; (10) 9 October 2021; 45.006 (01 Dec 2021); (25.002) 07 Dec 2021 || 42.920 || (2.12) 04 Dec 2021; (32.88 ) 06 Dec 2021; (7.92) 14 Dec 2021
|-
| Myanmar || 212.000 || 37.000 || (15 SII)22-Jan-21; (2 BB) 11-Feb-21; (10 SII) 9 Oct 21, (5 BB) 22 Dec 2021; (5BB) 28 dec 2021 || 175.000 || (20)11-Feb-21; 1 BB (18 December 2021); 67 (27 Dec 2021); 67 (28 Dec 2021); (20 BB) 22 Jan 2022 || ||
|-
| Nepal || 94.990 || 11.120 || (10) 21-Jan-21; (1) 28 March 21; (0.12) 7 October 21 || 20.000 || (10) 20-Feb-21; (10) 9 Oct 21 || 63.870 || (3.48)05/03/2021; (7.255) 28 Nov 2021; (9.72) 30 Nov 2021; (6) 07 Dec 2021; 18.71 (14 Dec 2021); (18.705) 18 Dec 2021
|-
| Bhutan || 5.500 || 5.500 || (1.5) 20-Jan-21; (4) 21 March 21 || || || ||
|-
| Maldives || 3.120 || 2.000 || (1) 20-Jan-21; (1) 19 Feb-21 || 1.000 || 29 March 21 || 0.120 || 6 March 21
|-
|| Mauritius || 4.000 || 1.000|| 22-Jan-21 || 3.000 || (1 SII) 19-Feb-21; (2 BB) 18 March 21 || ||
|-
| Seychelles || 0.500 || 0.500 || 22-Jan-21 || || || ||
|-
| Sri Lanka || 12.640 || 5.000 || 28-Jan-21 || 5.000 || 24-Feb-21 || 2.640 || 6 March 21
|-
| Bahrain || 1.000 || 1.000 || 28-Jan-21 || || || ||
|-
| Brazil || 40.000 || || || 40.000 || (20) 22-Jan-21; (20) 22 Feb-21 || ||
|-
| Morocco || 70.000 || || || 70.000 || (20) 22-Jan-21; (40)11 Feb-21; (10) 24 Feb-21 || ||
|-
| Oman || 1.000 || 1.000 || 30 -Jan -21 || || || ||
|-
| Egypt || 0.500 || || || 500 || 30-Jan-21 || ||
|-
| Algeria || 0.500 || || || 0.500 || 31-Jan-21 || ||
|-
| South Africa || 10.000 || || || 10.000 || 31-Jan-21 || ||
|-
| Kuwait || 2.000 || || || 2.000 || 31-Jan-21 || ||
|-
| UAE || 2.000 || || || 2.000 || 02-Feb-21 || ||
|-
| Afghanistan || 14.680 || 10.000 || (5) 7 Feb2021; (5 BB) 31 Dec 2021|| || || 4.680 || 6 March 21
|-
| Barbados || 1.000 || 1.000 || 7 Feb 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Dominica || 0.700 || 0.700 || 7 Feb 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Mexico || 20.300 || || || 20.300 || (8.7) 12 Feb-21; (11.6) 05 Feb 2022 || ||
|-
| Dominican Republic || 1.400 || 0.300 || 18 Feb 2021 || 1.100 || (0.2)14 Feb-21; (0.9) 16 Jan 2022 || ||
|-
| Saudi Arabia || 45.000 || || || 45.000 || (30)14 Feb-21; (15) 28 March 21 || ||
|-
| El Salvador || 1.100 || || || 1.000 || (0.2)15 Feb-21; (0.9) 09 Jan 2022 || ||
|-
| Argentina || 5.800 || || || 5.800 || 16 Feb-21 || ||
|-
| Serbia || 1.500 || || || 1.500 || 20 Feb-21 || ||
|-
| UN Health workers || 1.250 || || || 1.250 || (1) 21 Feb-21; (0.25) 04 Dec 2021 || ||
|-
| Mongolia || 1.500 || || || 1.500 || 21 Feb-21 || ||
|-
| Ukraine || 5.000 || || || 5.00 || 22 Feb-21 || ||
|-
| Ghana || 27.040 || 0.500 || 4 Mar 2021 || 0.020 || 10 March 21 || 26.520 || (6)23 Feb-21; (10.62) 12 Dec 2021; (9.9) 03 Feb 2022
|-
| Ivory Coast || 5.540 || 0.500 || 4 Mar 2021 || || || 5.040 || 25 Feb-21
|-
| St. Lucia || 0.250 || 0.250 || 27 Feb 2021 || || || ||
|-
| St. Kitts & Nevis || 0.200 || 0.200 || 27 Feb 2021 || || || ||
|-
| St. Vincent & Grenadines || 0.400 || 0.400 || 27 Feb 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Suriname || 0.500 || 0.500 || 27 Feb 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Antigua & Barbuda || 0.400 || 0.400 || 27 Feb 2021 || || || ||
|-
| DR Congo || 17.660 || 0.500 || 4 Mar 2021 || || || 17.160 || 1 Mar-21
|-
| Angola || 6.240 || || || || || 6.240 || 1 Mar-21
|-
| Gambia || 0.360 || || || || || 0.360 || 1 Mar-21
|-
| Nigeria || 97.660 || 1.000 || 25 Mar 2021 || || || 96.660 || (39.24) 1 Mar-21; (13.98) 08 Jan 2022; (13.98) 11 Jan 2022; (14.73) 15 Jan 2022; (14.73) 18 Jan 2022
|-
| Cambodia || 3.340 || || || 0.100 || (0.1 BB) 04 Dec 2021 || 3.240 || 2 Mar-21
|-
| Kenya || 11.200 || 1.000 || 10 Mar 2021 || || || 10.200 ||2 Mar-21
|-
| Lesotho || 0.360 || || || || || 0.360 ||2 Mar-21
|-
| Rwanda || 7.900 || 0.500 || 4 Mar 2021 || 5.000 || (5) 05 Dec 2021 || 2.400 ||2 Mar-21
|-
| São Tomé and Príncipe|| 0.240|| || || || || 0.240||2 Mar-21
|-
| Senegal|| 3.490|| 0.250|| 4 Mar 2021|| || || 3.240||2 Mar-21
|-
| Guatemala|| 2.000 || 2.000 || 2 Mar 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Canada || 5.000 || || || 5.000 ||2 Mar-21 || ||
|-
| Mali || 3.960 || || || || || 3.960 ||3 Mar-21
|-
| Sudan || 18.360 || || || || || 18.360 || (8.28)3 Mar-21; (10.08) 12 Feb 2022
|-
| Liberia || 0.960 || || || || ||0.960 ||4 Mar-21
|-
| Malawi || 4.100 || 0.500 || 12 Mar 2021 || || ||3.600 ||4 Mar-21
|-
|Uganda || 9.640 || 1.000 || 7 Mar 2021 || || ||8.640 || 4 Mar-21
|-
| Nicaragua || 3.350 || 2.000 || 5 Mar 2021 || || ||1.350 ||14 Mar-21
|-
| Guyana || 0.800 ||0.800 || 5 Mar 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Jamaica || 0.500 || 0.500 ||5 Mar 2021 || || || ||
|-
| UK ||50.000 || || || 50.000 || 5 March-21 || ||
|-
| Togo || 1.560 || || || || ||1.560 ||5 Mar-21
|-
| Djibouti ||0.240 || || || || || 0.240 ||5 Mar-21
|-
| Somalia ||8.400 || || || || || 8.400 ||(3)5 Mar-21; (5.4) 19 Dec 2021
|-
| Sierra Leone || 0.960 || || || || ||0.960 ||6 Mar-21
|-
| Belize || 0.250 || || || || ||0.250 ||7 Mar 2021
|-
| Botswana || 1.300 || 0.300 || 7 Mar 2021 || 1.000 || 1 (BB) 20 Dec 2021 || ||
|-
| Mozambique ||12.040 || 1.000 ||7 Mar 2021 || || ||11.040 ||(3.84) 7 Mar-21; (7.2) 07 Dec 2021
|-
|Ethiopia ||21.840 || || || || || 21.840 ||7 Mar-21
|-
| Tajikistan || 8.905 || || || || || 8.905 ||(1.92)8 Mar-21; (6.985)27 Nov 2021
|-
| Benin ||1.440 || || || || || 1.440 ||8 Mar-21
|-
| Eswatini || 0.320 || 0.200 || 9 Mar 2021 || || || 0.120 ||11 Mar-21
|-
| Bahamas || 0.200 || 0.200 || 10 Mar 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Cape Verde || 0.240 || || || || || 0.240 ||9 Mar-21
|-
| Iran || 11.250 || 10.000 || 10 (BB) 8 Oct 21 ||1.250 ||(1.25 BB) 10 March 2021 || ||
|-
| Uzbekistan || 7.959 || || || || || 6.600 ||15 Mar-21
|-
| Solomon Islands || 0.240 || || || 1.358750 || (SL 1.35875 ) 18 Feb 2022 || 0.240 ||17 Mar-21
|-
| Laos || 7.260 || || || || || 7.260 || (1.32) 17 Mar-21; (5.94) 16 Feb 2022
|-
| Namibia ||0.300 || 0.300 || 18 Mar 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Bolivia || 2.280 || || || || || 2.280 ||18 Mar-21
|-
| South Sudan || 1.320 || || || || || 1.320 ||22 Mar-21
|-
| Paraguay || 6.000 || 2.000 || (1 BB) 26 Mar 2021; (1BB) 22 April 2021 || 4.000 || (4 BB) 07 Nov 2021 || ||
|-
| Fiji || 1.000 || 1.000 || 26 March 2021 || || || ||
|-
| UN Peacekeepers|| 2.000 || 2.000|| || 27 March 2021 || || ||
|-
|Zimbabwe ||0.750 || 0.750 ||(0.35 BB ) 28 March 2021; (0.4 BB) 14 Dec 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Niger ||3.802 || 0.250 || 28 March 2021 || || ||3.552 ||12 Apr-21
|-
| Palestine || 0.250 || || || 0.250 ||29 March-21 || ||
|-
| Yemen || 3.600 || || || || ||3.600 ||29 Mar-21
|-
| Nauru|| 0.100|| 0.100 || 6 April 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Trinidad & Tobago || 0.400 || 0.400 || ||9 April 2021 || || ||
|-
| Guinea ||1.944 || || || || || 1.944 ||10 Apr-21
|-
| Papua New Guinea|| 1.320 || || || || || 1.320 ||10 Apr-21
|-
| Guinea Bissau|| 0.288 || || || || ||0.288 ||10 Apr-21
|-
| Zambia|| 2.280 || || || || || 2.280 || 11 Apr-21
|-
| Comoros || 0.120 || || || || || 0.120 || 11 Apr-21
|-
| Cameroon || 3.912 || || || || || 3.912 || 12 Apr-21
|-
| Mauritania || 0.696 || || || || || 0.696 || 12 Apr-21
|-
| Albania || 0.500 || 0.500 || 16 April 2021 || || || ||
|-
| Syria || 2.568 || || || || || 2.568 || 16 Apr-21
|-
| Indonesia || 90.080 || || || 90.080 || (1.375 COVOVAX) 26 Nov 2021; (48.675 Covovax ) 01 Dec 2021; (40.03 COVOVAX) 07 Dec 2021 || ||
|-
| Australia || 63.533 || || || 63.533 || (31.053 COVOVAX, brand name - NUVAXOVID) 05 Feb 2022; (32.48 COVOVAX, brand name - NUVAXOVID) 09 Feb 2022 || ||
|-
| Netherlands || 289.830 || || || 289.830 || (30.605 COVOVAX )10 Jan 2022; (32.484 Covovax/Nuvaxovid 18 Jan 2022); (32.405 Covovax/Nuvaxovid 16 Jan 2022); (32.514 Covovax/Nuvaxovid 19 Jan 2022); (32.448 COVOVAX/NUVAXOVID) 23 Jan 2022; (32.381 Covovax/Novaxovid) 25 Jan 2022; (32.254 covovax/nuvaxovid) 27 Jan 2022); (32.499 Covovax/Nuvaxovid) 30 Jan 2022; (32.24 Covovax ) 08 Feb 2022 || ||
|-
|}
{{notelist}}

==International reaction==
===International organizations===
* [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]: IMF chief economist [[Gita Gopinath]] lauded India for playing a key role during the crisis by dispatching vaccines to many countries. She said "I also want to mention that India really stands out in terms of its vaccine policy. If you look at where exactly is one manufacturing hub for vaccines in the world{{snd}}that will be India."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/current/economy-politics/india-at-forefront-in-fighting-covid-19-stands-out-in-vaccine-policy-says-imfs-gita-gopinath/story/433342.html |title=India 'at forefront' in fighting COVID-19; 'stands out' in vaccine policy, says IMF's Gita Gopinath |date=9 March 2021 |access-date=12 March 2021 |publisher=Business Today}}</ref>

===Countries===
* {{flag|Jamaica}}<ref name="hindu1">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/african-caribbean-nations-support-india-at-wto-on-covid-19-vaccine-supplies/article33988670.ece |title=African, Caribbean nations support India at WTO on COVID-19 vaccine supplies |access-date=10 March 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]|date=4 March 2021 }}</ref> of the [[Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States|OACPS]] has thanked Indian efforts in delivering vaccines to developing and least developed countries.
* {{Flag|Nepal}} Prime minister [[KP Sharma Oli|Khadga Prasad Oli]] thanked India stating; “We got an early chance to administer the Covid-19 vaccine. For this, I thank our neighbouring nation [[India]], its government, the people, and especially Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]]. They sent 10 lakh doses of vaccines to us as a grant within a week of the roll-out in India.”<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nepal PM thanks India for coronavirus vaccines|url=https://www.wionews.com/south-asia/nepal-pm-thanks-india-for-coronavirus-vaccines-359684|access-date=2021-07-16|website=WION|date=27 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* {{flag|St. Lucia}} on behalf of [[Caribbean Community|CARICOM]] thanked India for providing vaccine supplies to them.<ref name="hindu1" /><ref name="hbl-maitri2">{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/indias-vaccine-maitri-initiative-earns-praise-at-wto/article33979754.ece |title=India's 'Vaccine Maitri' initiative earns praise at WTO |date=3 March 2021 |access-date=10 March 2021 |publisher=[[The Hindu Business Line]]}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Barbados}} Prime Minister [[Mia Amor Mottley]] thanked Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] for the supply of "Made in India" COVID-19 vaccines. She tweeted, "PM Modi made it possible for more than 40,000 persons in Barbados and tens of thousands elsewhere, to receive their 1st dose of COVISHIELD via Vaccine Maitri before receiving his. A genuine demonstration of generosity. Thank you and we wish you continued good health."<ref>[https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/barbados-prime-minister-thanks-pm-modi-for-supply-of-covid-vaccines-2383811 Barbados Prime Minister Thanks PM Modi For Supply Of Covid Vaccines], NDTV, 4 March 2021.</ref>
* {{Flag|Antigua and Barbuda}} Prime Minister [[Gaston Browne]] had thanked Prime Minister of India [[Narendra Modi]] "for demonstrating an act of benevolence, kindness and empathy", for sending vaccines to Caribbean countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eurasiantimes.com/tajikistan-belize-receive-made-in-india-covid-19-vaccines/ |title=Vaccine Maitri: Tajikistan, Belize, Jamaica Receive 'Made in India' COVID-19 Vaccines |date=9 March 2021 |access-date=11 March 2021 |publisher=[[The Eurasian Times]]}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Afghanistan}} Afghanistan's ambassador to India Farid Mamundzay said "Thank you, India for providing Afghan people lifesaving gift on the first day of 2022!"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/india-supplies-5-lakh-more-covid-vaccine-covaxin-doses-to-afghanistan-11641195792424.html|title=India supplies 5 lakh more Covid vaccine Covaxin doses to Afghanistan|date=3 January 2022|website=Livemint.com|access-date=11 June 2022}}</ref>

===Leaders who received vaccines provided by India===
* {{Flag |Cambodia}} – [[Heng Samrin]], [[Say Chhum]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/top-cambodian-leaders-receive-1st-shot-of-india-made-covid-19-vaccine-121031100342_1.html |title=Top Cambodian leaders receive 1st shot of India-made Covid-19 vaccine |newspaper=Business Standard India |date=11 March 2021 |access-date=11 March 2021 |publisher=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref>
* {{Flag |Nepal}} – [[KP Sharma Oli]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/coronavirus-outbreak/vaccine-updates/story/nepal-pm-kp-sharma-oli-receives-india-made-covishield-covid-19-vaccine-1776664-2021-03-07 |title=Nepal PM KP Sharma Oli receives shot of India-made Covishield Covid vaccine |date=7 March 2021 |access-date=11 March 2021 |publisher=[[India Today]]}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
COVID-19 vaccine from India to Seychelles.jpg|COVID-19 vaccine from India arrives at [[Seychelles]].
File:Delivery of Covishield COVID-19 vaccine from India to Brazil (2021) A.jpg|Delivery of Covishield COVID-19 vaccine from India to [[Brazil]]
File:Delivery of Covishield COVID-19 vaccine from India to Brazil (2021) D.jpg|Delivery of Covishield COVID-19 vaccine from India to Brazil
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Vaccine diplomacy]]
* [[COVID-19 vaccination in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{COVID-19_pandemic_in_India}}

[[Category:COVID-19 vaccines]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of India]]
[[Category:Foreign policy of the Narendra Modi administration]]
[[Category:COVID-19 pandemic in India]]
[[Category:2021 in international relations]]
[[Category:2021 establishments in India]]

Berhampore district

2026-02-05T18:17:17Z

Godrejsplende: new the location w/ infobox...

{{Short description|Proposed district in West Bengal, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Berhampore
| native_name =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of West Bengal|Proposed District]]
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a =
| photo2a =
| photo2b =
| photo3a =
| photo3b =
| photo4a =
| size = 300
| foot_montage =
}}
| image_map = 
| mapsize = 300
| map_caption = Location of Berhampore district in West Bengal
| coordinates = {{coord|24.06|N|88.15|E|display=title,inline|type:adm2nd_region:IN-WB}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Emblem of West Bengal (Banglarmukh) before 2018.png}} [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of West Bengal|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Malda division|Malda]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Berhampore]]
| leader_title = [[List of subdivisions of West Bengal|Subdivisions]]
| leader_name = [[Berhampore subdivision|Berhampore Sadar]], [[Kandi subdivision|Kandi]]
| leader_title1 = [[Community Development Block|CD Blocks]]
| leader_name1 = [[Berhampore (community development block)|Berhampore]], [[Beldanga I]], [[Beldanga II]], [[Hariharpara (community development block)|Hariharpara]], [[Naoda (community development block)|Naoda]], [[Kandi (community development block)|Kandi]], [[Khargram (community development block)|Khargram]], [[Burwan (community development block)|Burwan]], [[Bharatpur I]], [[Bharatpur II]]
| leader_title2 = [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha constituencies]]
| leader_name2 = [[Baharampur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Baharampur]], [[Murshidabad (Lok Sabha constituency)|Murshidabad]], [[Jangipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jangipur]]
| leader_title3 = [[List of constituencies of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Sabha constituencies]]
| leader_name3 = [[Khargram Assembly constituency|Khargram]], [[Burwan Assembly constituency|Burwan]], [[Kandi Assembly constituency|Kandi]], [[Bharatpur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Bharatpur]], [[Beldanga Assembly constituency|Beldanga]], [[Baharampur Assembly constituency|Baharampur]], [[Hariharpara Assembly constituency|Hariharpara]], [[Naoda Assembly constituency|Naoda]]
| total_type = Total
| area_total_km2 = 2,396.33
| area_footnotes =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 2,881,170
| population_footnotes =
| population_urban = 420,985
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_title1 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]]
| demographics1_info1 = 67.33 per cent
| demographics1_title2 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| demographics1_info2 = 958 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| demographics_type2 = Languages
| demographics2_title1 = Official
| demographics2_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<ref name="wblangoff">{{cite web|title=Fact and Figures|url=https://wb.gov.in/portal/web/guest/facts-and-figures;jsessionid=JzdD9RHb7aMY5esZPtcsIVLy|website=Wb.gov.in|access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India|url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|website=Nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=5 July 2019|page=85|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
| demographics2_title2 = Additional official
| demographics2_info2 = [[English language|English]]<ref name="wblangoff"/>
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| website = {{URL|https://murshidabad.gov.in/}}
}}

'''Berhampore district''' is a proposed district to be created in the [[India]]n [[States and union territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]]. The district would be carved out from the existing [[Murshidabad district]]. The district headquarters would be [[Berhampore]].<ref>{{cite web |title=রাজ্যে নতুন সাত জেলা! মুর্শিদাবাদকে তিন ভাগে ভাগ! কান্দি, বহরমপুর নতুন জেলা! |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/murshidabad/murshidabad-news-mamata-banerjee-announced-7-more-districts-in-west-bengal-pb-859857.html |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=News18 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=নবাবের জেলা মুর্শিদাবাদে নতুন বহরমপুর ও কান্দি জেলা, পক্ষে-বিপক্ষে জোর তরজা |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-bengal/debate-over-two-new-district-berhampore-and-kandi-formation-within-murshidabad-dd-860161.html |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=News18 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=৩ ভাগে ভাগ মুর্শিদাবাদ জেলা, বহরমপুর, জঙ্গিপুর আলাদা জেলা। খুশি জেলাবাসী? |url=https://madhyabanga.news/murshidabad-district/ |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=Madhyabanga News |language=bn}}</ref>

==History==
In January 2020, the [[Government of West Bengal]] announced its intention to create the district in the near future. Under this proposal, Berhampore district will be created from ten [[Community Development Block|community development blocks]] namely [[Berhampore (community development block)|Berhampore]], [[Beldanga I]], [[Beldanga II]], [[Hariharpara (community development block)|Hariharpara]], [[Naoda (community development block)|Naoda]], [[Kandi (community development block)|Kandi]], [[Khargram (community development block)|Khargram]], [[Burwan (community development block)|Burwan]], [[Bharatpur I]] and [[Bharatpur II]] in [[Murshidabad district]]. In August 2022, the cabinet of West Bengal gave "in-principle approval" to the district's formation.<ref>{{cite web |title=রাজ্যে ২৩ জেলা বেড়ে হবে ৩০! নতুন সাত জেলা ছ’মাসের মধ্যে, ঘোষণা মুখ্যমন্ত্রীর |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/mamata-banerjee-announces-seven-new-districts-will-be-formed-in-west-bengal-dgtl-photogallery/cid/1360091 |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=Anandabazar Patrika |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=রাজ্যে নতুন ৭ জেলা, এক নজরে কোন কোন জেলা ভাগ হল |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/kolkata/story/mamata-banerjee-announced-7-new-districts-west-bengal-know-name-these-districts-sbm-430955-2022-08-01 |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=AajTak Bangla |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=রাজ্যে ৭ নতুন জেলার ঘোষণা মুখ্যমন্ত্রীর |url=https://eisamay.com/west-bengal-news/kolkata-news/mamata-banerjee-chief-minister-announces-7-new-district-names-in-west-bengal/articleshow/93268507.cms |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=EiSamay |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=২৩ থেকে বেড়ে পশ্চিমবঙ্গে জেলার সংখ্যা হল ৩০! কোন জেলা ভেঙে কোন জেলা তৈরি হল? |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/pictures/news-districts-in-west-bengal-check-full-list-as-mamata-banerjee-announces-7-new-districts-to-take-it-to-30-31659350249500.html |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=Hindustan Times |language=bn}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=West Bengal To Get 7 New Districts, Announces Mamata Banerjee |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/west-bengal-to-get-7-new-districts-announces-mamata-banerjee-3213052 |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=NDTV |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=West Bengal to have 7 new districts in six months for better administration |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/west-bengal-to-have-7-new-districts-in-six-months-for-better-administration/articleshow/93286162.cms |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Explained: 7 new districts in West Bengal — how and why are districts created or abolished in India? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-7-new-districts-west-bengal-districts-created-abolished-8064221/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=West Bengal to get 7 new districts, announces CM Mamata Banerjee |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/west-bengal-to-get-7-new-districts-announces-cm-mamata-banerjee-11659346022057.html |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=Mint |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Districts of West Bengal}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Berhampore District}}
[[Category:Proposed districts of West Bengal]]

{{WestBengal-geo-stub}}

T Madhava Menon

2026-02-05T12:28:04Z

Godrejsplende: Stub

'''T Madhava Menon''' ('''Thelakkat Madhava Menon''', born 19 November 1929) is a former [[civil servant]] in the [[Indian Administrative Service]] ([[Kerala]] Cadre) who has held various posts including that of District Collector, [[Palakkad]], Director of Administration, Central PWD, New Delhi, Custodian, Vested (Nationalised) Forests, Kerala, Director of Tribal Welfare, Kerala and Vice-Chancellor, [[Kerala Agricultural University]]. After retirement, he was associated with the People of India Project and was the Co-Editor of the volumes related to Kerala. He is a Senior Fellow of [[International School of Dravidian Linguistics]] where he edited a three volume Encyclopaedia on Dravidian Tribes. He also edited a two-volume Handbook of Kerala. He is also a member of the Governing Council of [[Attappady]] Hill Areas Development Society.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Institute for Societal Advancement, Thiruvananthapuram |title=An Evaluation cum Documentation of an Eco-restoration experiment with People's Participation: Lessons from Attappady Wasteland Comprehensive Environmental Conservation Project, Kerala |publisher=Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances, Ministry of Personal, Public Grievances and Pension, Government of India |page=25 |url=https://darpg.gov.in/sites/default/files/16.%20Attapady%20Wasteland%20Conservation%20Project.pdf |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref>

On 1 November 2022, the [[Kerala Piravi]] day, [[Government of Kerala]] announced the conferment of the first ever [[Kerala Awards|Kerala Prabha]] award on T Madhava Menon in recognition of his social work.<ref>{{cite web |title=M T Vasudevan Nair chosen for Kerala's first highest state-level award |url=https://www.ptinews.com/news/national/m-t-vasudevan-nair-chosen-for-keralas-first-highest-state-level-award/445006.html |website=Press Trust of India |publisher=PTI |access-date=1 November 2022}}</ref>

==Selected publications==

*''The Encyclopaedia of Dravidian Tribes'', International School of Dravidian Linguistics, 1996 (Editor)
*''A Hand Book of Kerala'', International School Of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, Edited By T. Madhava Menon
*''Tribal Development in India: From Despair to Hope'', B.R. Publishing Corporation, 2020
*''Kerala Pazhama: Antiquity of Kerala'', [[Hermann Gundert]], translation into English by T Madhava Menon, International School of Dravidian Linguistics, 2003
*''People of India : Kerala : Volume XXVII (3 Parts-Set)'', edited by T Madhava Menon, Deepak Tyagi and B. Francis Kulirani, 2002
*''Keralolpathy'', translation into English by T Madhava Menon, International School of Dravidian Linguistics

==References==

{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dravidian studies]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian anthropologists]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:Kerala Prabha Award Winners]]

List of Bangladesh Premier League records and statistics

2026-01-26T14:01:17Z

Godrejsplende: improved article

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
This is an overall list of statistics and records in the [[Bangladesh Premier League]], a [[Twenty20 cricket]] franchise based tournament which is held annually in Bangladesh.

{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width =600px

| image1 =Tamim Iqbal Khan.jpg
| caption1 = [[Tamim Iqbal]] is highest run getter in BPL

| image2 = Shakib Al Hasan (4) (cropped).jpg
| caption2 = [[Shakib Al Hasan]] is the highest wicket taker in BPL

| image3 = Chris Gayle.png
| caption3 = [[Chris Gayle]] hit the most number of centuries and the most sixes in BPL

| image4 =Mashrafe conference 3.jpg
| caption4 = [[Mashrafe Mortaza]] is the most successful captain having won 4 BPL titles
}}

==Team records==
===Overall Team performance===
Records include all matches played under every team with different names of the franchise. The team in the table is represented with the current name of the franchise.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?id=159;type=trophy |title=Cricket Records {{!}} Bangladesh Premier League {{!}} Records {{!}} Result summary |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=6 February 2019}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite news |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2015-16/engine/records/team/series_results.html?id=159&type=trophy |title=Cricket Records {{!}} Bangladesh Premier League {{!}} Records {{!}} Series results |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=23 July 2016}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Overall team performances<ref name=":0" />
! Team !! Match !! Win !! Loss
! {{tooltip|Tied|a tied match without any Super Over}}
! {{tooltip|Tied+W|Won tied match in Super Over}}
! {{tooltip|Tied+L|Lost tied match in Super Over}}
! {{tooltip|NR|No Result}}
!Win%
|-
|align=left| [[Chattogram Royals]]|| 144 || 68 || 75 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 47.22%
|-
|align=left| [[Comilla Victorians]] || 104 || 65 || 38 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 62.50%
|-
|align=left| [[Dhaka Capitals]]|| 142 || 68 || 74 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 47.89%
|-
|align=left| [[Fortune Barishal]] || 102 || 60 || 42 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 58.82%
|-
|align=left| [[Khulna Tigers]] || 125 || 55 || 69 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 44.00%
|-
|align=left| [[Noakhali Express]] || 5 || 0 || 5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0.00%
|-
|align=left| [[Rajshahi Warriors]]|| 94 || 48 || 45 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 51.06%
|-
|align=left| [[Rangpur Riders]] || 123 || 70 || 52 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 56.91%
|-
|align=left| [[Sylhet Titans]] || 124 || 45 || 78 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 36.29%
|-
! colspan="9" | Last Updated: 7 January 2026
|}
'''Note:'''
* ''Tie&W and Tie&L indicates matches tied and then won or lost by "Super Over"''
* ''The win percentage excludes no results.''

===Overall team standings===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Season wise team standings<ref name=":1" />
! Season (No. of Teams)
![[2012 Bangladesh Premier League|2012]] (6)
![[2012–13 Bangladesh Premier League|2013]] (7)
![[2015–16 Bangladesh Premier League|2015]] (6)
![[2016–17 Bangladesh Premier League|2016]] (7)
![[2017–18 Bangladesh Premier League|2017]] (7)
![[2018–19 Bangladesh Premier League|2019]] (7)
![[2019–20 Bangladesh Premier League|2019-20]] (7)
![[2021–22 Bangladesh Premier League|2022]] (6)
![[2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League|2023]] (7)
![[2024 Bangladesh Premier League|2024]] (7)
![[2025 Bangladesh Premier League|2025]] (7)
![[2025–26 Bangladesh Premier League|2025–26]] (6)
|-
|align=left| [[Chattogram Royals]]
| {{nom|5th}}
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| colspan="2" style="background:#afeeee;" |3rd
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| colspan="2" style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
|-
|align=left| [[Comilla Victorians]]
| colspan=2| DNP
| style="background:lime;"|{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| style="background:lime;"|{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| colspan="2" style="background:lime;" |{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| colspan="2"| DNP
|-
|align=left| [[Dhaka Capitals]]
| colspan="2" style="background:lime;" |{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| style="background:lime;"|{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| colspan="2" style="background:yellow;" |{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
|-
|align=left| [[Fortune Barishal]]
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| colspan=3|DNP
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| colspan="2" style="background:lime;" |{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| DNP
|-
|align=left| [[Khulna Tigers]]
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| DNP
| style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| colspan="2" style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| DNP
|-
|align=left| [[Noakhali Express]]
|colspan="11"| DNP
|style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
|-
|align=left| [[Rajshahi Warriors]]
| style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
| DNP
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:lime;"|{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| colspan=3|DNP
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:lime;"|{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
|-
|align=left| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| DNP
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:lime;"|{{Sort|1|'''C'''}}
| style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| DNP
| colspan="2" style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| colspan="2" style="background:#afeeee;"|4th
|-
|align=left| [[Sylhet Titans]]
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#afeeee;"|3rd
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| DNP
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 5th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:yellow;"|{{Sort|2|R}}
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 6th
| style="background:#ffe3e3;"| 7th
| style="background:#afeeee;"| 3rd
|-
|}

===Highest total overall===
{| class="wikitable"
! Team || Total || {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}} || Opponent || Date || Venue || Season
|-
| [[Dhaka Capitals]]
|align=center| '''254/1'''
|align=center| 20
| [[Durbar Rajshahi]]
|align=center|12 January 2025
|align=center|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]
| align="center" | 2025
|-
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| align="center" | '''239/4'''
| align="center" | 20
|[[Chittagong Vikings]]
| align="center" | 25 January 2019
| rowspan="4" |[[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]
| align="center" | 2019
|-
| [[Comilla Victorians]]
| align="center" | '''239/3'''
| align="center" | 20
| [[Chattogram Challengers]]
| align="center" | 13 February 2024
| align="center" | 2024
|-
| [[Chattogram Challengers]]
|align=center|'''238/4'''
|align=center| 20
| [[Cumilla Warriors]]
|align=center|20 December 2019
|align=center| 2019–20
|-
| [[Fortune Barishal]]
|align=center| '''238/4'''
|align=center| 20
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
|align=center|19 January 2023
|align=center| 2023
|-
| colspan=8|''Last updated: 7 January 2026; see full table on ESPNCricinfo''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=BANGLADESH PREMIER LEAGUE / RECORDS / HIGHEST TOTALS|work=ESPNCricinfo|date=9 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Lowest total overall===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Team || Total || {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}} || Opponent || Date || Venue || Season
|-
| [[Khulna Titans]]
|'''44''' ||10.4
| [[Rangpur Riders]] || 10 November 2016
|rowspan=3 | [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]
|align=center | 2016
|-
| [[Barisal Bulls]]
|'''58''' ||16
| [[Sylhet Super Stars]] || 6 December 2015
|align=center | 2015
|-
| [[Sylhet Super Stars]]
|'''59'''
|11.5
| [[Rangpur Riders]] || 7 December 2015
|align=center | 2015
|-
| [[Noakhali Express]]
|'''61''' ||14.2
| [[Sylhet Titans]] || 5 January 2026
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]
|align=center | 2025–26
|-
| [[Comilla Victorians]]
|'''63''' ||16.2
| [[Rangpur Riders]] || 8 January 2019
|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]
|align=center | 2019
|-
| colspan=10|''Last updated: 7 January 2026; see full table on ESPNCricinfo''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Bangladesh Premier League / Lowest team total |publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=8 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Highest successful run chases===
{| class="wikitable" style="align:center;"
! Team !! Total !! {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}} !! Target !! Opponent !! Venue !! Season
|-
| [[Comilla Victorians]] || '''213/3''' || align=center|18.2 || align=center|'''211''' || [[Khulna Tigers]] || rowspan="2" | [[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]] || 2022–23
|-
|[[Rangpur Riders]]||'''210/2'''|| align="center" |19|| align="center" |'''206'''||[[Sylhet Strikers]]||2025
|-
| [[Khulna Tigers]]|| '''207/2'''|| align="center" |18.1 || align="center" |'''205'''|| [[Dhaka Platoon]]||[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| 2019–20
|-
| [[Rangpur Riders]]|| '''202/7'''|| align="center" |20 || align="center" |'''198'''|| [[Fortune Barishal]]
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]|| 2025
|-
| [[Fortune Barishal]]|| '''200/6'''|| align="center" |18.1 || align="center" |'''198'''|| [[Durbar Rajshahi]]
|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| 2025
|-
| colspan=8|''Last updated: 7 January 2026''
|}

===Largest victories===
====Largest Victories (by runs)====
{| class="wikitable"
! Team !! Margin !! Target !! Opponent !! Venue !! Date !! Season
|-
| [[Dhaka Capitals]] || '''149''' || 255 || [[Durbar Rajshahi]] || rowspan=1|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]
| 12 January 2025 || 2025
|-
| [[Chittagong Kings]] || '''119''' || 194 || [[Sylhet Royals]] ||[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]
| 8 February 2013 || 2013
|-
| [[Chittagong Kings]]|| '''111'''|| 192 || [[Durbar Rajshahi]]
|[[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]|| 20 January 2025 || 2025
|-
| [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || '''105''' || 193 || [[Khulna Titans]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| 8 January 2019 || 2019
|-
| [[Cumilla Warriors]] || '''105''' || 174 || [[Rangpur Rangers]] || 11 December 2019 || 2019–20
|-
| [[Chittagong Kings]]|| '''105'''|| 220 || [[Durbar Rajshahi]]|| 3 January 2025 || 2025
|-
| colspan="12" |''Last updated: 9 February 2025; see full table on ESPNCricinfo''<ref name="Largest victories">{{cite web| url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?id=159;type=trophy|title= Largest victories in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=10 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

====Largest Victories (by wickets)====
{| class="wikitable"
! Winner !! Margin !! {{Tooltip|Balls| Balls Remaining}} !! Target !! Overs !! Opposition !! Ground !! Date !! Season
|-
| [[Barisal Burners]] || '''10 wickets''' || 41 || 166 || 13.1 || [[Sylhet Royals]] || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 10 February 2012 || 2012
|-
| [[Chittagong Vikings]] || '''10 wickets''' || 23 || 140 || 16.1 || [[Sylhet Super Stars]] || [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]] || 2 December 2015 || 2015
|-
|[[Khulna Tigers]] ||'''10 wickets''' || 32 || 131 || 14.4 || [[Durdanto Dhaka]] || rowspan="2"| [[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]] || 29 January 2024 ||2024
|-
| [[Chattogram Royals]] || '''10 wickets''' || 44 || 123 || 12.4 || [[Dhaka Capitals]] || 2 January 2026 || 2025–26
|-
| [[Sylhet Sixers]] || '''10 wickets''' || 53 || 68 || 11.1 || [[Chittagong Vikings]] || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 3 December 2017 || 2017
|-
| colspan="9" |''Last updated: 7 January 2026; see full table on [[ESPNCricinfo]]''<ref name="Largest victories"/>
|}

===Smallest victories===
====Smallest victories (by runs)====
{| class="wikitable"
! Team !! Margin !! Target !! Opponent !! Venue !! Date !! Season
|-
| [[Chittagong Vikings]] || '''1 run''' || 181
| [[Sylhet Super Stars]]
| rowspan=4|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 23 November 2015 || 2015
|-
| [[Barisal Bulls]] || '''1 run''' || 109 || [[Sylhet Super Stars]] || 24 November 2015 || 2015
|-
| [[Comilla Victorians]] || '''1 run''' || 128 || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 1 February 2019 || 2019
|-
| [[Comilla Victorians]] || '''1 run''' || 152 || [[Fortune Barishal]] || 18 February 2022 || 2022
|-
| [[Khulna Royal Bengals]] || '''2 runs''' || 172 || [[Sylhet Royals]] || [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]] || 18 February 2012 || 2012
|-
| colspan=10|Last updated: 7 January 2026; See full list on ESPNcricinfo<ref name="Smallest victories">{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest_margins.html?id=159;type=trophy |title=Smallest victories by runs |publisher=ESPNCricinfo |accessdate=19 February 2022}}</ref>
|}

====Smallest Victories (by wickets)====
{| class="wikitable"
! Winner !! Margin !! {{Tooltip|Balls| Balls Remaining}} !! Target !! Overs !! Opposition !! Ground !! Season || Ref
|-
| [[Sylhet Titans]] || '''1 wicket''' || 0 || 144 || 20 || [[Noakhali Express]] || [[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]] || 27 December 2025 || 2025–26
|-
| [[Sylhet Royals]] || '''1 wicket''' || 2 || 145 || 19.4 || [[Barisal Burners]] ||[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 13 February 2013 || 2013
|-
| [[Rangpur Riders]] || '''1 wicket''' || 3 || 152 || 19.3 || [[Fortune Barishal]] || [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]] || 19 February 2024 || 2024
|-
| [[Rangpur Riders]] || '''2 wickets''' || 0 || 188 || 20 || [[Chittagong Vikings]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| 22 November 2015 || 2015
|-
| [[Barisal Bulls]] || '''2 wickets''' || 2 || 137 || 19.4 || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 10 December 2015 || 2015
|-
| [[Khulna Titans]] || '''2 wickets''' || 4 || 167 || 19.2 || [[Rajshahi Kings]] || 21 November 2017 || 2017
|-
| colspan="10" |Last updated: 7 January 2026; see full list on ESPNCricinfo<ref name="Smallest victories" />
|}

==Batting records==
===Most runs===
{| class="wikitable"
! Batsman !! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}} !! Runs !! {{Tooltip|HS|Highest score}} !! {{Tooltip|Avg|Averages}} !! 100s !! 50s !! Span
|-align=center
| align=left| [[Tamim Iqbal Khan ]]
| 118 || '''3835'''|| 141* || 37.59 || 2 || 32 || 2012—present
|-align=center
| align=left| [[Mushfiqur Rahim]]
| 141|| '''3497'''|| 98* || 36.42 || 0 || 22 || 2012—present
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Anamul Haque]]
|131
|'''2776'''
|100*
|24.56
|1
|14
|2012—present
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Mahmudullah]]
| 133 || '''2726'''|| 73 || 27.53 || 0 || 14 || 2012—present
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Litton Das]]
| 106 || '''2443'''|| 125* || 24.92 || 1 || 14 || 2013—present
|-
| colspan=10| see full list on [[ESPNcricinfo]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title= Most runs in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=12 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most runs in a season===
{| class="wikitable"
! Batsman !! Team !! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}} !! Runs !! {{Tooltip|HS|Highest score}} !! {{Tooltip|Avg|Averages}} !! 100s !! 50s !! Season
|-align=center
| align=left| [[Rilee Rossouw]] || align=left| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| 14 || '''558''' || 100* || 69.75 || 1 || 5 || 2019
|-align=center
| align=left| [[Najmul Hossain Shanto]] || align=left| [[Khulna Tigers|Sylhet Strikers]]
| 15 || '''516'''|| 89* || 39.69 || 0 || 4 || 2022–23
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Mohammad Naim]] || align="left" | [[Barisal Burners|Khulna Tigers]]
| 14 || '''511''' || 111* || 42.58 || 1 || 3 || 2025
|-align=center
| align=left| [[Rilee Rossouw]] || align=left| [[Khulna Tigers]]
| 14 || '''495''' || 70* || 45.00 || 0 || 4 || 2019–20
|-align=center
| align=left| [[Tamim Iqbal]]
| align=left| [[Fortune Barishal]]
|15
|'''492'''
|71
|35.14
|0
|3
|2024
|-
| colspan=10|''see full table on ESPNCricinfo''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/most_runs_series.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most Runs in a season in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=12 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Highest individual score===
{| class="wikitable"
! Batsman!! Team !! Runs !! Balls !! 4s !! 6s !! Opponent !! Venue !! Season
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] ||'''146*''' || 69 || 5 || 18 || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || rowspan="3" | [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 2017
|-
| [[Tamim Iqbal]] || [[Comilla Victorians]] ||'''141*''' || 61 || 10 || 11 ||[[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 2019
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || '''126*''' || 51 ||6 || 14 || [[Khulna Titans]] || 2017
|-
| [[Litton Das]]|| [[Dhaka Capitals]]|| '''125*''' ||55 ||10 || 9 || [[Durbar Rajshahi]]
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]|| 2025
|-
| [[Usman Khan (cricketer)|Usman Khan]]|| [[Chittagong Kings]]|| '''123''' ||62 || 13 || 6 || [[Durbar Rajshahi]]
|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| 2025
|-
| colspan="10" | ''see full table on ESPNcricinfo''<ref>{{cite web| url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Highest individual score in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most sixes===
{| class="wikitable"
! Batsman !! Matches !! Runs !! Sixes !! Span
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]]
| 52 || 1723 || '''143''' || 2012–22
|-
| [[Tamim Iqbal]]
| 118 || 3835 || '''122'''|| 2012–present
|-
| [[Mahmudullah]]
| 133 || 2726 || '''106'''|| 2012–present
|-
| [[Mushfiqur Rahim]]
| 140 || 3446 || '''106'''|| 2012–present
|-
| [[Anamul Haque]]
| 131 || 2776 || '''105'''|| 2012–present
|-
| colspan=10| see full table on ESPNcricinfo<ref>{{cite web| url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/most_sixes_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title= Most sixes in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most sixes in an innings===
{| class="wikitable"
! Batsman !! Sixs !! Runs !! {{Tooltip|BF|Balls faced}} !! {{Tooltip|S/R|Strike rates}} !! Season
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] || 18 || 146 || 69 || '''211.59''' || 2017
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] || 14 || 126 || 51 || '''247.05''' || 2017
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] || 12 || 114 || 51 || '''223.52''' || 2013
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] || 11 || 116 || 61 || '''190.16''' || 2012
|-
| [[Tamim Iqbal]] || 11 || 141 || 61 || '''231.14''' || 2019
|-
| colspan=10| see full table on ESPNcricinfo<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/trophy/batting-most-sixes-innings/bangladesh-premier-league-159 |title= Most sixes in an innings|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=20 February 2024}}</ref>
|}

===Best strike rates===
{| class="wikitable"
! Batsman !! Matches !! Runs !! {{Tooltip|BF|Balls faced}} !! {{Tooltip|S/R|Strike rates}} !! Span
|-
| [[Andre Russell]] || 60 || 970 || 582 || '''166.66'''|| 2012–present
|-
| [[Thisara Perera]] || 88 || 1230 || 804 || '''152.98''' || 2015–present
|-
| [[Rilee Rossouw]] || 37 || 1240 || 833 || '''148.85''' || 2017–present
|-
| [[Evin Lewis]] || 41 || 1152 || 774 || '''148.83''' || 2015–present
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] || 52 || 1723 || 1161 || '''148.40''' || 2012–2022
|-
| colspan=10| Minimum 500 balls, see full table on ESPNcricinfo<ref>{{cite web| url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/highest_career_strike_rate.html?id=159;type=trophy|title= Highest strike rates in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

==Partnership records==
===Highest partnership by wickets===
{| class="wikitable"
! {{Tooltip|Wkt|wicket}} !! Runs !! Partners !! Team !! Opposition !! Ground !! Season
|-
|1st|| '''241''' || [[Tanzid Hasan]] & [[Litton Das]] || [[Dhaka Capitals]] || [[Durbar Rajshahi]] || [[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]] || 2025
|-
|2nd|| '''201*''' || [[Chris Gayle]] & [[Brendon McCullum]]
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 2017
|-
|3rd|| '''184*''' || [[Alex Hales]] & [[AB de Villiers]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]] || 2019
|-
|4th|| '''153''' || [[Mominul Haque]] & [[Mahedi Hasan]] || [[Dhaka Platoon]] || [[Khulna Tigers]] || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 2022
|-
|5th|| '''192*''' || [[Shakib Al Hasan]] & [[Iftikhar Ahmed (cricketer)|Iftikhar Ahmed]] || [[Fortune Barishal]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]] || 2023
|-
|6th|| '''98*''' || [[Mohammad Saifuddin]] & [[Thisara Perera]] || [[Comilla Victorians]] || [[Chittagong Vikings]] || rowspan="5" |[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 2019
|-
|7th|| '''112*''' || [[Thisara Perera]] & [[Chaturanga de Silva]]|| [[Dhaka Capitals]]|| [[Khulna Tigers]]|| 2025
|-
|8th|| '''85*''' || [[Mehidy Hasan]] & [[Farhad Reza]] || [[Rajshahi Kings]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || 2016
|-
|9th|| '''43*''' || [[Rayad Emrit]] & [[Nikhil Dutta]]
| [[Barisal Bulls]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 2015
|-
|10th|| '''48*''' || [[Abul Hasan (cricketer)|Abul Hasan]] & [[Taijul Islam]] || [[Sylhet Sixers]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 2017
|-
|colspan=7|See full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref name=":2">{{cite web |date=15 February 2019 |title=Highest partnership by runs in BPL |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/trophy/fow-highest-partnerships-for-any-wicket/bangladesh-premier-league-159 |publisher=ESPNCricinfo}}</ref>
|}

===Highest partnership by runs===
{| class="wikitable"
! Partners !! Runs !! {{Tooltip|Wkt|Wicket}} !! Team !! Opponent !! Ground !! Season
|-
|[[Tanzid Hasan]] & [[Litton Das]]|| '''241''' || 1st || [[Dhaka Capitals]] || [[Durbar Rajshahi]] || [[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]] || 2025
|-
| [[Chris Gayle]] & [[Brendon McCullum]] || '''201*''' || 2nd
|[[Rangpur Riders]]
|[[Dhaka Dynamites]]
|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| 2017
|-
| [[Lou Vincent]] & [[Shahriar Nafees]] || '''197*''' || 1st || [[Khulna Royal Bengals]] || [[Duronto Rajshahi]] || [[Sheikh Abu Naser Stadium]] || 2013
|-
|[[Shakib Al Hasan]] & [[Iftikhar Ahmed (cricketer)|Iftikhar Ahmed]]
|'''192*'''
|5th
|[[Fortune Barishal]]
|[[Rangpur Riders]]
|[[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]
|2023
|-
| [[Saif Hassan]] & [[Alex Hales]]|| '''186'''|| 2nd || [[Rangpur Riders]]|| [[Sylhet Strikers]]
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]|| 2025
|-
| colspan="7" |See full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref name=":2" />
|}

==Bowling records==
===Most wickets===
{| class="wikitable"
! Bowlers
! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}}
! {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}}
! {{Tooltip|Mdns|Maiden overs}}
! {{Tooltip|Wkts|Wickets}}
! {{Tooltip|BBI|Best Bowling Figure}}
! {{Tooltip|Avgs.|Averages}}
! {{Tooltip|Econ.|Economy Rate}}
! 4WI !! 5WI !! Span
|-
| [[Shakib Al Hasan]]
| 113 || 418.5 || 11 || align="center" | '''149''' || 5/16 || 18.26 || 6.49 || 3 || 1 || 2012–present
|-
| [[Taskin Ahmed]]
| 90 || 316.3 || 1 || align="center" | '''127'''|| 7/19 || 19.93 || 8.00 || 5 || 2 || 2013–present
|-
| [[Rubel Hossain]]
| 89 || 298.3 || 1 || align="center" | '''110'''|| 4/23 || 21.78 || 8.02 || 4 || 0 || 2012–present
|-
| [[Mustafizur Rahman]]
| 82 || 294.2 || 6 || align="center" | '''105''' || 5/27 || 20.01 || 7.14 || 0 || 1 || 2015–present
|-
| [[Mashrafe Mortaza]]
| 110 || 362.2 || 4 || align="center" | '''98'''|| 4/11 || 25.95 || 7.02 || 1 || 0 || 2012–present
|-
| colspan=15| see full table on ESPNcricinfo<ref>{{cite web| url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most wicket in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most wickets in a season===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! Bowlers
! Team
! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}}
! {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}}
! {{Tooltip|Mdns|Maiden overs}}
! {{Tooltip|Wkts|Wickets}}
! {{Tooltip|BBI|Best Bowling Figure}}
! {{Tooltip|Avgs.|Averages}}
! {{Tooltip|Econ.|Economy Rate}}
! 4WI !! 5WI !! Season
|-
| [[Shoriful Islam]] || [[Chattogram Royals]]
| 12 || 44.5 || 1 || align=center|'''26''' || 5/9 || 10.07 || 5.84 || 0 || 1 || 2026
|-
| [[Taskin Ahmed]] || [[Durbar Rajshahi]]
| 12 || 46.2 || 0 || align=center|'''25''' || 7/19 || 12.04 || 6.49 || 0 || 1 || 2025
|-
| [[Shakib Al Hasan]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]]
| 15 || 56.0 || 2 || align=center|'''23''' || 4/16 || 17.65 || 7.25 || 1 || 0 || 2019
|-
| [[Kevon Cooper]] || [[Barisal Bulls]]
| 9 || 35.0 || 1 || align=center|'''22''' || 5/15 || 9.31 || 5.85 || 1 || 1 || 2016
|-
| [[Shakib Al Hasan]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]]
| 13 || 44.5 || 3 || align=center|'''22''' || 5/16 || 13.22 || 6.49 || 1 || 1 || 2017
|-
| [[Taskin Ahmed]] || [[Sylhet Sixers]]
| 12 || 37.1 || 0 || align=center|'''22''' || 4/28 || 14.45 || 8.55 || 2 || 0 || 2019
|-
| [[Shoriful Islam]] || [[Durdanto Dhaka]]
| 12 || 44.4 || 0 || align=center|'''22''' || 4/24 || 15.86 || 7.81 || 1 || 0 || 2024
|-
| [[Mashrafe Mortaza]]|| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| 14 || 55.0 || 1 || align="center" |'''22'''|| 4/11 || 17.59 || 7.03 || 1 || 0 || 2019
|-
| [[Rubel Hossain]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]]
| 15 || 52.4 || 1 || align="center" |'''22''' || 4/23 || 18.50 || 7.72 || 2 || 0 || 2019
|-
| colspan=15| see full list on ESPNcricinfo<ref>{{cite web| url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_series.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most wicket in a season|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Best bowling figures in an innings===
{| class="wikitable"
! Bowlers !! Team !! Runs/Wkts !! {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}} !! {{Tooltip|Econ.|Economy Rate}} !! Opponent !! Venue !! Season
|-
| [[Taskin Ahmed]] || [[Durbar Rajshahi]]
|align=center|'''19/7''' || 4 || 4.75 || [[Dhaka Capitals]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 2024–25
|-
| [[Mohammad Amir]] || [[Khulna Tigers]]
|align=center|'''17/6''' || 4 || 4.50 || [[Rajshahi Royals]] || 2019–20
|-
| [[Mohammad Sami]] || [[Duronto Rajshahi]]
|align=center|'''6/5''' || 3.2 || 1.80 || [[Dhaka Gladiators]] || 2012
|-
| [[Nasum Ahmed]]|| [[Sylhet Titans]]
| align="center" | '''7/5'''|| 4 || 1.75 || [[Noakhali Express]]
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]|| 2025–26
|-
| [[Wahab Riaz]] || [[Dhaka Platoon]]
|align=center|'''8/5''' || 3.4 || 2.18 || [[Rajshahi Royals]] || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 2019–20
|-
| colspan=8| see full table on ESPNcricinfo<ref>{{cite web| url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/best_figures_innings.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Best bowling figure in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Best economy rate===
{| class="wikitable"
! Bowlers !! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}} !! {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}} !! {{Tooltip|Mdns|Maidens}} !! {{Tooltip|Avg|Averages}} !! {{Tooltip|Econ.|Economy Rate}} !! {{Tooltip|Wkts|Wickets}} !! Season
|-
| [[Rashid Khan]]
| 15 || 60 || 1 || 16.78 || '''5.31''' || 19 || 2016–present
|-
| [[Mujeeb Ur Rahman]]
| 22 || 86 || 4 || 18.40 || '''5.34'''|| 25 || 2017–present
|-
| [[Sunil Narine]]
| 48 || 183.5 || 4 || 23.45 || '''5.61'''|| 44 || 2015–present
|-
| [[Mohammad Sami]]
| 40 || 151.1 || 4 || 21.59 || '''6.28''' || 44 || 2012–2017
|-
| [[Kevon Cooper]]
| 38 || 139.3 || 2 || 14.01 || '''6.32''' || 63 || 2012–2017
|-
| colspan="8" |Players have played more than 10 matches, is capped (as for foreign player) and took more than 15 wickets.
|-
| colspan="8" | see full list on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/best_career_economy_rate.html?id=159;type=trophy| title=Best Economy rate in BPL| publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Best average===
{| class="wikitable"
! Bowlers !! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}} !! {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}} !! {{Tooltip|Wkts|Wickets}} !! {{Tooltip|Avgs.|Averages}} !! {{Tooltip|Econ|Economy rate}} !! Season
|-
| [[Kevon Cooper]]
| 38 || 139.3 || 63 || '''14.01''' || 6.32 || 2012–2017
|-
| [[Alfonso Thomas]]
| 12 || 43.5 || 20 || '''14.90''' || 6.79 || 2013–present
|-
| [[Wahab Riaz]]
| 25 || 87.5 || 40 || '''15.35''' || 6.99 || 2015–present
|-
| [[Mohammad Amir]]
| 25 || 94.1 || 38 || '''16.02''' || 6.46 || 2015–present
|-
| [[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]]
| 15 || 60 || 19 || '''16.78''' || 5.31 || 2016–present
|-
| colspan=10| see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/best_career_bowling_average.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Best bowling average in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Best strike rate===
{| class="wikitable"
! Bowlers !! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}} !! {{Tooltip|Ovs|Overs}} !! {{Tooltip|Wkts|Wickets}} !! {{Tooltip|S/R|Strike rates}}
! {{Tooltip|Econ|Economy Rate}} !! Season
|-
| [[Alfonso Thomas]]
| 12 || 43.5 || 20 || '''13.1''' || 6.79 || 2013
|-
| [[Wahab Riaz]]
| 25 || 87.5 || 40 || '''13.1'''|| 6.99 || 2015–present
|-
| [[Kevon Cooper]]
| 38 || 139.3 || 63 || '''13.2'''|| 6.32 || 2012–2017
|-
| [[Robert Frylinck]]
| 22 || 79 || 32 || '''14.8'''|| 7.46 || 2017–present
|-
| [[Dwayne Bravo]]
| 42 || 154.5 || 62 || '''14.9''' || 8.07 || 2012–present
|-
| colspan=10|see full list on<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/best_career_strike_rate.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Best bowling strike rates in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most runs conceded in an innings===
{| class="wikitable"
! Bowlers !! Team !! Figures {{Tooltip|O-M-R-W|Overs-Maidens-Runs-Wickets}} !! {{Tooltip|Econ.|Economy Rate}} !! Opponent !! Venue !! Season
|-
| [[Musfik Hasan]]|| [[Comilla Victorians]]|| align="center" |'''4–0–72–0'''|| 18.00 || [[Rangpur Riders]]
|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| rowspan="2" | 2024
|-
| [[Al-Amin Hossain]] || [[Chattogram Challengers]] || align="center" |'''4–0–69–0''' || 17.25 || [[Comilla Victorians]]
|[[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]
|-
| [[Lahiru Samarakoon]]|| rowspan="2" | [[Durbar Rajshahi]]|| align="center" |'''4–0–64–0'''|| 16.00 || [[Fortune Barishal]]
|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]|| rowspan="2" | 2025
|-
| [[Shafiul Islam]]|| align="center" |'''4–0–62–1'''|| 15.50 || [[Dhaka Capitals]]
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]]
|-
| [[Nasir Hossain]]
|[[Chattogram Challengers]]|| align="center" |'''4–0–60–2'''|| 15.00 || [[Dhaka Platoon]]
|[[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]|| 2019–20
|-
| colspan=7|see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/most_runs_conceded_innings.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most runs conceded in an Innings|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Hat-tricks===
{|class="wikitable"
! Symbols !! Key
|-
| '''{{dagger}}''' || Player was selected as Man of the match
|-
| '''↑''' || debut [[Bangladesh Premier League|BPL]] match of the player
|}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size:90%;"
|+List of hat-tricks in BPL
! No. !! Bowler !! For !! Against !! class="unsortable" | Wickets !! Venue !! Date !! Ref.
|-
|1
! scope="row"| [[Mohammad Sami]]
| [[Duronto Rajshahi]]
| [[Dhaka Gladiators]]
|
* [[Darren Stevens (cricketer)|Darren Stevens]] ([[Bowled|b]])
* [[Aftab Ahmed (Bangladeshi cricketer)|Aftab Ahmed]] ([[Bowled|b]])
* [[Naved-ul-Hasan]] ([[Bowled|b]])
| rowspan=3|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Stadium]], [[Dhaka]]
| 16 February 2012
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8653/scorecard/551058/dhaka-gladiators-vs-rajshahi-kings-14th-match-bangladesh-premier-league-2011-12 |title= 14th Match (N), Bangladesh Premier League at Dhaka, Feb 16 2012|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|accessdate=21 January 2019}}</ref>
|-
|2
! scope="row"| [[Al-Amin Hossain]] †
| [[Barisal Bulls]]
| [[Sylhet Super Stars]]
|
* [[Ravi Bopara]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Brendan Taylor|Taylor]])
* [[Nurul Hasan]] ([[Bowled|b]])
* [[Mushfiqur Rahim]] ([[Bowled|b]])
| 24 November 2015
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8653/scorecard/935293 |title= 6th Match (N), Bangladesh Premier League at Dhaka, Nov 24 2015|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|accessdate=27 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8653/report/935293 |title= Al-Amin hat-trick helps Barisal pip Sylhet in thriller|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|accessdate=24 November 2015}}</ref>
|-
|3
! scope="row" | [[Aliss Islam]] ↑†
| [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || [[Rangpur Riders]]
|
* [[Mohammad Mithun]] ([[Bowled|b]])
* [[Mashrafe Mortaza]] ([[Bowled|b]])
* [[Farhad Reza]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Shakib Al Hasan|Shakib]])
| 11 January 2019
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8653/scorecard/1169387/dhaka-dynamites-vs-rangpur-riders-9th-match-bangladesh-premier-league-2018-19 |title= 9th Match, Bangladesh Premier League at Dhaka, Jan 11 2019|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|accessdate=28 January 2019}}</ref>
|-
|4
! scope="row"| [[Wahab Riaz]]
| [[Comilla Victorians]] || [[Khulna Titans]]
|
* [[David Wiese]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Mohammad Saifuddin|Saifuddin]])
* [[Taijul Islam]] ([[Bowled|b]])
* [[Mohammad Saddam]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Tamim Iqbal|Tamim]])
| rowspan=3|[[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]], [[Chittagong]]
| 28 January 2019
|
|-
|5
! scope="row"| [[Andre Russell]]
| [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || [[Chittagong Vikings]]
|
* [[Mushfiqur Rahim]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Shuvagata Hom|Hom]])
* [[Cameron Delport]] ([[Caught|c]] Hom)
* [[Dasun Shanaka]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Mizanur Rahman (cricketer)|Mizanur]])
| 30 January 2019
|
|-
| 6
! scope="row"| [[Mrittunjoy Chowdhury]] (1/2) ↑
| [[Chattogram Challengers]] || [[Sylhet Sunrisers]]
|
* [[Anamul Haque]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Nasum Ahmed|Nasum]])
* [[Mosaddek Hossain]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Afif Hossain|Afif]])
* [[Ravi Bopara]] ([[Bowled|b]])
| 29 January 2022
|
|-
|7
! scope="row"| [[Shoriful Islam]]
| [[Durdanto Dhaka]] || [[Comilla Victorians]]
|
* [[Khushdil Shah]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Taskin Ahmed|Taskin]])
* [[Roston Chase]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Mohammad Naim|M Naim]])
* [[Mahidul Islam Ankon]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Irfan Sukkur|I Sukkur]])
|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Stadium]], [[Dhaka]]
| 19 January 2024
| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sportstiger.com/player-profile/3000/shoriful-islam |title= Bangladesh Premier League at Dhaka |publisher= SportsTiger|accessdate= 2 March 2024}}</ref>
|-
|8
! scope="row"| [[Moeen Ali]]
|[[Comilla Victorians]] || [[Chattogram Challengers]]
|
* [[Shohidul Islam]] ([[Stumped|st]] [[Mahidul Islam Ankon|Ankon]])
* [[Al-Amin Hossain]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Will Jacks|W Jacks]])
* [[Bilal Khan (cricketer)|Bilal Khan]] ([[Bowled|b]])
|[[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]], [[Chittagong]]
| 13 February 2024
|
|-
|9
! scope="row"| [[Mehedi Hasan Rana]]
|[[Noakhali Express]] || [[Sylhet Titans]]
|
* [[Mehidy Hasan Miraz]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Jaker Ali|Jaker]])
* [[Nasum Ahmed]] ([[Leg before wicket|lbw]])
* [[Khaled Ahmed]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Hassan Eisakhil|Eisakhil]])
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]], [[Sylhet]]
| 27 December 2025
|
|-
|10
! scope="row"| [[Mrittunjoy Chowdhury]] (2/2)
|[[Rangpur Riders]] || [[Noakhali Express]]
|
* [[Mahidul Islam Ankon]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Nurul Hasan Sohan|Nurul]])
* [[Zahir Khan]] ([[c&b]])
* [[Bilal Sami]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Litton Das|Litton]])
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]], [[Sylhet]]
| 09 January 2026
|
|-
|11
! scope="row"| [[Ripon Mondol]]
|[[Rajshahi Warriors]] || [[Dhaka Capitals]]
|
* [[Sabbir Rahman]] ([[Caught|c]] [[Tanzid Hasan|T Tamim]])
* [[Ziaur Rahman (Afghan cricketer)|Ziaur Rahman]] ([[Caught|c]] [[James Neesham|Neesham]])
* [[Taijul Islam]] ([[Bowled|b]])
|[[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]], [[Sylhet]]
| 12 January 2026
|
|}

==Wicket-keeping records==
===Most dismissals===
{| class="wikitable"
! Wicket-keeper !! {{Tooltip|Inngs|Innings}} !! {{Tooltip|Dis (Ct+St)|Dismissals (Catches+Stumps)}} !! Dis/Inngs !! Season
|-
| [[Nurul Hasan (cricketer)|Nurul Hasan]]
| 105 || '''112 (76+36)''' || 1.066 || 2013–present
|-
| [[Mushfiqur Rahim]]
| 123 || '''99 (85+14)''' || 0.804 || 2012–present
|-
| [[Litton Das]]
| 76 || '''64 (42+22)''' || 0.842 || 2013–present
|-
| [[Anamul Haque]]
| 105 || '''64 (48+16)''' || 0.609 || 2012–present
|-
| [[Mohammad Mithun]]
| 102 || '''57 (41+16)'''|| 0.558 || 2012–present
|-
| colspan=10| see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most dismissal in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=15 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most dismissals in a season===
{| class="wikitable"
! Wicket-keeper !! Team !! {{Tooltip|Inngs|Innings}} !! {{Tooltip|Dis (Ct+St)|Dismissals (Catches+Stumps)}} !! {{Tooltip|Max Dis/Inngs|Maximum dismissal/Innings}} !! {{Tooltip|Dis/Inngs|Dismissal per Innings}} !! Season
|-
| [[Nurul Hasan (cricketer)|Nurul Hasan]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]]
| 15 || '''19 (15+4)''' || 3 (3ct+0st) || 1.266 || 2019
|-
| [[Nurul Hasan (cricketer)|Nurul Hasan]] || [[Fortune Barishal]]
| 10 || '''18 (12+6)''' || 4 (3ct+1st) || 1.800 || 2022
|-
| [[Kumar Sangakkara]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]]
| 13 || '''18 (13+5)''' || 4 (2ct+2st) || 1.384 || 2016
|-
| [[Mushfiqur Rahim]] || [[Fortune Barishal]]
| 15 || '''18 (17+2)''' || 4 (4ct+0st) || 1.200 || 2024
|-
| [[Litton Das]] || [[Comilla Victorians]]
| 11 || '''17 (12+5)''' || 3 (3ct+0st) || 1.545 || 2016
|-
| colspan=10| see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_series.html?id=159;type=trophy|title= Most Dismissal in a season in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most dismissals in an innings===
{| class="wikitable"
! Wicket-keeper
! Team
! {{Tooltip|Dis (Ct+St)|Dismissals (Catches+Stumps)}}
! Opponent
! Venue
! Season
|-
| [[Mohammad Shahzad]]
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| '''5 (2+3)'''
| [[Barisal Bulls]]
| [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]
| 2016
|-
| [[Umar Akmal]]
| [[Rajshahi Kings]]
| '''5 (2+3)'''
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]
| 2016
|-
| [[Mushfiqur Rahim]]
| [[Sylhet Royals]]
| '''4 (3+1)'''
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]
| 2013
|-
| [[Anamul Haque]]
| [[Dhaka Gladiators]]
| '''4 (2+2)'''
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| rowspan="2"|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]]
| 2013
|-
| [[Brendan Taylor]]
| [[Chittagong Kings]]
| '''4 (2+2)'''
| [[Sylhet Royals]]
| 2013
|-
| colspan=6| see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_innings.html?id=159;type=trophy|title= Most dismissal in an Inngs in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

==Fielding records==
===Most catches===
{| class="wikitable"
! Fielders !! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}} !! Catches !! {{Tooltip|Max|Maximum Catches in Inngs}} !! {{Tooltip|Ct/In|Catches/Innings}} !! Season
|-
| [[Mahmudullah]]
| 133 || '''63'''|| 2 || 0.473
| 2012–present
|-
| [[Ariful Haque (cricketer)|Ariful Haque]]
| 93 || '''56'''|| 3 || 0.602
| 2012–present
|-
| [[Sabbir Rahman]]
| 105 || '''49'''|| 4 || 0.466
| 2012–present
|-
| [[Imrul Kayes]]
| 115 || '''49'''|| 3 || 0.426
| 2012–present
|-
| [[Tamim Iqbal]]
| 118 || '''42'''|| 3 || 0.355
| 2012–present
|-
|colspan=10|see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most Catches in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most catches in a season===
{| class="wikitable"
! Fielders
! Team
! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}}
! Catches
! {{Tooltip|Max|Maximum Catches in Inngs}}
! {{Tooltip|Ct/In|Catches/Innings}}
! Season
|-
| [[Imrul Kayes]]
| [[Comilla Victorians]]
| 11
| '''17'''
| 3
| 1.545
| 2022
|-
| [[Ariful Haque (cricketer)|Ariful Haque]]
| [[Sylhet Strikers]]
| 12
| '''13'''
| 3
| 1.083
| 2025
|-
| [[Mahmudullah]]
| [[Khulna Titans]]
| 12
| '''13'''
| 2
| 1.083
| 2017
|-
| [[Darren Stevens]]
| [[Dhaka Gladiators]]
| 12
| '''11'''
| 2
| 0.916
| 2012
|-
| [[Rilee Rossouw]]
| [[Khulna Tigers]]
| 14
| '''11'''
| 2
| 0.785
| 2019–20
|-
|colspan=7|see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_series.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most Catches in a series in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most catches in an innings===
{| class="wikitable"
! Fielders !! Team !! Catches !! Opponent !! Venue !! Season
|-
| [[Will Jacks]]|| [[Comilla Victorians]]|| '''5''' ||[[Chattogram Challengers]]
| [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]]|| 2024
|-
| [[Sabbir Rahman]] || [[Sylhet Sixers]] || '''4''' || [[Rajshahi Kings]]
| [[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]] || 2017
|-
| [[Cameron Delport]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || '''4''' || [[Sylhet Sixers]]
| rowspan=2| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]] || 2017
|-
| [[Adam Lyth]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || '''4''' || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 2017
|-
| [[Carlos Brathwaite]] || [[Khulna Titans]] || '''4''' || [[Rajshahi Kings]]
| [[Sylhet International Cricket Stadium]] || 2019
|-
|colspan=10|see full table on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_innings.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most catches in an innings in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

==Miscellaneous records==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Records
!Player/Team
!Statistics
!{{tooltip|Ref|references}}
|-
! colspan="4" | Team
|-
| Most wins || [[Rangpur Riders]] || '''70'''||
|-
| Most defeats || [[Sylhet Titans]] || '''77''' ||
|-
| Highest win%
| [[Comilla Victorians]] || '''62.50 %''' ||
|-
| Largest victory (runs)
| [[Dhaka Capitals]] || '''149''' ||
|-
! colspan="4" | Batting
|-
| Most 100+ || [[Chris Gayle]] || '''5'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/list_hundreds.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=List of 100s in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Most 50+ || [[Tamim Iqbal]] || '''34'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/most_fifties_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most 50s and over in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Highest Partnership
| [[Tanzid Hasan]] and [[Litton Das]] ([[Dhaka Capitals]])
| '''241'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/fow/highest_partnerships_by_wicket.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Highest partnership in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Most ducks || [[Anamul Haque]] || '''15'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/batting/most_ducks_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most Ducks in BPL|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="4" | Bowling
|-
|Most 4 wicket hauls
| [[Taskin Ahmed]]
| '''7'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/most_4wi_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most 4 wicket haul in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Most 5 wicket hauls
| [[Thisara Perera]]
| '''2'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/most_5wi_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most 5 wicket haul in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="4" | Other Miscellaneous
|-
| Most matches || [[Mushfiqur Rahim]] || '''144'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/individual/most_matches_career.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most Matches in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Most matches as captain || [[Mashrafe Mortaza]] || '''105'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/individual/most_matches_as_captain.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most matches as a captain in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
| Most matches as umpire || [[Masudur Rahman (umpire)|Masudur Rahman]] || '''94'''
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/individual/most_matches_umpire.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=Most matches as an umpire in BPL|publisher=ESPNCricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}
{{notelist}}

== Awards ==

===Most Runs Award===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Season
! Player
! Team
! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}}
! Runs
! {{Tooltip|HS|Highest Score}}
! {{Tooltip|Avg.|Averaes}}
! {{Tooltip|S/R|Strike rates}}
! 100s
! 50s
|-
| 2012 || [[Ahmed Shehzad]] || [[Barisal Burners]] || 12 || '''486''' || 113* || 48.60 || 155.76 || 1 || 4
|-
| 2013 || [[Mushfiqur Rahim]] || [[Sylhet Royals]] || 13 || '''440''' || 86 || 40.00 || 132.93 || 0 || 3
|-
| 2015 || [[Kumar Sangakkara]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 10 || '''349''' || 75 || 38.77 || 117.11 || 0 || 2
|-
| 2016 || [[Tamim Iqbal]] || [[Chittagong Vikings]] || 13 || '''476''' || 75 || 43.27 || 115.81 || 0 || 6
|-
| 2017 || [[Chris Gayle]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || 11 || '''485''' || 146* || 53.88 || 176.36 || 2 || 2
|-
| 2019 || [[Rilee Rossouw]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || 14 || '''558''' || 100* || 69.75 || 150.00 || 1 || 5
|-
| 2019–20 || [[Rilee Rossouw]] || [[Khulna Tigers]] || 14 || '''495''' || 71* || 45.00 || 155.17 || 0 || 4
|-
| 2022 || [[Will Jacks]] || [[Chattogram Challengers]] || 11 || '''414''' || 92* || 41.40 || 155.05 || 0 || 4
|-
|2023
|[[Najmul Hossain Shanto]]
|[[Sylhet Strikers]]
|15
|'''516'''
|89*
|39.69
|116.74
|0
|4
|-
|2024
|[[Tamim Iqbal]]
|[[Fortune Barishal]]
|15
|'''492'''
|71
|35.14
|127.13
|0
|3
|-
|2025
|[[Mohammad Naim]]
|[[Khulna Tigers]]
|14
|'''511'''
|111*
|42.58
|143.94
|1
|3
|-
| colspan=10|see full list on ESPNCricinfo<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_series.html?id=159;type=trophy|title=BPL most run in a series|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

===Most Wickets Award===

{| class="wikitable" style="align:center"
|-
! Season
! Player
! Team
! {{Tooltip|Mat|Matches}}
! {{ Tooltip|Wkts|Wickets}}
! {{Tooltip|BBI|Best Bowling Innings}}
! {{Tooltip|Avg.|Average}}
! {{ Tooltip|Econ.|Economy Rate}}
! 5WI
! 4WI
|-
| rowspan=2|2012 || [[Elias Sunny]] || [[Dhaka Gladiators]] || 12 || rowspan="2" | '''17''' || 3/17 || 14.88 || 6.71 || 0 || 0
|-
| [[Mohammad Sami]] || [[Duronto Rajshahi]] || 11 || 5/6 || 15.76 || 6.51 || 1 || 1
|-
| 2013 || [[Alfonso Thomas]] || [[Dhaka Gladiators]] || 12 || '''20''' || 3/19 || 14.90 || 6.79 || 0 || 0
|-
| 2015 || [[Kevon Cooper]] || [[Barisal Bulls]] || 9 || '''22''' || 5/15 || 9.31 || 5.85 || 1 || 1
|-
| 2016 || [[Dwayne Bravo]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 13 || '''21''' || 3/10 || 15.95 || 7.55 || 0 || 0
|-
| 2017 || [[Shakib Al Hasan]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 13 || '''22''' || 5/16 || 13.22 || 6.49 || 1 || 1
|-
| 2019 || [[Shakib Al Hasan]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 15 || '''23''' || 4/16 || 17.65 || 7.25 || 0 || 1
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2019–20 || [[Mustafizur Rahman]]
|[[Rangpur Rangers]]
|12|| rowspan="4" |'''20'''
|3/10
|15.60
|7.01
|0
|0
|-
| [[Mohammad Amir]]
|[[Khulna Tigers]]
|13
|6/17
|17.75
|7.05
|1
|0
|-
| [[Rubel Hossain]]
|[[Chattogram Challengers]]
|13
|3/17
|17.85
|7.31
|0
|0
|-
| [[Robert Frylinck]]
|[[Khulna Tigers]]
|14
|5/16
|19.60
|7.39
|0
|0
|-
| 2022 || [[Mustafizur Rahman]] || [[Comilla Victorians]] || 11 || '''19''' || 5/27 || 13.47 || 6.62 || 1 || 0
|-
| rowspan="2" |2023
|[[Tanvir Islam]]
|[[Comilla Victorians]]
|12
| rowspan="2" |'''17'''
|4/33
|17.58
|6.36
|0
|1
|-
|[[Hasan Mahmud (cricketer)|Hasan Mahmud]]
|[[Rangpur Riders]]
|14
|3/12
|24.82
|7.98
|0
|0
|-
|2024
|[[Shoriful Islam]]
|[[Durdanto Dhaka]]
|12
|'''22'''
|4/24
|15.86
|7.81
|0
|1
|-
|2025
|[[Taskin Ahmed]]
|[[Durbar Rajshahi]]
|12
|'''25'''
|7/19
|12.04
|6.49
|1
|0
|-
| colspan="10" | see full list on ESPNCricinfo<ref name= "BPL purple caps list">{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/bangladesh-premier-league-2016-17/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_series.html?id=159;type=trophy |title=BPL Most wicket in a series|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=22 February 2019}}</ref>
|}

=== Maximum Sixes Award ===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Season
! Winner
! Team
! {{Tooltip | Mat | Matches}}
! Sixes
! {{Tooltip|Six/In|Sixes/innings}}
|-
| 2012 || [[Chris Gayle]] || [[Barisal Burners]] || 5 ||'''26''' || 5.2
|-
| 2013 || [[Elton Chigumbura]] || [[Sylhet Royals]] || 14 || '''19''' ||1.35
|-
| 2015 || [[Chris Gayle]] || [[Barisal Bulls]] || 4 || '''12''' || 3
|-
| 2016 || [[Mehedi Maruf]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 14 || '''20''' || 1.43
|-
| 2017 || [[Chris Gayle]] || [[Rangpur Riders]] || 11 || '''47''' || 4.28
|-
| rowspan=2| 2019 || [[Nicholas Pooran]] || [[Sylhet Sixers]] || 11 || rowspan=2| '''28''' || 2.54
|-
| [[Andre Russell]] || [[Dhaka Dynamites]] || 15 || 1.87
|-
| 2019–20 || [[Rilee Rossouw]] || [[Khulna Tigers]] || 14 || '''23''' || 1.64
|-
| 2022 || [[Andre Fletcher]] || [[Khulna Tigers]] || 11 || '''21''' || 1.91
|-
|2023
|[[Johnson Charles]]
|[[Comilla Victorians]]
|9
|'''26'''
|2.89
|-
|2024
|[[Towhid Hridoy]]
|[[Comilla Victorians]]
|14
|'''24'''
|1.71
|-
|2025
|[[Tanzid Hasan]]
|[[Dhaka Capitals]]
|12
|'''36'''
|3
|}

=== Player of the match (final) and series ===
{| class="wikitable" style="align:center"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Season
! colspan=2 |Player of the match in finals
! colspan=2 |Player of the series
|-
!Player !!Team
!Player !!Team
|-
| [[2012 Bangladesh Premier League|2012]]
| [[Imran Nazir (cricketer)|Imran Nazir]]
| [[Dhaka Gladiators]]
| [[Shakib Al Hasan]]
| [[Khulna Royal Bengals]]
|-
| [[2012–13 Bangladesh Premier League|2013]]
| [[Mosharraf Hossain (cricketer)|Mosharraf Hossain]]
| [[Dhaka Gladiators]]
| [[Shakib Al Hasan]]
| [[Dhaka Gladiators]]
|-
| [[2015–16 Bangladesh Premier League|2015]]
| [[Alok Kapali]]
| [[Comilla Victorians]]
| [[Ashar Zaidi]]
| [[Comilla Victorians]]
|-
| [[2016–17 Bangladesh Premier League|2016]]
| [[Kumar Sangakkara]]
| [[Dhaka Dynamites]]
| [[Mahmudullah]]
| [[Khulna Titans]]
|-
| [[2017–18 Bangladesh Premier League|2017]]
| [[Chris Gayle]]
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
| [[Chris Gayle]]
| [[Rangpur Riders]]
|-
| [[2018–19 Bangladesh Premier League|2019]]
| [[Tamim Iqbal]]
| [[Comilla Victorians]]
| [[Shakib Al Hasan]]
| [[Dhaka Dynamites]]
|-
| [[2019–20 Bangladesh Premier League|2019–20]]
| [[Andre Russell]]
| [[Rajshahi Royals]]
| [[Andre Russell]]
| [[Rajshahi Royals]]
|-
| [[2021–22 Bangladesh Premier League|2022]]
| [[Sunil Narine]]
| [[Comilla Victorians]]
| [[Shakib Al Hasan]]
| [[Fortune Barishal]]
|-
|[[2022–23 Bangladesh Premier League|2023]]
|[[Johnson Charles]]
|[[Comilla Victorians]]
|[[Najmul Hossain Shanto]]
|[[Sylhet Strikers]]
|-
|[[2024 Bangladesh Premier League|2024]]
|[[Kyle Mayers]]
|[[Fortune Barishal]]
|[[Tamim Iqbal]]
|[[Fortune Barishal]]
|-
|[[2025 Bangladesh Premier League|2025]]
|[[Tamim Iqbal]]
|[[Fortune Barishal]]
|[[Mehidy Hasan Miraz]]
|[[Khulna Tigers]]
|}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Bangladesh Premier League}}

[[Category:Bangladesh Premier League lists]]
[[Category:Lists of Bangladeshi cricket records and statistics]]

List of Bhojpuri actors

2026-01-22T13:28:40Z

Godrejsplende:

{{Short description|none}}
{{Dynamic list}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
This is a '''list of actors from [[Bhojpuri cinema]].'''<ref>{{Cite web|title='List of Bhojpuri actors'|date=July 2018|url=https://www.thebhojpuriya.com/list-of-bhojpuri-actor-with-name-and-photo/?amp}}</ref>

==A==
* [[Awdhesh Mishra]]
* Anand Mohan

==B==
* [[Biraj Bhatta]]

==D==
* [[Dinesh Lal Yadav]]

==K==
* [[Khesari Lal Yadav]]
* [[Kamaal R. Khan]]
* [[Kunal Singh (Actor)|Kunal Singh]]
* [[Kranti Prakash Jha]]
* [[KK Goswami]]
* [[Krushna Abhishek]]

==M==
* [[Manoj Tiger]]
* [[Manoj Tiwari (Delhi politician)|Manoj Tiwari]]
* [[Manoj Bhawuk]]

==N==
* [[Nazir Hussain]]

==P==
* [[Pawan Singh]]
* [[Pradeep Pandey]]

==R==
* [[Ravi Kishan]]
* [[Ritesh Pandey (singer)|Ritesh Pandey]]
* [[Rakesh Pandey (actor)|Rakesh Pandey]]

==S==
* [[Sikandar Kharbanda]]
* [[Sanjay Pandey]]
* [[Sudip Pandey]]
* [[Sujit Kumar]]

==V==
* [[Vinay Anand]]

==Y==
* [[Yash Kumarr]]

==Note==
Apart from these regular actors, many Bollywood actors like [[Amitabh Bachchan]], [[Abhishek Bachchan]], [[Ajay Devgn]], [[Rahul Roy]], [[Dharmendra]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Mithun Chakraborty]], [[Jackie Shroff]], and [[Raj Babbar]], [[Rahul Dev]], have acted in Bhojpuri movies.<ref name="forum.ibodatabase.com">{{cite web|title=Bollywood actors in Bhojpuri films. Have a look.|url=http://forum.ibodatabase.com/58736/bollywood-actors-in-bhojpuri-films-have-a-look|access-date=11 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111133518/http://forum.ibodatabase.com/58736/bollywood-actors-in-bhojpuri-films-have-a-look|archive-date=11 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Abhishek to star in Bhojpuri film|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=4 May 2012|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1435250/Abhishek-to-star-in-Bhojpuri-film|access-date=11 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111134415/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1435250/Abhishek-to-star-in-Bhojpuri-film|archive-date=11 January 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bhojpuri cinema]]
*[[List of Bhojpuri people]]
*[[List of Bhojpuri actresses]]
*[[List of Bhojpuri singers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhojpuri actors}}
[[Category:Actors in Bhojpuri cinema| ]]
[[Category:Lists of Indian actors|Bhojpuri]]
[[Category:Bhojpuri cinema]]

Alarmel Valli

2026-01-19T20:55:43Z

Godrejsplende: formatting fix

{{Short description|Indian dancer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{ infobox person
| name = Alarmel Valli
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1956|09|14|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| awards = {{Unbulleted list|[[Padma Bhushan]]|[[Padma Shri]]}}
| other_names =
| known_for = [[Pandanallur style]] of [[Bharatnatyam]]
| occupation = [[Indian classical dance]]r, [[choreographer]]
| website = {{url|alarmelvalli.org}}
| spouse = [[Bhaskar Ghose]]
}}

'''Alarmel Valli''' (born 14 September 1956) is an [[Indian classical dancer]] and [[Bharatanatyam]]-[[Pandanallur style|Pandanallur]] choreographer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sparkling show of style: There was never a dull moment in Alarmel Valli's performance.|url=http://www.hindu.com/ms/2009/01/07/stories/2009010750040300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604113030/http://www.hindu.com/ms/2009/01/07/stories/2009010750040300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 June 2011|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=7 January 2009}}</ref><ref name=th>{{cite web|title=The best of music and dance |url=http://www.expressbuzz.com/edition/story.aspx?Title=The+best+of+music+and+dance&artid=5zAjSCeiICE=&SectionID=lMx/b5mt1kU=&MainSectionID=lMx/b5mt1kU=&SEO=&SectionName=tm2kh5uDhixGlQvAG42A/07OVZOOEmts|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120518002640/http://www.expressbuzz.com/edition/story.aspx?Title=The+best+of+music+and+dance&artid=5zAjSCeiICE=&SectionID=lMx/b5mt1kU=&MainSectionID=lMx/b5mt1kU=&SEO=&SectionName=tm2kh5uDhixGlQvAG42A/07OVZOOEmts|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 May 2012|publisher=Express Buzz|date=9 January 2010}}</ref>

She founded The Dipasikha Dance Foundation in [[Chennai]] in 1984, where she teaches [[Bharatanatyam]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Transcending barriers: Alarmel Valli on the language of dance|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/transcending-barriers-alarmel-valli-on-the-language-of-dance/368596/0|work=[[Indian Express]]|date=2 October 2008}}</ref>

In 1991, Alarmel Valli was the second youngest dancer to be conferred the [[Padma Shri]] from the Government of India, after [[Vyjayanthimala]]. She was awarded the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] in 2001 by India's National Academy for Music, Dance and Drama,<ref name=sr/> followed by the [[Padma Bhushan]] award from the Government of India in 2004<ref>{{cite web|title=Padma Bhushan Awardees|publisher=[[Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (India)|Ministry of Communications and Information Technology]]|url=http://india.gov.in/myindia/padmabhushan_awards_list1.php|access-date=28 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605073347/http://india.gov.in/myindia/padmabhushan_awards_list1.php|archive-date=5 June 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> and Chevalier of Arts and Letters award from the [[Government of France]], also in 2004.

==Career==
She made her stage debut at 9 ½ at The Indian Institute of Fine Arts, Madras, and was conferred the Natya Kala Bhushan award. She won her laurels on the international scene when she was barely 16 at the International Dance Festival of the prestigious [[Sarah Bernhardt]] [[Théâtre de la Ville]] in Paris and has performed in landmark theatres and festivals ever since,<ref>{{cite news|title=Art is where the heart is ...|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/article21978.ece|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=18 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Natural and poetic|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/article75804.ece|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=6 January 2010}}</ref> both in India and aboard.<ref>{{cite news|title=Review/Dance; Indian View of Humanity And Divinity|author= Jack Anderson|author-link= Jack Anderson (dance critic)|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/23/arts/review-dance-indian-view-of-humanity-and-divinity.html?pagewanted=1|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=23 June 1991}}</ref><ref name=Marsh>{{cite web| last1=Steve |first1=Marsh | title=Mpls/St. Paul Magazine: "What Ragamala Dance Company's New Show Says About Life and Death" - Ranee Ramaswamy, along with her daughters, Aparna and Ashwini, are using Bharatanatyam, an ancient Hindu dance form, to help us understand modern life... and death.|url=https://www.ragamaladance.org/news-listing/mspmagazineramaswamy|work=Mpls.St.Paul Magazine|publisher=MSP Communications|date=March 15, 2022 |access-date=July 30, 2022| page=}}</ref>

Her research in classical [[Tamil literature]] and the anthologies of the 2000-year-old [[Sangam literature|Sangam poetry]] has resulted in a significant repertoire of dance poems. Over the years, she has evolved her distinct style within the framework of classical Bharatanatyam.<ref name="k">[http://www.keralawomen.gov.in/mainarticle.php?id=120 Alarmel Valli Biography]{{dead link|date=June 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, keralawomen.gov.in; accessed 13 May 2017.</ref>

Among her leading students are Ranee Ramaswamy and Aparna Ramaswamy of the [[Ragamala Dance Company]] in [[Minneapolis]]<ref name=Marsh/> and [[Meenakshi Srinivasan]].

Some highlights of Alarmél Valli's international career include her performances at the [[Bolshoi Theatre]], The Vienna International Dance Festival, [[Munich Opera Festival|The Munich Opera Festival]], [[The Edinburgh Festival]], The New York International Festival of Arts, [[Festival d'Avignon|The Avignon Festival]], [[Cervantino Festival|The Cervantino Festival]], the Lyon Biennale, The [[Venice Biennale]], [[The Royal Albert Hall]] and [[Queen Elizabeth Hall]] in London, The Helsinki Biennale, The Millennium Festival in Berlin and The Frankfurt Alt Oper. In July 2015, she was the first Indian classical dancer to perform at the [[Salzburg Festival]].

==In popular culture==
{{BLP unsourced section|date=May 2017}}
A film on Alarmel Valli was made for the [[Omnibus (UK TV series)|Omnibus series]], on [[BBC One]], by producer [[Michael Macintyre]]. Alarmel Valli has also been featured in dance documentaries by noted Indian producers like the late [[G. Aravindan]] and [[Prakash Jha]], by the BBC (in The Spirit of Asia Series), the Netherlands Broadcasting Company, Arte (France), and Japanese National Television. The [[Films Division of India]] commissioned a film, titled 'Pravahi', on her for the [[National Archives of India]]. It was directed by eminent filmmaker Arun Khopkar, with cinematography by [[Madhu Ambat]]. In 2011, ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdiAMUOyHTg Lasya Kavya]'', a documentary about Alarmel Valli by award-winning director, Sankalp Meshram, won the [[National Film Award for Best Arts/Cultural Film]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Moving Grace|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/moving-grace/931263/|work=[[Indian Express]]|date=2 April 2012|access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref><ref name="Sruti">{{cite web |date=29 November 2012 |title=Lasya Kavya in Washington DC on US Election Eve! |url=http://srutimag.blogspot.com/2012/11/lasya-kavya-in-washington-dc-on-us.html |access-date=30 July 2022 |work=[[Sruti (magazine)|Sruti Magazine]]}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Alarmel Valli is married to [[Bhaskar Ghose]], an [[Indian Administrative Service|Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hindi theatre is in a sad mess|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/09/10/stories/2005091000210400.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907162436/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/09/10/stories/2005091000210400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 September 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=2005-09-10|access-date=18 February 2012}}</ref>

== Selected awards and honours==

* 1979: State award of ''[[Kalaimamani]]'' from [[Tamil Nadu Government]]
* 1980: Nrithya Vikas, from Sur Singar, Mumbai
* 1985: Nritya Choodamani, from Krishna Gana Sabha, Chennai.
* 1991: [[Padma Sri]] from the Government of India.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf|title=Padma Awards|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|date=2015|access-date=21 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf|archive-date=15 October 2015}}</ref>
* 1997: Awarded the Grande Medaille (Medal) by the City of Paris.
* 2001: [[Sangeet Natak Academy Award]], New Delhi<ref name=sr>{{cite web|url=http://www.sangeetnatak.org/sna/awardeeslist.htm |title=SNA: Awardeeslist:: |access-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217185616/http://www.sangeetnatak.org/sna/awardeeslist.htm |archive-date=17 February 2012 }}</ref>
* 2004: [[Padma Bhushan]] from the Government of India
* 2004: [[Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres|Chevalier of Arts and Letters]] award from the [[Government of France]]<ref name=th/><ref>{{cite news|title=Dancing takes me places|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2004/04/13/stories/2004041300200100.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=13 April 2004|access-date=1 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610060229/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2004/04/13/stories/2004041300200100.htm|archive-date=10 June 2010|url-status=usurped|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* 2012: Naatya Padmam from Brahma Gana Sabha, Chennai
* 2014: Natya Utsav Lifetime Achievement Award from the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Chennai
* 2015: Natya Kala Acharya award from The Music Academy, Chennai
* 2018: Nritya Peroli award from Karthik Fine Arts, Chennai

==See also==
* [[Bharatnatyam]]
* [[Indian women in dance]]

==External links==
* [http://www.alarmelvalli.org/ Alarmel Valli's Official Website]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}
{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 2000–09}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Valli, Alarmel}}
[[Category:Bharatanatyam dancers]]
[[Category:Odissi dancers]]
[[Category:Indian dance teachers]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of Madras alumni]]
[[Category:Artists from Chennai]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres]]
[[Category:Indian classical choreographers]]
[[Category:Indian female classical dancers]]
[[Category:Indian women choreographers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:Dancers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dancers]]
[[Category:Women educators from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Teachers of Indian classical dance]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women educators]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women artists]]
[[Category:Women artists from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Educators from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Stella Maris College, Chennai alumni]]

Oddiyana

2026-01-06T05:44:26Z

Godrejsplende: page fix

{{Short description|Kingdom in early medieval India}}
{{for|the yoga breathing technique|Uddiyana bandha}}

[[File:East-Hem 100bc.jpg|thumb|Udiana shown with the name of Uddayana in [[Medieval India]], 100 BC]]
'''{{IAST|Udiana}}<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal|volume= XXXII|number= I of 1863|page=17|last=Loewenthal|first=the Rew. I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHyY-2IMnOsC&dq=udiana+kingdom&pg=PA17|title=On the Antiquities of the Peshawar District|date=1864| publisher=C.B. Lewis, Beptist Mission Press, Calcutta|language=en}}</ref>''' (also: '''''Uḍḍiyāna''''', '''''Uḍḍāyāna''''', '''''Udyāna''''' or ''''Oḍḍiyāna''''),{{efn|{{langx|sa|'''ओड्डियान''', '''उड्डियान''', '''उड्डायान''', '''उद्यान'''}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Monier-Williams |first1=Monier |title=Sanskrit-English Dictionary |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=191 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |page=191 |date=1899 |quote=उद्यान/ उद्-यान n. N. of a country in the north of India.}}</ref>, {{langx|or|ଓଡ଼ିଆଣ}}, {{bo|t=ཨུ་རྒྱན་|w=u rgyan}}, {{zh|t=烏萇|p=Wūcháng}}, {{langx|mn|Үржин}} ''urjin''.}} a small region in early [[medieval India]], is ascribed importance in the development and dissemination of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna Buddhism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Joshi |first=Lal Mani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC&dq=tucci+swat+odiyana&pg=PA258 |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D. |date=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 |pages=258–259 |language=en |quote=}}</ref><ref name=":1">‘Uḍḍiyāna and Kashmir’, pp 265-269 ‘The Śaiva Exegesis of Kashmir’, in Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d’Hélène Brunner. Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner, Collection Indologie 106, EFEO, Institut français de Pondichéry (IFP), ed. Dominic Goodall and André Padoux, 2007.)</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Wedemeyer |first=Christian K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GvUYBQAAQBAJ&dq=sanderson+oddiyana+swat&pg=PA229 |title=Making Sense of Tantric Buddhism: History, Semiology, and Transgression in the Indian Traditions |date=2014-05-06 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-16241-8 |pages=229 |language=en}}</ref> [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] traditions view it as a [[Beyul]] (Tibetan: སྦས་ཡུལ, Wylie: sbas-yul), a legendary heavenly place inaccessible to ordinary mortals. [[Padmasambhava]], the eighth-century Buddhist master who was instrumental in the [[history of Tibetan Buddhism|introduction of Buddhism to Tibet]], was believed to have been born in Oddiyana.<ref name="keown">{{cite book|last1=Keown|first1=Damien|title=A Dictionary of Buddhism|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780198605607|pages=203, 208|edition=1|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198605607.001.0001/acref-9780198605607-e-1294|access-date=11 February 2016|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The [[Dzogchen]] [[Siddha]] [[Garab Dorje]] is likewise attributed to this region.

It is ascribed importance in the development and dissemination of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna Buddhism]]. The region was also an important place for the practice of [[Shaivism|Śaivite Hinduism]]. It is seen as the homeland of the Mahārtha (aka Krama [[Shaktism|Kalikula]]) lineage of Śaiva [[Tantra]]. The first Mahārtha Siddha, Jñānanetra Nātha, is said to have awakened and taught in this country.<ref>Wallis, Christopher D. (2013). ''Tantra Illuminated: The Philosophy, History, and Practice of a Timeless Tradition.'' pp. 211-282. Mattamayura Press.</ref> It was also called as “the paradise of the [[Dakini|Ḍākinīs]]”.<ref name="Ancient Uddayana">{{cite web|last1=Shah|first1=Bipin|title=Ancient Uddayana-the land of Buddha at Rajgriha, prior to establishment of Patliputra in Ganges Doab|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342515491|access-date=3 February 2021|website=Research gate}}</ref>

== Proposed locations ==
===Swat===
[[file:Amlukdara Stupa.jpg|thumb|The [[Amluk-Dara stupa]], in the [[Swat District]] of [[Pakistan]]. The main stupa with its sacred area was founded around the third century and lasted until 10th or 11th century.|left]]
Many Western scholars have identified it as the [[Swat Valley]] in what is now [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in [[Pakistan]]. [[Laurence Waddell]], [[Sylvain Lévi]], [[Giuseppe Tucci]], and [[Prabodh Chandra Bagchi]] have shown that the Tibetan name ''Urgyan'' and the Chinese name ''Wutch'ang'' correspond to Uddiyana which is identical with the modern-day Swat Valley.<ref name=":0" /> [[Alexis Sanderson]] revisited the issue of the location, taking note of the various far-flung locations that have been identified with Oddiyana at different times and by different sources.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> He came to the conclusion, drawn from his careful examination of a variety of old textual citations, that it was located near [[Kashmir]], accepting the modern-day Swat as the probable epicentre of a historical Oddiyana.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

Udyāna ([[Sanskrit]] "garden, orchard") is sometimes reported as being located north of [[Peshawar]] along the [[Swat River]]; it was regarded as the furthest part of northern ancient India during the time of [[Faxian]].<ref name="PoloYule1993">{{cite book|last1=Polo|first1=Marco|last2=Yule|first2=Sir Henry|last3=Cordier|first3=Henri|title=The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition : Including the Unabridged Third Edition (1903) of Henry Yule's Annotated Translation, as Revised by Henri Cordier, Together with Cordier's Later Volume of Notes and Addenda (1920).|year=1993|publisher=Courier Corporation|language=en|isbn=9780486275864|page=[https://archive.org/details/travelsofmarcopo00polo_0/page/164 164]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/travelsofmarcopo00polo_0/page/164}}</ref> The 8th century Korean monk [[Hye Cho]] wrote in his [[Wang ocheonchukguk jeon|Memoir of the travel to the five Indian regions]] that after visiting [[Gandhara]], he went directly north, entered the mountains and after travelling for three days, arrived in Udyana (locally called Oddiyana), a mountainous Buddhist region. From Udyana, he travelled northeast for fifteen days and reached [[Chitral]]. Faxian stated that the food and clothing worn by those in Udyana were similar to those residing in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref name="PoloYule1993"/>

The area is said to have supported some 500 [[vihara]]s of the [[Sthavira Nikāya]], at which traveling monks were provided lodgings and food for three days. It was said to contain a [[Buddha footprint]], a rock on which he dried his clothes, and a locale where he converted a [[nāga]]. It is said that two schools derived from the Sthavira nikāya, the [[Dharmaguptaka]] and [[Kāśyapīya]], were established in this area.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cousins|first=LS|date=2001|title=On the Vibhajjavadins. The Mahimsasaka, Dhammaguttaka, Kassapiya, and Tambapannia Branches of the Ancient Theriyas|url=https://ukabs.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Bsr18.22001.pdf|journal=Buddhist Studies Review|volume= 18|pages=131–182|doi=10.1558/bsrv.v18i2.14449 |s2cid=247897486 }}</ref> Both of these schools had proto-[[Mahayana]] doctrines.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Paul|title=Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd Edition|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-0415356534|location=New York, NY|pages=1–44}}</ref>

While the 6th to 8th century [[Gardez Ganesha#Inscription|Gardez Ganesh]] offers a memorial inscription, to [[Turk Shahis]] king [[Khingala]] of Oddiyana.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=x2cuAQAAIAAJ&q=khingala+ganesha+sarAda From Persepolis to the Punjab: Exploring Ancient Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, Elizabeth Errington, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, British Museum Press, 2007 p. 96]</ref>

The following [[Hindu Shahis]] are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of Oddiyana whose rulers were already known at the time of the [[Kushan Empire]] (3rd century CE) and are recorded as early as the 4th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rahman |first=Abdul |date=2002 |title=New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v15_37to42.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XV |pages=37–42 |quote=The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=2005 |title=The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North |url=http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v16_41to48.pdf |journal=Ancient Pakistan |volume=XVI |pages=41–48 |quote=Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis".}}</ref>

[[File:Horseman on Hindu Shahi coinage.jpg|thumb|Horseman on a coin of Spalapati, i.e. the "War-lord" of the [[Hindu Shahis]]. The headgear has been interpreted as a [[turban]].{{sfn|Rehman|1976|p=187 and Pl. V B.|loc="the horseman is shown wearing a turban-like head-gear with a small globule on the top"}}]]

=== Odisha ===
An alternate theory places its location in what is now the modern [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Odisha]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Joshi |first=Lal Mani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC&dq=tucci+swat+odiyana&pg=PA258 |title=Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D. |date=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0281-0 |pages=258 |language=en |quote=One writer has recently made a renewed attempt to identify Uḍḍiyāna with Orissa which he regards as the "cradle of Tāntrika Buddhism". But this is improbable; the Chinese sources refer to Orissa as Wu-T'u or Ota or Wu-Cha, while the Tibetans refer to Orissa as Oḍivisa which must be different from Urgyan or Wu-Chang. Moreover, Orissa became a centre of Tāntrika Buddhism after the 7th century A.D.}}</ref><ref name="keown" /> through a case founded upon "literary, archeological and iconographic evidence". Scholars championing this location contend that the name Oḍḍiyāna derives from the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] ''{{IAST|Oṭṭiyan}}'', denoting a native or indigenous person of ''{{IAST|Oḍra}}'' ("Odisha") or from ''Oṭṭiyam'', [[Telugu language|Telugu]] for ''Oḍra''. ''{{IAST|Oḍḍiyāna}}'' is also the [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages|Middle Indic]] form of ''Udyāna'' "garden," the name by which [[Xuanzang]] knew the region around Odisha.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pradhan |first1=Biswajit |title=Rise and Growth of Siddha Cult in Orissa |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=2003 |volume=64 |pages=269–276 |jstor=44145469 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145469}}</ref>

Confusion about the identity of Oddiyana is conflated with confusion about the identity of [[Indrabhuti]] as Donaldson (2001: p. 11) observes:{{blockquote|In his argument, P. C. Bagchi states that there are two distinct series of names in Tibetan: (1) O-rgyān, U-rgyān, O-ḍi-yā-na, and (2) O-ḍi-vi-śā, with the first series connected with Indrabhūti, i.e., Oḍiyăna and Uḍḍiyāna, while the second series falls back on Oḍi and Oḍiviśa, i.e., Uḍra (Odisha) and has nothing to do with Indrabhūti. N.K. Sahu objects, however, and points out that these two sets of names are seldom distinguished in Buddhist Tantra literature, and opines that the words Oḍa, Oḍra, Uḍra, Oḍiviśa and Oḍiyāna are all used as variants of Uḍḍiyāna. In the ''Sādhanamālā'', he further points out, Uḍḍiyāna is also spelt as Oḍrayāna while in the [[Kalika Purana|''Kālikā Purāṇa'']], as indicated earlier, it is spelt either Uḍḍiyāna or Oḍra. There is also evidence, Sahu continues, that Indrabhūti is the king of Odisha rather than of the Swāt valley. The [[Mahasiddha#Caturāsiti-siddha-pravrtti|''Caturāsiti-siddha-Pravṛtti'']], for example, mentions him as the king of Oḍiviśa while Cordier, in his ''[[Tengyur|Bṣtān-ḥgyur]]'' catalogue, gives sufficient indications of his being the king of Orissa. Also, in his famous work ''Jñānasiddhi'', king [[Indrabhuti|Indrabhūti]] opens it with an invocation to Lord [[Jagannath|Jagannātha]], a deity intimately associated with Odisha and with no other area of India.<ref>Donaldson, Thomas E. (2001). 'Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa: Text', ''Volume 1 of Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts''. Abhinav Publications. {{ISBN|81-7017-375-2}}, {{ISBN|978-81-7017-375-5}} Source: [https://books.google.com/books?id=DbxE8zOuRbUC&pg=PA12] (accessed: Tuesday February 2, 2010), p.11</ref>}} Arguments contending this stand have also been put forward.<ref name=":0" /> But this is improbable; the Chinese sources refer to Odisha as ''Wu-T'u'' or ''Ota'' or ''Wu-cha'', while the Tibetans refer to Orissa as ''Odivisa'' which must be different from ''Urgyan'' or ''Wu-chang''.<ref name=":0" /> Moreover, Odisha became a centre of Täntrika Buddhism after the 7th century A.D., while the Swat Valley was a centre of Tantric Buddhism long before 700 A.D.<ref name=":0" />

In ancient Indian literature the extreme north-western region of the country, especially Uddiyana, [[Gandhara]], [[Kapisi|Kapisa]] and [[Bactria|Tushara]], find frequent mention.<ref name=":0" /> A [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] inscription mentions a monk ''Jivaka Odiyanaka'', being the earliest epigraphic reference to Uddiyana.<ref name=":0" /> It is certainly not in Odisha or Odivisa. The Vihära of Huviska to which Jivaka Odiyanaka made gift of a pillar was in the north-west.<ref name=":0" /> Xuanzang entered India from the north-west route and his biographer clearly locates Udyana's capital in North-West.<ref name=":0" /> Faxian, who also came from that pass clearly says that Udyana lay in the north on the [[Swat River]].<ref name=":0" />

===Bactria===
Some scholars have identified Oddiyana with the region around [[Iran]] or the "Near Middle East". This is based mainly on the travelogue of the 16th-century Indian Buddhist monk, [[Buddhaguptanātha]], who identified Oddiyana with the city of [[Ghazni]] during his travels in the region in the 1530s. This identification was repeated by [[Herbert V. Günther]] who identifies Oddiyana with [[Bactria]] and the surrounding region.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Huber |first1=Toni |title=The Holy Land Reborn: Pilgrimage and the Tibetan Reinvention of Buddhist India |date=2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226356501 |page=417 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjzSpGf1eM0C&dq=Urgyan%C2%A0Uddiy%C4%81na+iran&pg=PA417}}</ref><ref>Cfr. Herbert V. Guenther, ''Wholeness Lost and Wholeness Regained. Forgotten Tales of Individualism from Ancient Tibet''. Albany, 1994, </ref> Gunther states Oddiyana to be the Sanskritised spelling of Urgyan and that the scholars of this region would have been exposed to ideas from other belief systems, including [[Gnosticism]] and [[Manichaeism]]. Aspects of [[Garab Dorje]]'s biography (a native of Urgyan) mirror parts of the legend of [[Moses]] and [[Jesus]]. This region would have been inhabited by groups including the [[Tocharians]] and the [[Sogdians]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Guenther |first1=Herbert |title=The Teachings of Padmasambhava |date=2023 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004644762 |pages=3–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOP7EAAAQBAJ&q=the+teachings+of+padmasambhava}}</ref>

=== Others ===
John Reynolds suggests that "perhaps Uddiyana is actually a name of a much wider geographical area than the Swat Valley alone, one embracing parts of [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and even [[Western Tibet]] (Zhang Zhung)."<ref>John M. Reynolds: ''The Golden Letters.'' Snow Lion, Ithaca, New York 1996, S. 211–212.</ref> While professor [[Lokesh Chandra]] has argued that Oddiyana was located further in [[South India]].<ref>Oḍḍiyāna: ''A New Interpretation.'' In: M. Aris, Aung San Suu Kyi: ''Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson.'' Warminster, 1980, S. 73–78.</ref>

==In Tibetan Buddhism==
Tibetan Buddhist traditions see Oḍḍiyāna as a source of many of their tantric teachings. It is seen as having been a land where Buddhist tantra flourished. Many lineages of Tibetan Buddhism are traced to this region, including Dzogchen (which began with the great siddha [[Garab Dorje]]). A number of Vajrayana and [[tantra|tantric]] practitioners are said to have stayed and practiced there. The first Vajrayana teachings were supposedly given there by [[Gautama Buddha]] at the request of the king.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nyingma.com/nyingma%20History.htm |title=Nyingma History |access-date=2007-09-28 |archive-date=2007-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102160330/http://www.nyingma.com/nyingma%20History.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to [[Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje|Dudjom Rinpoche]], the [[Classes of Tantra in Tibetan Buddhism|Mahayoga]] and Anuyoga tantras were first revealed in Oḍḍiyāna.<ref>Dorje, Jikdrel Yeshe ([[Dudjom Rinpoche]], author), & translated and edited: [[Gyurme Dorje]] and [[Matthew Kapstein]] (1991). ''The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History''. Boston, USA: Wisdom Publications. {{isbn|0-86171-199-8}}, p.460 History.</ref>

In Tibetan Buddhist literature, ''{{IAST|Oḍḍiyāna}}'' is described as being ruled by several kings each of whom were named [[Indrabhuti|Indrabhūti]].<ref name="keown" />

Oḍḍiyāna is also often conflated or identified with [[Shambhala]], a magical hidden land ([[beyul]]) land inhabited by [[dakini|''ḍākinī''s]] and inaccessible to or by ordinary mortals.<ref name="Mohanty2016">{{cite journal |author1=Bimalendu Mohanty |author2=Varish Panigrahi |date=2016 |title=Guru Padmasambhava of Odiyana (Odisha): The Founder of Lamaism in Tibet |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/jbs/pdf/JBS_34_08.pdf |journal=Journal of Bhutan Studies |volume=34}}</ref>

In the 'Seven Line Prayer' (of [[Padmasambhava]]) revealed in Jigme Lingpa's terma of the [[Ngöndro]] of the [[Longchen Nyingthig]] and throughout the Longchen Nyingtig Ngondro, Oddiyana is rendered in the form {{bo|t=ཨོ་རྒྱན|w=o rgyan}}.

== In Hinduism ==
In Tantric literature, Oddiyana is identified as a [[Shakta pithas|Shakta pitha]], alongside [[Tara Tarini Mandir|Purnagiri]], [[Kamakhya Temple|Kamarupa]] & [[Bajreshwari Mata Temple, Kangra|Jalandhar]], with [[Kubjika]] being its main goddess.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dines Chandra Sircar |url=http://archive.org/details/TheSaktaPithas |title=The Śākta Pīṭhas |date=1973}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [[Faxian]], ''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms'' ([[James Legge]] translation), [https://web.archive.org/web/20040817021350/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/f/f15l/chapter8.html Chapter 8]. (Online at the [[University of Adelaide]] Library)
* {{Cite thesis|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Sahis: An analysis of their history, archaeology, coinage and palaeography |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/11229 |publisher=Australian National University |date=January 1976 |language=en|first=Abdur|last=Rehman}}

[[Category:History of Buddhism in India]]
[[Category:Medieval history of India]]
[[Category:Buddhism in Odisha]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhist places]]
[[Category:Padmasambhāva]]

Chhawla forest

2025-12-24T14:00:22Z

Godrejsplende: made new article first draft...

{{short description|Forest area in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
'''Chhawla or Najafgarh drain city forest''' consists of forestry plantations near the town of [[Chhawla]] on both embankments of [[Najafgarh drain]], which is the delhi-end of [[Sahibi River]] originating from [[Aravalli Range]] mountain in [[Rajasthan]], flowing along the border of [[Haryana]] state and south west [[Delhi]] in India before converging with [[Yamuna]]. It provides refuge to local and migratory wildlife specially waterfowl and other water birds. The area is a subset of the entire Najafgarh drain in rural south west Delhi with forested plantations on both its embankments which has been proposed as the [[Najafgarh drain bird sanctuary]].

==History==
Delhi Chief Minister [[Sheila Dikshit]] inaugurated the city forest at Chhawla on the banks of the Najafgarh drain in South-West Delhi on Saturday 28 Jun 2008. Over 12,000 saplings were planted including 1,000 saplings by school children. In all, nine city forests in different parts of Delhi were set up and 18 lakh saplings were planted during that greening drive in Delhi. Chhawla city forest covers a 12-hectare terrain that originally belonged to the Irrigation and Flood Control Department and a boundary wall has been constructed around it.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080922143809/http://www.hindu.com/2008/06/29/stories/2008062960760300.htm Another city forest opened - Delhi will soon have 32 of them, says Sheila, New Delhi, 29 Jun 2008, The Hindu Newspaper]</ref><ref>[http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/doit_forest/Forest/Home/Forests+of+Delhi/Recorded+Forest RECORDED FORESTS (NOTIFIED FOREST AREAS IN DELHI)], Forest Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi, India</ref>

==Najafgarh drain or nullah==
{{Main|Najafgarh drain}}
The ''Najafgarh drain'' or ''Najafgarh Nallah'' (''nullah'' in [[Hindi]] means drain) is just another name for the [[River Sahibi]] which continues its flow through [[Delhi]], it is a [[tributary]] to River Yamuna in which it outfalls here. Within Delhi it is erroneously called "Najafgarh drain" or "Najafgarh Nallah"', it gets this name from the once famous and huge [[Najafgarh lake|Najafgarh Jheel (lake)]] near the town of [[Najafgarh]] in southwest Delhi and within urbanized Delhi it is the Indian Capital's most polluted water body due to direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. A January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board clubs this drain with 13 other highly polluted wetlands under category ‘‘D ’’ for assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats.<ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=138509 Blot across the Capital: Najafgarh most polluted]{{dead link|date=February 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, Sunday, 10 July 2005, ''[[The Indian Express]]''</ref><ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=118627 Environment minister raises a stink over Najafgarh jheel]{{dead link|date=February 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, 22 February 2005, ''The Indian Express''</ref><ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/najafgarh-basin-delhis-most-polluted-area/558870/ Najafgarh basin Delhi’s most polluted area], 25 Dec 2009, ''The Indian Express''</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110912184105/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-25/pollution/28101026_1_industrial-clusters-industrial-hubs-najafgarh-drain Najafgarh drain 11th among highly polluted industrial clusters], 25 Dec 2009, The [[Times of India]]</ref><ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=191225 Najafgarh drain causes less pollution in Yamuna now] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060711203254/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=191225 |date=11 July 2006 }}, 4 July 2006, ''The Indian Express''</ref>

==Forested embankments==
The Najafgarh drain has been much widened over the past decades and now has thick mud embankments on both its sides to channel the waters and protect Delhi from floods, these embankments have been planted with thick forest cover which serve as a much needed habitat for remnant local wildlife occurring in nearby and surrounding farmlands including common foxes, jackals, hares, wild cats, nilgai, porcupines and various reptiles and snakes including the dreaded cobras. Many local birds including waterbirds roost and nest in these trees.

Sections of the forested embankments of Najafgarh drain are currently classified as and are featured in [[Reserved forests and protected forests of India|Protected Forests]] and RECORDED FORESTS (NOTIFIED FOREST AREAS IN DELHI) as "M. P. Green area Najafgarh Drain (Tagore garden)", "Afforestation M.P.Green Area Najafgarh Drain (DDA)" and "Chhawla or Najafgarh drain city forest (29.64 Acre)".<ref>[http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/environment/Environment/Home/Achievements/ Plantation/Greening of Delhi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126100652/http://www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/environment/Environment/Home/Achievements |date=2011-11-26 }}, Department of Environment, Government of NCT of Delhi, India website, {{cite web |url=http://www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/e5d6a2804e0153e1b13cb53cf97f2eae/1-21.pdf?MOD%3DAJPERES |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-12-08 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006180249/http://www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/e5d6a2804e0153e1b13cb53cf97f2eae/1-21.pdf?MOD=AJPERES |archivedate=2011-10-06 }}</ref><ref>[http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/doit_forest/Forest/Home/Forests+of+Delhi/Recorded+Forest RECORDED FORESTS (NOTIFIED FOREST AREAS IN DELHI)], Forest Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi, India, [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:V48EOp-4YnsJ:www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/e5d6a2804e0153e1b13cb53cf97f2eae/1-21.pdf%3FMOD%3DAJPERES+delhi+airport+najafgarh+drain+birds&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgHf_kltmUAtbU59pAAd8gfGPh7wODG1CCLfjl10mvyx13jvqOPqupfaw7B_HFEgH_tBhpnmMkzZBR9MpQGK_CaKS-qA4gZ46MeDbzgyqhJT8t5nGtHTL34-jFb_650_OYmk7wP&sig=AHIEtbTcy0YSNcsWBtQ0OENviJMP0lIoIA]</ref><ref>[http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/doit_forest/Forest/Search+Results/ Search for Najafgarh drain on Forest Department, Government of NCT of Delhi, India website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317094505/http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/doit_forest/Forest/Search%2BResults/ |date=17 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20120805234949/http://www2.wii.gov.in/envis/paupdates/update39october2002.htm "Bird sanctuary proposed in Najafgarh" - PROTECTED AREA UPDATE, No. 39 October 2002, Kalpavriksh]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080922143809/http://www.hindu.com/2008/06/29/stories/2008062960760300.htm Another city forest opened - Delhi will soon have 32 of them, says Sheila, New Delhi, 29 Jun 2008, The Hindu Newspaper]</ref>

==Accessibility: Drivable road on embankment==
There is a well kept drivable inspection road maintained by Irrigation and Flood Control Department of Delhi on one of the drains embankment throughout its entire length of several kilometers running through rural Delhi from Dhansa regulators at the southwest border of Delhi with the state of [[Haryana]] to where the drain crosses under the [[Outer Ring Road, New Delhi|outer ring road]] at [[Keshopur bus depot]] near the Najafgarh road between the housing colonies of [[Vikaspuri]] and [[Tilak Nagar (Delhi)|Tilak Nagar]] in New Delhi.

Wildlife and waterbirds can be easily viewed from vehicles by driving on this road and stopping intermittently and going down to the waters edge. As the width of the drain is limited the flocks of waterfowl and other waterbirds in the drain can be easily observed from the drain's edges and this same fact makes the birds much more vulnerable to hunting as they remain in easy reach of the poacher's shotguns and the nets and traps set for them by local villagers and professional trappers.

==Najafgarh Bird Sanctuary and wetland ecosystem==
{{Main|Najafgarh drain bird sanctuary}}

'''Wetland ecosystem and wildlife habitat important to migratory waterbirds and local wildlife'''

The Najafgarh drain has been much widened over the years to drain all the water which in earlier decades use to collect in the Nagafgarh Jheel basin this was supposedly done to remove the threat of flooding in Delhi<ref>[http://www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/DoIT_Irrigation/irrigation+and+flood+control/extra2/flood+problem+due+to+sahibi+river Flood Problem due to Sahibi River, Department of Irrigation and Flood Control, Government of NCT of Delhi, India.]</ref><ref>[http://nidm.gov.in/idmc/Proceedings/Flood/B2%20-%2036.pdf URBAN FLOODING AND ITS MANAGEMENT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728104132/http://nidm.gov.in/idmc/Proceedings/Flood/B2%20-%2036.pdf|date=28 July 2011}}, [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:6RCf6feT6L8J:nidm.gov.in/idmc/Proceedings/Flood/B2%2520-%252036.pdf+najafgarh+drain+bird+sanctuary&hl=en&gl=ca&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShRph2jGl_G0dFzbS5a_OUkGEiqpZhbLqNGfwGXmlP69E8PNiOOdFM15qU-yV2k6Nle6a8XAY6ZOJiVnhNugqHSGk4_DxILmA2iVz0TuqOTg-Mn6LNzoSu_6yTVdUoRJlAz9PUT&sig=AHIEtbTNNyw4ZsXcvAUiFQ9nxaogGDulHg]</ref> and now the drain itself acts as an elongated water body or lake with trees planted on both its embankments with an inspection road running on one embankment. During the winter months it attracts vast quantities of migratory birds and also supports local wildlife yearlong. Due to the rich wildlife observed in and around the less polluted stretch of the drain outside of congested populated areas it has been proposed as a Bird Sanctuary for Delhi.<ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=40725 DTTDC to develop bird sanctuary near Najafgarh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415033834/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=40725 |date=15 April 2013 }}, 12 January 2003, ''The Indian Express''</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/article81562.ece Migratory birds are giving Delhi the go-by], 17 January 2010, [[The Hindu]]</ref><ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=197471 Najafgarh jheel may chirp again]{{dead link|date=February 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, 20 August 2006, ''The Indian Express''</ref>

The [[wetland]] [[ecosystem]] and [[wildlife habitat]] on several kilometers of less polluted Najafgarh drain in rural Delhi before entering the main city including the former ''Najafgarh lake'' or ''Najafgarh jheel'' area is very important habitat to [[bird migration|migratory]] [[waterbirds]] as well as local [[wildlife]] and has been earmarked to be declared a [[Bird sanctuary]] for Delhi. The area came to be recognized as an important wildlife habitat after a local naturalist studying the area during 1986-88 called attention to it recommending it to be conserved as a bird sanctuary after which the Delhi wildlife department posted 16 guards in the area to control illegal bird hunters including diplomats from various international embassies located in Delhi, India's capital. Delhi Administration officials were tasked with declaring about 25 km stretch of the drain in rural delhi, including where is passes through the core area of the now drained Najafgarh Lake, "protected" under the "Wildlife Act" after Lt.-Governor of Delhi Mr. H.L. Kapur was invited to the area for touring the site where he also heard accounts of local villagers about the rampant illegal hunting of waterbirds that went on here every year. The existing staff of the Flood Control and Irrigation Department numbering about 40 were also given the additional responsibility of protecting the wildlife on and around the drain.<ref>[A bird sanctuary for Delhi soon, By Nirupama Subramanian, Express News Service, City, New Delhi, 7 March 1988, Indian Express Newspaper]</ref><ref>[Flamingos flock to Capital, By N. Suresh, New Delhi, 7 January 1988, The Times of India]</ref><ref>[Down by the wetlands, on the wild side, Najafgarh drain, By Vivek Menon, 9 March 1991, Weekend, New Delhi, Indian Express Newspaper]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Arid Forest Research Institute]]
* [[Najafgarh drain bird sanctuary]]
* [[Najafgarh drain]]
* [[Masani barrage]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [https://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20071001/delhi.htm#10 Delhiites to cool off with aqua sports], New Delhi, 30 September 2007, Tribune News Service, The Tiribune, Chandigarh

{{coord|28.551|77.017|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chhawla or Najafgarh drain city forest}}
[[Category:Reserved forests of India]]
[[Category:Wetlands of India]]
[[Category:Wildlife sanctuaries in Delhi]]
[[Category:Urban forests in India]]
[[Category:Urban public parks]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Delhi]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 2008]]

Manjhi ministry

2025-12-21T14:29:47Z

Godrejsplende: started initial stub added tags

{{Short description|Government of Bihar, India (2014–15)}}
This is a list of ministers from [[Jitan Ram Manjhi]]'s cabinet, starting on 20 May 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jitan Ram Manjhi sworn-in as Bihar's new CM|url=https://www.oneindia.com/patna/jitan-ram-manjhi-sworn-in-as-bihars-new-cm-1451145.html|website=www.oneindia.com|access-date=21 June 2024}}</ref>

Following the JD(U)'s poor showing in the [[2014 Indian general election|2014 general election]], [[Nitish Kumar]] accepted responsibility for the defeat and resigned from the position of [[List of chief ministers of Bihar|Chief Minister]]. [[Jitan Ram Manjhi]], the Minister for SC and ST welfare in Nitish's cabinet,<ref name="Jiten Ram Reference3">{{cite news |last1=Mammen |first1=Matthew |title=Jitan Ram Manjhi, protégé who tried to be a man on his own |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/jitan-ram-manjhi-protege-who-tried-to-be-a-man-on-his-own/story-gJKaqgdFgmWueC7O68D3ML.html |access-date=22 February 2021 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=20 February 2015 |language=en}}</ref> replaced him as the 23rd [[List of Chief Ministers of Bihar|Chief Minister of Bihar]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-dalit-leader-jitan-ram-manjhi-to-be-new-cm-of-bihar-1989798 | title=Dalit leader Jitan Ram Manjhi to be new CM of Bihar | work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] | date=19 May 2014 | access-date=19 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The accidental Chief Minister
|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/Editorial-The-accidental-Chief-Minister/article59784420.ece|website=www.thehindu.com|access-date=21 June 2024}}</ref>
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}

{{Infobox government cabinet
|cabinet_number = 34th
|cabinet_type = Ministry
|jurisdiction = [[Bihar]]
|date_formed=20 May
2014
|date_dissolved=22 February
2015
|political_parties= {{Party index link| Janata Dal (United)}}
|outgoing_formation=
|incoming_formation=
|advice_and_consent2=
|advice_and_consent1=
|budget=
|legislature_term=5 years
|last_election=
|election=[[2010 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2010]]
|opposition_party= * {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
* {{Party index link| Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|opposition_leader=(20 May 2014 onwards)
*[[Nand Kishore Yadav]] ([[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Assembly]])
*[[Sushil Kumar Modi]] ([[Bihar Legislative Council|Council]])
|opposition_cabinet=
|legislature_status=[[Coalition government|Coalition]]
|total_number=
|former_members_number=
|members_number=24
|state_head=Governor [[D. Y. Patil]]
|government_head_history=
|government_head=[[Jitan Ram Manjhi]]
|caption=[[Jitan Ram Manjhi]] [[Hon'ble]] [[Chief Minister of Bihar]]
|image_size=150px|image=the Chief Minister of Bihar, Shri Jitan Ram Manjhi meeting the Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Power, Coal and New and Renewable Energy, Shri Piyush Goyal, in New Delhi on November 03, 2014 (cropped).jpg|incumbent=|flag_border=true|flag=
|previous=[[Third Nitish Kumar ministry]]
|successor=[[Fourth Nitish Kumar ministry]]}}

== Council of Ministers ==
{{Cabinet table start|hiderefcol=y}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=[[List of chief ministers of Bihar|Chief Minister]] [[List of ministers of home of Bihar|Home]] General Administration Cabinet Secretariat Vigilance Election Other departments not allocated to any Minister
|minister1=[[Jitan Ram Manjhi]]|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title= [[List of finance ministers of Bihar|Finance ]] Commercial Taxes Environment & Forest Minister of Energy Minister of Building Construction [[List of ministers of transport of Bihar|Minister of Transport]]
|minister1=[[Bijendra Prasad Yadav]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Water Resources Minister of Information & Public Relations
|minister1 = [[Vijay Kumar Chaudhary|Vijay Chaudhary]]
|minister1_party =Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart =20 May 2014
|minister1_termend =22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Parliamentary Affairs
|minister1=[[Shrawan Kumar (politician)|Shrawan Kumar]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Road Construction
|minister1=[[Lalan Singh]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Agriculture Minister of Minor Irrigation
|minister1=Narendra Singh
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Revenue & Land Reforms [[List of ministers of law of Bihar |Minister of Law]]
|minister1=[[Narendra Narayan Yadav]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister|title= [[List of Health Ministers of Bihar|Minister of Health & Family Welfare]]
|minister1=[[Damodar Rawat]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title= [[List of ministers of panchayati raj of Bihar|Minister of Panchayat Raj]]
|minister1=[[Vinod Prasad Yadav]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of BC & EBC Welfare Minister of Minority Welfare|minister1=[[Naushad Alam]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Rural Works
|minister1=[[Ramai Ram]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Industry Minister of Information Technology [[List of ministers of science and technology of Bihar |Minister of Science & Technology]]
|minister1=[[Jai Kumar Singh]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Disaster Management Minister of Sugarcane Industries
|minister1=[[Leshi Singh]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of SC/ST Welfare Minister of Food & Consumer Protection
|minister1=[[Shyam Rajak]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Urban Development & Housing
|minister1=[[Samrat Choudhary]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister|title=[[List of ministers of education of Bihar| Minister of Education]] [[List of ministers of transport of Bihar |Minister of Transport]]
|minister1=[[Brishin Patel]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Planning & Development
|minister1=Mahachandra Prasad Singh|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Social Welfare
|minister1=[[Parveen Amanullah]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister|title=Minister of Rural Development [[List of Co-operative ministers of Bihar|Minister of Co-operative]]
|minister1=[[Nitish Mishra]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Mines & Geology
|minister1=[[Shri Bhagwan Singh Kushwaha|Bhagwan Singh Kushwaha]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Animal & Fish Resources
|minister1=Baidyanath Sahni
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Labour Resources
|minister1= [[Dulal Chandra Goswami]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
* {{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Art, Culture & Youth Affairs|minister1= [[Ranju Geeta ]]
|minister1_party= Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
{{Cabinet table minister
|title=Minister of Tourism
|minister1= [[Bima Bharti ]]
|minister1_party=Janata Dal (United)
|minister1_termstart=20 May 2014
|minister1_termend=22 February 2015}}
|}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Bihar ministries]]
[[Category:Indian ministries established in 2014|Manjhi]]
[[Category:Indian ministries disestablished in 2015|Manjhi]]