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Murarai Assembly constituency

2026-05-07T07:11:48Z

FrancisClement: Adding New Stub

{{Short description|Constituency of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Murarai
| type = SLA
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300 | frame-height=300|frame-align=center | type=shape|from=Vidhan Sabha constituencies/West Bengal/Murarai.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Murarai Assembly Constituency
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Mosarraf Hossain]]
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]]
| alliance =
| latest_election_year = [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| district = [[Birbhum district|Birbhum]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Birbhum (Lok Sabha constituency)|Birbhum]]
| constituency_no = 294
| established = 1951
| electors = 252,004 (2026)
| reservation = None
| abolished =
}}

'''Murarai Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Birbhum district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Overview==

According to the [[Election Commission of India]], 252,004 voters were eligible to vote in the West Bengal assembly elections in Murarai. This includes 129,432 [[Male]], 122,571 [[Female]], and 1 [[third gender]].

As per orders of the Delimitation Commission, No. 294 Murarai Assembly constituency is composed of the following: [[Murarai I]] [[Community Development Block in India|CD Block]], and Amdole, Jajigram, Mitrapur, Nandigram, Paikar I and [[Paikar]] II [[gram panchayat]]s of [[Murarai II]] CD Block.<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web |url=http://ceowestbengal.nic.in/news_pdf/gazette123.pdf |title=Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 |access-date=26 September 2010 |publisher=Government of West Bengal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813092204/http://ceowestbengal.nic.in/news_pdf/gazette123.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2011}}</ref>

Murarai Assembly constituency is part of No. 42 [[Birbhum (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name =delimitation />

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Name
! colspan=2 | Party
|-
| [[1951 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1951]]
| Jogendra Narayan Das
| {{Full party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}
|-
| [[1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
! colspan="3" | ''Constituency abolished''
|-
| [[1962 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| [[Shamsuddin Ahammad]]
| {{Full party name with color|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
|-
| [[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan="3" | [[Bazle Ahmed]]
| {{Full party name with color|Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
| [[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
|-
| [[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| rowspan="6" | [[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=6}}
|-
| [[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|-
| [[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|-
| [[1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|-
| [[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
| [[1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|-
| [[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Qamre Elahi|Dr. Mohammed Qamre Elahi]]
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|-
| [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
| [[Noor Alam Chowdhury]]
| {{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
| [[Abdur Rahaman Liton]]
|-
| [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|rowspan=3|[[Mosarraf Hossain|Dr. Mosarraf Hossain]]
|-
| [[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
|}

==Election results==

===2026===
{{Election box begin|title=[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate=[[Mosarraf Hossain]]
|party=All India Trinamool Congress
|votes=96,902
|percentage=39.89
|change={{decrease}} 27.34
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Sanjibur Rahaman
|party=Indian National Congress
|votes= 59,197
|percentage= 24.37
|change={{increase}} 16.44
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Rinki Ghosh
|party=Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes= 58,664
|percentage= 24.15
|change= {{increase}} 2.01
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Md. Ali Reza Mandal
|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|votes= 13,137
|percentage= 5.41
|change= ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Tasir Sekh
|party=All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
|votes=6,326
|percentage= 2.60
|change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Hazrat Ali
|party=Indian Secular Front
|votes= 3,477
|percentage= 1.43
|change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Sajida Khatun
|party=Independent
|votes= 1,225
|percentage= 0.50
|change= ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Musaraf Shaikh
|party=Independent
|votes= 1,077
|percentage= 0.44
|change= ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Bancharam Mal
|party=Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)
|votes= 683
|percentage= 0.28
|change={{decrease}} 0.57
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=Dipak Rabidas
|party=Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes=638
|percentage= 0.26
|change={{decrease}} 0.49
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate=SK Amirul Islam
|party=Independent
|votes= 447
|percentage= 0.18
|change= ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|party=None of the above (India)
|votes= 1,166
|percentage= 0.48
|change= {{decrease}} 0.21
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes= 37705
|percentage= 15.52
|change= {{decrease}} 29.57
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes= 242939
|percentage= 96.40
|change= {{increase}} 13.51
}}
{{Election box registered electors| |reg. electors ={{formatnum:252004 }}
|percentage = 100%
|change = {{decrease}} 4.18
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
| winner = All India Trinamool Congress
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin|
| title=[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = All India Trinamool Congress
| candidate = [[Mosarraf Hossain]]
| votes = 146,496
| percentage = 67.23
| change = {{increase}} 19.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate= Debasish Roy
|votes=48,250
|percentage=22.14
|change={{increase}} 19.46
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Indian National Congress
|candidate=Asif Ekbal
|votes=17,287
|percentage=7.93
|change={{decrease}} 33.44
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Socialist Unity Centre of India
|candidate=Ansarul Saiekh
|votes=1,857
|percentage=0.85
|change={{increase}} 0.39
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate=Tarak Let
|votes=1,640
|percentage=0.75
|change={{increase}} 0.06
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party= Socialist Party (India, 2011)
| candidate=Samsul Miya
| votes=878
| percentage=0.40
| change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party= None of the above (India)
|candidate=None of the Above
|votes=1,509
|percentage=0.69
|change={{decrease}} 0.16
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes=98,246
|percentage=45.09
|change={{increase}} 19.72
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 217,991
|percentage = 82.89
|change ={{decrease}} 2.23
}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors ={{formatnum:262995}}
|percentage = 100
|change = {{increase}} 11.00
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser =Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =''N/A''
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin|
| title=[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = All India Trinamool Congress
| candidate = [[Abdur Rahaman Liton|Abdur Rahaman (Liton)]]
| votes = 94,661
| percentage = 47.51
| change = {{decrease}} 0.24
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Indian National Congress
|candidate= Ali Mortuza Khan
| votes=94,381
|percentage=47.37
|change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate=Hayatunninsh Bibi
|votes=5,353
|percentage=2.68
|change={{decrease}} 0.36
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate=Belal Sekh
|votes=1,376
|percentage=0.69
|change={{decrease}} 1.20
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Socialist Unity Centre of India
|candidate=Mangal Hemram
|votes=917
|percentage=0.46
|change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=Rashtriya Lok Dal
|candidate=Samshul Miya
|votes=866
|percentage=0.43
|change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above (India)
|candidate=None of the Above
|votes=1,689
|percentage=0.85
|change=''New''
}}
{{Election box majority||votes=280|percentage=0.14 |change={{decrease}} 0.24}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 199235
|percentage = 85.12
|change ={{decrease}} 0.96
}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors ={{formatnum:234078}}
|percentage = 100
|change = {{increase}} 19.12
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===

{{Election box begin | title=[[2011 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal assembly elections, 2011]]: Murarai<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS25294.htm |title=Murarai |work=Assembly Elections May 2011 Results |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=28 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=294 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529224048/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=294 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=29 May 2012 |title=West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work=Murarai |publisher=Empowering India |access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceowestbengal.nic.in/mis_pdf/election_2011/canddtl_2nd_phase.pdf |title=West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work=Murarai |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030419/http://www.ceowestbengal.nic.in/mis_pdf/election_2011/canddtl_2nd_phase.pdf |archive-date=12 September 2011}}</ref> }}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Noor Alam Chowdhury|Nure Alam Chowdhury]]
|votes = 77,817
|percentage = 47.75
|change = {{increase}} 44.43
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate =[[Qamre Elahi|Dr. Qamre Elahi]]
|votes = 73,414
|percentage = 45.05
|change = {{decrease}} 2.65
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sudhiranjan Das Goswami
|votes = 4,961
|percentage = 3.04
|change =''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Shiblal Sardar
|votes = 3,074
|percentage = 1.89
|change ={{decrease}} 0.03
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Md. Ejrail
|party = Independent
|votes = 2,471
|percentage = 1.52
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Janata Party
|candidate = Mir Mukid Hazi Rekib
|votes = 1,228
|percentage = 0.75
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box majority||votes=4,403|percentage=2.70 |change= {{increase}} 0.05}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 162,965
|percentage = 86.08
|change = {{decrease}} 1.30
}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors ={{formatnum:189320}}
|percentage = 100
|change = {{increase}} 21.59
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2006===
{{Election box begin|title=[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate =[[Qamre Elahi|Dr. Qamre Elahi]]
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|votes = 61876
|percentage = 47.70
|change = {{increase}} 1.07
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate =[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 57657
|percentage = 44.45
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||
party=All India Trinamool Congress |
| candidate=Golam Mujtoba (pintu)
| votes=4314
| percentage=3.32
| change= {{decrease}} 41.54
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate =Mangal Hemram
|party = Independent
|votes = 3375
|percentage = 2.60
|change =''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party=Bahujan Samaj Party|
candidate=Adhir Rabidas
| votes=2494
| percentage=1.92
| change=''New''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 4219
|percentage = 3.25
|change = {{increase}} 1.07
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 129716
|percentage = 87.38
|change = {{increase}} 7.72
}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors ={{formatnum:148450}}
|percentage = 100
|change = {{increase}} 5.37
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box end}}
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===2001===
{{Election box begin|title=[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate =[[Qamre Elahi|Dr. Qamre Elahi]]
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|votes = 52186
|percentage = 46.63
|change = {{increase}} 1.87
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||
party=All India Trinamool Congress|
| candidate=[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]]
| votes=50205
| percentage=44.86
| change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Nanda Kishore Mondal
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 4180
|percentage = 3.74
|change = {{increase}} 0.03}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Rafiqual Hossain
|party = Independent
|votes = 2734
|percentage = 2.44
|change =''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party= Party of Democratic Socialism (India)
| candidate= Durgadas Ghosh
| votes=2605
| percentage=2.33
| change=''New''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1981
|percentage = 1.77
|change = {{increase}} 1.87
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 111910
|percentage = 79.66
|change ={{decrease}} 6.75
}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors ={{formatnum:140475}}
|percentage = 100
|change = {{increase}} 3.42
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =''N/A''
}}
{{Election box end}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1996===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]] defeated Moyazzem Hossain of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]].
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1991===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]] defeated Durgadas Ghosh of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1987===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]] defeated Durgadas Ghosh of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1982===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]] defeated Matiur Rahman of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1977===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]] defeated [[Bazle Ahmed]] of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1972===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]] defeated [[Bazle Ahmed]] of [[Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)|SUCI]] .<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1971===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Bazle Ahmed]] of [[Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)|SUCI]] defeated [[Md. Mansural Hague]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1969===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Bazle Ahmed]] of [[Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)|SUCI]] defeated [[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]] .<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1967===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Bazle Ahmad]] of [[Independent politician|Independent]] defeated [[Motahar Hossain (Indian politician)|Dr. Motahar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1962===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1962 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Shamsuddin Ahammad]] of [[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|RSP]] defeated [[Md. Yeaqub Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1957===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

[[Constituency abolished]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

===1951===
[[Next West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1951 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Murarai

In independent India's first election [[Jogendra Narayan Das]] of [[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party|KMPP]] defeated [[Muddasar Hossain]] of [[Indian National Congress|INC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=294 – Murarai Assembly Constituency |work=Partywise Comparison Since 1977 |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=1 October 2010}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}

{{West Bengal elections}}

[[Category:1951 establishments in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:Politics of Birbhum district]]

Maharashtra Public Service Commission

2026-05-05T12:23:00Z

FrancisClement:

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{short description|State government agency}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Maharashtra Public Service Commission
| image = Seal of Maharashtra.svg
| caption =
| abbreviation = MPSC
| type = [[Constitutional body]]
| purpose = Recruitment
| headquarters = Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| location = Trishul Gold Field, Plot Number 34, Sarovar Vihar Lake, Sector 11, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai - 400 614, Maharashtra
| region_served = Maharashtra
| language = Marathi and English.
| leader_title = Chairman
| leader_name = Shri. Vivek Bhimanwar
| parent_organization = [[Government of Maharashtra]]
| affiliations =
| website = {{URL|www.mpsc.gov.in}}
}}
The '''Maharashtra Public Service Commission''' ('''MPSC''') is a [[government body]] of the state of [[Maharashtra]], India.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-12-29 |title=Maharashtra Public Service Commission exam changes to be applied from March 1, 2026 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/maharashtra-public-service-commission-exam-changes-to-be-applied-from-march-1-2026/articleshow/126218754.cms |access-date=2026-03-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> It is created under provisions of the [[Constitution of India]], responsible for the recruitment of candidates for various state government jobs through [[competitive examination]]s, and the rules of reservation. It conducts various examinations to do the recruitments.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-26 |title=Maharashtra Public Service Commission prelims postponed to November 9 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/maharashtra-public-service-commission-prelims-postponed-to-november-9-10273334/ |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Maharashtra Public Service Commission Group B Prelims Result 2025 Released |url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/maharashtra-public-service-commission-group-b-prelims-result-2025-out-at-on-mpsc-gov-in-8-179-candidates-shortlisted-for-mains-check-cut-offs-8453563 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250620135852/https://www.ndtv.com/education/maharashtra-public-service-commission-group-b-prelims-result-2025-out-at-on-mpsc-gov-in-8-179-candidates-shortlisted-for-mains-check-cut-offs-8453563 |archive-date=2025-06-20 |access-date=2026-03-15 |work=NDTV |language=en}}</ref> The headquarters of the MPSC is located at the state capital [[Navi Mumbai]].

Maharashtra Public Service Commission (MPSC) is a Constitutional Body established Under Article 315 of Constitution of India which provides a smooth and efficient functioning of the Government of Maharashtra by providing suitable candidates for various Government posts and advise them on various service matters like formulation of Recruitment Rules, advise on promotions, transfers and disciplinary actions etc.

==See also==
* [[Madhya Pradesh Public Service Commission|MPPSC]]
* [[Union Public Service Commission|UPSC]]
* [[Uttar Pradesh Public Service Commission|UPPSC]]
* [[Public service commissions in India|List of Public service commissions in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|www.mpsc.gov.in}}

{{Standardized tests in India}}
{{Public Service Commissions in India}}
{{Public Services of India}}
{{Indian military academies and colleges}}
{{Government of India|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:State agencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:State public service commissions of India]]
[[Category:Year of establishment missing]]

Iratta

2026-05-04T12:24:17Z

FrancisClement: Put Up A Info From Scratch

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Iratta
| image = Iratta.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Film poster
| director = Rohit M. G. Krishnan
| writer = Rohit M. G. Krishnan
| producer = [[Joju George]] [[Martin Prakkat]] Sijo Vadakkan
| starring = Joju George [[Anjali (actress)|Anjali]] Arya Salim [[Srikant Murali]]
| cinematography = Vijay
| editing = Manu Antony
| music = [[Jakes Bejoy]]
| studio = Appu Pathu Pappu Production House Martin Prakkat Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2023|2|3}}
| runtime = 111 minutes
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Iratta''''' ({{Translation|Twin}}) is a 2023 [[Malayalam-language]] [[crime thriller film]] written and directed by Rohit M. G. Krishnan, featuring [[Joju George]] in dual roles, [[Anjali (actress)|Anjali]], [[Arya Salim]] and [[Srikant Murali]].<ref name="The Hindu1"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=1 March 2023 |title=Iratta OTT Release Date: When And Where To Watch Joju George's Malayalam Thriller |url=https://www.thedailyjagran.com/entertainment/iratta-ott-release-date-when-and-where-to-watch-joju-georges-malayalam-thriller-10067144 |access-date=5 March 2023 |newspaper=[[Dainik Jagran]] |language=en}}</ref> The film revolves around the death of a policeman during duty hours at [[Vagamon]] police station and the investigation that follows by his estranged twin brother.

==Plot==
The film begins with the murder of 52-year-old [[Assistant sub-inspector of police|ASI]] Vinod Kumar, the twin brother of [[Deputy Superintendent of Police|DYSP]] Pramod. There are three suspects in the murder: ASI John, [[Civil Police Officer (Kerala)|CPO]] Bineesh, and SCPO Sandeep. All three worked with Vinod at the [[Vagamon]] police station and held ill-will towards Vinod, due to different incidents. It is revealed through the incidents, narrated by the trio individually, that Vinod was a drunkard and womaniser. Bineesh narrates how he once caught Vinod coming out of a lodge room after raping a 17-year-old girl in an inebriated state.

Pramod is a recovered alcoholic, who is now sober but is separated from his wife, Sreeja, and daughter. Unable to withstand his drunkard behaviour, Sreeja had left for [[Mumbai]] with their newborn daughter. Pramod recalls his and Vinod's childhood. The two brothers grew up in the same household with an abusive and absent father, who was a police [[constable]]. One day, their parents had a violent fight over their father's [[infidelity]]. This causes their parents' separation. Pramod stays with their mother, while Vinod is forcibly taken away by their father. This fuels Vinod's resentment towards Pramod and their mother, as he feels betrayed and left alone to face their father's abuse. One day, a few people hack their father to death, after he tried to sleep with an underaged girl and molest her. Years later, both the twins become police officers, but take different paths. Pramod starts as a [[sub-Inspector]] and eventually becomes a respected and honest Deputy Superintendent of Police (DYSP), while Vinod started as a [[constable]] and becomes a violent and street-smart Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI).

At present, [[Deputy superintendent of police|DYSP]] Satheesh, who has close ties with Vinod, leads the investigation. He also doubts Pramod, as he is aware of the duo's past and hatred towards each other. This is further fueled by the statement of Vinod's lover, Malini, who recently came into his life and changed him for the better. Hence, Pramod is kept away from the investigation initially, but he requests to take over the case. He quickly proceeds with the investigation, and it turns out that all the three suspects have legitimate alibis. He then finds camera footage from a media personnel recording, in which he sees two children playing [[cricket]] with their dog in the nearby field. Upon contacting them, it is revealed that Vinod actually committed suicide by [[Multiple gunshot suicide|shooting 3 times]] on his chest and one of them witnessed it while picking up their cricket ball.

Puzzled and shocked by the new discovery, Pramod starts to look into the motive for Vinod's suicide, especially since it seemed as though he was very happy after Malini had come into his life. At this point, a few constables receive the footage of the music reality show that Vinod was watching just before he committed suicide. Pramod sees Sreeja in the audience and realises that his grown-up daughter Swetha is one of the participants. Pramod suspects the worst and confirms the identity of the minor girl raped by Vinod in the lodge with the reality show and realises that the girl was Swetha. Pramod infers that Vinod realised that he raped his own niece and unable to bear the guilt, he committed suicide.

The film ends with Sreeja trying to reconnect with Pramod, after hearing of Vinod's death. However, he strictly instructs her not to tell Swetha about him or ever show her his face, as she has unknowingly "seen" her father's face on that unfortunate night at the lodge. Pramod, unknowingly, has to now atone for the sins of both Vinod, their father and also his mistakes done to Sreeja.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Joju George]] in a [[dual role]] as:
** [[Sub Inspector of Police |SI]]/[[Deputy Superintendent of Police|DYSP]] Pramod Kumar
***Sabarinath Shyam as Young Pramod
** [[Head Constable]]/[[Assistant Sub-Inspector of Police|ASI]] Vinod Kumar
***Kashinath Shyam as Young Vinod
* [[Anjali (actress)|Anjali]] as Malini
* [[Arya Salim]] as [[Superintendent of Police|SP]] Savitha Sathyan [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]
* [[Srikant Murali]] as [[Deputy Superintendent of Police|DYSP]] Satheesh Chandran
* [[Abhiram Radhakrishnan]] as [[Civil Police Officer (Kerala)|CPO]] Bineesh
* [[Sabumon Abdusamad]] as SCPO Sandeep
* Manoj K. U. as [[Assistant Sub-Inspector of Police|ASI]] John
* [[Srindaa]] as Minister Geetha Rajendran
* Meenakshi Dinesh as Swetha
* Sreeja Ajith as Sreeja Ram
* Sruthy Suresh as WCPO
* [[Pooja Mohanraj]] as [[Head constable|SCPO]] Amrutha
* [[Shebin Benson]] as Bobby
* James Eliya as Dr. James
* Sarath Sabha as Sabu
* [[Sruthy Jayan]] as Saradha
* [[Kichu Tellus]] as Chandran Pillai
* Abhilash Vijay as [[Civil Police Officer|CPO]] Abhilash
* Dhanesh Anand as [[Journalist|Chanel Reporter]]
* Deepu G Panicker as [[Sub-Inspector|SI]] Arun Nath
* Samson Mathew Valiyaparambil as [[Director General of Police|DGP]]
* Jithu Asharef as Samson Wilfred
}}

==Release and reception==
The film released in theatres in [[Kerala]] on 3 February 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Vignesh Madhu |title=Joju's Iratta gets a new release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/jan/28/jojus-iratta-gets-a-new-release-date-39374.html |access-date=5 March 2023 |work=[[Cinema Express]] |date=28 January 2023}}</ref> It had its theatrical release outside Kerala on 17 February 2023, and had its digital premiere on [[Netflix]] on 3 March 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=Emotional journey, Joju in acting excellence; 'Iratta' releases outside Kerala today |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/emotional-journey-joju-in-acting-excellence-iratta-releases-outside-kerala-today-1.8318908 |access-date=5 March 2023 |work=[[Mathrubhumi]] |date=17 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Vignesh Madhu |title=Joju George's Iratta gets OTT release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/mar/01/joju-georges-iratta-gets-ott-release-date-40511.html |access-date=5 March 2023 |work=[[Cinema Express]] |date=1 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Joju George starrer 'Iratta' gets an OTT release date |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/joju-george-starrer-iratta-gets-an-ott-release-date/articleshow/98328128.cms |access-date=5 March 2023 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Iratta Ott Release: ജോജു ജോർജിന്റെ 'ഇരട്ട' ഒടിടിയിലെത്താൻ മണിക്കൂറുകൾ മാത്രം; എപ്പോൾ, എവിടെ കാണാം? |url=https://zeenews.india.com/malayalam/movies/iratta-movie-ott-release-update-joju-george-starrer-movie-will-start-streaming-within-hours-on-netflix-129036/amp |access-date=5 March 2023 |publisher=[[Zee News]]}}</ref>

The film received positive reviews. S. R. Praveen of ''[[The Hindu]]'' opined that "Joju George's double act and a gut-wrenching climax" redeems the otherwise "average police procedural."<ref name="The Hindu1">{{cite news |last1=S. R. Praveen |title='Iratta' movie review: Joju George's double act and a gut-wrenching climax redeems this police procedural |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/iratta-movie-review-joju-georges-double-act-and-a-gut-wrenching-climax-redeems-this-police-procedural/article66467216.ece |access-date=5 March 2023 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=3 February 2023}}</ref> A reviewer from ''[[Malayala Manorama]]'' noted that the film is an "emotional, suspense-filled thriller," and "yet another excellent cinema in Malayalam."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tony |title='Iratta' movie review: Joju shines in this emotional, suspense-filled thriller |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/2023/02/07/iratta-joju-dual-roles-rohit-m-g-krishnan-crime-investigation.html |access-date=5 March 2023 |work=[[Malayala Manorama]] |date=7 February 2023}}</ref> Rating the film 4/5, a reviewer from ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote, "''Iratta'' is a movie that draws you in, steals your breath and leaves you with pain."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Anjana George |title=Iratta |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/iratta/movie-review/97585648.cms |access-date=5 March 2023 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=3 February 2023}}</ref> ''[[Telangana Today]]'' praised Joju George's ability to bring out the different exposure and exhibition of the two characters.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=11 March 2023 |title=Iratta Movie Review: An unpredicted ending is brilliant writing by Radha Krishnan |pages=1 |work=[[Telangana Today]] |url=https://telanganatoday.com/iratta-movie-review-an-unpredicted-ending-is-brilliant-writing |access-date=11 March 2023}}</ref> Saketh Reddy Eleti of [[ABP News|ABP Desam]] rates this Movie 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "Iratta is an Excellent thriller with a Disturbing Twist." He praised Joju George's performance as Pramod and Vinod.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eleti |first=Saketh Reddy |date=2023-03-10 |title=బుర్ర పాడు చేసే డిస్టర్బింగ్ ట్విస్ట్‌తో వచ్చిన లేటెస్ట్ మలయాళం మూవీ 'ఇరట్టా' – ఎలా ఉందంటే? |url=https://telugu.abplive.com/movie-review/entertainment/malayalam-latest-crime-thriller-iratta-movie-review-starring-joju-george-81837 |access-date=2023-03-19 |website=telugu.abplive.com |language=te}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Netflix title}}
*{{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2023 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:2020s police procedural films]]
[[Category:2023 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2023 crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Jakes Bejoy]]
[[Category:Twins in Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian police films]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Kerala Police]]
[[Category:Films shot in Idukki]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian nonlinear narrative films]]

Vijay Chendoor

2026-05-04T01:42:50Z

FrancisClement: created basic post v1 - done

{{short description|Indian actor and writer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vijay Chendoor
| image =
| birth_place =
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|writer}}
| yearsactive = 2008{{ndash}}present
}}
'''Vijay Chendoor''' is an Indian actor and writer who works in [[Kannada]]-language films.

== Career ==
Vijay Chendoor worked as a writer for the film ''[[Rocky (2008 film)|Rocky]]'' (2008) before making his acting debut with ''[[Swayam Krushi (2011 film)|Swayam Krushi]]'' (2011) for which he also worked as the assistant director. Yash, whom he worked with in ''Rocky'', recommended that Chendoor stars in his film ''[[Lucky (2012 Kannada film)|Lucky]]'' (2012).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/monjunath-is-caught-between-the-devil-and-the-deep-sea-vijay-chendoor/articleshow/62082426.cms|title=Monjunath is caught between the devil and the deep sea: Vijay Chendoor|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=16 December 2017|first=Mohammed|last=Waseem}}</ref> He garnered recognition for his role as Thigne in the horror film ''[[6-5=2]]'' (2013).<ref name="A">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2018/jan/09/nograjs-side-kicks-vijay-and-sumukhi-are-kick-ass-in-humble-politician-1749202.html|title=Nograj's side kicks Vijay and Sumukhi are kick-ass in Humble Politician|work=[[New Indian Express]]|last=Sharadhaa|first=A.|date=9 January 2018}}</ref> Regarding his role in the horror film ''[[Karvva]]'' (2016), a critic noted that "Tilak as the rich brat, Rohith as the smart conman and Vijay Chandour as the entertaining dubbing artiste ensure they keep the audience hooked with their performances".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/karvva/movie-review/52476763.cms|title=Karvva Movie Review {4/5}: Critic Review of Karvva by Times of India|via=timesofindia.indiatimes.com}}</ref> He went on to star in ''[[Humble Politician Nograj]]'' (2018) as Nograj's peon Manjunath.<ref name="A"/> One critic stated that "One of the best points about the film is the combination of Nograj and Monjunath — Danish Sait and Vijay Chendoor. The chemistry and timing that the two share is commendable".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/humble-politiciann-nogaraj/movie-review/62469836.cms|title=Humble Politiciann Nograj Movie Review {3/5}: Critic Review of Humble Politician Nograj by The Times of India|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=12 January 2018|last=Suresh|first=Sunayana}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
=== As an actor ===
*''All films are in Kannada, unless otherwise noted.''
{| class="wikitable"
|+Key
| style="background:#FFFFCC;"| {{dagger|alt=Films that have not yet been released}}
| Denotes films that have not yet been released
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Swayam Krushi (2011 film)|Swayam Krushi]]'' || ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Lucky (2012 Kannada film)|Lucky]]'' || ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[6-5=2]]'' || Kumar (Thigne) ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2015 || ''[[Krishna Leela (2015 film)|Krishna Leela]]'' || Bawa ||
|-
|''Kanchana''|| ||
|-
| rowspan="3"|2016 || ''[[Tyson (2016 film)|Tyson]]'' || ||
|-
|''Matte Shh'' || ||
|-
|''[[Karvva]]'' || Chandru ||
|-
| rowspan="5"|2017 || ''[[Jilebi (2017 film)|Jilebi]]'' || ||
|-
|-
| ''Psycho Shankara'' || ||
|-
| ''Nan Magale Heroine'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pataki (film)|Pataki]]'' || Constable ||
|-
| ''[[Once More Kaurava]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="6"|2018 || ''[[Humble Politician Nograj]]'' || Monjunath || Nominated{{Emdash}}[[8th South Indian International Movie Awards|SIIMA Award for Best Comedian]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelivemirror.com/siima-2019-nominations-complete-list/|title=SIIMA 2019 Nominations: See Full List Of Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam & Kannada Film Industry|work=The Live Mirror|date=19 July 2019|last=Khandelwal|first=Stuti}}</ref>
|-
| ''Manjari'' || ||
|-
| ''Padarasa ''|| ||
|-
| ''[[Rajasimha (film)|Rajasimha]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Karshanam'' || ||
|-
|''[[Buckasura]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="5"|2019 || ''Traya'' || ||
|-
| ''Howla Howla'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Gimmick (film)|Gimmick]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Odeya (film)|Odeya]]'' || College security guard ||
|-
| ''[[Avane Srimannarayana]]'' || Sudhakara ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2020 || ''[[Gentleman (2020 film)|Gentleman]]'' || Auto driver ||
|-
| ''[[Bheemasena Nalamaharaja]]'' || Kenda ||
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Govinda Govinda (2021 film)|Govinda Govinda]]'' || Hari Dodkunde ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2022
| ''[[Home Minister (film)|Home Minister]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Shubhamangala (2022 film)|Shubhamangala]]'' || Pre-wedding videography director ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2023
|''[[Spooky College]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[South Indian Hero]]''
| Director
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2024 || ''[[Appa I Love You]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Abbabba]]'' ||Kempanna||
|-
|''[[Max (2024 film)|Max]]'' || Constable Govind ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2025 || ''[[Choo Mantar]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Arasayyana Prema Prasanga]]'' || ||
|}

=== Web series ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Platform
|-
|2022
|''[[Humble Politiciann Nograj (TV series)|Humble Politiciann Nograj]]''
|Monjunath
|[[Voot]]
|}

=== As writer ===
*''[[Rocky (2008 film)|Rocky]]'' (2008)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|5964116}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chendoor, Vijay}}
[[Category:Male actors from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Neelam Kumar Langeh

2026-05-03T10:11:26Z

FrancisClement: Adding New Biography

{{Short description|Kashmiri politician (born 1980)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
'''Neelam Kumar Langeh''' (born 1980) is an Indian politician from [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He was an MLA from [[Ramban Assembly constituency]] which is reserved for Scheduled Caste community in [[Ramban district]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Government committed to strengthen education system in Ramban: Langeh - Early Times Newspaper Jammu Kashmir |url=https://www.earlytimes.in/newsdet.aspx?q=234935 |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=www.earlytimes.in}}</ref> He won the [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite news | date=2024-08-26 |title=J&K assembly elections 2024: BJP releases first list of 15 candidates for Jammu and Kashmir Assembly elections in three phases. |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jammu-and-kashmir-assembly/bjp-names-44-candidates-for-jk-assembly-polls/article68567770.ece |access-date=2024-09-21 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jammu & Kashmir Assembly Elections 2024 {{!}} Battle lines drawn in Chenab valley |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/jammu-and-kashmir/jammu-kashmir-assembly-elections-2024-battle-lines-drawn-in-chenab-valley-3172486 |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Langeh is from Maitra, Govindpura tehsil, [[Ramban district|Ramban]] district, Jammu and Kashmir. He is the son of Rubeela Ram.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Abstract statement of election expenses | url=https://ceojk.nic.in/LAEEXP2014/AC55EXP/Neelam-Kumar-Langeh.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511112158/https://ceojk.nic.in/LAEEXP2014/AC55EXP/Neelam-Kumar-Langeh.pdf | archive-date=2021-05-11}}</ref> He completed his Class 12 at J.K. Bose College in 1998 and joined B.A. in a college affiliated with University of Jammu but discontinued his studies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neelam Kumar Lahgeh(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- RAMBAN (SC)(RAMBAN) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/jk2014/candidate.php?candidate_id=146 |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Langeh won from Ramban Assembly constituency representing the Bharatiya Janata Party in the [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]]. He polled 25,349 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Chaman Lal of [[Jammu and Kashmir National Conference]], by a margin of 5,364 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-10 |title=क्या रामबन में बीजेपी कायम रख पाएगी दबदबा? जानें क्या रहे हैं अब तक के परिणाम |url=https://www.jansatta.com/national/jammu-kashmir-election-2024-ramban-assembly-election-seat-bjp-neelam-kumar-langeh-congress-jk-vidhana-sabha-chunav-seat/3567164/ |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=Jansatta |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Langeh, Neelam Kumar}}
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2014–2018]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:People from Ramban district]]

Madhav Ramanuj

2026-05-01T04:22:21Z

FrancisClement: Adding A Page

{{Infobox writer 
| name = Madhav Ramanuj
| image = Madhav ramanuj.jpg
| caption = Madhav Ramanuj at [[Gujarati Vishwakosh|Gujarati Vishwakosh Trust]], April 2015
| birth_name = Madhav Odhavdas Ramanuj
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1945|4|22|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Ahmedabad district|Pachchham]], [[Bombay Presidency]], [[British India]]
| occupation = Poet, Writer
| language = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| nationality = [[India]]n
| education = Diploma of Arts
| alma_mater = Sheth C. N. College of Fine Arts
| period = Modern [[Gujarati literature]]
| genre =
| subject =
| movement =
| notableworks = {{plainlist|
* ''Tame'' (1972)
* ''Anahadnu Ekant'' (2013)
* ''Suryapurush'' (1997, 1999)}}
| spouse = Lalita
| children = Deepti, Neha
| awards = * [[Narsinh Mehta Award]] (2012)
* [[Sahitya Gaurav Puraskar]] (2016)
| signature = Madhav Ramanuj autograph.svg
| years_active =
| website = {{official website}}
}}

'''Madhav Odhavdas Ramanuj''' (born 22 April 1945) is an Indian [[Gujarati language|Gujarati-language]] poet and writer from [[Gujarat]], India.<ref name="The Indian Express 20162">{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/noted-gujarati-writer-madhav-ramanuj-gets-sahitya-academy-award-2838283/|title=Noted Gujarati writer Madhav Ramanuj gets Sahitya Academy award|date=2016-06-07|website=The Indian Express|access-date=2016-06-14|archive-date=2016-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607105551/http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/noted-gujarati-writer-madhav-ramanuj-gets-sahitya-academy-award-2838283/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Tame'' (1972) and ''Anahadnu Ekant'' (2013) are his collections of poems. He received the [[Narsinh Mehta Award]] (2012) and [[Sahitya Gaurav Puraskar]] (2016) for his contribution in [[Gujarati literature]].<ref name="DNA20162">{{cite web|url=http://dnasyndication.com/showarticlerss.aspx?nid=A3dPulsN4/FysjQxdKet8rPno32ew8TxoBMZc7i8wv9uTWUQ=|title=Madhav Ramanuj gets Guj Gaurav Puraskar|date=2016-06-13|website=DNA|access-date=2016-06-14|archive-date=2016-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807060830/http://dnasyndication.com/showarticlerss.aspx?nid=A3dPulsN4/FysjQxdKet8rPno32ew8TxoBMZc7i8wv9uTWUQ=|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Ramanuj was born in Pachchham, a village in [[Ahmedabad district]] of the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. His father was Odhavdas Ramanuj. He completed the Diploma of Arts in Applied Arts from Sheth C. N. College of Fine Arts in 1973. He joined the same college as professor of Applied Arts in 1973, and retired as the principal of the same college. He became an editor of ''Akhand Anand'' in 1969. He worked with publication house, Vora and Co. in 1969-70. He designed books covers for R. R. Sheth & Co. from 1970 to 1973.

He served as the president of Gandharv Sangeet Vidyalaya Trust, Ahmedabad and [[Gujarati Sahitya Parishad]]. He was an adviser of [[Doordarshan]], Ahmedabad.<ref name="agsi2">{{cite book|title=અર્વાચીન ગુજરાતી સાહિત્યનો ઈતિહાસ - આધુનિક અને અનુઆધુનિક યુગ (History of Modern Gujarati Literature – Modern and Postmodern Era)|last=Brahmabhatt|first=Prasad|publisher=Parshwa Publication|year=2010|isbn=978-93-5108-247-7|location=Ahmedabad|pages=115–116|language=gu}}</ref><ref name="Madhav Ramanuj, Gujarati Sahitya Parishad2">{{cite web|url=http://gujaratisahityaparishad.com/prakashan/sarjako/savishesh/Savishesh-Madhav-Ramanuj.html|title=સવિશેષ પરિચય: માધવ રામાનુજ, ગુજરાતી સાહિત્ય પરિષદ|website=Madhav Ramanuj, Gujarati Sahitya Parishad|language=gu|access-date=2016-06-14}}</ref> He worked as head of the Human Resource Department of Institute Kidney Diseases and Research Centre (IKDRC) at Ahmedabad. He set up the 'Kidney Theatre' group at IKDRC, which organises plays for awareness on kidney related ailments.<ref name="DNA20162" />

== Works ==
[[File:Chinu_Modi_Madhav_Ramanuj_Rajendra_Shukla_Chandrakant_Sheth.jpg|thumb|[[Chinu Modi]] on mic, than [[Chandrakant Sheth]], [[Rajendra Shukla (poet)|Rajendra Shukla]] and Madhav Ramanuj at [[Vallabh Vidyanagar]], 1992]]
''Tame'' (You; 1972), ''Aksharnu Ekant'' (1997) and ''Anahadnu Ekant'' (2013) are his collections of poems. ''Pinjarni Aarpar'' (1990) is his biographical novel about [[Reuben David]], who was the founder of the Ahmedabad Zoo. ''Suryapurush'' (1997, 1999) is his two parts biographical novel about [[Chimanbhai Patel]], the former [[Chief Minister of Gujarat]].<ref name="agsi2" />

He wrote lyrics for songs of [[Gujarati cinema|Gujarati films]]. He won state prizes for ''Pithi Pili Ne Rang Rato'' (1974) and ''Derani Jethani'' (1999).<ref name="agsi2" />

His plays include ''Rag-Vairag'' (2000) and ''Akshar nu Amrut''.<ref name="agsi2" />

== Recognition ==
He received the [[Narsinh Mehta Award]] in 2012 and the [[Sahitya Gaurav Puraskar]] award.<ref name="DNA20162" /><ref name="agsi2" /> Ramanuj was honored with the Lifetime Achievement Award At the [[Ahmedabad International Film Festival]], presented by OmGuru.

== Personal life ==
Ramanuj married Lalita and they have a daughter, Deepti.<ref name="માધવ રામાનુજ – The official website of Madhav Ramanuj 20102">{{cite web|url=http://madhavramanuj.com/|title=મારા વિશે|date=2010-10-05|website=માધવ રામાનુજ – The official website of Madhav Ramanuj|language=gu|access-date=2016-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609020516/http://madhavramanuj.com/|archive-date=2016-06-09|url-status=dead}}</ref> His younger daughter Neha died on 5 October 2009.<ref name="Indian Express2">{{cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/noted-writer-madhav-ramanuj-s-daughter-commits-suicide/525536/|title=Noted writer Madhav Ramanuj's daughter commits suicide|website=Indian Express|access-date=2016-06-14}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Gujarati-language writers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{commons category}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramanuj, Madhav}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Poets from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Gujarati-language poets]]
[[Category:People from Ahmedabad district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]

I (soundtrack)

2026-04-29T11:18:21Z

FrancisClement:

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox album
| name = I
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cover = I (2014 film) OST.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Soundtrack cover art
| released = 6 September 2014
| recorded = 2012–2014
| venue =
| studio = [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios]], [[Chennai]] Panchathan Hollywood Studios, [[Los Angeles]]
| genre =
| length = 33:56
| language = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| label = [[Sony Music India]]
| producer = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| prev_title = [[Kaaviya Thalaivan (soundtrack)|Kaaviya Thalaivan]]
| prev_year = 2014
| next_title = [[Lingaa (soundtrack)|Lingaa]]
| next_year = 2015
| misc = {{Singles
| name = I
| type = soundtrack
| single1 = [[Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal]]
| single1date = {{Start date|df=yes|2014|09|10}}
}}
}}

'''''I''''' is the [[soundtrack album]] to the 2015 Indian [[Romance film|romantic]] [[thriller film]] of the [[I (2015 film)|same name]] written and directed by [[S. Shankar]]. [[A. R. Rahman]] composed the original songs and background score for the film.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/tamil-movie-i-hits-the-floor/271446-71-174.html |title=Shankar's next Tamil movie 'I' hits the floor |work=[[CNN-IBN|IBNLive]] |date=15 July 2012 |access-date=11 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911215830/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/tamil-movie-i-hits-the-floor/271446-71-174.html |archive-date=11 September 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The album consists of seven tracks, which include a [[remix]] and a [[reprise]]. Songs in the film vary in genre like [[Electronic dance music|EDM]], [[Bhangra (music)|bhangra]], [[Opéra (genre)|opera]], urban. The original version of the soundtrack has youth oriented voices. The original version of the album was released on 6 September 2014.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/arnold-schwarzenegger-to-attend-ai-audio-launch-in-chennai/article6385984.ece|title=Arnold Schwarzenegger to attend 'Ai' audio launch|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=6 September 2014|access-date=11 September 2014|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140911120424/http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/arnold-schwarzenegger-to-attend-ai-audio-launch-in-chennai/article6385984.ece|url-status=live|archive-date=11 September 2014}}</ref> The audio was launched at a grand function at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Chennai)|Jawaharlal Nehru Indoor Stadium]], Chennai on 12 September 2014, with [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] as the chief guest.

The soundtrack as well as the score received a very positive critical reception and it was declared one of the top twenty best selling albums of 2014 by [[ITunes Store|iTunes India]]. At the [[63rd Filmfare Awards South|2016 Filmfare Awards]], A. R. Rahman won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Music Director – Tamil|Filmfare Award for Best Music Director]] whereas lyricist [[Madhan Karky]] won [[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist – Tamil|Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist]] for his lyrics to the song "[[Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal]]". Shreya Ghoshal was nominated for the same track under [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer – Tamil|Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer]]. Lyricist Kabilan was nominated for Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist for the track "Ennodu Nee Irundhaal". However, Sid Sriram won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Tamil|Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer]] for the song.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/winners-of-the-63rd-britannia-filmfare-awards-south-13996.html|title=Winners of the 63rd Britannia Filmfare Awards (South)|website=filmfare.com|access-date=2016-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704080550/http://www.filmfare.com/news/winners-of-the-63rd-britannia-filmfare-awards-south-13996.html|archive-date=4 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Development ==
[[A. R. Rahman]] was selected to compose the original songs and background score for the film.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ramanujam, Srinivasa|date=2 July 2014|url=http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2ef5fs_i-pookkale-satru-oivedu-video-song-tamil_shortfilms|title=Anirudh sings for Shankar's 'Ai'|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=26 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114061804/http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2ef5fs_i-pookkale-satru-oivedu-video-song-tamil_shortfilms|url-status=live|archive-date=14 January 2015}}</ref> In early July 2012, singer [[Vijay Prakash]] recorded the track "Pareshanayya" (Telugu version of "Mersalayitten").<ref>{{cite news | url= http://ibnlive.in.com/news/director-shankar-to-start-i-with-vikram/267401-71-180.html | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120626055820/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/director-shankar-to-start-i-with-vikram/267401-71-180.html | url-status= dead | archive-date= 26 June 2012 |title=Director Shankar to start 'I' with Vikram |publisher=[[CNN-IBN|IBNLive]] |date=22 June 2012 |access-date=15 July 2012}}</ref> In January 2013, the song "Aila Aila" was recorded. Karky called it as the "most challenging song" he had ever worked on.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Madhan-Karkys-challenging-song/articleshow/17995071.cms |title=Madhan Karky's challenging song |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=12 January 2013 |access-date=12 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026165425/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Madhan-Karkys-challenging-song/articleshow/17995071.cms?referral=PM |archive-date=26 October 2014 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As some part of the film's story is about [[Model (people)|modeling]], his team created a compilation of six-seven [[Advertising|commercials]] that play to this song. According to Karky, "The lyrics of Aila Aila was the most difficult to pen as each line will have two different meanings, one is what you hear and one is what you are going to watch on the screen".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tamilsonglyrics.org/movies/f-j/i/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218094220/http://www.tamilsonglyrics.org/movies/f-j/i/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=18 December 2014|title=I Tamil Movie Songs lyrics|access-date=2015-03-11|publisher=tamilsonglyrics}}</ref><ref name=icl>{{cite web|url=http://cinemalead.com/news-id-exclusive-scoop-i-making-video-16-09-146058.htm|title=AN EXCLUSIVE SCOOP ON 'I' AND ITS MAKING VIDEO|work=Cinemalead|access-date=17 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917114416/http://cinemalead.com/news-id-exclusive-scoop-i-making-video-16-09-146058.htm|archive-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> The five and a half minute track blends genres like [[pop music|pop]], [[bhangra (music)|bhangra]], [[opéra comique]] elements and [[Electronic music|electronic beats]].<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/article6475411.ece|title=Aditya goes 'Aila...'|newspaper=The Hindu|first=Apoorva|last=Srivathi|date=7 October 2014|access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> In an interview with ''[[The Hindu]]'', [[S. Shankar]] stated that he wanted unusual music for ''I'' with extensive experimentation. He called the experimentation most evident in this track especially the operatic part. The song slightly touches underlying feeling of romance.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/i-feel-i-have-to-outdo-my-last-film/article6494242.ece|title='I feel I have to outdo my last film'|work=The Hindu|date=13 October 2014|access-date=15 October 2014}}</ref> Portions of the track "Ennodu Nee Irundhaal" sung only by [[Sunitha Sarathy]] were recorded on 14 February 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/AR-Rahman-records-one-for-Shankars-I/articleshow/18496215.cms |title=AR Rahman records one for Shankar's I |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=14 February 2013 |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026163919/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/AR-Rahman-records-one-for-Shankars-I/articleshow/18496215.cms?referral=PM |archive-date=26 October 2014 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Rahman was supposed to have sung "Ennodu Nee Irundhaal" but chose Sid Sriram because the latter sang it well and Rahman felt that Sriram didn't earn the deserving recognition through track "Adiye" from ''[[Kadal (soundtrack)|Kadal]]'', thus gave a second opportunity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/vasantha-balan-spills-the-beans-on-a-r-rahman.html|title=An interesting story behind I's 'Ennodu Nee Irundhal'|work=Behindwoods|date=6 October 2014|access-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006112815/http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/vasantha-balan-spills-the-beans-on-a-r-rahman.html|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> Lyricist Madhan Karky's third song in the film was recorded by mid – September 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://twitter.com/madhankarky/status/380937152567070720 |title=Recorded my 3rd song for #Ai recently. |publisher=[[Twitter]] |date=21 September 2013 |access-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606074203/https://twitter.com/madhankarky/status/380937152567070720 |archive-date=6 June 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In May 2014, Rahman through [[Reddit]] stated that the film songs have more youth-oriented voices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/arrahman/status/468624321519173633 |title=I am Academy Award winning composer A.R. Rahman. Ask me anything |work=[[Twitter]] |date=19 May 2014 |access-date=1 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819205222/https://twitter.com/arrahman/status/468624321519173633 |archive-date=19 August 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The track "Mersalaayiten" was recorded by [[Anirudh Ravichander]] and [[Neeti Mohan]] in the span of July – August 2014.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sundar, Priyanka |date=8 August 2014 |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140808/entertainment-kollywood/article/language-no-barrier-neeti-mohan |title=Language no barrier for Neeti Mohan |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |access-date=29 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903064115/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140808/entertainment-kollywood/article/language-no-barrier-neeti-mohan |archive-date=3 September 2014 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Entertainment/Tamil/Music/Kolaveri-boy-sings-for-AR-Rahman-in-Shankars-Ai/articleshow/37576447.cms |title=Kolaveri boy sings for AR Rahman in Shankar's Ai |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=3 July 2014 |access-date=3 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812125203/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/Kolaveri-boy-sings-for-AR-Rahman-in-Shankars-Ai/articleshow/37576447.cms |archive-date=12 August 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On 4 July 2014, the recording of all the songs for both the versions – the original Tamil version and the dubbed Telugu version were completed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Entertainment/Tamil/Music/AR-Rahman-delivers-Ai-tunes/articleshow/37758903.cms |title=AR Rahman delivers 'Ai' tunes |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=4 July 2014 |access-date=8 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705045701/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/AR-Rahman-delivers-Ai-tunes/articleshow/37758903.cms |archive-date=5 July 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/music/A-R-Rahman-wraps-up-scoring-tunes-for-Shankars-Manoharudu/articleshow/37761162.cms|title = AR Rahman wraps up scoring tunes for Shankar's 'Manoharudu'|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=4 July 2014|access-date=8 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713112648/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Entertainment/Telugu/Music/A-R-Rahman-wraps-up-scoring-tunes-for-Shankars-Manoharudu/articleshow/37761162.cms|archive-date=13 July 2014 }}</ref> [[Pravin Mani]] was involved in post-production of the album for two months. He was recruited for the work of recording [[Ancillary market|ancillaries]] and corrections.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-music-director/pravin-mani/an-interview-with-composer-musician-pravin-mani.html|title=MUSIC DIRECTOR PRAVIN MANI INTERVIEW – "'AI' IS GOING TO BE A KICK-ASS ALBUM"|author=Rabindran, Dilani|work=Behindwoods|date=21 August 2014|access-date=22 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905052442/http://behindwoods.com/tamil-music-director/pravin-mani/an-interview-with-composer-musician-pravin-mani.html|archive-date=5 September 2014 }}</ref> Madhan Karky explained the meanings of the Tamil words he had used in the song "Ladio" on his [[Twitter]] page.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/madhan-karky-on-ladio.html|title=Shankar's 'I' popularizes Tamil!|work=Behindwoods|date=18 September 2014|access-date=18 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918073922/http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/madhan-karky-on-ladio.html|archive-date=18 September 2014}}</ref>

== Release ==

On 24 March 2014, [[Sony Music India]] acquired the audio rights of the film.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/vikram-amy-jackson-starrer-ai-director-shankars-magnum-opus-post-enthiran-delivered-finally.html|title=Shankar's 'Ai' is finally ready|work=Behindwoods|date=4 July 2014|access-date=29 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903092518/http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/vikram-amy-jackson-starrer-ai-director-shankars-magnum-opus-post-enthiran-delivered-finally.html|archive-date=3 September 2014 }}</ref> The official soundtrack album cover of the film was released on 6 September 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moviecrow.com/News/5629/shankars--i--title-look|title=Shankar's 'I' title look|work=Moviecrow|date=9 September 2014|access-date=11 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911152323/http://www.moviecrow.com/News/5629/shankars--i--title-look|archive-date=11 September 2014 }}</ref> The audio launch was planned for a release in [[Canada]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/Ais-audio-launch-to-be-held-in-Canada/articleshow/33560770.cms |title=Ai's audio launch to be held in Canada? |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=11 April 2014 |access-date=29 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414044931/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/Ais-audio-launch-to-be-held-in-Canada/articleshow/33560770.cms |archive-date=14 April 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> but the film's producer, [[V. Ravichandran (film producer)|V. Ravichandran]], asserted that the music of the Tamil version would be released at a grand event at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Chennai)|Nehru Indoor Stadium]] in [[Chennai]] on 13 September 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Arnold-Jackie-Chan-come-together-for-Shankars-Ai/articleshow/40914556.cms |title=Arnold, Jackie Chan come together for Shankar's 'Ai' |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=26 August 2014 |access-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827111539/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Arnold-Jackie-Chan-come-together-for-Shankars-Ai/articleshow/40914556.cms |archive-date=27 August 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On 1 September 2014, [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] confirmed himself as an invitee at the forthcoming event;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/regional/arnold-schwarzenegger-to-attend-tamil-film-ai-s-audio-launch-in-chennai/article1-1260951.aspx|title=Arnold Schwarzenegger to attend Tamil film Ai's audio launch in Chennai?|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=5 September 2014|access-date=5 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912181628/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/regional/arnold-schwarzenegger-to-attend-tamil-film-ai-s-audio-launch-in-chennai/article1-1260951.aspx|archive-date=12 September 2014 }}</ref> also Kannada actor and singer [[Puneeth Rajkumar]] and Telugu actor [[Rana Daggubati]] was as chief guests.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ramchander|date=2014-09-14|title=Why Arnold Walked Out Of I Audio Launch Midway?|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2014/arnold-walked-out-i-audio-launch-midway-159634.html|access-date=2020-07-07|website=Filmibeat|language=en}}</ref> Ravichandran said Rahman would present the songs in a fashion similar to a live music concert.<ref name="TOII">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Arnold-wants-to-Chief-Minisiter-Jayalalitha/articleshow/42274878.cms |author=M. Suganth |title=Arnold wants to Chief Minisiter Jayalalitha |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=12 September 2014 |access-date=12 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912160104/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Arnold-wants-to-Chief-Minisiter-Jayalalitha/articleshow/42274878.cms |archive-date=12 September 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

International bubble artist Ana Yang, wife of the 16-time [[Guinness World Records|Guinness World Record holder]], [[Fan Yang (artist)|Fan Yang]], performed as part of the event. [[Weta Workshop]] artists who have worked on the film would provided the makeup for the background dancers, who delivered the performances wearing the actual costumes from the respective songs. A fashion show by the film's costume designer took place.<ref name = TOII /> A rough cut version of the song "Merasalaayiten" leaked onto the internet a day prior to the music launch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/bad-and-good-for-anirudhs-upcoming-releases.html|title='Kaththi' & 'Ai' – The Bad and The Good|work=Behindwoods|date=14 September 2014|access-date=14 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914130224/http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/bad-and-good-for-anirudhs-upcoming-releases.html|archive-date=14 September 2014}}</ref>

[[Bobby Simha]] and singer [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]] hosted the audio launch.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://photos.filmibeat.com/tamil-events/shankar-s-i-audio-launch/photos-c22-e49200-p493635.html|title=Shankar's 'I' Audio Launch Photos|date=13 September 2014|work=[[Oneindia.in|Oneindia Entertainment]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919104837/http://photos.filmibeat.com/tamil-events/shankar-s-i-audio-launch/photos-c22-e49200-p493635.html|archive-date=19 September 2014|access-date=13 September 2014}}</ref> [[Anirudh Ravichander]], [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Keba Jeremiah]], [[Neeti Mohan]], [[Haricharan]], [[Natalie Di Luccio]], [[A. R. Rahman]], [[Amy Jackson]] and [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] were part of the stage performances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://photos.filmibeat.com/tamil-events/shankar-s-i-audio-launch/49200.html|title=Shankar's 'I' Audio Launch Photos|date=13 September 2014|work=[[Oneindia.in|Oneindia Entertainment]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919104511/http://photos.filmibeat.com/tamil-events/shankar-s-i-audio-launch/49200.html|archive-date=19 September 2014|access-date=13 September 2014}}</ref> The team from [[Weta Workshop]] was introduced after the song "Ennodu Nee Irundhaal" was performed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/jovial-arnie-teases-shankar/article6413849.ece?secpage=true&secname=entertainment|title=Jovial Arnie teases Shankar|author=Subramanian, Karthik|date=13 September 2014|work=[[The Hindu]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916050743/http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/jovial-arnie-teases-shankar/article6413849.ece?secpage=true&secname=entertainment|archive-date=16 September 2014|access-date=13 September 2014}}</ref> In addition to the songs from the soundtrack album, Rahman also performed a few tracks from his previous compositions, which were "Oorvasi Oorvasi", "[[Chikku Bukku Rayile]]", "[[Ottagathai Kattiko]]", "Muqabala", "Petta Rap", "Maya Machindra", "[[Shakalaka Baby]]", "Girlfriend", "Colombus Columbus", "Athiradi Kaalam" and "[[Irumbile Oru Irudhaiyam]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/Shankars-I-audio-launched/articleshow/42597885.cms|title=Shankar's 'I' audio launched|date=13 September 2014|work=[[The Times of India]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916053601/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/Shankars-I-audio-launched/articleshow/42597885.cms|archive-date=16 September 2014|access-date=13 September 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The audio launch event was telecasted on [[Jaya TV]] on 3 October 2014, coinciding with Vijayadasami celebrations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vijayadashami/ Dussehra /Navaratri Celebrations @ Kamareddy {{!}} District Kamareddy, Government of Telangana {{!}} India|url=https://kamareddy.telangana.gov.in/festival/vijayadashami-dussehra-navaratri-celebrations/|access-date=2021-09-06|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Critical reception ==
=== Songs ===
The album received very positive reviews upon release. Critic [[Baradwaj Rangan]] for ''[[The Hindu]]'' called the soundtrack "wholly individual" that liberates A. R. Rahman. He felt, "The soundtrack that sets Rahman apart. At his most playful, he's capable of synthesising sound and tunesmanship to produce music that's the equivalent of a modern-art mural. You may not want it on your wall, but this isn't about wanting it on your wall."<ref>{{cite news|author=Rangan, Baradwaj|author-link=Baradwaj Rangan|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/thoughts-on-ar-rahmans-gloriously-fun-and-wholly-individual-soundtrack-for-the-new-shankar-film-i/article6419639.ece|title=I, A. R. Rahman|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 September 2014|access-date=18 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918073121/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/thoughts-on-ar-rahmans-gloriously-fun-and-wholly-individual-soundtrack-for-the-new-shankar-film-i/article6419639.ece|archive-date=18 September 2014 }}</ref> ''[[Sify]]'' said, "Despite the fact it is not among Isaipuyal's greater works, 'I' still has 2-3 numbers that are bound to get stuck in our playlists. The simpler tunes like "Ennodu Nee Irundhaal" and "Pookale Satru Oyvedungal" are here to stay while the peppy "Mersalaayiten" and the Shankar-esque "Aila Aila" are bound to get enriched by the visuals." and rated the album 3.5 out of 5.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/audio-review-i-news-tamil-ojpk7rajbcieh.html |title='I' audio review |work=[[Sify]] |date=15 September 2014 |access-date=18 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918075843/http://www.sify.com/movies/audio-review-i-news-tamil-ojpk7rajbcieh.html |archive-date=18 September 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }} {{Rating|3.5|5}}</ref> ''Behindwoods'' chose "Merasalaayiten", "Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal" and the track "Ennodu Nee Irudhaal" as well as its reprise as the album's picks and gave a rating of 3.5 out of 5, concluding that "Rahman & Shankar are back to doing what they do best, churn out chart busters !"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/i/i-songs-review.html|title='I' SONGS REVIEW|date=12 September 2014|work=Behindwoods|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915055539/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/I-songs-tops-iTunes-charts/articleshow/42511201.cms|archive-date=15 September 2014|access-date=12 September 2014|df=dmy-all}} {{Rating|3.5|5}}</ref> Vipin of ''Music Aloud'' stated, "Three winning songs in a half-and-half soundtrack from A R Rahman. Still would rate in the lower half of the ARR-Shankar repertory".<ref name="Music Aloud">{{cite web|url=http://www.musicaloud.com/2014/09/17/i-music-review-tamil-movie-soundtrack/|title=I – Music Review (Tamil Movie Soundtrack)|author=Vipin|date=14 September 2014|work=Music Aloud|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917115555/http://www.musicaloud.com/2014/09/17/i-music-review-tamil-movie-soundtrack/|archive-date=17 September 2014|access-date=14 September 2014}} {{Rating|8|10}}</ref> However, he called "Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal" as "the best of the soundtrack, a charming melody", and gave the album a rating of 8 out of 10.<ref name="Music Aloud" />
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://coolmusicz.com/download/index.php?dir=Tamil_Mp3_Songs/Tamil_Yearly_Hits_Mp3_Songs/2014_Tamil_Movies_Mp3_Songs/I&sort=0&ciview=1|title=I Tamil Movie Songs|access-date=2015-02-22|publisher=coolmusicz}}</ref>

=== Background score ===
Writing the critical reception for ''[[Firstpost]]'', Latha Srinivasan stated, "Shankar has done justice to A.R. Rahman's tunes and that's a visual treat in the film."<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/i-review-vikrams-the-only-good-thing-about-this-film-shankar-has-lost-his-magic-touch-2047159.html|title = I review: Vikram's the only good thing about this film, Shankar has lost his magic touch|date = 15 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015|work = [[Firstpost]]|last = Srinivasan|first = Latha}}</ref> Rachel Saltz of ''[[The New York Times]]'' wrote called it a score that 'engage ones senses', further noting, "''I'' could easily be a silent movie—though a noisy one, with a boom-boom score by A.R. Rahman that signals at each turn how the audience should feel, and with flurries of drums, speeds the film along."<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/15/movies/i-a-tamil-film-by-shankar-starring-vikram.html?_r=0|title = Brawls, Biceps and Morphing Cellphones|date = 15 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015|newspaper = The New York Times|last = Saltz|first = Rachel}}</ref>'' [[Telugu diaspora|Gulte]]'' called, Rahman's music 'average', comparing it its standards to his previous works done for Shankar's films.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.gulte.com/moviereviews/439/I-AI-Movie-Review|title = I (AI)|date = 14 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015}}</ref> Nandini Ramnath at ''Scroll'' writes that the film has, "AR Rahman's least memorable scores with background music set at the level that reads 'This has the potential of damaging eardrums.'"<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://scroll.in/article/700582/Film-review:-In-%E2%80%98I%E2%80%99,-an-eye-for-an-eye-makes-director-Shankar-go-blind|title = Film review: In 'I', an eye for an eye makes director Shankar go blind|date = 15 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015|publisher = Scroll.in|last = Ramnath|first = Nandini}}</ref> An [[Indo-Asian News Service|''IANS'']] review mentions, "A.R. Rahman's score to the film doesn't make much of a difference but for remaining mostly soothing and melodic."<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/i-big-is-not-always-great-ians-tamil-movie-review-115011400828_1.html|title = 'I' – big is not always great (IANS Tamil Movie Review)|date = 15 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015|newspaper = Business Standard India|publisher = Business Standard}}</ref> Subramanian Harikumar of ''Bollywood Life'' stated, "The songs, composed by Rahman, are brilliant, especially Tum Todo Na (Ennodu Nee Irunthaal) song will leave you mesmerised. A great background score from AR Rahman."<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.bollywoodlife.com/south-gossip/i-movie-review-shankar-delivers-a-winner-yet-again-riding-high-on-vikrams-brilliant-performance/|title = I movie review: Shankar delivers a winner yet again riding high on Vikram's brilliant performance|date = 15 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015|publisher = Bollywood Life}}</ref> Suhani Singh for ''[[India Today]]'' writes, "Music by A.R. Rahman is top class! He has obviously given his best to match up to Shankar's vision."''<ref>{{cite magazine|url = https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/movie-review-watch-i-for-shankars-vision-vikrams-acting-235875-2015-01-15|title = Movie review: I|date = 15 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015|magazine = India Today|last = Singh|first = Suhani}}</ref> ''R. Vishal at ''[[United Internet]] ''wrote'','' "The songs fail to allure the viewer in the way Shankar's previous movies have."<ref>{{Cite web |url = http://www.india.com/showbiz/i-tamil-movie-review-vikrams-magnificent-performance-let-down-by-contrived-plot-249062/ |title = 'I' Tamil movie review: Vikram's magnificent performance let down by contrived plot |date = 15 January 2015 |publisher = India.com (United Internet) |access-date = 15 January 2015}}</ref> For ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'', R. S. Prakash stated, "A R Rahman has been the composer of all of Shankar's directorial ventures, but here Rahman seems to have been in a hurry to wrap up as none of the songs are effective."<ref>{{cite news|url = https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/Movie-review-I/articleshow/45889959.cms|title = Movie review: I|date = 15 January 2015|access-date = 15 January 2015|newspaper = Bangalore Mirror|last = Prakash|first = RS}}</ref> Surabhi Redkar for ''Koimoi'' writes, "A R Rahman's music too does not turn out endearing and overall during the songs."<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.koimoi.com/reviews/i-review/|title = I Review|date = 16 January 2015|access-date = 16 January 2015|publisher = Koimoi|last = Redkar|first = Surabhi}}</ref> Writing for ''[[Mumbai Mirror]]'', Rahul Desai praised the score in film, calling it 'throbbing hours of an operatic musical'.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.mumbaimirror.com/entertainment/bollywood/Film-review-I/articleshow/45904711.cms|title = Film review: I|date = 16 January 2015|access-date = 16 January 2015|newspaper = Mumbai Mirror|last = Desai|first = Rahul}}</ref> Critic based at ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' felt, "The film suffers in the music department (A. R. Rahman), wherein the songs seem to be thrusted into the film's situation."<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/1227736|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141227141518/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/1227736|url-status = dead|archive-date = 27 December 2014|title = I|date = 16 January 2015|access-date = 16 January 2015|website = Bollywood Hungama News Network}}</ref>

== Track listing ==
=== Tamil ===
The official track listing of the original version was released by [[Sony Music India|Sony Music South]] on 10 September 2014.<ref name="Twitter">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2ef5fs_i-pookkale-satru-oivedu-video-song-tamil_shortfilms|title=Here's the official track list of Shankar Shanmugham's 'I' in A.R. Rahman's music|date=10 September 2014|work=[[Twitter]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913131632/https://twitter.com/SonyMusicSouth/status/510762539894853632|archive-date=13 September 2014|access-date=10 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="I Tamil Songs">{{cite web|url=http://coolmusicz.com/download/index.php?dir=Tamil_Mp3_Songs/Tamil_Yearly_Hits_Mp3_Songs/2014_Tamil_Movies_Mp3_Songs/I&sort=0&ciview=1|title=I Tamil Songs|access-date=2015-02-22|publisher=coolmusicz.com}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Label: [[Sony Music India]]
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 33:56
| title1 = Mersalaayitten
| lyrics1 = [[Kabilan (Lyricist)|Kabilan]]
| extra1 = [[Anirudh Ravichander]], [[Neeti Mohan]]
| length1 = 5:00
| title2 = Ennodu Nee Irundhaal
| lyrics2 = Kabilan
| extra2 = [[Sid Sriram]], [[Sunitha Sarathy]]
| length2 = 5:52
| title3 = Ladio
| lyrics3 = Madhan Karky
| extra3 = [[Nikhita Gandhi]]
| length3 = 4:42
| title4 = [[Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal]]
| lyrics4 = [[Madhan Karky]]
| extra4 = [[Haricharan]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length4 = 5:08
| title5 = Aila Aila
| lyrics5 = Madhan Karky
| extra5 = Aditya Rao, [[Natalie Di Luccio]]
| length5 = 5:34
| title6 = Ennodu Nee Irundhaal
| note6 = Reprise
| lyrics6 = Kabilan
| extra6 = [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]], Sid Sriram
| length6 = 4:12
| title7 = Mersalaayiten
| note7 = Remix
| lyrics7 = Kabilan
| extra7 = Anirudh Ravichander, Neeti Mohan
| length7 = 3:20
}}

===Hindi===
{{track listing
| headline = Label: [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length =
| all_lyrics = [[Irshad Kamil]]
| title1 = Issak Taari
| extra1 = [[Nakash Aziz]], [[Neeti Mohan]]
| length1 = 5:01
| title2 = Tum Todo Naa (Male version)
| extra2 = [[Ash King]], [[Sunidhi Chauhan]]
| length2 = 5:49
| title4 = Tu Chale
| extra4 = [[Arijit Singh]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length4 = 5:08
| title5 = Aiyla
| extra5 = [[Shiraz Uppal]], [[Natalie Di Luccio]]
| length5 = 5:32
| title3 = Lady O
| extra3 = [[Nikhita Gandhi]]
| length3 = 4:38
| title6 = Tum Todo Naa (Female version)
| extra6 = Ash King, [[Bela Shende]]
| length6 = 4:12
| title7 = Issak Taari (Remix)
| extra7 = Nakash Aziz, Neeti Mohan
| length7 = 3:24
}}

=== Telugu ===
{{track listing
| headline = Label: [[Sony Music India]]
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length =
| title1 = Pareshanayya
| lyrics1 = [[Suddala Ashok Teja]]
| extra1 = [[Vijay Prakash]], [[Neeti Mohan]]
| length1 = 5:01
| title2 = Nuvvunte Naa Jathagaa
| lyrics2 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
| extra2 = [[Sid Sriram]], Issrath Quadhri
| length2 = 5:50
| title3 = Ladiyo
| lyrics3 = [[Anantha Sreeram]]
| extra3 = [[Nikhita Gandhi]]
| length3 = 4:41
| title4 = Poolane Kunukeyamantaa
| lyrics4 = Anantha Sreeram
| extra4 = [[Haricharan]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length4 = 5:06
| title5 = Ayila Ayila
| lyrics5 = [[Chandrabose (lyricist)|Chandrabose]]
| extra5 = Haricharan, [[Natalie Di Luccio]]
| length5 = 5:34
| title6 = Nuvvunte Naa Jathagaa
| note6 = Reprise
| lyrics6 = Ramajogayya Sastry
| extra6 = Sid Sriram, Issrath Quadhri
| length6 = 4:13
| title7 = Pareshanayya
| note7 = Remix
| lyrics7 = Suddala Ashok Teja
| extra7 = Vijay Prakash, Neeti Mohan
| length7 = 3:20
}}

== Release history ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
!Album
!Country
!Date
!Format
!Label
!Ref
|-
| rowspan="7" |''I'' (Original)
|Worldwide {{Small|(All music streaming platforms)}}
|12 September 2014
| rowspan="2" |[[Music download|Digital download]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Sony Music India]]
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Citation|title=I (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by A. R. Rahman|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/i-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/917639889|language=en-us|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref>
|-
|Worldwide {{Small|([[iTunes]])}}
|24 September 2014
|-
|India
|31 October 2014
| rowspan="5" |[[CD single|CD]]
| rowspan="5" |[[Sony Music Entertainment]]
|<ref>{{Citation|title=I|url=https://www.amazon.in/dp/B00NM6XEJS/ref=cm_sw_r_cp_apa_i_TZxVDb2JDCG63|publisher=Sony Music|language=ta|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref>
|-
|United States
| rowspan="2" |5 November 2014
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/I-Original-Motion-Picture-Soundtrack/dp/B00NQ37H40/ref=redir_mobile_desktop/139-3904705-7166166?_encoding=UTF8&ref_=dm_aw_dp_sp_bb_sfa|website=www.amazon.com|access-date=2019-11-02|title=I}}</ref>
|-
|United Kingdom
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/I-Original-Motion-Picture-Soundtrack/dp/B00NMKMBFC/ref=redir_mobile_desktop/259-2225174-7398601?_encoding=UTF8&ref_=dm_aw_dp_sp_bb_sfa|title=I (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by A. R. Rahman on Amazon Music – Amazon.co.uk|website=www.amazon.co.uk|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref>
|-
|Germany
| rowspan="2" |26 November 2014
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amazon.de/I-Original-Motion-Picture-Soundtrack/dp/B00NOA1TZI/ref=redir_mobile_desktop/261-9854295-6601948?_encoding=UTF8&ref_=dm_aw_dp_sp_bb_sfa|title=I (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) von A. R. Rahman bei Amazon Music – Amazon.de|website=www.amazon.de|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref>
|-
|France
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amazon.fr/dp/B00NMTY980/ref=dm_ws_tlw_trk4|title=Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal de A.R. Rahman;Haricharan;Shreya Ghoshal sur Amazon Music – Amazon.fr|website=www.amazon.fr|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref>
|-
|''I'' (Hindi)
| rowspan="2" |India
| rowspan="2" |31 December 2014
| rowspan="2" |Digital download
|[[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
|<ref>{{Citation|title=I (Hindi) [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack] by A. R. Rahman|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/i-hindi-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1113108456|language=en-us|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref>
|-
|''I'' -''Manoharudu'' (Telugu)
|Sony Music Entertainment
|<ref>{{Citation|title=I – Manoharudu (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by A. R. Rahman|url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/i-manoharudu-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/953411595|language=en-gb|access-date=2019-11-02}}</ref>
|-
|}

== Album credits ==
'''Backing Vocals'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arrahman.com/discography_details.aspx?id=272|title=Album Credits for 'I'|date=19 September 2014|work=A. R. Rahman's Official Website|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922050329/http://www.arrahman.com/discography_details.aspx?id=272|archive-date=22 September 2014|access-date=19 September 2014}}</ref>

Nivas, [[Santhosh Narayanan]], Deepak, Arjun Chandrasekar, Pooja A. V., Aanchal Singh, [[Maria Roe Vincent]]

[[KM Music Conservatory|K.M.M.C. Choir]] conducted by Neuman Pinto for the song "Ennodu Nee Irundhal"

'''Personnel'''
* [[Guitars]]: [[Keba Jeremiah]]
* [[Bass (guitar)|Bass]]: Keith Peters, Keba Jeremiah
* [[Violin]]: Ganesh
* [[Rhythm|Indian Rhythm]]: T. Raja, Kumar, Neelakandan, Raju, [[A. S. Laxmi Narayanan|Laxminarayan]], Vedachalam

'''Production'''
* Producer: A. R. Rahman
* Mastering: S. Sivakumar
* Chennai Strings Orchestra: V. J. Srinivasamurthy ({{small|at AM Studios, Chennai}})
* Engineers: {{unbulleted list|Suresh Permal, Srinidhi Venkatesh, Vinay S. Hariharan ({{small|at Panchathan Record Inn, Chennai}}) | Tony Joy, Kevin Doucette ({{small|at Panchathan Hollywood, LA}}) | S. Sivakumar, Kannan Ganpat, Karthik Sekaran, Anantha Krishnan, Pradeep ({{small|at AM Studios, Chennai}})}}
* Vocal supervision: [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]], Srinidhi Venkatesh
* Mixing: Kevin Doucette, Suresh Permal | [[P. A. Deepak]] & Ishaan Chhabra for the song "Merasalaayiten (Remix)"
* Additional programming: [[Ranjit Barot]], [[Pravin Mani]], T. R. Krishana Chetan, Marc, Hentry Kuruvilla | Soumya Sejpal for the song "Ladio"
* Music co-ordinators: Noell James, Vijay Mohan Iyer
* Musicians' fixer: R. Samidurai

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{A. R. Rahman}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:2014 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:A. R. Rahman soundtracks]]
[[Category:Tamil film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Sony Music India soundtracks]]
[[Category:Hindi film soundtracks]]

President of India

2026-04-25T11:53:57Z

FrancisClement:

{{Short description|Head of state of India}}
{{For|a full list of heads of state|List of heads of state of India}}
{{For|a list of presidents|List of presidents of India}}
{{pp|reason=Persistent [[WP:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]]|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}{{Infobox official post
| post = President
| body = India
| native_name = {{transliteration|hi|ISO|Bhārata kē Rāṣṭrapati}}
| insignia = [[File:Emblem of India.svg|70px|frameless|upright=0.6|class=skin-invert]]
| insigniasize =
| insigniacaption = [[State Emblem of India|State emblem]]
| insigniaalt =
| flag = Flag of India.svg 
| flagsize =
| flagalt = f
| flagborder = yes
| flagcaption = [[Flag of India]]
| image = President Droupadi Murmu official portrait higher version.jpg
| imagecaption =
| imagesize = 200
| term_end =
| acting =
| department = [[Politics of India#President of India|Head of state of the Republic of India]] [[Government of India#Executive|Executive branch of the Union Government]]
| style = {{unbulleted list|
* Hon'ble President (within India)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=President Approves New Protocol Practice |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=88279|access-date=27 November 2021|website=pib.gov.in|archive-date=25 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125044459/https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=88279|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Her Excellency]] (outside India)<ref name=":0" />
*[[The Honourable]] (within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]])
}}
| type = {{plainlist|
* [[Head of state]]
* [[Commander-in-chief]]
}}
| status =
| abbreviation = POI
| member_of =
| reports_to =
| residence = [[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|Rashtrapati Bhavan]]
| seat = [[New Delhi]]
| nominator =
| appointer = [[Electoral College (India)|Electoral College of India]]
| appointer_qualified =
| termlength = Five years
| termlength_qualified = no restriction on renewal
| constituting_instrument = [[Constitution of India]] (1950)
| precursor = [[List of heads of state of India#Monarch of India (1947–1950)|Monarch of India]] and his representative the [[Governor-General of India]]
| formation = {{Start date and age|1950|01|26|df=yes}}
| first = [[Rajendra Prasad]]
| last =
| abolished =
| superseded_by =
| succession =
| unofficial_names =
| deputy = [[Vice President of India]]
| salary = {{INRConvert|500000}} (per month) {{INRConvert|6000000}} (annually)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/arun-jaitley-budget-speech-2018-president-salary-vice-president-salary/194462|title=President, Vice President, Governors' salaries hiked to Rs 5 lakh, Rs 4 lakh, Rs 3.5 lakh respectively|publisher=Times Now News|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|date=1 February 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202190054/http://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/arun-jaitley-budget-speech-2018-president-salary-vice-president-salary/194462|archive-date=2 February 2018}}</ref>
| website = {{Official URL}}
| footnotes =
| In Office =
| incumbentsince = 25 July 2022
| incumbent = [[Droupadi Murmu]]
}}
{{Politics of India}}
The '''president of India'''  ([[ISO 15919|ISO]]: {{transliteration|hi|ISO|Bhārata kē Rāṣṭrapati}}) is the [[head of state]] of the [[Republic of India]]. The president is the nominal head of the executive,{{efn|The president is the head of the executive per [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_53_{Executive_power_of_the_Union} Article 53] and [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_77_{Conduct_of_business_of_the_Government_of_India} 77] of the Constitution. However, in practice, it is the Council of Ministers with the [[prime minister of India|prime minister]] as its head that exercises the powers accorded to this position per [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_74_{Council_of_Ministers_to_aid_and_advise_President} Article 74] and [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India/Part_V#Article_78_{Duties_of_Prime_Minister_as_respects_the_furnishing_of_information_to_the_President,_etc.} 78] of the Constitution, thus making the prime minister the ''de facto'' head of the executive.}} the first citizen of the country, and the [[commander-in-chief|supreme commander]] of the [[Indian Armed Forces]]. [[Droupadi Murmu]] is the 15th and current president, having taken office on 25 July 2022.

The office of president was created when [[Constitution of India|India's constitution]] came into force and it became a republic on [[Republic Day (India)|26 January 1950]]. The president is [[indirect election|indirectly elected]] by an [[electoral College (India)|electoral college]] comprising both houses of the [[Parliament of India]] and the [[state Legislative Assembly (India)|legislative assemblies]] of each of [[States and union territories of India|India's states and territories]], who themselves are all [[directly elected]] by the citizens.

The President ranks 1st in the [[Order of precedence in India|Order of Precedence of India]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Order of Precedence of India |url=https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/table_of_precedence.pdf |access-date=23 July 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)]]}}</ref> as per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 53 %7BExecutive power of the Union%7D|Article 53]] of the [[Constitution of India]] states that the president can exercise their powers directly or by subordinate authority, though all of the executive powers vested in the president are, in practice, exercised by the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] heading the [[Union Council of Ministers|Council of Ministers]].<ref name="[[The Constitution of India]]">{{cite book|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf|title=Constitution of India|date=1 December 2007|publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice, [[Government of India]]|page=26|access-date=27 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909230437/http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf|archive-date=9 September 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> The president is bound by the constitution to act on the [[advice (constitutional)|advice]] of the council and to enforce the decrees passed by the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] under article 142.

== Origin ==
India achieved independence from the British on [[Independence Day (India)|15 August 1947]], initially as a [[dominion]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] with [[George VI]] as king, represented in the country by a [[Governor-General of India|governor-general]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/specials/india/470815independence-day.html "India and Pakistan Become Nations; Clashes Continue" – New York Times] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401064557/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/specials/india/470815independence-day.html|date=1 April 2013}} Retri2013.</ref> Following independence, the [[Constituent Assembly of India]], under the leadership of [[B. R. Ambedkar]], undertook the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country. The [[Constitution of India]] was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950,<ref name="SharmaB.k.2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC|title=Introduction to the Constitution of India|last=Sharma|first=Brij Kishore|publisher=PHI Learning|year=2007|isbn=978-81-203-3246-1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231231217/https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC|archive-date=31 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|26}} making India a [[republic]].<ref name="Jai2003">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2C2InxI0xAC|title=Presidents of India, 1950–2003|last=Jai|first=Janak Raj|publisher=Regency Publications|year=2003|isbn=978-81-87498-65-0|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611044617/https://books.google.com/books?id=r2C2InxI0xAC|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|9}} The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, with [[Rajendra Prasad]] as its first incumbent.<ref name=Jai2003 />{{rp|1}} India retained its Commonwealth membership per the [[London Declaration]], recognising the King as "the symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth."<ref>{{Cite web |title=London Declaration, 1949 |url=https://thecommonwealth.org/london-declaration-1949 |access-date=15 October 2022 |website=Commonwealth |language=en |archive-date=15 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015013714/https://thecommonwealth.org/london-declaration-1949 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Rajendra_Prasad_(Indian_President),_signed_image_for_Walter_Nash_(NZ_Prime_Minister),_1958_(16017609534).jpg|thumb|[[Rajendra Prasad]], the first President of India]]

The Indian constitution accords to the president the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the Constitution of India and its rule of law.<ref name="const">{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|title=The Constitution of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402064301/https://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|archive-date=2 April 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=21 March 2012}}</ref> Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after the president's assent. The president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution (Article 60), who has pre-emptive power for ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the executive or legislature. The role of the judiciary in upholding the Constitution of India is the second line of defence in nullifying any unconstitutional actions of the executive and legislative entities of the Indian Union.

== Powers and duties ==
{{Blockquote|Under the draft constitution the President occupies the same position as the King under the English Constitution. He is the head of the state but not of the Executive. He represents the Nation but does not rule the Nation. He is the symbol of the Nation. His place in the administration is that of a ceremonial device on a seal by which the nation's decisions are made known.|[[Bhimrao Ambedkar]],{{small| as chairman of the drafting committee of the [[Constituent Assembly of India]] during various debates about the president being constitutional head of the state.}}<ref name=":Indian Political Thought">{{Cite book|title=Indian Political Thought: Themes and Thinkers|last=Singh|first=Mahendra Prasad|publisher=[[Pearson plc|Pearson India Education Services]]|year=2019|isbn=978-93-325-8733-5|editor-last=Roy|editor-first=Himanshu|location=[[Noida]]|pages=354|chapter=Ambedkar: Constitutionalism and State Structure|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Mahendra Prasad}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&lpg=PA236&ots=EGZT2Cyg38&dq=Under%20the%20draft%20constitution%20the%20President%20occupies%20the%20same%20position%20as%20the%20King%20under%20the%20English%20Constitution.%20He%20is%20the%20head%20of%20the%20state%20but%20not%20of%20the%20Executive.%20He%20represents%20the%20Nation%20but%20does%20not%20rule%20the%20Nation.%20He%20is%20the%20symbol%20of%20the%20Nation.%20His%20place%20in%20the%20administration%20is%20that%20of%20a%20ceremonial%20device%20on%20a%20seal%20by%20which%20the%20nation's%20decisions%20are%20made%20known&pg=PA236#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Constitutional Government in India''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418104947/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&lpg=PA236&ots=EGZT2Cyg38&dq=Under%20the%20draft%20constitution%20the%20President%20occupies%20the%20same%20position%20as%20the%20King%20under%20the%20English%20Constitution.%20He%20is%20the%20head%20of%20the%20state%20but%20not%20of%20the%20Executive.%20He%20represents%20the%20Nation%20but%20does%20not%20rule%20the%20Nation.%20He%20is%20the%20symbol%20of%20the%20Nation.%20His%20place%20in%20the%20administration%20is%20that%20of%20a%20ceremonial%20device%20on%20a%20seal%20by%20which%20the%20nation%27s%20decisions%20are%20made%20known&pg=PA236#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=18 April 2021 }}, M.V.Pylee, S. Chand Publishing, 2004, page 236</ref>}}

=== Duty ===
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of their [[#Oath or affirmation|oath]] (Article 60 of Indian constitution).<ref name="const" /> The president is the common head of all independent constitutional entities. All their actions, [[Three Judges Cases|recommendations]] ([[Part One of the Constitution of India|Article 3]], Article 111, Article 274, etc.) and supervisory powers ([[Article 74 (Constitution of India)|Article 74(2)]], Article 78C, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/jun/09spec.htm|title=How Kalam asserted presidential power|last=Bhatt|first=Sheela|date=9 June 2006|work=Rediff India|access-date=15 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416182146/http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/jun/09spec.htm|archive-date=16 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> There is no bar on the actions of the president to contest in the court of law.<ref name="india times">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/The-Presidents-role/articleshow/20154333.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616231317/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2002-08-26/education/27323497_1_powers-impeachment-resolution|url-status=live|archive-date=16 June 2012|title=The President's role|last=Gupta|first=V. P.|date=26 August 2002|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=4 January 2012}}</ref>

=== Legislative powers ===
Legislative power is constitutionally vested in the [[Parliament of India]] of which the president is the head, to facilitate the lawmaking process per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.). The president summons both the houses ([[Lok Sabha]] and [[Rajya Sabha]]) of the [[Parliament of India|parliament]] and prorogues them. They can [[Dissolution of parliament|dissolve the Lok Sabha]].<ref name="SharmaB.k.2007" />{{rp|147}}

The president inaugurates parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87(1). The presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the [[Government of India|government]].<ref name="Chowdhury">{{Cite web|title=Article 87 – Advocatespedia|url=https://advocatespedia.com/Article_87|access-date=22 November 2020|website=advocatespedia.com|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418151453/https://advocatespedia.com/Article_87|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|145}}

All [[Bill (proposed law)|bills]] passed by the parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the president per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 111]]. After a bill is presented to them, the president shall declare either that they assent to the Bill, or that they withhold assent from it. As a third option, they can return a bill to parliament, if it is not a [[money bill]], for reconsideration. President may be of the view that a particular bill passed under the [[Lawmaking procedure in India|legislative powers]] of parliament is violating the constitution, they can send back the bill with their recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the [[s:Constitution of India/Part XX|Article 368]] procedure. When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the president, with or without amendments, the president cannot withhold their assent from it. The president can also withhold their assent to a bill when it is initially presented to them (rather than return it to parliament) thereby exercising a [[pocket veto]] on the advice of the prime minister or council of ministers per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 74]] if it is inconsistent with the constitution.<ref name="india times" /> Article 143 gives the president the power to consult the [[Supreme Court of India|supreme court]] about the constitutional validity of an issue. The president shall assent to [[Amendment of the Constitution of India|constitutional amendment bills]] without power to withhold the bills per [[s:Constitution of India/Part XX|Article 368 (2)]].

When either of the two Houses of the [[Parliament of India]] is not in session, and if the government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the president can promulgate ordinances that have the same force and effect as an act passed by parliament under its legislative powers. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier.<ref name="Association1956">{{cite journal|last=Bakshi|first=P.M.|date=June 1956|title=Comparative Law: Separation of Powers in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1mvOn6ZnieIC&pg=PA554|url-status=live|journal=[[ABA Journal]]|publisher=[[American Bar Association]]|volume=42|page=554|issn=0747-0088|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517040623/https://books.google.com/books?id=1mvOn6ZnieIC&pg=PA554|archive-date=17 May 2016}}</ref> Under [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 123]], the president as the upholder of the constitution shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the union cabinet and they are confident that the government commands majority support in the parliament needed for the passing of the ordinance into an act and parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the president to withdraw the ordinance as soon as the reasons for the promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and president, but the provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate action is inevitable when the extant provisions of the law are inadequate. Re-promulgation of an ordinance after failing to get approval within the stipulated time of both houses of parliament is an unconstitutional act by the president.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/toi-edit-page/repeated-promulgation-of-ordinances-because-a-bill-is-held-up-in-the-rajya-sabha-is-a-violation-of-constitutional-principles/|title=Repeated promulgation of ordinances because a bill is held up in the Rajya Sabha is a violation of constitutional principles|newspaper=The Times of India |date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927134804/http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/toi-edit-page/repeated-promulgation-of-ordinances-because-a-bill-is-held-up-in-the-rajya-sabha-is-a-violation-of-constitutional-principles/|archive-date=27 September 2016|url-status=live |last1=Kamat |first1=Devadatt }}</ref> The president should not incorporate any matter in an ordinance which violates the constitution or requires an amendment to the constitution. The president should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved by the parliament or violates the constitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/re-promulgation-of-ordinances-fraud-on-constitution-sc-4456354/|title=Re-promulgation of ordinances fraud on Constitution: SC|date=3 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103133724/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/re-promulgation-of-ordinances-fraud-on-constitution-sc-4456354/|archive-date=3 January 2017|url-status=live|access-date=3 January 2017}}</ref> Thus, it is believed that the POI is the [[de jure]] head of the state, whereas [[Prime Minister of India|PM]] is the [[de facto]] head.

=== Executive powers ===
{{Blockquote|The President of the Indian Union will be generally bound by the advice of his Ministers. ... He can do nothing contrary to their advice nor can do anything without their advice. The [[President of the United States]] can dismiss any Secretary at any time. The President of the Indian Union has no power to do so, so long as his Ministers command a majority in [[Parliament of India|Parliament]]|[[Bhimrao Ambedkar]]{{small|, chairperson of the drafting committee of the [[Constituent Assembly of India]]}}<ref name=":Indian Political Thought" />}}
[[File:Flag of the President of India (1950–1971).svg|thumb|200px|[[Presidential Standard of India]] (1950–1971)]]
As per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 53]], the [[Executive (government)|executive power]] of the country is vested in the president and is exercised by the president either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the constitution. When parliament thinks fit it may accord additional executive powers to the president per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 70]] which may be further delegated by the president to the [[Governors of states of India|governors of states]] per [[s:Constitution of India/Part VI|Article 160]]. [[Union Council of Ministers|Union cabinet]] with [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] as its head, should aid and advise the president in performing their functions. Per [[Article 74 of the Constitution of India|Article 74 (2)]], the council of ministers or prime minister are not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the president but it is the sole responsibility of the president to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing their duties. President or their subordinate officers is bound by the provisions of the constitution notwithstanding any advice by the union cabinet.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiankanoon.org/docfragment/494666/?formInput=article%2075%20%283%29%20%20doctypes%3A%20supremecourt|title=U.N. R. Rao vs Smt. Indira Gandhi on 17 March, 1971, SC verdict|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208182943/https://indiankanoon.org/docfragment/494666/?formInput=article%2075%20%283%29%20%20doctypes%3A%20supremecourt|archive-date=8 February 2018|url-status=live|access-date=3 January 2017}}</ref>

As per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 142]], it is the duty of the president to enforce the decrees of the supreme court.

=== Judicial powers ===
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 60]]. The president appoints the [[Chief Justice of India|chief justice of India]] and other judges on the advice of the chief justice. The president may dismiss a judge with a two-thirds vote of the two Houses of the parliament.<ref name="Woods2008">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hx0MbH0r8zQC&pg=PA185|title=Judicial Power and National Politics: Courts and Gender in the Religious-Secular Conflict in Israel|last=Woods|first=Patricia J.|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7914-7400-6|page=185|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427022339/https://books.google.com/books?id=hx0MbH0r8zQC&pg=PA185|archive-date=27 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Government of India|Indian government's]] chief legal adviser, the [[Attorney-General for India|attorney-general for India]], is appointed by the president of India under Article 76(1) and holds office during the pleasure of the president. If the president considers a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen, they can also ask for the [[advisory opinion#India|advisory opinion]] of the [[Supreme Court of India|supreme court]] per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 143 %7BPower of President to consult Supreme Court%7D|Article 143]]. Per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 88]], the president can ask the attorney general to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any.<ref name="Supreme Court of India – constitution">{{cite web|url=http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/constitution.htm|title=Supreme Court of India – constitution|publisher=Supreme Court of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830234213/http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/constitution.htm|archive-date=30 August 2016|url-status=dead|access-date=28 August 2016}}</ref>

=== Appointment powers ===
The president appoints as [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]], the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the [[Lok Sabha]] (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The president then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the prime minister.<ref name="Kumar">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=an78gq3JwzYC|title=Universal's Guide to the Constitution of India|last=Kumar|first=Rajesh|publisher=Universal Law Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-93-5035-011-9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610013332/https://books.google.com/books?id=an78gq3JwzYC|archive-date=10 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|72}} The Council of Ministers remains in power at the 'pleasure' of the president.

The president appoints 12 members of the [[Rajya Sabha]] from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. The president may nominate not more than two members of [[Anglo Indian]] community as [[Lok Sabha]] members per [[s:Constitution of India/Part XVI|Article 331]], which was removed in 2019.

[[Governors of states of India|Governors]] of [[States and territories of India|states]] are also appointed by the president who shall work at the pleasure of the president. Per [[s:Constitution of India/Part VI|Article 156]], the president is empowered to dismiss a governor who has violated the constitution in their acts.

The president is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:<ref name=Kumar />{{rp|72}}
* The [[Chief Justice of India]] and other judges of the [[Supreme Court of India]] and state/union territory [[List of high courts in India|high courts]].
* The [[List of Chief Ministers of Delhi|Chief Minister of the National Capital Territory of Delhi]] (Article 239 AA 5 of the constitution).
* The [[Comptroller and Auditor General of India|Comptroller and Auditor General Of India]].
* The [[Chief Election Commissioner of India|Chief Election Commissioner]] and other [[Election Commissioner of India|Election Commissioners]].
* The chairman and other members of the [[Union Public Service Commission]].
* The [[Attorney General of India|Attorney General Of India]].
*[[Ambassador]]s and [[High Commissioner]]s to other countries (only through the list of names given by the prime minister).<ref name="Darpan2007">{{cite book|author=Pratiyogita Darpan|date=March 2007|title=Pratiyogita Darpan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ugDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT60|url-status=live|publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan|issue=9|page=60|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508131527/http://books.google.com/books?id=5ugDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT60|archive-date=8 May 2013|access-date=10 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="BakshiM2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rA39_9XtbBkC|title=The Constitution of India|last=Bakshi|first=P. M.|publisher=Universal Law Publishing Company|year=2010|isbn=978-81-7534-840-0|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503184958/https://books.google.com/books?id=rA39_9XtbBkC|archive-date=3 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|48}}
* Officers of the [[All India Services]] ([[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]], [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] and [[Indian Forest Service|IFoS]]), and other [[Central Civil Services]] in Group 'A'.

=== Financial powers ===
* A financial bill can be introduced in the parliament only with the president's recommendation.
* The president lays the Annual Financial Statement, i.e. the Union budget, before the parliament.
* The president can take advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet unforeseen expenses.
* The president constitutes a [[Finance Commission]] every five years to recommend the distribution of the taxes between the centre and the States. The [[Fifteenth Finance Commission|most recent]] was constituted in 2017.<ref name="Parliamentary System in India">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gcoemzvt97AC&pg=PA25|title=Parliamentary System in India|last=Deogaonkar|first=S.G.|publisher=Concept Publishing|year=1997|isbn=978-81-7022-651-2|page=25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516185543/https://books.google.com/books?id=gcoemzvt97AC&pg=PA25|archive-date=16 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/nk-singh-appointed-chairman-of-15th-finance-commission/article9974029.ece|title=NK Singh appointed Chairman of 15th Finance Commission|date=27 November 2017|newspaper=[[The Hindu]] Business Line|publication-place=[[New Delhi]]|access-date=15 January 2018|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416234212/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/nk-singh-appointed-chairman-of-15th-finance-commission/article9974029.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/rWfJyCZBIkttQMKHXoZBHO/NK-Singh-appointed-chairman-of-15th-Finance-Commission.html|title=N.K. Singh appointed chairman of 15th Finance Commission|date=27 November 2017|website=Livemint|publisher=[[HT Media Ltd]]|publication-place=[[New Delhi]]|access-date=15 January 2018|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219092950/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/rWfJyCZBIkttQMKHXoZBHO/NK-Singh-appointed-chairman-of-15th-Finance-Commission.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Diplomatic powers ===
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the president.<ref name="Laxmikanth2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EAunh90l44IC|title=Indian Polity for Civil Services Examinations|last=Laxmikanth|first=M|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|year=2010|isbn=978-0-07-015316-5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424071355/https://books.google.com/books?id=EAunh90l44IC|archive-date=24 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|18}} However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the prime minister along with their Cabinet (especially the [[Minister of External Affairs (India)|Minister of External Affairs]]). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the parliament. The president represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The president may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from the [[Indian Foreign Service]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Power and functions of President – Advocatespedia|url=https://advocatespedia.com/Power_and_functions_of_President|access-date=22 November 2020|website=advocatespedia.com|archive-date=19 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519162803/https://advocatespedia.com/Power_and_functions_of_President|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|143}} The president is the first citizen of the country.<ref name="Darpan2007" />

=== Military powers ===
The president is the supreme commander of the [[Indian Armed Forces]]. Only the president can declare war or conclude peace,<ref name="Darpan2007" /> on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the prime minister. All important treaties and contracts are made in the president's name.<ref name="Pearson">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbdgaWR_xsUC&pg=SA12-PA6|title=The Pearson Guide To Bank Probationary Officer Recruitment Examinations|last=Thorpe|first=Vandana|publisher=Pearson Education India|year=2008|isbn=978-81-317-1568-0|page=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425161321/https://books.google.com/books?id=UbdgaWR_xsUC&pg=SA12-PA6|archive-date=25 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Pardoning powers ===
{{See also|Presidential pardon}}

As mentioned in [[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 72 %7BPower of President to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases%7D|Article 72]] of the [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]], the president is empowered with the powers to grant [[Presidential pardon|pardons]] in the following situations:<ref name="Darpan2007" />
* punishment for an offence against Union law
* punishment by a [[Military justice|military court]]
* a [[Capital punishment|death sentence]]<ref name="Pearson" />

The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the president exercises their executive powers on the advice of the prime minister and the [[Cabinet of India|cabinet]].<ref name=Kumar />{{rp|239}}<ref name="BarringtonBosia2009">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3uuAtazupnAC&pg=PA267|title=Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices|last1=Barrington|first1=Lowell W.|last2=Bosia|first2=Michael J.|last3=Bruhn|first3=Kathleen|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2009|isbn=978-0-618-49319-7|page=267|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428043831/https://books.google.com/books?id=3uuAtazupnAC&pg=PA267|archive-date=28 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Emergency powers ===
The president can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles 352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123.<ref name="Laxmikanth2010" />{{rp|12}}

==== National emergency ====
{{See also|The Emergency (India)}}
A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 ([[Sino-Indian War|Indo-China war]]), 1971 ([[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistan war]]),<ref name="Omar2002">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-wZP7Tz8YC&pg=PA129|title=Emergency Powers and the Courts in India and Pakistan|last=Omar|first=Imtiaz|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|year=2002|isbn=978-90-411-1775-5|page=129|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603104218/https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-wZP7Tz8YC&pg=PA129|archive-date=3 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and 1975 to 1977 (declared by [[Indira Gandhi]]).[[The Emergency (India)|[see main]]]

Under [[s:Constitution of India/Part XVIII|Article 352]] of the India constitution, the president can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the cabinet of ministers headed by the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]]. Such a proclamation must be approved by the parliament with at least a two-thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval-there is no maximum duration.<ref name="Laxmikanth2010" />{{page needed|date=May 2013}}

In such an emergency, [[Fundamental Rights in India|Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens]] can be suspended.<ref name="SharmaB.k.2007" />{{rp|33}} The six freedoms under [[Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Right to Freedom|Right to Freedom]] are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended ([[s:Constitution of India/Part III#Article 21 %7BProtection of life and personal liberty%7D|Article 21]]).<ref name="Arora">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z8Flb0gZ3ZkC&pg=SA20-PA6|title=Political Science for Civil Services Main Examination|last=Arora|first=N.D.|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|year=2010|isbn=978-0-07-009094-1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513055041/https://books.google.com/books?id=z8Flb0gZ3ZkC&pg=SA20-PA6|archive-date=13 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|20.6}}

The president can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws).<ref name="History & Civics">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDmuSf3ZWtIC&pg=PA14|title=History & Civics|publisher=Rachna Sagar|isbn=978-81-8137-037-2|page=14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509151214/https://books.google.com/books?id=GDmuSf3ZWtIC&pg=PA14|archive-date=9 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Also, all money bills are referred to the president for approval.<ref name="bright pub">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCIFvcCxua0C|title=The Constitution of India: For all Academic and Competitive Examinations|publisher=Bright Publications|isbn=978-81-7199-054-2|page=48|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729031538/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCIFvcCxua0C|archive-date=29 July 2016|url-status=live}}{{year needed|date=May 2013}}</ref>{{rp|88}} The term of the [[Lok Sabha]] can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.<ref name=Kumar />{{rp|223}}

National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times in India to date. It was declared first in 1962 by President [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], during the [[Sino-Indian War]]. This emergency lasted through the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] and up to 1968. It was revoked in 1968. The second emergency in India was proclaimed in 1971 by President [[V. V. Giri]] on the eve of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]. The first two emergencies were in the face of external aggression and war. They were hence external emergencies. Even as the second emergency was in progress, another [[The Emergency (India)|internal emergency]] was proclaimed by President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]], with [[Indira Gandhi]] as prime minister in 1975. In 1977, the second and the third emergencies were together revoked.

==== State emergency ====
{{See also|Federalism in India}}
If the president is not fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the governor of the concerned state or from other sources, that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the constitution, they can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the state.<ref name="const" /> Such an emergency must be approved by the [[Parliament of India|parliament]] within a period of 2 months.

Under [[s:Constitution of India/Part XVIII|Article 356]] of the [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]], it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a [[Constitution of India|constitutional amendment]], as has happened in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].

During such an emergency, the president can take over the entire work of the executive, and the governor administers the state in the name of the president. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jwLBRuWHnkC&pg=SL3-PA27|title=New ICSE History and Civics|publisher=Frank Brothers|isbn=978-81-8409-587-6|page=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505140727/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jwLBRuWHnkC&pg=SL3-PA27|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}{{year needed|date=May 2013}}</ref> (see [[National Emergency in India|National emergency]] for explanation).

A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
# By Article 356{{spaced ndash}}If that state failed to run constitutionally, i.e. constitutional machinery has failed. When a state emergency is imposed under this provision, the state is said to be under "[[President's rule]].<ref name="HardgraveKochanek2008">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSyRgcSQhuIC|title=India: Government and Politics in a Developing Nation|last1=Hardgrave|first1=Robert L.|last2=Kochanek|first2=Stanley A.|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2008|isbn=978-0-495-00749-4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519181457/https://books.google.com/books?id=pSyRgcSQhuIC|archive-date=19 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|159}}
# By Article 365{{spaced ndash}}If that state is not working according to the direction of the Union government issued per the provisions of the constitution.<ref name="Sarkar">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DAroH5ZqPgsC&pg=PA17|title=Constitutional Crisis in the States in India|last=Srivastava|first=Meera|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=1980|page=17|id=GGKEY:0BS5QYU7XF2|access-date=31 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508123539/http://books.google.com/books?id=DAroH5ZqPgsC&pg=PA17|archive-date=8 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a maximum of three years via extensions after each 6-month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if

# A state of National Emergency has been declared in the country or the particular state.
# The Election Commission finds it difficult to organise an election in that state.

The [[Sarkaria Commission]] held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments although there was no constitutional break down in the states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/ncrwc/finalreport/v2b2-5.htm|title=National Commission to Review the Working of the Article 356 of the constitution|year=2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509030437/http://lawmin.nic.in/ncrwc/finalreport/v2b2-5.htm|archive-date=9 May 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> During 2005, President's rule was imposed in [[Bihar]] state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections.

There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president's rule in a state when the earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president's rule was first imposed on 1 March 2014 and it ceased to operate on 30 April 2014. President's rule was promulgated after being fully aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible at the end of May 2014 after the general elections. It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on 28 April 2014 by the president.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2014/159233.pdf|title=Re-proclamation of President rule in Andhra Pradesh|year=2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924041027/http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2014/159233.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2014|url-status=live|access-date=17 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Andhra-Pradesh-mired-in-President-rule-imbroglio/articleshow/33933171.cms|title=Andhra Pradesh mired in President rule imbroglio|work=The Times of India|access-date=21 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706013450/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Andhra-Pradesh-mired-in-President-rule-imbroglio/articleshow/33933171.cms|archive-date=6 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Financial emergency ====
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the states for public purposes.<ref name="const" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/976795/|title=Supreme Court Judgement: Bhim Singh vs U.O.I & Ors on 6 May, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322134716/http://indiankanoon.org/doc/976795/|archive-date=22 March 2012|url-status=live|access-date=21 March 2012}}</ref> [[s:Constitution of India/Part XII|Article 293]] gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the Union government. However, the Union government can insist on compliance with its loan terms when a state has an outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fincomindia.nic.in/writereaddata%5Chtml_en_files%5Cfincom14/others/42.pdf|title=Article 293 and its application|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518160231/http://fincomindia.nic.in/writereaddata/html_en_files/fincom14/others/42.pdf|archive-date=18 May 2016|url-status=live|access-date=21 March 2016}}</ref>

Under article 360 of the constitution, the president can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or any part of its territory is threatened.<ref name="const" /> However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the [[Finance Commission of India|finance commission]] or by the central government.

Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within two months by a simple majority. It has never been declared.<ref name="sharma kanhaiya">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=14U2EOCvQHoC&pg=PA321|title=Reconstitution of Constitution of India|last=Sharma|first=Kanhaiyalal|publisher=Deep and Deep Publications|year=2002|isbn=81-7629-405-5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519122048/https://books.google.com/books?id=14U2EOCvQHoC&pg=PA321&dq=Finance+emergency+in+India&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rgmiUaONC8eXiQKSuoD4Bw&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBg|archive-date=19 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|604}} A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the president.<ref name=Kumar />{{rp|195}}

The president can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the [[Supreme Court of India|supreme court]] and [[List of high courts in India|high courts]], in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by state legislatures are submitted to the president for approval. They can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.<ref name="general studies Indian polity">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYMuFKCCLDEC&pg=PA106|title=general studies Indian polity|publisher=Upkar Prakashan|page=106|access-date=12 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508123832/http://books.google.com/books?id=lYMuFKCCLDEC&pg=PA106|archive-date=8 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Selection process ==

=== Eligibility ===
[[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 58 %7BQualifications for election as President%7D|Article 58]] of the [[Constitution of India|constitution]] sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. A president must be:
* a [[Indian nationality law|citizen of India]]
* of 35 years of age or above
* qualified to become a member of the [[Lok Sabha]]

A person shall not be eligible for election as president if they hold any [[office of profit]] under the Government of India or the Government of any State or any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.

Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as presidential candidates. These are:
* The current [[Vice President of India|vice president]]
* The governor of any state
* A Minister of the Union or of any state (including [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] and [[Chief Minister (India)|chief ministers]])<ref name=Kumar />{{rp|72}}

In the event that the vice president, a state governor or a minister is elected president, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as president.

A member of parliament or a state legislature can seek election to the office of the president but if they are elected as president, they shall be deemed to have vacated their seat in parliament or a state legislature on the date on which they enter upon their office as president '''[Article 59(1)]'''.

'''Article 57''' provides that a person who holds, or who has held, office as president shall, subject to the other provisions of this constitution, be eligible for re-election to that office.

Under the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952,<ref name="The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952">{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/presandvicepreselection/Presidential%20and%20Vice-Presidential%20Elections%20Act,%201952.pdf|title=The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952|publisher=lawmin.nic.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128114639/http://lawmin.nic.in/presandvicepreselection/Presidential%20and%20Vice-Presidential%20Elections%20Act,%201952.pdf|archive-date=28 January 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=3 September 2013}}</ref> a candidate to be nominated for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for their name to appear on the [[ballot]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/ld/subord/president.htm|title=The President and Vice-President Election rules, 1974|publisher=Ministry of Law & Justice, Government of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102004513/http://lawmin.nic.in/ld/subord/president.htm|archive-date=2 November 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=31 May 2012}}</ref>

Additionally, the candidate is required to deposit a security amount (currently ₹15,000), which is forfeited if the candidate fails to secure a specified number of votes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Presidential Election Process in India|url=https://eci.gov.in/elections/presidential-elections/|publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref>

=== Electoral college ===
The president is elected indirectly by an electoral college consisting of elected members of both houses of parliament and elected members of the legislative assemblies of states and union territories of Delhi and Puducherry.<ref>{{cite web|title=Election to the Office of President of India|url=https://eci.gov.in/elections/presidential-elections/|publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref>

Nominated members of parliament and state legislatures, as well as members of legislative councils, are not part of the electoral college.<ref>{{cite book|last=Laxmikanth|first=M.|title=Indian Polity|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=2021|pages=5.1–5.5}}</ref>

=== Voting system ===
The election is conducted in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote, and voting is by secret ballot.<ref>{{cite book|last=Basu|first=D. D.|title=Introduction to the Constitution of India|publisher=LexisNexis|year=2015|pages=165–170}}</ref>

The value of votes is weighted to ensure parity between the states and the Union. The value of the vote of a member of a state legislative assembly is determined based on the population of the state, while the value of the vote of a member of parliament is calculated so as to maintain balance between the total value of votes of MPs and MLAs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Value of Votes in Presidential Election|url=https://eci.gov.in/elections/presidential-elections/|publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref>

=== Counting of votes ===
The counting of votes is carried out by the Election Commission of India. To be declared elected, a candidate must secure more than half of the total valid votes polled. If no candidate achieves the required quota in the first count, the candidate with the lowest votes is eliminated and their votes are transferred based on subsequent preferences until a candidate secures the required majority.<ref>{{cite book|last=Laxmikanth|first=M.|title=Indian Polity|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=2021|pages=5.6}}</ref>

== Time of election ==
Article 56(1) of the constitution provides that the president shall hold office for a term of five years, from the date on which they enter their office. According to Article 62, an election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the term. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by reason of their death, resignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as possible after, and in no case later than six months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy; and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the provisions of Article 56, be entitled to hold office for the full term of five years from the date on which they enter their office.

To meet the contingency of an election to the office of President not being completed in time due to unforeseen circumstances like countermanding of an election due to death of a candidate or on account of the postponement of the poll for any valid reason, Article 56(1)(c) provides that the president shall, notwithstanding the expiration of their term, continue to hold office until their successor enters into office.

=== Conditions for the presidency ===
{{Main|Electoral College (India)}}

Certain conditions, per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 59 %7BConditions of President's office%7D|Article 59]] of the Indian constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are:
* The president shall not be a member of either house of the parliament or a house of the legislature of any state, and if a member of either house of the parliament or a house of the legislature of any state is elected president, they shall be deemed to have vacated their seat in that house on the date on which they enter into office as president.
* The president shall not hold any other office of profit.
* The president shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of their official residences and shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by parliament by law and until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule.
* The emoluments and allowances of the president shall not be diminished during their term of office.<ref name="sharma kanhaiya" />{{rp|170}}

=== Election process ===
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by an [[Electoral College (India)|electoral college]] consisting of the elected members of both houses of [[Parliament of India|parliament]] ([[Member of Parliament (India)|MPs]]), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies ([[Vidhan Sabha]]) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies ([[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLAs]]) of union territories with legislatures, i.e., [[Delhi|National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. The election process of the president is a more extensive process than of the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] who is also elected indirectly (elected by the members of the majority party (or union) in the [[Lok Sabha]]). Whereas President being the constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and [[rule of law]] in a [[constitutional democracy]] with [[Ouster clause|constitutional supremacy]], is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha, [[Rajya Sabha]] and [[Vidhan Sabha|state legislative assemblies]] in a secret ballot procedure.

The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the president must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. Each candidate has to make a security deposit of {{INRConvert|15|k}} in the [[Reserve Bank of India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/President_VP_Elec2012/Presidential_Elections-FAQ.pdf|title=Election to the president of India|publisher=Election commission of India|page=16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310171823/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/President_VP_Elec2012/Presidential_Elections-FAQ.pdf|archive-date=10 March 2014|url-status=live|access-date=27 May 2013}}</ref> The security deposit is liable to be forfeited in case the candidate fails to secure one-sixth of the votes polled.

The election is held by means of the [[instant-runoff voting]] (IRV) method.<ref>The Constitution of 1950 use the term [[Single transferable vote]], which is now used for a system with multiple-member constituencies. When there is only one of the latter, the system is now called [[Instant-runoff voting]]</ref> The voting takes place by a [[secret ballot]] system. The manner of election of President is provided by [[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 55 %7BManner of election of President%7D|Article 55]] of the [[Constitution of India|constitution]].<ref name="LibraryLibrary">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQLff_T-uFAC&pg=PT167|title=Public Administration|author1=Great Britain. Ministry of Overseas Development. Library|author2=Great Britain. Overseas Development Administration. Library|publisher=Upkar Prakashan|pages=167–|access-date=11 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508121340/http://books.google.com/books?id=bQLff_T-uFAC&pg=PT167|archive-date=8 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by Members of parliament equals the total number of votes cast by State Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in state matters; if a state has few legislators, then each legislator has more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes.

The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament.

Although Indian presidential elections involve actual voting by [[Member of Parliament|MPs]] and [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLAs]], they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070012825|title=Balance of power in presidential race|date=22 May 2007|publisher=[[NDTV]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007104210/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070012825|archive-date=7 October 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=6 May 2012}}</ref>

=== Oath or affirmation ===
The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the [[Chief Justice of India|chief justice of India]]—or in their absence, the senior-most judge of the supreme court—an oath or affirmation to protect, preserve and defend the constitution as follows:<ref name="Pratiyogita Darpan 0 google books">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xOgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT67|title=Pratiyogita Darpan|author=Pratiyogita Darpan|date=October 2007|publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan|page=67|access-date=31 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508135406/http://books.google.com/books?id=xOgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT67|archive-date=8 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|I, (name), do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President (or discharge the functions of the President) of the Republic of India, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law, and that I will devote myself to the service and well-being of the people of the Republic of India.|[[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 60 %7BOath or affirmation by the President%7D|Article 60]], Constitution of India}}
== List ==
{{transcluded section|List of presidents of India}}
{{#section-h:List of presidents of India|List of presidents}}

== Emoluments ==
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1ex 0 1ex 1ex;"

|+ '''Presidential pay'''
! Date updated !! Salary (per month)
|-
| 1 February 2018 || style="text-align:right;" | {{INRConvert|5|l|lk=on}}
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Sources:<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/arun-jaitley-budget-speech-2018-president-salary-vice-president-salary/194462|title=President, Vice President, Governors' salaries hiked to Rs 5 lakh, Rs 4 lakh, Rs 3.5 lakh respectively|date=1 February 2018|work=TimesNow|access-date=2 April 2018|archive-date=2 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202190054/http://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/arun-jaitley-budget-speech-2018-president-salary-vice-president-salary/194462|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}
The president of India used to receive {{INRConvert|10|k|-2}} per month per the Second Schedule of the constitution. This amount was increased to {{INRConvert|50|k|lk=|year=1998|-2}} in 1998. On 11 September 2008, the [[Government of India]] increased the salary of the president to {{INRConvert|1.5|l|lk=on|year=2008}}. This amount was further increased to {{INRConvert|5|l|lk=on|year=2018}} in the [[2018 Union budget of India]]. However, almost everything that the president does or wants to do is taken care of by an annual {{INRConvert|225|m|lk=on|year=2008}} budget that the Government allots for their upkeep.<ref name="ibn 300">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/president-gets-richer-gets-300-pc-salary-hike/73365-3.html?from=rssfeed|title=President gets richer, gets 300 pc salary hike|date=11 September 2008|publisher=CNN-IBN|access-date=9 November 2008|archive-date=17 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230917112935/https://www.news18.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|Rashtrapati Bhavan]], the president's official residence, is the largest [[presidential palace]] in the world.<ref name="RandhawaMukhopadhyay1986">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQCIZoKDG1kC&pg=PA593|title=Floriculture in India|last1=Randhawa|first1=Gurcharan Singh|last2=Mukhopadhyay|first2=Amitabha|publisher=Allied Publishers|year=1986|isbn=978-81-7023-057-1|page=593|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623221521/https://books.google.com/books?id=bQCIZoKDG1kC&pg=PA593|archive-date=23 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RandhawaRandhawa1971">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HTFJAAAAMAAJ|title=The Famous gardens of India|last1=Randhawa|first1=Mohindar Singh|last2=Randhawa|first2=Gurcharan Singh|last3=Chadha|first3=K. L.|last4=Singh|first4=Daljit|author5=Horticultural Society of India|publisher=Malhotra Publishing House|year=1971|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428041915/https://books.google.com/books?id=HTFJAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=28 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Rashtrapati Nilayam]] at [[Bolarum]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] and [[The Retreat Building|Retreat Building]] at [[Chharabra]], [[Shimla]] are the official Retreat Residences of the president of India. The [[State Car for President|official state car]] of the president is a custom-built heavily armored [[Mercedes-Benz S-Class|Mercedes Benz S600]] (W221) Pullman Guard.

The former presidents and widows and widowers of presidents are eligible for pension, furnished accommodation, security, various allowances, etc.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Parliament-approves-salary-pension-hike-for-President-Vice-President-governors/articleshow/3841371.cms|title=Parliament approves salary pension hike for President, Vice-President and Governors|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=15 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527173113/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Parliament-approves-salary-pension-hike-for-President-Vice-President-governors/articleshow/3841371.cms|archive-date=27 May 2015|url-status=live|access-date=26 May 2015}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" style="text-align: center;" heights="100" perrow="3" caption="Presidential amenities">
File:PresidentPalaceDelhi.jpg|[[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|Rashtrapati Bhavan]], the official residence of the president, located in New Delhi
File:Rashtrapati Nilayam.jpg|[[Rashtrapati Nilayam]] is the official retreat of the president located in [[Hyderabad]].
File:Retreat Building.jpg|[[The Retreat Building]] is the official summer retreat of the president located in [[Shimla]].
File:Honour guard, India 20060302-9 d-0108-2-515h.jpg|The [[President's Bodyguard (India)|President's Bodyguards]] is an elite household cavalry regiment of the [[Indian Army]].
File:IAF Mi 8 for VIP Transport at Aero India 2013.JPG|A helicopter of IAF's special VIP fleet meant for carrying the President of India
File:Air India One Chennai.png|VIP [[Boeing 777|B777]] with call sign [[Air India One]] (INDIA 1) is used for international travels by the President.
File:Air India One 737.jpg|[[Indian Air Force]]'s [[Boeing 777X|BBJ 737]] with call sign [[Air India One]] (INDIA 1) is used for domestic travels by the President.
</gallery>

== Impeachment ==
The Supreme Court shall inquire and decide regarding all ''doubts'' and ''disputes'' arising out of or in connection with the election of a president per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 71(1)]] of the constitution. The Supreme Court can remove the president for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be a member of the [[Lok Sabha]] under the [[Representation of the People Act, 1951]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/legislative/election/volume%201/representation%20of%20the%20people%20act,%201951.pdf|title=Sections 7 & 8k, The representation of the people act,1951|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501024716/http://lawmin.nic.in/legislative/election/volume%201/representation%20of%20the%20people%20act,%201951.pdf|archive-date=1 May 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=2 July 2015}}</ref> Subject to Article 71 (3), parliament made applicable rules/procedure to petition the supreme court for resolving the ''disputes'' only that arise during the election process of the president but not the ''doubts'' that arise from their unconstitutional actions/deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of the president which may violate the requisite election qualifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/102305/|title=Sections 13 to 20, The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202021935/http://indiankanoon.org/doc/102305/|archive-date=2 February 2016|url-status=live|access-date=2 July 2016}}</ref>

The president may also be removed before the expiry of the term through [[impeachment]] for violating the [[Constitution of India]] by the [[Parliament]] of India. The process may start in either of the two houses of the [[Parliament of India|parliament]]. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the president. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one-quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the president and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.

A resolution to impeach the president has to be passed by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the president has the right to defend himself through an authorised [[counsel]]. If the second house also approves the charges made by the special majority again, the president stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. No president has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used.<ref name="Bhardwaj">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SBC05B0NnYIC&pg=SL1-PA238|title=Study Package For CLAT and LL.B Entrance Examinations|last=Bhardwaj|first=A.P.|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (India)|isbn=978-0-07-107468-1|pages=238–239|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603232129/https://books.google.com/books?id=SBC05B0NnYIC&pg=SL1-PA238|archive-date=3 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

Under [[s:Constitution of India/Part XIX|Article 361]] of the constitution, though the president cannot be summoned for questioning except on their voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of their controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions taken by the president would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the Union government for the president's role. As clarified by the supreme court in the case ''Rameshwar Prasad & Others vs Union of India & An Other'' on 24 January 2006; though the president cannot be prosecuted and imprisoned during their term of office, they can be prosecuted after he/she steps down from the post for any guilt committed during the term of the presidency as declared earlier by the courts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1885130/|title=Rameshwar Prasad And Ors vs Union Of India And Anr on 24 January, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101016074238/http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1885130/|archive-date=16 October 2010|url-status=live|access-date=2 July 2015}}</ref> No president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying their unconstitutional decisions by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of [[Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971|disrespecting constitution]] is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their unconstitutional acts; though many decisions taken during the term of a president have been declared by the supreme court as unconstitutional, ''[[mala fides]]'', void, ''[[ultra vires]]'', etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.bih.nic.in/Acts_Rule/Prevention_Insults_National_Honour_Act1971.pdf|title=The Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Act of 1971|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912020948/http://home.bih.nic.in/Acts_Rule/Prevention_Insults_National_Honour_Act1971.pdf|archive-date=12 September 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=2 July 2015}}</ref>

{{Presidential orders of succession}}

== Succession ==
The Office of the president falls vacant in the following scenarios:
# On the expiry of their term.
# By reason of death.
# By reason of [[resignation]].
# Removal by [[impeachment]].
[[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 65 %7BThe Vice-President to act as President or to discharge his functions during casual vacancies in the office, or during the absence, of President%7D|Article 65]] of the [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]] says that the [[Vice-President of India|vice-president of India]] will have to discharge the duties, if the office falls vacant due to any reason other than the expiry of the term.<ref name="Arora" />{{rp|20.10}} The vice president reverts to their office when a new president is elected and enters office. When the president is unable to act because of absence, illness or any other cause, the vice president discharges the president's functions until the president resumes the duties.

A vice president who acts as or discharges the functions of the president has all the powers and immunities of the president and is entitled to the same emoluments as the president. When a vice president discharges the duties of the president, he/she does not function as the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.

The [[Parliament of India|Indian parliament]] has enacted the law—''The President (Discharge of Functions) Act, 1969'' —<ref>{{cite web|url=http://164.100.47.5/pres2012/4000rs.pdf|title=Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704004059/http://164.100.47.5/pres2012/4000rs.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2012|access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref> for the discharge of the functions of the president when vacancies occur in the offices of the president and the vice president simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the [[Chief Justice of India|chief justice]]—or in their absence, the senior-most judge of the [[Supreme Court of India]] available—discharges the functions of the president until a newly elected president enters upon their office or a newly elected vice president begins to act as president under Article 65 of the constitution, whichever is the earlier.<ref name="BakshiM2010" />{{rp|96}} For example, in 1969, when President [[Zakir Husain (politician)|Zakir Husain]] died in office, Vice-President [[V. V. Giri]] served as the acting president of India. However, later, V.V Giri resigned from both posts (Acting President of India and Vice-President of India) as he became a candidate in the 1969 presidential election in India. In this event, the then chief justice of India, Justice [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]] served as the acting president of India until the next president was elected.

== President vs Chief Justice ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ President versus Chief Justice of India
|-
! President !! [[Chief Justice of India]] / judiciary
|-
| The duties of President under their oath is to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and the law || Similar to president to uphold the constitution and the laws (Third Schedule of the constitution)<ref name="const" />
|-
| The oath is taken in the presence of the chief justice ||The oath is taken in the presence of the president
|-
| Impeachment by parliament with a majority of not less than two-thirds of the total membership of each house of the parliament for violation of the constitution as per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 61]]. || Removal from office by each house of the parliament supported by a majority of the total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that house present and voting on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity as per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 124(4)]]
|-
| President cannot directly be removed by the supreme court. However, the supreme court can declare the election of the president to be void and consequently remove the president from the post per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 71(1)]] for committing electoral malpractices and upon ceasing to possess the requisite qualifications to be president.|| President cannot remove judges once appointed by him without impeachment process per Article 124.
|-
| An individual heads the autonomous institution of President. || Judiciary/supreme court is also an autonomous institution represented by a team of supreme court judges with chief justice as its chief.
|-
| President being head of parliament, Executive and supreme commander of the armed forces, is fully empowered by the constitution to fulfil their judicial responsibility. They can also take the expert advice of the Attorney General and also chief justice in performing their judicial role. It is President's duty to ensure that every state's governance is carried on in accordance with the provisions of the constitution under Articles 355 and 356. || Chief justice/[[Supreme Court of India|supreme court]] is also empowered by the constitution to repeal the unconstitutional activities of parliament and executive only after a fair trial.
|-
| President's prime duty is to prevent unconstitutional decisions of union and state governments and parliament or state assemblies by denying their compulsory assent for making them into applicable laws. They are the foremost defender of the constitution who can pre-empt the unconstitutional activities of executive and legislatures. The other duties of President are just ceremonial as head of the country which are attached to him for being protector, defender and preserver of the constitution. The institution of President becomes redundant if the president is confined to other ceremonial duties only. || Can intervene or nullify the unlawful actions of union/state governments and unconstitutional laws enacted by the parliament or a state legislative after presidential assent only.
|-
| President has constitutional immunity for their unconstitutional, ''[[mala fides]]'' activities during their tenure but is liable for judicial action/punishment for their unconstitutional activity after the term of their presidency. However, per Article 361 (1), President is answerable to a court designated by either house of the parliament with a two-thirds majority for the investigation of a charge against him under article 61. || Chief justice/judges of the supreme court are also immune from punishment for not delivering correct judgements or for their incompetence and mala fides. However, Judges' verdict can be repealed by a higher level bench of other judges.
|-
| President cannot be recalled by the people of India for not fulfilling their constitutional duties in case parliament is not impeaching the president or removed by the supreme court. || Chief justice/judges of the supreme court also cannot be recalled by the people of India in case parliament is not impeaching the judges.
|}

== President vs Prime minister ==

{| class="wikitable"
|+President of India versus Prime Minister of India
|-
! President !! [[Prime Minister of India|Prime minister]] / Union cabinet
|-
| The duties of President under their oath is to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and the law || Swears allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, swears to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India and swears to do right to all manner of people without fear or favour, affection or ill-will (Third Schedule of the constitution)<ref name="const" />
|-
| The oath is taken in the presence of the chief justice ||The oath is taken in the presence of the president
|-
|Elected in an extensive manner indirectly by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and state legislative assemblies in a secret ballot conducted by the [[Election Commission of India|Election Commission]] || Elected on the basis of majority of their political party or coalition in the [[Lok Sabha]], through direct elections.
|-
| Impeachment by parliament with a majority of not less than two-thirds of the total membership of each house of the parliament for violation of the constitution as per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 61]]|| Steps down upon losing majority support in Lok Sabha.
|-
| President can be removed by the supreme court per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 71(1)]] for committing electoral malpractices and upon ceasing to possess the requisite qualifications to be president|| Similar to the prime minister and ministers also.
|-
| An individual heads the autonomous institution of President || Union cabinet with Prime minister as its chief is collectively responsible.
|-
| President being head of parliament, Executive and supreme commander of the armed forces, is fully empowered by the constitution to fulfil their judicial responsibility. They can also take the expert advice of the Attorney General and also chief justice in performing their judicial role. It is the President's duty to ensure that every state's governance is carried on in accordance with the provisions of the constitution under Articles 355 and 356 || Rest of the governance of the union and reporting to the president on all important matters. Being the leader of the majority/ ruling party in the parliament, the union cabinet takes lead in lawmaking by the parliament needed for policy finalisation on various aspects, annual budgets finalisation, planning and implementation, etc.
|-
| President's prime function is to prevent unconstitutional decisions of union and state governments and parliament or state assemblies by denying their compulsory assent/government orders (GO) for making them into applicable laws. They are the foremost defender of the constitution who can pre-empt the unconstitutional activities of executive and legislatures. ||Prime minister/Union cabinet shall aid and advise the president who shall, in the exercise of their functions, act in accordance with such advice as long as not unconstitutional. The prime minister shall communicate to the president all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation and on President's desire submit related information. No minister shall decide on any matter without the council of ministers/ union cabinet approval per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 78]].
|-
| President has constitutional immunity for their unconstitutional, [[mala fides]] activities during their tenure but liable for judicial action/punishment for their unconstitutional activity after the term of presidency || The union cabinet has constitutional immunity from legal proceedings in any court for their mala fide and unconstitutional advice tendered by union ministers to the president per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 74 (2)]].
|-
| President cannot escape from their constitutional duty by citing constitutional amendment to Article 74 (para 2 of 1) which makes him abide by the Union cabinet's advice after sending for reconsideration. As clarified by the supreme court, the object of Article 74 (2) is only to make the question whether the president had followed the advice of the union cabinet or acted contrary thereto, non-justiciable. Refer page [[Article 74 (Constitution of India)#Court Cases|Article 74#Court cases]] for more clarity|| The union cabinet may escape from the punishment or responsibility for implementing unconstitutional laws citing Article 74 (2).
|-
| President cannot be recalled by the people of India for not fulfilling their constitutional duties in case parliament is not impeaching the president or removed by the supreme court or resigns on their own on moral grounds|| Prime minister/ union cabinet cannot be recalled by the people of India till the end of their term in case they lose majority support in Lok Sabha or resigns on their own on moral grounds.
|}

== Important presidential interventions in the past ==
The president's role as defender of the constitution and the powers as Head of State, especially in relation to those exercised by the prime minister as leader of the government, have changed over time. In particular, Presidents have made a number of interventions into government and lawmaking, which have established and challenged some conventions concerning presidential intervention.

=== Proving majority in the parliament ===
{{Main|Vote of confidence}}

In 1979, Prime Minister [[Charan Singh]] did not enjoy a parliamentary majority. He responded to this by simply not advising the president to summon parliament.<ref name="Darpan2007" /> Since then, presidents have been more diligent in directing incoming Prime Ministers to convene parliament and prove their majority within reasonable deadlines (2 to 3 weeks). In the interim period, the Prime Ministers are generally restrained from making policy decisions.

=== Proof of Majority to form a Government ===
Since the 1990s, Parliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of parties having a distinct majority, until the 2014 Lok Sabha elections when BJP received a clear majority. In such cases, presidents have used their discretion and directed prime ministerial aspirants to establish their credentials before being invited to form the government. Typically, the aspirants have been asked to produce letters from various party leaders, with the signatures of all the MPs who are pledging support to their candidature. This is in addition to the requirement that a prime minister proves he has the support of the [[Lok Sabha]] (by a vote on the floor of the house) within weeks of being sworn into office.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/10/stories/2005111003281400.htm|title=K.R. Narayanan – President who defied stereotype|last=Subrahmaniam|first=Vidya|date=10 November 2005|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=15 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722044512/http://hindu.com/2005/11/10/stories/2005111003281400.htm|archive-date=22 July 2012|url-status=dead|location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref name="Manmohan PM">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/20/stories/2004052007550100.htm|title=President appoints Manmohan Prime Minister|date=20 May 2004|access-date=15 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603070838/http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/20/stories/2004052007550100.htm|archive-date=3 June 2012|url-status=dead|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

=== Vetoing of a Bill ===
{{See also|Pocket veto|Zail Singh}}

Since the Indian constitution does not provide any time limit within which the president is to declare their assent or refusal, the president could exercise a "pocket veto" by not taking any action for an indefinite time. The veto was used in 1986 by President [[Zail Singh]] over the Postal Bill. The president did not give assent to the bill, arguing that its scope was too sweeping and would give the government [[arbitrary power]]s to intercept postal communications indiscriminately.<ref name="Bhardwaj" /><ref name="Presidential Years of Zail Singh">{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?202610|title=Presidential Years|last=Sundar Rajan|first=K.T.|date=4 December 1996|work=Outlook|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603054921/http://outlookindia.com/article.aspx?202610|archive-date=3 June 2012|url-status=live|access-date=13 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Show of Dissent">{{cite web|url=http://archives.digitaltoday.in/indiatoday/20060612/nation5.html|title=Show of Dissent|last=Bhattacharjya|first=Satarupa|date=12 June 2006|work=[[India Today]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326055411/http://archives.digitaltoday.in/indiatoday/20060612/nation5.html|archive-date=26 March 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=13 June 2012}}</ref>

=== Rashtrapati Bhavan Communiqués ===
In the late 1990s, President [[K. R. Narayanan]] introduced a modicum of transparency and openness in the functioning of the President. This was by means of Rashtrapati Bhavan Communiqués explaining, to the nation, the thinking that led to the various decisions he took while exercising their discretionary powers.<ref name="ram_int">[http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/nic/narayanankr.pdf Interview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203201144/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/nic/narayanankr.pdf|date=3 February 2006}} with K. R. Narayanan on Independence day, 15 August 1998; by [[N. Ram]], editor, [[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] ["K. R. Narayanan in conversation with N. Ram", ''The Hindu'', 10 November 2005. Retrieved 24 February 2006].</ref>

=== Return of a Bill ===
{{See also|Office of profit}}

The constitution gives the president the power to return a bill unsigned but it circumscribes the power to send it back only once for reconsideration. If the parliament sends back the bill with or without changes, the president is obliged to sign it. In mid-2006, President [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]] sent back a controversial bill regarding the exclusion of certain offices from the scope of 'offices of profit', the holding of which would disqualify a person from being a member of parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/kalam-returns-office-of-profit-bill/11851-4.html|title=Kalam returns Office of Profit Bill|date=31 May 2006|publisher=[[CNN-IBN]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620221052/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/kalam-returns-office-of-profit-bill/11851-4.html|archive-date=20 June 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=2 May 2012}}</ref> The combined opposition, the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]], hailed the move. The UPA chose to send the bill back to the president without any changes and, after 17 days, Kalam gave his assent on 18 August 2006.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/features/dateline-india/signing-office-of-profit-bill-was-toughest-decision-a-p-j-kalam/articleshow/6182455.cms|title=Signing office of profit bill was toughest decision:A P J Kalam|date=18 July 2010|newspaper=The Economic Times|access-date=2 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511055231/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/features/dateline-india/signing-office-of-profit-bill-was-toughest-decision-a-p-j-kalam/articleshow/6182455.cms|archive-date=11 May 2013|url-status=live|agency=Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kalam-erred-on-Office-of-Profit-bill/articleshow/2970756.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511070652/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-04-22/india/27743198_1_assent-comprehensive-criteria-office-of-profit-bill|url-status=live|archive-date=11 May 2013|title=Kalam erred on Office of Profit bill|date=22 April 2008|access-date=2 May 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|agency=Press Trust of India}}</ref>

=== Sacking state governors ===
{{See also|Governor (India)}}
[[Arunachal Pradesh]] governor [[Jyoti Prasad Rajkhowa]], who was earlier appointed by the ruling party at the centre, was sacked by President [[Pranab Mukherjee]] after the Supreme Court struck down his unconstitutional acts.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/jyoti-prasad-rajkhowa-removed-as-arunachal-pradesh-governor-report-1457717|title=Arunachal Pradesh Governor Jyoti Prasad Rajkhowa Sacked|access-date=12 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913155231/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/jyoti-prasad-rajkhowa-removed-as-arunachal-pradesh-governor-report-1457717|archive-date=13 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Oath of office==
The oath of office for the [[President of India]] is as follows:<ref name="Pratiyogita Darpan 0 google books">{{cite book|author=Pratiyogita Darpan|title=Pratiyogita Darpan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xOgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT67|access-date=31 May 2012|date=October 2007|publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan|pages=67}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|I, (name), do swear in the name of God (or, solemnly affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of India, and will do the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the [[Constitution of India|Constitution]] and the [[Law of India|law]], and that I will devote myself to the service and well-being of the people of Republic of India.
|[[s:Constitution of India/Part V#Article 60 .7BOath or affirmation by the President.7D|Article 60]]
|[[Constitution of India]]}}Oath of office of [[President of India]] in Hindi Version {{Blockquote|मैं, (अमुक), ईश्वर की शपथ लेता हूँ (सत्यनिष्ठा से प्रतिज्ञान करता हूँ) कि मैं श्रद्धापूर्वक भारत के राष्ट्रपति के पद का कार्यपालन (अथवा राष्ट्रपति के कृत्यों का निर्वहन) करूँगा, तथा अपनी पूरी योग्यता से संविधान और विधि का परिरक्षण, संरक्षण और प्रतिरक्षण करूँगा, और मैं भारत की जनता की सेवा और कल्याण में निरत रहूँगा।|अनुच्‍छेद 60
|[[:hi:भारत का संविधान|भारत का संविधान]]}}
== See also ==
* [[List of presidents of India]]
* [[Spouse of the President of India]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://presidentofindia.nic.in/|The President of India (official site)}}
* {{official website|http://www.india.gov.in// |India portal (official site)}}

{{Presidents of India}}
{{Navboxes
|list =
{{Union ministries of India}}
{{India topics}}
{{Military of India}}
{{Heads of state and government of Asia}}
}}

[[Category:Presidents of India| ]]
[[Category:Heads of state of India| ]]
[[Category:1950 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Parliament of India]]
[[Category:Presidents by country|India]]
[[Category:Ceremonial heads of state|India]]

Ranikhet Assembly constituency

2026-04-23T09:00:11Z

FrancisClement: Adding A Info

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttarakhand legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Ranikhet
| mla = [[Pramod Nainwal]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janta Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = Uttarakhand
| district = [[Almora district|Almora]]
| reservation = None
| type = SLA
| electors = 79,653
| loksabha_cons = [[Almora Lok Sabha constituency|Almora]]
| constituency_no = 50
| map_image = Ranikhet Assembly constituency map.svg
}}
'''Ranikhet Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly constituency''' is one of the 70 constituencies in the [[Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]] of [[Uttarakhand]] a northern state of [[India]]. [[Ranikhet]] is also part of [[Almora (Lok Sabha constituency)|Almora Lok Sabha constituency]]. Before 2000, this constituency was part of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sitting and previous MLAs from Ranikhet Assembly Constituency |url=http://elections.traceall.in/vidhan-sabha-assembly-election-results/Ranikhet-in-Uttarakhand |work=Elections.traceall.in |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=DELIMITATION OF PARLIAMENTARY AND ASSEMBLY CONSTITUENCIES ORDER, 2008 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |work=Election commission of India |access-date= 26 October 2017 }}</ref> The constituency includes the [[Ranikhet| Ranikhet Cantonment]] area.

==Members of Legislative Assembly==

*1951-62: ''Constituency does not exist''

''See [[Ranikhet South Assembly constituency]]''

{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Election!!Name!!colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Chandra Bhanu Gupta]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=3|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
| [[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
| Govind Singh Mahra
|-
| [[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| Govind Singh Mahra
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| Jaswant Singh Bisht
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| [[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| Puran Singh Mahra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| Jaswant Singh Bisht
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| [[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Bachi Singh Rawat]]
| {{Full party name with color|rowspan=3|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|-
| [[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| [[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]]
|-
| colspan=4 align=center|''Major boundary changes''
|-
| [[2002 Uttaranchal Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
| [[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
| [[Karan Mahara]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
| [[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| [[Karan Mahara]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| [[Pramod Nainwal]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==
===Assembly Election 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Ranikhet<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2022 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615102703/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-date=15 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pramod Nainwal|Dr. Pramod Nainwal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=21,047 |percentage=50.05% |change={{increase}}15.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Karan Mahara]]|party=Indian National Congress|votes=18,463|percentage=43.90%|change={{decrease}}2.33}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Manoj Kumar|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|votes=2,441|percentage=5.8|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=|party=|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=|party=|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=|party=|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=|party=|votes=|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,584 |percentage=6.14% |change= {{decrease}}5.95 }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=42,054|percentage=51.90%|change={{increase}}0.13}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 81,029 |ref = |change= {{increase}}1.88 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}3.82 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2017 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Ranikhet<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2017 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630093109/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Karan Mahara]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=19,035 |percentage=46.23% |change={{increase}}10.77 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=14,054 |percentage=34.13% |change={{decrease}}1.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pramod Nainwal|Dr. Pramod Nainwal]] |party=Independent politician |votes=5,701 |percentage=13.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kripal Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,169 |percentage=2.84% |change={{decrease}}20.81 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the above |party=None of the above |votes=637 |percentage=1.55% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pratap Singh Shahi |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=414 |percentage=1.01% |change={{increase}}0.32 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,981 |percentage=12.10% |change= {{increase}}11.90 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=41,173 |percentage=51.77% |change= {{decrease}}1.61 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 79,537 |ref = |change= {{increase}}7.44 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}10.57 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2012 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Ranikhet<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2012 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929115647/https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-date=29 September 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=14,089 |percentage=35.66% |change={{decrease}}0.62 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Karan Mahara]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=14,011 |percentage=35.46% |change={{decrease}}1.37 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Puran Singh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=9,346 |percentage=23.65% |change={{increase}}5.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mahendra Singh Bisht |party=Independent politician |votes=765 |percentage=1.94% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kishan Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=476 |percentage=1.20% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Puran Chandra Joshi |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=315 |percentage=0.80% |change={{decrease}}0.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pratibha Negi |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=269 |percentage=0.68% |change={{decrease}}0.62 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=78 |percentage=0.20% |change= {{decrease}}0.36 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=39,512 |percentage=53.37% |change= {{decrease}}7.54 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 74,031 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}1.18 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2007 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Ranikhet<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2007 to the Legislative Assembly of Uttarakhand |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/Stat_rept_2007_UT.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114082304/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/Stat_rept_2007_UT.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Karan Mahara]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,503 |percentage=36.83% |change={{increase}}10.70 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=13,298 |percentage=36.27% |change={{increase}}2.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Puran Singh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=6,736 |percentage=18.37% |change={{increase}}14.37 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hari Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,108 |percentage=3.02% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prakash Chandra Singh |party=Bharatiya Jan Shakti |votes=511 |percentage=1.39% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vimla Negi |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=477 |percentage=1.30% |change={{decrease}}11.90 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shridhar Pant |party=Vishwa Vikas Sangh |votes=441 |percentage=1.20% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jaswant Singh |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=378 |percentage=1.03% |change={{decrease}}0.54 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pradeep Kumar Bhandari |party=Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) |votes=207 |percentage=0.56% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=205 |percentage=0.56% |change= {{decrease}}7.06 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=36,659 |percentage=60.97% |change= {{increase}}8.83 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 60,188 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}3.08 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2002 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2002 Uttaranchal Legislative Assembly election]]: Ranikhet<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2002 to the Legislative Assembly of Uttarakhand |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_2002_UT.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114065248/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_2002_UT.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Ajay Bhatt (politician)|Ajay Bhatt]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=10,199 |percentage=33.75% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pooran Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=7,897 |percentage=26.13% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narendra Singh |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=3,990 |percentage=13.20% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ramesh Singh Chilwal |party=Independent politician |votes=3,515 |percentage=11.63% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prakash Chandra Singh |party=Uttarakhand Janwadi Party |votes=1,523 |percentage=5.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kishan Lal |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,209 |percentage=4.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Piyush Chandra |party=Independent politician |votes=754 |percentage=2.50% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Balwant Singh |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=474 |percentage=1.57% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Suchitra Rawat |party=Janata Dal (Secular) |votes=374 |percentage=1.24% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohan Chandra Belwal |party=Rashtriya Lok Dal |votes=282 |percentage=0.93% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,302 |percentage=7.62% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=30,217 |percentage=52.13% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 58,018 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==

* [[Ranikhet South Assembly constituency]]
* [[Ranikhet North Assembly constituency]]
* [[Ranikhet]]
* [[Almora district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Uttarakhand Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/93-uttarakhand/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=17 January 2024}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand}}

{{coord|29.64|79.43|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Almora district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]

Shyam Kane

2026-04-21T11:57:43Z

FrancisClement: created first data w/ sources

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{BLP sources|date=July 2010}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Shyam Kane
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| image_size =
| birth_name = Shyam Kane
| alias =
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1954|6|29|df=yes}}
| death_date =
| origin =
| instrument = [[Tabla]]
| genre = [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani Classical Music]]
| occupation =
| years_active = 1975–present
| label =
| associated_acts = [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Zakir Hussain]]
| website =
}}
'''Pandit Shyam Kane''' (born 29 June 1954) is an Indian [[Tabla]] player of the [[Punjab Gharana]]. Pt. Kane is most recognized for being the first and foremost disciple and colleague of [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Utd. Zakir Hussain]].

==Personal life and education==
Pt. Kane was born into a [[Konkanastha|Konkanastha Brahmin]] family in 1954 and attended [[Parle Tilak Vidyalaya]]. Pt. Kane was drawn to the Tabla after his brother, [[Mukund Kane]], took to Tabla under [[Pandharinath Nageshkar|Pt. Pandharinath Nageshkar]] of the [[Farukhabad Gharana]]. Influenced by his brother, Pt. Kane began his journey in Tabla. After Pt. Kane witnessed a performance with [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Utd. Zakir Hussain]] on Tabla, he wished to learn under the young master. Captivated by the balance, clarity and creativity of Utd. Zakir Hussain's style, Pt. Kane immediately asked for him for tutelage. In 1975, Pt. Kane became a [[Gandabandhan]] disciple of [[Alla Rakha|Utd. Alla Rakha]] and began learning under both father and son.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pt. Shyam Kane | publisher=ICMC of D/FW|url=http://www.icmcdfw.org/bios/shyamKane.htm|accessdate=18 October 2018}}</ref>

==Career==
Pt. Kane has become a popular [[Tabla]] accompanist in India, North America, and Europe. Pt. Kane participated in the Festival of India (1985–1986) sponsored by the [[Government of India]]. Pt. Kane has taught Tabla at [[San Diego State University]] and the [[Ali Akbar College of Music]] in San Rafael, California.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pt. Shyam Kane's profile=IAPA|url=http://www.iapa-usa.org/artists/shyam_kane.htm|accessdate=2010-07-07}}</ref> Pt. Kane frequently performs alongside his guru, Utd. Zakir Hussain, where recently both performed together at the 2007 [[Brihan Maharashtra Mandal]] Convention in [[Seattle]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Rhythm Rhapsody at BMM 2007=MumbaiBuzz.com|url=http://www.mumbaibuzz.com/BMMConvention2007/BMMConvention2007_Day2.html|accessdate=2010-07-07|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714133033/http://www.mumbaibuzz.com/BMMConvention2007/BMMConvention2007_Day2.html|archivedate=2011-07-14}}</ref>

Pt. Kane has performed alongside [[Pandit Jasraj|Pt. Jasraj]], [[Hariprasad Chaurasia|Pt. Hariprasad Chaurasia]], [[Ali Akbar Khan|Utd. Ali Akbar Khan]], [[Ashwini Bhide Deshpande|Smt. Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande]], [[N. Rajam|Smt. N. Rajam]], and [[Kishori Amonkar|Smt. Kishori Amonkar]], [[Asha Khadilkar]] among others.

==Awards and recognition==
*1987-1988 - Ohio Art Council Fellowship

==Discography==
{{expand section|date=November 2015}}
'''With [[John Handy]], [[Ali Akbar Khan]] and [[Dr. L. Subramaniam]]'''
*''[[Rainbow (John Handy album)|Rainbow]]'' (MPS, 1981)

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kane, Shyam}}
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Hindustani musicians]]
[[Category:Tabla players]]
[[Category:Indian drummers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Musicians from Mumbai]]

Brij Ke Gopal

2026-04-20T02:42:12Z

FrancisClement: adding basic post needs work

{{Short description|Indian Hindi language Mythological television series (2022)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Brij-Ke Gopal.jpg
| genre = [[Mythology]] [[Drama]]
| creator = Dashmi Creations
| director = Kushal Awasthi
| producer = Nithin Vaidya Ninad Vaidya
| creative_director = Palak Kapoor
| story = Brij Mohan Pandey
| screenplay = Vikas Babulal Parikh Neeraj Prabhakar (Dialogue)
| starring = [[Paras Arora]] [[Manul Chudasama]] [[Amit Behl]]
| composer =
| theme_music_composer = Devendra Moghe Shouvik Chakraborty
| cinematography =
| editor = Prashant Rai
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 48
| runtime = 23 minutes
| company = Dashmi Creations
| network = [[Dangal TV]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2022|4|11|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2022|6|6|df=y}}
| related =
}}

'''''Brij Ke Gopal''''' is an Indian [[Hindi-language]] mythological television series which was aired on [[Dangal TV]] under the banner of Dashmi Creations on 11 April 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/exclusive-kaatelal-and-sons-paras-arora-bags-dashmi-creations-brij-ke-gopal-dangal-tv|title=EXCLUSIVE! Kaatelal and Sons' Paras Arora bags Dashmi Creations' Brij Ke Gopal on Dangal TV|website=Tellychakkar.com|language=en|access-date=2022-07-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/breaking-baalveer-returns-actors-aarna-and-abhay-bhadoriya-enter-dashami-creations-brij|title=BREAKING! Baalveer Returns actors Aarna and Abhay Bhadoriya ENTER Dashami Creations' Brij Ke Gopal on Dangal TV|website=Tellychakkar.com|language=en|access-date=2022-07-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=BREAKING! Not Zalak Desai, Manul Chudasama to play Radha in Dangal's Brij Ke Gopal|url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/breaking-not-zalak-desai-manul-chudasama-play-radha-dangals-brij-ke-gopal-220330?amp|work=Tellychakkar|accessdate=30 March 2022}}</ref> It stars [[Paras Arora]], [[Manul Chudasama]] and [[Amit Behl]] in their roles. The show is about the [[Hindu]] god [[Lord Krishna]], goddess [[Radha]]rani and Hindu devotee [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Exclusive: Ishk Par Zor Nahi fame Suhana Mudvari to enter Dangal TV's Brij Ke Gopal|url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/television/news/exclusive-ishk-par-zor-nahi-fame-suhana-mudvari-to-enter-dangal-tvs-brij-ke-gopal/2022/05/07/amp|work=IWMBuzz|date=7 May 2022 |accessdate=7 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Amit Behl: People are no longer bound to watch a show on their TV sets, so script and storytelling on TV has to be really good now|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/amit-behl-people-are-no-longer-bound-to-watch-a-show-on-their-tv-sets-so-script-and-storytelling-on-tv-has-to-be-really-good-now/articleshow/90681936.cms|work=m.timesofindia|date=6 April 2022 |access-date=6 April 2022}}</ref> The show ended on 6 June 2022 completing only 48 episodes.<ref>{{cite web|title=There shouldn't be a comparison between 'Brij Ke Gopal' & other shows made on Lord Krishna: Paras Arora|url=https://www.indiaforums.com/article/there-shouldnt-be-a-comparison-between-brij-ke-gopal-and-other-shows-made-on-lord-krishna-paras-aror_186149?mode=amp|work=Indiaforums|accessdate=12 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Exclusive! TV show Brij Ke Gopal to wrap up in less than two months|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-tv-show-brij-ke-gopal-to-wrap-up-in-less-than-two-months/articleshow/91913163.cms|work=m.timesofindia|access-date=13 May 2022}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Brij Ke Gopal is the first show in India in which the story of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Nidhivan has been depicted. The story begins with Krishna and Radha. And when Chaitanya Mahaprabhu comes to earth looking for Krishna, then Shri Krishna shows Chaitanya the way to Brij. On the same side, Gyandar is the head of the entire Brij Dham. He pretends to do miracles with his divine power. He was actually a dacoit. Long ago, he had changed his disguise and settled in Brij Dham by becoming a fake of Swami in Brij. He had made the people of Brij Dham on his side with his fake miracle. The whole Brij Dham believes that the knowledgeable person is in direct contact with Shri Krishna and were Shri Krishna hears the call of the Dhara of Knowledge. One day Gyandhar performs fake miracles in front of people and the idol of Shri Krishna comes up from the earth and performs miracles. And the land on which the idol of Shri Krishna has been found, he asked for the land to build the temple, he asked for the land. But said there is a poor man and that land was a stream to run his life. Chaitanya speaks against it and Krishna is in every particle and gives the offerings of worship of Krishna to Gyandhar. Then the knowledgeable person tells him not to take the prasad and see his bundle, he speaks of black magic and troubles him, then Lord Shri Krishna sees this. People on earth are straying from religion, truth, kindness, that's why Krishna is on earth. But prepares to come and Radha becomes sad then Krishna says that every evening he will meet Radha in Nidhivan, then Radha says, if even a day does not come, you will go away forever and never earthly people. Krishna agrees to this condition and takes the form of Gopal on earth and comes to help Chanakya. And save Brij Dham from every misery, difficulty. At the end of the show, Gyandhar becomes a good person.

== Cast ==
* [[Paras Arora]] as [[Krishna]]<ref>{{cite web|title=EXCLUSIVE! Kaatelal and Sons' Paras Arora bags Dashmi Creations' Brij Ke Gopal on Dangal TV|url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/exclusive-kaatelal-and-sons-paras-arora-bags-dashmi-creations-brij-ke-gopal-dangal-tv?amp|work=Tellychakkar|accessdate=16 March 2022}}</ref>
** Vansh Sayani as Baby Lord Krishna
* [[Manul Chudasama]] as [[Radha]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Manul Chudasama & Paras Arora to play Radha and Krishna in the new historical show Brij Ke Gopal|url=https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/videos/tv-news/manul-chudasama-paras-arora-to-play-radha-and-krishna-in-the-new-historical-show-brij-ke-gopal-video-90714091/amp?|work=Zoomtventertainment|accessdate=7 April 2021}}</ref>
* [[Amit Behl]] as [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Exclusive: Nimai Bali and Amit Behl in Dangal TV's Brij Ke Gopal|url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/exclusive-nimai-bali-and-amit-behl-dangal-tv-s-brij-ke-gopal-220316?amp|work=Tellychakkar|accessdate=16 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Pankaj Berry]] as Gyandhar
* Dhruti Mangeshkar as Lalita
* [[Gulfam Khan]] as Sujatha
* [[Tarun Khanna (actor)|Tarun Khanna]] as [[Indra]]
* [[Nimai Bali]] as Sahukaar
* Unknown as Sujan
* Abhay Badoria as Bansi
* Zamin Chaudhary
* Dhruvi Haldankar
* Arna Badoria
* [[Praneet Bhat]] as Kantak
* [[Sonia Singh]] as Kapoota
* Priya Varlani as Yamuna Devi
* [[Resham Tipnis]] as Malati

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=22797224}}
* [https://www.dangalplay.com/shows/brij-ke-gopal ''Brij Ke Gopal''] on Dangal Play
[[Category:Indian television series about Hindu deities]]
[[Category:Dangal TV original programming]]
[[Category:2022 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2022 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:Indian television soap operas]]
[[Category:Krishna in popular culture]]

Shukrawar Peth Assembly constituency

2026-04-18T14:07:14Z

FrancisClement: created a pg more to come

{{Short description|Former seat in the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly (1962-77)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Shukrawar Peth
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| district =
| division =
| loksabha_cons = [[Pune Lok Sabha constituency|Pune]]
| constituency_no =
| established = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| reservation =
| abolished = 1976
| electors =
}}
'''[[Shukrawar Peth]] Vidhan Sabha seat''' was one of the seats in [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] in India, from 1962 to 1977. It was a segment of [[Pune Lok Sabha constituency]]. The Vidhan Sabha seat was made defunct after the constituency map of India was redrawn around 1975.

== Members of Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1957 Bombay Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|[[Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi|Shreedhar Joshi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Praja Socialist Party}}
|-
|[[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Rambhau Telang
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Rambhau Mhalgi]]
|{{Full party name with color|rowspan=2|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
|[[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
| colspan="4" |{{Center|''1978 onwards: Constituency defunct''}}
|}

==Election results==
===Assembly Election 1972===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shukrawar Peth<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519183024/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rambhau Mhalgi]] |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 41,792 |percentage = 50.15% |change={{decrease}}7.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vasant Thorat |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 40,195 |percentage = 48.23% |change={{increase}}22.27 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Babyrao Rajput |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 748 |percentage = 0.90% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shreekanth Nargolkar |party=Independent politician |votes = 606 |percentage = 0.73% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,597 |percentage = 1.92% |change= {{decrease}}29.50 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 84,608 |percentage = 74.03% |change= {{decrease}}1.96 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 83,341}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,14,282|ref = |change= {{increase}}49.21 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |loser = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |swing= {{decrease}}7.23 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1967===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shukrawar Peth<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926233227/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Rambhau Mhalgi]] |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 31,265 |percentage = 57.38% |change={{increase}}52.60 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=B. P. Apte |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 14,146 |percentage = 25.96% |change={{decrease}}27.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=L. G. Sahasrabudhe |party=Sanghata Socialist Party |votes = 3,784 |percentage = 6.94% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=L. B. Kotwal |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes = 2,938 |percentage = 5.39% |change={{decrease}}31.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=P. B. Jog |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,643 |percentage = 3.02% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=S. B. Kamble |party=Independent politician |votes = 715 |percentage = 1.31% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 17,119 |percentage = 31.42% |change= {{increase}}14.07 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 58,207 |percentage = 76.00% |change= {{increase}}12.64 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 54,491}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 76,590|ref = |change= {{decrease}}8.22 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}3.60 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1962===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shukrawar Peth<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085627/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Rambhau Vithal Telang |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 28,434 |percentage = 53.78% |change={{increase}}6.77 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi]] |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes = 19,263 |percentage = 36.43% |change={{decrease}}16.55 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Narayan Laxman Soman |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 2,524 |percentage = 4.77% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dattatraya Sakharam Lad |party=Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 1,294 |percentage = 2.45% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Abaji Mahadev Dhande |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,211 |percentage = 2.29% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 9,171 |percentage = 17.35% |change= {{increase}}11.38 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 55,608 |percentage = 66.64% |change= {{decrease}}14.75 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 52,870}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 83,449|ref = |change= {{increase}}22.22 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Praja Socialist Party |swing= {{increase}}0.80 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1957===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Shukrawar Peth<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114093455/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Shreedhar Mahadev Joshi]] |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes = 28,258 |percentage = 52.98% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sanas Baburao Narayanrao |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 25,075 |percentage = 47.02% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,183 |percentage = 5.97% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 53,333 |percentage = 78.11% |change= }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 53,333}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 68,280|ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Praja Socialist Party |loser = |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist|1}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{coord|18.51|73.86|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Politics of Pune district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1962]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 disestablishments in India]]

{{India-constituency-stub}}
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos

2026-04-05T18:38:54Z

FrancisClement: Adding A Location

{{Short description|British politician (1823–1889)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Grace]]
| name = The Duke of Buckingham and Chandos
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|GCSI|PC|DL}}
| image = Richard Temple-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos.jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[William Walker (engraver)|William Walker]], {{circa|1867}}
| order1 = [[Governor of Madras Presidency]]
| term_start1 = 23 November 1875
| term_end1 = 20 December 1880
| governor-general1 = {{plainlist|
* [[Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook|The Earl of Northbrook]]
* [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|The Earl of Lytton]]
* [[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon|The Marquess of Ripon]]
}}
| predecessor1 = [[William Rose Robinson]]
| successor1 = [[William Patrick Adam]]
| order2 = [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
| term_start2 = 8 March 1867
| term_end2 = 1 December 1868
| monarch2 = [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]
| prime_minister2 = {{plainlist|
* [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]]
* [[Benjamin Disraeli]]
}}
| predecessor2 = [[Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon|The Earl of Carnarvon]]
| successor2 = [[Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|The Earl Granville]]
| order3 = [[Lord President of the Council]]
| term_start3 = 6 July 1866
| term_end3 = 8 March 1867
| monarch3 = Victoria
| prime_minister3 = The Earl of Derby
| predecessor3 = The Earl Granville
| successor3 = [[John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough|The Duke of Marlborough]]
| birth_name = Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1823|09|10|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Westminster St James]], Middlesex, England<ref>''1861 England Census''{{full citation needed|date=November 2019}}</ref>
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1889|03|26|1823|09|10|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Chandos House]], Marylebone, London, England
| party = [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
| alma_mater = [[Christ Church, Oxford]]
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Caroline Harvey|1851|February 1874|end = d.}}
* {{marriage|Alice Graham-Montgomery|1885}}
}}
| children = 3, including [[Mary Morgan-Grenville, 11th Lady Kinloss]]
| father = [[Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos]]
| mother = [[Lady Mary Campbell]]
}}
{{Needs IPA|date=April 2026}}

'''Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|sep=,|GCSI|PC|DL}}(10 September 1823 – 26 March 1889), styled '''Earl Temple''' until 1839 and '''Marquess of Chandos''' from 1839 to 1861, was a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] soldier, politician and administrator of the 19th century. He was a close friend and subordinate of [[Benjamin Disraeli]] and served as the [[secretary of state for the colonies]] from 1867 to 1868 and [[governor of Madras]] from 1875 to 1880.

Buckingham was the only son of [[Richard Temple-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos]], and was educated at [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Christ Church, Oxford]]. He joined the [[British Army]], eventually rising to become a [[colonel (United Kingdom)|colonel]]. Buckingham entered politics, as Lord Chandos, in 1846 when he was elected unopposed from [[Buckinghamshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Buckinghamshire]] as a candidate of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]. Buckingham served as a [[member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|member of Parliament]] from 1846 to 1857, when he [[Resignation from the House of Commons of the United Kingdom|resigned]]. He contested a re-election in 1859, but lost. Buckingham served in various political offices during his tenure.

In March 1867, he was appointed [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] and served until December 1868. He also served as governor of Madras from 1875 to 1880. As governor, he handled the relief measures for the victims of the [[Great Famine of 1876–1878]]. Buckingham also served as [[Lord of the Treasury]], Keeper of the Privy Seal of the Prince of Wales, Deputy Warden of the Stannaries, [[Deputy Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire]], Chairman of the [[London and North-Western Railway]], member of the [[Imperial Privy Council]], [[Lord President of the Council]] and chairman of the committees in the [[House of Lords]]. He died in 1889 at the age of 65.<ref name="times">{{cite news| title=Death of the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos| newspaper=The Times| page=7| date=28 March 1889| url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38642730/the_times/| via=Newspapers.com| access-date=8 November 2019| archive-date=7 May 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507233237/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38642730/the-times/| url-status=live}}{{open access}}</ref>

==Background and education==
Buckingham was the second child and only son of [[Richard Temple-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos|Richard, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos]], and his wife Lady Mary, younger daughter of [[John Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane|John Campbell, 4th Earl of Breadalbane and Holland]] (later the 1st [[Marquess of Breadalbane]]). His sister, [[Lady Anna Eliza Mary Gore-Langton]], was a women's rights campaigner.<ref name=anna>{{cite ODNB| first=Elizabeth| last=Crawford| chapter=Langton, Lady Anna Eliza Mary Gore- (1820–1879)| title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography| year=2004| doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/56233| url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/56233| access-date=7 November 2017| archive-date=7 May 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507233242/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-56233;jsessionid=F68F0B95C0D7E3879CD91DC6B49F54B6| url-status=live}}</ref> As his father's son and [[heir apparent]], he was [[courtesy title|styled]] Earl Temple from birth. He was 15 years of age when his paternal grandfather died and his father became the 2nd [[Duke of Buckingham and Chandos]]. From this time, he was styled [[Marquess]] of Chandos until he succeeded his father as Duke.<ref name="times"/>

Upon his father's death in 1861, his titles were Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, Marquess of Chandos, and [[Earl Temple of Stowe]] in the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom]]; Marquess of Buckingham, [[Earl Temple]], [[Viscount Cobham|Viscount]] and [[Baron Cobham]] in the [[Peerage of Great Britain]]; and [[Earl Nugent]] in the [[Peerage of Ireland]]. In 1868, he was also recognised by the House of Lords as [[Lord Kinloss]] in the [[Peerage of Scotland]].<ref name="funeral">{{cite news| title=Funeral of the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos| newspaper=The Times| page=11| date=3 April 1889| url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38642791/the_times/| via=newspapers.com| access-date=8 November 2019| archive-date=8 November 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108123142/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38642791/the_times/| url-status=live}} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Death of the Duke of Buckingham| newspaper=The Times| page=12| date=31 July 1861| url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38642791/the_times/| via=Newspapers.com| access-date=8 November 2019| archive-date=8 November 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108123142/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/38642791/the_times/| url-status=live}} {{open access}}</ref> He inherited 10,500 acres, mostly in Buckingham.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/greatlandownerso00bateuoft/page/64/mode/1up The great landowners of Great Britain and Ireland]</ref>

The young Lord Temple, later Lord Chandos, attended [[Eton College|Eton]] until 1841 and graduated from [[Christ Church, Oxford]], from which he later received an honorary degree of [[D.C.L.]]<ref name="times"/> Two years after graduation, Lord Chandos (as he then was) was commissioned a Lieutenant in the [[Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry]] and he would eventually become Honorary [[Colonel]] of that regiment. He was also Hon. Colonel of the [[1st Administrative Battalion, Middlesex Artillery Volunteers]] and later of the [[City of London Artillery]].<ref>''Army List''{{full citation needed|date=November 2019}}</ref>

==Early career==
[[File:3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos.jpg|thumb|left]]

In 1846, Buckingham, as the Marquess of Chandos, entered [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] as [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]] for [[Buckinghamshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Buckinghamshire]], and remained as an unopposed MP until 1857. The young Lord Chandos was appointed a [[deputy lieutenant]] for [[Oxfordshire]] on 3 February 1846,<ref>{{London Gazette | issue=20568 |page=411 | date=6 February 1846}}</ref> [[Hampshire]] on 17 February,<ref>{{London Gazette | issue=21297 |page=670 | date=24 February 1846}}</ref> and [[Northamptonshire]] on 29 May.<ref>{{London Gazette | issue=20609 |page=1981 | date=29 May 1846}}</ref>

In 1852, he entered [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]]'s administration as a [[Lord of the Treasury]], a position he held for exactly ten months. That year, he was also appointed Keeper of the [[Privy Seal]] of the [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Prince of Wales]],<ref>{{London Gazette | issue=21303 |page=869 | date=23 March 1852}}</ref> [[Lord Warden of the Stannaries|Deputy Warden of the Stannaries]], deputy lieutenant of [[Buckinghamshire]],<ref>{{London Gazette | issue=21341 |page=2012 | date=20 July 1852}}</ref> and chairman of the [[London and North-Western Railway]]. In 1857, he resigned as MP for Buckinghamshire and did not stand for re-election. In 1861, he succeeded his father as [[Duke of Buckingham and Chandos]] (and in various other titles across four [[Peerages]]) and took his seat in the [[House of Lords]]. In the 1860s he was chairman of the [[London Pneumatic Despatch Company]].<ref name="times" /><ref name="londonreconnections">{{cite web|url=https://www.londonreconnections.com/2015/londons-lost-pneumatic-railway-the-worlds-2nd-oldest-underground/|title=London's Lost Pneumatic Railway: The World's 2nd Oldest Underground|work=London Reconnections|date=12 April 2015|access-date=31 August 2023}}</ref>

Buckingham's political career was stagnant until 1866, when he was appointed to the [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|Privy Council]] and became Lord Derby's [[Lord President of the Council]]. He served as Lord President of the Council until 8 March 1867, when he succeeded [[Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon|Lord Carnarvon]] as [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]].<ref name="times" />

== As Secretary of State for the Colonies ==
[[File:Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham.png|thumb|270px|The Duke of Buckingham and Chandos GSCI in the mantle of a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
Buckingham was appointed Secretary of State for the Colonies when [[Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon|Lord Carnarvon]] resigned in March 1867 over the Reform Bill and served from 8 March 1867 to 1 December 1868. During this period, he was also appointed [[Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire]]. As Secretary of State for the Colonies. Buckingham had to deal with the [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act]]. He also attracted controversy over his dispute with [[John Colenso|Bishop Colenso]] of [[Colony of Natal|Natal]]. Buckingham's tenure ended in December 1868 when the Conservative Party ministry of [[Benjamin Disraeli]] resigned. He was succeeded as Colonial Secretary by [[Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|Lord Granville]].<ref name="times"/>

On 21 July 1868, the House of Lords recognised him as the 10th [[Lord Kinloss]] in the [[Peerage of Scotland]], which had been dormant since the death of the 6th Lord Kinloss, his three-times great-grandfather [[Charles Bruce, 3rd Earl of Ailesbury|Charles Bruce, 4th Earl of Elgin]], in 1747. Through the House of Lords ruling, Buckingham's father was recognised posthumously as ''[[de jure]]'' 9th Lord Kinloss, his maternal grandmother Lady Anna Brydges as ''de jure'' 8th Lady Kinloss, and his great-grandfather [[James Brydges, 3rd Duke of Chandos]] as ''de jure'' 7th Lord Kinloss. Though the lordship was the most minor of Buckingham's many titles, it was the only one that could be inherited by his daughters, and he established his right to it at a time when the likelihood emerged that he would leave no male heir.<ref name="burke">{{cite book| title=[[Burke's Peerage|Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knighthood]]| publisher=Burke's Peerage & Gentry| editor-last=Mosley| editor-first=Charles| editor-link=Charles Mosley (genealogist)| edition=107| year=2003| pages=2185–2186| ref=Burke| isbn=0-9711966-2-1}}</ref>

==Governor of Madras==
[[File:Buckingham Canal through Chennai City.GIF|thumb|150px|Map of Chennai City showing the Buckingham Canal. The Canal connects the Coovum and Adayar rivers.]]

When the Conservative Party was re-elected to power in the United Kingdom in 1874 and Disraeli became the Prime Minister once again, Buckingham was appointed Governor of the [[Madras Presidency]], British India. Buckingham moved to Madras and took his seat on 23 November 1875.<ref name="times"/>

On 28 June 1876, as Richard Plantagenet Campbell, he was appointed an [[Order of the Star of India|Extra Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India]].<ref>[https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/24341/page/3731 The London Gazette]</ref>

Buckingham served as the governor of Madras from 1875 to 1880. His tenure was plagued by deteriorating socio-economic and health conditions. In 1876, the [[Great Famine of 1876–78]] broke out in [[Madras Presidency]]. By August 1877, the famine had spread all over the Presidency and over 18 million people were affected.<ref name="nytimes18770812">{{cite news| title=The Famine in India: a Famine Area of Eighteen Million People – the Necessity for Supplies Steadily Increasing – the Situation Critical| newspaper=The New York Times| date=12 August 1877| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1877/08/15/81708915.pdf| access-date=15 June 2018| archive-date=7 May 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507233236/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1877/08/15/81708915.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> To make matters worse, the rains failed in parts of Madras and Mysore.<ref name="nytimes18770812" /> Large quantities of grain were shipped from Bengal to Madras port, and through his efforts, famine relief was distributed to 839,000 people in the Madras districts, besides 160,000 in the Bombay Districts and 151,000 in the Mysore districts.<ref name="times"/><ref name="nytimes18770812" />

The Governor appealed to the principal cities of England, Scotland, Ireland and India for assistance.<ref name="nytimes18770812" /> At Buckingham's suggestion, the [[Lord Mayor of London]] collected relief funds of up to £475,000 in 1877 (£{{formatprice|{{Inflation|UK|475000|1877|r=-1}}|0}} as of {{inflation/year|UK}}). Though the famine eventually came to an end in 1878, the issue had far-reaching effects.<ref name="times"/>

As a part of the famine relief work, Buckingham had commenced the construction of a navigation channel between Madras city and the northern part of the Madras Presidency so that transportation of supplies to the interior in cases of emergency would be easy. More than 715,000 people were employed as labourers in Madras to assist with the relief work. Opened in 1878, this canal was named after Buckingham as the [[Buckingham Canal]].<ref name="times"/> Buckingham Street in [[Penang]], [[Malaysia]] was also named after him by the [[Tamils|Tamil]] labourers who were brought there during the British colonial period.

Displeasure of the tribes of the northern part of the Presidency over the stringent taxation schemes of the British government erupted in the form of [[Rampa Rebellion of 1879|a major rebellion]] in 1879. The rebellion was eventually suppressed through a joint operation of the Madras police and army and the Hyderabad army, and the captured prisoners were sent to the [[Andaman Islands|Andamans]]. Many of the stringent taxation laws were repealed.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tribes of India: the struggle for survival|pages=37–38|author=Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf|publisher=University of California Press|year=1982|isbn=0520043154}}</ref>

On 30 August 1880, [[William Patrick Adam]] was appointed Governor of Madras<ref name="nytimes18800831">{{cite news| title=Current Foreign Topics| newspaper=The New York Times| date=31 August 1880| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1880/09/01/98625728.pdf| access-date=15 June 2018| archive-date=7 May 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507233245/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1880/09/01/98625728.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> and he succeeded Buckingham in December 1880.

<gallery widths="225px" heights="165px">
File:Detail from the painting of the Maharaja of Travancore welcoming 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, Trivandrum 1880, painted by Raja Ravi Varma.png|Detail from the painting of ''the Maharaja of Travancore Welcoming Buckingham and Chandos, Trivandrum 1880'', painted by Raja Ravi Varma.
File:Raja ravivarma painting 50 historic meeting.jpg|Painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] depicting Buckingham being greeted by [[Visakham Thirunal]], with [[Ayilyam Thirunal of Travancore]] looking on, during Buckingham's visit to [[Trivandrum]], [[Travancore]] in early 1880.
File:Detail from the painting of the Maharaja of Travancore and his brother welcoming 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1823-1889), Trivandrum 1880, painted by Raja Ravi Varma.png|Detail from the painting of the ''Maharaja of Travancore and His Brother Welcoming Buckingham and Chandos to Trivandrum in 1880'', painted by Raja Ravi Varma, 1881.
</gallery>

==Later life and death==
[[File:3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos.png|thumb|right|150px|The Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, by [[Carlo Pellegrini (caricaturist)|Carlo Pellegrini]], 1875.]]

In May 1886, Buckingham succeeded [[John Freeman-Mitford, 1st Earl of Redesdale|Lord Redesdale]] as Chairman of Committees in the [[House of Lords]]. He made few speeches in the House of Lords and succeeded in paying off most of his father's debts. Gradually, towards the later part of his life, his financial situation improved. By 1883, he owned {{Convert|10,482|acre|ha}} of land with a total value of £18,080.

Buckingham died in March 1889, aged 65, from [[diabetes]] at [[Chandos House]], London. His illness was unexpected and not originally thought to be serious; the House of Lords postponed voting on several bills until he recovered. Within a week, however, his illness proved fatal, despite the efforts of Dr. Henry Walter Kiallmark, the family physician, and Sir [[James Paget]], who was called in to assist.<ref name="times"/>

The duke was buried at the family vault in the church at [[Wotton House]], Buckinghamshire.<ref name="funeral"/>

With no male issue, the dukedom and marquessate of Buckingham and Chandos and the Earldom of Temple became extinct. Several of his other titles survived due to available heirs: his nephew [[William Temple-Gore-Langton, 4th Earl Temple of Stowe|William Gore-Langton]] succeeded him in 1892 as fourth [[Earl Temple of Stowe]], which was created with a [[Remainder (law)#Special remainder in peerages|special remainder]]; his eldest daughter, [[Mary Morgan-Grenville, 11th Lady Kinloss|Lady Mary]], succeeded him in the Scottish [[Lord Kinloss|lordship of Kinloss]], which can be held by females, as Lady Kinloss; and his distant relative [[Charles Lyttelton, 8th Viscount Cobham|Charles Lyttelton]] succeeded him as eighth [[Viscount Cobham]].<ref name="times"/>

==Family==
Buckingham married firstly Caroline Harvey, daughter of Robert Harvey of Langley Park, Sheriff of Buckinghamshire, and sister of [[Sir Robert Harvey, 1st Baronet of Langley Park]], in 1851. They had three daughters:

* [[Mary Morgan-Grenville, 11th Lady Kinloss]] (1852–1944)
* Lady Anne (1853–1890)
* Lady Caroline Jemima Elizabeth (1858–1946)

Caroline, Duchess of Buckingham and Chandos, died in February 1874.

Buckingham married, secondly, Alice Graham-Montgomery, daughter of [[Sir Graham Graham-Montgomery, 3rd Baronet]], in 1885. Born in 1848, she was 25 years younger than he. In 1897, she was one of the guests at the Duchess of Devonshire's Diamond Jubilee Costume Ball.<ref>{{cite web| last=Walker| first=Dave| title=Costume Ball 4: Ladies only| date=2 January 2014| url=http://rbkclocalstudies.wordpress.com/2014/01/02/costume-ball-4-ladies-only/| publisher=Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea| access-date=17 May 2014| archive-date=18 May 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518002554/http://rbkclocalstudies.wordpress.com/2014/01/02/costume-ball-4-ladies-only/| url-status=live}}</ref> There were no children from this marriage. Widowed in 1889, Alice, Dowager Duchess of Buckingham and Chandos, married the [[Wilbraham Egerton, 1st Earl Egerton|1st Earl Egerton]] in 1894. She died in 1931, aged 83.

==See also==
* [[1st (Hanover Square) Middlesex Artillery Volunteer Corps]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Beckett |first=J. V. |year=1994 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Grenvilles, Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos 1710 to 1921 |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=9780719037566 |oclc=28498778}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bevington |first=Michael |year=2002 |title=Stowe House |edition=Revised |location=London |publisher=Paul Holberton |isbn=9781903470046 |oclc=50270713}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Kidd |editor-first=Charles |date=1903 |title=Debrett's Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage |url=https://archive.org/details/b24883797/mode/2upl |location=London |publisher=Dean and Son |page=[https://archive.org/details/b24883797/page/n179/mode/2up 135] |oclc=969520856}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mitter |first=Partha |year=1994 |title=Art and Nationalism in Colonial India, 1850–1922 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=179–218 |isbn=9780521443548 |oclc=28024531}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Neumayer |editor1-first=Erwin |editor2-last=Schelberger |editor2-first=Christine |year=2005 |title=Raja Ravi Varma, Portrait of an Artist: The Diary of C. Raja Raja Varma |url=https://archive.org/details/rajaravivarmapor0000varm |url-access=registration |location=New Delhi |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195659719 |oclc=56759817}}
* {{Cite book |last=Temple Nugent Brydges Chandos Grenville Buckingham and Chandos (3d duke of) |first=Richard Plantagenet Campbell |year=1921 |title=The Ducal Estate of Stowe: Sale of the Contents of the Mansion, 5–28 July 1921 |location=Stowe, UK |publisher=Jackson Stops; F. C. Williams |oclc=171651206}}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Richard Temple-Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos}}
{{DNB poster|Grenville, Richard Temple Plantagenet Campbell Nugent Brydges Chandos}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041027140314/http://www.dukesofbuckingham.org/dukes/third_duke.htm The Dukes of Buckingham]
* {{Hansard-contribs | marquess-of-chandos | the Duke of Buckingham and Chandos }}
* {{NPG name|name=Richard Grenville, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos}}
* {{UK National Archives ID}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Buckingham (UK Parliament constituency)|Member of Parliament for Buckingham]]
| years = 1846–1857
| with = [[John Hall (Buckingham MP)|John Hall]]
| before = [[Thomas Fremantle, 1st Baron Cottesloe|Sir Thomas Fremantle, Bt]] [[John Hall (Buckingham MP)|John Hall]]
| after = [[John Hall (Buckingham MP)|John Hall]] [[Sir Harry Verney, 2nd Baronet|Sir Harry Verney, Bt]]
}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box | before=[[Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|The Earl Granville]] | title=[[Lord President of the Council]] | years=1866–1867 | after=[[John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough|The Duke of Marlborough]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Henry Herbert, 4th Earl of Carnarvon|The Earl of Carnarvon]] | title=[[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] | years=1867–1868 | after=[[Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|The Earl Granville]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Governor of Madras]]|years=1875–1880|before=[[Vere Hobart, Lord Hobart|Lord Hobart]]|after=[[William Patrick Adam]]}}
{{s-hon}}
{{succession box | before=[[Robert Carrington, 2nd Baron Carrington|The Lord Carrington]] | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire]] | years=1868–1889 | after=[[Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild|The Lord Rothschild]]}}
{{s-reg|uk}}
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|-
{{s-ttl | title=[[Earl Temple of Stowe]] | years=1861–1889}}
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{{s-ttl | title=[[Marquess of Buckingham]] | years=1861–1889}}
{{s-non | reason=Extinct}}
|-
{{s-ttl | title=[[Viscount Cobham]] | years=1861–1889}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Charles Lyttelton, 8th Viscount Cobham|Charles Lyttelton]]}}
{{s-reg|ie}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Richard Temple-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos|Richard Temple-Grenville]]}}
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{{s-aft| after=[[Mary Morgan-Grenville, 11th Lady Kinloss|Mary Morgan-Grenville]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Buckingham and Chandos, Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 3rd Duke of}}
[[Category:1823 births]]
[[Category:1889 deaths]]
[[Category:Secretaries of state for the colonies]]
[[Category:Lords president of the Council]]
[[Category:Governors of Madras]]
[[Category:Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos|3]]
[[Category:Earls Nugent]]
[[Category:Earls Temple of Stowe]]
[[Category:Lords Kinloss|Richard]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies|Chandos, Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, Marquess of]]
[[Category:People from Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Lord-lieutenants of Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1841–1847|Chandos, Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, Marquess of]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1847–1852|Chandos, Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, Marquess of]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1852–1857|Chandos, Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, Marquess of]]
[[Category:UK MPs who inherited peerages|Buckingham and Chandos, D3]]
[[Category:People educated at Eton College]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]
[[Category:Directors of the London and North Western Railway]]
[[Category:Grenville family|Richard]]
[[Category:Royal Buckinghamshire Yeomanry officers]]
[[Category:Deputy lieutenants of Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Deputy lieutenants of Hampshire]]
[[Category:Deputy lieutenants of Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Deputy lieutenants of Northamptonshire]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Deaths from diabetes in England]]

Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973

2026-04-02T20:34:40Z

FrancisClement: Created a redirect

#REDIRECT [[Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999#Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973]] {{R from merge}} {{R to section}}

[[Category:Indian business law]]
[[Category:Repealed Indian legislation]]
[[Category:Economic history of India (1947–present)]]
[[Category:1999 in Indian law]]
[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of India 1973]]
[[Category:Foreign trade of India]]

Parivrajaka dynasty

2026-03-29T14:35:50Z

FrancisClement: correct structure and corrected details

{{EngvarB|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Parivrajaka
|common_name = Parivrajaka
|status = Vassal
|empire = [[Gupta Empire]]
|government_type = Monarchy
|year_start = c. 5th century CE
|year_end = c. 6th century CE
|capital = Unknown
}}

<mapframe text=" [[Find spot]]s of the Parivrajaka inscriptions" width="400" height="400" zoom="5" longitude="80.01" latitude="23.74">
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The '''Parivrajaka''' ([[IAST]]: Parivrājaka) dynasty ruled parts of central India during 5th and 6th centuries. The kings of this dynasty bore the title [[Maharaja]], and probably ruled as feudatories of the [[Gupta Empire]]. The dynasty is known from inscriptions of two of its kings: Hastin and Samkshobha.

== Political status ==

The Parivrajaka inscriptions refer to the imperial [[Gupta Empire|Gupta dynasty]], but do not mention any Gupta overlord. However, the use of title "[[Maharaja]]" (generally used by feudatory kings) suggests that they were vassals of the Guptas.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=95}} In addition, the Parivrajaka inscriptions state that the dynasty ruled the Jagir of vindhya ; the [[Allahabad pillar]] inscription of the Gupta emperor [[Samudragupta]] states that he subjugated all the Jagir kingdoms.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=91}}

When the Gupta empire started declining, they acknowledged nominal Gupta suzerainty.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=95}}

Multiple inscriptions of the dynasty mention a year of an uncertain [[calendar era]], with the term "Gupta-nṛipa-rājya bhuktau", which has been translated variously by different scholars:

* According to Moirangthem Pramod, the Parivrajakas were reduced to the governors of a ''bhukti'' (province) after the Gupta conquest.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=95}}
* According to [[P. L. Gupta]], the Parivrajakas were originally vassals of the Gupta, but became independent by the time of Hastin. Even after becoming independent, they continued to use the [[Gupta era]], which is what the term refers to.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=94}}
* According to [[H. H. Wilson]], the term refers to the occupation of the Parivrajaka kingdom by the Guptas, and the calendar era starts from this date of occupation.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=94}}
* According to Dr. Hall, the term refers to end of the Gupta sovereignty, and the calendar era starts from beginning of the post-Gupta period.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=94}}

== History ==
The term "Parivrajaka" literally means a wandering ascetic. The family came from a lineage of [[Brahmin]]s of [[Bharadvaja]] [[gotra]], who may have been wandering ascetics some time in the past.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=93}} Another possibility is that the term "Parivrajaka" is a reference to the practice of kings abdicating their thrones in old age and becoming wandering ascetics, in accordance with the [[ashrama (stage)|ashrama system]].{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=94}}

=== Early rulers ===

The earliest known member of the dynasty is Susharman, who is known only from the Khoh inscription of Samkshobha. The inscription describes Susharman as a learned ascetic from Bharadvaja gotra, and compares him to the legendary sage [[Kapila]]. It states that he knew "the whole truth" and fourteen branches of science.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=935}}

Maharaja Devadhya was a descendant of Susharman, and was succeeded by his son Maharaja Prabhanjana. Prabhanjana was succeeded by his son Maharaja Damodara.{{sfn|Ashvini Agrawal|1989|p=259}}

=== Maharaja Hastin ===
[[File:Khoh plates of the Maharaja Hastin.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Satna district|Khoh]] plates of the [[Maharaja]] [[Hastin]], 482 CE.<ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol 3 [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358795 p.102ff]</ref>]]
[[File:Majhgawam plates of Maharaja Hastin.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Majhgawan]] plates of Maharaja Hastin, 510 CE.<ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol 3 [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358795 p.108ff]</ref>]]
Maharaja Hastin, the son of Damodara, is credited with several military victories, although the inscriptions do not mention any of his adversaries. According to K. C. Jain, these claims probably refer to his participation in Guptas' war against the [[Huna people|Hunas]]. He was a charitable king, and donated cows, horses, elephants, gold and land to [[Brahmin]]s.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=95}}

According to the Khoh inscription of his son Samkshobha, Hastin ruled the kingdom of ābhala (or āhala; later [[Dahala]]) and the 18 ''aavi-rājya'' ("forest kingdoms"). The identity of these 18 forest kingdoms is not certain, but they were most probably in the [[Vindhyas|Vindhyan region]].{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=96}}

Hastin ruled for at least 42 years, as his earliest extant inscription is dated to the year 156, and his last inscription is dated to the year 198. Assuming these years to be in the [[Gupta era]], Hastin would have been a contemporary of the Gupta kings [[Budhagupta]], [[Vainyagupta]], [[Bhanugupta]] and possibly [[Narasimhagupta]]. Budhagupta was a relatively strong ruler among these, and Hastin appears to have been his vassal. This theory is corroborated by the discovery of a copper-plate inscription issued during Budhagupta's reign from Sankarapur in [[Sidhi district]].{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=96}}

Hastin was a [[Shaivite]], as suggested by his Bhumara inscription, which describes him as meditating at the feet of Mahadeva ([[Shiva]]).{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=96}}

Some ancient silver coins bearing the legend "Raa Hastin" have been discovered. Historians such as [[E. J. Rapson]], [[R. D. Banerji]] and [[B. P. Sinha]] identified him with Hastin on palaeographic basis. However, [[Dasharatha Sharma]] and P. L. Gupta identify him with the Pratihara king [[Vatsaraja]] who held the title "Rana-hastin" according to the ''[[Kuvalayamālā]]'' of Udyyotana Suri. According to Gupta, these coins cannot be dated before the 8th century CE. This theory is corroborated by the fact that no Gupta vassals issued coins in their own names.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=96}}

=== Maharaja Samkshobha ===

Maharaja Samkshobha (or Sakshobha) succeeded his father Hastin, and inherited the entire ancestral territory, including the 18 kingdoms. Like his father, he also made land grants for [[punya (Hinduism)|religious merit]]. He maintained the orthodox [[varna (Hinduism)|varna]] and [[ashrama (stage)|ashrama]] systems.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=97}}

Unlike his father who invoked [[Shiva]], Samkshobha's Khoh inscription opens with an invocation to the god [[Krishna|Vasudeva]]. He is the last known of the dynasty, which probably ended with him. The end of the Parivrajaka rule probably coincided with the end of the Gupta rule, which was followed by the [[Aulikara]] rule in central India.{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=97}}

== Genealogy ==

The following members of the dynasty are known ([[IAST]] names in brackets):{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|pp=91–93}}

* Susharman (Suśarman)
* Devadhya (Devāḍhya)
* Prabhanjana (Prabhañjana)
* Damodara (Dāmodara)
* Hastin, r. c. 475–517 CE
* Samkshobha or Sakshobha (Saṃkṣobha), r. c. 518–528 CE

== Inscriptions ==

The following inscriptions from the Parivrajaka reign have been discovered. All are copper-plate inscriptions, except the Bhumara stone pillar inscription:{{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|pp=91–93}}

{| class="wikitable"
! [[Find spot]]
! Issued by
! Year ([[Common era|CE]] year, assuming [[Gupta era]]){{sfn|D. C. Sircar|1996|p=156}}
! Objective
! Source
|-
| Khoh
| Maharaja Hastin
| 156 (475 CE)
| Grant of the Vasuntarashaika village by Maharaja Hastin to Gopasvamin and other [[Brahmins]]
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|pp=91–92}}
|-
| Khoh
| Maharaja Hastin
| 163 (482 CE)
| Grant of the Korparika [[agrahara]] by Maharaja Hastin to Brahmins
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=92}}
|-
| [[Jabalpur]]
| Maharaja Hastin
| 163 (482 CE)
| Grant of a village by Maharaja Hastin to Brahmins, in Gupta year 170
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=92}}
|-
| [[Majhgawan]]
| Maharaja Hastin
| 191 (510 CE)
| Grant by Maharaja Hastin at the request of Mahadevi-deva
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=92}}
|-
| Navagrama
| Maharaja Hastin and [[Uchchhakalpa]] Maharaja Sharvanatha
| 198 (517 CE)
| Grant of a village by Maharaja Hastin to Brahmins of [[Parashara]] [[gotra]] and [[Madhyandina Shakha]]
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=92}}
|-
| [[Bhumara]] (or Bhummra)
| Maharaja Hastin
|
| [[D. C. Sircar]] suggests that this is a family stone. The inscription mentions Ambalode village, which according to [[John Faithfull Fleet]], was located at the Parivrajaka–Uchchhakalpa border
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|pp=92–93}}
|-
| [[Betul, Madhya Pradesh|Betul]]
| Maharaja Sakshobha (Samkshobha)
| 199 (518 CE)
| Grant of the Prastaravataka village and Dvāravāika quarter in Tripuri province, by Maharaja Hastin to Bhanusvamin (a Brahmin of [[Bharadvaja]] [[gotra]])
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=93}}
|-
| Khoh
| Maharaja Samkshobha
| 209 (528 CE)
| Grant of the Opani village by Maharaja Hastin to a temple of goddess Pishapuri, at the request of Chhodugomin. Pishapuri was probably a local form of [[Lakshmi]].
| {{sfn|Moirangthem Pramod|2013|p=93}}
|}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book |author=Ashvini Agrawal |title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA259 |year=1989 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=D. C. Sircar |title=Studies in the Political and Administrative Systems in Ancient and Medieval India |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1996 |isbn=9788120812505 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nqm-Vp90E5UC&pg=PA156 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Moirangthem Pramod |title=The Parivrajaka Maharaja |journal=Asian Journal of Multidimensional Research |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=2013 |issn=2278-4853 |url=http://www.tarj.in/images/download/ajmr/AJMR%20APRIL%202013%20COMPETE%20PDF/4.10,%20Dr.%20Moirangthem%20Pramod.pdf |access-date=20 December 2016 |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130082215/https://www.tarj.in/images/download/ajmr/AJMR%20APRIL%202013%20COMPETE%20PDF/4.10,%20Dr.%20Moirangthem%20Pramod.pdf |url-status=dead }}
{{ref end}}

== External links ==

* Siddham – the South Asia Inscriptions Database: [http://damayata.com/search/result?keys=Hastin&f%5B0%5D=type:Inscription Hastin]{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} and [http://damayata.com/search/result?keys=Samksobha&f%5B0%5D=type:Inscription Samkshobha]{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://indepigr.narod.ru/latergupta/menulisting16.htm Parivrаjaka inscriptions] by D.N Lielukhine, Oriental Institute

[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:History of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Vassals of the Gupta Empire]]

Sunshine Orchestra

2026-03-29T11:01:35Z

FrancisClement:

{{Short description|Ambitious project}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox project
| name = Sunshine Orchestra
| logo =
| image =
| caption =
| mission_statement =
| commercial =
| type = [[Symphony orchestra]]
| products =
| location =
| country = India
| owner =
| founder = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| primeminister =
| key_people =
| established =
| funding =
| budget =
| current_status =
| website = {{URL|https://arrahmanfoundation.org/sunshine.html|Sunshine Orchestra from the Foundation website}}
}}

'''Sunshine Orchestra''' is a project by the [[A. R. Rahman]] by his foundation aiming to put an Indian [[symphony orchestra]] on the world map. It provides free musical training for socially and economically deprived children with an aptitude in music through the [[KM Music Conservatory]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Rishita Roy |title=Here comes the sunshine |url=https://www.sundayguardianlive.com/culture/here-comes-the-sunshine |website=The Sunday Guardian |date=20 April 2019 |publisher=The Guardian |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref> Srinivasa Murthy is the mentor and conductor for the orchestra. The first class of the Sunshine Orchestra began in 2009.

Sunshine Orchestra has played for many events and films. The Sunshine Orchestra also plays for A. R. Rahman's live concerts.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Majumdar |first1=Meghna |title=The Sunshine Orchestra is set to regale Chennai at 'The Hindu Lit For Life' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/lit-for-life/rahmans-sunshine-orchestra-to-perform-at-the-hindu-lift-for-life/article22412251.ece |work=The Hindu |date=10 January 2018 |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref>

== Discography ==
{{Incomplete list|date=January 2021}}
* [[Beyond the Clouds (2017 film)]]
* [[O Kadhal Kanmani]]
* [[Mom (film)|Mom]](film)
* [[Mersal (film)]]
* [[Sachin: A Billion Dreams]]
* [[Sarkar (2018 film)]]
* [[Lingaa]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.instagram.com/thesunshineorchestra/ Instagram]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sunshine Orchestra}}
[[Category:Indian musical groups]]
[[Category:Symphony orchestras]]
[[Category:Youth orchestras]]
[[Category:Music education in India]]

{{India-music-stub}}

Vyākaraṇa

2026-03-22T17:38:35Z

FrancisClement: cleanup

{{Short description|Study of linguistics in Sanskrit language}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
'''''Vyākaraṇa''''' ({{Langx|sa|व्याकरण|lit=explanation, analysis}}, {{IPA|sa|ˈʋjaːkɐrɐɳɐ|IPA}}) refers to one of the six ancient [[Vedanga]]s, ancillary science connected with the [[Vedas]], which are scriptures in [[Hinduism]].<ref name=jameslochtefeldsca769>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vyakarana" in ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, page 769</ref>{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=36}} ''Vyākaraṇa'' is the study of grammar and linguistic analysis in the Sanskrit language.<ref>W. J. Johnson (2009), ''A Dictionary of Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198610250}}, article on Vyākaraṇa</ref>{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=105}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Mitchell|title=Language, Emotion, and Politics in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fBchTO0NS0EC|year=2009|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35301-6|page=108}}</ref>

[[Pāṇini]] and [[Yāska]] are the two celebrated ancient scholars of Vyākaraṇa; both are dated to several centuries prior to the start of the common era, with Pāṇini likely from the fifth century BCE.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13–14}} Pāṇini's ''[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]'' is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions. This text, as its very title suggests, consists of eight chapters, each divided into four padas, cumulatively containing 4000 sutras.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=14, 111}} The text is preceded by abbreviation rules grouping the phonemes of Sanskrit.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=111}} Pāṇini quotes ten ancient authorities whose texts have not survived, but they are believed to have been Vyākaraṇa scholars.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=111}}

Vyākaraṇa is related to the fourth Vedānga called ''[[Nirukta]]''.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=105}} Vyākaraṇa scholarship has dealt with linguistic analysis to establish the exact form of words to properly express ideas, and ''Nirukta'' scholarship has focused on linguistic analysis to help establish the proper meaning of the words in context.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=105}}

==Etymology==
Vyākaraṇa ({{IPA|sa|ʋjaːkɐrɐɳɐ|IPA}}) means "separation, distinction, discrimination, analysis, explanation" of something.<ref name=monierwilliamsvyakar/>{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|pp=74-75}}<ref name=damienkeownvya>Damien Keown (2004), A Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198605607}}, [http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803120305298 Article on ''Vyakarana'']</ref> It also refers to one of the six Vedāngas, or the Vedic field of language analysis, specifically grammatical analysis, grammar, linguistic conventions which creates, polishes, helps a writer express and helps a reader discriminate accurate language.<ref name=monierwilliamsvyakar>{{cite book|author=Monier Monier-Williams|title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3NWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA978|year=1923|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=vi, 978}}</ref>{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=36}}

The word Vyākaraṇa is also found in [[Mahayana sutras]] and first-millennium [[Mahayana]] Buddhist texts, but with a different meaning. Vyākaraṇa, in these Buddhist texts, means a prediction or prophecy by a [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] to a [[Bodhisattva]] who has just embarked on the path, that he will achieve enlightenment and be a ''buddha'', in other words, an enlightened one.<ref name=damienkeownvya/>

==History==
{{See also|Sanskrit grammar}}

Vyākaraṇa emerged as a distinct auxiliary field of Vedic study in ancient times.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=12-14, 36}}{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|p=458}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Joel Peter Brereton|author2=Stephanie W. Jamison|author2-link=Stephanie W. Jamison|author3=Madhav M. Deshpande| title=Sense and Syntax in Vedic, Volumes 4-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OcXcbZBbwHIC| year=1991| publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-09356-7|pages=8–9 (Vol. 5)}}</ref> Its aim was to prevent sloppy usage and transmission of the Vedic knowledge, states Howard Coward – a professor emeritus at the University of Victoria and the founding editor of the ''Journal for Hindu-Christian Studies''.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=36}} Vyākaraṇa helped ensure that the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism and its message of "Sabda Brahman" (explanation of metaphysical truths through words) that Vedic [[Rishi]]s had realized by their efforts, remains available to all in a pristine form.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=36}} In Indian traditions, Vyākaraṇa has been one of the most important sciences, one extensively studied over its history, and that led to major treatises in the [[philosophy of language]].{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|pp=458-459}}

Pāṇini and Yāska, two celebrated ancient scholars of Vyākaraṇa, are both dated to several centuries prior to the start of the common era, likely the 5th-century BCE.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13-14}} However, both of them cite prior scholars and texts, which though lost to history, imply that the field of Vyākaraṇa was an established and developed science of language before them.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=13}} Between the two, Yaksa may be the older one and more known for ''Nirukta'' (etymology) – the fourth auxiliary field of Vedic studies, but the evidence for him preceding Pāṇini is scanty and uncertain.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=14}} In terms of dedicated treatise on Vyākaraṇa, Pāṇini is the most recognized ancient Hindu scholar, and his ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' ("Eight Chapters") is the most studied extant ancient manuscript on Sanskrit grammar.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=14}} Pāṇini's fame spread outside India, and the reverence for ancient Pāṇini in northwest India is mentioned in Chinese texts of [[Xuanzang]] – the 7th-century traveller and scholar.{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|p=462}}<ref>[[Frits Staal]] (1972), ''A Reader on the Sanskrit Grammarians'', Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, reprint by Motilal Banarsidass (1985), {{ISBN|81-208-0029-X}}.</ref>

The study of grammar and the structure of language is traceable to the [[Rigveda]], or 2nd millennium BCE, in hymns attributed to sage Sakalya.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13-14}}{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|p=459}}{{refn|group=note|In addition to explicit references to Vyākaraṇa, Rigveda has numerous embedded Riddle hymns, a few of which ancient and medieval Hindu scholars interpreted to be referring to linguistics and grammar. For example, the riddle verse 4.58.3 of the Rigveda states,{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=476 with footnote 27}} "Four horns, three feet, two heads and seven hands he has. The bull is thrice bound and roars. Great is the god who has entered the man". – [[Rigveda]] 4.58.3 Patañjali interprets this riddle as follows, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus: The four horns represent the four parts of speech: nouns, verbs, prefixes and particles. The three feet are the three main tenses: present, future, past; the two heads are the conventional and the etymological meaning of a word; the seven hands are the seven cases in Sanskrit; the three places where the roaring bull is bound are the three resonating spaces - the chest, the neck and the head' and the great god in riddle is the word.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=476-477}}}} Sakalya is acknowledged by Pāṇini's works.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13-14}} The literary evidence that the science of Vyākaraṇa existed in Vedic times abound in the [[Brahmana]]s, [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Upanishads]], states [[Moriz Winternitz]].{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|pp=459-460}} The extant manuscripts of Pāṇini and Yaksa suggest that the Vedic age had competing schools of grammar. One school, for example, held that all nouns have verbal roots, while another held that not all nouns have verbal roots.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13-14}} However, it is unclear how, who or when these ancient Vedic theories of grammar originated, because those texts have not survived into the modern era.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13-14}}

===Pre-Pāṇinian schools===
There were many schools of Sanskrit grammar in ancient India, all established before the mid 1st-millennium BCE.{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=148-157}} Pāṇini's ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'', which eclipsed all other ancient schools of grammar, mentions the names of ten grammarians.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=111}}<ref name=williams>{{cite book |author = Monier Monier-Williams |author-link = Monier Monier-Williams | title=Indian Wisdom Or Examples of the Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus|url = https://archive.org/details/indianwisdomorex00moni|year = 1876}} quote: "Pāṇini himself mentions several grammarians as having preceded him, such as Apisali, Kasyapa, Gargya, Galava, Cakravarmana, Bharadvaja, Sakatayana, Sakalya, Senaka, and Sphoṭayāna. The [[Unadi-sutras]] are thought by some to be anterior to Pāṇini." Also discusses the differences in opinions on interpreting Vedic texts, as given by Aurnabhava, Aupamanyava, Agrayana, Katthakya, Kautsa and Shakapuni – all mentioned as "anterior to Yāska" on p. 169</ref><ref>''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' 6.1.92, 6.1.123-130, 5.4.112, 8.4.51-67, etc. (annotated in list)</ref><ref>{{cite book |author = Satkari Mukhopadhyaya |publisher = in Encyclopaedia of Indian literature v.2, ed. Amaresh Datta, [[Sahitya Akademi]] |title = Sanskrit Grammatical Literature |page= 1490}}</ref>). Some of these pre-Pāṇinian scholars mentioned by Pāṇini include Apisali, Kasyapa, Gargya, Galava, Cakravarmana, Bharadvaja, Sakatayana, Sakalya, Senaka and Sphoṭayāna.{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=148-157}}<ref name=williams/>

The works of most these authors are lost but we find reference of their ideas in the commentaries and rebuttals by later authors. [[Yāska]]'s ''[[Nirukta]]'' is one of the earlier surviving texts, and he mentions Śākaṭāyana, Krauṣṭuki, Gārgya among others.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

===Post-Pāṇinian schools===
Pāṇini's ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' is the most ancient extant manuscript on Vyākaraṇa. It is a complete and descriptive treatise on Sanskrit grammar in aphoristic [[sutra]]s format.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=14}}{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=182-187}} This text attracted a famous and one of the most ancient commentary ([[bhāṣya]]) called the ''Mahābhāṣya''.{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=243-259}}{{Failed verification|date=May 2024}} The author of the ''Mahābhāṣya'' is named Patañjali, who may or may not be the same person as the one who authored ''[[Yogasutra]]s''.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=16, Quote: "Katyayana's Varttikas come to us as a part of the great commentary (mahabhasya) on Panini ascribed to Patanjali (who may or may not be the same as the author of the Yogasutras")}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/Law.1940.LaValleePoussinMemVol |title= Louis de La Vallée Poussin Memorial Volume|last=Renou|first=Louis|year=1940|editor-last=Law|editor-first=Narendra Nath|location=Calcutta|pages=[https://archive.org/details/Law.1940.LaValleePoussinMemVol/page/n397 368]–373|chapter=On the Identity of the Two Patañjalis}}</ref> The ''Mahābhāṣya'', or "Great Commentary", is more than a commentary on the Aṣṭādhyāyī, it is the earliest known philosophical text of the Hindu grammarians.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=16}}{{refn|group=note|The earliest secondary literature on the primary text of Pāṇini are by Kātyāyana (~3rd century BCE) and Patañjali (~2nd century BCE).{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|pp=71-72}}}} Non-Hindu texts and traditions on grammar emerged after Patañjali, some of which include the Sanskrit grammar by the Jain author Jainendra and the Cāndra grammar by the Buddhist Candragomin.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Grammatical Literature|last=Scharfe|first=Hartmut|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=1977|isbn=9783447017060|location=Wiesbaden|pages=chapters 9, 10}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Patanjali's Great Grammatical Discourse [''Vyakrana-Mahābhāṣya''] is regarded as the classical model for academic texts. It is written with a great deal of didactic skill as a dialog in clear, simple Sanskrit, and contains many enlightening examples. One notices that the text follows in the tradition of instruction, similar to the dialog stye of the Western classics of antiquity.|Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=474}}}}
Later Indian scholars simplified Pāṇini rules, and trimmed his compilation of sutras to essential 1,400 from comprehensive 4,000, eliminating those they felt were too difficult and complicated or those narrowly concerned with Vedic language.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=17}} Non-Hindu traditions, such as Jainism and Buddhism, developed their own Vyākaraṇa literature, but all of them are dated to the 1st-millennium CE, all of them condensed Pāṇini, accepted and flowered largely from his theories of Vyākaraṇa.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=17-18}}{{Failed verification|date=May 2024}}

{{Quote box
|quote = '''The nature of grammar'''
<poem>
The energy called word has the nature of an egg.
It develops in the form of an action, and
realizes itself as a sequence of parts.
</poem>
|source = —[[Bhartṛhari]], ''Vākyapadīya 1.52'' Translator: Tibor Kiss{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|p=74}}
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
The 5th-century Hindu scholar [[Bhartṛhari]] has been the next most influential Vyākaraṇa thinker{{Opinion|date=May 2024}}, wherein he presented his philosophy of grammar and how language affects thoughts.{{refn|group=note|Bhartṛhari is now dated to have lived no later than the 5th century CE,{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Wolfram Hinzen|author2=Michelle Sheehan|title=The Philosophy of Universal Grammar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lSZnAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-965483-3|page=17}}</ref>{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=298-299}} but there is a mention in a Chinese text by I-tsing that Bhartrihari died in 651/652 CE.{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|p=474}}}} His theories on "philosophical problem of meaning", contained in the ''Vākyapadīya'', has been unique, states Howard Coward.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}} Bhartṛhari is considered to be a major architect of the "[[sphoṭa]] theory" of meaning, in the Hindu traditions.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}}

Bhartṛhari ideas were widely studied, but challenged as well in the last half of the first millennium, particularly by the {{Failed verification span|text=ritual-driven|date=May 2024}}, [[Mīmāṃsā]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]] and by [[Dharmakirti]] of [[Buddhism]].{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}} The [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of Hinduism defended the ideas of Bhartṛhari.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}}

About the seventh century, the ''Kāśikāvṛttī'' co-authored by Jayaditya and Vamana, and the tenth century studies of Helaraja on Vyākaraṇa were the next major milestone.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}} These Hindu texts were not only commented in Hindu tradition, but were the foundation of works of the Buddhist ''Jinendrabuddhi'' who is known for his grammar insights in Buddhist literature.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}}

The most studied Vyākaraṇa scholars of early and mid-second millennium are Ksirasvamin, Haradatta, Maitreya Rakshita, and Kaiyata.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=19-20}} The modern era Vyākaraṇa scholars have included Bhattoji Dikshita, Konda Bhatta and Nagesha Bhatta.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=20}}

Between 1250 and 1450 Anubhūti Svarūpācārya created a simplified grammatical system called [[Sarasvataprakriya|Sārasvatavyākaraṇa]].

In the 14th century grammarian [[Padmanabhadatta]], founder of the Supadma School, composed the ''Supadmavyākaraṇa''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghosh|first=Bhajagovinda|title=Study of Sanskrit Grammar in Tibet|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_07_02_02.pdf|journal=Bulletin of Tibetology|volume=VII, 2|pages=22}}</ref> The text is based on Pāṇini's ''[[Ashtadhyayi]]'', but remodeled and rearranged with explanatory notes. It is written in [[Bangla script|Bengali alphabet]], making it accessible to the Bengal provinces by removing the complexity of Sanskrit grammar.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Saini|first=R.S.|title=Supadma Vyakarana|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan|date=April 1, 1989|isbn=978-8121700344}}</ref> The main objective of Padmanabhadatta was to make knowledge of Sanskrit grammar clear and simple and to Sanskritize the new words that developed in the language.

===Location===
In terms of the place of Vyākaraṇa scholarship over South Asian history, from ancient to 16th-century, Kashmir, Kerala, Nepal, Andhra Pradesh, Varanasi and Bengal have been influential, but the location of many Vyākaraṇa scholars is unknown.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=22-24}}

==Texts==
Pāṇini's text ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' is in sutras format, has eight chapters, and cumulative total of 4,000 sutras.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=14}} These rules are preceded by a list of fourteen groups of sounds, in three sections called the Shiva-sutra, Pratyahara-sutra and Maheshvara-sutra.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=14}}{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=160-172}} The ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' groups the rules of language, for clear expression and understanding, into two, the verbal (''Dhatupatha'') and the nominal bases (''Ganapatha'').{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=13-14}}{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=160-172}} The text consists of an analytical part covered in the first five chapters, and a synthetic part found in the last three chapters.{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|pp=460-461}}

The ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' manuscript has survived with sets of ancillary texts (appendices) whose dates of composition and authors are contested.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=14-15}}{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=179-182}} The main text is notable for its details and systematic nature, syntactic functions and arranging the sutras in an algorithmic fashion where the grammar rules typically apply in the order of sutras.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=15}}

The ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' sutras were widely studied and a subject of the ''bhāṣya'' (review and commentary) tradition of Hinduism. The oldest emendation and commentary on the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' is attributed to [[Kātyāyana]] (~3rd century BCE), followed by the famous ''Mahābhāṣya'' of Patañjali (~2nd century BCE) which has survived into the modern age.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=16}} Other commentaries on the ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' likely existed, because they are cited by other Indian scholars, but these texts are believed to be lost to history.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=16}}

===Discussion===
Pāṇini writes that the ''Anjna'' (popular usage of a word) is the superseding authority, and the theoretically derived meaning of a word must be discarded and instead superseded by that which is the popular usage.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=111}} The ''artha'' (meaning) of a ''shabda'' (word) is established by popular usage at the time the text was composed, not by etymological theory nor historical usage nor later usage.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=111-112}}

A sentence is a collection of words, a word is a collection of phonemes, states Pāṇini.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=106}} The meaning of Vedic passages has to be understood through context, the purpose stated, keeping in mind the subject matter being discussed, what is stated, how, where and when.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=106}}

The ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' tradition of Sanskrit language, with some reservations, accepts the premise that all words have verbal roots, and that words are created by affixing fragments to these roots.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}} However, Pāṇini asserts that it is impossible to derive all nouns from verbal roots.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}}

The ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' is primarily focussed on the study of words, how words are formed, and their correct architecture.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}} However, it does not exclude syntax. Pāṇini includes the discussion of sentence structure.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}} The text, state Howard and Raja, describes compound word formation based on syntactic and semantic considerations, such as in sutra 2.1.1.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}}

====Correct sentences====
Pāṇini asserts that a proper sentence has a single purpose, and is formed from a group of words such that, on analysis, the separate words are found to be mutually expecting each other.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}} A sentence, states Pāṇini, must have syntactic unity, which includes mutual expectancy (''Ākankshā'') of the words and phonetic contiguity (''Sannidhi'') of construction. Pāṇini adds semantic fitness (''Yogyatā''), but not tacitly. He accepts that a sentence can be grammatically correct even if it is semantically inappropriate or a deviant.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}}

====Words====
The ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'' describes numerous usage of words, and how the meaning of a word is driven by overall context of the sentences and composition it is found in.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=113}} The popular usage and meaning of a word at the time the text was composed supersedes the historical or etymologically derived meanings of that word.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=111}} A word has the conventional meaning at the time the text was composed, but it is not so when it is quoted (cited or referred to) from another prior art text.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=113}} In the latter case, the Sanskrit word is suffixed with ''iti'' (literally, thus), whereupon it means what the prior text meant it to be.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=113}}

Yāska asserted that both the meaning and the etymology of words is always context dependent.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=107}}

====Syntax, verbs and words====
Vyākaraṇa in the Hindu traditions has been a study of both the syntax structure of sentences, as well as the architecture of a word. For instance, Pāṇini asserts that grammar is about the means of semantically connecting a word with other words to express and understand meaning, and words are to be analyzed in the context they are used.{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|pp=73-77}} Kātyāyana is quoted in Patañjali's ''Mahābhāṣya'' on Vyākaraṇa as asserting the nature of a sentence as follows:{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|p=73}}
{{blockquote|
<poem>
A sentence consists of a finite verb together with indeclinables, ''karakas'' and qualifiers. – ''Mahābhāṣya'' 1.367.10
A sentence has one finite verb. – ''Mahābhāṣya'' 1.367.16
</poem>|Kātyāyana{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|p=73}}}}

Similarly, Sayana asserts the scope of Vyākaraṇa to be as follows:{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|p=74}}
{{blockquote|<poem>
Grammar [Vyākaraṇa] is that process by which division is carried out everywhere, by recognizing:
In this speech, so much is one sentence;
In this sentence then, so much is one word;
In this word then, this is the base and this is the suffix.
</poem>|Sayana{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|p=74}}}}

A word that is a verb is concerned with ''bhava'' (to become), while a noun is concerned with ''sattva'' (to be, reality as it is).{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=107}} Sattva and bhava are two aspects of the same existence seen from the static and dynamic points of view. Verbs according to Vyākaraṇa indicate action in a temporal sequence while nouns are static elements, states K Kunjunni Raja.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=108}}

===Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya===
Patañjali's 2nd-century BCE ''Mahābhāṣya'' is another important ancient text in Vyākaraṇa scholarship. It is not a full commentary on everything Pāṇini wrote in ''Aṣṭādhyāyī'', but it is more a commentary on Kātyāyana's text on grammar called ''Varttikas'',{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|p=465}} as well as the ideas of Vyadi.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=115}} While Kātyāyana's additions have survived, Vyadi have not.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=115}}

The Kātyāyana's text reflects an admiration for Pāṇini, an analysis of his rules, their simplification and refinement.{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|pp=465-466}} The differences between the grammar rules of Pāṇini and of Kātyāyana may be because of historical changes to Sanskrit language over the centuries, state Howard Coward and K Kunjunni Raja.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=115}}

===Bhartṛhari's Vākyapadīya===
{{Quote box
|quote = '''Language and spirituality'''
<poem>
The word is subsumed by the sentence,
the sentence by the paragraph,
the paragraph by the chapter,
the chapter by the book,
and so on,
until all speech is identified with [[Brahman]].
</poem>
|source = — Bhartṛhari<ref>{{cite book|author=Stefano Mercanti|title=The Rose and the Lotus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wsqSwMrqLfkC|year=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2833-3|pages=XLIX–L}}</ref>
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
}}
The ''[[Vākyapadīya]]'' of Bhartṛhari is a treatise on the philosophy of language, building on the insights of prior Vyākaraṇa scholarship.{{Sfn|Maurice Winternitz|1963|pp=474-475}}<ref name="Scharfstein1993p69">{{cite book|author=Ben-Ami Scharfstein|title=Ineffability: The Failure of Words in Philosophy and Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1347-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha/page/69 69]–81}}</ref>

According to Bhartṛhari, states Scharfstein, all thought and all knowledge are "words", every word has an outward expression and inward meaning.<ref name="Scharfstein1993p69"/>{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|pp=300-303}} A word may have a definition in isolation but it has meaning only in the context of a sentence.<ref name="Scharfstein1993p69"/> Grammar is a basic science in the Hindu traditions, explains Scharfstein, where it is externally expressed as relations between words, but ultimately internally understood as reflecting relations between the different levels of reality.<ref name="Scharfstein1993p69"/> Word is considered a form of energy in this Hindu text, one with the potential to transform a latent mind and realize the soul.{{Sfn|Tibor Kiss|2015|pp=74-81}}<ref name="Scharfstein1993p69"/> Language evolves to express the transient material world first, and thereon to express feelings, the human desire for meaning in life and the spiritual inner world.<ref name="Scharfstein1993p69"/>

===Roots of words===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2016}}
In Yāska's time, ''nirukta'' "etymology" was in fact a school which gave information of formation of words, the etymological derivation of words. According to the ''nairuktas'' or "etymologists", all nouns are derived from a verbal root. Yāska defends this view and attributes it to Śākaṭāyana. While others believed that there are some words which are "Rudhi Words". 'Rudhi" means custom. Meaning they are a part of language due to custom, and a correspondence between the word and the thing if it be a noun or correspondence between an act and the word if it be a verb root. Such word can not be derived from verbal roots.
Yāska also reports the view of Gārgya, who opposed Śākaṭāyana who held that certain nominal stems were 'atomic' and not to be derived from verbal roots<ref>{{Cite book| surname1 = Matilal | given1 = Bimal Krishna | orig-year = 1990| year = 2001 | title = The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of language | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 0-19-565512-5}}</ref>

==Influence==
{{expand section|date=March 2016}}
The Vyākaraṇa texts have been highly influential on Hindu philosophies. The concept of a sentence (''vakya'') defined by Pāṇini, for instance, influenced and was similar to Jaimini, the later era founder of Mīmāṃsā school of [[Hindu philosophy]].{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=112}} However, ritual-focussed Mimamsa school scholars were generally opposed to central ideas of the Hindu Grammarians, while others Hindu schools such as [[Vedanta]] championed them.{{Sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=18}}

Pāṇini's work on Vyākaraṇa has been called by [[George Cardona]] as "one of the greatest monuments of human intelligence".{{Sfn|George Cardona|1997|p=243}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book| author=George Cardona|title=Pāṇini: A Survey of Research| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=adWXhQ-yHQUC| year=1997| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-1494-3}}
*{{cite book|author=Harold G. Coward| title=The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume 5 (Editor: Karl Potter) | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC| year=1990| publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-81-208-0426-5}}
*{{cite book| author=Tibor Kiss|title=Syntax - Theory and Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgVfCAAAQBAJ |year= 2015| publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-037740-8}}
*{{cite book | year=1886 | title = A Sanskrit grammar for beginners | author1=Friedrich Max Müller | author-link=Max Muller | author2=Arthur Anthony Macdonell | author2-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell | edition=2 | publisher=Longmans, Green | page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.382597/page/n196 178] | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.382597}}
*{{Cite book| first=Albrecht| last=Weber| title=Indische Studien| volume=8| place=Leipzig| year=1863}}
*{{cite book| author1=Annette Wilke| author2=Oliver Moebus| title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC| year=2011| publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-018159-3}}
*{{cite book| author=Maurice Winternitz| author-link=Moriz Winternitz| title=History of Indian Literature| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ql0BmInD1c4C| year=1963| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0056-4}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author=[[Horace Hayman Wilson]]|title=An introduction to the grammar of the Sanskrit language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontogr00wilsuoft|year=1841|publisher=Madden}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Vyakarana}}

{{Hindudharma}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vyakarana}}
[[Category:Sanskrit grammarians|*]]
[[Category:Vyakarana| ]]
[[Category:Indian linguistic philosophy]]
[[Category:Prophecy in Buddhism]]

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

2026-03-20T15:58:46Z

FrancisClement: small refined citations based on references and added references

{{Short description|Ongoing separatist militancy in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir}}
{{about |the localized insurgency in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir]]|the conflict between India and Pakistan over the larger region of Kashmir|Kashmir conflict}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
| partof = the [[Kashmir conflict]]
| image = Kashmir region. LOC 2003626427 - showing sub-regions administered by different countries.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = CIA map of the [[Kashmir region]]
| date = 13 July 1989<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jammu-kashmir.com/basicfacts/politics/political_history.html|title=Chronicle of Important events/date in J&K's political history|website=Jammu-kashmir.com|access-date=29 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012061358/http://www.jammu-kashmir.com/basicfacts/politics/political_history.html|archive-date=12 October 2017}}</ref> – present ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|year1=1989|month1=6|day=13}})
| place = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| status = [[List of ongoing armed conflicts|Ongoing]]
| combatant1 = {{tree list}}
*{{flag|India}}
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ministry of Defence of India.svg}} [[Indian Armed Forces]]
*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Indian Army.svg}} [[Indian Army]]
*** {{Navy|india}}
** [[Central Armed Police Force]]
** [[Jammu and Kashmir Police]] {{tree list/end}}
| combatant2 = {{tree list}}
*'''Political parties:'''
** {{flagicon image|Hurriyat Conference Logo.jpg|border=}} [[All Parties Hurriyat Conference|APHC]]
** {{flagicon image|Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan Flag.svg}} [[Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir|JIJK]]
*'''Armed groups:'''
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Lashkar-e-Taiba.svg}} [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]]
*** {{flagicon image|TRF_logo.png|border=}} [[The Resistance Front|TRF]]
** {{flagicon image|Jaishi-e-Mohammed.svg}} [[Jaish-e-Mohammed|JeM]]
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[United Jihad Council|MJC]]
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami|HuJI]]
** [[Hizbul Mujahideen]]
** [[People's Anti-Fascist Front|PAFF]]
** Other separatist movements & [[Insurgency|insurgent]] militant groups<ref name="2011freedomhascome">{{cite book|title=Until My Freedom Has Come: The New Intifada in Kashmir|date=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=9780143416470|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YOrcv1Bz0C&q=Kashmir+intifada|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104155/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YOrcv1Bz0C&q=Kashmir+intifada|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="margolis2004">{{cite book|last1=Margolis|first1=Eric|title=War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir and Tibet|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135955595|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FQGUAgAAQBAJ&q=Kashmiri+intifada|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104114/https://books.google.com/books?id=FQGUAgAAQBAJ&q=Kashmiri+intifada|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bose2009">{{cite book|last1=Bose|first1=Sumantra|title=Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|date=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674028555|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ACMe9WBdNAC&q=Kashmir+intifada&pg=PA107|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104115/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ACMe9WBdNAC&q=Kashmir+intifada&pg=PA107|url-status=live}}</ref>
*'''Former armed groups:'''
** {{flagicon image|Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front flag.svg}} [[Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front|JKLF]] (active until 1992)
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Harkat-ul-Mujahideen.svg}} [[Harkat-ul-Mujahideen|HUM]] (active until 2019)
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Al-Umar-Mujahideen.svg}} [[Al-Umar-Mujahideen]] (active until 2006)
** {{flagicon image|Green Shahada.png}} [[Dukhtaran-e-Millat|DeM]]<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{cite web |url= http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/story/224631.html |title= DeM cadres lead women congregations across Kashmir |work= Greater Kashmir |date= 3 August 2016 |access-date= 9 August 2016 |archive-date= 24 December 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181224181641/https://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/story/224631.html |url-status= live }}
* {{cite web |url= http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/pro-freedom-rallies-in-pampore-bijbehara/224875.html |title= Pro-freedom rallies in Pampore, Bijbehara |first= Khalid |last= Gul |work= Greater Kashmir |date= 5 August 2016 |access-date= 9 August 2016 |archive-date= 8 August 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160808152845/http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/pro-freedom-rallies-in-pampore-bijbehara/224875.html |url-status= live }}
* {{cite web |url= http://kashmirreader.com/2016/08/02/dem-activists-asked-to-make-dua-e-majlis-successful/ |title= DeM activists asked to make Dua-e-Majlis successful |work= Kashmir Reader |date= 2 August 2016 |access-date= 9 August 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160803000443/http://kashmirreader.com/2016/08/02/dem-activists-asked-to-make-dua-e-majlis-successful/ |archive-date= 3 August 2016 |url-status= dead }}
* {{cite web |url= http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/this-is-people-s-movement-be-united-dem/223425.html |title= This is people's Movement, be United: DeM |date= 22 July 2016 |access-date= 9 August 2016 |archive-date= 24 December 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181224181639/https://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/this-is-people-s-movement-be-united-dem/223425.html |url-status= live }}</ref> (active until 2018)
** {{flagicon image|Al-Badr flag.svg}} [[Al-Badr (India)|Al-Badr]] (active until 2022)
{{tree list/end}}
'''Supported by:'''{{plainlist|
* {{flag|Pakistan}}<ref name="DavisAzizian2007">{{cite book|author1=Elizabeth Van Wie Davis|author2=Rouben Azizian|title=Islam, Oil, and Geopolitics: Central Asia After September 11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7s4jAQAAIAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-7425-4128-3|pages=281|quote=The trouble was that elements of Pakistan ' s government were involved with Islamist extremists . They had protected and supported not only the Taliban but also insurgents crossing the Line of Control into Indian - held Kashmir|access-date=13 May 2021|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104112/https://books.google.com/books?id=7s4jAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kazi_Zutshi2017"/><ref name="Kapur2017b">{{citation|last=Kapur|first=S. Paul|title=Jihad as Grand Strategy: Islamist Militancy, National Security, and the Pakistani State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhYBDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA84|pages=84–|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-976852-3|access-date=27 November 2019|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104112/https://books.google.com/books?id=AhYBDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA84|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>
* {{cite book|title=India, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad |last1= Swami |first1=Praveen |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-40459-4 |location= New York}}
* {{Cite journal|title=Al Qaeda thriving in Kashmir in support of Pakistani intelligence against india reports Al Qaeda camps in azad kashmir Pakistan|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=2 July 2002|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0702/p01s02-wosc.html|access-date=12 November 2021|archive-date=12 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112160316/https://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0702/p01s02-wosc.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon image|D-Company logo.png|size=10px|border=}} [[D-Company]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Dawood-is-a-terrorist-has-strategic-alliance-with-ISI-says-US/articleshow/5418149.cms|title=Dawood is a terrorist, has 'strategic alliance' with ISI, says US|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-06-07|archive-date=3 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003232824/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Dawood-is-a-terrorist-has-strategic-alliance-with-ISI-says-US/articleshow/5418149.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
---- {{tree list}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[Al-Qaeda]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Al-Qaeda calls for liberation of Kashmir|website = [[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5skKkj2eEv0&ab_channel=WION |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/5skKkj2eEv0 |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|access-date=1 August 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
** {{flagicon image|Flag of AQIS.svg}} [[Al-Qaeda in the Indian subcontinent|AQIS]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Al Qaeda In the Indian Subcontinent Released Video Titled 'Kashmir is our' Al Qaeda again target india|date=12 October 2021|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/twice-in-a-week-al-qaeda-in-indian-subcontinent-releases-new-video-named-kashmir-is-ours-4313042.html|access-date=13 October 2021|archive-date=19 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119065551/https://www.news18.com/news/india/twice-in-a-week-al-qaeda-in-indian-subcontinent-releases-new-video-named-kashmir-is-ours-4313042.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[Ansar Ghazwat-ul-Hind|AGH]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Bashaarat |first=Masoo |last2=Hazarika |first2=Abhimanyu |date=11 November 2025 |title=350 kg explosives, AK-47: J&K cops recover arms cache from doctor's rented home in Faridabad |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/350-kg-explosives-ak-47-jk-cops-recover-arms-cache-from-doctors-home-in-faridabad-10356500/ |access-date=11 November 2025 |work=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref>{{tree list/end}}
---- {{tree list}}
* {{flagdeco|ISIL}} [[Islamic State]]
** {{flagicon|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant}} [[Islamic State – Hind Province|IS Hind]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/islamic-state-claims-province-india-wilayah-of-hind-kashmir-1522610-2019-05-11|title=Islamic State claims it has established province in India, calls it Wilayah of Hind: Report|date=11 May 2019 |access-date=18 April 2021|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418175524/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/islamic-state-claims-province-india-wilayah-of-hind-kashmir-1522610-2019-05-11|url-status=live}}</ref>
** {{flagicon|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant}} [[Islamic State – Khorasan Province|IS Khorasan]] (alleged)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedefensepost.com/2019/05/15/islamic-state-pakistan-province-al-hind/|title=ISIS announces new India and Pakistan provinces, casually breaking up Khorasan|date=15 May 2019|website=The Defense Post|access-date=4 June 2019|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610230850/https://www.thedefensepost.com/2019/05/15/islamic-state-pakistan-province-al-hind/|url-status=live}}</ref>
** {{flagdeco|ISIL}} [[Islamic State in Jammu and Kashmir|IS Jammu & Kashmir]] (until 2019)<ref name="Rediff.com">{{cite news|work=[[Rediff.com]]|title=Islamic State J-K chief among 4 terrorists killed in Kashmir|date=22 June 2018|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/pix-encounter-breaks-out-between-security-forces-and-terrorists-in-anantnag/20180622.htm|access-date=20 April 2023|archive-date=20 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220202558/https://www.rediff.com/news/report/pix-encounter-breaks-out-between-security-forces-and-terrorists-in-anantnag/20180622.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{tree list/end}}
| strength1 = {{tree list}}
* {{flagdeco|India}} ~ 343,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/8/4/india-imposes-kashmir-lockdown-puts-leaders-under-house-arrest|title=India imposes Kashmir lockdown, puts leaders 'under house arrest'|access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=19 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119065554/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/8/4/india-imposes-kashmir-lockdown-puts-leaders-under-house-arrest|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="theprint.in">Snehesh Alex Philip, [https://theprint.in/defence/what-imran-khan-says-is-9-lakh-soldiers-in-kashmir-is-actually-3-43-lakh-only/319442/ What Imran Khan says is 9 lakh soldiers in Kashmir is actually 3.43 lakh only] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902161621/https://theprint.in/defence/what-imran-khan-says-is-9-lakh-soldiers-in-kashmir-is-actually-3-43-lakh-only/319442/ |date=2 September 2021 }}, The Print, 12 November 2019.</ref><ref name="The Times"/> (Nov 2019, including paramilitary forces and soldiers posted at international border)
** [[Indian Army]]: 168,000<ref name="theprint.in"/>
** [[Indian Navy]] : Classified<ref>{{Cite web |last=Columnist |first=E. T. |date=2023-05-05 |title=Indian Navy To Deploy Its 'Special Forces' For G20 Meet In Kashmir; Who Are The MARCOS & What Makes Them Special |url=https://www.eurasiantimes.com/indian-navy-to-deploy-its-special-forces-for-g20-meet-in-kashmir/ |access-date=2025-09-02 |website=EURASIAN TIMES |language=en-US}}</ref>
** [[Central Armed Police Forces|CAPFs]]: 160,000<ref name="theprint.in"/>
** [[Jammu and Kashmir Police]]: unknown
{{tree list/end}}
| strength2 = 131 militants (2025)<ref>{{cite web|title=Exclusive: 131 terrorists active in J&K, 122 of them Pakistani, say sources|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/india-today-exclusive-131-terrorists-active-in-jammu-kashmir-122-of-them-pakistani-sources-2823932-2025-11-21|date=21 November 2025|publisher=IndiaToday}}</ref> 220 militants (2015)<ref>{{cite web|title=KASHMIR'S DISTURBING NEW REALITY|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/static/the-young-militants-of-kashmir/|date=20 September 2015|publisher=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
| commander1 = {{plainlist}}
*'''Political:'''
**{{flagicon|India}} [[Droupadi Murmu]], [[President of India|President]]
**{{flagicon|India}} [[Narendra Modi]], [[Prime Minister of India|PM]]
**{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ministry of Defence of India.svg|border}} [[Rajnath Singh]], [[Minister of Defence (India)|Defence Minister]]
* '''Military:'''
**{{Flagicon image|Flag of Chief of Defence Staff (India).svg|25px}} [[Anil Chauhan]], [[Chief of Defence Staff (India)|CDS]]
**{{flagicon image|Flag COAS.svg|size=24px}} [[Upendra Dwivedi]], [[Chief of Army Staff (India)|COAS]]
**{{flagicon image|Admiral ensign of Indian Navy.svg|size=29px}} [[Dinesh Kumar Tripathi]], [[Chief of Naval Staff (India)|CNS]]
{{endplainlist}}
| commander2 = {{indented plainlist}}
*{{flagicon image|Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan Flag.svg}} [[Syed Ali Shah Geelani]]{{Natural Causes}}
*{{flagicon image|Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan Flag.svg}} [[Masarat Alam Bhat]]
*{{flagicon image|Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front flag.svg}} [[Amanullah Khan (JKLF)|Amanullah Khan]]{{Natural Causes}}
*{{flagicon image|Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front flag.svg}} [[Yasin Malik]]{{POW}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Lashkar-e-Taiba.svg}} [[Hafiz Muhammad Saeed|Hafiz Saeed]]
*{{flagicon image|TRF_logo.png|border=}} [[Muhammad Abbas Sheikh]]{{KIA}}
*{{flagicon image|TRF_logo.png|border=}} [[Sheikh Sajjad Gul]]
*{{flagicon image|Jaishi-e-Mohammed.svg}} [[Maulana Masood Azhar|Maulana Azhar]]
*{{flagicon image|Jaishi-e-Mohammed.svg}} [[Abdul Rauf Azhar]]{{assassinated}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[Ilyas Kashmiri]]{{assassinated}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[Zakir Rashid Bhat]]{{KIA}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[Syed Salahuddin]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|center|250px}} [[Burhan Wani]]{{KIA}}
*{{flagicon image|Green Shahada.png}} [[Asiya Andrabi]]{{POW}}
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Harkat-ul-Mujahideen.svg}} [[Fazlur Rehman Khalil]]
{{endplainlist}}
----
{{indented plainlist|{{flagdeco|ISIL}} Dawood Ahmed Sofi{{KIA}}<ref name="Rediff.com" />}}
| casualties1 = '''2000–2026:''' 3,633 security forces killed<ref name="Yearly Fatalities">{{Cite news|title=Yearly Fatalities|url=https://www.satp.org/datasheet-terrorist-attack/fatalities/india-jammukashmir|access-date=2024-06-01|website=SATP}}</ref>
| casualties2 = '''2000–2026:''' 13,434 militants killed 847 surrendered 6,047 arrested<ref name="Yearly Fatalities">{{Cite news|title=Yearly Fatalities|url=https://www.satp.org/datasheet-terrorist-attack/fatalities/india-jammukashmir|access-date=2024-06-01|website=SATP}}</ref>
| casualties3 = 20,000+ civilian deaths<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ucdp.uu.se/#/actor/325|title=Kashmir insurgents|publisher=[[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001172908/http://ucdp.uu.se/#/actor/325|archive-date=1 October 2017|access-date=29 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="The Express Tribune">{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/228506/40000-people-killed-in-kashmir-india/|title=40,000 people killed in Kashmir: India|work=The Express Tribune|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227232416/https://tribune.com.pk/story/228506/40000-people-killed-in-kashmir-india/|archive-date=27 February 2017}}</ref>
}}

The '''insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir''', also known as the '''Kashmir insurgency''', is an ongoing [[Separatism|separatist]] militant insurgency against the [[Government of India|Indian administration]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]],<ref name="Kazi_Zutshi2017">{{citation|last=Kazi|first=Seema|editor=Chitralekha Zutshi|title=Kashmir: History, Politics, Representation|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CPFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|year=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-22612-7|pages=150–171, 153|chapter=Law, Gender and Governance in Kashmir|access-date=27 November 2019|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104237/https://books.google.com/books?id=CPFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=slater_wapo_march_2019>{{citation|title=From scholars into militants: Educated Kashmiri youths are joining an anti-India insurgency|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/from-scholar-to-militant-why-more-kashmiri-youth-are-joining-an-insurgency-against-india/2019/03/26/2a6e92c6-45ce-11e9-94ab-d2dda3c0df52_story.html|last=Slater|first=Joanna|date=28 March 2019|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=27 November 2019|archive-date=27 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127191410/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/from-scholar-to-militant-why-more-kashmiri-youth-are-joining-an-insurgency-against-india/2019/03/26/2a6e92c6-45ce-11e9-94ab-d2dda3c0df52_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> a territory constituting the southwestern portion of the larger geographical region of [[Kashmir]], which has been the subject of a [[Kashmir conflict|territorial dispute]] between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] since 1947.<ref name=britannica-jammu-kashmir>(a) {{citation|title=Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|access-date=15 August 2019|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} (subscription required); (b) {{citation|chapter=Kashmir|title=Encyclopedia Americana|publisher=Scholastic Library Publishing|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7172-0139-6|page=328|access-date=27 November 2019|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117135716/https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|url-status=live}} C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester</ref><ref name="Jan·Osma鈔czykOsmańczyk2003">{{citation|last1=Jan·Osma鈔czyk|first1=Edmund|last2=Osmańczyk|first2=Edmund Jan|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93922-5|pages=1191–|access-date=27 November 2019|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|url-status=live}} Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China."</ref>

Jammu and Kashmir, long a breeding ground of separatist ambitions,<ref name=editorial_board_nytimes_5_August_2019>{{citation|title=India Tempts Fate in Kashmir, 'The Most Dangerous Place in the World'|author=The Editorial Board|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/05/opinion/kashmir-article-370.html|date=6 August 2019|access-date=27 November 2019|archive-date=19 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119065550/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/05/opinion/kashmir-article-370.html|url-status=live}} Quote: "The Himalayan territory of Kashmir has long been the central source of friction between India and Pakistan and a hotbed of separatist aspirations."</ref> has experienced the insurgency since 1989.<ref name=guardian_ratcliffe_5_august_2019>{{citation|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/04/heightened-security-and-anxiety-in-kashmir-amid-fears-of-unrest|last=Ratcliffe|first=Rebecca|work=Guardian|title=Heightened security and anxiety in Kashmir amid fears of unrest|date=4 August 2019|access-date=27 November 2019|archive-date=12 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212210011/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/04/heightened-security-and-anxiety-in-kashmir-amid-fears-of-unrest|url-status=live}} Quote: "Kashmir is claimed by India and Pakistan in full and ruled in part by both. An insurgency on the Indian-administered side has been ongoing for three decades, and tens of thousands of people have been killed."</ref><ref name=slater_wapo_march_2019/> [[S. Paul Kapur]] has argued that "[p]opular discontent in Kashmir resulted largely from chronic mismanagement and malfeasance on the part of the Indian central government... [and] was not a Pakistani creation. The Pakistanis actively capitalized on Kashmiri discontent, however, and played a crucial role in transforming spontaneous, decentralized opposition to Indian rule into a full-fledged insurgency."<ref name="Kapur2017b" /> Some insurgent groups in Kashmir support complete independence, whereas others seek the region's accession to Pakistan.<ref>[http://ucdp.uu.se/#conflict/364 Conflict Encyclopedia – India: Kashmir] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001172908/http://ucdp.uu.se/ |date=1 October 2017 }}, [[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]], 29 May 1977, retrieved 2013-05-29,</ref><ref name="Kapur2017b"/>

More explicitly, the roots of the insurgency are tied to a dispute over local autonomy.<ref name="ucdp.uu.se">[[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]] Conflict Encyclopedia, Conflict Summary, Conflict name: India: Kashmir, "Roots of Conflict and the emergence of Kashmir Insurgents", viewed 2013-05-29, http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=74&regionSelect=6-Central_and_Southern_Asia# {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203162633/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=74&regionSelect=6-Central_and_Southern_Asia |date=3 February 2013 }}</ref> Democratic development was limited in Kashmir until the late 1970s, and by 1988, many of the democratic reforms provided by the Indian government had been reversed and non-violent channels for expressing discontent were limited, which caused a dramatic increase in support for insurgents advocating violent secession from India.<ref name="ucdp.uu.se" /> In 1987, a [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|disputed election]]<ref name="Elections in Kashmir">{{cite web|url=http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/kashmir-elections.shtml|title=Elections in Kashmir|publisher=Kashmirlibrary.org|access-date=2017-02-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201045510/http://kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/kashmir-elections.shtml|archive-date=1 February 2017}}</ref> held in the erstwhile [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|state of Jammu and Kashmir]] created a catalyst for the insurgency when it resulted in some of the [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly|state's legislative assembly]] members forming armed insurgent groups.<ref name="BBCKashmir" /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Jeelani|first1=Mushtaq A.|title=Kashmir: A History Littered With Rigged Elections|url=http://www.mediamonitors.net/jeelani4.html|website=Media Monitors Network|access-date=24 February 2017|date=25 June 2001|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051443/http://www.mediamonitors.net/jeelani4.html|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="AltafElections"/> In July 1988, a series of demonstrations, strikes, and attacks on the Indian government effectively marked the beginning of the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, which escalated into the most severe [[Separatist movements of India#Jammu and Kashmir|security issue in India]] during the 1990s.

Pakistan, with whom India has fought [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts|three major wars]] over the [[Demographics of Kashmir|Muslim-majority region]], has officially claimed to be giving only its "moral and diplomatic" support to the separatist movement.<ref name="bbc2015">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm|title=India Pakistan – Timeline|access-date=10 April 2015|work=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222035446/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm|archive-date=22 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] has been accused by both India and the [[international community]] of supporting and supplying arms as well as providing training to "[[Mujahideen#Indian subcontinent|mujahideen]]" militants<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ali|first1=Mahmud|title=Pakistan's shadowy secret service|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6033383.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=9 October 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221224921/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6033383.stm|archive-date=21 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="Telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news|last1=Rashid|first1=Ahmed|title=Nato's top brass accuse Pakistan over Taliban aid|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1530756/Natos-top-brass-accuse-Pakistan-over-Taliban-aid.html|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=6 October 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222113552/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1530756/Natos-top-brass-accuse-Pakistan-over-Taliban-aid.html|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref> in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name="Talib">{{cite news|last1=Gall|first1=Carlotta|title=At Border, Signs of Pakistani Role in Taliban Surge|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/21/world/asia/21quetta.html|access-date=21 February 2017|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=21 January 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231131515/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/21/world/asia/21quetta.html|archive-date=31 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Telegraph.co.uk"/><ref>{{cite news|last1=Jehl|first1=Douglas|last2=Dugger|first2=Celia W.|last3=Barringer|first3=Felicity|title=Death of Reporter Puts Focus on Pakistan Intelligence Unit|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/25/world/nation-challenged-suspects-death-reporter-puts-focus-pakistan-intelligence-unit.html|access-date=21 February 2017|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=25 February 2002|archive-date=2 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502010653/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/25/world/nation-challenged-suspects-death-reporter-puts-focus-pakistan-intelligence-unit.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, a former [[President of Pakistan]], [[Pervez Musharraf]], admitted that the Pakistani state had supported and trained insurgent groups in Kashmir throughout the 1990s.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan supported, trained terror groups: Pervez Musharraf|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/international/pakistan-supported-trained-terror-groups-pervez-musharraf-115102800015_1.html|access-date=21 February 2017|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|newspaper=[[Business Standard]]|date=28 October 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605051514/http://www.business-standard.com/article/international/pakistan-supported-trained-terror-groups-pervez-musharraf-115102800015_1.html|archive-date=5 June 2017}}</ref> Several new militant groups with radical [[Islamism|Islamist]] views emerged during this time and changed the ideological emphasis of the movement from that of plain separatism to [[Islamic fundamentalism]]. This occurred partly due to the influence of a large number of Muslim [[Jihadism|jihadist]] militants who began to enter the Indian-administered [[Kashmir Valley]] through Pakistani-controlled territory across the [[Line of Control]] following the end of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] in the 1980s.<ref name="bbc2015" /> India has repeatedly called on Pakistan to end its alleged "[[Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism|cross-border terrorism]]" in the region.<ref name="bbc2015" />

The conflict between militants and [[Indian Armed Forces|Indian security forces]] in Kashmir has led to a large number of casualties;<ref>[[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]] Conflict Encyclopedia, Conflict Summary, India: Kashmir (entire conflict), Fatality estimates, viewed 2013-05-29, http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=74&regionSelect=6-Central_and_Southern_Asia# {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203162633/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=74&regionSelect=6-Central_and_Southern_Asia |date=3 February 2013 }}</ref> many civilians have also died as a result of being targeted by various armed militant groups.<ref>[[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]] Conflict Encyclopedia, India One-sided violence, Government of India – civilians, Kashmir insurgents – civilians, Lashkar-e-Taiba – civilians, viewed on 2012-05-29, http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=74&regionSelect=6-Central_and_Southern_Asia# {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203162633/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=74&regionSelect=6-Central_and_Southern_Asia |date=3 February 2013 }}</ref> According to government data, around 41,000 people—consisting of 14,000 civilians, 5,000 security personnel and 22,000 militants—have died because of the insurgency {{As of|2017|March|lc=y}}, with most deaths happening in the 1990s and early 2000s.<ref name=ht2017/> Non-governmental organisations have claimed a higher death toll. The insurgency has also forced the [[Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits|large-scale migration]] of non-Muslim minority [[Kashmiri Pandits|Kashmiri Hindus]] out of the Kashmir Valley.<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|2002|loc=p. 19: "Most Kashmiri Pandits living in the Kashmir Valley left in 1990 as militant violence engulfed the state. Some 95% of the 160,000-170,000 community left in what is often described as a case of ethnic cleansing."}}</ref> Since the [[revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir]] in August 2019, the Indian military has intensified its [[Indian Armed Forces in Jammu and Kashmir|counter-insurgency operations]] in the region.

== History ==
{{See also|History of Kashmir|List of terrorist incidents in Jammu and Kashmir}}

=== 1947–1982 ===
{{See also|Partition of India|First Kashmir War}}

After independence from colonial rule India and Pakistan [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|were engaged in a war]] over the [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. At the end of the war India controlled the southern portion of the princely state.<ref name="SumantraKashmir" /> While there were sporadic periods of violence there was no organised insurgency movement.<ref name="SwamiSecret" />

During this period legislative elections in the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] were first held in 1951 and [[Sheikh Abdullah]]'s secular party stood unopposed. He was an instrumental member in the accession of the state to India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-05/news/44808338_1_omar-abdullah-jammu-and-kashmir-sheikh-abdullah|title=Omar Abdullah hails Sheikh Abdullah's decision to accede J-K to India|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=8 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208164553/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-05/news/44808338_1_omar-abdullah-jammu-and-kashmir-sheikh-abdullah|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.greaterkashmir.com/news/opinion/story/225175.html|title=Excerpts of Sheikh Abdullah's speech defending the accession|date=9 August 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110172831/http://m.greaterkashmir.com/news/opinion/story/225175.html|archive-date=10 November 2016}}</ref>

However, Sheikh Abdullah would fall in and out of favour with the central government and would often be dismissed only to be re-appointed later on.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sheikh-Muhammad-Abdullah |access-date=2024-06-09 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> This was a time of political instability and power struggle in Jammu and Kashmir, and it went through several periods of [[president's rule]] by the [[Government of India|Federal Government]].<ref name="AltafElections" />

=== 1982–2004 ===
[[File:Insurgency Terror-related Fatalities of Civilians and Security Forces in Jammu and Kashmir India from 1988 to 2013.png|thumb|430px|The trend in total yearly civilian and security forces fatalities from insurgency-related violence over 25 years from 1988 to 2013.<ref>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html Fatalities in Terrorist Violence 1988–2014 in Jammu & Kashmir] {{webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110715154921/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html |date=15 July 2011 }}, South Asian Terrorism, SATP (2014)</ref>]]
After [[Sheikh Abdullah]]'s death, his son [[Farooq Abdullah]] took over as [[Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir]]. Farooq Abdullah eventually fell out of favour with the Central Government and the Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]], who had his government toppled with the help of his brother-in-law [[Ghulam Mohammad Shah|G. M. Shah]]. GM Shah was the chief minister during the [[1986 Anantnag Riots]] until he was removed and replaced by Farooq Abdullah.<ref name="Tikoo">{{cite book|author=Tikoo|first=Colonel Tej K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuURFTHTU0EC&pg=PT397|title=Kashmir: Its Aborigines and Their Exodus|publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC|year=2013|isbn=978-1-935501-58-9|pages=397–}}</ref> A year later, Abdullah reached an accord with the new Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and announced an alliance with the [[Indian National Congress]] for the elections of 1987. The elections were allegedly rigged in favour of Abdullah.<ref name="BBCKashmir" /><ref name="AltafElections" />

Most commentators state that this led to the rise of an armed insurgency movement composed, in part, of those who unfairly lost the elections. Pakistan supplied these groups with logistical support, arms, recruits and training.<ref name="HasanPakistan" /><ref name="BBCKashmir" /><ref name="AltafElections" /><ref name="ArifShadow" /><ref name="KhanMilitants" />

In the second half of 1989 the alleged assassinations of the Indian spies and political collaborators by the [[Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front]] was intensified. Over six months more than a hundred officials were killed to paralyse government's administrative and intelligence apparatus. The daughter of then interior affairs minister, Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, was kidnapped in December and four militants had to be released in exchange for her release. This event led to mass celebrations all over the valley. Farooq Abdullah resigned in January after the appointment of Jagmohan Malhotra as the Governor of Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequently, J&K was placed under Governor's Rule under Article 92 of [[Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir|state constitution]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kashmir Demysitified|last=Behera|first=Navnita Chadha|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2006|location=Washington}}</ref>

Under JKLF's leadership on 21–23 January large scale protests were organised in the Kashmir Valley. As a response to this largely explosive situation paramilitary units of BSF and CRPF were called. These units were used by the government to combat Maoist insurgency and the North-Eastern insurgency. The challenge to them in this situation was not posed by armed insurgents but by the stone pelters. Their inexperience caused at least 50 casualties in Gawkadal massacre. In this incident the underground militant movement was transformed into a mass struggle. To curb the situation AFSPA (Armed Forces Special Powers Act) was imposed on Kashmir in September 1990 to suppress the insurgency by giving armed forces the powers to kill and arrest without warrant to maintain public order. During this time the dominant tactic involved killing of a prominent figure in a public gathering, such as [[Wali Mohammad Itoo]] in 1994, to push forces into action and the public prevented them from capturing these insurgents. This sprouting of sympathisers in Kashmir led to the hard-line approach of the Indian army.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kashmir Demystified|last=Behera|first=Navnita Chadha|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2006|location=Washington D.C.}}</ref>

With JKLF at the forefront, large numbers of militant groups like Allah Tigers, People's League and Hizb-i-Islamia sprung up. Weapons were smuggled on a large scale from Pakistan. In Kashmir JKLF operated under the leadership of Ashfaq Majid Wani, Yasin Bhat, Hamid Shiekh and Javed Mir. To counter this growing pro-Pakistani sentiment in Kashmir, Indian media associated it exclusively with Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kashmir Roots of Conflict Paths to Peace|url=https://archive.org/details/kashmirrootsconf00bose|url-access=limited|last=Bose|first=Sumantra|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2003|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/kashmirrootsconf00bose/page/n157 146]}}</ref>

JKLF used distinctly Islamic themes to mobilise crowds and justify their use of violence. They sought to establish an Islamic democratic state where the rights of minorities would be protected according to Quran and Sunna and the economy would be organised on the principles of Islamic socialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Demystifying Kashmir|last=Behra|first=Navnita Chadha|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2006|location=Washington D.C.|pages=150}}</ref>

The Indian army has conducted various operations to control and eliminate insurgency in the region such as [[Operation Sarp Vinash]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2003/07/31/stories/2003073102911200.htm|title=Fernandes reveals 'Sarp Vinash' toll|date=31 July 2003|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051105210943/http://www.thehindu.com/2003/07/31/stories/2003073102911200.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=5 November 2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/1_46.htm|title=A Militia Against Terror {{!}} J&K: Operation Sarp Vinash - The Army Strikes Hard {{!}} South Asia Intelligence Review (SAIR), Vol. No. 1.46|website=www.satp.org|access-date=2018-03-07|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925235718/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/1_46.htm|archive-date=25 September 2016}}</ref> in which a multi-battalion offensive was launched against militants from groups like [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]], [[Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami|Harkat-ul-Jihad-e-Islami]], [[Al-Badr (Jammu and Kashmir)|al-Badr]] and [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]] who had been constructing shelters in the [[Pir Panjal Range|Pir Panjal]] region of Jammu and Kashmir over several years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/operation-sarp-vinash-army-clears-hill-kaka/articleshow/47305413.cms?from=mdr|title=Operation Sarp Vinash: Army clears Hill Kaka|last=Kumar|first=Devesh|date=2003-05-24|work=The Economic Times|access-date=2018-03-07|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308044308/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/operation-sarp-vinash-army-clears-hill-kaka/articleshow/47305413.cms?from=mdr|archive-date=8 March 2018}}</ref> The subsequent operations led to the death of over 60 militants<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/may/23josy1.htm|title=Operation 'Sarp Vinash': Over 60 terrorists killed|website=www.rediff.com|access-date=2018-03-07|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613172236/http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/may/23josy1.htm|archive-date=13 June 2017}}</ref> and uncovered the largest network of militant hideouts in the history of insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir covering almost 100 square kilometers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Majid |first=Zulfikar |title='Sarp Vinash type of operation needed to eradicate militancy in Rajuri-Poonch' |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/sarp-vinash-type-of-operation-needed-to-eradicate-militancy-in-rajuri-poonch-1217460.html |access-date=2024-06-09 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Joseph |first=Josy |title=Operation Sarp Vinash chief pulled up |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2003/may/28josy.htm |access-date=2024-06-09 |website=Rediff |language=en}}</ref>

===Cultural changes===
Cinema houses were banned by some militant groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/cinema-halls-are-first-fatality-of-militancy-in-kashmir-1378048-2018-10-29|title=Cinema halls are first fatality of militancy in Kashmir|date=29 October 2018 |access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429074807/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/cinema-halls-are-first-fatality-of-militancy-in-kashmir-1378048-2018-10-29|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/long-reads/kashmirs-ghost-theatres-4393023.html|title=Kashmir's ghost theatres|date=16 March 2018 |access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429074807/https://www.firstpost.com/long-reads/kashmirs-ghost-theatres-4393023.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/reel/824328/kashmir-has-lost-its-cinema-halls-but-not-its-love-for-the-movies|title=Kashmir has lost its cinema halls but not its love for the movies|date=19 December 2016 |access-date=29 April 2021|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429074810/https://scroll.in/reel/824328/kashmir-has-lost-its-cinema-halls-but-not-its-love-for-the-movies|url-status=live}}</ref> Many militant organisations like ''Al baqr, People's league, Wahdat-e-Islam and Allah Tigers'' imposed restrictions like banning cigarettes, restrictions on Kashmiri girls.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CUB4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=What Is Moderate Islam? |last=Benkin |first=Richard L. |date=2017-04-12 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498537421 |page=47 |language=en |access-date=12 November 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104113/https://books.google.com/books?id=CUB4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Tone inline|date=March 2022}}

=== 2004–11 ===
{{main|2010 Kashmir unrest}}

Beginning in 2004 Pakistan began to end its support for insurgents in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|title=Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency A New Era of Modern Warfare|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|location=Santa Barbara, California|isbn=978-1-61069-279-3}}</ref> This happened because militant groups linked to Kashmir twice tried to assassinate [[President of Pakistan|Pakistani President]] General [[Pervez Musharraf]].<ref name="KhanMilitants" /> His successor, [[Asif Ali Zardari]] has continued the policy, calling insurgents in Kashmir "terrorists",<ref name="StephensJob" /> although it is unclear if Pakistan's intelligence agency, the [[Inter-Services Intelligence]], thought to be the agency aiding and controlling the insurgency<ref name="StephensJob" /><ref name="ColeObama" /><ref name="RediffKashmir" /> is following Pakistan's commitment to end support for the insurgency in Kashmir.<ref name="StephensJob" /> Despite the change in the nature of the insurgency from a phenomenon supported by external forces to a primarily domestic-driven movement<ref name="SumantraKashmir" /><ref name="StephensJob" /><ref name="EconomistStony" /><ref name="EconomistPlace" /><ref name="EconomistGrim" /> the Indian government has continued to send large numbers of troops to the Indian border.<ref name="EconomistStony" /><ref name="EconomistGrim" /><ref name="BBCKillings" /> There have been widespread protests against the Indian army presence in Kashmir.<ref name="EconomistStony" />

Once the most formidable face of Kashmir militancy, [[Hizbul Mujahideen]] is slowly fading away as its remaining commanders and cadres are being taken out on a regular interval by security forces.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Hizbul-Mujahideen-almost-wiped-out-in-Kashmir/articleshow/10408682.cms | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729010520/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-19/india/30296919_1_kashmir-valley-security-forces-mohammad-shafi | url-status=live | archive-date=29 July 2012 | work=The Times of India | title=Hizbul Mujahideen almost wiped out in Kashmir | date=19 October 2011}}</ref> Some minor incidents of grenade throwing and sniper firing at security forces notwithstanding, the situation is under control and more or less peaceful. A record number of tourists including Amarnath pilgrims visited Kashmir during 2012. On 3 August 2012, a top [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] militant commander, Abu Hanzulah involved in various attacks on civilians and security forces was killed in an encounter with security forces in a village in Kupwara district of north Kashmir.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Srinagar/J-amp-K-Top-LeT-commander-killed-in-encounter/Article1-907473.aspx |title=J&K: Top LeT commander killed in encounter |date=3 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803100038/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Srinagar/J-amp-K-Top-LeT-commander-killed-in-encounter/Article1-907473.aspx |archive-date=3 August 2012}}</ref>

===2012–present===
{{main|2013 India–Pakistan border skirmishes|2014–15 India–Pakistan border skirmishes|2016–17 Kashmir unrest}}

According to [[Indian Army]] data quoted by [[Reuters]], at least 70 young Kashmiris joined the insurgency in 2014, army records showed, with most joining the terrorist organization [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]], which was responsible for carrying out the [[2008 Mumbai attacks]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-01-10 |title=NIA :: Banned Terrorist Organisations |url=http://www.nia.gov.in/banned_org.aspx |access-date=2022-04-20 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110115355/http://www.nia.gov.in/banned_org.aspx |archive-date=10 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Two of the new recruits have doctorates and eight were post graduates, the army data showed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/843452/kashmiris-join-insurgency-against-india-at-highest-rate-in-two-decades/|title=Kashmiris join insurgency against India at highest rate in two decades|work=The Express Tribune|date=24 February 2015|access-date=25 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626104329/http://tribune.com.pk/story/843452/kashmiris-join-insurgency-against-india-at-highest-rate-in-two-decades/|archive-date=26 June 2015}}</ref> According to [[BBC]], despite a Pakistani ban on militant activity in Kashmir in 2006, its militants continue to attempt infiltration into Indian-administered Kashmir. These attempts were curtailed however when people living along the [[Line of Control]] which divides Indian and Pakistani Kashmir started to hold public protests against the activities of the insurgent groups.<ref>{{cite news|title=Who are the Kashmir militants?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18738906|access-date=21 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=1 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220135306/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18738906|archive-date=20 February 2017}}</ref>

In 2016, [[2016–2017 Kashmir unrest|violence]] erupted in the aftermath of the killing of [[Hizbul Mujahideen]] militant [[Burhan Wani]] by security forces. Since then, militants belonging to the [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]] group carried out the [[2016 Uri attack]] and the [[2018 Sunjuwan attack]]. In February 2019, the [[2019 Pulwama attack|Pulwama attack]] occurred, in which 40 [[Central Reserve Police Force|CRPF]] personnel were killed by a Jaish-e-Mohammed suicide bomber.

In August 2019, the special status of Jammu and Kashmir was [[Revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir|revoked]], following which the Indian Army intensified its counter-insurgency operations. In June 2020, [[Doda district]] was declared militancy free while [[Tral]] was declared free from Hizbul Mujahideen militants.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-29|title=Jammu's Doda is militancy free, say cops after Hizbul terrorist Masood killed in encounter|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/jammu-s-doda-is-militancy-free-say-cops-after-hizbul-terrorist-masood-killed-in-encounter/story-dZsjrZuPZISqGz4mwlnzEL.html|access-date=2020-06-29|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=29 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629073031/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/jammu-s-doda-is-militancy-free-say-cops-after-hizbul-terrorist-masood-killed-in-encounter/story-dZsjrZuPZISqGz4mwlnzEL.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=26 June 2020|agency=PTI|title=No Hizbul militant in south Kashmir's Tral now, first time since 1989: Police|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no-hizbul-militant-in-south-kashmirs-tral-now-first-time-since-1989-police/articleshow/76649954.cms|access-date=2020-06-29|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928030927/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no-hizbul-militant-in-south-kashmirs-tral-now-first-time-since-1989-police/articleshow/76649954.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> In July, a Kashmir police tweet from an official twitter handle said "no resident of #[[Srinagar district]] in terrorist ranks now".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-26|title=No resident of Srinagar in terrorist ranks after killing of top LeT commander: Kashmir IGP|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/no-resident-of-srinagar-in-terrorist-ranks-after-killing-of-top-let-commander-kashmir-igp-6524514/|access-date=2020-07-27|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727110035/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/no-resident-of-srinagar-in-terrorist-ranks-after-killing-of-top-let-commander-kashmir-igp-6524514/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hussain|first=Ashiq|date=2020-07-26|title=After killing of LeT man, no resident of Srinagar is in terrorist ranks: IGP|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/after-killing-of-let-man-no-resident-of-srinagar-is-in-terrorist-ranks-igp/story-J6Wr5jJwe3ukfvhBqcrGAO.html|access-date=2020-07-27|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727105556/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/after-killing-of-let-man-no-resident-of-srinagar-is-in-terrorist-ranks-igp/story-J6Wr5jJwe3ukfvhBqcrGAO.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pandit|first=M. Saleem|date=26 July 2020|title=Srinagar district is now terror-free: Police|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/srinagar-district-is-now-terror-free-police/articleshow/77186638.cms|access-date=2020-07-27|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727110353/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/srinagar-district-is-now-terror-free-police/articleshow/77186638.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> On 27 June 2021, a day after the successful completion of discussions between the Indian Prime Minister and Jammu and Kashmir political leaders, a drone based attack was reported at the technical area of [[Jammu Airport]] which is under the control of the IAF.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NC terms drone attack inside Jammu airport as terrorism by rogue state Pakistan|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/india/nc-terms-drone-attack-inside-jammu-airport-as-terrorism-by-rogue-state-pakistan-1.5786856|access-date=2021-06-28|website=Mathrubhumi|date=28 June 2021 |language=en|archive-date=28 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628074547/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/india/nc-terms-drone-attack-inside-jammu-airport-as-terrorism-by-rogue-state-pakistan-1.5786856|url-status=live}}</ref> In the first three months of 2022, there was a 100% increase in the number of Indian soldiers killed by Kashmiri militants compared to the same period in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-22 |title=10 Jawans Killed This Year in J&K as Terrorists Ramp Up Grenade, Hit-&-Run Attacks on Security Forces |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/jammu-kashmir-100-more-jawans-killed-in-encounters-58-more-injured-in-2022-5030965.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422130341/https://www.news18.com/news/india/jammu-kashmir-100-more-jawans-killed-in-encounters-58-more-injured-in-2022-5030965.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2025===
On 22 April, [[2025 Pahalgam attack]], also an [[Indian Navy|Indian navy]] officer, an Intelligence Bureau officer and an [[Indian Air Force|IAF officer]] were killed in the attack.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2025 |title=Pahalgam attack: IAF officer from Arunachal Pradesh among victims of Kashmir terror attack |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/arunachal-pradesh/pahalgam-attack-iaf-officer-from-arunachal-among-victims/article69481514.ece |access-date=25 April 2025 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 April 2025 |title=Intelligence Bureau Officer Shot In Front Of Wife, Children In J&K Attack |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/intelligence-bureau-officer-manish-ranjan-shot-in-front-of-wife-kids-in-pahalgam-terror-attack-deaths-8230390 |access-date=22 April 2025 |work=[[NDTV]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=22 April 2025 |title=Indian Navy Officer among 26 killed in Pahalgam terror attack |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/india/navy-lieutenant-killed-pahalgam-attack-1.10530098 |access-date=22 April 2025 |newspaper=[[Mathrubhumi]]}}</ref>

On 23 April, an [[Indian Army|Indian soldier]] was killed and two other soldiers were wounded in clashes with insurgents.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/who-was-havildar-jhantu-ali-shaikh-martyred-in-udhampur-ops-1503424509.html|title= Who was Havildar Jhantu Ali Shaikh martyred in Udhampur ops?|date= 24 April 2025}}</ref>

===[[2025 India–Pakistan diplomatic crisis]]===
Raging as an [[Border Security Force|Indian BSF]] soldier was captured by [[Punjab Rangers|Pakistani Ranger units]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/1304717-indian-bsf-soldier-arrested-by-pakistan-rangers|title=BSF soldier arrested by Pakistan Rangers|website=The News}}</ref>

== Motivations behind the insurgency ==

=== Rigging of 1987 Assembly elections ===
{{Further|1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election}}

Following the rise of Islamisation in the Kashmir valley, during the 1987 state elections, various Islamic anti-establishment groups including [[Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir]] were organised under a single banner named [[Muslim United Front]] (MUF), that is largely current [[Hurriyat]]. MUF's election manifesto stressed the need for a solution to all outstanding issues according to [[Simla Agreement]], work for Islamic unity and against political interference from the centre. Their slogan was wanting the law of the Quran in the Assembly.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schofield |first=Victoria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkTetMfI6QkC&pg=PA137 |title=Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War |date=2000 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=9781860648984 |pages=137 |language=en}}</ref> But the MUF won only four seats, even though it had polled 31% votes in the election. However, the elections were widely believed to be rigged, changing the course of politics in the state. The insurgency was sparked by the apparent rigging of [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|state elections in 1987]].<ref name="BBCKashmir" /><ref name="AltafElections" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-03-22 |title=How Mufti Mohammad Sayeed Shaped the 1987 Elections in Kashmir |language=en-US |work=The Caravan |url=http://www.caravanmagazine.in/vantage/mufti-mohammad-sayeed-shaped-1987-kashmir-elections |url-status=live |access-date=2017-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428235753/http://www.caravanmagazine.in/vantage/mufti-mohammad-sayeed-shaped-1987-kashmir-elections |archive-date=28 April 2017}}</ref>

=== Human rights abuses ===
{{Main|Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir}}

Indian troops entered the valley to quell the insurgency after it began.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hashim |first1=Asad |date=27 May 2014 |title=Timeline: India-Pakistan relations |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/kashmirtheforgottenconflict/2011/06/2011615113058224115.html |url-status=live |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301040548/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/kashmirtheforgottenconflict/2011/06/2011615113058224115.html |archive-date=1 March 2017}}</ref> Some analysts have suggested that the number of Indian troops in Jammu and Kashmir is close to 600,000 although estimates vary and the government refuses to release official figures.<ref name="The Times" /> The troops have been accused and held accountable for several humanitarian abuses<ref name="EconomistGrim" /> and have engaged in [[Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir#Indian Armed Forces|mass extrajudicial killings, torture]], [[Rape during the Kashmir conflict#Rape by Indian forces .28post-1988.29|rape and sexual abuse]].<ref name="BBCKillings" />

Indian security forces have been implicated in many reports for [[enforced disappearances]] of thousands of Kashmiris whereas the security forces deny having their information and/or custody. This is often in association with torture or [[extrajudicial killing]]. Human right activists estimate the number of disappeared to be over eight thousand, last seen in government detention.<ref name="hrw.org">{{cite web |author=Brad Adams, Asia director at Human Rights Watch |date=16 February 2007 |title=India: Investigate All 'Disappearances' in Kashmir | Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2007/02/14/india-investigate-all-disappearances-kashmir |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805163849/http://www.hrw.org/news/2007/02/14/india-investigate-all-disappearances-kashmir |archive-date=5 August 2012 |access-date=2012-10-01 |publisher=Hrw.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Human Rights Watch |date=11 September 2006 |title=Everyone Lives in Fear |url=https://www.hrw.org/print/reports/2006/09/11/everyone-lives-fear-0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415014414/http://www.hrw.org/print/reports/2006/09/11/everyone-lives-fear-0 |archive-date=15 April 2013 |access-date=2012-10-01 |publisher=Hrw.org}}</ref> The disappeared are believed to be dumped in thousands of mass graves across Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2009/india |title=India | Human Rights Watch |date=14 January 2009 |publisher=Hrw.org |chapter=India: Events of 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903082652/http://www.hrw.org/world-report/2009/india |archive-date=3 September 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bukhari |first=Shujaat |title=Mass graves found in North Kashmir containing 2,900 unmarked bodies |language=en |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Mass-graves-found-in-North-Kashmir-containing-2900-unmarked-bodies/article16851202.ece |url-status=live |access-date=2017-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429233249/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Mass-graves-found-in-North-Kashmir-containing-2900-unmarked-bodies/article16851202.ece |archive-date=29 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-08-25 |title=Kashmir graves: Human Rights Watch calls for inquiry |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-14660253 |url-status=live |access-date=2017-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423001359/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-14660253 |archive-date=23 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-08-30 |title=India must investigate unidentified graves, News, Amnesty International Australia |url=https://www.amnesty.org.au/news/comments/11808/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830095509/http://www.amnesty.org.au/news/comments/11808/ |archive-date=2008-08-30 |access-date=2017-04-22}}</ref><ref>[http://www.kashmirprocess.org/reports/graves/BuriedEvidenceKashmir.pdf Buried Evidence: Unknown, Unmarked, and Mass Graves in Indian-Administered Kashmir] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017070644/http://www.kashmirprocess.org/reports/graves/BuriedEvidenceKashmir.pdf|date=17 October 2011}} A preliminary report; ''[[International People's Tribunal on Human Rights and Justice in Kashmir]]''</ref> A [[Jammu & Kashmir Human Rights Commission|State Human Rights Commission]] inquiry in 2011, has confirmed there are thousands of bullet-ridden bodies buried in unmarked graves in Jammu and Kashmir. Of the 2730 bodies uncovered in 4 of the 14 districts, 574 bodies were identified as missing locals in contrast to the Indian governments insistence that all the graves belong to foreign militants.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web |date=24 August 2011 |title=India: Investigate Unmarked Graves in Jammu and Kashmir | Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/08/24/india-investigate-unmarked-graves-jammu-and-kashmir |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904202829/http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/08/24/india-investigate-unmarked-graves-jammu-and-kashmir |archive-date=4 September 2012 |access-date=2012-10-01 |publisher=Hrw.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Lydia Polgreen |date=22 August 2011 |title=Mass Graves Hold Thousands, Kashmir Inquiry Finds |newspaper=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/23/world/asia/23kashmir.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502195234/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/23/world/asia/23kashmir.html |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref>

Military forces in Jammu and Kashmir operate under impunity and emergency powers granted to them by the central government. These powers allow the military to curtail civil liberties, creating further support for the insurgency.<ref name="YardleyPower" /><ref name="AI Press Release Feb 2012">{{cite web |date=7 February 2012 |title=India: Security forces cannot claim immunity under AFSPA, must face trial for violations |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2012/02/india-security-forces-cannot-claim-immunity-under-afspa-must-face-trial-violations/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423062142/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2012/02/india-security-forces-cannot-claim-immunity-under-afspa-must-face-trial-violations/ |archive-date=23 April 2017 |access-date=7 March 2012 |publisher=Amnesty International}}</ref>

The insurgents have also abused human rights, [[Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits|driving away]] [[Kashmiri Pandits]] from the Kashmir Valley, an action that has been called [[ethnic cleansing]]<ref name="PalloneEthnic" /> The government's inability to protect the people from both its own troops and the insurgency has further eroded support for the government.<ref name="HRW99">{{cite web |date=16 July 1999 |title=Rights Abuses Behind Kashmir Fighting – Human Rights Watch |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/1999/07/16/india954.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019175125/http://hrw.org/english/docs/1999/07/16/india954.htm |archive-date=19 October 2008 |access-date=25 June 2015 |work=hrw.org}}</ref>

[[Amnesty International]] accused security forces of exploiting the [[Armed Forces Special Powers Act]] (AFSPA) that enables them to "hold prisoners without trial". The group argues that the law, which allows security to detain individuals for as many as two years "without presenting charges, violating prisoners' human rights".<ref>{{cite web |last=Huey |first=Caitlin |date=28 March 2011 |title=Amnesty International Cites Human Rights Abuse in Kashmir |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2011/03/28/amnesty-international-cites-human-rights-abuse-in-kashmir |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430022351/http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2011/03/28/amnesty-international-cites-human-rights-abuse-in-kashmir |archive-date=30 April 2013 |access-date=2012-10-01 |publisher=Usnews.com}}</ref> The Army sources maintain that "any move to revoke AFSPA in Jammu and Kashmir would be detrimental to the security of the Valley and would provide a boost to the terrorists."<ref>{{Cite news |title=Army opposes Omar's plans to revoke AFSPA: Report |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Army-opposes-Omars-plans-to-revoke-AFSPA-Report/articleshow/4197012.cms |url-status=live |access-date=2017-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012072106/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Army-opposes-Omars-plans-to-revoke-AFSPA-Report/articleshow/4197012.cms |archive-date=12 October 2017}}</ref>

Former [[Chief of the Army Staff (India)|Indian Army Chief]] [[V. K. Singh|General V. K. Singh]] rejected the accusations that the action was not taken in the cases of human rights violations by Army personnel. On 24 October 2010, he has said that 104 Army personnel had been punished in Jammu and Kashmir in this regard, including 39 officers. He also said that 95% of the allegations of human rights abuses against Indian Army were proved to be false, of which he remarked, had apparently been made with the "ulterior motive of maligning the armed forces".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-10-24 |title=104 armymen punished for human rights violations in JK: Gen VK Singh |language=en-US |work=DNA |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-104-armymen-punished-for-human-rights-violations-in-jk-gen-vk-singh-1457257 |url-status=live |access-date=2017-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425121321/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-104-armymen-punished-for-human-rights-violations-in-jk-gen-vk-singh-1457257 |archive-date=25 April 2017}}</ref> However, according to Human Rights Watch, the military courts in India, in general, were proven to be incompetent to deal with cases of serious human rights abuses and were responsible in covering up evidence and protecting the involved officers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rape by Security Forces: The Pattern of Impunity |url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/about/projects/womrep/General-42.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012104533/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/about/projects/womrep/General-42.htm |archive-date=12 October 2017 |access-date=2017-05-01 |website=www.hrw.org}}</ref> Amnesty International in its report in 2015, titled ''"Denied"-Failures in Accountability in Jammu and Kashmir'', says, "...with respect to investigations, an inquiry that is conducted by the same authority accused of the crime raises serious questions about the independence and impartiality of those proceedings", adding that according to the international law, an independent authority that is not involved in the alleged violations has to investigate such crimes.<ref>{{Cite web |author= |date=2016-09-03 |title=96% complaints against army rejected by GoI under 'colonial' AFSPA: Amnesty |url=http://kashmirreader.com/2016/09/03/96-complaints-against-army-rejected-by-goi-under-colonial-afspa-amnesty/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804103846/http://kashmirreader.com/2016/09/03/96-complaints-against-army-rejected-by-goi-under-colonial-afspa-amnesty/ |archive-date=4 August 2017 |access-date=2017-05-01 |website=Kashmir Reader}}</ref>

These human rights violations are said to have contributed to the rise of resistance in Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kashmir's disturbing new reality: The young militants of Kashmir |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/static/the-young-militants-of-kashmir/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530162002/http://www.hindustantimes.com/static/the-young-militants-of-kashmir/ |archive-date=30 May 2017 |access-date=2017-05-24 |website=Hindustantimes.com |quote=Then, youngsters used to take to the streets and pelt stones to protest human right violations...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Parthasarathy |first=Malini |title=Understanding Kashmir's stone pelters |language=en |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/Understanding-Kashmirs-stone-pelters/article16120870.ece |url-status=live |access-date=2017-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429233249/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/Understanding-Kashmirs-stone-pelters/article16120870.ece |archive-date=29 April 2018 |quote=Today's protesters might shout anti-India slogans such as ''azadi'', but their anger is specifically directed at the security forces in the context of the brutal killings of innocent boys...}}</ref>

=== ISI's role ===
The Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] has encouraged and aided the Kashmir independence movement through an insurgency<ref name="StephensJob" /><ref name="ColeObama" /><ref name="RediffKashmir" /> due to its dispute on the legitimacy of Indian rule in Kashmir, with the insurgency as an easy way to keep Indian troops distracted and cause international condemnation of India.<ref name="SumantraKashmir" /> Former [[President of Pakistan|Pakistan President]] General [[Pervez Musharraf]] in Oct 2014 said during TV interview, "We have source (in Kashmir) besides the (Pakistan) army...People in Kashmir are fighting against (India). We just need to incite them."<ref>{{cite magazine |date=16 October 2014 |title=Pakistan needs to incite those fighting in Kashmir: Musharraf |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/musharraf-pakistan-kashmir-kargil-conflict-militants-223468-2014-10-16 |url-status=live |magazine=[[India Today]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012065029/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/musharraf-pakistan-kashmir-kargil-conflict-militants/1/396106.html |archive-date=12 October 2017 |access-date=22 February 2017}}</ref>

The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)]], in their first ever open acknowledgement in 2011 in US Court, said that the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)]] sponsors and oversees separatist militant groups in Kashmir.<ref name="firstpost1">{{cite web |date=21 July 2011 |title=ISI sponsors terror activities in Kashmir, FBI tells US court |url=http://www.firstpost.com/politics/isi-sponsors-terror-activities-in-kashmir-fbi-tells-us-court-46038.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924145916/http://www.firstpost.com/politics/isi-sponsors-terror-activities-in-kashmir-fbi-tells-us-court-46038.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=1 April 2015 |work=Firstpost}}</ref><ref name="indiatimes.com1">{{cite news |last1=Rajghatta |first1=Chidanand |date=20 July 2011 |title=US exposes ISI subversion of Kashmir issue; FBI arrests US-based lobbyist |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/US-exposes-ISI-subversion-of-Kashmir-issue-FBI-arrests-US-based-lobbyist/articleshow/9294830.cms |url-status=live |access-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812140040/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/US-exposes-ISI-subversion-of-Kashmir-issue-FBI-arrests-US-based-lobbyist/articleshow/9294830.cms |archive-date=12 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="rediff1">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Himani |date=7 June 2011 |title=ISI gives arms to Kashmir terrorists: Rana to FBI |work=[[Rediff.com]] |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-isi-gives-arms-to-kashmiri-terrorists-rana-to-fbi/20110607.htm |url-status=live |access-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805015010/http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-isi-gives-arms-to-kashmiri-terrorists-rana-to-fbi/20110607.htm |archive-date=5 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="indianexpress1">{{cite news |last1=Agencies |date=20 July 2011 |title=ISI funneled millions to influence US policy on Kashmir: FBI |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/isi-funneled-millions-to-influence-us-policy-on-kashmir-fbi/819859/ |url-status=live |access-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20170224070053/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/isi-funneled-millions-to-influence-us-policy-on-kashmir-fbi/819859/ |archive-date=24 February 2017}}</ref>

In 2019, [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] [[Imran Khan]] publicly discouraged Pakistani people from going to Kashmir to do a ''[[jihad]]''. People who went to Kashmir will do an "injustice to the Kashmiri people".<ref name="DawnSept2019">{{cite news |date=18 September 2019 |title='Historic day': PM Imran inaugurates 24/7 border crossing at Torkham |language=en |work=DAWN.COM |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1505914 |access-date=27 November 2019 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523151227/https://www.dawn.com/news/1505914 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Puri">{{cite news |last1=Puri |first1=Luv |date=27 November 2019 |title=The many faces of Pakistani Punjab's militancy |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-many-faces-of-pakistani-punjabs-militancy/article30090521.ece |access-date=27 November 2019 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119102300/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-many-faces-of-pakistani-punjabs-militancy/article30090521.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Most of the Pakistani militants who had crossed the border over the years and were caught by the Indian security forces were found to belong to the [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab province]] of Pakistan.<ref name="Puri" />

=== Mujahideen influence ===
After the [[Mujahideen]] victory in the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], Mujahideen militants, under the [[Operation Tupac]] with the aid of [[Pakistan]], slowly infiltrated [[Kashmir]] with the goal of spreading a radical [[Islamism|Islamist ideology]] to wage [[Jihad]] against India in the region.<ref name="BBCKashmir" />

=== Other motivations ===
==== Psychological ====
Psychologist Waheeda Khan, explaining the rebellious nature of the Kashmiris, says that because of the tense situations in the valley from the 1990s, the generation gap between parents and young generations has increased. Young generations tend to blame their parents for failing to do anything about the political situation. So they start experimenting with their own aggressive ways to show their curbed feelings and would go against any authority. A prominent psychiatrist of the valley, Margoob, described that children/teenagers are much more vulnerable to passionate actions and reactions, since the young minds are yet to completely develop psychological mechanisms. When they assume that they are "pushed against the wall", they get controlled by the emotions without bothering about the consequences. Also young people easily identify themselves with the "group" rather than with their individual identities. It leads to psychological distress which causes antisocial behaviour and aggressive attitude. Often, this situation gets worsened by the availability of weapons and people becoming familiar to violence after having exposed to conflict for so long. Waheeda Khan remarks, the major concern is that generations of children who are experiencing long-term violence in their lives, may reach adulthood perceiving that violence is a fair means of solving ethnic, religious, or political differences.{{sfn|Waheeda Khan, Conflict in Kashmir|2015|p=90, 91}}

====Economic====
High unemployment and lack of economic opportunities in Kashmir are also said to have intensified the struggle.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40008876|title=Indian award for Kashmir 'human shield' officer|date=2017-05-23|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-05-23|language=en-GB|quote=High unemployment and complaints of heavy-handed tactics by security forces battling street protesters and fighting insurgents have aggravated the problem.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523075335/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-40008876|archive-date=23 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/unemployment-a-reason-for-surge-in-jk-violence/articleshow/51849148.cms|title=Unemployment a reason for surge in J&K violence? |work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-05-24|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104114/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/unemployment-a-reason-for-surge-in-jk-violence/articleshow/51849148.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/Understanding-Kashmirs-stone-pelters/article16120870.ece|title=Understanding Kashmir's stone pelters|last=Parthasarathy|first=Malini|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-05-24|language=en|quote=The protesters on the streets...(are) frustrated at the lack of employment and economic opportunities. It is not hard to see where the frustration of the educated Kashmiri youth comes from. On the one hand, they are told that they are Indian citizens but they are shut out of the narrative of India as an emerging economic power. With mobile phones and internet communication being restricted, their sense of participation in the larger Indian discourse is sharply reduced.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429233249/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/Understanding-Kashmirs-stone-pelters/article16120870.ece|archive-date=29 April 2018}}</ref>

== Stone pelting ==
{{Main|Stone Pelting in Kashmir}}

Following the [[Amarnath land transfer controversy|2008 protests]] and [[2010 Kashmir unrest|2010 unrest]], the turmoil took on a new dimension when people, particularly young people of the Kashmir valley began pelting stones on security forces to express their aggression and protest for the loss of freedom. In turn they get attacked by the armed personnel with pellets, rubber bullets, sling shots and tear gas shells. This leads to eye-injuries and several other kind of injuries to many people. Security forces also face injuries, and sometimes get beaten up during these events. According to Waheeda Khan, most of the 'stone-pelters' are school and college going students. Large number of these people get arrested during these events for allegedly resorting to stone pelting, after which some of them are also tortured. According to political activist Mannan Bukhari, Kashmiris made stone, an easily accessible and defenseless weapon, their weapon of choice for protest.<ref name=":0A">{{harvnb|Waheeda Khan, Conflict in Kashmir|2015|p=88}}</ref><ref name="Bukhari-2015">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=43ZJCgAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+stone+pelting&pg=PT44|title=Kashmir - Scars of Pellet Gun: The Brutal Face of Suppression|last=Bukhari|first=Mannan|date=2015-07-28|publisher=Partridge Publishing|isbn=9781482850062|pages=44|language=en|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420104718/https://books.google.com/books?id=43ZJCgAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+stone+pelting&pg=PT44|url-status=live}}</ref>

Kashmiri senior journalist Parvaiz Bukhari remarked:<ref name="Bukhari-2015" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kashmirlife.net/summers-of-unrest-challenging-india-1089/|title=Summers of Unrest Challenging India|website=www.kashmirlife.net|language=en-GB|date=20 December 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012061809/http://kashmirlife.net/summers-of-unrest-challenging-india-1089/|archive-date=12 October 2017}}</ref><blockquote>The summer of 2010 witnessed a convulsion in the world's most militarized zone, the Indian-controlled part of Kashmir, an unprecedented and deadly civil unrest that is beginning to change a few things on the ground. [...] Little known and relatively anonymous resistance activists emerged, organizing an unarmed agitation more fierce than the armed rebellion against Indian rule two decades earlier. And apparently aware of the post 9/11 world, young Kashmiris, children of the conflict, made stones and rocks a weapon of choice against government armed forces, side-stepping the tag of a terrorist movement linked with Pakistan. The unrest represents a conscious transition to an unarmed mass movement, one that poses a moral challenge to New Delhi's military domination over the region.</blockquote>

== Human rights abuses by militants and army ==
{{further|Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir|Rape in Kashmir conflict#Rape by militants}}
{{See also|Ethnic cleansing of Kashmiri Hindus}}
Islamic separatist militants are accused of violence against the Kashmir populace.<ref>{{cite news|title=Four killed in Kashmir bomb blast|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4698705.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=20 July 2005|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825041916/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4698705.stm|archive-date=25 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mushtaq|first1=Sheikh|title=Ten Killed in Kashmir Car Bomb Blast|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=82930|access-date=24 February 2017|publisher=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]|archive-date=29 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180429233249/http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=82930|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/kpsgill/2003/chapter9.htm |title=K P S Gill: The Kashmiri Pandits: An Ethnic Cleansing the World Forgot – Islamist Extremism & Terrorism in South Asia |work=satp.org |access-date=25 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309001010/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/kpsgill/2003/chapter9.htm |archive-date=9 March 2009}}</ref> On the other hand, the Indian army has also allegedly committed serious crimes like using pellet guns, torture, murder and rape, though many such incidents were subject to legal proceedings. The militants have kidnapped and killed many civil servants and suspected informers. Tens of thousands of Kashmiri Pandits have been forced to emigrate as a result of continued violence by the majority. Estimates of the displaced vary from 170,000 to 700,000. Thousands of Kashmiri Pandits had to move to [[Jammu]] because of targeted attacks by Islamic radical organizations.<ref name="kps">Alexander Evans, A departure from history: Kashmiri Pandits, 1990–2001, Contemporary South Asia (Volume 11, Number 1, 1 March 2002, pp. 19–37)</ref>

=== Notable insurgencies ===

* [[Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus]]
* July and August 1989 – Three CRPF personnel and politician Mohd. Yusuf Halwai of NC/F were killed.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web|url=http://www.jammu-kashmir.com/basicfacts/politics/political_history.html|title=Chronicle of Important events/date in J&K's political history|work=jammu-kashmir.com|access-date=25 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614030618/http://www.jammu-kashmir.com/basicfacts/politics/political_history.html|archive-date=14 June 2015}}</ref>
* [[1989 kidnapping of Rubaiya Sayeed]] daughter of the then Home Minister of India Mufti Sayeed.
* [[Gawkadal massacre]]- [[Central Reserve Police Force]] opened fire on a group of Kashmiri protestors, killing 50.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2005-05-01|title=Kashmir's first blood|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/kashmirs-first-blood/|access-date=2021-09-09|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=9 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909115900/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/kashmirs-first-blood/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Sopore massacre]]- Killing of 55 Kashmiri civilians by Border security force([[Border Security Force|BSF]])
* [[Bijbehara massacre]]- Massacre of 51 protestors by BSF.
* [[1995 kidnapping of western tourists in Jammu and Kashmir]] – Six foreign trekkers from Anantnag district were kidnapped by Al Faran. One was beheaded later, one escaped, and the other four remain missing, presumably killed.
* [[1997 Sangrampora massacre]] – On 22 March 1997, seven Kashmiri Pandits were killed in Sangrampora village in the [[Budgam]] district.<ref name="Sangrampora">{{cite web|url=http://www.kashmiri-pandit.org/atrocities/sangrampura.html |title=Sangrampora killings |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050415043415/http://www.kashmiri-pandit.org/atrocities/sangrampura.html |archive-date=15 April 2005 }}</ref>
* [[Wandhama massacre]] – In January 1998, 24 [[Kashmiri Pandits]] living in the village of Wandhama were massacred by Pakistani militants. According to the testimony of one of the survivors, the militants dressed themselves as officers of the [[Indian Army]], entered their houses and then started firing blindly. The incident was significant because it coincided with former US president [[Bill Clinton]]'s visit to [[India]] and [[New Delhi]] highlighted the massacre to prove Pakistan-supported militancy in Kashmir .<ref name="Wandhama">{{cite web |url=http://www.subcontinent.com/sapra/terrorism/tr_1998_01_002_s.html |title=Wandhama Massacre report |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/19991009122607/http://www.subcontinent.com/sapra/terrorism/tr_1998_01_002_s.html |archive-date=9 October 1999 |access-date=29 May 2005 }}</ref>
* [[1998 Prankote massacre]] – 26 Hindu villagers of Udhampur district were killed by militants.
* [[1998 Champanari massacre]] – 25 Hindu villagers killed on 19 June 1998 by Islamic militants.
* [[2000 Amarnath pilgrimage massacre]] – 30 Hindu pilgrims massacred by militants.
* [[Chittisinghpura massacre]] – 36 Sikhs massacred by LeT militants though some allegations on Indian security forces exist too. (unclear)
* [[2001 terrorist attack on Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly|2001 Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly bombing]] – On 1 October 2001, a bombing at the Legislative Assembly in [[Srinagar]] killed 38.<ref name="Dugger">{{cite news|last1=Dugger|first1=Celia W.|title=Pakistan Asks India to Revive Talks Aimed at Bringing Peace to Kashmir|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/pakistan-asks-india-to-revive-talks-aimed-at-bringing-peace-to-kashmir.html|access-date=23 February 2017|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=9 October 2001|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223131222/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/pakistan-asks-india-to-revive-talks-aimed-at-bringing-peace-to-kashmir.html|archive-date=23 February 2017}}</ref>
* [[2002 Raghunath temple attacks]] – An attack occurred on 30 March 2002 when two suicide bombers attacked the temple. Eleven persons including three security forces personnel were killed and 20 were injured. In second attack, the fidayeen suicide squad attacked the temple second time on 24 November 2002 when two suicide bombers stormed the temple and killed fourteen devotees and injured 45 others.
* [[2002 Qasim Nagar massacre]] – On 13 July 2002, armed militants believed to be a part of the [[Lashkar-e-Toiba]] threw hand grenades at the Qasim Nagar market in [[Srinagar]] and then fired on civilians standing nearby killing 27 and injuring many more.<ref name="hrw03">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/wr2k3/asia6.html |title=Human Rights Watch World Report 2003: India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006054544/http://www.hrw.org/wr2k3/asia6.html |archive-date=6 October 2010}}</ref>
* [[2003 Nadimarg Massacre]] – 24 Hindus killed in Nadimarg, Kashmir on 23 March 2003 by [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] militants.
* 20 July 2005 [[Srinagar]] bombing – A car bomb exploded near an armoured [[Indian Army]] vehicle in the Church Lane area in [[Srinagar]] killing 4 [[Indian Army]] personnel, one civilian and the suicide bomber. Militant group [[Hizbul Mujahideen]], claimed responsibility for the attack.<ref name="church">{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/template/template.asp?template=Ceasefire&slug=Car+bomb+attack+in+Srinagar%2C+6+killed&id=17351&callid=0&amp;category=National |title=20 July 2005 Srinagar attack |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051118091346/http://www.ndtv.com/template/template.asp?template=ceasefire |archive-date=18 November 2005}}</ref>
* Budshah Chowk attack – A militant attack on 29 July 2005 at [[Srinagar (city)|Srinigar]]'s city centre, Budshah Chowk, killed 2 and left more than 17 people injured. Most of those injured were media journalists.<ref name="Bud">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1445705,000900010002.htm |title=July 29 attack in Srinagar |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303044412/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1445705%2C000900010002.htm |archive-date=3 March 2007}}</ref>
* Assassination of Ghulam Nabi Lone – On 18 October 2005, suspected Kashmiri militants killed Jammu and Kashmir's then education minister Ghulam Nabi Lone. Militant group called Al Mansurin claimed responsibility for the attack.<ref name="Nabi">{{cite news|title=Kashmir minister killed in attack|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4351950.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=18 October 2005|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222122343/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4351950.stm|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref> Abdul Ghani Lone, a prominent All Party Hurriyat Conference leader, was assassinated by unidentified gunmen during a memorial rally in [[Srinagar]]. The assassination resulted in wide-scale demonstrations against the Indian forces for failing to provide enough security cover for Lone.<ref name="hrw03" />
* [[2006 Doda massacre]] – On 3 May 2006, militants massacred 35 Hindus in [[Doda district|Doda]] and [[Udhampur]] districts in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tribune News Service|title=Phagwara observes bandh over J&K massacre|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060504/jal.htm#4|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|date=4 May 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012070828/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060504/jal.htm#4|archive-date=12 October 2017}}</ref>
* On 12 June 2006, one person was killed and 31 were wounded when militants hurled three grenades on Vaishnodevi shrine-bound buses at the general bus stand.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sharma|first1=S.P.|title=Terror in Jammu, Anantnag|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060613/main1.htm|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|date=13 June 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001103659/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060613/main1.htm|archive-date=1 October 2017}}</ref>
* [[2014 Kashmir Valley attacks]] – There were four attacks on 5 December 2014 on army, police and civilians resulted in 21 deaths and several injured. Their motive was to disrupt the [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|ongoing assembly elections]].<ref name="The Hindu14">{{cite web|title=Multiple attacks rock Kashmir Valley|website=The Hindu: Mobile Edition|date=5 December 2014|url=http://m.thehindu.com/news/national/militants-attack-army-camp-at-mohra-near-uri-border-town-in-kashmir/article6664357.ece/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20141224205414/http://m.thehindu.com/news/national/militants-attack-army-camp-at-mohra-near-uri-border-town-in-kashmir/article6664357.ece/|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 December 2014|access-date=24 December 2014}}</ref>
* [[2016 Uri attack]] – Four armed militants sneaked into an army camp and lobbed grenades onto tents causing massive fire culminating in the death of 19 military personnel.
* [[2018 Sunjuwan attack]] - On 10 February 2018, Jaish-e-Mohammad militants attacked Sunjuwan Army Camp in Jammu and Kashmir. 6 Indian army soldiers, 4 militants, 1 civilian died and 11 were injured.
* [[2019 Pulwama attack]] - On 14 February 2019, Jaish-e-Mohammad militants attacked a convoy of CRPF men, killing 46 personnel and injuring 20.
* [[2025 Pahalgam attack]]

== Tactics ==
=== India ===
The Indian government has increasingly relied on military presence to control the insurgency.<ref name="EconomistGrim" /> The military has allegedly committed human rights violations.<ref name="HRW96" /> The government would often dissolve assemblies, arrest elected politicians and impose president's rule. The government also rigged elections in 1987.<ref name="AltafElections" /> In recent times there have been signs that the government is taking local elections more seriously.<ref name="RamaDilemma" /> The government has also funneled development aid to Kashmir and Kashmir has now become the biggest per capita receiver of Federal aid.<ref name="SangThink" />

=== Pakistan ===
The Pakistani central government originally supported, trained and armed the insurgency in Kashmir,<ref name="firstpost1"/><ref name="indiatimes.com1"/><ref name="rediff1"/><ref name="indianexpress1"/><ref>{{cite news|title=Afzal Guru's confession: I helped them, took training in Pak|url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/WOR-TOP-afzal-guru---s-confession-i-helped-them-took-training-in-pak-4175799-NOR.html|access-date=19 April 2015|publisher=DAILY BHASKAR|date=10 February 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124224/http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/WOR-TOP-afzal-guru---s-confession-i-helped-them-took-training-in-pak-4175799-NOR.html|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> sometimes known as "ultras" (extremists),<ref name="indianexpress2">{{cite news|author=Agencies |date=6 April 2012 |title=Attempts will be made to push ultras across LoC: Army |newspaper=Indian Express |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/attempts-will-be-made-to-push-ultras-across-loc-army/933432/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140107184502/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/attempts-will-be-made-to-push-ultras-across-loc-army/933432/ |archive-date=7 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="indiatimes1">{{cite news|author=[[Press Trust of India]] |date=7 January 2014 |title=Militants, Army troopers exchange fire in Pulwama, none hurt |newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Militants-Army-troopers-exchange-fire-in-Pulwama-none-hurt/articleshow/28522668.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140107184652/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Militants-Army-troopers-exchange-fire-in-Pulwama-none-hurt/articleshow/28522668.cms |archive-date=7 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> however after groups linked to the Kashmiri insurgency twice attempted to assassinate president Pervez Musharraf, Musharraf decided to end support for such groups.<ref name="KhanMilitants" /> His successor, [[Asif Ali Zardari]] has continued the policy, calling insurgents in Kashmir "terrorists".<ref name="StephensJob" />

But the Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] hasn't followed the lead of the government and has continued its support for insurgent groups in Kashmir<ref name="StephensJob" /><ref name="ColeObama" /><ref name="RediffKashmir" /> In 2008, 541 people died due to insurgency, ''The Economist'' called it the lowest in two decades. The report cited a reduction in the support for militants by Pakistan and war fatigue among the Kashmiris as the reasons for the reduction in casualty figures.<ref name="EconomistGrim" />

=== Insurgents ===
After around 2000, the insurgency became far less violent and has instead taken on the form of protests and marches.<ref name="ThottamValley" /> Certain groups have also chosen to lay down their arms and look for a peaceful resolution to the conflict.<ref name="GuptaKashmir" />

=== Groups ===
The different insurgent groups have different aims in Kashmir. Some want complete independence from both India and Pakistan, others want unification with Pakistan and still others just want greater autonomy from the Indian government.<ref name="BBCFuture" />

A 2010 survey found that 43% of the people in J&K and 44% of the people in [[Azad Jammu and Kashmir|AJK]] would favour complete independence from both India and Pakistan, with support for the independence movement unevenly distributed across the region.<ref name="CHSurvey" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Just-2-of-people-in-JK-want-to-join-Pak-Survey/articleshow/5982710.cms|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140114082544/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-28/india/28318260_1_favoured-budgam-plebiscite|url-status=live|archive-date=14 January 2014|title=Just 2% of people in J&K want to join Pak: Survey|work=The Times of India|date=28 May 2010 |access-date=25 June 2015}}</ref>

== Militant groups==
Over the last two years, the militant group, [[Lashkar-e-Toiba]] has split into two factions: ''Al Mansurin'' and ''Al Nasirin''. Another new group reported to have emerged is the "Save Kashmir Movement". [[Harkat-ul-Mujahideen]] (formerly known as [[Harkat-ul-Mujahideen|Harkat-ul-Ansar]]) and [[Lashkar-e-Toiba]] are believed to be operating from [[Muzaffarabad]], and [[Muridke]], Pakistan respectively.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-16 |title=Shocked by Amir Sarfaraz's killing, LeT calls emergency meet |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/shocked-by-elimination-let-calls-emergency-meet/articleshow/109323995.cms |access-date=2024-06-09 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

Other less well known groups are the Freedom Force and Farzandan-e-Milat. A smaller group, [[Al-Badr (India)|Al-Badr]], has been active in Kashmir for many years and is still believed to be functioning. [[All Parties Hurriyat Conference]], an organisation that uses moderate means to press for the rights of the Kashmiris, is often considered as the ''mediator'' between New Delhi and insurgent groups.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-08-31 |title=Hurriyat: Its History, Role and Relevance |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/hurriyat-its-history-role-and-relevance/ |access-date=2024-06-09 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

=== Al-Qaeda ===
It is unclear if [[Al Qaeda]] has a presence in Jammu and Kashmir. In 2002, [[Donald Rumsfeld]] suggested that they were active<ref name="AbbasQaeda" /> and in the same year the [[Special Air Service|SAS]] hunted for [[Osama bin Laden]] in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name="SmithSAS" /> Al Qaeda claims that it has established a base in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name="IHTKashmir" /> However, there has been no evidence for any of these assertions.<ref name="AbbasQaeda" /><ref name="SmithSAS" /><ref name="IHTKashmir" /> The Indian army also claims that there is no evidence of Al Qaeda presence in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name="HinduQaeda" /> Al Qaeda has established bases in Pakistani administered Kashmir and some, including [[Robert Gates]] have suggested that they have helped to plan attacks in India.<ref name="HinduQaeda" /><ref name="DawnQaeda" /><ref name="SmuckerQaeda" />

== Casualties ==
According to government data, around 41,000 people—consisting of 14,000 civilians, 5,000 security personnel and 22,000 militants—have died because of the insurgency {{As of|2017|March|lc=y}} in both [[Kashmir Valley]] and [[Jammu division|Jammu region]]. The overwhelming majority of these deaths happened in the 1990s and early 2000s, and there has been a steady decline in violence and sharp drop in the number of deaths 2004 onwards.<ref name=ht2017>{{Cite news|url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/the-anatomy-of-kashmir-militancy-in-numbers/story-UncrzPTGhN22Uf1HHe64JJ_amp.html |title= 41,000 deaths in 27 years: The anatomy of Kashmir militancy in numbers
|author1=Jayanth Jacob |author2=Aurangzeb Naqshbandi |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=18 May 2023 |language=en-IN}}</ref> A 2006 report by [[Human Rights Watch]] claimed that at least 20,000 civilians had died in the conflict by then.<ref>{{cite report| url= https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/india0906web.pdf |title= Everyone Lives in Fear: Patterns of Impunity in Jammu and Kashmir |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=September 2006 |page=1}}</ref> The territory witnessed about 69,820 militancy-related incidents till March 2017.<ref name=ht2017/> Among the militants killed between 1989 and 2002, about 3,000 were from outside Jammu and Kashmir (mostly from Pakistan and some Afghans). Indian forces engaged in counter insurgency operations captured around 40,000 firearms, 150,000 explosive devices, and over 6 million rounds of assorted ammunition during this period.<ref name="sbose">{{cite book | last = Bose | first = Sumantra | title = Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]] | url = https://www.questia.com/read/118148594/kashmir-roots-of-conflict-paths-to-peace | date = 2003 | page = 3 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171012061143/https://www.questia.com/read/118148594/kashmir-roots-of-conflict-paths-to-peace | archive-date = 12 October 2017}}</ref> Jammu and Kashmir Coalition of Civil Society posits a figure of 70,000 deaths, most of them civilians.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://kashmirobserver.net/2016/local-news/karadzic-prosecute-all-accused-hr-violations-kashmir-jkccs-4777|title=Like Karadzic, Prosecute All Accused of HR Violations in Kashmir: JKCCS|work=Kashmir Observer|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016071013/https://kashmirobserver.net/2016/local-news/karadzic-prosecute-all-accused-hr-violations-kashmir-jkccs-4777|archive-date=16 October 2017|access-date=19 October 2017}}</ref> The pro-Pakistan [[Hurriyat Conference|Huriyat group]] has claimed a higher death toll of 80,000 including civilians, security forces and militants.<ref>{{citation |author=[[Sumantra Bose]] |title=Kashmir : roots of conflict, paths to peace |year=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-01173-2 |page=4}}</ref> The districts with the most incidents of killing were [[Kupwara district|Kupwara]], [[Baramulla district|Baramulla]], [[Poonch district, India|Poonch]], [[Doda district|Doda]], [[Anantnag district|Anantnag]] and [[Pulwama district|Pulwama]].<ref name="satp2022">{{Cite web|title=datasheet-terrorist-attack-fatalities|url=https://www.satp.org/datasheet-terrorist-attack/fatalities/india-jammukashmir|access-date=2022-02-12|website=www.satp.org|archive-date=31 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131101210/https://www.satp.org/datasheet-terrorist-attack/fatalities/india-jammukashmir|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Casualties every year in the Jammu and Kahmir insurgency (since 2007)<ref name="satp2022" />
!Year
!Incidents of Killing
!Civilians
!Security Forces
!Militants
!Total
|-
|'''2007'''
|427
|127
|119
|498
|744
|-
|'''2008'''
|261
|71
|85
|382
|538
|-
|'''2009'''
|208
|53
|73
|247
|373
|-
|'''2010'''
|189
|34
|69
|258
|361
|-
|'''2011'''
|119
|33
|31
|117
|181
|-
|'''2012'''
|70
|19
|18
|84
|121
|-
|'''2013'''
|84
|19
|53
|100
|172
|-
|'''2014'''
|91
|28
|47
|114
|189
|-
|'''2015'''
|86
|19
|41
|115
|175
|-
|'''2016'''
|112
|14
|88
|165
|267
|-
|'''2017'''
|163
|54
|83
|220
|357
|-
|'''2018'''
|206
|86
|95
|271
|452
|-
|'''2019'''
|135
|42
|78
|163
|283
|-
|'''2020'''
|140
|33
|56
|232
|321
|-
|'''2021'''
|153
|36
|45
|193
|274
|-
|'''2022'''
|151
|30
|30
|193
|253
|-
|'''2023'''
|72
|12
|33
|87
|134
|-
|'''2024'''
|61
|31
|26
|69
|127
|-
|'''2025'''
|35
|28
|17
|46
|92
|}

== Surrender and rehabilitation policy ==
Surrendering in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] has been institutionalized over the years.<ref name="Kakar-2017">{{Cite web|last=Kakar|first=Harsha|date=24 November 2017|title=Why Kashmir needs much more than surrender appeals|url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/kashmir-needs-more-than-surrender-appeals/|access-date=2021-10-16|website=ORF|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020015417/https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/kashmir-needs-more-than-surrender-appeals/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Malik-2020">{{Cite web|last=Malik|first=Irfan Amin|date=2020-11-25|title=Will Army's Draft 'Surrender Policy' In J&K Help Combat Militancy?|url=https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/kashmir-valley-militants-indian-army-security-forces-draft-surrender-policy-jammu-kashmir-police-shopian-fake-encounter|access-date=2021-10-16|website=TheQuint|language=en|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020031915/https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/kashmir-valley-militants-indian-army-security-forces-draft-surrender-policy-jammu-kashmir-police-shopian-fake-encounter|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Yasir|first=Sameer|date=2017-10-16|title=Jammu and Kashmir security forces' new appeal to militants: Surrender, come home and rejoin society|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/jammu-and-kashmir-security-forces-new-appeal-to-militants-surrender-come-home-and-rejoin-society-4148277.html|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Firstpost|language=en|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020044257/https://www.firstpost.com/india/jammu-and-kashmir-security-forces-new-appeal-to-militants-surrender-come-home-and-rejoin-society-4148277.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The 1990s saw some surrender policies, while in the 2000s, there was a policy for militants belonging to Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir and another for Pakistan administered territory.<ref name="Kakar-2017" /><ref name="Malik-2020" /> The first surrender policy for militants in Kashmir was launched on 15 August 1995. It was a copy of the policies already there for [[Naxalites]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kartha|first=Tara|date=5 June 2018|title=New Age Militancy – Kashmir Youth Need Policies Encouraging Change, Not Surrender|url=https://thewire.in/rights/kashmir-militancy-surrender-policy|access-date=2021-10-20|website=The Wire|archive-date=20 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420105454/https://thewire.in/rights/kashmir-militancy-surrender-policy|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Appeals to surrender ===
Appeals to surrender are made by security forces to militants at encounter sites as well.<ref name="Ashiq-2021">{{Cite news|last=Ashiq|first=Peerzada|date=2021-01-30|title=Two Hizb militants 'motivated' to surrender|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/2-trapped-militants-surrender-one-injured-shifted-at-pulwama-encounter-site/article33701358.ece|access-date=2021-10-16|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019144747/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/2-trapped-militants-surrender-one-injured-shifted-at-pulwama-encounter-site/article33701358.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Some attempts are successful,<ref name="Ashiq-2021" /><ref>{{Cite news|agency=IANS|date=2020-12-22|title=Two terrorists surrender during encounter with security forces in Kashmir|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/two-terrorists-surrender-during-encounter-with-security-forces-in-kashmir-120122200169_1.html|access-date=2021-10-16|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019111539/https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/two-terrorists-surrender-during-encounter-with-security-forces-in-kashmir-120122200169_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while others are not.<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 May 2021|title=J-K: Surrendered militant urged companions to surrender, they refused and get killed in encounter|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/j-k-surrendered-militant-urged-companions-to-surrender-they-refused-and-killed/videoshow/82429458.cms|access-date=2021-10-16|website=The Economic Times|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016142911/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/j-k-surrendered-militant-urged-companions-to-surrender-they-refused-and-killed/videoshow/82429458.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Mothers and other family members have made videos urging their child turned militant to surrender to the security forces. Sometimes the family member is brought to the encounter site and urged to talk to their children through loudspeakers to surrender.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Islah|first=Mufti|date=2021-03-22|title='Missing You': A Kashmiri Child's Plea to Holed up Militant Father Fails, Body Found after Encounter|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/kashmir-shopian-encounter-child-appeal-surrender-militant-holed-up-death-3562604.html|access-date=2021-10-16|website=News18|language=en|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019193812/https://www.news18.com/news/india/kashmir-shopian-encounter-child-appeal-surrender-militant-holed-up-death-3562604.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kakar-2017" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Masood|first=Bashaarat|date=2021-03-23|title=Four militants killed; ignored pleas from family: police|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/four-let-militants-killed-in-encounter-with-security-forces-in-j-ks-shopian-7240080/|access-date=2021-10-16|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019160245/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/four-let-militants-killed-in-encounter-with-security-forces-in-j-ks-shopian-7240080/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Jammu Terror Attack|2018 Sunjuwan attack]]
* [[List of massacres in Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[All Parties Hurriyat Conference]]
* [[Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism]]
* [[Partition of India]]
* [[Ikhwan (Kashmir)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="SumantraKashmir">Bose, Sumantra. ''Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace''. Harvard, 2005.</ref>
<ref name="SwamiSecret">Swami, Praveen.''India, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad''. 2006.</ref>
<ref name="AltafElections">{{cite news|last1=Hussain|first1=Altaf|title=Kashmir's flawed elections|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2223364.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=14 September 2002|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226225810/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2223364.stm|archive-date=26 February 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="BBCKashmir">{{cite news|title=Kashmir insurgency|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm|access-date=21 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222035446/http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="ArifShadow">Jamar, Arif. ''The untold story of Jihad in Kashmir''. 2009.</ref>
<ref name="HasanPakistan">{{cite news|last1=Hasan|first1=Syed Shoaib|title=Why Pakistan is 'boosting Kashmir militants'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4416771.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=3 March 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228011213/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4416771.stm|archive-date=28 February 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="KhanMilitants">{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Aamer Ahmed|title=Pakistan: Where have the militants gone?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4415823.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=6 April 2005|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222121728/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4415823.stm|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="StephensJob">{{cite news|last1=Stephens|first1=Bret|title=The Most Difficult Job in the World|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122307507392703831|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=4 October 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222112027/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122307507392703831|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="ColeObama">{{cite news|last1=Cole|first1=Juan|title=Does Obama understand his biggest foreign-policy challenge?|url=http://www.salon.com/2008/12/12/pakistan_7/|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]]|date=12 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323103257/http://www.salon.com/2008/12/12/pakistan_7/|archive-date=23 March 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="RediffKashmir">{{cite news|title=Links between ISI, militant groups: Straw|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/jun/11war4.htm|access-date=24 February 2017|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=11 June 2002|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324080707/http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/jun/11war4.htm|archive-date=24 March 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="EconomistStony">{{cite news|title=Stony ground|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2010/07/08/stony-ground|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=8 July 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223073757/http://www.economist.com/node/16542619|archive-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="EconomistGrim">{{cite news|title=Grim up north|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2009/06/25/grim-up-north|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=25 June 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429113754/http://www.economist.com/node/13927142|archive-date=29 April 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="EconomistPlace">{{cite news|title=Your place or mine?|url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2004/02/12/your-place-or-mine|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=12 February 2004|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222194246/http://www.economist.com/node/2423976|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="BBCKillings">{{cite news|title=Kashmir's extra-judicial killings|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6367917.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=8 March 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614185945/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6367917.stm|archive-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="The Times">{{citation |title=India's leader makes peace overtures in Kashmir |newspaper=The Times |date=18 November 2004 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article392432.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523122550/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article392432.ece |archive-date=23 May 2011}}: "Military experts estimate that India has about 250,000 troops in the region."</ref><ref name="HRW96">Human Rights Watch, Patricia Gossman. "India's secret army in Kashmir : new patterns of abuse emerge in the conflict ", 1996</ref>
<ref name="YardleyPower">{{cite news|last1=Yardley|first1=Jim|title=India Reopens Kashmir's Schools, but Many Stay Away|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/28/world/asia/28kashmir.html|access-date=22 February 2017|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=27 September 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222113514/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/28/world/asia/28kashmir.html|archive-date=22 February 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="PalloneEthnic">{{citation |last=Pallone |first=Frank |title=Resolution condemning Human Rights Violations against Kashmiri Pandits |url=http://www.house.gov/list/press/nj06_pallone/pr_feb15_kashmir.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810032903/http://www.house.gov/list/press/nj06_pallone/pr_feb15_kashmir.html |archive-date=10 August 2009 |publisher=US House of Representatives |date=15 February 2006 }}</ref>
<ref name="RamaDilemma">{{cite news|last1=Ramaseshan|first1=Radhika|title=Cong dilemma: young Omar or PDP|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1081230/jsp/nation/story_10319531.jsp|access-date=23 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]|date=30 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223212047/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1081230/jsp/nation/story_10319531.jsp|archive-date=23 February 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="SangThink">Sanghvi, Vir {{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Think-the-Unthinkable/Article1-331689.aspx |title=Think the Unthinkable - Hindustan Times |access-date=2010-12-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208001159/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Think-the-Unthinkable/Article1-331689.aspx |archive-date=8 February 2011}} "Think the unthinkable" ''Hindustan Times'', August 2008</ref>
<ref name="ThottamValley">{{cite magazine|last1=Thottam|first1=Jyoti|title=Valley of Tears|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1838586,00.html|access-date=22 February 2017|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=4 September 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170124194816/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1838586,00.html|archive-date=24 January 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="BBCFuture">{{cite news|title=The Future of Kashmir?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html/|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319084333/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html/|archive-date=19 March 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="CHSurvey">Bradnock, Robert "Kashmir: Paths to Peace" Chatham House, London, 2008</ref>
<ref name="AbbasQaeda">{{cite news|last1=Abbas|first1=Zaffar|title=Analysis: Is al-Qaeda in Kashmir?|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/2043800.stm|access-date=22 February 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|date=13 June 2002|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229210916/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/2043800.stm|archive-date=29 December 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="SmithSAS">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Michael|title=SAS joins Kashmir hunt for bin Laden|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/1385795/SAS-joins-Kashmir-hunt-for-bin-Laden.html|access-date=21 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=23 February 2002|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315031644/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/1385795/SAS-joins-Kashmir-hunt-for-bin-Laden.html|archive-date=15 March 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="IHTKashmir">International Herald Tribune.[https://web.archive.org/web/20060721072906/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/07/13/news/india.php] "Al Qaeda Claim of Kashmiri Link Worries India"</ref>
<ref name="HinduQaeda">''The Hindu''.{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/18/stories/2007061801191400.htm |title=No al Qaeda presence in Kashmir: Army |date=18 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411003850/http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/18/stories/2007061801191400.htm |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=11 April 2010}} "No Al Qaeda presence in Kashmir: Army"</ref>
<ref name="SmuckerQaeda">{{cite news|last1=Smucker|first1=Phillip|title=Al Qaeda thriving in Pakistani Kashmir|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0702/p01s02-wosc.html|access-date=21 February 2017|newspaper=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=2 July 2002|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111054702/http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0702/p01s02-wosc.html|archive-date=11 January 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="DawnQaeda">''Dawn''. [https://www.dawn.com/news/917182/al-qaeda-could-provoke-new-india-pakistan-war-gates "Al Qaeda could provoke new India-Pakistan war: Gates"], January 20, 2010</ref>
<ref name="GuptaKashmir">Gupta, Amit; Leather, Kaia.[https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:lnhk5esbgrkJ:fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/13390.pdf+kashmir+insurgents+lay+down+arms&hl=en&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShAKwH9pVW16YC2-dyX6RP_KYtdoG3X7iD1GKwTxaO0O1l4JdLMf_wKYEJVQ_LinyIgx2I0TWSQAxl2oc8OSyUWAIBHSyTHuVs8XTVkGhMaBsvXUMUfvxddyygReETuQKp4mTjA&sig=AHIEtbQWdbVbaShVvuAURLFsmBS-IR4gog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330001714/https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3Alnhk5esbgrkJ%3Afpc.state.gov%2Fdocuments%2Forganization%2F13390.pdf%20kashmir%20insurgents%20lay%20down%20arms&hl=en&gl=de&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShAKwH9pVW16YC2-dyX6RP_KYtdoG3X7iD1GKwTxaO0O1l4JdLMf_wKYEJVQ_LinyIgx2I0TWSQAxl2oc8OSyUWAIBHSyTHuVs8XTVkGhMaBsvXUMUfvxddyygReETuQKp4mTjA&sig=AHIEtbQWdbVbaShVvuAURLFsmBS-IR4gog |date=30 March 2017 }} "Kashmir: Recent Developments and US Concerns", June 2002</ref>
}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Alexander |title=A departure from history: Kashmiri Pandits, 1990–2001 |journal=Contemporary South Asia |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2002 |pages=19–37 |issn=0958-4935 |doi=10.1080/0958493022000000341 |s2cid=145573161}}
* {{citation |last=Khan |first=Waheeda |chapter=Conflict in Kashmir: Psychosocial Consequences on Children |editor=Sibnath Deb |title=Child Safety, Welfare and Well-being: Issues and Challenges |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvpUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-2425-9 |pages=83–93 |ref={{sfnref|Waheeda Khan, Conflict in Kashmir|2015}}}}

{{Kashmir conflict}}
{{Jammu and Kashmir freedom movement}}
{{Indo-Pakistani relations}}
{{Military of India}}
{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}}

[[Category:Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir| ]]
[[Category:Uprisings of the Kashmir conflict]]
[[Category:Guerrilla wars]]
[[Category:Proxy wars]]
[[Category:Islamist insurgencies]]

Indian leopard

2026-03-17T04:46:13Z

FrancisClement: Refined content and updated sections

{{Short description|Leopard subspecies}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Subspeciesbox
| name = Indian leopard
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref =<ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=Shivakumar, S. |author2=Khettry, A. |author3=Surve, N. |author4=Rahman, H. |author5=Ghimirey, Y. |author6=Tharchen, L. |author7=Zaw, T. |author8=Waseem, M. |author9=Jhala, Y. |year=2024 |amends=2023 |title=''Panthera pardus'' ssp. ''fusca'' |article-number=e.T215195524A259032906 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2024-1.RLTS.T215195524A259032906.en}}</ref>
| image = Nagarhole Kabini Karnataka India, Leopard September 2013.jpg
| image_caption = Male in [[Nagarhole National Park]]
| genus = Panthera
| species = pardus
| subspecies = fusca
| species_link = Leopard
| authority = ([[Friedrich Albrecht Anton Meyer|Meyer]], 1794)
| synonyms =
*''P. p. pernigra'' {{small|([[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]], 1863)}}
*''P. p. millardi'' {{small|([[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]], 1930)}}
}}

The '''Indian leopard''' ('''''Panthera pardus fusca''''') is a [[subspecies]] of the [[leopard]] (''P. pardus''). It is widely distributed on the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It is threatened by [[illegal trade]] of skins and body parts, and persecution due to human-leopard conflict and retaliation for [[livestock]] depredation.

==Taxonomy==
''Felis fusca'' was the [[scientific name]] proposed by [[Friedrich Albrecht Anton Meyer]] in 1794 who [[Scientific description|described]] a black leopard from [[Bengal]] that was on display at the [[Tower of London]].<ref name=Meyer1794>{{cite book |last=Meyer, F. A. A. |year=1794 |title=Zoologische Annalen. Erster Band |location=Weimar |publisher=Im Verlage des Industrie-Comptoirs |pages=394–396 |chapter=Über de la Metheries schwarzen Panther |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4s-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA394}}</ref> ''Leopardus perniger'' proposed by [[Brian Houghton Hodgson]] in 1863 were five leopard skins from [[Nepal]], out of which three were [[Melanism|black]]. He mentioned [[Sikkim]] and Nepal as habitat.<ref name="Hodgson1863">{{cite book |last1=Hodgson |first1=B. H. |year=1863 |title=Catalogue of the Specimens and Drawings of Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes of Nepal and Tibet |location=London |publisher=British Museum |chapter=''Leopardus perniger'', Hodgson |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/cataloguespecim01hodggoog#page/n19/mode/2up}}</ref>
''Panthera pardus millardi'' proposed by [[Reginald Innes Pocock]] in 1930 was a single leopard skin and skull from [[Kashmir]]. It differed from typical ''P. p. fusca'' skins by longer hair and a more greyish colour.<ref name="Pocock1930">{{cite journal |last=Pocock, R. I. |year=1930 |title=The Panthers and Ounces of Asia |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=307–336 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbomb34121930bomb/page/316}}</ref>

Since leopard populations in Nepal, Sikkim and Kashmir are not geographically isolated from leopard populations in the Indian subcontinent, they were subsumed to ''P. p. fusca'' in 1996. The [[Indus River]] in the west and the [[Himalayas]] in the north form [[Topography|topographical]] barriers to the [[biological dispersal|dispersal]] of this subspecies.<ref name="Miththapala et al., 1996">{{cite journal |last=Miththapala |first=S. |author2=Seidensticker, J. |author3=O'Brien, S. J. |year=1996 |title=Phylogeographic Subspecies Recognition in Leopards (''Panthera pardus''): Molecular Genetic Variation |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1115–1132 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10041115.x|bibcode=1996ConBi..10.1115M }}</ref><ref name=Uphyrkina>{{cite journal |last1=Uphyrkina |first1=O. |last2=Johnson |first2=E.W. |last3=Quigley |first3=H. |last4=Miquelle |first4=D. |last5=Marker |first5=L. |last6=Bush |first6=M. |last7=O'Brien |first7=S. J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Phylogenetics, genome diversity and origin of modern leopard, ''Panthera pardus'' |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=2617–2633 |url=http://www.biosoil.ru/files/00001386.pdf |doi=10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01350.x |pmid=11883877 |bibcode=2001MolEc..10.2617U |s2cid=304770 |access-date=2 December 2012 |archive-date=28 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428212741/https://www.biosoil.ru/files/00001386.pdf }}</ref> In the east, the [[Ganges Delta]] and the lower course of the [[Brahmaputra River]] are thought to form natural barriers to the range of the [[Indochinese leopard]].<ref name=Uphyrkina/>

A [[genetic analysis]] of 49 leopard skin samples collected in [[Azad Jammu Kashmir]] and [[Galyat]] regions of northern Pakistan revealed [[haplotype]]s of both Persian and Indian leopards, indicating [[intergradation]] of both subspecies in this region.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Asad, M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Martoni, F. |author3=Ross, J.G. |author4=Waseem, M. |author5=Paterson, A.M. |year=2019 |title=Assessing subspecies status of leopards (''Panthera pardus'') of northern Pakistan using mitochondrial DNA |journal=PeerJ |volume=7 |article-number=e7243 |doi=10.7717/peerj.7243 |doi-access=free|pmid=31341733 |pmc=6640621 |hdl=10182/10848 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Characteristics==
[[File:Indian male leopard (cropped).jpg|thumb|Indian leopard in [[Bandipur National Park]]]]
[[File:Black panther India.jpg|thumb|Black leopard at Nagarhole National Park]]
The Indian leopard has strong legs and a long, well-formed tail, broad muzzle, short ears, small, yellowish-grey eyes, and light-grey ocular bulbs.<ref name=Meyer1794/>
Its coat is spotted and rosetted on a pale yellow to yellowish-brown or golden background, except for the [[melanistic]] forms; the spots fade toward the white underbelly and the insides and lower parts of the legs. Rosettes are most prominent on the back, flanks and hindquarters. The pattern of the rosettes is unique to each individual.<ref name=Pocock1939>{{cite book |author=Pocock, R. I. |year=1939 |title=The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia. |volume=1 |location=London |publisher=Taylor and Francis |pages=222–239 |chapter=''Panthera pardus'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/PocockMammalia1/pocock1#page/n273/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=V.|title=Indian Mammals: A Field Guide |year=2014 |publisher=Hachette India |location=Gurgaon, India |isbn=978-93-5009-761-8}}</ref> Juveniles have woolly fur, and appear dark due to the densely arranged spots. The white-tipped tail is {{convert|60|-|100|cm|abbr=on}} long, white underneath, and displays rosettes, which form incomplete bands toward the end. The rosettes are larger in other leopard subspecies in Asia. Fur colour tends to be more pale and cream in arid habitats, more grey in colder climates, and of a darker golden hue in [[rainforest]] habitats.<ref name=Nowell1996>{{cite book |author=Nowell, K. |author2=Jackson, P. |year=1996 |chapter-url=http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-website/catfolk/ssaprd01.htm |chapter=Leopard ''Panthera pardus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |pages=24–30 |title=Wild Cats: status survey and conservation action plan |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |location=Gland, Switzerland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222223654/http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-website/catfolk/ssaprd01.htm |archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref>

The clouded leopard can be told apart by its diffuse "clouds" of spots compared to the smaller and distinct rosettes of the leopard, longer legs and thinner tail.<ref name="Francis">{{cite book|last1=Francis|first1=C.M.|title=A Field Guide to the Mammals of Southeast Asia |year=2008|publisher=New Holland|location=London, UK |isbn=978-1-84537-735-9|page=296}}</ref>

===Skull===
The largest skull for an Indian leopard was recorded in 1920, and belonged to a large, [[Melanism|melanistic]] cat in the area of [[Ootacamund]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. The black panther was said to have bigger forelimbs and forequarters than hind-limbs and hind-quarters, with a skull and claws nearly as large as those of a tigress. The skull measured {{cvt|11.2|in|order=flip}} in [[basal (anatomy)|basal]] length, and {{cvt|7.9|in|order=flip}} in breadth, and weighed {{cvt|2|lb|4|oz|g|order=flip}}. By comparison, the skull of one western [[African leopard]] measured {{cvt|11.25|in|order=flip}} in basal length, and {{cvt|7.125|in|order=flip}} in breadth, and weighed {{cvt|1|lb|12|oz|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Prater, S. H. |title=Record Panther Skull (''P. p. pardus'') |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=XXVII |issue=IV |pages=933–935 |date=1921 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/95740#page/1055/mode/1up |access-date=24 August 2019 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502064501/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/95740#page/1055/mode/1up |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Size===
Male Indian leopards grow to between {{cvt|4|ft|2|in|cm|order=flip}} and {{cvt|4|ft|8|in|cm|order=flip}} in body size with a {{cvt|2|ft|6|in|cm|order=flip}} to {{cvt|3|ft|cm|order=flip}} long tail and weigh between {{cvt|110|and|170|lb|kg|order=flip}}. Females are smaller, growing to between {{cvt|3|ft|5|in|cm|order=flip}} and {{cvt|3|ft|10|in|cm|order=flip}} in body size with a {{cvt|2|ft|6|in|order=flip|cm}} to {{cvt|2|ft|10.5|in|cm|order=flip}} long tail, and weigh between {{cvt|64|and|75|lb|kg|order=flip}}. [[Sexually dimorphic]], males are larger and heavier than females.<ref name=Pocock1939/>

The largest wild individual appears to have been a male man-eater that was shot in the Dhadhol area of [[Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh]] in 2016. It reportedly measured {{cvt|8|ft|7|in|order=flip}} from head to tail, {{cvt|34|in|order=flip}} at the shoulder, and weighed {{Cvt|71|kg}}.<ref>{{cite news |author=Chauhan, P. |year=2016 |title=Leopard shot in Bilaspur turns out to be a record breaker |work=The Tribune |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/community/leopard-shot-in-bilaspur-turns-out-to-be-a-record-breaker/342548.html |access-date=24 March 2018 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326180717/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/community/leopard-shot-in-bilaspur-turns-out-to-be-a-record-breaker/342548.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==
The Indian leopard is distributed in [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and parts of [[Pakistan]].<ref name=iucn/>
Bangladesh has no viable leopard population but there are occasional sightings in the forests of [[Sylhet]], [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] and [[Cox's Bazar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0030605300019001 |title=Endangered mammals of Bangladesh |journal=Oryx |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=152–156 |year=2009 |last1=Khan |first1=M. A. R.|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kabir |first1=M.T. |last2=Ahsan |first2=M.F. |last3=Khatoon |first3=A. |year=2017 |title=Occurrence and conservation of the Indian Leopard (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae: ''Panthera pardus'') in Cox's Bazar District of Bangladesh |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=10320–10324 |doi=10.11609/jott.1898.9.6.10320-10324 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
It inhabits [[tropical rainforest]]s, dry [[deciduous forest]]s, [[temperate forest]]s and northern [[coniferous forest]]s but does not occur in the [[mangrove forest]]s of the [[Sundarbans]].<ref name=Nowell1996/>

In southern [[Tibet]], it was recorded in [[Qomolangma National Nature Preserve]].<ref name=Laguardia17>{{cite journal |year=2017 |title=The current distribution and status of leopards ''Panthera pardus'' in China |journal=[[Oryx (journal)|Oryx]] |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=153−159 |name-list-style=amp |last1=Laguardia |first1=A. |doi=10.1017/S0030605315000988 |last2=Kamler |first2=J. F. |last3=Li |first3=S. |last4=Zhang |first4=C. |last5=Zhou |first5=Z. |last6=Shi |first6=K. |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In Nepal's [[Kanchenjunga Conservation Area]], a melanistic leopard was photographed at an elevation of {{cvt|4300|m}} by a camera trap in May 2012.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Thapa, K. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Pradhan, N. M. B. |author3=Berker, J. |author4=Dhakal, M. |author5=Bhandari, A. R. |author6=Gurung, G. S. |author7=Rai, D. P. |author8=Thapa, G. J. |author9=Shrestha, S. |author10=Singh, G. R. |year=2013 |title=High elevation record of a leopard cat in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Nepal |journal=Cat News |issue=58 |pages=26–27}}</ref>

===Population in India===
{{Main|List of Indian states by wildlife population}}
In 2015, 7,910 leopards were estimated to live in and around tiger habitat in India; about 12,000 to 14,000 leopards were speculated to live in the entire country. The following table gives the major leopard populations in the Indian states.<ref name=pop>{{Cite news |author=Bhattacharya, A. |year=2015 |title=Finally, India gets a count of its leopard numbers: 12,000-14,000 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/flora-fauna/Finally-India-gets-a-count-of-its-leopard-numbers-12000-14000/articleshow/48850420.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 February 2016 |archive-date=27 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151127054859/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/flora-fauna/Finally-India-gets-a-count-of-its-leopard-numbers-12000-14000/articleshow/48850420.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
As of 2020, the leopard population within forested habitats in India's tiger range landscapes was estimated at 12,172 to 13,535 individuals. Surveyed landscapes included elevations below {{cvt|2600|m}} in the [[Shivalik Hills]] and [[Gangetic plains]], [[Central India]] and [[Eastern Ghats]], [[Western Ghats]], as well as the [[Brahmaputra River]] basin and hills in [[Northeast India]].<ref>{{cite report |author=Jhala, Y.V. |author1-link=Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala |author2=Qureshi, Q. |author3=Yadav, S.P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2020 |title=Status of leopards in India, 2018. Technical Report TR/2020/16 |location=New Delhi and Dehradun |publisher=National Tiger Conservation Authority, Government of India and Wildlife Institute of India}}</ref> As per 2022, the Indian leopard population was estimated at 13,874 individuals.<ref name=NTCA2024>{{cite report |title=Status of Leopards in India, 2022 |publisher=National Tiger Conservation Authority, Government of India and Wildlife Institute of India |year=2024 |author1=Qureshi, Q. |author2=Jhala, Y. V. |author3=Yadav, S. P. |author4=Tiwari, V. R. |author5=Garawad, R. |author6=Mallick, A. |place=New Delhi and Dehradun |isbn=978-81-85496-86-3 |url=https://ntca.gov.in/assets/uploads/Reports/AITM/Leopard_status_2022_ISBN_corrected_1.pdf}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Leopard population by state
|-
! State !! Leopards (2022)<ref name=NTCA2024/>
|-
| [[Andhra Pradesh]] || style="text-align:right" | 569
|-
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]] || style="text-align:right" | 42
|-
| [[Assam]] || style="text-align:right" | 74
|-
| [[Bihar]] || style="text-align:right" | 86
|-
| [[Chhattisgarh]] || style="text-align:right" | 722
|-
| [[Goa]] || style="text-align:right" | 77
|-
| [[Jharkhand]] || style="text-align:right" | 51
|-
| [[Karnataka]] || style="text-align:right" | 1,879
|-
| [[Kerala]] || style="text-align:right" | 570
|-
| [[Madhya Pradesh]] || style="text-align:right" | 3,907
|-
| [[Maharashtra]] || style="text-align:right" | 1,985
|-
| [[Odisha]] || style="text-align:right" | 568
|-
| [[Rajasthan]] || style="text-align:right" | 721
|-
| [[Tamil Nadu]] || style="text-align:right" | 1070
|-
| [[Telangana]] || style="text-align:right" | 297
|-
| [[Uttar Pradesh]] || style="text-align:right" | 371
|-
| [[Uttarakhand]] || style="text-align:right" | 652
|-
| [[West Bengal]] || style="text-align:right" | 233
|-
|'''Total'''||style="text-align:right" |'''13,874'''
|}

==Behaviour and ecology==
[[File:Leopard in Gir, AJT Johnsingh.jpg|thumb| Leopard at night in Gir National Park]]
[[File:Leopard with monkey kill (cropped).jpg|thumb|Leopard with a killed [[langur]]]]
[[File:Leopards davidraju111.jpg|thumb|Leopard with a killed nilgai in [[Satpura National Park]]]]
The leopard is elusive, solitary, and largely [[nocturnality|nocturnal]]. It is known for its ability in climbing, and has been observed resting on tree branches during the day, dragging its kills up trees and hanging them there, and descending from trees headfirst.<ref>Jerdon, T.C. (1874). Mammals of India: a natural history of the animals known to inhabit continental India. John Wheldon, London.</ref> It is a powerful swimmer, although is not as disposed to swimming as the tiger. It is very agile, and can run at over {{Cvt|58|km/h|mph}}, leap over {{Cvt|6|m|ft}} horizontally, and jump up to {{cvt|3|m}} vertically.<ref name="animalbytes">{{cite web |url=http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/Animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/carnivora/leopard.htm |title=Animal bytes – ''Panthera pardus'' |publisher=Sea World |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624003126/http://www.seaworld.org/Animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/carnivora/leopard.htm |archive-date=24 June 2008}}</ref> It produces a number of vocalizations, including grunts, roars, growls, meows, and purrs.<ref name=estes>{{cite book |last=Estes |first=R. |year=1991 |title=The Behavior Guide to African Mammals, Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0520080858 |url-access=registration |location=Los Angeles|publisher=The University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08085-0}}</ref>

In Nepal's [[Bardia National Park]], home ranges of male leopards comprised about {{convert|48|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, and of females about {{convert|17|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}; female home ranges decreased to {{convert|5|to|7|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} when they had young cubs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Odden, M. |author2=Wegge, P. |year=2005 |title=Spacing and activity patterns of leopards ''Panthera pardus'' in the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal |journal=Wildlife Biology |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=145–152 |doi=10.2981/0909-6396(2005)11[145:SAAPOL]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=86140708 |url=http://wild-cat.org/pardus/infos/Odden+Wegge2005-Leopards-spacing+activity-BardiaNP.pdf |access-date=24 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728190608/http://wild-cat.org/pardus/infos/Odden+Wegge2005-Leopards-spacing+activity-BardiaNP.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref>
In Gir National Park, the home range of a male radio-collared leopard was estimated at {{convert|28.15|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. It killed prey once in 3.7 days.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Zehra, N. |author2=Chaudhary, R. |author3=Khan, J. A. |title=Ecology of Leopard (''Panthera pardus fusca'' Meyer) in Dry Tropical Forests of Gir National Park and Sanctuary, Gujarat, India |journal=International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=241–255}}</ref>

The leopard is a versatile, opportunistic hunter, and has a very broad diet.<ref name=Nowell1996/> It is able to take large prey due to its massive skull and powerful jaw muscles.<ref name="Burnie">{{cite book |last1=Burnie |first1=D |last2=Wilson |first2=D. E. |year=2001 |title=Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife' |publisher=DK Adult |isbn=978-0-7894-7764-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Boitani |first=L. |title=Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals|publisher=Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books|year=1984|isbn=978-0-671-42805-1|url=https://archive.org/details/simonschustersgu00boit}}</ref> In [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]], the dietary spectrum of the Indian leopard includes [[axis deer]], [[sambar deer]], [[nilgai]], [[wild boar]], [[common langur]], [[Indian hare]] and [[peafowl]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mondal, K. |author2=Gupta, S. |author3=Bhattacharjee, S. |author4=Qureshi, Q.|author5=K. Sankar |name-list-style=amp |title=Prey selection, food habits and dietary overlap between leopard ''Panthera pardus'' (Mammalia: Carnivora) and re-introduced tiger ''Panthera tigris'' (Mammalia: Carnivora) in a semi-arid forest of Sariska Tiger Reserve, Western India |year=2012 |doi=10.1080/11250003.2012.687402 |journal=Italian Journal of Zoology |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=607–616 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
In [[Periyar Tiger Reserve]], [[primate]]s make up a large proportion of its diet.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=K. K. |last2=Bhardwaj |first2=A. K. |last3=Abraham |first3=C. J. |last4=Zacharias |first4=V. J. |year=1996 |title=Food habits of mammalian predators in Periyar Tiger Reserve, South India |journal=The Indian Forester |volume=122 |issue=10 |pages=877–883 |url=http://www.indianforester.co.in/index.php/indianforester/article/view/6542 |access-date=22 March 2013 |archive-date=20 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120125053/http://www.indianforester.co.in/index.php/indianforester/article/view/6542 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Reproduction ===
[[File:5W7A0891 (2).jpg|thumb|A pair of leopards in [[Rajaji National Park]]]]
[[File:Leopard Cubs Satpura.jpg|thumb|Leopard cubs in Satpura Tiger Reserve]]
Depending on the region, the leopard mates all year round. The [[estrous cycle]] lasts about 46 days and the female usually is in heat for 6–7 days.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1966.tb01746.x |author=Sadleir, R. |year=1966 |title=Notes on the Reproduction of the larger Felidae |journal=International Zoo Yearbook |volume=6 |pages=184–187}}</ref> Gestation lasts for 90 to 105 days.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hemmer, H. |year=1976 |chapter=Gestation period and postnatal development in felids |pages=143–165 |editor=R.L. Eaton |title=The World's Cats |volume=3 |publisher=Carnivore Research Institute}}</ref> Cubs are usually born in a litter of 2–4 cubs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eaton, R.L. |year=1977 |title=Reproductive biology of the leopard |journal=Zoologischer Garten |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=329–351}}</ref> Mortality of cubs is estimated at 41–50% during the first year. Females give birth in a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree, or thicket to make a den. Cubs are born with closed eyes, which open four to nine days after birth.<ref name="WCW">{{Cite book|last1=Sunquist|first1=M. E. |year=2002 |last2=Sunquist |first2=F. |title=Wild Cats of the World |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=318–342 |isbn=978-0-226-77999-7 |chapter=Leopard''Panthera pardus'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/wildcatsofworld00sunq/page/325}}</ref> The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more grey in colour with less defined spots. Around three months of age, the young begin to follow the mother on hunts. At one year of age, leopard young can probably fend for themselves, but remain with the mother for 18–24 months. The average typical life span of a leopard is between 12 and 17 years.<ref name=CMBC>{{cite web |url=http://brainmuseum.org/Specimens/carnivora/leopard/index.html |title=Leopard (''Panthera pardus''); Physical characteristics and distribution |work=Comparative Mammalian Brain Collections |access-date=15 May 2016 |archive-date=3 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103183140/http://www.brainmuseum.org/specimens/carnivora/leopard/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Sympatric carnivores===
Indian leopards are not common in habitats where tiger density is high, and are wedged between prime tiger habitat on the one side, and cultivated village land on the other.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McDougal |first=C. |year=1988 |title=Leopard and Tiger Interactions at Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal |url=http://biostor.org/reference/153414/page/1 |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=85 |pages=609–610 |access-date=21 September 2018 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326180713/http://biostor.org/reference/153414/page/1 }}</ref> Where the tiger population is high or increasing, tigers drive leopards off to areas located closer to human settlements, like in Nepal's [[Bardia National Park]] and [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Odden|first1=M. |last2=Wegge|first2=P. |last3=Fredriksen|first3=T. |year=2010 |title=Do tigers displace leopards? If so, why? |journal=Ecological Research |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=875–881 |doi=10.1007/s11284-010-0723-1 |bibcode=2010EcoR...25..875O |s2cid=19799372}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |author=Rajvi, A. S. |date=2016 |url=http://animals.barcroft.tv/bengal-tigress-attacks-leopard |title=Tigress kills leopard at Sariska Reserve in India |publisher=Barcroft TV |medium=Motion picture |access-date=8 April 2019 |archive-date=8 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408133727/http://animals.barcroft.tv/bengal-tigress-attacks-leopard |url-status=live}}</ref> Resource partitioning occurs where leopards share their range with tigers. Leopards tend to take smaller prey, usually less than {{cvt|75|kg}}, where tigers are present.<ref name=CAP>{{cite book |author=Nowell, K. |author2=Jackson, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=1996 |title=Wild Cats: status survey and conservation action plan |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |location=Gland, Switzerland |chapter=Leopard ''Panthera pardus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222223654/http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-website/catfolk/ssaprd01.htm |archive-date=2014-02-22 |chapter-url=http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-website/catfolk/ssaprd01.htm}}</ref>
In areas where leopard and tiger are sympatric, coexistence is reportedly not the general rule, with leopards being few where tigers are numerous.<ref name="seidensticker76a">{{cite journal |last1=Seidensticker |first1=J. |year=1976 |title=On the ecological separation between tigers and leopards |journal=Biotropica |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=225–234 |doi=10.2307/2989714 |jstor=2989714 |bibcode=1976Biotr...8..225S |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/9815/42c1e927-c53e-40ce-b26a-a3d9bb4a4daa.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719003549/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/9815/42c1e927-c53e-40ce-b26a-a3d9bb4a4daa.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The mean leopard population density decreased significantly from 9.76 to 2.07 animals per {{cvt|100|km2}}, while the mean tiger population density increased from 3.31 to 5.81 animals/100 km2 from 2004–2005 to 2008 in [[Rajaji National Park]] following the relocation of pastoralists out of the park. There, the two species have high dietary overlap, and an increase in the tiger population resulted in a sharp decrease in the leopard population and a shift in the leopard diet to small prey (from 9% to 36%) and domestic prey from 6.8% to 31.8%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harihar |first1=A. |last2=Pandav |first2=B. |last3=Goyal |first3=S. P. |year=2011 |title=Responses of leopard ''Panthera pardus'' to the recovery of a tiger ''Panthera tigris'' population |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=806–814 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01981.x |doi-access=free|bibcode=2011JApEc..48..806H }}</ref>
In [[Chitwan National Park]], leopards killed prey ranging from less than {{cvt|25|-|100|kg}} in weight with most kills in the {{cvt|25|-|50|kg}} range. Tigers killed more prey in the {{cvt|50|-|100|kg}} range. There were also differences in the microhabitat preferences of the individual tiger and leopard followed over five months; the tiger used roads and forested areas more frequently, while the leopard used recently burned areas and open areas more frequently. When a tiger killed baits at sites formerly frequented by leopards, the leopards did not hunt there for some time.<ref name="seidensticker76a"/>

In the tropical forests of India's [[Nagarhole National Park]], tigers selected prey weighing more than {{cvt|176|kg}}, whereas leopards selected prey in the {{cvt|30|-|175|kg}} range.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Karanth, K. U.|author2=Sunquist, M. E. |year=1995|title=Prey selection by tiger, leopard and dhole in tropical forests|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology|volume=64 |pages=439–450 |jstor=5647 |doi=10.2307/5647|issue=4|bibcode=1995JAnEc..64..439K }}</ref> In tropical forests, they do not always avoid the larger cats by hunting at different times. With relatively abundant prey and differences in the size of prey selected, tigers and leopards seem to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more common to the leopard's co-existence with the lion in savanna habitats.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Karanth, U. K. |author2=Sunquist, M. E. |year=2000 |title=Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger (''Panthera tigris''), leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and dhole (''Cuon alpinus'') in Nagarahole, India |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=250 |pages=255–265 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x |issue=2}}</ref> In areas with high tiger populations, such as in the central parts of India's [[Kanha National Park]], leopards are not permanent residents, but transients. They were common near villages at the periphery of the park and outside the park.<ref name=seidensticker76a/>
In a reserved forest of southern India, species preyed upon by leopard, [[dhole]] and [[striped hyena]] overlapped considerably.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arivazhagan |first1=C. |last2=Arumugam |first2=R. |last3=Thiyagesan |first3=K. |year=2007 |title=Food habits of leopard (''Panthera pardus fusca''), dhole (''Cuon alpinus'') and striped hyena (''Hyaena hyaena'') in a tropical dry thorn forest of southern India |journal=Journal of the Bombay National Historical Society |volume=104 |issue=2 |url=http://www.bnhs.org/bo/documents/JBNHS_104_2/Arivazhagan.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304233241/http://www.bnhs.org/bo/documents/JBNHS_104_2/Arivazhagan.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-04}}</ref>

The leopard and [[snow leopard]] both hunt [[Himalayan tahr]] and [[musk deer]], but the leopard usually prefers forested habitats located at lower elevations.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lovari, S. |author2=Minder, I. |author3=Ferretti, F. |author4=Mucci, N. |author5=Randi, E. |author6=Pellizzi, B. |year=2013 |title=Common and snow leopards share prey, but not habitats: competition avoidance by large predators? |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=291 |issue=2 |pages=127–135 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12053}}</ref> Leopard may conflict with [[sloth bears]] and can follow them up trees.<ref name="hadley">{{cite web |author=Hadley, B. |title=The Sloth Bear |date=2008 |url=http://www.iar.org.uk/media/downloads/iar-sloth-bears.pdf |publisher=Bear Specialist Group |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221085543/http://www.iar.org.uk/media/downloads/iar-sloth-bears.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2008}}</ref> Bear cubs are probably far more vulnerable and healthy adult bears may be avoided by leopards. One leopard killed a three-quarters grown female sloth bear in an apparently lengthy fight that culminated in the trees. Apparently, a sloth bear killed a leopard in a confrontation in [[Yala National Park]], [[Sri Lanka]] but was itself badly injured in the fight and was subsequently put down by park rangers.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Baskaran, N. |author2=Sivaganesan, N. |author3=Krishnamoorthy, J. |year=1997 |title=Food habits of sloth bear in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, southern India |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbombay941997bomb/page/n9/mode/2up}}</ref><ref>Kurt, F., & Jayasuriya, A. (1968). ''Notes on a dead bear''. Loris, 11, 182–183.</ref>

==Threats==
[[File:Leopard fur-skins 3.JPG|thumb|Leopard skins]]
Hunting of Indian leopards for the illegal [[wildlife trade]] is the biggest threat to their survival. They are also threatened by loss of habitat and fragmentation of formerly connected populations, and various levels of human–leopard conflict in human–dominated landscapes.<ref name=Nowell1996/>

Several newspapers reported of leopards falling into open wells and being rescued with the help of Forest Department officials.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/drowning-leopard-rescued-well-india/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805194827/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/drowning-leopard-rescued-well-india/ |archive-date=5 August 2016|title=Watch Villagers Save Drowning Leopard in Dramatic Rescue |date=2016-08-04|access-date=2018-08-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/videos/news/nation/2017/12/13/leopard-rescued-well-eastern-india/108582698/|title=Leopard rescued from well in eastern India|website=USA TODAY |access-date=2018-08-12|archive-date=12 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812215332/https://www.usatoday.com/videos/news/nation/2017/12/13/leopard-rescued-well-eastern-india/108582698/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/leopard-rescued-from-well-released/article24660516.ece |title=Leopard rescued from well, released |date=2018 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2018-08-12 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425083335/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/leopard-rescued-from-well-released/article24660516.ece}}</ref>

===Poaching===
A significant immediate threat to wild leopard populations is the [[Wildlife trade#Illegal wildlife trade|illegal trade]] in poached skins and body parts between India, Nepal and [[China]]. The governments of these countries have failed to implement adequate enforcement response, and wildlife crime remained a low priority in terms of political commitment and investment for years. There are well-organised gangs of professional poachers, who move from place to place and set up camp in vulnerable areas. Skins are rough-cured in the field and handed over to dealers, who send them for further treatment to Indian [[Tanning (leather)|tanning]] centres. Buyers choose the skins from dealers or tanneries and smuggle them through a complex interlinking network to markets outside India, mainly in China.<ref name="banks2006">Banks, D., Lawson, S., Wright, B. (eds.) (2006). [http://www.wpsi-india.org/images/EIA-WPSI_Skinning_The_Cat.pdf ''Skinning the Cat: Crime and Politics of the Big Cat Skin Trade''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102194636/http://www.wpsi-india.org/images/EIA-WPSI_Skinning_The_Cat.pdf |date=2 January 2021 }}. Environmental Investigation Agency, Wildlife Protection Society of India</ref> Seized skins in [[Kathmandu]] confirm the city's role as a key staging point for illegal skins smuggled from India bound for Tibet and China.<ref name="banks2004">Banks, D. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012162946/http://www.eia-international.org/files/reports85-1.pdf ''The Tiger Skin Trail'']. Environmental Investigation Agency.</ref>

It is likely that seizures represent a tiny fraction of the total illegal trade, with the majority of smuggled skins reaching their intended end market.<ref name="banks2006"/> Seizures revealed:

* in India: more than 200 leopards killed by humans every year,<ref name=lep2/><ref name=lep1/> leopards in India are seven times more likely to be killed than [[Bengal tiger|Indian tigers]].<ref name=lep1/> [[Wildlife Protection Society of India|WPSI]] reported that during 1994-2010 at least 3,189 leopards were killed,<ref name=lep1/><ref>Wildlife Trust of India (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181105/http://www.wti.org.in/news-archives/2008/07/29/leopard-skin-traders-arrested-in-up-eight-skins-recovered/ ''Leopard skin traders arrested in UP; eight skins recovered'']. Wildlife Trust of India, 29 July.</ref><ref>Ghosh, A. (2008). [http://www.wpsi-india.org/news/14092008.php ''27 leopard skins seized in 45 days''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326175212/http://www.wpsi-india.org/news/14092008.php |date=26 March 2019 }}. Wildlife Protection Society of India.</ref><ref>The Hindu (2008). [http://www.wpsi-india.org/news/26092008.php ''Leopard skin, other wildlife products seized; five held''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326175212/http://www.wpsi-india.org/news/26092008.php |date=26 March 2019 }}.</ref><ref>Wildlife Protection Society of India (2009). [http://www.wpsi-india.org/news/18032009.php ''Leopard Skins Seized in Dehradun''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326175214/http://www.wpsi-india.org/news/18032009.php |date=26 March 2019 }}, 18 March 2009.</ref><ref>The Indian Express Limited (2010). [http://www.indianexpress.com/news/4-with-leopard-hide-held-role-of-politician-to-be-probed/695979/ ''4 with leopard hide held, role of politician to be probed''], 12 October 2010.</ref> then again in 2002-2010 period at least 200 or four leopards per week were reportedly killed by poachers for illegal trade.<ref name=lep2>{{Cite report |author1=Raza, R.H. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Chauhan, D.S. |author3=Pasha, M.K.S. |author4=Sinha, S. |date=2012 |title=Illuminating the blind spot: A study on illegal trade in Leopard parts in India (2001–2010) |publisher=TRAFFIC India, WWF India |location=New Delhi |url=https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/4130/illuminating_the_blind_spot.pdf |access-date=9 August 2020 |archive-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924143713/https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/4130/illuminating_the_blind_spot.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> For every [[Bengal tiger|tiger]] skin, there are at least seven leopard skins in the haul.<ref name=lep1>Wildlife Protection Society of India (2010). [http://www.wpsi-india.org/news/18052010.php ''Leopards Battling For Survival In India''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122162213/https://www.wpsi-india.org/news/18052010.php |date=22 November 2022 }}. Wildlife Protection Society of India, 18 May 2010.</ref>

* in Nepal: more than 40 leopards were reported killed by humans every year, e.g. 243 poached leopards between May 2002 and May 2008;<ref name="banks2006" /><ref name="banks2004" /><ref name="Aryal2009">{{cite book |author=Aryal, R. S. |year=2009 |url=http://assets.panda.org/downloads/final_cites_book.pdf |title=CITES: Implementation in Nepal and India, Law, Policy and Practice |edition=2nd |publisher=Bhrikuti Academic Publications |location=Kathmandu |isbn=978-99933-673-3-8 }}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>Yonzon, P. (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727124013/http://www.nfwf.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Home&TEMPLATE=%2FCM%2FContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=8995 ''Conservation of Tigers in Nepal 2007'']. Wildlife Conservation Nepal</ref><ref>Wildlife Trust of India (2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181037/http://www.wti.org.in/news-archives/2008/05/12/cross-border-wildlife-traders-arrested-in-nepal-with-wti%E2%80%99s-help/ ''Cross-border wildlife traders arrested in Nepal with WTI's help'']. Wildlife Trust of India, 12 May.</ref>

* in China and [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]]: nearly 130 leopards were killed every year, e.g. more than 774 poached leopards between July 1999 and September 2005.<ref name="banks2006" /><ref name="banks2004" />

===Human–leopard conflict===

====Causes of conflict====

Expansion of [[Agriculture|agriculturally]] used land, encroachment by humans and their livestock into protected areas are main factors contributing to habitat loss and decrease of wild prey. As a result, leopards approach human settlements, where they are tempted to prey on dogs, pigs and goats – domestic livestock, which constitutes an important part of their diet, if they live on the periphery of human habitations. Human–leopard conflict situations ensue, and have increased in recent years. In retaliation for attacks on livestock, leopards are shot, poisoned and trapped in snares. The leopards are considered to be unwanted trespassers by villagers. Conservationists criticize these actions, claiming that people are encroaching on the leopard's native habitat.<ref>Sears, S. (2008). [http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/mumbai-leopards.html#cr "Mumbai Leopards: Killers or Victims?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716224204/http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/mumbai-leopards.html#cr |date=16 July 2011 }} Wildlife Extra, 11 April 2008.</ref><ref>Sears, S. (2009). [http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/world/oman-nepal-leopards.html "The wild leopards of Oman and Nepal – And how to see them"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017070322/http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/world/oman-nepal-leopards.html |date=17 October 2011 }}. Wildlife Extra, April 2009.</ref> India's Forest Department is entitled to set up traps only in cases of a leopard having attacked humans. If only the presence of a crowd of people prevents the leopard from escaping, then the crowd has to be dispersed and the animal allowed to escape.<ref>Athreya, V., Belsare, A. (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20071008210800/http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/files/issues/leopard_conflict_management.pdf Human – Leopard Conflict Management Guidelines]. Kaati Trust, Pune, India.</ref>

As urban areas expanded, the natural habitats of leopards shrunk resulting in leopards venturing into urbanized areas due to easy access of domestic food sources.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dollar |first=L. |year=2016 |title=Leopards of India's Silicon City |url=http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2016/01/04/leopards-of-indias-silicon-city/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104201743/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2016/01/04/leopards-of-indias-silicon-city/ |archive-date=4 January 2016 |website=National Geographic (blogs) |access-date=2016-02-07}}</ref> Karnataka has a high number of such conflicts.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Almost half of Karnataka 'lives' with leopards |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/almost-half-of-karnataka-lives-with-leopards/article7870363.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |year=2015 |access-date=2016-02-15 |archive-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427205427/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/almost-half-of-karnataka-lives-with-leopards/article7870363.ece |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature Conservation Foundation - The secret lives of leopards |url=http://ncf-india.org/projects/the-secret-lives-of-leopards |website=ncf-india.org |access-date=2016-02-15 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429174741/http://ncf-india.org/projects/the-secret-lives-of-leopards |url-status=live }}</ref>
In recent years, leopards were sighted in [[Bangalore]], and the forest department captured six leopards in the city's outskirts, relocated four of them to various other locations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leopard Spotted Inside Bengaluru School |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/Leopard-Spotted-Inside-Bengaluru-School/2016/02/07/article3265738.ece |website=The New Indian Express |access-date=2016-02-07 |archive-date=8 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208081809/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/Leopard-Spotted-Inside-Bengaluru-School/2016/02/07/article3265738.ece }}</ref>

====Man-eater leopards ====
{{Main|Leopard attack}}

[[File:PanarManeater.jpg|thumb|The Panar Leopard killed by Jim Corbett]]

Every year more leopards are killed by humans than the humans killed by leopards. On average nearly 400 leopards are reported killed yearly in India, Nepal and China combined based on the leopard skins caught from the poachers,<ref name=lep2/><ref name=lep1/><ref name="banks2004" /><ref name="Aryal2009"/><ref name="banks2006" /> though the actual number of leopards killed by humans is likely to be several times higher.<ref name="banks2006"/> In and around the [[Shivalik hills]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] alone, 68 leopards were killed by people between 2001 and 2013, of which only 10 were man-eaters.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Leopard–Human Conflict Led Casualties and Conservation Awareness Campaign in Shivalik Hills of Northern India |last1=Kumar|first1=P. |last2=Chandel|first2=S. |last3=Kumar|first3=V. |last4=Sankhyan|first4=V. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences |year=2017 |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=893−898 |doi=10.1007/s40011-015-0653-3|bibcode=2017PINSB..87..893K |s2cid=25553974}}</ref>

The frequency of Leopard attacks on humans varies by geographical region and historical period. Since India and [[Nepal]] have the majority of Indian leopards population, consequently attacks are regularly reported only from India and Nepal.<ref name="Athreya2012">{{Cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Athreya |first=V. |year=2012 |title=Conflict resolution and leopard conservation in a human dominated landscape |url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/5431 |publisher=Manipal University |hdl=10603/5431 |access-date=29 March 2013 |archive-date=15 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115082741/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/5431 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Maskeyetal2001">{{Cite report |last1=Maskey |first1=T. M. |last2=Bauer |first2=J. |last3=Cosgriff |first3=K. |year=2001 |title=Village children, leopards and conservation. Patterns of loss of human live through leopards (Panthera pardus) in Nepal |publisher=Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation/Sustainable Tourism CRC |location=Kathmandu, Nepal }}</ref> Among the five "[[big cat]]s", leopards are less likely to become [[Man-eating animal|man-eater]]s—only [[jaguar]]s and [[snow leopard]]s have a less fearsome reputation.<ref name="Quigley&Herrero2005">{{cite book |last1=Quigley |first1=H. |last2=Herrero |first2=S. |editor1-last=Woodroffe |editor1-first=R. |editor2-last=Thirgood |editor2-first=S. |editor3-last=Rabinowitz |editor3-first=A. |title=People and wildlife: Conflict or co-existence? |url=https://archive.org/details/peoplewildlifeco00wood |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peoplewildlifeco00wood/page/n46 27]–48 |chapter=Chapter 3: Characterization and prevention of attacks on humans |isbn=978-0-521-82505-4}}</ref><ref name="Inskip&Zimmermann2009">{{cite journal |last1=Inskip |first1=C. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=A. |year=2009 |title=Human-felid conflict: A review of patterns and priorities worldwide |journal=Oryx |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=18–34 |doi=10.1017/S003060530899030X |doi-access=free }}</ref> While leopards generally avoid humans, they tolerate proximity to humans better than [[lion]]s and [[tiger]]s and often come into conflict with humans when raiding livestock.<ref name="Quammen2003">{{cite book |last=Quammen |first=D. |author-link=David Quammen |title=Monster of God: The Man-Eating Predator in the Jungles of History and the Mind |url=https://archive.org/details/monsterofgodman00quam |url-access=registration |access-date=20 March 2013 |year=2003 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-32609-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/monsterofgodman00quam/page/55 55]–61}}</ref>

Attacks in India are still reported, since leopards population in India outnumber population of all other large carnivores combined, consequently the number of humans killed by leopards is also more than those killed by all other large carnivores combined.<ref name="Kimothi2011">{{cite news|title=Losers on both sides as man-animal war rages |author=Kimothi, P. |url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/315623/Losers-on-both-sides-as-man-animal-war-rages.html |newspaper=The Pioneer |year=2011 |access-date=22 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302143321/http://www.dailypioneer.com/315623/Losers-on-both-sides-as-man-animal-war-rages.html |archive-date=2 March 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Athreyaetal2004">{{Cite report |author=Athreya, V. R. |author2=Thakur, S. S. |author3=Chaudhuri, S. |author4=Belsare, A. V. |year=2004 |title=A study of the man-leopard conflict in the Junnar Forest Division, Pune District, Maharashtra |url=http://www.projectwaghoba.in/docs/junnar_conflict_report_athreya_et_2004_condensed.pdf |publisher=Submitted to the Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Maharashtra State Forest Department, and the Wildlife Protection Society of India, New Delhi, India |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205233453/http://www.projectwaghoba.in/docs/junnar_conflict_report_athreya_et_2004_condensed.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Nepal, where most attacks occur in the midland regions, i.e. in the [[Terai]], midhills, and [[lesser Himalaya]], the rate of leopard predation on humans results in approximately 1.9 human deaths annually per million inhabitants. .<ref name="Maskeyetal2001"/>

Historically, with rapid urbanization in late 19th and early 20th centuries, leopard attacks may have peaked in India during those times.<ref name="Quigley&Herrero2005"/> Notable man-eaters of that era include Leopard of [[Leopard of the Central Provinces|Central Provinces]], [[Leopard of Rudraprayag|Rudraprayag]], [[Leopard of Gummalapur|Gummalapur]], [[Leopard of the Yellagiri Hills|Yellagiri Hills]], Golis Range and Panar.<ref name="Corbett1954">{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=E. J. |author-link=Jim Corbett |title=The temple tiger and more man-eaters of Kumaon |url=https://archive.org/details/TheTempleTigerAndMoreMan-eatersOfKumaon1954 |access-date=29 March 2013 |year=1954 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |oclc=1862625 |pages=64–86}}</ref>

====Ways to minimise conflict ====

Key to avoiding conflict or leopard's predation of humans is to shift the focus on human's behavioral change to minimise the chances of a leopard encounter or attack, which can be achieved by "clearing bushes and overgrowth around homes to minimise hiding spaces for leopards, leaving a light on at night to deter them, and ensuring people, especially children, did not go out alone at night." Leopards are shy and avoid humans and are more active at night, during encounter with leopards "give way to the leopard and move away calmly" and alert the forest department immediately.<ref name=lep3>[https://www.ourbetterworld.org/series/a-wild-life/story/spotted-in-india-humans-and-leopards-living-in-harmony Spotted in India: Humans and leopards living in harmony] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711055330/https://www.ourbetterworld.org/series/a-wild-life/story/spotted-in-india-humans-and-leopards-living-in-harmony |date=11 July 2021 }}, ourbetterworld.org, 9 Apr 2021.</ref>

==Conservation==
[[File:Leopard34.jpg|thumb|A leopard in [[National Zoological Park Delhi]]]]
''Panthera pardus'' is listed in [[CITES Appendix I]].<ref name=iucn /> Despite India and Nepal being contracting parties to [[CITES]], national legislation of both countries does not incorporate and address the spirit and concerns of CITES. Trained human resources, basic facilities and effective networks for control of poaching and trade in wildlife are lacking.<ref name="Aryal2009"/>
The Indian leopard is considered [[vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] in India,<ref>{{cite book |author=Zoological Survey of India |title=The Red Data Book on Indian Animals |volume=((Part. 1: Vertebrata (Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia and Amphibia) )) |url=http://faunaofindia.nic.in/PDFVolumes/spb/023/index.pdf |publisher=White Lotus Press |location=Calcutta |year=1994 |access-date=11 October 2022 |archive-date=6 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206004027/https://faunaofindia.nic.in/PDFVolumes/spb/023/index.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Bhutan,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://bt.chm-cbd.net/sites/bt/files/inline-files/Biodiversity%20Userlist_0.pdf|title=Bhutan Biodiversity User List|publisher=National Environment Commission, Royal Government of Bhutan|isbn=978-99980-46-02-3|year=2021|access-date=12 October 2022|archive-date=12 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012131636/https://bt.chm-cbd.net/sites/bt/files/inline-files/Biodiversity%20Userlist_0.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and Nepal<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jnawali, S.R. |author2=Baral, H.S. |author3=Lee, S. |author4=Acharya, K.P. |author5=Upadhyay, G.P. |author6=Pandey, M. |author7=Shrestha, R. |author8=Joshi, D. |author9=Laminchhane, B.R. |author10=Griffiths, J. |author11=Khatiwada, A.P. |author12=Subedi, N. |author13=Amin, R. |year=2011 |title=The Status of Nepal Mammals |series=The National Red List Series |publisher=Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation |location=Kathmandu, Nepal |name-list-style=amp |isbn=978-0-900881-60-2 |chapter=''Panthera pardus'' (Schlegel, 1857) |pages=84–85 |url=https://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/nepal_redlist_low_09_06_2012_1.pdf |access-date=12 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021233325/https://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/nepal_redlist_low_09_06_2012_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> but [[Critically Endangered]] in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Sheikh, K. M. |editor2=Molur, S. |title=Status and Red List of Pakistan's Mammals. Based on the Conservation Assessment and Management Plan |year=2004 |publisher=IUCN Pakistan |place=Islamabad |chapter=''Panthera pardus'' (Linnaeus, 1758). Panther or Leopard |page=59 |url=https://zooreach.org/downloads/ZOO_CAMP_PHVA_reports/2003_CAMP_Pakistan_Mammals.pdf |access-date=12 October 2022 |archive-date=9 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009222340/https://zooreach.org/downloads/ZOO_CAMP_PHVA_reports/2003_CAMP_Pakistan_Mammals.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Frederick Walter Champion]] was one of the first in India who after [[World War I]] advocated for the conservation of leopards, condemned sport hunting and recognised their key role in the ecosystem.<ref>{{cite book |author=Champion, F. W. |year=1934 |title=The Jungle in Sunlight and Shadow |location=Dehra Dun |publisher=Natraj Publishers |chapter=What is the Use of Leopards? |pages=71–80 |edition=Reprinted 1996 |isbn=81-85019-53-3 }}</ref> [[Billy Arjan Singh]] championed their cause since the early 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |author=Singh, A. |year=1982 |title=Prince of Cats |publisher=Jonathan Cape |location=London |isbn=978-0-19-565402-8}}</ref>

There are a few leopard rescue centres in India, such as the Manikdoh Leopard Rescue Centre in [[Junnar]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/pune/report-manikdoh-leopard-rescue-centre-to-get-facelift-1817426|title=Manikdoh Leopard rescue centre to get facelift|date=2013|work=dna|access-date=2018-08-12|archive-date=22 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122162212/https://www.dnaindia.com/pune/report-manikdoh-leopard-rescue-centre-to-get-facelift-1817426|url-status=live}}</ref> but more rescue and rehabilitation centres are being planned.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Kanpur-zoo-to-propose-leopard-rescue-centre/articleshow/5165638.cms|title=Kanpur zoo to propose leopard rescue centre - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-08-12|archive-date=23 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123004936/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Kanpur-zoo-to-propose-leopard-rescue-centre/articleshow/5165638.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Some wildlife experts think that such centres are not an ideal solution, but that conflict resolution by way of changing human behaviour, land use or grazing patterns and implementing responsible forest management to lessen human-animal conflict would be far more effective to conserve leopards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://india.mongabay.com/2018/05/16/protected-parks-or-change-in-human-behaviour-what-will-save-the-threatened-leopards-of-gujarat/|title=Protected parks or change in human behaviour: what will save the threatened leopards of Gujarat?|website=india.mongabay.com|date=2018|access-date=2018-08-12|archive-date=12 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812214440/https://india.mongabay.com/2018/05/16/protected-parks-or-change-in-human-behaviour-what-will-save-the-threatened-leopards-of-gujarat/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==In culture and literature==
[[File:Cheetah on cart, used for hunting in India (probably early 20th century).jpg|thumb|An Indian leopard used for hunting, probably early 20th century]]
[[File:Cajetan Lobo Prabhu.jpg|thumb|Cajetan Lobo with two pet Indian leopards]]
{{See also|Black panther#Culture and literature}}
*An Indian [[black panther]] named '[[Bagheera]]' is featured in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s 1894 novel ''[[The Jungle Book]]'', as well as in [[Disney]]'s [[The Jungle Book (1967 film)|1967]] and [[The Jungle Book (2016 film)|2016]] film adaptations.<ref name="Deadline2014">{{cite web |url=http://m.deadline.com/2014/06/ben-kingsley-to-voice-bagheera-in-disneys-the-jungle-book/ |title=Ben Kingsley to Voice Bagheera in Disney's ''The Jungle Book'' |work=Deadline |date=25 June 2014 |access-date=25 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629095432/http://m.deadline.com/2014/06/ben-kingsley-to-voice-bagheera-in-disneys-the-jungle-book/ |archive-date=29 June 2014}}</ref>
* The book ''[[Man-Eaters of Kumaon]]'' is based on man-eating leopards and tigers in [[Kumaon Division]].<ref name="Corbett1944">{{cite book |author=Corbett, J. |title=Man-Eaters of Kumaon |year=1944 |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Bombay}}</ref>
* ''[[Ajoba]]'' is a 2014 [[Marathi cinema|Marathi film]] directed by [[Sujay Dahake]] and written by Gauri Bapat. It is supposedly based on true events.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/MAH-PUN-marathi-film-ajoba-based-on-a-leopards-fascinating-journey-urmila-plays-a-wildli-4290800-PHO.html |title=Marathi film 'Ajoba' based on a leopard's fascinating journey, Urmila plays a wildlife biologist |work=dailybhaskar |date=2013 |access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326175217/https://daily.bhaskar.com/news/MAH-PUN-marathi-film-ajoba-based-on-a-leopards-fascinating-journey-urmila-plays-a-wildli-4290800-PHO.html}}</ref>
* Local people in the [[Western Ghats]] call a darkish grey panther ''pogeyan'', which purportedly lives in the high-elevation grasslands of the Anamudi forest.<ref>{{cite news |last=Raman |first=G.K. |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/tale-of-a-mystery-cat-echoes-on-anamudi-hills/article34807239.ece |title=Tale of a mystery cat echoes on Anamudi hills |work=The Hindu |date=2021 |access-date=26 February 2022|archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731034650/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/tale-of-a-mystery-cat-echoes-on-anamudi-hills/article34807239.ece |url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Cats}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[African leopard]]
* [[Amur leopard]]
* ''[[Panthera pardus tulliana]]''
* [[Arabian leopard]]
* [[Indochinese leopard]]
* [[Javan leopard]]
* [[Sri Lankan leopard]]
* [[Zanzibar leopard]]
* ''[[Panthera pardus spelaea]]''
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0057872|pmid=23483933|pmc=3590292|title=Big Cats in Our Backyards: Persistence of Large Carnivores in a Human Dominated Landscape in India|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=3|article-number=e57872|year=2013|last1=Athreya|first1=V. |last2=Odden|first2=M. |last3=Linnell|first3=J. D. C.|last4=Krishnaswamy|first4=J. |last5=Karanth|first5=U.|bibcode=2013PLoSO...857872A|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book |author=Biswas, R. |title=The Indian Leopard - In the Realm of the Phantom |date=2020 |publisher=Tellwell Talent}}

==External links==
* Species portrait [http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=557 ''Panthera pardus'' in Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623113337/http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=557 |date=23 June 2018 }} and short portrait [http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=584 ''P. pardus fusca''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715094757/http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=584 |date=15 July 2020 }}; IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group
* [http://leopards.wild-cat.org/ wild-cat.org — Information about research and conservation of leopards in Asia]
* [https://projectwaghoba.com/ ''Project Waghoba'' — Leopard Research and Conservation Project in Western Maharashtra, India]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130523153503/http://www.wildlifesos.org/blog/after-5-years-3-leopards-get-better-life Wildlife SOS: ''After 5 years, 3 leopards get a better life''] (archived 23 May 2013)
* [https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/mumbai-s-film-city-shut-down-for-eight-days-after-five-leopard-attacks/story-c2BLkMkfFu53Jr2sOHPTaM.html Mumbai's Film City shut down after five leopard attacks]

{{Panthers in India}}
{{Carnivora|Fe.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q729553}}

[[Category:Leopards|Leopards]]
[[Category:Felids of India]]
[[Category:Fauna of South Asia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mammals of Nepal]]
[[Category:Mammals of India]]
[[Category:Mammals of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Mammals of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1794|Indian leopard]]

John Claro

2026-03-14T18:35:04Z

FrancisClement: Put Up Some Bio W/ Sources

{{Short description|Indian writer and director (1930–2024)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = John Claro
| image = John Claro with his son and Paul Romy (cropped).jpg
| caption = Fernandes at the [[Kala Academy]], 2015
| birth_name = Joao Claro Fernandes
| birth_date = {{birth date|1930|12|5|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Quepem]], [[Goa]], [[Portuguese India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2024|8|18|1930|12|5|df=y}}
| death_place = Quepem, Goa, India
| occupation = {{hlist|Writer|theatre director|playwright|actor|consultant}}
| known_for = Research on the history of [[Italian Bhurgo|inaugural ''tiatr'' production]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Piedade Afonso|1970}}
| children = 3
| years_active = 1940s–2005 (theatre)
| relatives = [[Agostinho Fernandes]] (brother)
| notable_works = ''Portuguez Kolvont''
| awards = [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] (2023)
}}

'''John Claro Fernandes''' (born '''Joao Claro Fernandes'''; 5 December 1930 – 18 August 2024) was an Indian writer, theatre director, playwright, and actor known for his work in ''[[tiatr]]'' productions. Throughout his extensive career, he has made crucial contributions to the development and advancement of [[Goan]] ''tiatr''. His noted research on the history of ''tiatr'' led to the discovery that the inaugural ''tiatr'' production, titled ''[[Italian Bhurgo]]'', took place on 17 April 1892, at the New Alfred Theatre in [[Bombay]] (now Mumbai), presently occupied by the [[Police Commissioner of Mumbai|Police Commissioner]] headquarters.

==Early life==
Fernandes was born as Joao Claro Fernandes on 5 December 1930, in Cotombi, [[Quepem]], [[Goa]], which was part of [[Portuguese India]] during the [[Portuguese Empire]] (now part of India).<ref name=":0" /> He was the son of Jose Custodio Fernandes and Epifania Rebello, and had a younger brother named [[Agostinho Fernandes|Agostinho]], who was a writer and [[cardiologist]] based in Portugal until his death on 28 June 2015, aged 82.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 July 2015 |title=Agostinho Fernandes: The forgotten man of letters |work=[[The Navhind Times]]}}</ref>

During his school years, Fernandes developed a deep appreciation for theater and local art, actively engaging in annual social gatherings. After completing his primary education, he embarked on his professional acting career in Roque Afonso's ''tiatr'' production, ''Eke Oklek Teg Novre'' (One Bride Three Bridegrooms). He played the role of one of the bridegrooms, alongside Kamat de Assolna and Saluzinho, while Lucas Fernandes assumed the character of the bride. Fernandes's path intersected with that of [[M. Boyer]], as both resided in close proximity in Maddel Pequem, [[Margao]]. Due to a scarcity of educational institutions in Goa at the time, Fernandes relocated to [[Bombay]] to pursue further education and employment opportunities.<ref name=":0" />

==Career==
On 25 December 1953, Fernandes made his debut as a playwright with his first ''[[tiatr]]'' production titled ''Camil Bottler''. Simultaneously, he stepped into the role of a professional actor for the first time. Directed by [[A. R. Souza Ferrão]], the play featured cast including [[Master Vaz]], [[C. Alvares]], Effie Fernandes, Andrew, [[Anthony De Sa (actor)|Anthony De Sa]], [[Anthony Mendes]], and other popular artists from [[Bombay]]. The initial staging took place at Princess Theatre, Bhangwadi in [[Kalbadevi]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-1PAQAAIAAJ&q=Princess+Theatre,+Bangwadi+mumbai |title=100 Years of Konkani Tiatro |date=2000 |publisher=Government of Goa, Directorate of Art & Culture |language=en |access-date=2023-12-12 |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171126/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=K-1PAQAAIAAJ&q=Princess+Theatre,+Bangwadi+mumbai&dq=Princess+Theatre,+Bangwadi+mumbai&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiSucyNnIqDAxWwTGwGHVGmD5kQ6AF6BAgGEAM#Princess%20Theatre,%20Bangwadi%20mumbai |url-status=live }}</ref> a popular venue that served as a testing ground for ''tiatrists'' (''tiatr'' performers) in Bombay. The audience's favorable response led to subsequent performances. Due to the play's success, it was later staged at [[Cowasji Jehangir Hall]] to support a specific church section. [[Valerian Gracias]], the first cardinal of Mumbai, attended one of these performances.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=A pillar of Konkani tiatr |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Voice-Of-Tiatr/A-pillar-of-Konkani-tiatr/91489 |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=oHeraldo |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171125/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Voice-Of-Tiatr/A-pillar-of-Konkani-tiatr/91489 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Fernandes continued to contribute to the ''tiatr'' tradition with his subsequent play, ''Rinnkari Zanvoi'', which also found success in Bombay. Throughout his career, Fernandes had written and staged a total of 15 ''tiatrs''. Some of his works included ''Nirmiloli Sun'', ''Gupit Karann'' (Secret Reason), ''Ghorabeachi Durdoxea'', ''Utrachi Mudi'', ''Portugez Kolvont'' (Portuguese Artist), ''23 Vorsam'' (23 Years), ''Konkani Advogad'' (Konkani Advocate), ''Inglez Madam'' (English Madam), ''Tambddi Mati'' (Red Soil), ''Rostadak Ostad'', ''Vinglli Nachpinn'' (Naked Dancer), ''Civil Kazar'' (Civil Marriage), and ''American Dollar''.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Portugez Kolvont tiatr handbill.jpg|thumb|Handbill of the ''tiatr Portugez Kolvont'']]
After his return to [[Goa]] from Bombay following the [[Annexation of Goa|liberation]], Fernandes embarked on his second ''tiatr'' production, titled ''Rinnkari Zanvoi'', catering to the local ''tiatr'' enthusiasts. While his first ''tiatr'', ''Camil Bottler'', was also staged in Goa, its run was limited to just two shows due to [[A. R. Souza Ferrão]]'s leading role. However, Fernandes achieved acclaim among ''tiatr'' aficionados with his production ''Portugez Kolvont'' (1979), which swiftly reached the milestone of one hundred performances. This ''tiatr'' also found success outside of Goa, completing a double century of shows. The limited availability of auditoriums during that era posed challenges for staging ''tiatrs'' on a regular basis, a fact acknowledged by Fernandes himself.<ref name=":0" />

The success story of ''Portugez Kolvont'' can be traced back to its origins. Fernandes shared that the script for this play was conceived in Portugal, inspired by a [[fado]] performance he witnessed in [[Algarve]], a tourist hub. The ''tiatr'' commenced with a fado piece and featured a plethora of entertainment, with a particular focus on comedy. The comedic elements were crafted specifically for Paul Romy, while the main role was tailored with [[Ophelia Cabral]] in mind, although her participation did not materialize. Instead, [[Sabina Fernandes]], despite appearing slightly mature for the role, delivered a creditable performance.<ref name=":0" />

Fernandes concluded his career in ''tiatrs'' with his final production, titled ''American Dollar'' around 2005. Throughout his journey, he remembered the support he received from Antonio Fernandes, the late proprietor of [[O Heraldo|Herald Publications]], and later from Antonio's son, Raul Fernandes. Even if it meant making late-night trips to the office, they always cooperated in publishing ''tiatr'' advertisements. Fernandes's contributions extended beyond ''tiatr'', as he established himself as a prolific writer whose works appeared in publications such as ''Goa Times'', ''Sot Uloi'', ''Goan Express'', ''New Goa'', ''Goycho Avaz'', ''Gulab'', ''The Goan Review'', ''[[The Navhind Times]]'', [[O Heraldo]], and ''Gomantak Times''.<ref name=":0" />

When reflecting on the evolution of ''tiatr'' from his era to the present, Fernandes expressed his concern that today's productions lack vision, often resorting to imitation of films and [[television serials]]. In stark contrast, the ''tiatrs'' of his time were driven purely by a love for the stage and the art form, with little regard for financial considerations. Fernandes emphasized that the comedy in contemporary ''tiatrs'' tends to be vulgar, a far cry from the sophisticated humor exhibited by prominent figures such as [[Kid Boxer]], [[Anthony Mendes]], and [[Jacinto Vaz]]. He credits [[Minguel Rod]]'s ability to understand and cater to the audience's preferences as a key factor in his successful career.<ref name=":0" />

In addition to his accomplishments in the field of ''tiatr'', Fernandes displayed his literary prowess by penning a novel called ''Norsicho Mog'', six years after [[Annexation of Goa|Goa's liberation]]. This work revolved around the story of a mother and was published by Prabhakar Tendulkar. Fernandes's acclaimed ''tiatr'' production, ''Portugez Kolvont'' (1979), had also been immortalized in printed form. As of 2015, following a decade-long hiatus from ''tiatrs'', Fernandes had transitioned to running 'Claro Consultancy' in [[Margao]]. His consultancy specialized in English/Portuguese translations. Fernandes's sons, Godfrey and Godwin, actively participated in the documentation of [[Portuguese passport]]s, making it a familial endeavor.<ref name=":0" />

==Personal life==
Fernandes married Piedade Afonso, a [[homemaker]] from his village of Cotombi, [[Quepem]], on 4 January 1970.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1970 |title=Registo De Casamento Canónico |url=https://services.goaonline.gov.in/t-bhBeG0CQ4fUsYdqv8IWwf5w3eZzN2KGTpvN2hifLJPLWeFdNsAhiO1IVBeFWJo--sxuDiSkj4cBouH8BYx9uSNz3jbx95PL995kcSxtnrrU1qqZUeFHBL0zH_B_o_qI0Yn9nWEpm_kl2vuh1xW8sAol-2ZD-iDWhXpXWE_eMk/t-bc8/9nW91 |access-date=14 December 2023 |website=Goa Online }}{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The couple had two sons, Godwin and Godfrey, and a daughter, Golda.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Colaco |first=Kimberly |date=2024-08-19 |title=John Claro has taken his last curtain call |url=https://www.gomantaktimes.com/my-goa/art-culture/john-claro-has-taken-his-last-curtain-call |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=Gomantak Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Death==
On 18 August 2024, Fernandes died at his residence in Quepem, Goa, at the age of 93.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cardozo |first=Tomazinho |date=19 August 2024 |title=John Claro: A tiatr artiste-director with a difference |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/John-Claro-A-tiatr-artistedirector-with-a-difference/224961 |access-date=19 August 2024 |website=[[O Heraldo]]}}</ref>

==Awards and recognition==
In 1992–93, Fernandes was bestowed with the esteemed "Goa State Cultural Award" in the field of ''[[tiatr]]'', presented by the Directorate of Art and Culture of the [[Government of Goa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recipients of Goa State Cultural Award |url=https://www.artandculture.goa.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents/47_doc_Recipients-of-Goa-State-Cultural-Awards.pdf |access-date=9 August 2023 |website=Directorate of Art and Culture |archive-date=5 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805030337/https://www.artandculture.goa.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents/47_doc_Recipients-of-Goa-State-Cultural-Awards.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2011, the [[Tiatr Academy of Goa]] bestowed upon Fernandes the "Lifetime Contribution to Tiatr Awards", an achievement in acknowledgment of his outstanding dedication and invaluable contributions to the field. The ceremony took place at Ravindra Bhavan in [[Margao]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Margao: TAG Confers 'Lifetime Contribution to Tiatr Awards' |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/index.php/news/newsDisplay?newsID=124769 |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=www.daijiworld.com |language=en |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171126/https://www.daijiworld.com/index.php/news/newsDisplay?newsID=124769 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In April 2012, Fernandes was honored for his substantial contributions to [[Goan]] ''[[tiatr]]'' during a felicitation organized by the Maharashtra Konkani Kala Sanstha in [[Mumbai]], with support from the Tiatr Academy of Goa.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-04-22 |title=Six artistes felicitated for yeoman contribution to Goan tiatr |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/six-artistes-felicitated-for-yeoman-contribution-to-goan-tiatr/articleshow/12817020.cms |access-date=2023-12-12 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=2022-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925223744/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/six-artistes-felicitated-for-yeoman-contribution-to-goan-tiatr/articleshow/12817020.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2017, Fernandes was bestowed with the "Dalgado Cultural Award" by the Culture and Art Minister at the time, [[Govind Gaude]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-21 |title='Go beyond scripts to promote Konkani' |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/go-beyond-scripts-to-promote-konkani/articleshow/62186188.cms |access-date=2023-12-12 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=2023-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507051139/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/go-beyond-scripts-to-promote-konkani/articleshow/62186188.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2020, Fernandes was honored with the "GULAB Tiatrist of the Year 2019" award further attesting to his achievements and his contributions to the ''Tiatr'' community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gulab Awards: Meet the Tiatrist & Writer of the year |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Gulab-Awards-Meet-the-Tiatrist-Writer-of-the-year/163273 |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=oHeraldo |archive-date=2020-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726011437/https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/Gulab-Awards-Meet-the-Tiatrist-Writer-of-the-year/163273 |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 2021, Fernandes was presented with the "Gulab Tiatrist of the Year Puraskar" on Konkani Journalism Day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Four personalities win Gulab Awards on Konkani Journalism Day |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/four-personalities-win-gulab-awards-on-konkani-journalism-day/65166.html#:~:text=Gulab%20Tiatrist%20of%20the%20Year,for%20the%20prestigious%20Gulab%20Puraskars. |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171127/https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/four-personalities-win-gulab-awards-on-konkani-journalism-day/65166.html#:~:text=Gulab%20Tiatrist%20of%20the%20Year,for%20the%20prestigious%20Gulab%20Puraskars. |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2022, Fernandes received a felicitation at the Tiatr Academy of Goa's Lifetime Contribution Awards ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-12-16 |title=Lifetime Contribution Awards on Pai Tiatrist's birth anniversary |url=https://www.gomantaktimes.com/news/goa/lifetime-contribution-awards-on-pai-tiatrists-birth-anniversary |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202202946/https://www.gomantaktimes.com/news/goa/lifetime-contribution-awards-on-pai-tiatrists-birth-anniversary |archive-date=2023-02-02 |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=Gomantak Times |language=en}}</ref> In February 2023, the Dalgado Konknni Akademi felicitated Fernandes at Ravindra Bhavan in Margao, showcasing his status as a recipient of the "Dalgado Sonskurtik Puraskar".<ref>{{Cite web |title=DKA to felicitate John Claro Fernandes |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-inshorts/%EF%BB%BFdka-to-felicitate-john-claro-fernandes/95127.html |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171127/https://www.thegoan.net/goa-inshorts/%EF%BB%BFdka-to-felicitate-john-claro-fernandes/95127.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2023, Fernandes was honored with the one-time [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] for playwrighting.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2023-09-16 |title=84 artists conferred with the Sangeet Natak Akademi Amrit Awards |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/84-artists-conferred-with-the-sangeet-natak-akademi-amrit-awards/article67315511.ece |access-date=2023-12-12 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=2023-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920171037/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/84-artists-conferred-with-the-sangeet-natak-akademi-amrit-awards/article67315511.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> He was the sole artist from [[Goa]] and one among the 75 artists selected across India by the national academy of music, dance, and drama.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tiatrist John Claro conferred Sangeet Natak Akademi award |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/tiatrist-john-claro-conferred-sangeet-natak-akademi-award/91883.html |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2023-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212171132/https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/tiatrist-john-claro-conferred-sangeet-natak-akademi-award/91883.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Selected stage works==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
!Ref
|-
|1940s
|''Eke Oklek Teg Novre''
|Bridegroom
|Debut ''tiatr''
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|1953
|''Camil Bottler''
|Actor/writer
|Debut as playwright
|rowspan="2"|<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Fernandes |first=André Rafael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKAbygAACAAJ |title=When the Curtains Rise--: Understanding Goa's Vibrant Konkani Theatre |date= |publisher=Tiatr Academy of Goa |isbn=978-93-80739-01-4 |language=en |access-date=2023-12-13 |archive-date=2023-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126045216/https://books.google.com/books?id=vKAbygAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|1954
|''Rinnkari Zanvoim''
|Writer
|
|-
|1972
|''Gupit Karann ''
|Writer/director
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dourado |first=Lino |date= |title=GULAB-acho Pormoll Sompum Nakat |url=http://ww25.goa-world.com/goa/poems?subid1=20231214-0034-508f-bd96-bd9f2ecdd6a0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213133547/http://ww25.goa-world.com/goa/poems?subid1=20231214-0034-508f-bd96-bd9f2ecdd6a0 |archive-date=13 December 2023 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=Goa World |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>
|-
|1979
|''Portuguez Kolvont''
|Writer
|
|rowspan="2"|<ref name=":1" />
|-
|1981
|''23 Vorsam''
|Writer
|
|-
|{{circa|1993}}
|''Rostadak Ostad''
|Writer/director
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-10-18 |title=Lawry Travasso: Kantaram gavpant nanvlovkik zalolo kolakar |url=https://issuu.com/herald-goa/docs/5th_oct_av |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=Amcho Avaz via [[O Heraldo]] |language=en |archive-date=2023-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214043226/https://issuu.com/herald-goa/docs/5th_oct_av |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|
|''Nirmiloli Sun''
|Writer/director
|
|rowspan="8"|<ref name=":1" />
|-
|
|''Ghorabeachi Durdoxea''
|Writer/director
|
|-
|
|''Utrachi Mudi''
|Writer/director
|
|-
|
|''Konkani Advogad''
|Writer/director
|
|-
|
|''Inglez Madam''
|Writer/director
|
|-
|
|''Tambddi Mati''
|Writer/director
|
|-
|
|''Vinglli Nachpinn''
|Writer/director
|
|-
|
|''Civil Kazar''
|Writer/director
|
|-
|{{circa|2005}}
|''American Dollar''
|Writer/director
|Final production
|<ref name=":0" />
|}

==Select bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Dias |first=Tom John|date=1967 |first2=John |last2=Claro |title=Advogad: romans|type=Novel |chapter=Norsicho Mog|location=[[Bombay]], India|publisher=Jack of All Stall|oclc=16313402}}
*{{cite book |last=Claro |first=John |date=1996 |title=Tiatrancho Jhelo I |chapter=23 Vorsam|location=[[Panaji, Goa]], India|publisher=[[Goa Konkani Akademi]]|editor=Felício Cardoso}}
*{{cite book |last=Fernandes |first=John Claro |date=2006 |title=Purtugez kolvont: tiatr |url= |location=Panaji, Goa, India|publisher=Goa Konkani Akademi|oclc=141478752}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Claro, John}}
[[Category:1930 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Goa]]
[[Category:People from South Goa district]]
[[Category:Tiatrists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian theatre directors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]

Bhaur Gram

2026-03-13T23:01:02Z

FrancisClement: added basic stub w/ infobox

{{Short description|Village in Bihar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bhaur
| official_name = Bhaur Gram Panchyat
| native_name = भौर
| native_name_lang = Mai
| other_name = Bhawra or Bhawr
| settlement_type = Village
| mapframe-coordinates = {{Coord|26.2697669|N|86.1483083|E}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|26.2697669|N|86.1483083|E}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = Bihar
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = Mithila
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name3 = Madhubani district
| subdivision_type4 = Block
| subdivision_name4 = Pandaul
| population_total = 8,828
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_demonym = [[Maithil]]
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
* Mother language
| demographics1_info1 = * Hindi
* Maithili language
}}
'''Bhaur Gram''' ([[Maithili language|Maithili]]: भौर ग्राम) is a historical village in the [[Madhubani district]] of the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]] in Bihar, India. It is the birthplace of the founder King [[Mahesha Thakura]] of the [[Raj Darbhanga|Khandwala Dynasty]] in Mithila. The King Mahesha Thakura established the first capital of his kingdom at Bhaur Gram.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Śrīvāstava |first=Lakshmī Prasāda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpEhAAAAMAAJ |title=Bihāra loka saṃskrti kośa: Mithilā khanḍạ |date=1990 |publisher=Sītārāma Prakāśana |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Y_RAAAAMAAJ |title=Hindī sāhitya aura Bihāra: Sātavīm śatī se aṭhārahavīṃ śatī taka |date=1960 |publisher=Bihāra Rāshṭrabhāshā Parishad |language=hi}}</ref> It is one of the major villages in the Mithila region for the residence of the [[Maithil Brahmin]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heinz |first=Carolyn Brown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NmDSEAAAQBAJ&q=Bhaur+village+Mithila |title=Bihar Days |date=2023-08-18 |publisher=Austin Macauley Publishers |isbn=979-8-88693-815-9 |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
The historian ''Makhan Jha'' in his book "''Anthropology of Ancient Hindu Kingdoms''" mentioned that ''Pandit Shripati Thakur'', the grandfather of the King [[Mahesha Thakura]] received some favours from the ''Bharajitiya Rajputs'' of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]]. Then Shripati Thakur settled at the village of Bhaur in Mithila. The village of Bhaur is the ''[[moolgram]]'' of the ''Kharore Bhaur'' clan in the [[Maithil Brahmin]]s of the [[Shandilya|Shandilya Gotra]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jha |first=Makhan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0i94Z5C8HMC |title=Anthropology of Ancient Hindu Kingdoms: A Study in Civilizational Perspective |date=1997 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-7533-034-4 |language=en}}</ref>

== Geography ==
Bhaur village is at a distance of 17 miles from the city of [[Darbhanga]] in North-East direction.<ref name=":0" /> Similarly it is at a distance of 7.5 miles in the South-East direction from the headquarter of the [[Madhubani district]].

== Demographics ==
As of 2011, the number of families residing in this village is 1906. The total population of the village is 8828, of which 4561 are male while 4267 are females. The sex ratio of Bhaur village is 936 females to 1000 males on average. Among children, this ratio is on average 946 females to every 1000 males. In 2011, the literacy rate of Bhaur village was 52.46%, with literacy among males at 62.44% and 41.77% among females.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Government of India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ |access-date=2024-12-16 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Madhubani district]]
[[Category:Villages in Madhubani district]]
[[Category:Capitals of Mithila]]

{{Madhubani-geo-stub}}

Vatakara

2026-03-13T10:18:11Z

FrancisClement: corrected content and added references

{{more citations needed|date=October 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vatakara
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Vadakara, Badagara
| settlement_type = Municipality
| image_alt =
| image_skyline = Vadakara aerial view.jpg
| image_caption = Sky view of vadakara byepass area
| nickname = Kadathanad Vadakkarakkar
| image_map = Vatakara Lok Sabha Constituency.jpg
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = {{Multiple image
| image1 =
}}
| coordinates = {{coord|11|34|2|N|75|36|2|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = Municipality
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 23.33
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 75,295
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Vadakarakkaran
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=672151|title=Census of India: Search Details}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], English
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 673101
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 0496
| registration_plate = KL-18
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = Vadakara
| blank2_name_sec1 = Nearest Airport
Kannur International Airport
| blank2_info_sec1 =
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Demonym]]
| blank3_info_sec1 = Vadakarakkaran
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-KL]]
| footnotes =
| official_name =
| leader_party = CPIM
| leader_name = K K MURALIDHARAN (MP)
| leader_name1 = K.K REMA-MLA
}}

'''Vatakara''', also known as '''Vadakara''' ({{IPA|ml|ʋɐɖɐgɐɾɐ|lang}}) (formerly '''Badagara''', {{langx|fr|'''Bargaret'''}}), is a municipality, taluk and a major town in the Kozhikode district in Indian state of [[Kerala]]. The municipality of Vatakara covers an area of {{cvt|24.33|km2}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vadakaramunicipality.in/about|title=ആമുഖം {{!}} Vadakara Municipality|website=www.vadakaramunicipality.in|language=ml|access-date=2018-11-16|archive-date=16 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116220039/http://www.vadakaramunicipality.in/about|url-status=dead}}</ref> and is bordered by [[Mahé, India|Mahé]] to the north and [[Payyoli]] to the south. It is the headquarters of Vatakara [[taluk]], which consists of 22 [[Panchayati raj (India)|panchayats]]. During the reign of the [[Kolathunadu|Kolathiris]] and [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins]], Vatakara was known as [[Kadathanadu]]. During the [[British Raj]], it was part of the [[North Malabar]] region of [[Malabar District]] in the state of [[Madras]].<ref>{{citation|title=Kadathanad Royal Dinasty| date=August 2009 |url=http://kadathanadrajahs.blogspot.com/2009/08/kadathanad-rajahs.html?m=1}}</ref> The historic Lokanarkavu temple, made famous by the [[Vadakkan Pattukal]] (ballads of North Malabar), is situated in Vatakara.<ref>{{citation|title=Lokanarkavu Temple|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/lokanarkavu-temple-vadakara/274}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=A shrine for the heroes of Vadakkan Pattukal - Lokanarkavu|url=https://www.indiavideo.org/kerala/worship/temple/lokanarkavu-temple-vadakkan-pattukal-9234.php}}</ref> A new tardigrade (water bear) species collected from Vadakara coast has been named after Kerala State; ''[[Stygarctus keralensis]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A new Tardigrade species, ''Stygarctus keralensis'' sp. nov. (Arthrotardigrada: Stygarctidae) from the intertidal zone of Southwest coast of India|year=2021 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4985.3.5 |url=https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/42726|last1=Vishnudattan |first1=N. K. |last2=Nandan |first2=S. Bijoy |last3=Hansen |first3=J. G. |last4=Jayachandran |first4=P. R. |journal=Zootaxa |volume=4985 |issue=3 |page=381391 |pmid=34186802 |s2cid=235688035 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Vatakara State assembly constituency is one of the 140 state legislative assembly constituencies in Kerala state in southern India. It is also one of the seven state legislative assembly constituencies included in the Vatakara Lok Sabha constituency. As of the 2021 assembly election, the current MLA is K.K Rema of Revolutionary Marxist Party of India.
[[File:Vtk.jpg|thumb]]

==Geography==
[[File:Moorad.iringal.jpg|thumb|Jetty on the Moorad river]]
Vatakara is located at {{Coord|11.60|N|75.58|E|}} and has an average elevation of {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/13/Badagara.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Badagara, India|website=www.fallingrain.com}}</ref> It is situated about 49 km to the north of [[Kozhikode]] City, approximately 44 km to the south of [[Kannur]] City, and adjacent to [[Mahé district|Mahé]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/malabar/vatakara-kozhikode.php|title=Vatakara|website=Keralata Tourism}}</ref> The town lies by the side of a river variously called the Moorad river, the [[Kuttiady]] river, or Kottakkal river. The town's position relative to this river led to it being called Vadakkekara (north bank), later contracted to Vatakara. Towards the east, near the panchayats of [[Nadapuram]] and Kuttiady, Vadakara borders the [[Wayanad district]] along the [[Western Ghats]] section. In the west, like many of the towns in Kerala, Vatakara is flanked by the [[Arabian Sea]]. The Kuttiyadi river meets the sea to the south of Vatakara, forming small islands and sandbars near the river mouth.

==History==
The [[Kolathunadu]] emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e., [[Kadathanadu]] (Vadakara), [[Dharmadom|Randathara]] or Poyanad ([[Dharmadom]]), [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam]] ([[Thalassery]]), [[Nileshwaram]], Iruvazhinadu ([[Panoor (Municipality)|Panoor]], [[Kurumbranad]] etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.<ref name="Logan">{{Cite book|title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I)|last=Logan|first=William|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2010|isbn=9788120604476|location=New Delhi|pages=631–666}}</ref> The [[Nileshwaram]] dynasty on the northernmost part of [[Kolathiri]] dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as the [[Zamorin]] of [[Calicut]], in the early medieval period of malabar.<ref name="Neeleswaram fete">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/neeleswaram-fete-to-showcase-its-heritage/article2645520.ece | title=Neeleswaram fete to showcase its heritage | author=The Hindu staff reporter | website=The Hindu | date=21 November 2011 | access-date=24 November 2016 }}</ref>

Vatakara was the capital of the historical region called Kurumba Nadu, home of the [[Kurumbar (tribe)|Kurumbar]] people. In the pre-British era, a major part of the current Vatakara taluk, including the area currently constituting the Vatakara municipality, was ruled by a chieftain as a feudatory to the [[Kolathunadu|Kolathiri]] kingdom. The remaining part of the taluk was initially part of the Polathiri kingdom and later ruled by the [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins]] of [[Calicut]]. The boundary between these kingdoms is believed to have been in the region in Vatakara known as Puduppanam, with the Moorad river forming a geographical boundary. The [[Kadathanadu|Kadathanad]] dynasty was established when a Polathiri royal was forced to cross over to Kolathunadu after an unsuccessful battle with the Zamorins, settled in the region, and married a Kolathiri princess.

Vatakara became an important trade center in the region by the early 18th century, exporting agricultural products such as coffee, pepper and coconut. Together with smaller nearby ports at Chombal, Muttungal and [[Kottakkal]], Badagara became one of the major centers of trade at a level with those at [[Cannanore]], [[Tellicherri]] and Calicut. Building on a thriving economy led by a strong sea trade, the Kadathanad rulers established a strong naval force which became known as the "Lord of the Seas", since it was the strongest naval force from the Malayalam-speaking region.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Malabar manual.|first=William|last=Logan|date=2009|publisher=Low Price Publications|isbn=978-8175364752|oclc=946063221}}</ref>

A significant factor in the rise of Vatakara as a trade center was the rise and subsequent fall of the [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s of Kottakkal. During the 16th century CE, Kunjali Marakkars were the admirals of the Zamorin's naval fleet and were famous for their valor and sea battle tactics. The Marakkars established their stronghold in Kottakkal and built a fort there. The last Marakkar, Kunjali IV, was defeated at the beginning of the 17th century by the combined forces of the Zamorin, with whom he had fallen out, and the Portuguese, who resented the interference of Kunjali and his followers in their trade route. The fort was completely destroyed by a bombardment from the sea.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}} However, the Marakkars' knowledge of ship handling and tactics continued to be passed down in the community of seafarers in this area of Vatakara, later allowing the ruler of Kadathanad to establish his supremacy in the sea and to enforce a 'pass' system for trade ships.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

The region became a separate kingdom {{circa|1750}}, when the then chieftain took the title of Kadathanad Rajah. During this period, there are records of frequent skirmishes between Kadathanad and the ruler of [[Kottayam-Malabar|Kottayam]] as well as the foreign colonial powers of the British, based in [[Thalassery]], and the French, based in [[Mahé, India|Mahé]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

In legend, Vatakara is the birthplace of [[Unniyarcha]], [[Aromal Chekavar]], and [[Thacholi Othenan]], the heroes of the [[Vadakkan Pattukal|Vadakkanpattu]] ([[ballads]] of [[North Malabar]]). The Thacholi family home, Thacholi Tharavadu, is still preserved and the anniversary of Thacholi Othenan's birth is celebrated in the Thacholi Manikkothu Kavu temple.

Notable temples in the area include [[Lokanarkavu]] and Kottakkal Bhagavathi Temple, the second richest temple in North Malabar. Kalari Ullathil Temple is also situated near Vatakara town.The martial art [[Kalaripayattu]] originated in Vatakara.

==Demographics==
Most of Vatakara's inhabitants are labourers and farmers, while some are government employees. A large number of expatriates from Vatakara work in Middle Eastern countries, and their remittances have a strong influence on the local economy. Some emigrants work in nearby states like [[Karnataka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Maharashtra]].

As of the [[2011 Census of India]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Vatakara had a population of 75,740, with males constituting 48% of the population and females 52%. Vatakara has an average literacy rate of 83%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; male literacy is 85%, and female literacy is 80%. 11% of the population was under 6 years old.

{{bar box
|title = Social composition in Vadakara (2011) <ref>International Journal of Research Publication Analysis (IJRPA). “Political Killings in Malabar (Kerala), 1978–2018: Patterns by Political Affiliation, Religion and Caste.” PDF. IJRPA,. https://www.ijrpa.com/myimgup/155126327IJRPA-1453.pdf. Accessed [jan 8 2025].</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Community
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Thiyyar|Thiyyar]]|darkorange|40.79}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Kerala|Other Hindu]]|darkorange|23.46}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Kerala|Islam]]|green|34.37}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|0.88}}
}}

==Economy==
Fishing is one of Vatakara's main commercial activities. The Moorad River flows into the [[Arabian Sea]] at a point close to the town.

Vatakara is organized around two commercial hubs, the old and new bus depots. The area around the old bus depot contains commercial establishments as old as 100 years. Recently, commerce has shifted to the area around the new bus depot and the road towards Kannur, with many new buildings, including hospitals and flats being built or planned.

Nut Street is the distribution center for nuts, including coconuts and [[areca]] nuts. Produce flows to collection outlets and is dried, packed, and transported to other states. Northern Kerala is well known for the production of coconuts.

Hospitals include the CO-OP Hospital, Asha Hospital, Janatha Hospital, Ceeyam Hospital and the Parco specialty hospital.

The Uralungal Labour Contract Co-operative Society is a unique labour cooperative initiative centered in [[Madappally, Vatakara|Madappally]] that was inspired by the Indian sage [[Vagbhatananda]]. The society was registered in 1925.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ulccsltd.com/|title=ULCCS LTD|website=ulccsltd.com}}</ref>

==Climate==
{{Weather box/concise_C
| location=Vatakara, Kerala
| source=Climate-Data.org<ref name="Climate-Data.org">
"CLIMATE: VATAKARA",
Climate-Data.org. Web: [http://en.climate-data.org/location/30568/].</ref>
| 31.7|32.0|32.9|33.2|32.7|29.6|28.3|28.8|29.5|30.4|31.1|31.5
| 21.9|23.0|24.6|25.8|25.7|23.9|23.4|23.6|23.7|23.8|23.3|22.1
| 2|4|15|78|292|905|1031|520|282|248|108|23
}}
[[File:Moorad bri.jpg|thumb|Gateway of Vadakara]]

==Transportation==
* Train: [[Vatakara Railway Station]] is one of India's model railway stations, and connected to all major metros
* Air: [[Kannur International Airport]] is the closest airport, approximately 45 km away. [[Calicut International Airport]] is approximately 71 km away.
* Road: [[National Highway 66 (India)|National Highway 66]] (NH66) passes through Vatakara town, connecting Vatakara to [[Kozhikode]] to the south (45 km) and to [[Kannur]] (44 km) and [[Mangalore]] (188 km) to the north. A preliminary survey is being performed for a National Highway to connect Vatakara to [[Bangalore]] through [[Nadapuram]]{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}.
* [[Vadakara Assembly constituency|Vadakara]] distance between Vadakara to Mananthavady by bus is approximately 65 km. Bus travelling is one of the ways to reach from Vadakara to Mananthavady [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]]
* [[Perambra]] via Thamarassery 55 km and 83 km from *[[Vadakara]] to *[[Kalpetta]]

==Notable places==
===Temples===
; Lokanarkavu temple
[[File:ലോകനാർകാവ് ഭഗവതി ക്ഷേത്രം 01.jpg|thumb|Bhagavathy Temple, Lokanarkavu]]
The [[Lokanarkavu Temple|Lokanarkavu temple]] is located at [[Memunda]], 5 km from Vadakara. It is closely associated with the heroes and heroines of Vadakkanpattu: Thacholi Othenan, the hero of [[Kadathanadu]], was a devotee of the Lokanarkavu goddess, Lokanarkavilamma, an aspect of [[Durga]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/151025/nation-current-affairs/article/rediscovering-historic-lokanarkavu-temple|title=Rediscovering the historic Lokanarkavu temple|last=Meethal|first=Amiya|date=2015-10-25|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> Three rock-cut caves near the temple are decorated with candid murals and carvings. The annual Hindu festival celebrating Durga, locally called [[Pooram]], takes place during March/April. Two temples adjacent to the Lokanarkavu temple focus on the worship of Vishnu and Shiva.
; Payamkuttimala temple
: The temple of [[Muthappan]] at Memunda is managed by the tourism department of the Kerala Government. As of 2018, plans were under way for modernization of the surroundings of the temple.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/kerala-payamkutty-mala-hill-set-for-a-makeover/articleshow/66985896.cms|title=Kerala: Payamkutty Mala hill set for a makeover|last=Sree|first=K. M.|date=7 December 2018|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref> The [[Theyyam]] form of worship is practiced here.
; Chendamangalam temple
: The [[Chennamangalam Temple|Chennamangalam temple]] is one of the oldest temples in Kerala, and also one of the very few temples which has Dhwaja [[Prana Pratishtha|Pratishtha]]. It is situated 2 km from Vatakara town, near to Chorode. The deities primarily worshipped are [[Shiva]] and [[Ayyappan]]. This temple is similar in nature to the [[Sabarimala]] temple. When pilgrimages to Sabarimala were impossible due to a fire, Chennamangalam temple served as an alternative destination.
; Kozhukkannur Neyyamruth Madom
: Kozhukkannur Neyyamruth Madom is located at [[Purameri]]. In the [[Kottiyoor Temple|Kottiyoor]] festival, the madom forms a centre from which Neyamruthu ([[ghee]]) offerings are taken to the Kottiyoor temple on foot.

Additional temples in the region include Kizhakkedathu temple, Sivapuram Sree Mahadeva Kshethram, Arathil Bhagavathi Kottakkal temple, Thuneri Sree Vettakkorumakan Kshethram, Ponmeri Shiva temple, Kalleri Kuttichathan temple, Kaliyampalli temple and Nagath Sri Muchilottu Bhagavathi temple.

; '''Thacholi Othenan'''
Thacholi Meppayil Kunjhu Othenan or Mepayil Tacholi Manikoth Kovilakathu Kunji Othena Kurup (Udayana Kurup of Thacholi Manikoth House) or more popularly Thacholi Othenan was a legendary hero who is believed to have lived during 16th century in North Malabar region of Kerala, India. He is praised in the Vadakkan Pattukal (ballads of North Malabar).[6] [7] Thacholi Ambadi, another renowned martial arts expert, was Othenan's son.

== Kunjali Marakkar memorial ==
[[File:Vadakara. Kunhali Marakkar Memorial.jpg|thumb|Kunjali Marakkar memorial]]
The location of the [[Kunhali Marakkar|Marakkar]] fort on the southern bank of the Moorad river, 44 km from Kozhikode and 51 Km from Kannur, is now known as Kottakkal. A building in Kottakkal that belonged to [[Kunjali Marakkar]] serves as a small museum, with collections of ancient swords, cannonballs and knives.The Kunjali Marakkar or Kunhali Marakkar was the title given to the Muslim naval chief of the Inscriptions on the Kunjali Marakkar Memorial at Kottakkal, Vatakara.

=== Sandbanks recreation area ===
[[File:Sand Banks.JPG|thumbnail|Vadakara Sandbanks]]
The Sandbanks recreation area is located on a small peninsula with the Moorad river on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west, approximately 3 km towards the south of Vatakara town. The Sandbanks Bungalow, which was built by Wilfred Vincent Reilly in 1946, stands on this peninsula. The area is owned by the Aditya Birla Management Corporation Ltd and managed by Vadakara Municipality. A coastal police station is being built on the peninsula.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

== Theyyam ==
[[Theyyam]] or Thirayattam is a ritual performance art form that depict the cultural heritage of North Malabar, especially of ancient [[Kolathunad]]. Theyyam depicts [[Ganas|Shiva bhutaganas]], [[Kali]] and other deities and cultural heroes. The drama is enacted based on ancient stories and the language used is "Tottam pattu", a primitive form of Malayalam. Theyyam shows the Buddhist influence from centuries ago. Theyyam is usually held from October to May every year. The colour of Theyyam is typically red. Velan is described in the [[Sangam literature]] 500 CE. It could have been a tribal ritual art which evolved under Buddhism and the Brahminic revival of Hinduism. This art form is addressed as "Kaliyattom" North of Pazhayangadi Puzha, Kannur, as "Theyyam" South of the river and as "Tirayattom" around Vadakara (Kadathanadu).

== Villages in Vatakara Taluk ==
'''Villages in Vatakara Taluk'''

The position of the Vatakara Taluk in [[Kozhikode district]] is given below:
{{Kozhikode Labelled Map}}
The villages included in the Taluk are:
* [[Ayancheri]]
* [[Azhiyur]]
* [[Chekkiad]]
* [[Chorode]]
* [[Edachery]]
* [[Edathumkara]]
* [[Eramala]]
* [[Kavilumpara]]
* [[Kayakkodi]]
* [[Kottappally]]
* [[Kunnummal]]
* [[Kuttiady]]
* [[Maniyur]]
* [[Maruthonkara]]
* Nadakkuthazha
* [[Nadapuram]]
* [[Narippatta]]
* [[Onchiam]]
* Palayad
* [[Purameri]]
* [[Thinoor|Thinur]]
* [[Thiruvallur]]
* [[Thuneri]]
* [[Valayam]]
* [[Vanimal]]
* [[Velom]]
* [[Vilangad]]
* [[Villiappally]]

==Educational institutions==
{{Main|List of educational institutions in Vatakara}}

There are many schools, colleges and tuition centers in Vatakara.

Amrita Vidyalayam, Arakkilad, Amrutha Public School,Pathiyarakkara, Vidya Prakash Public School, Rani Public School, Chorode and Gokulam Public School are the 5 main private schools in Vadakara.

[[Government College, Madappally|1.Government College, Madappally Vadakara]] is a post-graduate campus affiliated with the University of Calicut.

2. The 62nd Regional Centre of the [[Indira Gandhi National Open University|Indira Gandhi National Open University, Vadakara]] was established at Vatakara in January 2011, serving students from the Malabar region, including the Kasargod, Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode, and Malappuram districts.

3. College of Engineering Vatakara

College of Engineering Vadakara is an engineering college in Kozhikode district of Kerala, established in 1999. The first engineering college under the Co-operative Academy of Professional Education, Thiruvananthapuram, established by Govt. of Kerala, started functioning in June 1999.

4. [[Model Polytechnic College, Vatakara|Model Polytechnic College]]

Model Polytechnic College, Vadakara is running under the [[Institute of Human Resources Development]] established by Government of Kerala.

5. [[Vadakara Assembly constituency|Government Technical High School]] was established in 1965 and it is managed by the Department of Education Kerala.

6. Busthaniya Women's College

==Notable residents==


* [[Parakkal Abdulla]]
* [[P. K. Basheer]]
* [[T. P. Chandrasekharan]]
* [[Meenakshi Amma Gurukkal]]
* [[Kuniyil Kailashnathan]]
* [[Akbar Kakkattil]]
* [[Shabeer Kallarakkal]]
* [[Punathil Kunjabdulla]]
* [[K. K. N. Kurup]]
* [[V. T. Murali]]
* [[Cherusseri Namboothiri]]
* [[C. K. Nanu]]
* [[Mullappally Ramachandran]]
* [[K. K. Rema]]
* [[V. R. Sudheesh]]
* [[Unniyarcha]]
* [[Chembai]]
* [[Vadakkan Pattukal]]
* [[Chandu Chekavar]]
* [[Aromal Chekavar]]
* [[Kunjali Marakkar]]

== Tourism ==

[[Sargaalaya Crafts Village]] at Iringal, Vadakara sells traditional local art and crafts.

Local beaches include Sandbanks<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/vadakara-beach-kozhikode/141|title=Vadakara Sand Banks Beach at Kozhikode|website=Kerala Tourism}}</ref> and [[Kolavipalam]] Beach at Kolavipalam between Vatakara and Payyoli, to the south of the Murad River. Sandbanks Beach features the Sandbanks Beach Park operated by KTDC.

Kunjali Marakkar Museum<ref>[https://www.trip.com/travel-guide/attraction/vadakara/kunjali-marakkar-museum-50536656/ Kunjali Marakkar Museum]</ref> is located at about 1.5 km from the Sargaalaya Craft Village, at Kottakkal, Iringal (working hours: 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. and Monday is a holiday). It is the old residence of a legendary warrior, who fought valiantly against the Portuguese invaders. Marakkars are believed to be originally Moplas of Malabar, probably differing in exact origin and sub sect and have been traders by profession. The title of Marakkar possibly also derived from the ‘Malayala’ word, marak-kalam, meaning boat [Sea traders]. We can learn from history that the Muslim Naval Chief of the Zamorin (Samoothiri) Kingdom of Calicut (Kozhikode), namely the Kutti Mohammed Ali was bestowed the title of Kunjali in 1507. He was later succeeded by Kutti Pokker Ali (Kunhali II) and then, by the famed supporter of Kunhali II, namely Patu Marakkar (Kunhali III) and subsequently, the nephew of Kunhali III, by name Mohammed Marakar became Kunhali IV. These four Kunhali Marakkars have played such a prominent role in the Zamorin's naval wars with the Portuguese from 1502 to 1600 that they are accredited with the honour of organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.

Prominent displays include the model of the forted village of Kottakkal [Kotta (fort)] constructed by Kunjali Marakkar III, the arms such as the sword used by Kunjali Marakkar, cannonballs and many other war relics of the country's earliest naval heroes, who led the first successful defense of India's coast against the European sea power.

A panoramic view of Vadakara and its surroundings is what Payamkuttimala in Kozhikode district has to offer. Located from Panikkotti on Vadakara – Tiruvallur road, lots of travellers come to the hill station to watch the sunrise and sunset and gaze at the Arabian Sea. Set about 2,000 feet above sea level, the small hillock also houses a Muthappan Madapura and dead laterite rocks.

Lokanarkavu Temple is an ancient Hindu temple situated in [[Memunda]] 4 km from Vatakara, in [[Kozhikode District]], [[North Malabar]] region of [[Kerala]] state of south [[India]]. Lokanarkavu is a short form of ''Lokamalayarkavu'' which means ''lokam'' (world) made of ''mala'' (mountain), ''aaru'' (river) and ''kavu'' (grove). The closest railway station is at Vatakara, which is 5 km from temple. The nearest airport is [[Kannur International Airport|Kannur airport]] which is 54 km away.

Pooram is the important festival here and it is conducted with great pomp and show. The week-long festival begins with Kodiyettam (flag hoisting) and concludes with Arattu. The temple dedicated to goddess [[Durga]] has great historical importance as [[Thacholi Othenan]], the legendary martial hero of Kerala, used to worship here every day.

== Lokanarkavu and Kalarippayattu ==
Thirty days Mandala Utsavam in Malayalam month Vrischikam (November–December) and Pooram in Malayalam month meenam (March–April) are the annual festival at the Lokanarkavu Bhagavathy Temple. This is the only temple where a peculiar folk dance called [[Poorakkali]] is presented during festivals. The dance, resembles the martial art [[Kalarippayattu]]. Even today, all Kalaripayattu artists seek the blessings of the deity before their debut due to the association of Lokanarkavu Temple with legendary hero thacholi othenan.

Kakkayam is a [[dam]] site located at [[Koorachundu]] in, [[Kerala]]. Kakkayam is on the outskirts of the [[Western Ghats]], and [[Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary]], a 7,421-hectare (18,340-acre) abode of wild animals including [[Indian elephant|elephants]] and [[Gaur|bisons]]. Kakkayam has an abundant wildlife population and is also a [[trekking]] and [[rock climbing]] destination.

This reservoir is part of the [[Kuttiyadi]] Hydro Electric Project and is located at about 750 m (2,460 ft) above sea level. The pen stock runs down from the dam site and goes through various tunnels and hills to the Kuttiyadi Main power house at Kakkayam with an installed capacity of 225MW. Water coming out of this power house is diverted to two small hydro electric projects namely Kuttiyadi Tail Race power house and Kakkayam small hydro electric project with an installed capacity of 3.75 MW and 3 MW respectively.After this the tail water joins the river and is utilized for Peruvannamoozhi Irrigation Project.

Kalleri Kuttichathan Temple is in Kalleri, a famous and civilized village area that is belongs to Vatakara taluk, north to Kozhikode. Kalleri is located at Vatakara Thanneerpanthal route 8 km from Vatakara, near Villiappaly. It is a very beautiful place and is suitable for rest with nature. There is a canal at Kalleri, which is a part of Vadakara – Mahi canal. Land of Kalleri is encircled by Kallerikunnu at west and Aroora mala (mountain) at east. The famous Kalleri Kuttichathan temple located here. Thousands of devotees are visiting this temple every week.

Kottathuruthi Bhagavathi Temple is one of the beautiful temples in [[Kerala]] situated near the [[Arabian Sea]]. This temple is located in a small island called Kottathuruthi. It is an island village situated in the Kuttyadi river near [[Moorad bridge]].

==See also ==
{{commons category|Vatakara}}
{{Wikivoyage}}

*[[lokanarkavu temple]]
*[[Unniyarcha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Kerala}}
{{Municipalities of Kerala}}
{{North Malabar}}
{{Places of interest in North Malabar}}
{{Malabar}}
{{Kozhikode district}}
{{Palakkad Railway Division}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Kozhikode district]]
[[Category:Vatakara area]]

Prem Kumar Dhumal

2026-03-13T01:30:05Z

FrancisClement: adjust section as per guidelines

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{More sources|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Prem Kumar Dhumal
| office = Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh
| order = 5th
| image = Prem Kumar Dhumal.jpg
| alt = Prem Kumar Dhumal in 2008
| caption = Dhumal in 2008
| governor = [[Urmila Singh]] (from 2010) [[Prabha Rau]] (till 2010)
| predecessor = [[Virbhadra Singh]]
| succeeding = 
| successor = [[Virbhadra Singh]]
| signature = Signature_of_Prem_Kumar_Dhumal.svg
| predecessor2 = [[Virbhadra Singh]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| successor2 = [[Virbhadra Singh]]
| office3 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| term_start4 = 1989
| term_end4 = 1996
| term_start3 = 2007
| term_end3 = 2008
| predecessor4 = [[Narain Chand Parashar|Narain Chand]]
| successor4 = Vikram Singh
| predecessor3 = [[Suresh Chandel]]
| successor3 = [[Anurag Thakur]]
| constituency3 = [[Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh Lok Sabha constituency|Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh]]
| constituency4 = [[Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh Lok Sabha constituency|Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1944|4|10|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Samirpur]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day [[Himachal Pradesh]], India)
| nationality = Indian
| spouse = {{marriage|Sheela Dhumal|1972}}
| residence = [[New Delhi|301, Himachal Sadan, Sardar Patel Marg, New Delhi]]
| children = 2, including [[Anurag Thakur]]
| alma_mater = [[M.A.]] in [[Doaba College]], [[Jalandhar]] [[LL.B.]] in [[Guru Nanak Dev University]], [[Amritsar]]
| occupation = Politician
| profession = Teacher
| term6 = 2 January 2013 18 December 2017
| office5 = LOP in Himachal Assembly
| term5 = 2003-07
| term_start = 30 December 2007
| term_end = 25 December 2012
| term_start2 = 24 March 1998
| term_end2 = 5 March 2003
| governor2 = [[Suraj Bhan]] (2000–2003) [[Vishnu Kant Shastri]] (1999–2000) [[V. S. Ramadevi]] (1998–1999)
}}

'''Prem Kumar Dhumal''' (pronounced {{IPA|hi|preːmə kʊmaːrə d̪ʱuːmələ|}}; born 10 April 1944) is an Indian politician who has twice served as the [[List of Chief Ministers of Himachal Pradesh|Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh]], from March 1998 to March 2003 and again from 1 January 2008 to 25 December 2012. He was the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]'s Chief Ministerial candidate for the [[2017 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017 Himachal Assembly Election]], in which he lost his seat.

As chief minister of Himachal, its phone tapping scandal took place, where phones of over 1100 civilians were illegally recorded, where permission was only taken for around 170 phones. BJP's Shanta Kumar also requested to disclose names of people whose phones were tapped during Dhumal's tenure.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/name-those-whose-phones-were-tapped-during-dhumal-regime-says-shanta-111843|title=phone tapped during dhumal regime|website=tribuneindia.com}}</ref> He was rivalled by [[Virbhadra Singh]] of Congress.

==Early life==
Prem Kumar Dhumal was born on 10 April 1944 in Samirpur village, [[Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur district]].<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /> His father's name was Capt. Mahant Ram and mother Phulmu Devi.<ref name="Dhumal Reference2">{{cite news |title=Members : Lok Sabha |url=http://164.100.47.194/Loksabha/Members/memberbioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4230&lastls=14 |access-date=24 February 2021 |work=164.100.47.194 |publisher=Lok Sabha}}</ref> He has M.A. (Eng), and LL.B. degrees following his education at [[Doaba College]] in [[Jalandhar]] and [[Guru Nanak Dev University]], [[Amritsar]].<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /><ref name="hpcm">{{cite web|url=http://hpvidhansabha.nic.in/1.asp |title=Hon'ble Minister, Himachal Pradesh |publisher=Hpvidhansabha.nic.in |access-date=5 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414095917/http://hpvidhansabha.nic.in/1.asp |archive-date=14 April 2012}}</ref> He became a lecturer at a private college in [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]].<ref name="oneindia">{{cite news |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2007/12/28/dhumal-leads-bjp-to-power-in-hp-1198821772.html |title=Dhumal leads BJP to power in HP |work=Oneindia |date=28 December 2007 |access-date=5 January 2013 |archive-date=22 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110922160526/http://news.oneindia.in/2007/12/28/dhumal-leads-bjp-to-power-in-hp-1198821772.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Dhumal married Sheela on 23 May 1972,<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /><ref name="hpcm" /> with whom he has two sons, Arun Singh Dhumal and [[Anurag Thakur]]. The latter is also a politician and has been a member of the [[14th Lok Sabha|14th]] and [[15th Lok Sabha]]s, as well as Minister of State [[Minister of Finance (India)|in Finance]] but was elevated to the rank of Cabinet Minister for [[Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports (India)|Minister of Sports and Youth Affairs]] and [[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Minister of Information and Broadcasting]] in the July 2021.

==Political career==
Dhumal became vice-president of the [[Bharatiya Janata Yuva Morcha]] in 1982.<ref name="Dhumal Reference1">{{cite news |title=BJP announces Prem Kumar Dhumal as Himachal CM candidate – Mysuru Today |url=https://citytoday.news/bjp-announces-prem-kumar-dhumal-as-himachal-cm-candidate/ |access-date=24 February 2021 |publisher=Citytoday |date=24 February 2021}}</ref> In 1984, he was selected as the candidate for the [[Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh (Lok Sabha constituency)|Hamirpur parliamentary constituency]] when the sitting [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] (MLA), and state stalwart [[Jagdev Chand]], refused to stand.<ref name="Dhumal Reference1" /> Dhumal lost that election but won in [[1989 Indian general election|1989]] and [[1991 Indian general election|1991]],<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /> and before losing the seat to Major General Bikram Singh in the [[1996 Indian general election]].<ref name="oneindia" />

After the sudden death of [[Jagdev Chand]] in 1993,<ref name="Dhumal Reference1" /> Dhumal became active in state politics.<ref name="Dhumal Reference1" /> Dhumal was elected president of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] in [[Himachal Pradesh]] and became the state's Chief Minister following the [[1998 elections in India|March 1998 state assembly elections]].<ref name="Dhumal Reference1" /> He won the [[Bamsan (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Bamsan]] constituency of the [[Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] with a margin of 18,000 votes.

He headed the BJP-[[Himachal Vikas Congress]] coalition government for its full statutory term of five years, from 1998 to 2003<ref name="Dhumal Reference1" /> and became Leader of the Opposition when the BJP lost power in the 2003 elections,<ref name="Dhumal Reference1" /><ref name="oneindia" /> winning only 16 seats despite support from the [[National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) Union government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/2003/03/02/stories/2003030204070800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030430091051/http://thehindu.com/thehindu/2003/03/02/stories/2003030204070800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 April 2003 |title=Why Congress won and BJP lost |first=Harish |last=Khare |date=2 March 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=27 July 2015}}</ref>

His tenure as the chief minister saw significant infrastructure developments, particularly of roads, and gave rise to Dhumal being called the ''Sadak walla Chief Minister''.<ref name="oneindia" />

Dhumal resigned his seat in the Himachal Pradesh legislative assembly upon winning the Hamirpur constituency in a 2007 by-election for the [[Lok Sabha]].<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /> The by-election came about because of the expulsion of [[Suresh Chandel]], a BJP [[Member of Parliament]] who had been involved in a cash-for-questions scandal.<ref name="oneindia" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jun/05hp.htm |title=HP ex-CM Dhumal wins Hamirpur LS bypoll |work=Rediff |date=5 June 2007}}</ref> A further by-election in May 2008 saw Dhumal replaced as MP by his son, Anurag Thakur.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sixteenth Lok Sabha Members Bioprofile |url=http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/members/Biography.aspx?mpsno=4249 |publisher=Lok Sabha |access-date=12 June 2015}}</ref>

Dhumal became [[Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh]] for a second time after being sworn in on 30 December 2007 after the BJP won that year's [[2007 elections in India|assembly elections]].<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /><ref>{{cite news |work=The Hindu |title=Dhumal sworn in Chief Minister |date=31 December 2007 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/dhumal-sworn-in-chief-minister/article1978174.ece |access-date=12 June 2015}}</ref> The BJP lost power in the [[2012 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012 elections]].<ref>{{cite news |work=Frontline |volume=29 |issue=26 |date=29 December 2012 |title=Cautious in victory |first=T. K. |last=Rajalakshmi |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2926/stories/20130111292602600.htm |access-date=12 June 2015}}</ref>

In the state assembly elections of 2017, Dhumal stood as a BJP candidate in the [[Sujanpur (Himachal Pradesh Assembly constituency)|Sujanpur constituency]] and was the party's proposed candidate for the Chief Ministerial office. Even though the BJP gained majority in the elections, Dhumal lost to [[Rajinder Rana]] from the Indian National Congress, thwarting his chances to lead the government for the third time in Himachal Pradesh.<ref>{{cite news |title=CM-designate Dhumal loses in Sujanpur, Himachal Pradesh |first=Vikas |last=Pathak |date=19 December 2017 |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/elections/himachal-pradesh-2017/cm-designate-dhumal-loses-in-sujanpur/article21878300.ece |access-date=2 January 2018}}</ref>

==Personal interests==

He has written large number of articles which have been published in different leading newspapers on political, cultural, sports and other national issues from time to time and he was the general secretary of the Doaba College literary society and editor of college magazine.<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /> His social and cultural interests include helping the poor sections of the society in getting good education free of cost or at cheaper cost and helping the poorer sections of society in getting their daughters married.<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /> He has special interest in the field of rural development, employment generation, involvement of youth in constructive work and activities, development of tourism, Hydel power in the state, inspire agriculturists to switch over to horticulture, floriculture and heliculture so that they can increase their income.<ref name="Dhumal Reference2" /> He has interest in reading and listening to good music in free time. He had also been captain of the college volleyball team for three consecutive years and played it up to his university level.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* Corruption Issue : http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100121/himachal.htm#4

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
| before = [[Virbhadra Singh]] |
| title = [[Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh]]
| years = 30 December 2007 - December 2012
| after = [[Virbhadra Singh]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Bharatiya Janata Party chief ministers|state=collapsed}}
{{Chief Ministers of Himachal Pradesh}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dhumal, Prem Kumar}}
[[Category:Chief ministers from Bharatiya Janata Party]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Chief ministers of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:India MPs 1989–1991]]
[[Category:India MPs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:India MPs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:Himachal Pradesh MLAs 2007–2012]]
[[Category:Himachal Pradesh MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Leaders of the opposition in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Himachal Pradesh MLAs 1998–2003]]
[[Category:Himachal Pradesh MLAs 2003–2007]]
[[Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)]]

Falak (1988 film)

2026-03-03T23:56:38Z

FrancisClement: Refined content and updated sections

{{Short description|1988 film directed by Shashilal K. Nair}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Falak
| image = Falak 1988 film.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Shashilal K. Nair]]
| producer = V. Sagar Bhagat
| story =
| screenplay =
| writer = [[Salim Khan]]
| starring = [[Raakhee]] [[Jackie Shroff]] [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]] [[Shekhar Kapoor]] [[Mohan Bhandari]] [[Supriya Pathak]] [[Sadhana Singh]]
| music = [[Kalyanji-Anandji]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1988|04|01|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''Falak''' ({{Translation|Sky}}) is a 1988 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[action crime]] film drama directed by [[Shashilal K. Nair]], produced by V. Sagar Bhagat and written by [[Salim Khan]]. The music for the film is composed by [[Kalyanji-Anandji]]. It stars [[Raakhee]], [[Jackie Shroff]], [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]], [[Shekhar Kapoor]], [[Mohan Bhandari]], [[Supriya Pathak]], [[Sadhana Singh]], [[Anupam Kher]], [[Paresh Rawal]], [[Kiran Kumar]], [[Vikram Gokhale]] in pivotal roles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/falak/critic-review/falak-movie-review/|title=Falak Review /5 | Falak Movie Review | Falak 1988 Public Review | Film Review|first=Bollywood|last=Hungama|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jgHCwAAQBAJ&q=falak+1988+film&pg=PT100|title=Being Salman|first=Jasim|last=Khan|date=27 December 2015|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184750942|via=Google Books}}</ref>

== Plot ==
A watchman (Ramnath) is killed by his corrupt bosses when the former tries to stop their criminal activities. Years later, Ramnath's sons decides to avenge their father's death.

==Cast==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Raakhee]] as Durga Verma
* [[Jackie Shroff]] as Vijay Verma
* [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]] as Rita D'Souza
* [[Mohan Bhandari]] as Advocate Ravi Verma
* [[Shekhar Kapoor]] as Inspector Jimmy
* [[Supriya Pathak]] as Shobha
* [[Sadhana Singh]] as Shanti
* [[Akash Khurana]] as Jamnadas
* [[Anupam Kher]] as Murlidhar
* [[Paresh Rawal]] as R.D. Narang
* [[Kiran Kumar]] as Bagga
* [[Iftekhar]] as Mr. D'Souza
* [[Vikram Gokhale]] as Ramnath Verma
* [[Ketaki Dave]] as Julie
* [[Anang Desai]] as Doctor
* [[Murad (actor)|Murad]] as Judge
* [[Vikas Anand]] as Judge
* [[Mohan Choti]] as Mukadam
* [[Rajan Haksar]] as Public Prosecutor
* [[Sharad Vyas]] as Motwani
{{div col end}}

== Soundtrack ==
{|class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singer
|-
| "Tere Naam Ka, Teri Shakal Ka Dil Mein Ghusa Hai Koi"
| [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Mohammed Aziz]]
|-
| "Oonche Parvatwali Mata"
| Mohammed Aziz
|-
| "Tumhe Mubarak Yaar"
| Mohammed Aziz
|-
| "Ek Roz Hansana Hai"
| Mohammed Aziz
|-
| "Pyar Kiya Tab Hum The, Tum The Aur Dil Tha"
| [[Amit Kumar]], [[Alka Yagnik]]
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|id=0395535}}

[[Category:Films shot in India]]
[[Category:Indian crime action films]]
[[Category:1988 films]]
[[Category:1988 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1988 Indian films]]
[[Category:1980s crime action films]]

{{1980s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Gowli (film)

2026-03-03T12:10:41Z

FrancisClement: adding some pg w/ sources

{{Short description|2023 Indian-Kannada language film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Gowli
| director = Soora
| writer = Soora
| producer = Raghu Singham
| starring = [[Srinagara Kitty]] [[Paavana Gowda]] [[Rangayana Raghu]] [[Sharath Lohithaswa]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = Sandeep Valluri
| editing = Umesh R. B
| music = [[Shashank Sheshagiri]]
| studio = Sohan Film Factory
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2023|02|24|df=yes}}
| runtime = 142 minutes
| language = Kannada
| country = India
}}

'''''Gowli''''' is a 2023 Indian Kannada-language [[action drama film]] written and directed by Soora in his directorial debut, produced by Raghu Singham. It stars [[Srinagara Kitty]], [[Paavana Gowda]], [[Rangayana Raghu]] and [[Sharath Lohithaswa]]. The film marks Srinagara Kitty's comeback to Kannada cinema after 6 years in the lead role.

''Gowli'' was released on 24 February 2023 and received mixed reviews from critics.

== Premise ==
Gowli is a [[Ahir clans|cow herder]] in Sirsi, [[North Karnataka]], who lives with his wife Girija, uncle Kakka and daughter Puttavva. Girija runs a tuition class as she is the only educated person in the village. One day, Girija's student Bhoomakka goes missing, and the incident leads to a conflict between the police and Gowli. [[Inspector]] Kalinga, who holds a grudge against Girija for slapping him, begins to tear Gowli's families' lives apart with the help of some dacoits. Enraged, Gowli sheds his gentle behaviour and sets on a violent crusade to bring them down.

== Cast ==
*[[Srinagara Kitty]] as Gowli
*[[Paavana Gowda]] as Girija
*[[Rangayana Raghu]] as Kakka
*[[Sharath Lohithaswa]] as [[Inspector]] Kalinga
*Yash Shetty

== Soundtrack ==
The music of the film is composed by [[Shashank Sheshagiri]]
{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| total_length =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Bogaseyyali
| lyrics1 = [[V. Nagendra Prasad]]
| extra1 = [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]] [[Indu Nagaraj]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Magale Hegale Vimaana Ninage
| lyrics2 = V. Nagendra Prasad
| extra2 = [[Vijay Prakash]] Shruthi Prahlad
| length2 =
| title3 = Maha Rakkasa
| lyrics3 = Ashrit V. L
| extra3 = Shashank Sheshagiri
| length3 =
}}

== Release ==
''Gowli'' was released on 24 February 2023.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/news/2023/feb/11/srinagar-kittys-gowli-gets-a-release-date-39864.html |title=Srinagar Kitty's Gowli gets a release date |website=Cinemaexpress |date=11 February 2023}}</ref>

=== Critical response ===
Harish Basavarajaiah of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Director Soora could have done a better job with the writing to keep the content engaging and intriguing. The movie manages to score some brownie points on making front. It can be a one time watch, if you are ready to bear action and bloody sequences."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/gowli/movie-review/98217418.cms |title=Gowli Movie Review: Gowli: Gowli thrives on Srinagara Kitty's performance |website=The Times of India}}</ref> A. Sharaadha of ''[[Cinema Express]]'' gave 3 out of 5 stars and wrote "Gowli is a rural family drama, filled with violence, revenge, and emotions. Kitty is the major driving factor to see Gowli, and if you like bloodshed, this can be your weekend watch."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/review/2023/feb/25/gowli-movie-review-kitty-is-the-major-driving-factor-to-watch-gowli-40355.html |title=Gowli Movie Review: Kitty is the major driving factor to watch Gowli |website=Cinemaexpress |date=25 February 2023}}</ref>

Swaroop Kodur of ''[[HT Media|OTTplay]]'' gave 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "As writer, Soora manages to build a compelling world in the first half but the shortcomings show up quite early in the second half, thus rendering the rest of the film tedious. The action sequences are exciting but seem relentless after a point."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/gowli-review-srinagar-kittys-comeback-film-is-intriguing-but-also-quite-overbearing/6f51fbfacf568 |title=Gowli review: Srinagar Kitty's comeback film is intriguing, but also quite overbearing |website=OTTplay}}</ref> Shuklaji of ''[[The News Minute]]'' gave 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "With the help of a better script and finer editing, the film could have salvaged what it had put together in the first half. Sadly, the second half's inadequacies derail it. Still, Gowli is not completely unworthy of a visit to the theatre, but be prepared to stomach some disturbing sequences."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/gowli-review-srinagar-kitty-pavana-gowda-shine-exploitative-half-done-film-173736 |title=Gowli review: Srinagar Kitty & Pavana Gowda shine in an exploitative, half-done film |website=The News Minute |date=24 February 2023}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{IMDb title|tt15422572}}

[[Category:2023 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:2023 action drama films]]

Annai Bhoomi

2026-03-03T05:07:54Z

FrancisClement: added some stub initial version.

{{short description|1985 film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Annai Bhoomi.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[R. Thyagarajan (director)|R. Thyagarajan]]
| producer = C. Dhandayudhapani
| writer =[[Vietnam Veedu Sundaram]] (dialogues)<ref name="anna" />
| cinematography =V. Ramamoorthy<ref name="anna">{{Cite news |date=29 April 1985 |title=அன்னை பூமி |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_9_181/4.jp2/full/1000,1363/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250702100613/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_9_181/4.jp2/full/1000,1363/0/default.jpg |archive-date=2025-07-02 |access-date=2025-07-02 |work=Anna |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>
|editing =M. G. Balurao<ref name="anna" />
| starring = [[Vijayakanth]] [[Radha Ravi]] [[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]]
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = [[Thevar Films]]
| released = {{Film date|1985|05|31|df=y}}
| runtime = 100 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Annai Bhoomi''''' ({{Translation|Mother Earth}}) is a 1985 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action film]] directed by [[R. Thyagarajan (director)|R. Thyagarajan]] and produced by [[Thevar Films]]. The film stars [[Vijayakanth]], [[Radha Ravi]] and [[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]]. It is the first [[3D film]] in [[Tamil cinema]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mathevan |first=Santhosh |date=30 November 2018 |title=Tamil cinema and technology always go hand-in-hand |url=https://newstodaynet.com/2018/11/30/tamil-cinema-and-technology-always-go-hand-in-hand/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205180316/https://newstodaynet.com/2018/11/30/tamil-cinema-and-technology-always-go-hand-in-hand/ |archive-date=5 February 2022 |access-date=11 October 2022 |website=[[News Today]]}}</ref> The film was released on 31 May 1985.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 December 2002 |title=நட்சத்திர படப் பட்டியல் |url=https://ibb.co/cTSgjhM |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202064212/https://ibb.co/cTSgjhM |archive-date=2 February 2024 |access-date=2 February 2024 |work=[[Cinema Express]] |pages=41–43 |language=Ta}}</ref> It was remade in [[Kannada]] as ''Namma Bhoomi''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-02 |title=பிளாஷ்பேக்: 3டி படத்தில் நடிக்க மறுத்த ரஜினிகாந்த் |url=https://www.dinamalar.com/cinemanews/130740 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250702113407/https://www.dinamalar.com/cinemanews/130740 |archive-date=2025-07-02 |access-date=2025-07-02 |website=[[Dinamalar]] |language=Ta}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{More plot|date=October 2022}}
Two friends Raja and Somu are hired to kill a General Prabhakar. They kidnap him but have a change of heart when they learn that he actually tried to help them.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Vijayakanth]] as Raja
*[[Radha Ravi]] as Somu
*[[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]] as Nalini
*[[Goundamani]] as Ragappa
*[[Tiger Prabhakar]] as General Prabhakar
*[[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]] as Vijayakumar
*[[Thyagu (actor)|Thyagu]] as Shankar
*[[Sonia (actress)|Baby Sonia]] as Uma
*[[Ilavarasi]] as Radha
*[[Thengai Srinivasan]] as sorcerer in song "Oh Julie"
}}

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]], with lyrics by [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Annai Bhoomi Tamil Film EP Vinyl Record by Ilayaraja |url=https://mossymart.com/product/annai-bhoomi-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraja/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505062642/https://mossymart.com/product/annai-bhoomi-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraja/ |archive-date=5 May 2022 |access-date=5 May 2022 |website=Mossymart}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Track
! Singers
|-
| "Oh Julie Julie Jolly"
| [[S. Janaki]], Dr. Grubb Singh, Chorus
|-
| "Puthakathai"
| [[Malaysia Vasudevan]], S. Janaki
|-
| "Raththiri Raththiri"
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], S. Janaki
|}

== Critical reception ==
[[Subha (writers)|Jayamanmadhan]] of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' wrote that despite being a cardboard castle it looks decorative.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜெயமன்மதன் |author-link=Subha (writers) |date=16 June 1985 |title=அன்னை பூமி |url=https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1985/jun/16-06-1985/p67.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220729114857/https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1985/jun/16-06-1985/p67.jpg |archive-date=29 July 2022 |access-date=11 October 2022 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=67 |language=ta}}</ref> Balumani of ''Anna'' praised the technical crew and Thevar Films for their hard work and efforts.<ref>{{Cite news |last=பாலுமணி |date=2 June 1985 |title=அன்னை பூமி |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_9_209/4.jp2/full/1000,1342/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/TKMlA |archive-date=12 November 2024 |access-date=12 November 2024 |work=Anna |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{R. Thyagarajan (director)}}

[[Category:1985 Indian films]]
[[Category:1985 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1985 3D films]]
[[Category:1985 action films]]
[[Category:1985 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by R. Thyagarajan (director)]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Indian 3D films]]
[[Category:Indian action films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language action films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Thalaivasal Vijay

2026-03-02T15:40:30Z

FrancisClement: further enhanced layout after review and updated info

{{short description|Indian actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Thalaivasal Vijay
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = A. R. Vijayakumar
| birth_place = [[Kanyakumari]], [[Madras State]] (now [[Tamil Nadu]]), India
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1962|08|04|df=y}}
| occupation = Actor
| spouse =
| children =
| years_active = 1992–present
}}
'''Thalaivasal Vijay''' (born '''A. R. Vijayakumar''') is an Indian actor and dubbing artiste.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/02/stories/2006110214260200.htm|title=My aim is to win a national award, says actor Thalaivasal' Vijay|date=2006-11-02|access-date=19 February 2010|archive-date=1 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601232452/http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/02/stories/2006110214260200.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|url-status=dead}}</ref> He has acted predominantly in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Malayalam]] films.

== Career ==
Vijay's debut film was ''[[Thalaivaasal]]'' (1992), which became part of his stage name in Tamil cinema following acclaim for his performance.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/whats-in-a-name/article6578238.ece |title=What's in a name? |last=Raman |first=Mohan V. |date=8 November 2014 |work=The Hindu |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620181605/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/whats-in-a-name/article6578238.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> He is noted for his character roles, especially in [[R. Sukumaran]]'s 2010 [[Malayalam]] film ''[[Yugapurushan]]'' as [[Narayana Guru]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/way-to-go/article2581136.ece |title=Way to go |date=30 October 2011 |work=The Hindu |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011221059/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/way-to-go/article2581136.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The actor is usually seen in negative and supporting roles.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/actor-of-substance/article3537533.ece |title=Actor of substance |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=17 June 2012 |work=The Hindu |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011221058/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/actor-of-substance/article3537533.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Vijay, in his career spanning over 30 years, has appeared in more than 270 films.

== Filmography ==
=== Tamil ===
====1990s====
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1992 || ''[[Thalaivaasal]]'' || Babu ||
|-
| ''[[Sivantha Malar]]''|| ||
|-
| ''[[Thevar Magan]]'' ||Muthuvel ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 1993 || ''[[Amaravathi (1993 film)|Amaravathi]]'' || Dr. Charlie ||
|-
| ''[[Thanga Pappa]]'' || Ravi ||
|-
| ''[[Maamiyar Veedu]]'' || Inspector Vijay ||
|-
| ''[[Thiruda Thiruda]]'' || CBI Officer ||
|-
|rowspan="6"| 1994 || ''[[Mahanadhi (1994 film)|Mahanadhi]]'' || Mannangkatti ||
|-
| ''[[Veettai Paaru Naattai Paaru]]'' || Sakthi ||
|-
| ''[[Magalir Mattum (1994 film)|Magalir Mattum]]'' || Papamma's husband ||
|-
| ''[[Adharmam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chinna Pulla]]'' || Subramani ||
|-
| ''[[Periya Marudhu (film)|Periya Marudhu]]'' || Marimuthu ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1995 || ''Padikkara Vayasula'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Gandhi Pirantha Mann]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Raasaiyya]]'' || Kaalai ||
|-
| ''[[Vishnu (1995 film)|Vishnu]]'' || Rajamanikkam ||
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1996 || ''[[Avathara Purushan]]'' || Vaishali's father ||
|-
| ''[[Kadhal Kottai]]'' || Panneer ||
|-
| ''[[Tamizh Selvan]]'' || rebellious group leader ||
|-
| ''[[Gokulathil Seethai (film)|Gokulathil Seethai]]'' || Pimp ||
|-
|rowspan="9"| 1997 || ''[[Periya Thambi]]'' || Sundarapandian ||
|-
| ''[[Aravindhan]]'' || Muthukrishnan ||
|-
| ''[[Thaali Pudhusu]]'' || Seetha’s brother-in-law ||
|-
| ''[[Devathai]]'' || Kamusigha ||
|-
| ''[[Nandhini (film)|Nandhini]]'' || Kannadi Vijay ||
|-
| ''[[Nerrukku Ner]]'' || Police Inspector Venkatram ||
|-
| ''[[Samrat (1997 film)|Samrat]]'' || Samrat’s father ||
|-
| ''[[Vasuki (film)|Vasuki]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kadhalukku Mariyadhai]]'' || Thomas ||
|-
| rowspan="13"| 1998 || ''[[Kaadhale Nimmadhi]]'' || Singer ||
|-
| ''[[Kizhakkum Merkkum]]'' || Ganesan ||
|-
| ''[[Dhinamdhorum]]'' || || Guest appearance
|-
| ''[[Velai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Color Kanavugal]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Bhagavath Singh (film)|Bhagavath Singh]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Santhosham (1998 film)|Santhosham]]'' || Kanthaswamy ||
|-
| ''[[Harichandra (1998 film)|Harichandra]]'' || Raghu ||
|-
| ''[[Dharma (1998 film)|Dharma]]'' || Vijay ||
|-
| ''[[Poonthottam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Guru Paarvai]]'' || Kaali / Vijay ||
|-
| ''[[Simmarasi]]'' || Lakhsmi's husband ||
|-
| ''[[Kaadhal Kavithai]]'' || Pandiyan ||
|-
|rowspan="8"| 1999 || ''[[Adutha Kattam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[En Swasa Kaatre]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rajasthan (film)|Rajasthan]]'' || One of the terrorists ||
|-
| ''[[Annan Thangachi]]'' || Chitti ||
|-
| ''[[Amarkkalam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kannodu Kanbathellam]]'' || DCP Bharathi ||
|-
| ''[[Mugam (1999 film)|Mugam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Iraniyan (film)|Iraniyan]]'' || ||
|-
|}

====2000s====
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|rowspan="14"| 2000 || ''[[Kannukkul Nilavu]]'' || Shanmugam ||
|-
| ''[[Sudhandhiram]]'' || Divya's father ||
|-
| ''[[Sandhitha Velai]]'' || Vasu ||
|-
| ''[[Vallarasu]]'' || Terrorist ||
|-
| ''[[James Pandu]]'' || Manager ||
|-
| ''[[Magalirkkaga]]'' || Nagaraj I.P.S ||
|-
| ''[[Ennamma Kannu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chinna Chinna Kannile]]'' || Dev ||
|-
| ''[[Sabhash]]'' || Police inspector ||
|-
| ''[[Karuvelam Pookkal (film)|Karuvelam Pookkal]]'' || Teacher ||
|-
| ''[[Ilayavan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Priyamaanavale]]'' || Selva ||
|-
| ''[[Seenu (2000 film)|Seenu]]'' || Seenu's uncle ||
|-
| ''[[Ennavalle]]'' || Neighbour ||
|-
|rowspan="8"| 2001 || ''[[Vaanchinathan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Narasimha (2001 film)|Narasimha]]'' || Police ||
|-
|''[[Maayan (film)|Maayan]]'' || Freedom fighter ||
|-
| ''[[Veettoda Mappillai]]'' || Muthupandi ||
|-
| ''[[Mitta Miraasu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kasi (film)|Kasi]]'' || Sevvalai ||
|-
| ''[[Paarthale Paravasam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aandan Adimai]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="15"| 2002 || ''[[Red (2002 film)|Red]]'' || Ananda Vikatan Reporter ||
|-
| ''[[Thamizh]]'' || Haneefa ||
|-
| ''[[Unnai Ninaithu]]'' || Nirmala's father ||
|-
| ''[[Thulluvadho Ilamai]]'' || Mahesh's father ||
|-
| ''[[Devan (film)|Devan]]'' || Jeeva ||
|-
| ''[[Nettru Varai Nee Yaaro]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Shree (2002 film)|Shree]]'' || Shree’s henchmen ||
|-
| ''[[Ivan (2002 film)|Ivan]]'' || Father of Jeevan ||
|-
| ''[[Bagavathi]]'' || Ganga ||
|-
| ''[[Mutham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Naina (2002 film)|Naina]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Karmegham]]'' || District Collector ||
|-
| ''[[Maaran (2002 film)|Maaran]]'' || Doctor Prakash ||
|-
| ''[[Bala (2002 film)|Bala]]'' || Om Prakash ||
|-
| ''[[Kadhal Virus]]'' || Himself ||
|-
|rowspan="10"| 2003 || ''[[Kalatpadai]]'' || Deenadayalan ||
|-
| ''[[Student Number 1]]'' || Advocate ||
|-
| ''[[Anbe Anbe]]'' || Cheenu's father ||
|-
| ''[[Inidhu Inidhu Kadhal Inidhu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thennavan (film)|Thennavan]]'' || Mustafa ||
|-
| ''[[Kaiyodu Kai]]'' || Vijayakumar ||
|-
| ''[[Anjaneya (film)|Anjaneya]]'' || Government Employee ||
|-
| ''[[Jay Jay]]'' || Jamuna's father ||
|-
| ''[[Indru]]'' || Superior Officer ||
|-
| ''[[Kadhal Kirukkan]]'' || Lawyer ||
|-
|rowspan="10"| 2004 || ''[[Varnajalam]]'' || Devanathan's brother ||
|-
| ''[[Vaanam Vasappadum]]'' || Opposition Lawyer ||
|-
| ''Nee Mattum'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Arul (film)|Arul]]'' || Thirukumarann ||
|-
| ''[[Perazhagan]]'' || Shenbagam's brother ||
|-
| ''[[Vasool Raja MBBS]]'' || Doctor ||
|-
| ''[[Bose (film)|Bose]]'' || Bose's brother ||
|-
| ''[[Dreams (2004 film)|Dreams]]'' || Mahendran ||
|-
| ''[[Aai (film)|Aai]]'' || Police ||
|-
| ''[[Udhaya (film)|Udhaya]]'' || Police ||
|-
|rowspan="12"| 2005 || ''[[Aayudham (2005 film)|Aayudham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Devathayai Kanden]]'' || Bhoopathy ||
|-
| ''[[Sachein]]'' || Preethi's father ||
|-
| ''[[Anda Naal Nyabagam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Kalluriyin Kathai]]'' || Taxi Driver ||
|-
| ''[[Ponniyin Selvan (2005 film)|Ponniyin Selvan]]'' || Drawing artist ||
|-
| ''[[Aanai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sandakozhi]]'' || Kasi's friend ||
|-
| ''[[Adhu Oru Kana Kaalam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Devathaiyai Kanden]]'' || Uma's advocate ||
|-
| ''[[Kannadi Pookal]]'' || Opposite Lawyer of Vasudevan ||
|-
| ''[[Ponniyin Selvan (2005 film)|Ponniyin Selvan]]'' || Drawing Artist ||
|-
|rowspan="10"| 2006 || ''[[Madrasi (2006 film)|Madrasi]]'' || Police Inspector ||
|-
| ''[[Sudesi]]'' || Professor ||
|-
| ''[[Parijatham (2006 film)|Parijatham]]'' || Muthu ||
|-
| ''[[47A Besant Nagar Varai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sasanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vathiyar]]'' || School Teacher ||
|-
| ''[[Kurukshetram (2006 film)|Kurukshetram]]'' || Westerner ||
|-
| ''[[Nenjil]]'' || Krishnamurthy ||
|-
| ''[[Nenjirukkum Varai (2006 film)|Nenjirukkum Varai]]'' || Ganesh's father ||
|-
|''[[Aadum Koothu]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 2007 || ''[[Achacho]]'' || Periyasamy ||
|-
| ''Nalvaravu'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ninaithu Ninaithu Parthen]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Aarya (film)|Aarya]]'' || Collector ||
|-
|rowspan="14"| 2008 || ''[[Bheemaa]]'' || Saamy ||
|-
| ''[[Nenjathai Killadhe (2008 film)|Nenjathai Killadhe]]'' || Anandhi's father ||
|-
| ''[[Thotta]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Inba (film)|Inba]]'' || Rangan ||
|-
| ''[[Singakutty]]'' || DGP ||
|-
| ''[[Arai En 305-il Kadavul]]'' || Rafeeq ||
|-
| ''[[Uliyin Osai]]'' || Manikandan ||
|-
| ''Thithikkum Ilamai'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Jayamkondaan]]'' || Poongodhai's father ||
|-
| ''[[Ellam Avan Seyal]]'' || Chandrashekar ||
|-
| ''[[Pathu Pathu]]'' || Subbu ||
|-
| ''[[Kathi Kappal]]'' || Elangovan ||
|-
| ''[[Abhiyum Naanum (film)|Abhiyum Naanum]]'' || Mohan ||
|-
| ''[[Sadhu Miranda]]'' || Doctor Janakiraman || Guest appearance
|-
|rowspan="10"| 2009 || ''[[Kadhal Meipada]]'' || Vishva ||
|-
| ''[[Thee (2009 film)|Thee]]'' || Rathnam ||
|-
| ''[[Mariyadhai]]'' || Muthaiyya ||
|-
| ''[[Newtonin Moondram Vidhi]]'' || Inspector ||
|-
| ''[[Kulir 100°]]'' || School Principal ||
|-
| ''[[Vaamanan]]'' || Kailasam ||
|-
| ''[[Aarumaname]]'' || Samikannu ||
|-
| ''[[Vaigai (film)|Vaigai]]'' || Manikkam ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Kadhalan Oru Kadhali]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Naalai Namadhe (2009 film)|Naalai Namadhe]]'' || || Guest appearance
|-
|}

====2010s====
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|rowspan="5"| 2010 || ''[[Thambikku Indha Ooru]]'' || Thamizhmani ||
|-
| ''[[Pen Singam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Siddhu +2]]'' || || Guest appearance
|-
| ''Kaila Kaasu Vaaila Dhosa'' || ||
|-
| ''Jayamundu Bayamillai'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="3"| 2011 || ''[[Payanam (2011 film)|Payanam]]'' || Col. Jagadeesh ||
|-
| ''[[Aayiram Vilakku]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Marudhavelu]]'' || || Special appearance
|-
|rowspan="3"| 2012 || ''[[Dhoni (film)|Dhoni]]'' || Neurosurgeon ||
|-
| ''[[Kadhal Paathai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Ooh La La La (film)|Ooh La La La]]'' || Surya's father ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 2013 || ''Anil'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thirumathi Thamizh]]'' || Vijay ||
|-
| ''[[Singam II]]'' || Sathya's father ||
|-
| ''[[Puthagam]]'' || Vasanth ||
|-
|rowspan="6"| 2014 || ''[[Ninaivil Nindraval (2014 film)|Ninaivil Nindraval]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vetri Selvan]]''|| Bashyam ||
|-
| ''[[Ramanujan (film)|Ramanujan]]'' || Sathiyapriya Rayar ||
|-
| ''[[Poojai]]'' || Kumaraswamy ||
|-
| ''[[Vingyani]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Nerungi Vaa Muthamidathe]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="7"| 2015 || ''[[Pulan Visaranai 2]]'' || Advocate ||
|-
| ''[[Anegan]]'' || Moorthy ||
|-
| ''[[En Vazhi Thani Vazhi (2015 film)|En Vazhi Thani Vazhi]]'' || Manimaaran ||
|-
| ''[[Kalai Vendhan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Apoorva Mahaan'' || Sai Baba ||
|-
| ''[[Sagaptham]]'' || Dinesh ||
|-
| ''[[Serndhu Polama]]'' || Grandfather ||
|-
|rowspan="5"| 2016 || ''[[Sowkarpettai]]'' || Shakthi's / Vetri's father ||
|-
| ''[[Meendum Oru Kadhal Kadhai]]'' || Abdul Rahman ||
|-
| ''[[Meen Kuzhambum Mann Paanaiyum]]'' || Pavithra's father ||
|-
| ''[[Andaman (2016 film)|Andaman]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Achamindri]]'' || Collector ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 2017 || ''[[Brindavanam (2017 film)|Brindavanam]]'' || Sandhya's father ||
|-
| ''[[Vanamagan]]'' || Kavya's uncle ||
|-
| ''[[Sathura Adi 3500]]'' || Perumal ||
|-
| ''[[Thupparivaalan]]'' || Madhavan ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |2018
| ''[[Kinar (film)|Keni]]'' || Minister ||
|-
| ''[[Kadal Kuthiraigal]]'' || Activist ||
|-
| ''[[Sei (film)|Sei]]'' || Minister Rajarathinam ||
|-
| ''[[Bhaagamathie]]'' || Psychiatrist ||
|-
|rowspan="5"| 2019 || ''[[Gilli Bambaram Goli]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Neerthirai]]'' || Kannan ||
|-
| ''[[NGK (film)|NGK]]'' || Saghayam ||
|-
| ''[[Kaappaan]]'' || Santhosh ||
|-
| ''[[100% Kadhal]]'' || Subramani ||
|-
|}

====2020s====
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Mafia: Chapter 1]]'' || Mugilan ||
|-
| 2021 || ''Singa Paarvai'' || Commissioner Thangavel ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |2022||''[[D Block (film)|D Block]]''|| Principal ||
|-
|''[[Yaanai]]''|| Jacob ||
|-
|''[[Laththi]]''|| Ranganathan ||
|-
| rowspan=2 |2023 || ''[[Kasethan Kadavulada (2023 film)|Kasethan Kadavulada]]'' || Saga ||
|-
| ''[[Priyamudan Priya]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 2024 || ''[[Singapore Saloon]]'' || Kathir's father ||
|-
| ''[[Dear (2024 film)|Dear]]'' || Shanmugam ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-03-28 |title=Maja Wedding song from DeAr is out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Mar/28/maja-wedding-song-from-dear-is-out |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Romeo (2024 film)|Romeo]]'' || Leela's father ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-26 |title=Romeo Trailer: Vijay Antony-starrer Promises Fun Ride To Win Over His Wife's Love |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/romeo-trailer-vijay-antony-starrer-promises-fun-ride-to-win-over-his-wifes-love-8828268.html |access-date=2024-05-18 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Mazhai Pidikkatha Manithan]]'' || Raghavan ||<ref>{{cite news |last1=Features |first1=C. E. |title=Vijay Antony's Mazhai Pidikkatha Manidhan clears censorship formalities |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Jun/25/vijay-antonys-mazhai-pidikkatha-manidhan-clears-censorship-formalities |access-date=3 August 2024 |work=Cinema Express |date=5 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kadaisi Ulaga Por]]'' || Ramakrishnan "Central Ramki" ||
|-
| ''Orea Peachu Orea Mudivu'' || ||
|-
|''[[Once Upon A Time in Madras]]'' || Anitha's father ||<ref>{{Cite news|date=29 August 2024|title=Bharath's Once Upon A Time In Madras gets a release date|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Aug/29/bharaths-once-upon-a-time-in-madras-gets-a-release-date|access-date=29 August 2024 |newspaper=[[Cinema Express]] |archive-date=29 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240829113805/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Aug/29/bharaths-once-upon-a-time-in-madras-gets-a-release-date|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=6 | 2025 || ''[[Vallan (film)|Vallan]]'' || Minister ||
|-
| ''Enai Sudum Pani'' || Vijay ||
|-
| ''[[Jenma Natchathiram]]'' || Dr. Seeman ||
|-
| ''[[3BHK]]'' || Sundar ||
|-
| ''[[Red Flower]]'' || Lucifer ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vallavan |first=Prashanth |date=2024-02-29 |title=Vignesh to play duel roles in 'Red Flower' |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2024/Feb/29/vignesh-to-play-duel-roles-in-red-flower |access-date=2025-08-09 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Madharaasi]]'' || Dr. Kannan ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=B |first=Jayabhuvaneshwari |date=2025-08-25 |title=Madharaasi trailer breakdown: 5 moments from the Sivakarthikeyan actioner that raise anticipation |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Aug/25/madharaasi-trailer-breakdown-5-moments-from-the-sivakarthikeyan-actioner-that-raise-anticipation |access-date=2025-09-05 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2026 || ''[[Anantha (film)|Anantha]]'' || Meenakshi's father || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/tamil/anantha/ottmoviereview/126558207.cms|title=Anantha Movie Review: Faith anthology for the already faithful|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Fourth Floor (film)|Fourth Floor]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Akshay |date=2025-04-13 |title=Actor Aari starrer Fourth Floor's first look out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/Apr/13/actor-aari-starrer-fourth-floors-first-look-out |access-date=2026-03-02 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

=== Malayalam ===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Madhuranombarakattu]]'' || Kalki Parameswar ||
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Kerala House Udan Vilpanakku]]'' || Periya Thevar ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2010 || ''[[Yugapurushan]]'' || [[Sree Narayana Guru]] ||
|-
| ''[[Shikkar]]'' ||Rowther||
|-
| rowspan="5"|2011 || ''[[August 15 (2011 film)|August 15]]'' || [[Director General of Police|DGP]] ||
|-
| ''[[The Filmstaar]]'' || Sakhavu Raghavan ||
|-
| ''[[Teja Bhai & Family]]'' ||Damodarji ||
|-
| ''[[Melvilasom]]'' || Colonel Surat Singh||
|-
| ''Snehadaram'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="7"|2012 ||''[[Karmayogi (2012 film)|Karmayogi]]''|| ||
|-
| ''[[Achante Aanmakkal]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Nidra (2012 film)|Nidra]]'' || Madhava Menon (Raju's father) ||
|-
| ''[[Hero (2012 film)|Hero]]'' || Dharmarajan Master ||
|-
| ''[[Silent Valley (2012 film)|Silent Valley]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Matinee (2012 film)|Matinee]]''||Najeeb's father ||
|-
| ''[[The Hitlist]]'' ||Robert ||
|-
| rowspan="9"| 2013 || ''[[Lokpal (film)|Lokpal]]'' || Ramabhadran / PP ||
|-
| ''[[Celluloid (film)|Celluloid]]'' || Mudaliar ||
|-
| ''[[Breaking News Live]]'' || Adv. Surendra Menon ||
|-
|''[[Bangles (film)|Bangles]]''||DYSP Soloman||
|-
| ''[[Radio (2013 film)|Radio]]'' || Doctor ||
|-
| ''[[Olipporu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[North 24 Kaatham]]'' || Sreekumar ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Kudumba Chithram]]'' || Shanmukha Vel ||
|-
|''[[Pigman (film)|Pigman]]''|| ||
|-
| 2014 || ''Gamer'' || Abraham Koshi ||
|-
| rowspan="3"|2015 || ''[[Lavender (2015 film)|Lavender]]'' || Joseph Tharakan ||
|-
|''[[Kanthari]]''||Cameo||
|-
|''Oru New Generation Pani''|| ||
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Campus Diary]]''|| ||
|-
| 2017 || ''Vedham'' || ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2018 || ''[[Captain (2018 film)|Captain]]'' || SP Rajashekaran ||
|-
| ''[[Kinar (film)|Kinar]]'' || Minister ||
|-
| rowspan="2"|2019 || ''[[Luca (2019 film)|Luca]]'' || Jayaram ||
|-
|''Kunjiramante Kuppayam''|| Raman ||
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Aaraattu (2022 film)|Aaraattu]]'' || Varadaraja Venkatachalam ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2023 || ''[[1921: Puzha Muthal Puzha Vare]]''|| [[Variyankunnath Kunjahammad Haji]] ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-25 |title=Puzha Muthal Puzhavare To Hit The Silver Screen On March 3 This Year |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/ramasimhan-directorial-1921-puzha-muthal-puzhavare-to-release-on-this-date-7166077.html |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304142647/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/ramasimhan-directorial-1921-puzha-muthal-puzhavare-to-release-on-this-date-7166077.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Within Seconds]]'' || Don||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-04 |title=Trailer Of Indrans' Malayalam Movie Within Seconds Out; Watch Here |url=https://www.news18.com/entertainment/regional-cinema/trailer-of-indrans-malayalam-movie-within-seconds-out-watch-here-7720105.html |access-date=2023-05-08 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516191141/https://www.news18.com/entertainment/regional-cinema/trailer-of-indrans-malayalam-movie-within-seconds-out-watch-here-7720105.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Garudan (2023 film)|Garudan]]'' || [[Colonel]] Philip George ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 June 2023 |title='Garudan' teaser: Suresh Gopi bashes up goons with a motorbike helmet |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/garudan-teaser-suresh-gopi-bashes-up-goons-with-a-motorbike-helmet/article67011474.ece |access-date=18 October 2023 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017203456/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/garudan-teaser-suresh-gopi-bashes-up-goons-with-a-motorbike-helmet/article67011474.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 2025 || ''The Protector'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-04-29 |title=Shine Tom Chacko-starrer The Protector gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/Apr/29/shine-tom-chacko-starrer-the-protector-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| {{TBA}} || {{Pending film| Price of Police}} || {{TBA}} || Post Production<ref>{{Cite web |title=Miya George-Kalabhavan Shajon film titled Price of Police |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/jan/16/miya-george-kalabhavan-shajon-film-titled-price-of-police-38823.html |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=16 January 2023 |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304143701/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/jan/16/miya-george-kalabhavan-shajon-film-titled-price-of-police-38823.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|}

=== Telugu ===

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Role
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Stri]]'' || Paddalu
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Nayakudu (film)|Nayakudu]]'' || Vadayar's henchman
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Neeku Naaku]]'' ||
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Keka (film)|Keka]]'' || Kiran's father
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Maro Charitra (2010 film)|Maro Charithra]]'' || Swapna's father
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Gaganam]]'' || Col. Jagadeesh
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Satya 2]]'' || Prakash Rao
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Bhaagamathie]]'' || Psychiatrist
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Yatra (2019 film)|Yatra]]'' || [[Tulla Devender Goud]]
|-
| 2020 || ''[[V (2020 film)|V]]'' || Ramanujan
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2022 || ''[[Radhe Shyam]]'' || Scientist
|-
| ''[[Aa Ammayi Gurinchi Meeku Cheppali]]'' || Dr. James Kutty
|-
| 2024 || ''[[Razakar – Silent Genocide of Hyderabad]]'' || [[K. M. Munshi]]
|}

=== Hindi ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
|-
|2019
|''[[Junglee (2019 film)|Junglee]]''
|Dipankar Nair
|Uncredited
|-
|2021
|''[[Bell Bottom (2021 film)|Bell Bottom]]'' ||P. V. Narasimha Rao
|
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Radhe Shyam]]'' || scientist
|
|}

=== English ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Morning Raga]]'' || Swarnalata's husband
|-
|}

=== As voice over artist ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Film !! For Whom !! Character
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Ullaasam]]'' || [[Devan (actor)|Devan]] ||
|-
|1998||''[[Dil Se..|Uyire]]'' || [[Aditya Srivastava]] ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1999 || ''[[House Full (1999 film)|House Full]]'' || rowspan="2" | [[Surya (Telugu actor)]] ||Police commissioner
|-
|''[[Mudhalvan]]'' ||Pugazhendhi's bodyguard
|-
|2000 ||''[[Pandavas: The Five Warriors]]'' || || Shakuni
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Pandavar Bhoomi]]'' || [[Mukesh Tiwari]] ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2002 || ''[[Gemini (2002 Tamil film)|Gemini]]'' || [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]] ||
|-
| ''[[Kannathil Muthamittal]]'' || [[J. D. Chakravarthy]] ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2003 || ''[[Magic Magic 3D]]'' || [[Tirlok Malik]] || Krishna
|-
| ''[[Nala Damayanthi (2003 film)|Nala Damayanthi]]'' || Bruno Xavier ||Ivan
|-
| ''[[Arasu (2003 film)|Arasu]]'' || [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]] ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Ghajini (2005 film)|Ghajini]]'' || [[Pradeep Rawat (actor)|Pradeep Rawat]] ||
|-
| 2009 || ''[[Vettaikaaran (2009 film)|Vettaikaaran]]'' || [[Srihari]] ||Devaraj
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Vettai]]'' || [[Ashutosh Rana]] ||Annaachi
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Aarambam]]'' || [[Atul Kulkarni]] ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Jilla]]'' || [[Pradeep Rawat (actor)|Pradeep Rawat]] ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Kadamban]]'' || [[Deepraj Rana]] ||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Adanga Maru]]'' || rowspan="3" | [[Babu Antony]] ||
|-
|2022
|''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I]]''
|Khottiga
|-
|2023
|''[[Ponniyin Selvan: II]]''
|Khottiga
|}

==Television==

=== Tamil ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Title !! Channel
|-
| ''Akashaya'' || ''[[Sun TV Network|Sun TV]]''
|-
| ''Aalavandhan Kolai Vazhakku'' ||
|-
| ''[[Ganga Yamuna Saraswati]]'' || rowspan=3 | [[Raj TV]]
|-
| ''Vidiyal Pudithu''
|-
| ''Micro Thodargal - Othigai''
|-
| ''[[Azhagu (TV series)|Azhagu]]'' || [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
| ''[[Fall (web series)|Fall]]'' || [[Disney+ Hotstar]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/sep/17/first-look-of-siddharth-ramaswamys-upcoming-web-series-fall-released-2499185.html|title=First look of Siddharth Ramaswamy's upcoming web series 'Fall' released|date=17 September 2022 |publisher=www.newindianexpress.com|access-date=|language=en|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203125527/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2022/sep/17/first-look-of-siddharth-ramaswamys-upcoming-web-series-fall-released-2499185.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[The Village (2023 TV series)|The Village]]'' || [[Amazon Prime Video]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trailer of Arya's The Village is out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/nov/17/trailer-of-aryas-the-village-is-out-49635.html |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=17 November 2023 |language=en |archive-date=17 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117144604/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/nov/17/trailer-of-aryas-the-village-is-out-49635.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|}

=== Malayalam ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Title
!Channel
|-
|Neelamala
| rowspan="3" |[[DD Malayalam]]
|-
|Gopika
|-
|Padavukal
|-
|[[Anandharagam]]||[[Surya TV]]
|}

== Awards ==

{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Awards
|-
|2010
|[[Kerala State Film Award (Special Jury Award)|Special Jury Award]] - ''[[Yugapurushan]]''
|[[Kerala State Film Awards]]
|-
|2012
|Best Actor in a Supporting Role for ''[[Karmayogi (2012 film)|Karmayogi]]''
|[[1st South Indian International Movie Awards]]
|-
|2018
|''[[Azhagu (TV series)|Azhagu]]''
|Sun Kudumbam Viruthugal for Best Father
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://yugapurushan.moviebuzz.org Official Blog]
*{{IMDb name|1488730}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vijay, Thalaivasal}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male voice actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:People from Chennai district]]
[[Category:Kerala State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Chennai]]
[[Category:Tamil male television actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:1962 births]]

Textile

2026-03-02T12:24:32Z

FrancisClement: enhance citations additionally and improved wording

{{Short description|Various fibre-based materials}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Multiple image
| header = Textiles
| direction = horizontal
| perrow = 2/2
| image_gap = 8
| width2 = 130
| image2 = Weaving_jamdani_at_BSCIC_Jamdani_palli,_Narayanganj_113.jpg
| caption2 = [[Jamdani]] weaving [[Textile industry in Bangladesh |of Bangladesh]]
| width3 = 230
| image3 = Urdimbre rosa.jpg
| caption3 = In textile production, longitudinal yarns are referred to as warp and are interlaced with weft or filing yarns to create a woven fabric.
| width4 = 240
| image4 = Flores y colores hechos a mano.jpg
| caption4 = Handmade floral patterns on textiles
| width7 = 120
| image7 = Tzutujil.weaving.jpg
| caption7 = [[Weaving]]
| footer = The production of textiles which were initially artisanal work, has grown into a vast field today that includes the production of fibres, yarns, fabrics, and various fibrous products for different domestic and industrial usages.
}}
[[File:Weaving_demonstrated_on_a_historic_loom_in_Leiden.webm |right|thumbtime=12|thumb|300px| Weaving demonstration on an 1830 handloom in the [[Museum Het Leids Wevershuis|weaving museum]] in [[Leiden]] ]]

'''Textile''' is an [[Hyponymy and hypernymy|umbrella term]] that includes various [[Fiber|fibre-based]] materials, including fibres, [[yarn]]s, [[Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber|filaments]], [[Thread (yarn)|threads]], and different types of [[#Fabric|fabric]]. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to [[woven fabric]]s.{{sfn|Joseph|1977|p=3}}{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=5}}<ref name="EB-2015" /> However, [[weaving]] is not the only manufacturing method, and many other methods were later developed to form textile structures based on their intended use. [[Knitting]] and [[Nonwoven|non-woven]] are other popular types of fabric manufacturing.{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}} In the contemporary world, textiles satisfy the [[material]] needs for versatile applications, from simple daily clothing to [[Bulletproof vest|bulletproof jackets]], [[spacesuit]]s, [[Medical gown|doctor's gowns]] and technical applications like [[Geotextile|geotextiles]].<ref name="EB-2015">{{Cite web |title=textile {{!}} Description & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/textile |access-date=2021-08-19 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |archive-date=2015-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611044816/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/589392/textile |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Fairchild 1959">{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/fairchildsdictio0000unse |title=Fairchild's dictionary of textiles |date=1959 |location=New York |publisher= Fairchild Publications |pages=552, 553, 211, 131}}</ref>{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}

Textiles are divided into two groups: consumer textiles for domestic purposes and [[technical textile]]s. In consumer textiles, [[Aesthetics (textile)|aesthetics]] and [[Textile performance#Comfort|comfort]] are the most important factors, while in technical textiles, [[Textile performance#Properties|functional properties]] are the priority.{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="Horrocks-2000">{{Cite book |last1=Horrocks |first1=A. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBGkAgAAQBAJ&q=technical+textiles |title=Handbook of Technical Textiles |last2=Anand |first2=Subhash C. |date=31 October 2000 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-85573-896-6 |pages=1 to 20 |language=en}}</ref> The durability of textiles is an important property, with common [[cotton]] or blend garments (such as t-shirts) able to last twenty years or more with regular use and care.

[[Geotextile]]s, [[Indutech|industrial textiles]], [[medical textiles]], and many other areas are examples of technical textiles, whereas clothing and furnishings are examples of consumer textiles. Each component of a textile product, including fibre, yarn, fabric, processing, and [[Finishing (textiles)|finishing]], affects the final product. Components may vary among various textile products as they are selected based on their [[Textile performance|fitness for purpose]].{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}{{sfn|Chapman|2010|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="Horrocks-2000" />

Fibre is the smallest fabric component; fibres are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to manufacture fabrics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Division |first=United States Department of Labor Wage and Hour |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Yxh19vrzd0C&dq=textile+industry+definition&pg=PP3 |title=Some Basic Information on the Textile Industry |date=1941 |publisher=U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division. |pages=3–6 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Chapman|2010|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}} Fibre has a hair-like appearance and a higher length-to-width ratio. The sources of fibres may be [[Natural fiber|natural]], [[Synthetic fiber|synthetic]], or both. The techniques of [[felt]]ing and [[Nonwoven fabric|bonding]] directly transform fibres into fabric. In other cases, yarns are manipulated with different fabric manufacturing systems to produce various fabric constructions. The fibres are twisted or laid out to make a long, continuous strand of yarn.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}} Yarns are then used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving, knitting, [[crochet]]ing, [[Macramé|knotting]], [[tatting]], or [[braid]]ing.<ref>{{cite web |title=An Introduction to Textile Terms |url=http://www.textilemuseum.org/PDFs/TextileTerms.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723073411/http://www.textilemuseum.org/PDFs/TextileTerms.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2006 |access-date=6 August 2006}}</ref><ref name="MW-2017">{{cite dictionary |title=fabric |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fabric |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019004250/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fabric |archive-date=2017-10-19 |access-date=2017-10-18}}</ref><ref name="Fairchild 1959" /> After manufacturing, textile materials are processed and finished to add value, such as aesthetics, physical characteristics, and utility in certain use cases.<ref name="Choudhury-2017">{{Cite book |last=Choudhury |first=Asim Kumar Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_9PCwAAQBAJ&q=finishing+textiles |title=Principles of Textile Finishing |date=29 April 2017 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-0-08-100661-0 |pages=1–10}}</ref> The manufacturing of textiles is the oldest industrial [[Textile arts|art]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/sim_business_1971-11_21_11 |title=Atlanta Economic Review 1971-11: Vol 21 Iss 11 |date=1971 |publisher=College of Business Administration. Georgia State University |page=6}}</ref> [[Dyeing]], [[Textile printing|printing]], and [[embroidery]] are all different decorative arts applied to textile materials.<ref name="Elsasser-2005a">{{Cite book |last=Elsasser |first=Virginia Hencken |url=http://archive.org/details/textiles00virg |title=Textiles: concepts and principles |date=2005a |location=New York |publisher= Fairchild Publications |isbn=978-1-56367-300-9 |page=9}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

=== Textile ===
The word 'textile' comes from the [[Latin]] adjective {{lang|la|textilis}}, meaning 'woven', which itself stems from {{lang|la|textus}}, the past participle of the verb {{lang|la|texere}}, 'to weave'.<ref name="Farlex-2020">{{cite dictionary |title=Textile |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/textile |access-date=2012-05-25 |dictionary=The Free Dictionary |archive-date=2020-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527165616/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/textile |url-status=live }}</ref> Originally applied to [[woven fabric]]s, the term "textiles" is now used to encompass a diverse range of materials, including fibres, [[yarns]], and [[fabrics]], as well as other related items.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}{{sfn|Joseph|1977|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="EB-2015" />

=== Fabric ===
{{Redirect|Fabric}}

A "fabric" is defined as any thin, flexible material made from yarn, directly from fibres, polymeric film, foam, or any combination of these techniques. Fabric has a broader application than cloth.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=207}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kadolph |first=Sara J. |url=http://archive.org/details/textiles0010kado |title=Textiles |date=2007 |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |publisher= Pearson Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-118769-6 |page=469}}</ref> Fabric is synonymous with cloth, material, goods, or [[piece goods]].{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="Fairchild 1959" /> The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, with roots in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. Stemming most recently from the [[Middle French]] {{lang|fr|fabrique}}, or "building," and earlier from the Latin {{lang|la|fabrica}} ('workshop; an art, trade; a skillful production, structure, fabric'), the noun {{lang|la|fabrica}} stems from the Latin {{lang|la|faber}}" artisan who works in hard materials', which itself is derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''dhabh-'', meaning 'to fit together'.<ref>{{OEtymD|fabric|access-date=2012-12-11}}</ref>

=== Cloth ===
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| image_gap = 10
| width1 = 240
| image1 = Brooklyn Museum - Cloth Merchant's Shop - Basarat.jpg
| caption1 = Cloth merchant's shop
| width2 = 200
| image2 = Museum of Lincolnshire Life, Lincoln, England - DSCF1759.JPG
| caption2 = A replica [[Draper|draper's shop]] at the [[Museum of Lincolnshire Life]], in [[Lincoln, England]].
}}

Although cloth is a type of fabric, not all fabrics can be classified as cloth due to differences in their manufacturing processes, physical properties, and intended uses. Materials that are woven, knitted, [[Tufting|tufted]], or knotted from yarns are referred to as cloth, while wallpaper, plastic upholstery products, carpets, and nonwoven materials are examples of fabrics.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=207}}

Cloth is a flexible substance typically created through the processes of weaving, felting, or knitting using natural or synthetic materials.<ref name="Cloth-2012">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cloth |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cloth |access-date=2012-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606071507/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cloth |archive-date=2012-06-06 |url-status=live}}</ref> The word 'cloth' derives from the [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|clað}}, meaning "a cloth, woven, or felted material to wrap around one's body', from the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] {{lang|gem|klaithaz}}, similar to the [[Old Frisian language|Old Frisian]] {{lang|ofs|klath}}, the [[Middle Dutch]] {{lang|dum|cleet}}, the [[Middle High German]] {{lang|gmh|kleit}} and the German {{lang|de|kleid}}, all meaning 'garment'.<ref>{{OEtymD|cloth|access-date=2012-12-11}}</ref>

{{ clear }}
== History ==
[[File:Textile machinery at Cambrian Factory, Llanwrtyd (1293828).jpg |thumb|300px| Textile machinery at the Cambrian Factory, [[Llanwrtyd]], [[Wales]] in the 1940s.]]
{{Main|History of clothing and textiles}}

Textiles themselves are too fragile to survive across millennia; the tools used for [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]] and [[weaving]] make up most of the prehistoric evidence for textile work. The earliest tool for spinning was the [[Spindle (textiles)|spindle]], to which a [[Spindle whorl|whorl]] was eventually added. The weight of the whorl improved the thickness and twist of the spun thread. Later, the [[spinning wheel]] was invented. Historians are unsure where; some say China, others India.<ref>{{cite book |last=Beaudry |first=Mary C. |title=Findings: The Material Culture of Needlework and Sewing |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2006 |page=137}}</ref>

The precursors of today's textiles include leaves, barks, fur pelts, and felted cloths.{{sfn|Weibel|1952|p=27}}

The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example of [[Warp (weaving)|warp]] [[ikat]] in Southeast Asia, is displayed at the [[National Museum of the Philippines]]. The cloth was most likely made by the native Asian people of northwest [[Romblon]].
The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the elements. At some point, people learned to weave plant fibres into textiles.

The discovery of [[Flax|dyed flax fibres]] in a cave in the [[Georgia (country)|Republic of Georgia]] dated to 34,000 [[BCE]] suggests that textile-like materials were made as early as the Paleolithic era.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.325_1329a |pmid=19745126 |title=Clothes Make the (Hu) Man |year=2009 |last1=Balter |first1=M. |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |page=1329}}</ref><ref name="Kvavadze-2009">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1175404 |pmid=19745144 |title=30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers |year=2009 |last1=Kvavadze |first1=E. |last2=Bar-Yosef |first2=O. |last3=Belfer-Cohen |first3=A. |last4=Boaretto |first4=E. |last5=Jakeli |first5=N. |last6=Matskevich |first6=Z. |last7=Meshveliani |first7=T. |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5946 |page=1359 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4270521 |bibcode=2009Sci...325.1359K |access-date=2018-11-30 |archive-date=2020-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304052409/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/4270521 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} [http://worldtextile.aimoo.com/ Supporting Online Material] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091127065045/http://worldtextile.aimoo.com/ |date=27 November 2009 }}</ref>

The speed and scale of textile production have been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques.<ref>{{Cite book|url= https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Advanced+Textile+Engineering+Materials-p-9781119487852|title= Advanced Textile Engineering Materials|publisher= Wiley|editor1-first= Shahid|editor1-last= Ul-Islam|editor2-first= B. S.|editor2-last= Butola|isbn= 978-1-119-48785-2|date= 2018|access-date= 4 September 2020|archive-date= 2020-11-09|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034146/https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Advanced+Textile+Engineering+Materials-p-9781119487852|url-status= live}}</ref> However, for the main types of textiles, [[plain weave]], [[twill]], or [[satin weave]], there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.

=== Textile industry ===
{{main|textile industry}}
The textile industry grew out of art and craft and was kept going by [[craft guilds]]. In the 18th and 19th centuries, during the [[Industrial Revolution]], it became increasingly mechanized. In 1765, when a machine for spinning wool or cotton called the [[spinning jenny]] was invented in the United Kingdom, textile production became the first economic activity to be industrialized. In the 20th century, science and technology were driving forces.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hollen |first1=Norma R. |url=http://archive.org/details/isbn_9780023675300 |title=Textiles |last2=Hollen |first2=Norma R. Textiles |date=1988 |location=New York |publisher= Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-367530-0 |pages=1, 2, 3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control, 2nd ed. |doi=10.23943/princeton/9780691164137.003.0010 |date=2017 |last1=Herbst |first1=Jeffrey |volume=1 }}</ref>
The textile industry exhibits inherent dynamism, influenced by a multitude of transformative changes and innovations within the domain. Textile operations can experience ramifications arising from shifts in international trade policies, evolving fashion trends, evolving customer preferences, variations in production costs and methodologies, adherence to safety and environmental regulations, as well as advancements in research and development.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=4}}

The textile and garment industries exert a significant impact on the economic systems of numerous countries engaged in textile production.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-1-78242-232-7.00001-1 |chapter=Introduction |title=Garment Manufacturing Technology |date=2015 |last1=Nayak |first1=R. |last2=Padhye |first2=R. |pages=1–17 |isbn=978-1-78242-232-7 }}</ref>

=== Naming ===
[[File:Calico sample Crum & Co..jpg |thumb|right| Sample of calico printed with a six-colour machine by Walter Crum & Co., from [[Frederick Crace Calvert]], ''Dyeing and Calico Printing'' (1878)]]

Most textiles were called by their base-fibre generic names, their place of origin, or were put into groups based loosely on manufacturing techniques, characteristics, and designs.<ref name="Malekandathil-2016">{{Cite book |last =Malekandathil |first =Pius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WEPDQAAQBAJ&dq=Textiles+and+origin+of+their+names&pg=PT359 |title =The Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India |date =13 September 2016 |publisher =Routledge |isbn =978-1-351-99745-4 |page =359 |language =en |access-date =2022-05-25 |archive-date=2022-06-02 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20220602045837/https://books.google.com/books?id=-WEPDQAAQBAJ&dq=Textiles+and+origin+of+their+names&pg=PT359 |url-status =live }}</ref><ref name="Peck-2013">{{Cite book |last =Peck |first =Amelia |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=BYjh82N63IQC&dq=Textiles+and+origin+of+their+names&pg=PA60 |title =Interwoven Globe: The Worldwide Textile Trade, 1500–1800 |date =2013 |publisher =Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn =978-1-58839-496-5 |page =60 |language =en |access-date =2022-05-25 |archive-date =2022-06-02 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20220602055305/https://books.google.com/books?id=BYjh82N63IQC&dq=Textiles+and+origin+of+their+names&pg=PA60 |url-status =live }}</ref><ref name="Corbman-1983">{{Cite book |last =Corbman |first =Bernard P. |url=http://archive.org/details/textilesfibertof0006corb |title =Textiles: fiber to fabric |date =1983 |location=New York |publisher =Gregg Division, McGraw-Hill |isbn =978-0-07-013137-8 |pages =2 to 8}}</ref><ref name="Cerchia-2021">{{Cite book |last1 =Cerchia |first1=Rossella Esther |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=37UTEAAAQBAJ&dq=Textiles+and+origin+of+their+names&pg=PA3 |title =The New Frontiers of Fashion Law |last2 =Pozzo |first2 =Barbara |date =13 January 2021 |publisher =MDPI |isbn =978-3-03943-707-8 |pages =2, 3 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-25 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230405081520/https://books.google.com/books?id=37UTEAAAQBAJ&dq=Textiles+and+origin+of+their+names&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{linktext | Bearskin}}<ref>
{{oed | bearskin}}
</ref>
(bearskin cloth) may have received its name from its "shaggy nap".<ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = Caulfeild
|first1 = Sophia Frances Anne
|author-link1 = Sophia Frances Anne Caulfeild
|year = 1882
|chapter = Bearskin Cloth
|title = The Dictionary of Needlework: An Encyclopædia of Artistic, Plain, and Fancy Needlework [...]
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=io87coIiELMC
|publication-place = London
|publisher = L. Upcott Gill
|page = 25
|access-date = 16 September 2025
|quote = Bearskin Cloth.{{--}}A coarse thick woollen cloth, with a shaggy nap, manufactured for the making of [[overcoat]]s.
}}
</ref>

"Nylon", [[Olefin fiber| "olefin"]], and [[Acrylic fiber| "acrylic"]] are generic names for some of the more commonly used synthetic fibres.{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p=219}}

{| class="wikitable" style="clear: both"
|+
!Name
!Product
! colspan="2" |Textiles named by
!Description
|-
|[[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]]
|Wool fibre obtained from [[cashmere goat]]s
|Origin
|[[Kashmir]]
|Cashmere is synonymous with the [[Kashmir shawl]], with the term "cashmere" derived from an anglicization of Kashmir.<ref name="Boulanger-1990">{{Cite book |last =Boulanger |first =Jean-Claude |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=MLChUpf_66EC&dq=Jagannath%3D+light+cotton+material&pg=PA143 |title =Actes du XVIe Congrès international des sciences onomastiques: Québec, Université Laval, 16–22 août 1987: le nom propre au carrefour des études humaines et des sciences sociales |date =1990 |publisher =Presses Université Laval |isbn =978-2-7637-7213-4 |page =143 |language =en |access-date=2022-06-07 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230405081522/https://books.google.com/books?id=MLChUpf_66EC&dq=Jagannath=+light+cotton+material&pg=PA143 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|[[Calico]]
|[[Plain weave]] textile material
|Origin
|[[Kozhikode|Calicut]]
|The fabric originated in the southwestern Indian city of Calicut.
|-
|Jaconet
|Lightweight cotton fabric in plain weave
|Origin
|[[Puri|Jagannath Puri]]
|Jaconet is an [[anglicisation|anglicization]] of Jagannath, where it was originally produced.{{sfn|Humphries|1996|p=15}}
|-
|[[Jersey (fabric)|Jersey]]
|A type of [[Knitted fabric]]
|Origin
|[[Jersey]], [[Channel Islands]]
|Jersey fabric was produced first on Jersey in the Channel Islands.<ref name="Boulanger-1990" />
|-
|[[Kersey (cloth)|Kersey]]
|A coarse [[woolen|woollen]] cloth
|Origin
|[[Kersey, Suffolk]]
|The fabric is named after the town in the east of England.<ref name="Boulanger-1990" />
|-
|[[Paisley (design)]]
|A type of [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]]
|Design
|[[Paisley, Renfrewshire]]
|A town situated in the west [[central Lowlands]] of [[Scotland]].<ref name="Boulanger-1990" /> The motif originates from Iran/Persia, later moving to India with Mughals and transported by British through silk route to Scotland.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Fashion |first=Guardian |date=2011-09-26 |title=A brief history of paisley |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/gallery/2011/sep/26/paisley-london-fashion-week |access-date=2025-12-06 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
|-
|[[Dosuti]]
|A handspun cotton cloth
|Characteristics
|A coarse and thick cotton cloth
|In and around the 19th century [[Punjab]] and [[Gujarat]] were famous for production of various handspun cloths. Dosuti was distinguished by the number of yarns (Do+Suti translates to 'two yarns') used to produce it. Eksuti was another variety using a single thread.
<ref name="Baden-Powell-1872">{{Cite book |last =Baden-Powell |first =Baden Henry |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=gg_JAAAAMAAJ |title =Hand-book of the Manufactures & Arts of the Punjab: With a Combined Glossary & Index of Vernacular Trades & Technical Terms ... Forming Vol. Ii to the "Hand-book of the Economic Products of the Punjab" Prepared Under the Orders of Government |date =1872 |publisher =Punjab printing Company |isbn = |location = |page =7 |language =en}}</ref><ref name="Indian Annuals Bureau-1964">{{Cite book |last = |first = |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=yVM5AQAAIAAJ |title =Supplies and Disposals Year Book |date =1964 |publisher = |isbn = |location = |pages =74, 335, 351 |language =en |access-date =2022-06-07 |archive-date =2022-06-07 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20220607041847/https://books.google.com/books?id=yVM5AQAAIAAJ |url-status =live }}</ref>
|-
|[[Muslin|Mulmul]] types such as ''āb-i-ravān'' (running water), ''Baft Hawa'' (woven air){{sfn|Weibel|1952|p=54}}
|Fine muslin fabric variations from [[Dhaka|Dacca]] in [[Bengal]]
|Characteristics
|Delicate muslin types
|Dacca, in the eastern Indian subcontinent, produced a wide range of handwoven and spun muslins. ''Baft Hawa'', which means "woven air", ''Shabnam'', which means "evening dew", and ''ab-i-ravan'', which means "flowing water" are some poetic names for soft muslins.{{sfn|Weibel|1952|p=54}}<ref>{{Cite book |last =King |first =Brenda M. |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=vqua3eovs7kC&q=Abrawan&pg=PR16 |title =Silk and Empire |date =3 September 2005 |publisher =Manchester University Press |isbn =978-0-7190-6700-6 |pages =61, xvi |language =en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Nainsook]]
|A plain weave fabric with soft hand
|Characteristics
|Pleasing to the eyes
|Nain + Sook translates to "eye-pleasing".{{sfn|Humphries|1996|p=15}}
|-
|[[Swanskin cloth|Swanskin]]
|A woven [[flannel]] cloth
|Characteristics
|Appears and feels like [[swan]] skin
|An 18th-century fabric developed at [[Shaftesbury]].<ref>{{Cite book |last =Harmuth |first =Louis |url =http://archive.org/details/dictionaryoftext00harmrich |title =Dictionary of textiles |date =1915 |publisher =New York, Fairchild publishing company |others =University of California Libraries |page =149}}</ref>
|-
|[[Tansukh cloth|Tansukh]]
|Another type of Muslin with soft and delicate texture
|Characteristics
|Pleasing to the body
|Tan + Sukh translates to "body pleasing". Tansukh was a fine, soft, and delicate textured cloth. The cloth type is mentioned in the 16th-century Mughal-time records, [[Ain-i-Akbari]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last =Sangar |first =S. P. |date =1965 |title =FEMALE COSTUMES IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES (as reflected in the contemporary Hindi literature) |journal =Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume =27 |pages =243–247 |jstor =44140630 |issn =2249-1937 }}</ref>
|}

=== Related terms ===
The related words "'''fabric'''"<ref name="MW-2017" /> and "'''cloth'''"<ref name="Cloth-2012" /> and "'''[[material]]'''" are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and [[dressmaker|dressmaking]]) as synonyms for ''textile''. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. ''Material'' is an extremely broad term basically meaning consisting of [[matter]], and requires context to be useful. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres, including carpeting and [[geotextile]]s, which may not necessarily be used in the production of further goods, such as clothing and [[upholstery]]. A ''fabric'' is a material made through [[Woven fabric|weaving]], [[Knitted fabric|knitting]], spreading, felting, stitching, crocheting or bonding that may be used in the production of further products, such as clothing and upholstery, thus requiring a further step of the production. ''Cloth'' may also be used synonymously with ''fabric'', but often specifically refers to a piece of fabric that has been processed or cut.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}
* Greige goods: Textiles that are raw and unfinished are referred to as [[greige goods]]. After manufacturing, the materials are processed and finished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MATHEWS |first=KOLANJIKOMBIL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkqoDwAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Textile Terms: Four Volume Set |date=2017 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited |isbn=978-93-85059-66-7 |page=690 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Choudhury-2017" />
* Piece goods: [[Piece goods]] were textile materials sold in cut pieces as specified by the buyer. Piece goods were either cut from a fabric roll or made to a specific length, also known as yard goods.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wingate |first=Isabel Barnum |url=http://archive.org/details/fairchildsdictio00wing |title=Fairchild's dictionary of textiles |date=1979 |location=New York |publisher= Fairchild Publications |isbn=978-0-87005-198-2 |page=455}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Blanco |first=A. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WsbCDwAAQBAJ&q=wool+piecegoods+length&pg=PT14 |title=Piece Goods Manual: Fabrics described; textile, knit goods, weaving terms, etc., explained; with notes on the classification of samples |date=19 May 2021 |publisher=Good Press |language=en |access-date=2022-05-27 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405094437/https://books.google.com/books?id=WsbCDwAAQBAJ&q=wool+piecegoods+length&pg=PT14 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Types ==
[[File:Well-clothed baby.jpg|thumb|upright=.85|A baby wearing many items of soft winter clothing: headband, cap, fur-lined coat, scarf, and [[sweater]]]]
Textiles are various materials made from fibres and yarns. The term "textile" was originally only used to refer to woven fabrics, but today it covers a broad range of subjects.{{sfn|Joseph|1977|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}} Textiles are classified at various levels, such as according to fibre origin (natural or synthetic), structure (woven, knitted, nonwoven), finish, etc.<ref name="Malekandathil-2016" /><ref name="Peck-2013" /><ref name="Corbman-1983" /><ref name="Cerchia-2021" /> However, there are primarily two types of textiles:

=== Consumer textiles ===
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household, textiles are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, [[window shade]]s, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. Textiles are used in many traditional hand crafts such as [[sewing]], [[quilting]], and [[embroidery]].{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}

=== Technical textiles ===
[[File:Übung Northern Coast.jpg|thumb|right|Technical textile is a branch of textile that focuses on the protection, safety and other functional performance attributes of textiles, unlike domestic textiles, where the primary focus is aesthetics and comfort. A technician wearing an [[Bomb suit|explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) suit]].]]
[[File:Nonwoven geotextile containers.jpg|thumb|Nonwoven [[geotextile]] bags are much more robust than woven bags of the same thickness.]]

Textiles produced for industrial purposes, and designed and chosen for technical characteristics beyond their appearance, are commonly referred to as ''[[technical textiles]].'' Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (such as implants), [[geotextile]] (used for reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for [[crop protection]]), and protective clothing (such as clothing resistant to heat, radiation, or molten metals, and clothing resistant to puncture (for example, stab-resistant or bulletproof clothing)).

In the workplace, textiles can be used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags, [[backpack]]s, [[tent]]s, [[Net (device)|nets]], cleaning [[wikt:rag|rags]], and transportation devices such as [[balloon]]s, [[kite flying|kites]], [[sail]]s, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in [[composite material]]s such as [[fiberglass|fibreglass]] and industrial [[geotextile]]s.{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="Horrocks-2000" />

Due to the often highly technical and legal requirements of these products, these textiles are typically tested to ensure they meet stringent performance requirements. Other forms of technical textiles may be produced to experiment with their scientific qualities and to explore the possible benefits they may have in the future. For example, threads coated with [[zinc oxide]] [[nanowire]]s, when woven into fabric, have been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems", using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements to generate energy.<ref>{{cite news |author=Keim, Brandon |title=Piezoelectric Nanowires Turn Fabric Into Power Source |url=http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/02/piezoelectric-n.html |date=13 February 2008 |work=Wired News |publisher=CondéNet |access-date=2008-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215001128/http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/02/piezoelectric-n.html |archive-date=15 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Yong Qin, Xudong Wang & Zhong Lin Wang |title=Letter/abstract: Microfibre–nanowire hybrid structure for energy scavenging |journal=Nature |volume=451 |pages=809–813 |doi=10.1038/nature06601 |date=10 October 2007 |pmid=18273015 |issue=7180 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..809Q }} cited in {{cite web |title=Editor's summary: Nanomaterial: power dresser |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7180/edsumm/e080214-06.html |work=Nature |publisher=Nature Publishing Group |date=14 February 2008 |access-date=2008-02-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215185507/http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7180/edsumm/e080214-06.html |archive-date=15 February 2008 |volume=451 |issue=7180}}</ref>

== Significance ==
Textiles are all around us. The textile is a component of basic needs like food and shelter. Textiles are everywhere in our lives, from bath towels to space suits. Textiles help humans by comforting, protecting, and extending their lives. Textiles meet our clothing needs, keeping us warm in the winter and cool in the summer. There are several applications for textiles, such as medical textiles, intelligent textiles, and automotive textiles. All of them contribute to the well-being of humans.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}

=== Serviceability in textiles ===

The term "serviceability" refers to a textile product's ability to meet the needs of consumers. The emphasis is on knowing the target market and matching the needs of the target market to the product's serviceability. Serviceability or performance in textiles is the ability of textile materials to withstand various conditions, environments, and hazards. Aesthetics, durability, comfort and safety, appearance retention, care, environmental impact, and cost are the serviceability concepts employed in structuring the material.{{clarify|'structuring' the material?|date=September 2023}}{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|pp=1–12}}

=== Components ===
Fibres, yarns, fabric construction, finishes and design are components of a textile product. The selection of specific components varies with the intended use, therefore the fibres, yarns, and fabric manufacturing systems are selected with consideration of the required performance.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|pp=1–12}}

== Use and applications ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Commercial textiles/ Domestic textiles
!End uses
!Technical textiles/ Industrial purpose textiles
!End uses
|-
|Clothing
|Clothing items for men, women and children. [[nightwear]], [[sportswear]], lingerie, [[undergarment]]s, [[swimsuit]]. Accessories such as [[cap]]s, [[umbrella]], socks, gloves, and handbags.{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="Abisch-1975">{{Cite book |last1=Abisch |first1=Roz |url=http://archive.org/details/textiles00abis |title=Textiles |last2=Kaplan |first2=Boche |date=1975 |location=New York |publisher= Watts |isbn=978-0-531-00824-9 |pages=1, 2}}</ref>
|Agro-textiles
|Agro-textiles are used in agriculture, horticulture, [[aquaculture]], landscape gardening and [[forestry]]. Mainly for [[crop protection]], in crop development for instance shade nets, [[thermal insulation]] and sunscreen materials, windshield, antibird nets, covering livestock protection, suppressing weed and insect control, etc.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Annapoorani |first=Grace S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckqoDwAAQBAJ&q=Technical+textiles+can+be+divided+into+many+categories,+depending+on+their+end+use.&pg=PA3 |title=Agro Textiles and Its Applications |date=2018 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-93-85059-89-6 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-22 |archive-date=2022-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531180223/https://books.google.com/books?id=ckqoDwAAQBAJ&q=Technical+textiles+can+be+divided+into+many+categories,+depending+on+their+end+use.&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|Furnishing
|[[Upholstery]], [[curtain]]s, [[Drapery|draperies]], [[carpet]]s, [[towel]]s.{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="Abisch-1975" />
|Geotextile
|Technical textiles which are used in civil engineering, roads, [[airfield]]s, railroads, [[Embankment (transportation)|embankments]], [[retaining structure]]s, reservoirs, [[canal]]s, dams, [[Stream bed|bank]] protection, [[coastal engineering]] and construction site [[silt fence]]s, and protection of melting glaciers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Italian glaciers tell the tale of climate change; lost 1/3rd of its volume – World News |url=https://www.wionews.com/videos/italian-glaciers-tell-the-tale-of-climate-change-lost-13rd-of-its-volume-307503/amp |access-date=2022-05-22 |website=www.wionews.com |archive-date=2022-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531224302/https://www.wionews.com/videos/italian-glaciers-tell-the-tale-of-climate-change-lost-13rd-of-its-volume-307503/amp |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|[[Bedding]]
|[[Bed sheet]]s, [[khes]], [[blanket]]s, [[pillow]]s.{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}<ref name="Abisch-1975" />
|Automotive textile
|[[Airbag]]s, [[seat belt]]s, [[Headliner (material)|headliners]], [[upholstery]], car carpets, and [[door card]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shishoo |first=Roshan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6aajAgAAQBAJ |title=Textile Advances in the Automotive Industry |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-84569-504-0 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-24 |archive-date=2022-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602124140/https://books.google.com/books?id=6aajAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|Others
|[[Shower|Shower curtains]].{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
|Medical textile
|[[Implant (medicine)|implants]], [[Surgical suture|sutures]], [[Dressing (medical)|dressings]], [[bandage]]s, [[medical gown]]s, [[Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic|face masks]].{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
|-
|
|
|[[Indutech]]
|This particular sector includes [[conveyor belt]]s, [[drive belt]]s, [[rope]]s and cordages, [[filtration]] products, glass battery separators, decatising and bolting cloth, AGM (absorption glass mat) [[plasma screen]]s, coated abrasives, [[composite material]]s, printed circuit boards, [[Printer (computing)|printer]] ribbon, seals, gaskets, paper making fabrics.<ref name="Horrocks-2000" />
|}

=== Other uses ===
Textiles, textile production, and clothing were necessities of life in prehistory, intertwined with the social, economic, and religious systems. Other than clothing, textile crafts produced utilitarian, symbolic, and opulent items. Archaeological artifacts from the Stone Age and the Iron Age in Central Europe are used to examine prehistoric clothing and its role in forming individual and group identities.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.26530/oapen_604250 |title=The Art of Prehistoric Textile Making.: The development of craft traditions and clothing in Central Europe |date=2016 |last1=Grömer |first1=Karina |isbn=978-3-902421-94-4 }}</ref>

==== Source of knowledge ====
[[Artifact (archaeology)|Artifacts]] unearthed in various [[archaeological excavation]]s informs us about the remains of past human life and their activities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=archaeology {{!}} Definition, History, Types, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/archaeology |access-date=2022-05-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=2021-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704002834/https://www.britannica.com/science/archaeology |url-status=live }}</ref> Dyed flax fibres discovered in the Republic of Georgia indicate that textile-like materials were developed during the [[Paleolithic|Paleolithic period]]. [[Radiocarbon dating|Radiocarbon dates]] the microscopic fibres to 36,000 years ago, when modern humans migrated from Africa.<ref name="Kvavadze-2009" />

Several textile remnants, such as the Inca Empire's textile arts remnants, which embody the Incas' aesthetics and social ideals, serve as a means for disseminating information about numerous civilizations, customs, and cultures.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Phipps |first1=Elena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6nutjzmxvkC&q=The+yacolla+was+basically+a+blanket |title=The Colonial Andes: Tapestries and Silverwork, 1530–1830 |last2=Hecht |first2=Johanna |last3=Martín |first3=Cristina Esteras |last4=Martin |first4=Cristina Esteras |last5=N.Y.) |first5=Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York |date=2004 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-131-5 |page=17 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-22 |archive-date=2022-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531105603/https://books.google.com/books?id=A6nutjzmxvkC&q=The+yacolla+was+basically+a+blanket |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=D.C.) |first=Textile Museum (Washington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ovWAAAAMAAJ&q=textile+remains+tell+us+history |title=Textile Museum Journal |date=2003 |publisher=Textile Museum |page=123 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-22 |archive-date=2022-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531233553/https://books.google.com/books?id=4ovWAAAAMAAJ&q=textile+remains+tell+us+history |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are [[textile museum]]s that display history related to many aspects of textiles. A textile museum raises public awareness and appreciation of the artistic merits and cultural significance of the world's textiles on a local, national, and international scale. The [[George Washington University Museum and Textile Museum]] in Washington, D.C., was established in 1925.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2012 |title=The Textile Museum {{!}} Mission & History |url=http://www.textilemuseum.org/about/history.htm |access-date=2022-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428185646/http://www.textilemuseum.org/about/history.htm |archive-date=2012-04-28 }}</ref>

==== Narrative art ====
The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] is a rare example of secular [[Romanesque art]]. The art work depicts the [[Norman Conquest]] of England in 1066.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bernstein |first=David J. |url=http://archive.org/details/mysteryofbayeuxt0000bern |title=The mystery of the Bayeux tapestry |date=1986 |location=London |publisher= Weidenfeld and Nicolson |isbn=978-0-297-78928-4 |pages=1–10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/kingharoldiibaye0000unse |title=King Harold II and the Bayeux Tapestry |date=2005 |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk; Rochester, NY |publisher= Boydell Press |isbn=978-1-84383-124-2}}</ref>

==== Decorative art ====
{{main|Textile arts}}
Textiles are also used for [[decorative arts|decorative art]]. [[Pipili appliqué work|Appliqué work of pipili]] is decorative art of [[Odisha]], a state in [[East India|eastern India]], used for [[umbrella]]s, wall hangings, lamp shades, and bags. To make a range of decorative products, coloured cloth in the shapes of animals, birds, flowers, are sewn onto a base cloth.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 April 2015 |title=Facilitation of IPR Protection through Geographical Indications {{!}} Services {{!}} Textiles Committee (Ministry of Textiles, Government of India) |url=http://textilescommittee.nic.in/services/geographical-indications#Pipli |access-date=2022-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427132918/http://textilescommittee.nic.in/services/geographical-indications#Pipli |archive-date=2015-04-27 }}</ref>
{{expand section|summarize article [[Textile arts]] to give indication of the range of textile arts. |date=September 2023}}

==== Architextiles ====
[[Architextiles]], a combination of the words architecture and textile, are textile-based assemblages. Awnings are a basic type of architectural textile.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garcia |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNM3AQAAIAAJ |title=Architextiles |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-02634-2 |page=5 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-24 |archive-date=2022-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602154540/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNM3AQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Shahi Lal Dera|Mughal Shahi Lal Dera Tent]], which was a movable palace, is an example of the architextiles of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal period]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Willem |title=Mughal Shahi Lal Dera Tent |url=https://trc-leiden.nl/trc-needles/com-k2/individual-textiles-and-textile-types/furnishings/tent-of-shah-jahan |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=trc-leiden.nl |language=en-gb |archive-date=2022-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811211625/https://www.trc-leiden.nl/trc-needles/com-k2/individual-textiles-and-textile-types/furnishings/tent-of-shah-jahan |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Currency====
Textiles had been used as currency as well. In Africa, textiles were used as currency in addition to being used for clothing, headwear, swaddling, tents, sails, bags, sacks, carpets, rugs, curtains, etc.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Marion |title=Cloth as Money: the Cloth Strip Currencies of Africa |journal=Textile History |date=October 1980 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=193–202 |doi=10.1179/004049680793691185 }}</ref> Along the east–west axis in sub-Saharan Africa, cloth strip, which was typically produced in the savannah, was used as a form of currency.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-18675-3_3 |chapter=Guinées in the Lower Senegal River: A Consumer-Led Trade in the Early Nineteenth Century |title=Indian Cotton Textiles in West Africa |date=2019 |last1=Kobayashi |first1=Kazuo |pages=81–125 |isbn=978-3-030-18674-6 }}</ref>

==== Votive offering ====
Textiles were among the [[Votive offering|objects offered]] to the gods [votive offering] in ancient Greece for religious purposes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Br¿ns |first=Cecilie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXm7DQAAQBAJ&dq=gods+and+garments&pg=PR23 |title=Gods and Garments: Textiles in Greek Sanctuaries in the 7th to the 1st Centuries BC |date=30 November 2016 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78570-358-4 |page=51 |language=en |access-date=2022-12-03 |archive-date=2023-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409133722/https://books.google.com/books?id=aXm7DQAAQBAJ&dq=gods+and+garments&pg=PR23 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Fibre==
{{main|Fiber}}
The smallest component of a fabric is fibre; fibres are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to make fabrics. Fibres are very thin and hair-like structures. The sources of fibres may be [[Natural fiber|natural]], [[Synthetic fiber|synthetic]], or both.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}{{sfn|Smith|1982|pp=64, 69}}

=== Global consumption ===
Global fibre production per person has increased from 8.4 kilograms in 1975 to 14.3 kilograms in 2021.{{clarify|Is this per person per year?|date=September 2023}} After a modest drop due to [[COVID-19 pandemic]] in 2020, global fibre output rebounded to 113 million tons in 2021. Global fibre output roughly doubled from 58 million tons in 2000 to 113 million tons in 2021 and is anticipated to reach 149 million tons in 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preferred Fiber and Materials |url=https://textileexchange.org/knowledge-center/reports/preferred-fiber-and-materials/ |access-date=2022-11-19 |website=Textile Exchange |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119081806/https://textileexchange.org/knowledge-center/reports/preferred-fiber-and-materials/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The demand for synthetic fibres is increasing rapidly. This has numerous causes. Reasons include its low price, the demand-supply imbalance of cotton, and its [Synthetic fibres'] versatility in design and application. Synthetic fibres accounts for 70% of global fibre use, mainly polyester.<ref>{{Cite web |author= |date=26 September 2022 |title=Manmade Fibre Industry Outlook 2022 |url=https://textilevaluechain.in/in-depth-analysis/manmade-fibre-industry-outlook-2022/ |access-date=2022-11-19 |website=Textile Magazine, Textile News, Apparel News, Fashion News |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119075442/https://textilevaluechain.in/in-depth-analysis/manmade-fibre-industry-outlook-2022/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2030, the synthetic fibre market will reach 98.21 billion US dollars. From 2022 to 2030, the market is anticipated to increase by 5.1% per year.<ref>{{Cite press release |last=Markets |first=Research and |date=21 September 2022 |title=Global Synthetic Fiber Market Report 2022: Shifting Fashion Trends Coupled With the Rising Urban Population Creates Opportunities |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2022/09/21/2519999/28124/en/Global-Synthetic-Fiber-Market-Report-2022-Shifting-Fashion-Trends-Coupled-With-the-Rising-Urban-Population-Creates-Opportunities.html |access-date=2022-11-19 |website=GlobeNewswire News Room |language=en |archive-date=2022-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119080046/https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2022/09/21/2519999/28124/en/Global-Synthetic-Fiber-Market-Report-2022-Shifting-Fashion-Trends-Coupled-With-the-Rising-Urban-Population-Creates-Opportunities.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Fibre sources ===
* Natural fibres are obtained from plants, animals and minerals.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=18}} Since prehistoric times, textiles have been made from natural fibres. Natural fibres are further categorized as cellulosic, protein, and mineral.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=70}}
* Synthetic or manmade fibres are manufactured with [[chemical synthesis]].{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=18}}
* Semi-synthetic: A subset of synthetic or manmade fibres is semi-synthetic fibre. Rayon is a classified as a semi-synthetic fibre, made with natural polymers.
Monomers are the building blocks of polymers. Polymers in fibres are of two types: additive or condensation. Natural fibres, such as cotton and wool, have a condensation polymer type, whereas synthetic fibres can have either an additive or a condensation polymer type. For example, [[acrylic fiber|acrylic fibre]] and [[olefin fiber|olefin fibres]] have additive polymers, and nylon and [[polyester]] are condensation polymers.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}

=== Types ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Types of fibres{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=68}}
! colspan="3" |Natural
!Synthetic
!Semi-synthetic
|-
!Cellulosic fibres (Vegetable or plant fibres)
!Protein fibres (Animal fibres)
!Mineral fibres
!Petroleum based
![[Cellulose]] based
|-
|[[Cotton]]
|[[Wool]]
|[[Asbestos]]
|[[Nylon]]
|[[Rayon]]
|-
|[[Linen]]
|[[Silk]]
|[[Glass fiber|Glass fibre]]
|[[Polyester]]
|[[Acetate]]
|-
|[[Jute]]
|
|
|[[Acrylic fiber|Acrylic fibre]]
|[[Cellulose triacetate|Triacetate]]
|-
|[[Hemp]]
|
|
|[[Olefin fiber|Olefin fibre]]
|
|-
|[[Bamboo textile|Bamboo Fibre]]
|
|
|[[Spandex]]
|
|-
|
|
|
|[[Aramid]]
|
|}

=== Fibre properties ===
Fibre properties influence textile characteristics such as aesthetics, durability, comfort, and cost.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=69}}
Fineness is one of the important characteristics of the fibres. They have a greater length-to-width ratio [100 times the diameter]. Fibres need to be strong, cohesive, and flexible. The usefulness of fibres are characterized on the basis of certain parameters such as strength, flexibility, and length to diameter ratio, and spinnability. Natural fibres are relatively short [<nowiki/>[[Staple (textiles)|staple]]] in length. Synthetic fibres are produced in longer lengths called filaments. [[Silk]] is the only natural fibre that is a filament. The classification of fibres is based on their origin, derivation, and generic types.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}{{sfn|Smith|1982|pp=64, 69}}

Certain properties of synthetic fibres, such as their diameter, [[Cross section (fiber)|cross section]], and colour, can be altered during production.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=66}}

Cotton: Cotton has a long history of use in the clothing due to its favourable properties. This fibre is soft, moisture-absorbent, breathable, and is renowned for its long durability.

==== Blends (blended textiles) ====
Fabric or [[yarn]] produced with a [[combination]] of two or more types of different [[fibre]]s, or yarns to obtain desired traits. Blending is possible at various stages of [[textile manufacturing]]. Final composition is liable for the properties of the resultant product. [[Natural fiber|Natural]] and [[synthetic fiber|synthetic fibres]] are blended to overcome disadvantage of single fibre properties and to achieve better performance characteristics and aesthetic effects such as [[devoré]], [[Heather (fabric)|heather effect, cross dyeing and stripes pattern]] etc. Clothing woven from a blend of cotton and [[polyester]] can be more durable and easier to maintain than material woven solely from cotton. Other than sharing functional properties, blending makes the products more economical.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barnett |first=Anne |title=Examining Textiles Technology |publisher=Heinemann Educational |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-435-42104-5 |page=51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gulrajani |first=M. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrgwAAAAMAAJ&q=blended+textiles+advantages |title=Blended Textiles: Papers of the 38th All India Textile Conference, an International Conference, November 18–20th ... Bombay |date=1981 |publisher=Textile Association |language=en |access-date=2020-11-22 |archive-date=2022-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127041052/https://books.google.com/books?id=JrgwAAAAMAAJ&q=blended+textiles+advantages |url-status=live }}</ref>

Union or Union fabrics is the 19th century term for blended fabrics. While it is no longer in use.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Montgomery |first=Florence M. |url=http://archive.org/details/textilesinameric00mont |title=Textiles in America 1650–1870: a dictionary based on original documents, prints and paintings, commercial records, American merchants' papers, shopkeepers' advertisements, and pattern books with original swatches of cloth |date=1984 |location=New York; London |publisher= Norton |isbn=978-0-393-01703-8 |page=369}}</ref> ''Mixture'' or ''mixed cloth'' is another term used for blended cloths when different types of yarns are used in warp and weft sides.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=402}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/fairchildsdictio0000unse |title=Fairchild's dictionary of textiles |date=1959 |location=New York |publisher= Fairchild Publications |page=355}}</ref>

Blended textiles are not new.
* [[Mashru]] was a 16th-century fabric, is one of the earliest forms of "mixed cloth", a material composed of silk and cotton.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8gnAQAAIAAJ&q=Mashru,+a+16th-century+fabric |title=Indian Journal of History of Science |date=1982 |publisher=National Institute of Sciences of India |page=120 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Siamoise]] was a 17th-century cotton and linen material.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Montgomery |first=Florence M. |url=http://archive.org/details/textilesinameric00mont |title=Textiles in America 1650–1870: a dictionary based on original documents, prints and paintings, commercial records, American merchants' papers, shopkeepers' advertisements, and pattern books with original swatches of cloth |date=1984 |location=New York; London |publisher= Norton |isbn=978-0-393-01703-8 |page=347}}</ref>

==== Composition ====
Fibre composition<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Raj |last2=Srivastava |first2=H.C. |title=Analysis of Fiber Blends. Part II. Determination of Blend Composition by Moisture Regain |journal=Textile Research Journal |date=June 1980 |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=359–362 |doi=10.1177/004051758005000607 }}</ref> the fibre blend composition of mixtures of the fibres,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ASTM D629 - 15 Standard Test Methods for Quantitative Analysis of Textiles |url=https://www.astm.org/Standards/D629.htm |access-date=2021-05-24 |website=www.astm.org |archive-date=2021-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518084425/https://www.astm.org/Standards/D629.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> is an important criterion to analyse the behaviour, properties such as functional aspects, and commercial classification of the merchandise.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1533/9780857097385.2.803 |chapter=The use of biomass to produce bio-based composites and building materials |title=Advances in Biorefineries |date=2014 |last1=Rowell |first1=R.M. |pages=803–818 |isbn=978-0-85709-521-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhArAQAAMAAJ |title=Mechanical Engineering |date=1956 |publisher=American Society of Mechanical Engineers |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Franck |first=R. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GbejAgAAQBAJ&q=Fiber+properties+is+an+important+criteria+to+analyze+in+blends&pg=PA230 |title=Silk, Mohair, Cashmere and Other Luxury Fibres |date=29 October 2001 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-85573-759-4 |page=230 |language=en |access-date=2021-05-23 |archive-date=2022-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127041049/https://books.google.com/books?id=GbejAgAAQBAJ&q=Fiber+properties+is+an+important+criteria+to+analyze+in+blends&pg=PA230 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The most common blend is cotton and polyester. Regular blended fabric is 65% polyester and 35% cotton. It is called a ''reverse blend'' if the ratio of cotton predominates—the percentage of the fibres changes with the price and required properties.

Blending adds value to the textiles; it helps in reducing the cost (artificial fibres are less expensive than natural fibres) and adding advantage in properties of the final product.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Joseph |first=Marjory L. |url=http://archive.org/details/josephsintroduct06edjose |title=Joseph's introductory textile science |date=1992 |location=Fort Worth |publisher= Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers |isbn=978-0-03-050723-6 |page=58}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Langan |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20gN3AousRAC&q=frontcover |title=Improving Reading Comprehension Skills |last2=Anton |first2=Harley F. |last3=Bader |first3=Carol H. |date=1992 |publisher=Townsend Press |isbn=978-0-944210-54-3 |language=en}}</ref> For instance, a small amount of spandex adds stretch to the fabrics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stauffer |first=Jeanne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_-NkR8TEyEC&q=blend+spandex+adds+elasticity&pg=PA139 |title=Sewing Smart with Fabric |date=2004 |publisher=DRG Wholesale |isbn=978-1-59217-018-0 |page=139 |language=en |access-date=2021-05-23 |archive-date=2022-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127041047/https://books.google.com/books?id=8_-NkR8TEyEC&q=blend+spandex+adds+elasticity&pg=PA139 |url-status=live }}</ref> Wool can add warmth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mendelson |first=Cheryl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfB99Kf38MwC&q=blend+spandex+adds+elasticity&pg=PA264 |title=Home Comforts: The Art and Science of Keeping House |date=17 May 2005 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-7286-5 |page=264 |language=en |access-date=2021-05-23 |archive-date=2022-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127041051/https://books.google.com/books?id=xfB99Kf38MwC&q=blend+spandex+adds+elasticity&pg=PA264 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Uses of different fibres ==

=== Natural fibres ===

====Plant====
[[File:Brudekjole, 1797.jpg|thumb|Bridal gown made from nettle fibres, probably worn by Eleonora Sophie Rantzau (1779-) at her wedding to [[Preben Bille-Brahe]], [[Hvedholm Castle]]. [[National Museum of Denmark]].]]
* [[Poaceae|Grass]], [[Juncaceae|rush]], [[hemp]], and [[sisal]] are all used in making [[rope]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URbaUVdk1NwC&dq=Grass,+rush,+hemp,+and+sisal+are+all+used+in+making+rope.&pg=PR41 |title=The Atlas of the World Commerce Maps, Text and Diagrams |date=1907 |publisher=Newnes |page=xli |language=en |access-date=2023-05-28 |archive-date=2023-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528130716/https://books.google.com/books?id=URbaUVdk1NwC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PR41&dq=Grass,+rush,+hemp,+and+sisal+are+all+used+in+making+rope.&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are used. [[Coir]] ([[coconut]] fibre) is used in making [[twine]], and also in floormats, [[Mat|doormats]], [[brush]]es, [[mattress]]es, floor tiles, and [[Bag|sacking]].
* [[Straw]] and [[bamboo textiles|bamboo]] are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is [[Ceiba pentandra|kapok]].
* Fibres from [[pulpwood]] trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and [[Urtica dioica|nettle]] are used in making paper.
* Cotton, [[Linen|flax]], [[jute]], [[hemp]], [[Modal (textile)|modal]], [[banana fiber|banana]], [[Bamboo textile|bamboo]], [[Lotus silk|lotus]], [[eucalyptus]], [[Morus (plant)|mulberry]], and [[sugarcane]] are all used in clothing.<ref name=TH_1>{{cite web| title=Tiare Hawaiʻi Is Making Ultra-Cute Dresses from Pineapple, Banana and Eucalyptus| author=Thalmann, B.|
url=https://www.honolulumagazine.com/tiare-hawaii-is-making-ultra-cute-dresses-from-pineapple-banana-and-eucalyptus| website=[[Honolulu Magazine]]| date=30 August 2022| access-date=1 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hendrickx |first1=Katrien |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ULyu8dNqS1sC|page=188}} |title=The Origins of Banana-fibre Cloth in the Ryukyus, Japan |publisher=Leuven University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-5867-614-6 |page=188 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327155254/https://books.google.com/books?id=ULyu8dNqS1sC&pg=PA188&dq=banana%20textile#v=onepage&q=banana%20textile |archive-date=27 March 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=BS_1>{{cite web| title=Banana Saris, Lotus Shawls, Bamboo Jeans: How Desi Fashion Is Going Green!| author=Kadapa-Bose, S.| url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/262318/sustainable-fashion-designers-clothes-plant-fabric-banana-bamboo-cloth| website=the better india| date=15 September 2021| access-date=1 February 2024}}</ref> [[Piña]] ([[pineapple]] fibre) and [[ramie]] are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax.
* The inner bark of the [[Lagetta lagetto|lacebark tree]] is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
* [[cellulose acetate|Acetate]] is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, [[velvet]]s, and [[taffeta]]s.
* [[Seaweed]] is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as [[Alginic acid|alginate]] is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
* [[Rayon]] is a manufactured fibre derived from plant pulp.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anstey |first=H. (Helen) |url=http://archive.org/details/ansteywestonguid0000anst |title=The Anstey Weston guide to textile terms |date=1997 |location=Great Britain |publisher= Weston |isbn=978-0-9530130-0-5}}</ref> Different types of rayon can imitate [[Hand feel|feel]] and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.

Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres. Hemp fibre is yellowish-brown fibre made from the hemp plant. The fibre characteristics are coarser, harsher,{{clarify|coarser and harsher than what?|date=September 2023}} strong and lightweight. Hemp fibre is used primary to make twine, rope and cordage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Allen |title=J.J. Pizzuto's Fabric Science |date=11 November 2011 |publisher=Fairchild Books |isbn=978-1-60901-380-6 |edition=tenth |page=41}}</ref>

====Animal====
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin, or silk (in the case of silkworms).{{clarify|Use of skin in textiles|date=September 2023}}
* Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with a [[wax]] mixture known as [[lanolin]] (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vatin Nikolai Ivanovich |first=Alexandr A. Berlin, Roman Joswik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mt6YCgAAQBAJ&dq=lanolin++is+waterproof+and+dirtproof&pg=PA142 |title=Engineering Textiles |publisher=Apple Academic Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4987-0603-2 |page=142 |access-date=2023-03-19 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405081531/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mt6YCgAAQBAJ&dq=lanolin++is+waterproof+and+dirtproof&pg=PA142 |url-status=live }}</ref> The lanolin and other contaminants are removed from the raw wool before further processing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arno Cahn |first=Edward C. Leonard, Edward George Perkins |title=Proceedings of the World Conference on Palm and Coconut Oils for the 21st Century |publisher=AOCS Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-935315-99-8 |page=115}}</ref> [[Woollen]] refers to a yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while [[worsted]] refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel.
** Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are [[alpaca wool]], [[vicuña wool]], [[llama wool]], [[chiengora]], [[shatoosh]], [[yak fiber|yak fibre]] and [[camel hair]], generally used in the production of coats, jackets, [[poncho]]s, blankets, and other warm coverings.
** ''[[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]]'', the hair of the Indian [[cashmere goat]], and [[mohair]], the hair of the North African [[angora goat]], are types of wool known for their softness. [[Pashmina]] is a type of very fine cashmere wool. Used in the production of sweaters and scarfs.
** ''[[Angora wool|Angora]]'' refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the [[angora rabbit]]. [[Qiviut]] is the fine inner wool of the [[muskox]].
* [[Silk]] is an animal textile made from the fibres of the [[Cocoon (silk)|cocoon]] of the Chinese [[silkworm]] which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the ''[[Bombyx mori]]'', and 'wild silk' such as [[Wild silk|Tussah silk]] (wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trevisan |first=Adrian |title=Cocoon Silk: A Natural Silk Architecture |url=http://www.senature.com/research/publications/cocoon-silk-a-natural-architecture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507085636/http://www.senature.com/research/publications/cocoon-silk-a-natural-architecture |archive-date=2012-05-07 |publisher=Sense of Nature}}</ref> Silk products include pillow covers, dresses, tops, skirts, bed sheets, curtains.

====Microbes====
[[Bacterial cellulose]] can be made from industrial organic and agricultural waste, and used as material for textiles and clothing.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://stockhead.com.au/health/why-nanollose-is-on-the-verge-of-a-major-market-opportunity-with-its-fibre-conversion-technology-as-global-fashion-brands-come-knocking/ |title=Why Nanollose is on the verge of a major market opportunity with its fibre conversion technology, as global fashion brands come knocking |date=14 February 2022 |access-date=2022-09-26 |archive-date=2022-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215183949/https://stockhead.com.au/health/why-nanollose-is-on-the-verge-of-a-major-market-opportunity-with-its-fibre-conversion-technology-as-global-fashion-brands-come-knocking/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Mineral====
* Asbestos and [[basalt fibre]] are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
* [[Glass fibre]] is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with [[Teflon]] to produce [[beta cloth]], a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States [[space suit]]s since 1968.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=toeN-glF_nsC&dq=beta+cloth,+a+virtually+fireproof+fabric+which+replaced+nylon+in+the+outer+layer+of+United+States+space+suits+since+1968&pg=PA469-IA2 |title=Apollo Accident, Hearing .... |date=1968 |pages=469, 557 |language=en |access-date=2023-05-28 |archive-date=2023-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528133641/https://books.google.com/books?id=toeN-glF_nsC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA469-IA2&dq=beta+cloth,+a+virtually+fireproof+fabric+which+replaced+nylon+in+the+outer+layer+of+United+States+space+suits+since+1968&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of [[cloth-of-gold]] and jewellery. [[Hardware cloth]] (US term only) is a coarse woven [[mesh]] of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard [[window screen]]ing, but heavier and with a more open weave.

Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in [[emery cloth]], a layer of [[Emery (rock)|emery]] abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a US term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarse [[sandpaper]].

=== Synthetic ===

In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest [[microfibre]] made of strands thinner than one [[Units of textile measurement#Denier|denier]] to the sturdiest [[canvas]].

Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of [[geotextile]]s. Synthetic fibres are those that are constructed by humans through chemical synthesis.
* [[Polyester]] fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
* [[Aramid]] fibre (e.g. [[Twaron]]) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
* [[Acrylic fibre|Acrylic]] is a fibre used to imitate wools,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hammerskog |first1=Paula |url=https://archive.org/details/swedishknitsclas0000hamm |title=Swedish Knits: Classic and Modern Designs in the Scandinavian Tradition |last2=Wincent |first2=Eva |date=2009 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Inc. |isbn=978-1-60239-724-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/swedishknitsclas0000hamm/page/32 32] |language=en |quote=acrylic fiber used to imitate wools. |url-access=registration}}</ref> including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
* Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of [[pantyhose]]. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
* [[Spandex]] (trade name ''Lycra'') is a [[polyurethane]] product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make [[activewear]], [[Brassiere|bras]], and [[swimsuit]]s.
* [[Olefin fibre]] is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name [[Tyvek]].
* [[Ingeo]] is a [[polylactide]] fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.
* [[Lurex (yarn)|Lurex]] is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
* Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or [[casein]] fibre cloth was developed during [[World War I]] in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.<ref>Euroflax Industries Ltd. [http://euroflax.com/products_imports%20of_textiles.htm "Euroflaxx Industries (Import of Textiles)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113023858/http://euroflax.com/products_imports%20of_textiles.htm|date=13 January 2010}}</ref> Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a [[biodegradation|biodegradable]], [[renewable resource|renewable]] synthetic fibre.<ref>{{cite news |author=Fonte, Diwata |date=23 August 2005 |title=Milk-fabric clothing raises a few eyebrows |work=The Orange County Register |url=http://www.textile-technology.com/2010/04/milk-fabric-clothing-raises-a-few-eyebrows/ |access-date=2009-10-21 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501074855/http://www.textile-technology.com/2010/04/milk-fabric-clothing-raises-a-few-eyebrows/ |archive-date=1 May 2015}}</ref>
* [[Carbon fibre]] is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as [[carbon fibre reinforced plastic]]. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through [[carbonization]].

== Production methods ==
{{Main|Textile manufacturing|Textile industry}}
Textile manufacturing has progressed from prehistoric crafts to a fully automated industry.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}} Over the years, there have been continuous improvements in fabric structure and design.{{sfn|Birrell|1973|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Production methods
!Production method
!Description
!Inventors, inventions and milestones in progression
!
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Barkcloth]]
|Barkcloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Veys |first=Fanny Wonu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lCytDQAAQBAJ |title=Unwrapping Tongan Barkcloth: Encounters, Creativity and Female Agency |date=26 January 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4742-8331-1 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=245}}
|Bark is an older known fabric; ancient people around the world wore bark cloth daily until woven fabrics replaced it. In [[Indonesia]], the bark cloth is associated with the [[Torajan people]], who made it from the fermentation of inner bark of certain local trees, mulberry and pandanus. The Torajans used stones and wooden beaters to produce bark cloth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Warming |first=Wanda |url=http://archive.org/details/worldofindonesia0000warm_v5j5 |title=The world of Indonesian textiles |date=1981 |location=Tokyo; New York |publisher= Kodansha International |isbn=978-0-87011-432-8 |page=56}}</ref>
|[[File:Barkcloth dress of Lore Bada, Central Sulawesi.jpg|thumb|center|Barkcloth dress of Lore Bada people in Lore Valley, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. This collection of Central Sulawesi Museum was exhibited in Textile Museum Jakarta in November 2016.]]
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Felt]] and other [[Nonwoven fabric|nonwoven]] fabrics
|Felting is a method of manufacturing fabric directly from fibres by entangling, interlocking the fibres by mechanical action (like rubbing and pressing) and often aided by heat and moisture.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=245}}
|Felting is another old method of fabric manufacturing. While civilizations in the [[Mediterranean Sea|western Mediterranean]] improved their weaving skills, [[nomad]]s in Central Asia learned how to make felt, a non-woven material, from wool.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=5}}{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=245}} Felting involves applying pressure and friction to a mat of fibres, working and rubbing them together until the fibres become interlocked and tangled, forming a nonwoven textile. A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibres, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool.{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=245}} More recently, additional methods have been developed to bond fibres into nonwoven fabrics, including needle punching, adhesives, and chemical binding.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=5}}{{sfn|Kadolph|1998|p=245}}{{sfn|Chapman|2010|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}
|[[File:Kazah jurta.jpg|thumb|center|[[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] felt [[yurt]]]] [[File:Spunbond.jpg|center|thumb|Spunbond nonwoven fabric]]
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Weaving]]
|Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer [[Yarn|threads]] (called the [[warp (weaving)|warp]]) with a set of crossing threads (called the [[weft]]). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.{{sfn|Birrell|1973|pp=1–14}}
|Handlooms: Early [[loom]]s date to 5000 BC. From antiquity until the mediaeval times, the loom improved in both Asia and Europe, despite the fact that the loom's fundamental operation remained unchanged.<ref>{{Cite web |title=loom {{!}} weaving {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/loom |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713060703/https://www.britannica.com/technology/loom |url-status=live }}</ref> In 200 BC, the Chinese invented vertical looms and pedal looms, transforming the craft into an industry. By decreasing the worker's workload, innovative solutions improved productivity.
There were harnesses and [[heddle]]s to govern the movement of the warp yarn, a shuttle to transport the weft yarns, a reed to compact the cloth, and a take up roller to roll down the cloth. By the 1st century AD, all necessary components for a loom were assembled.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=6}}

Power looms: [[John Kay (flying shuttle)|John Kay]] invented the [[flying shuttle]] in 1734 in Bury, Lancashire. It was one of the first innovations in the cotton woven fabric industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Kay {{!}} British engineer and inventor {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Kay |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318071514/https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Kay |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Samuel Crompton]] invented a [[Spinning mule|spinning machine]] in 1779 that produced yarn faster than ever before. Then [[Edmund Cartwright]] invented the first [[power loom]] in 1785.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=10}}

Jacquard loom: The [[Jacquard machine]] was a modified version of programmable loom developed in 1804. It was developed by [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]] based on earlier inventions by [[Basile Bouchon]] (1725), Jean Baptiste Falcon (1728), and [[Jacques Vaucanson]] (1740).

The industrial revolution in the 18th century led to mass production of yarn and cloth, which led to the growth of the woven fabric part of the textile industry.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hammond |first1=J. L. (John Lawrence) |url=http://archive.org/details/skilledlabourer00hammiala |title=The skilled labourer, 1760–1832 |last2=Hammond |first2=Barbara Bradby |date=1919 |publisher=London, New York [etc.] : Longmans, Green and co. |others=University of California Libraries |page=51}}</ref>
|[[File:Warp and weft 2.jpg|thumb|center|Warp and weft]]
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Knitting]]
|Knitting involves interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a [[knitting needle]], needle, or on a [[crochet hook]], together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop.<ref name="Rowe-1997">{{Cite book |last=Rowe |first=Ann Pollard |title=Looping and Knitting |publisher=The Textile Museum |year=1997 |location=Washington, D.C. |page=2}}</ref>
|Hand knitting: Though knitting was developed by [[Danes]] around 900 BC it did not reach to other civilizations until 900 AD.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=5}} Europe learned to knit by hand around 1400. Three to four stockings could be knit in a week by 1450. [[William Lee (inventor)|William Lee]] invented a [[stocking frame]] in 1589 that could knit one stocking per day. Acceptance of Lee's invention and subsequent modifications resulted in a wide range of fabrics in Europe.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=8}} The machine knitting is separated into two main groups of production processes: warp knitting and weft knitting.
|[[File:Knit-schematic.png|thumb|center|Loop formation. Structure of stockinette stitch in a weft knitted fabric.]]
|-
|[[Nålebinding]]
|Nålebinding involves the use of a needle to form loops of yarn, by passing the full length of yarn through each loop (unlike knitting and crocheting).
|Nålebinding is a precursor of crocheting and knitting.
|[[File:Handschuhe Nadelbindung.JPG|thumb|Mittens produced by nålebinding]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Crochet]]ing
|Crocheting never involves more than one active stitch on the needle. Knitting can be performed by machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.<ref name="Rowe-1997" />
|Crocheting was originally practised by Scottish peasants with a small, hooked needle known as a shepherd's hook.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frances Lambert |url=http://archive.org/details/mycrochetsample00lambgoog |title=My crochet sampler |date=1844 |others=Oxford University |page=12 |language=English}}</ref>
|[[File:Crochet-round.jpg|thumb|center|Most crochet uses one hook and works upon one stitch at a time. Crochet may be worked in circular rounds without any specialized tools, as shown here.]]
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Spread tow fabric|Spread tow]]
|Spread tow is a production method where the tow fibres are spread into thin tapes, and then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used for composite materials; spread tow fabrics can be made in [[carbon fibers|carbon]], [[aramid]] and other fibres.
|
|
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Braid]]ing or plaiting
|Braiding or plaiting involves intertwining threads together into cloth.
|
|[[File:Braid StepBystep.jpg|thumb|center|Braiding]]
|-
|[[Knot]]ting
|[[Knot]]ting involves tying threads together and is used in making [[tatting]] and [[macrame]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Collier |first=Billie J. |url=http://archive.org/details/understandingtex0000coll_b7k9 |title=Understanding textiles |date=2009 |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |publisher= Pearson Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-118770-2 |page=543}}</ref>{{sfn|Birrell|1973|p=279}}
|
|
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Lace]]
|Lace is made by interlocking threads together to create a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand (e.g. [[needle lace]] or [[bobbin lace]]) or machine.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Dorothy Siegert |url=http://archive.org/details/moderntextiles02edlyle |title=Modern textiles |date=1982 |location=New York |publisher= Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-07805-0 |page=474}}</ref>
|
|[[File:Ursuline lace 2.jpg|thumb|center|Bobbin lace in progress]]
|-
|3D Textiles
|Complex interlacement of yarns where the final product has not plain form as flat fabrics, but 3D form.
|All technologies - weft knitting, warp knitting, weaving and braiding allow production of complex products with 3D form if suitable machine configuration and pattern are used. This technologies are used for woven heart valves, composite profiles and other.
|
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[3D textiles|Additive manufactured textile like structures]]
|Fabric manufacturing by [[3D printing|3D printer]] employs additive manufacturing, also known as additive layer manufacturing (ALM), a [[Computer-aided design|CAD-aided]] manufacturing technique that builds the object layer by layer. The method is used in manufacturing of [[Auxetics|Auxetic]] textiles and in composite materials.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hu |first1=Hong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7_mhDwAAQBAJ&q=three+dimensional |title=Auxetic Textiles |last2=Zhang |first2=Minglonghai |last3=Liu |first3=Yanping |date=11 July 2019 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-0-08-102212-2 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-27 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405094440/https://books.google.com/books?id=7_mhDwAAQBAJ&q=three+dimensional |url-status=live }}</ref>
|
|[[File:XYZprinting inBloom Dress 3D Printed Outfit (16837487086).jpg|thumb|center|3D-printed outfit]]
|}
Important parameters in fabric selection:

The primary consideration in fabric selection is the end use. The fabric needs vary greatly depending on the application. Similar types of fabric may not be suitable for all applications.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=18}}

[[Units of textile measurement#Grams per square metre (GSM)|Fabric weight]] is an important criteria while producing different fabrics. A carpet requires a fabric with 1300 GSM, but a robe may be made with 160 GSM. Certainly, fabrics for clothes and carpets have distinct weights.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=18}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Range of fabric weights typically used in various textile products{{sfn|Humphries|1996|p=4}}
!GSM (grams per square metre) range
!Categorization
!Termed as
!Suitable for the textile products
|-
|0–50
|[[Sheer fabric]]
|
|Sheer curtains, Lingerie items, [[Wedding dress]]es,
|-
|50–150
|Light weight
|Top weight
|[[Blouse]], [[Lining (sewing)|Lining]], Shirt, [[T-shirt]], Dress
|-
|150–300
|Medium weight
|Bottom weight
|Skirts, trousers, denims, and suits
|-
|300–600
|Medium to heavy weight
|Bull denim
|[[Drapery]], overcoat, towel, [[slipcover]], workwear
|-
|More than 600
|Heavy
|
|Carpet, mat, [[upholstery]], winter coats
|}
Stretchable fabrics have greater movability and are thus more comfortable than fabrics with no stretch or less stretch.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=23}}

=== Textile exports ===
{{See also|List of countries by textile exports}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! colspan=2| '''Top five exporters of textiles—2013''' ($ billion)
|-
| China || style="text-align:right;"| 274
|-
| India || style="text-align:right;"| 40
|-
| Italy || style="text-align:right;"| 36
|-
| Germany || style="text-align:right;"| 35
|-
| Bangladesh || style="text-align:right;"| 28
|-
|colspan=2 style="font-size:90%;"|''Source:''<ref name=stat>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/India-overtakes-Germany-and-Italy-is-new-world-No-2-in-textile-exports/articleshow/35973054.cms |title=India overtakes Germany and Italy, is new world No. 2 in textile exports |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=3 June 2014 |access-date=2015-02-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215101537/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/India-overtakes-Germany-and-Italy-is-new-world-No-2-in-textile-exports/articleshow/35973054.cms |archive-date=2015-02-15}}</ref>
|}

According to the UN Commodity Trade Statistics Database, the global textiles and apparel export market reached $772 billion in 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |title=India world's second largest textiles exporter: UN Comtrade |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/garments-/-textiles/india-worlds-second-largest-textiles-exporter-un-comtrade/articleshow/35958852.cms |access-date=2022-05-31 |archive-date=2022-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531035900/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/garments-/-textiles/india-worlds-second-largest-textiles-exporter-un-comtrade/articleshow/35958852.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Changing dynamics of the market ====
China is the largest exporter of textile goods. Most of China's exports consist of apparel, apparel accessories, textile yarns, and textile products. The competitive advantages of the China are low prices and abundant labor, lowered commercial obstacles, and a ready supply of raw materials. China, along with the United States and India, is a major producer of cotton.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Largest textile exporting countries in 2019 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/236397/value-of-the-leading-global-textile-exporters-by-country/ |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=Statista |language=en |archive-date=2022-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531042947/https://www.statista.com/statistics/236397/value-of-the-leading-global-textile-exporters-by-country/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World cotton production by country 2019 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263055/cotton-production-worldwide-by-top-countries/ |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=Statista |language=en |archive-date=2020-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417213314/https://www.statista.com/statistics/263055/cotton-production-worldwide-by-top-countries/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

China's apparel market share has declined in recent years due to various reasons and a shift toward high-end, sophisticated products. Additionally, the investors from China made stakes in Myanmar, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Last year, its market share was 36.7%, or $161 billion, a decline of 8% year-over-year. In other words, China lost $14 billion in garment work orders to other countries in a single year. In 2016, Bangladesh's apparel market share was valued at $28 billion, increasing 7.69 percent from the previous year.

In 2016 the leading exporters of apparel were China ($161 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion), Vietnam ($25 billion), India ($18 billion), Hong Kong ($16 billion), Turkey ($15 billion), and Indonesia ($7 billion).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mirdha |first=Refayet Ullah |date=11 August 2017 |title=Exporters hardly grab orders diverted from China |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/exporters-hardly-grab-orders-diverted-china-1446907 |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=The Daily Star |language=en |archive-date=2022-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523144220/https://www.thedailystar.net/business/exporters-hardly-grab-orders-diverted-china-1446907 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Garment exports from Bangladesh reached record high in the 2021–2022 fiscal year; China ($220,302 billion), Bangladesh ($38.70 billion), India ($8.127 billion), Pakistan ($19.33 billion).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yusuf |first=Anik |date=12 March 2023 |title=Garment Exports in Bangladesh Reached Record High in 2021–2022 Fiscal Year |url=https://textiletuts.com/garment-exports-in-bangladesh-reached-record-high-in-2021-2022-fiscal-year/ |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=TextileTuts |language=en |archive-date=2023-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315141526/https://textiletuts.com/garment-exports-in-bangladesh-reached-record-high-in-2021-2022-fiscal-year/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Finishing ==
[[File:Old method of Bleaching Figure 20 Appleton 1884.tif|thumb|right|Early method of bleaching cotton and linen goods on lawns]]
The fabric, when it leaves a loom or knitting machine, is not readily usable. It may be rough, uneven, or have flaws like skewing. Hence, it is necessary to finish the fabric. Finishing techniques enhance the value of the treated fabrics.{{sfn|Smith|1982|p=6}} After manufacturing, textiles undergo a range of finishing procedures, including bleaching, dyeing, printing, as well as mechanical and chemical finishing.<ref name="Choudhury-2017" />

=== Coloration ===
Textiles are often [[dyeing|dyed]], with fabrics available in almost every [[Color of clothing|colour]]. The dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.<ref>Green Inc. Blog [http://greeninc.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/21/cutting-water-use-in-the-textile-industry/ "Cutting Water Use in the Textile Industry."] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724170857/http://greeninc.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/21/cutting-water-use-in-the-textile-industry/ |date=24 July 2009 }} ''[[The New York Times]]''. 21 July 2009. 28 July 2009.</ref> Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours ([[tartan]] or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric ([[embroidery]]), creating patterns by [[resist dyeing]] methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest ([[tie-dyeing]]), drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them ([[batik]]), or using various printing processes on finished fabric. [[Woodblock printing]], still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in China. Textiles are also sometimes [[bleach]]ed, making the textile pale or white.

==== Colour matching ====
In textiles, colour matching extends beyond selecting the appropriate dyestuffs or pigments and combining them in precise proportions to achieve the desired end product colour.<ref name="Becker Color Matching">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-39395-9.00038-4 |chapter=Color Matching |title=Color Trends and Selection for Product Design |date=2016 |last1=Becker |first1=Doreen |pages=183–184 |isbn=978-0-323-39395-9 }}</ref> Meeting criteria for fastness, cost, and quality is also essential. This process plays a critical role in materializing a designer's concept into an actual product.<ref name="Becker Color Matching" />

=== Finishes ===
[[Textile finishing]] is the process of converting the loomstate or raw goods into a useful product, which can be done mechanically or chemically. Finishing is a broad term that refers to a variety of physical and chemical techniques and treatments that finish one stage of textile production while also preparing for the next. Textile finishing can include aspects like improving surface feel, aesthetical enhancement, and adding advanced chemical finishes.<ref name="Choudhury-2017" /> A finish is any process that transforms [[Greige goods|unfinished products]] into finished products.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hollen |first1=Norma R. |url=http://archive.org/details/isbn_9780023675300 |title=Textiles |last2=Hollen |first2=Norma R. Textiles |date=1988 |location=New York |publisher= Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-367530-0 |page=2}}</ref> This includes mechanical finishing and chemical applications which alter the composition of treated textiles (fibre, yarn or fabric.)

Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as [[permanent press]] process, [[Finishing (textiles)|finishing]] agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ask.yahoo.com/ask/20010315.html |title=What makes fabric "wrinkle-free"? Is it the weave or a special type of fiber? |publisher=Ask.yahoo.com |date=15 March 2001 |access-date=2011-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117025006/http://ask.yahoo.com/ask/20010315.html |archive-date=2012-01-17}}</ref> More recently, [[nanomaterials]] research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing permanent treatments based on metallic [[nanoparticle]]s for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/jom/0507/byko-0507.html |title=The Materials Science and Engineering of Clothing |publisher=Tms.org |access-date=2011-12-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121161232/http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/jom/0507/byko-0507.html |archive-date=2012-01-21}}</ref>

Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From [[formaldehyde]] finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes, for example, have been shown to be allergenic to sensitive individuals.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.00967.x |title=Textile dermatitis in patients with contact sensitization in Israel: A 4-year prospective study |year=2004 |last1=Lazarov |first1=A |journal=Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=531–7b |pmid=15324387 }}</ref> Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12952748 |year=2003 |last1=Lazarov |first1=A |last2=Cordoba |first2=M |last3=Plosk |first3=N |last4=Abraham |first4=D |title=Atypical and unusual clinical manifestations of contact dermatitis to clothing (textile contact dermatitis): Case presentation and review of the literature |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=1 |journal=Dermatology Online Journal|doi=10.5070/D30KD1D259 }}</ref>

{{lang|de|[[Eisengarn]]}}, meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The result of the process is a lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.<ref name="history">[http://www.wuppertal.ihk24.de/servicemarken/branchen_neu/industrie/industrie_im_bs/902782/Textilstandort_Wuppertal.html ''Industriegeschichte aus dem Bergischen land''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814102306/http://www.wuppertal.ihk24.de/servicemarken/branchen_neu/industrie/industrie_im_bs/902782/Textilstandort_Wuppertal.html |date=14 August 2017 }} (in German). (Accessed: 27 November 2016)</ref><ref name="video">[http://digit.wdr.de/entries/5900?index=69&q=eyJ7aH0iOlsiezE2fSIsInsxYX0iXSwie2t9IjpbInsyMn0iXSwiezF9IjpbeyJmaWVsZCI6IiJ9XX0%3D&qt=search WDR digit project. ''Eisengarnfabrikation in Barmen''.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128050159/http://digit.wdr.de/entries/5900?index=69&q=eyJ7aH0iOlsiezE2fSIsInsxYX0iXSwie2t9IjpbInsyMn0iXSwiezF9IjpbeyJmaWVsZCI6IiJ9XX0%3D&qt=search|date=28 November 2016}} (Video (16 min) in German). (Accessed: 27 November 2016).</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Finishing techniques
!Finishing
!Fabrics
|-
|[[Gig-mill|Brushing]]
|Carpets, rugs, velvet, [[velour]], and [[velveteen]], referred to as pile fabrics, are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a [[nap (fabric)|nap]] or [[pile (textile)|pile]].{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p=196}}
|-
|[[Shearing (textiles)|Shearing]]
|"Shearing machine" is a machine equipped with shearing cylinder, ledger blade, fluff exhaust, and joint seam sensors. The machine operates similarly to a lawn mower.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Choudhury |first=A. K. Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TamObsaaPQC&dq=shearing+process+in+textile&pg=PA138 |title=Textile Preparation and Dyeing |date=9 January 2006 |publisher=Science Publishers |isbn=978-1-57808-404-3 |page=138 |language=en |access-date=2022-06-01 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405081535/https://books.google.com/books?id=0TamObsaaPQC&dq=shearing+process+in+textile&pg=PA138 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p=197}} [[Moleskin]] and [[velvet]] are sheared materials in which pile is cut to a certain level.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denny |first=Grace G. (Grace Goldena) |url=http://archive.org/details/fabricshowtoknow00denn |title=Fabrics and how to know them;definitions of fabrics, practical textile tests, classification of fabrics |date=1923 |publisher=Philadelphia, London, J.B. Lippincott Company |others=The Library of Congress |page=103}}</ref>
|}

== Environmental and health impacts ==
After the oil industry, the fashion industry is the second biggest polluter of agricultural land, which has several harmful impacts on the environment. As the industry grows, the effect on the environment is worsening.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-323-85403-0.00004-9 |chapter=Waste management in fashion and textile industry: Recent advances and trends, life-cycle assessment, and circular economy |title=Emerging Trends to Approaching Zero Waste |date=2022 |last1=Gupta |first1=Richa |last2=Kushwaha |first2=Anamika |last3=Dave |first3=Dushyant |last4=Mahanta |first4=Niva Rana |pages=215–242 |isbn=978-0-323-85403-0 }}</ref> Textile manufacturing is one of the oldest and most technologically complicated industries. This industry's fundamental strength stems from its solid manufacturing base of a diverse range of fibres/yarns ranging from natural fibres such as jute, silk, wool, and cotton, to synthetic or manufactured fibres that include polyester, viscose, nylon, and acrylic.

Textile mills and their wastewater have grown in proportion to the increase in demand for textile products, generating a severe pollution concern around the world. Numerous textile industry chemicals pose environmental and health risks. Among the compounds in textile effluent, dyes are considered significant contaminants. Water pollution generated by the discharge of untreated wastewater and the use of toxic chemicals, particularly during processing, account for the majority of the global environmental concerns linked with the textile industry.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-7890-0_4 |chapter=Environmental and Health Effects of Textile Industry Wastewater |title=Environmental Deterioration and Human Health |date=2014 |last1=Khan |first1=Sana |last2=Malik |first2=Abdul |pages=55–71 |isbn=978-94-007-7889-4 }}</ref>

=== Environmental impacts ===
Clothing is necessary to meet the fundamental needs of humans. Increased population and living standards have increased the need for clothing, enhancing the demand for textile manufacturing; wet processing needs more water consumption.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muthu |first=Subramanian Senthilkannan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pvx7DwAAQBAJ&q=water+in+textile+and+fashion |title=Water in Textiles and Fashion: Consumption, Footprint, and Life Cycle Assessment |date=26 November 2018 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-0-08-102654-0 |language=en |access-date=2023-01-07 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405094439/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pvx7DwAAQBAJ&q=water+in+textile+and+fashion |url-status=live }}</ref> Conventional machinery and treatment procedures use enormous quantities of water, especially for natural fibres, which require up to 150 kg of water per kg of material.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Walt |first1=G. H. J. |last2=van Rensburg |first2=N. J. J. |title=Low-Liquor Dyeing and Finishing |journal=Textile Progress |date=March 1986 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=1–50 |doi=10.1080/00405168608688900 }}</ref>
The textile sector is accountable for a substantial number of environmental impacts. However, the discharge of untreated effluents into water bodies is responsible for the majority of environmental harm produced by the textile sector.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1201/9781315148588 |title=Pollution Control in Textile Industry |date=2017 |last1=Bhatia |first1=S.C. |isbn=978-1-351-37306-7 |editor-first1=Sarvesh |editor-last1=Devraj }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>

The textile sector is believed to use 79 trillion litres of water per year and to discharge around 20% of all industrial effluent into the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Lisha |last2=Chen |first2=Bilin |last3=Liu |first3=Junran |last4=Chen |first4=Shuang |last5=Zhang |first5=Ying |last6=Wang |first6=Xiaopeng |last7=Wang |first7=Laili |date=19 October 2022 |title=Assessing baseline water footprints of natural fiber textile products in China |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=379 |language=en |article-number=134747 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134747 |bibcode=2022JCPro.37934747Z }}</ref> Reportedly, [[Aromatic compound|aromatic]] and [[heterocyclic compound]]s with colour-display and polar groups make up most of the dyes used in textile coloration processes. The structure is more complex and stable, making it more difficult to degrade printing and dyeing wastewater.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Körlü |first1=Ayşegül |title=Textile Industry and Environment |date=2019 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-1-83880-027-7 }}{{self-published inline|date=January 2025}}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>

In addition, textiles constitute a significant percentage of landfill waste. In 2023, [[North Carolina State University]] researchers used [[enzymes]] to separate cotton from [[polyester]] in an early step towards reducing textile waste, allowing each material to be recycled.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Oleniacz |first1=Laura |title=Researchers Separate Cotton From Polyester in Blended Fabric |date=20 March 2023 |url=https://news.ncsu.edu/2023/03/researchers-separate-cotton-from-polyester-in-blended-fabric/ |publisher=North Carolina State University |access-date=12 April 2023 |archive-date=12 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412014949/https://news.ncsu.edu/2023/03/researchers-separate-cotton-from-polyester-in-blended-fabric/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Textiles containing various kinds of plastics like polyesther, [[polyamide]], [[elastan]], [[polyacrylonitrile]], [[aramid]], [[polypropylene]], etc. are also a significant source of environmental pollution and impose health risks through the emission of [[microplastic]]s.<ref name="Sajn_2019">{{cite web |author-last=Sajn |author-first=Nikolina |title=Environmental Impact of the Textile and Clothing Industry: What Consumers Need to Know |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/633143/EPRS_BRI(2019)633143_EN.pdf |date=2019 |website=[[European Parliament]] |publisher=European Parliamentary Research Service |access-date=2025-05-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827190134/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/633143/EPRS_BRI(2019)633143_EN.pdf |archive-date=2025-08-27}}</ref>

=== Health impacts ===
Many kinds of respiratory diseases, skin problems, and allergies may be caused by dyes and pigments discharged into the water.

Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scheman |first1=AJ |last2=Carroll |first2=PA |last3=Brown |first3=KH |last4=Osburn |first4=AH |year=1998 |title=Formaldehyde-related textile allergy: An update |journal=Contact Dermatitis |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=332–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.1998.tb05769.x |pmid=9687033 |doi-access=free }}</ref> due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity, are concerned.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alaee |first1=M |title=An overview of commercially used brominated flame retardants, their applications, their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible modes of release |journal=Environment International |date=September 2003 |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=683–689 |doi=10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00121-1 |pmid=12850087 |bibcode=2003EnInt..29..683A }}</ref>

==== Chemicals use, advantage and health impacts ====
Certain chemical finishes contain potential hazards to health and the environment. [[Perfluorinated compound|Perfluorinated acids]] are considered to be hazardous to human health by the [[US Environmental Protection Agency]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OCSPP|date=29 April 2015|title=Chemicals under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)|url=https://www.epa.gov/chemicals-under-tsca|access-date=2021-07-24|website=www.epa.gov|language=en|archive-date=2010-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100118092730/http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/deccadbe.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Name of the substance
!Advantage in textile products
!Associated health risks and environmental impacts
!References
|-
|[[Perfluorooctanoic acid]] (PFOA), [[Polytetrafluoroethylene]] (Teflon)
|[[Hydrophobic effect]]
|[[Endocrine disruptor]]
|<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Betts|first=Kellyn S.|date=2007|title=Perfluoroalkyl Acids: What Is the Evidence Telling Us?|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=115|issue=5|pages=A250–A256|doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a250|issn=0091-6765|pmc=1867999|pmid=17520044 |bibcode=2007EnvHP.115.a250B }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA): 1. What is PFOA and what is it used for?|url=https://www.greenfacts.org/en/pfoa-cookware-waterproofing/l-2/index.htm|access-date=2021-07-01|website=www.greenfacts.org|archive-date=2021-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182349/https://www.greenfacts.org/en/pfoa-cookware-waterproofing/l-2/index.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Fluorocarbon]] (PFC)
|Hydrophobic effect
|May cause respiratory illness
|<ref>{{Citation|last1=Hays|first1=Hannah L.|title=Fluorides and Fluorocarbons Toxicity|date=2021|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430799/|work=StatPearls|place=Treasure Island (FL)|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=28613550|access-date=2021-07-01|last2=Mathew|first2=Dana|last3=Chapman|first3=Jennifer|archive-date=2021-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811104636/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430799/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Bromine]]
|[[Brominated flame retardant]]
|[[Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances]] may cause [[neurobehavioral disorders]] and [[endocrine disruption]]
|<ref>{{cite web|title=Brominated Flame retardants in the Environment|url=https://www.cerc.usgs.gov/pubs/center/pdfdocs/pbde.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-01|archive-date=2021-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181419/https://www.cerc.usgs.gov/pubs/center/pdfdocs/pbde.pdf}}</ref>
|-
|Silver, [[silver nanoparticle]]
|[[Antimicrobial resistance]]
|[[Environmental impact of silver nanoparticles]] and toxic effects on human health
|<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ermini|first1=Maria Laura|last2=Voliani|first2=Valerio|date=27 April 2021|title=Antimicrobial Nano-Agents: The Copper Age|journal=ACS Nano|volume=15|issue=4|pages=6008–6029|doi=10.1021/acsnano.0c10756|issn=1936-0851|pmc=8155324|pmid=33792292 |bibcode=2021ACSNa..15.6008E }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=AshaRani |first1=P. V. |last2=Low Kah Mun |first2=Grace |last3=Hande |first3=Manoor Prakash |last4=Valiyaveettil |first4=Suresh |title=Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles in Human Cells |journal=ACS Nano |date=24 February 2009 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=279–290 |doi=10.1021/nn800596w |pmid=19236062 |bibcode=2009ACSNa...3..279A |url=http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/93520 }}</ref>
|}

==== Testing ====
Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories. It is also possible to have textiles tested according to the [[Oeko-tex]] certification standard, which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.

== Laws and regulations ==
Different countries have certain laws and regulations to protect consumers' interests. The [[Textile Fiber Products Identification Act]] is a law that protects consumers in the United States. The act protects producer and consumer interests by implementing labelling (required content disclosure) and advertising requirements on textile products. The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act applies to all textile fibre products besides wool, which is governed by the Wool Product Label Number. The law prohibits misinformation about the fibre content, misbranding, and any unfair advertising practice, as well as requires businesses to operate in a particular manner.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kadolph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gIzOkQXARpsC&q=Textile+Fiber+Products+Identification+Act+(TFPIA)&pg=PA433 |title=Textiles |date=2009 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-81-317-2570-2 |page=433 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-22 |archive-date=2022-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522115921/https://books.google.com/books?id=gIzOkQXARpsC&q=Textile+Fiber+Products+Identification+Act+(TFPIA)&pg=PA433 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Elsasser|2005|p={{pn|date=January 2025}}}}

== Testing of textiles ==
Testing occurs at various stages of the textile manufacturing process, from raw material to finished product. The purpose of testing is to evaluate and analyse the regulatory compliance, the product's quality and performance, as well as to measure its specifications. Textile testing encompasses a wide range of methodologies, procedures, equipment, and sophisticated [[Laboratory|laboratories]]. Local governments and authorized organization's such as [[ASTM International]], [[International Organization for Standardization]], and [[American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists]] establish standards for testing of textiles.<ref name="Saville-1999">{{Cite book |last=Saville |first=B. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4-uiAgAAQBAJ&q=testing+of+textiles |title=Physical Testing of Textiles |date=8 January 1999 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-84569-015-1 |pages=1 to 24 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-27 |archive-date=2023-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409133727/https://books.google.com/books?id=4-uiAgAAQBAJ&q=testing+of+textiles |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hu-2008">{{Cite book |last=Hu |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybekAgAAQBAJ&q=testing+of+textiles |title=Fabric Testing |date=9 September 2008 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-84569-506-4 |pages=1 to 15 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-27 |archive-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405081538/https://books.google.com/books?id=ybekAgAAQBAJ&q=testing+of+textiles |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some examples of tests at different stages:

For fibre: Fibre identification is a necessary test for determining fibre content and classifying products. The labelling of items with their fibre content percentage is a regulatory requirement. Using [[Microscope|microscopy]], solubility, and burn tests, fibres are distinguished from one another.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kadolph |first=Sara J. |url=http://archive.org/details/textiles0010kado |title=Textiles |date=2007 |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |publisher= Pearson Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-118769-6 |pages=33, 34}}</ref> More fibre relating tests include fibre length, diameter, [[Cotton maturity|Micronaire]].<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1533/9781845690151.44 |chapter=Fibre dimensions |title=Physical Testing of Textiles |date=1999 |last1=Saville |first1=B.P. |pages=44–76 |isbn=978-1-85573-367-1 }}</ref>

For yarn: [[Units of textile measurement#Linear density|Yarn count]], [[Units of textile measurement#Denier|Denier]], Strength, evenness.

For fabric: [[Dimensional stability (fabric)|Dimensional stability]], [[colour fastness]], [[Units of textile measurement#Thread count|thread count]], [[Units of textile measurement#Grams per square metre (GSM)|G.S.M]], [[Pill (textile)|pilling]], [[Combustibility and flammability|flammability]].<ref name="Saville-1999" /><ref name="Hu-2008" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Houck |first=M. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xQmkAgAAQBAJ |title=Identification of Textile Fibers |date=30 January 2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-84569-565-1 |language=en |access-date=2022-05-27 |archive-date=2023-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305221621/https://books.google.com/books?id=xQmkAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Picture gallery ==

<gallery>
File:Karachi - Pakistan-market.jpg|Textile market on the sidewalks of [[Karachi]], Pakistan
File:Simple-textile-magnified.jpg|Magnified view of a plain or tabby weave textile
File:P1080828.JPG|Fabric shop in canal town [[Mukalla]], Yemen
File:DumbartonOaksTextileEuropa.jpg|Late antique textile, Egyptian, now in the [[Dumbarton Oaks]] collection
File:Conde nast fortuny.jpg|Mrs. [[Condé Montrose Nast|Condé Nast]] wearing a silk [[Delphos gown|Fortuny tea gown]]
File:Tablecloth romanian 1full view.jpg|Traditional [[tablecloth]], [[Maramureș]], Romania
File:Otavalo Artisan Market - Andes Mountains - South America - photograph 001.JPG|Textiles made from [[Alpaca]] wool at the [[Otavalo (city)|Otavalo]] Artisan Market in the Andes Mountains, Ecuador
File:Banton Burial Cloth.JPG|The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example of warp [[ikat]] in Southeast Asia, displayed at the [[National Museum of the Philippines]]. The cloth was most likely made by the native Asia people of northwest [[Romblon]].
File:Double ikat weaving from Sulu, Philippines, East-West Center.JPG|A double [[ikat]] weaving made by the [[Tausug people]] from [[Sulu]], made of banana leaf stalk fibre ([[Abacá]])
File:1963 Zepel advertisement.jpg|Advertisement for Zepel, the trade name used to market [[Teflon]] as a fabric treatment
File:Plevna-sali 1932.jpg|A [[weaving shed]] of the [[Finlayson (company)|Finlayson & Co]] factory in [[Tampere]], Finland, in 1932<ref>Doria-archive of the Finnish National Library{{full citation needed|date=October 2021}}</ref>
File:Textile machinery at Cambrian Factory, Llanwrtyd (1293828).jpg|Textile machinery at the Cambrian Factory, [[Llanwrtyd]], Wales, in the 1940s
File:BALLS OF COTTON (ANDHRA -SOUTH INDIA) READY FOR HARVEST.jpg|Cotton fibre
File:Nylon6 and Nylon 66.png|Nylon
File:Cloth 800.jpg|A variety of contemporary fabrics. From the left: evenweave [[cotton]], [[velvet]], [[Textile printing|printed cotton]], [[Calico (textile)|calico]], [[felt]], [[satin]], [[silk]], [[Hessian (Cloth)|hessian]], polycotton.
File:Dan Hadani collection (990044401360205171).jpg|A textile factory in Israel, 1969
File:Tartan Clan Campbell.png|Woven tartan of [[Clan Campbell]], Scotland
File:Embroidery-flowers-Alfaro-Nunez.jpg|[[embroidery|Embroidered]] skirts by the Alfaro-Nùñez family of Cochas, [[Peru]], using traditional Peruvian embroidery methods<ref>[http://art-gourds.com/the_craft_embroideries/en Art-Gourds.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013043017/http://art-gourds.com/the_craft_embroideries/en|date=2008-10-13}} Traditional Peruvian embroidery production methods</ref>
File:M0354 000727-005 1.jpg|alt=|A modern umbrella fabric has specific requirements for [[colour fastness]] to light, water and wet rubbing, and permeability.
File:Borduurtechnieken-applique kruis-gelegde draad.jpg|Appliqué cross. The edges are covered and stitches are hidden. It is overlaid with decorative gold thread.
File:Chiang Mai, Thailand, Colorful clothing.jpg|Clothing made of textiles, [[Thailand]]
File:Barong Up Close.jpg|Close-up view of a [[barong tagalog]] made with [[piña]] fibre in the [[Philippines]]
File:Scene with Fabric Tunnel - Srimangal - Sylhet Division - Bangladesh (12904860703).jpg|A fabric tunnel in [[Moulvibazar District]], Bangladesh
File:49-QWSTION-BANANATEX-FABRIC.jpg|A modern [[Manila hemp]] made on industrial weaving machines
File:Chancay - Textile Doll - Walters 83768.jpg|Textile doll (11th century), [[Chancay culture]], found near [[Lima]], [[Walters Art Museum]]. Of their small size, dolls are frequently found in ancient Peruvian tombs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Textile Doll|url=https://art.thewalters.org/detail/79394/textile-doll/|website=[[Walters Art Museum]] site}}</ref>
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Bamboo textile}}
* {{annotated link|Clothing in the ancient world}}
* {{annotated link|Green textile}}
* {{annotated link|International Down and Feather Testing Laboratory}}
* {{annotated link|List of textile fibres}}
* {{annotated link|Sustainable fashion}}
* {{annotated link|Technical textile}}
* {{annotated link|Textile arts}}
* {{annotated link|Textile manufacturing}}
** {{annotated link|Glossary of textile manufacturing }}
* {{annotated link|Textile printing}}
* {{annotated link|Textile recycling}}
* {{annotated link|Timeline of clothing and textiles technology}}
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |last=Birrell |first=Verla Leone |url=http://archive.org/details/textileartshandb0000birr |title=The textile arts: a handbook of weaving, braiding, printing, and other textile techniques |date=1973 |location=New York |publisher= Schocken Books |isbn=978-0-8052-0390-5 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chapman |first1=R. |title=Applications of Nonwovens in Technical Textiles |date=2010 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-1-84569-437-1 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Betty F. |url=http://archive.org/details/textilesinperspe0002smit |title=Textiles in perspective |date=1982 |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |publisher= Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-13-912808-0 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Joseph |first=Marjory L. |url=http://archive.org/details/introductorytext00jose |title=Introductory textile science |date=1977 |location=New York : Holt |publisher= Rinehart and Winston |isbn=978-0-03-089970-6 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Kadolph |first=Sara J. |url=http://archive.org/details/textiles0000kado |title=Textiles |date=1998 |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |publisher= Merrill |isbn=978-0-13-494592-7 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Elsasser |first=Virginia Hencken |url=http://archive.org/details/textiles00virg |title=Textiles: concepts and principles |date=2005 |location=New York, NY |publisher= Fairchild Publications |isbn=978-1-56367-300-9 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Weibel|first=Adèle Coulin|url=http://archive.org/details/twothousandyears0000unse_s3q7|title=Two thousand years of textiles; the figured textiles of Europe and the Near East|date=1952|location=New York |publisher= Pantheon Books}}
* {{Cite book |last=Humphries |first=Mary |url=http://archive.org/details/fabricreference0000hump |title=Fabric reference |date=1996 |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |publisher= Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-349671-0 }}

== Further reading ==
* Boucher, François. ''[[20,000 Years of Fashion]]: The history of costume and personal adornment''. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987 {{ISBN|0-8109-1693-2}}.
* Conrad, James L. "'Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of America's Textile History". ''Technology and culture ''36.1 (1995): 1–28. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3106339 online].
* Jenkins, David, ed.: ''The Cambridge History of Western Textiles'', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-521-34107-8}}.
* Payne, Blanche; Winakor, Geitel; Farrell-Beck Jane (1992) ''The History of Costume, from the Ancient Mesopotamia to the Twentieth Century'', 2nd Edn, HarperCollins {{ISBN|0-06-047141-7}}.
* Piponnier, Françoise; Perrine Mane (1997), ''Dress in the Middle Ages''. Yale UP. {{ISBN|0-300-06906-5}}.
* {{ cite book |first= Virginia |last= Postrel |author-link=Virginia Postrel |title=The Fabric of Civilization: How Textiles Made the World |date= 10 November 2020 |location= New York, NY |publisher= [[Basic Books]] |isbn= 978-1-5416-1760-5 |edition= Hardcover}}
* {{Cite book | last=Fisher | first=Nora | title=Rio Grande Textiles | publisher=Museum of New Mexico Press | edition=Paperbound |date=1994 |isbn= 0-89013-266-6}} Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as colour plates. Fisher is Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes of the [[Museum of International Folk Art]].
* {{cite book |doi=10.1515/9780824841676-010 |chapter=Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia |title=Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World |date=2017 |last1=Good |first1=Irene |pages=191–214 |isbn=978-0-8248-4167-6 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Arai |first1=Masanao |title=From Kitsch to Art Moderne: Popular Textiles for Women in theFirst Half of Twentieth-Century Japan |journal=Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings |date=1998 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tsaconf/143/ }}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary|cloth}}
{{Commons category|Textiles}}

{{Textile arts}}
{{Textile tools}}
{{Fabric}}
{{Clothing materials and parts}}
{{sewing}}
{{weaving}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Textiles| ]]
[[Category:Clothing industry]]

Government First Grade College, Raichur

2026-02-26T03:32:05Z

FrancisClement: adding first info added tags

{{short description|Government college in Karnataka state, India}}
{{Orphan|date=April 2023}}

{{Infobox university
|name = Government First Grade College, Raichur
|image = Government First Grade College Raichur.jpg
|caption =
|type = Public
|established = 2006
|principal =
|city = [[Raichur]]
|country = India
|campus = Urban
|colors =
|coordinates =
|academic_affiliation = [[Raichur University]]
|website = https://gfgc.kar.nic.in/raichur/Contact-Us
}}

'''Government First Grade College, Raichur''' <ref name="gug">{{cite web|url=https://gug.ac.in/|website=gug.ac.in|title=Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi|access-date=2022-12-07}}</ref> is a general degree college located at [[Raichur]], [[Karnataka]], India. It was established in 2006. The college affiliated with [[Raichur University]].<ref>https://www.indcareer.com/karnataka/raichur/government-first-grade-college-raichur</ref> This college offers different courses in arts, science and commerce.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dce.karnataka.gov.in/page/Colleges/Government+First+Grade+Colleges/en | title=Government First Grade Colleges - Department of Collegiate Education | access-date=2023-03-16 | archive-date=2023-08-14 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814073643/https://dce.karnataka.gov.in/page/Colleges/Government%20First%20Grade%20Colleges/en | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Departments==

===Science===
*[[Physics]]
*[[Chemistry]]
*[[Mathematics]]
*[[Computer science|Computer Science]]

===Arts and Commerce===
*[[Kannada]]
*[[English language|English]]
*[[History]]
*[[Political science|Political Science]]
*[[Sociology]]
*[[Economics]]
*[[Business administration|Business Administration]]
*[[Commerce Clause|Commerce]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*https://gfgc.kar.nic.in/raichur/Contact-Us
*https://raichur.nic.in/en/public-utility/govt-first-grade-college-raichur/

{{coord missing|Karnataka}}

[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2006]]
[[Category:2006 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to Raichur University]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Raichur district]]
[[Category:Government degree Colleges in Karnataka|Raichur]]
[[Category:Education in Raichur district]]

{{Karnataka-university-stub}}

Hill Grange High School

2026-02-22T13:41:11Z

FrancisClement: Put Up First Post Added Tags...

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Hill Grange High School
| image =
| motto = Work is Worship
| established = 1939
| founder = Madame Sophy Kelly<ref>{{cite web|title=Baghdadi Jewish Women in India|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/baghdadi-jewish-women-in-india}}</ref>
| closed = 2003
| type = Private
| affiliation = [[Indian School Certificate|ISC]], [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education|ICSE]], [[Secondary School Certificate|SSC]], [[Secondary School Leaving Certificate|SSLC]], [[Junior College]]
| grades = Prep-10th, Junior College
| principal = Sophy Kelly, Reuben Kelly
| faculty = 50
| staff = 35
| enrollment = 800
| sports = Soccer, basketball, swimming, athletics, cricket
| houses =
| location = 13 A [[Peddar Road]], [[Cumballa Hill]], [[Mumbai]] 400026
| coordinates = {{coord|18|58|19|N|72|48|37|E}} [https://maps.google.com/maps?ll=18.971944,72.810278&spn=0.01,0.01&t=m&q=18.971944,72.810278 View Map]
| country = [[India]]
| website = http://www.facebook.com/#!/groups/5867586597/
}}

'''Hill Grange High School''' was a private school for boys and girls located on [[Pedder Road]], [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India.

==History==
It was founded in 1939 by Madame Sophy Kelly, a prominent member of the [[Indian Jewish]] community. She was a well known personality and was referred to as the queen of Peddar Road. She contributed towards the educational ministry of Maharashtra,<ref>Sophy Kelly, headmistress of the Hill Grange School http://jcpa.org/jl/jl101.htm</ref> and was the school's principal for most of its history.<ref>Sophie Kelly,. Principal of the Hill Grange School in. Bombay http://www.dangoor.com/TheScribe16.pdf</ref><ref>Sophy Kelly (1917–2002) http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/baghdadi-jewish-women-in-india</ref> The school closed in 2003.

==Early timeline==
*1939 — Founding and establishment of the Hill Grange Nursery and Kindergarten School
*1942 — The establishment of the Hill Grange primary section.
*1943 — The establishment of the lower secondary of the school.
*1956 — Final and complete establishment of the two sections of the Hill Grange High School
**[[Senior Cambridge]]
**[[Secondary School Certificate]]

== Notable alumni ==
* Business:
** [[Mukesh Ambani]] — Billionaire, Chairman and Managing Director of the Indian conglomerate [[Reliance Industries]]<ref>Mukesh Ambani http://ourhero.in/famous-people/entrepreneurs/mukesh-ambani</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Forbes Billionaires 2023: The Richest People In The World |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/ |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=Forbes |language=English}}</ref>
** [[Anand Jain]] — Billionaire, Chairman of Jai Corp Limited<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110607211451/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2005-01-04/news/27477527_1_reliance-group-mukesh-ambani-anil-ambani Anand Jain]</ref>
**[[Pramod Agarwal]]— [[Indian British]] businessman and founder of [[Zamin Ferrous]]

** [[Anil Ambani]] — Billionaire, Chairman and Managing Director of [[Reliance Anil Dhirubhai Ambani Group]]<ref>Anil Ambani http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-01-03/india-business/27853862_1_ipcl-board-anand-jain-anil-ambani {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127004432/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-01-03/india-business/27853862_1_ipcl-board-anand-jain-anil-ambani |date=27 January 2013 }}</ref>
* Entertainment:
** [[Rajesh Khanna]] — Actor, producer
** [[Prem Krishen]] — Actor, producer
** [[Shailender Singh]] — Singer, actor
** [[Neetu Singh]] — Actress
** [[Varsha Bhosle]] — Singer, journalist
** [[Vishal Dadlani]] — Indian Music Director, Singer
** [[Nazneen]] — Actress<ref>Nazneen Bollywood Actress http://cineplot.com/nazneen-interview/</ref>
** [[Himesh Reshammiya]] — Indian Music Director, Singer, Actor, Television Producer, Lyricist, Film Producer, Script Writer, and Distributor<ref>Himesh Reshammiya http://www.topsongsmovieslist.com/list-of-himesh-reshammiya-songs {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407052109/http://www.topsongsmovieslist.com/list-of-himesh-reshammiya-songs/ |date=7 April 2012 }}</ref>
* Literature:
**[[Ashok K. Banker]] - Author, Screenwriter, Celebrity.
* Others:
** [[Sanjiv Bhatt]] — Indian Police Service<ref>[https://archive.today/20130415214235/http://www.sanjivbhatt.org/?page_id=2 Sanjiv Bhatt]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

*Principal Sophie Kelly [https://books.google.com/books?id=kHJccZ92IecC&dq=hill+grange+high++sophie+kelly&pg=PA144 "The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era"]

==External links==

{{Mumbai topics}}

[[Category:Private schools in Mumbai]]
[[Category:High schools and secondary schools in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Boys' schools in India]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1943]]
[[Category:1943 establishments in India]]

Common Law Admission Test

2026-02-15T08:39:15Z

FrancisClement: minor cleanup

{{short description|University entrance test in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox examination
| name = Common Law Admission Test
| image_name =
| caption = Consortium of NLUs
| acronym = CLAT
| type = Pen-and-paper-based
| test_admin = Consortium of NLUs, [[Bar Council of India]]
| skills_tested = Legal Reasoning, [[Logical reasoning]], English Comprehension, [[General knowledge]], Current Affairs, Quantitative Techniques (maths)
| purpose = Entrance to the [[National Law Universities]], Self-financed law colleges, [[Public Sector Undertakings in India|PSUs]] & Indian Army ([[Judge Advocate General (India)|JAG officers]])
| year_started = {{Start date|2008}}
| year_terminated = 
| duration = 2 Hours
| score_range = -30 to 120
| score_validity = 1 year

| offered = Yearly
| attempt_restriction =None
| regions =[[India]]
| language = English
| prerequisite = Senior Secondary Exam, High School in any stream (for UG courses) Graduation in law ( for PG courses)
| fee = 4,000 INR
| score_users = (National Law Universities) & other Private Law Colleges, PSUs, Indian Army.
| qualification_rate = App. 3%
| free_label =
| free =
| website = {{URL|consortiumofnlus.ac.in}}
| footnotes =
|test_takers = More than 1,00,000
|image = Consortium of NLUs logo.png
|imagesize =
}}

The '''Common Law Admission Test''' ('''CLAT''') is a centralized national-level entrance test for admissions to the 26 out of 27 [[National Law Universities]] (NLU) except [[National Law University, Delhi|NLU Delhi]]. CLAT was first introduced in 2008 as a centralized entrance examination for admission to the National Law Schools/Universities in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brief History |url=https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/clat-2024/history.html |access-date=2024-04-28 |website=Consortium of NLUs}}</ref>

[[National Law University, Delhi|NLU Delhi]] administers its own entrance exam, the All India Law Entrance Test (AILET). AILET is anticipated to be merged into CLAT in the coming years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CLAT 2022 |url=https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/clat-2022/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409075216/https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/clat-2022/ |archive-date=9 April 2022 |access-date=2022-04-13 |website=consortiumofnlus.ac.in}}</ref> A few private and self-financed [[law schools]] in India also use these scores for law admissions. [[Public sector undertakings in India]] like [[ONGC]], [[Coal India]], [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited|BHEL]], the [[Steel Authority of India]], [[Coal India|Oil India]], the [[Indian Army]] (for the recruitment of [[Judge Advocate General's Department (India)|Judge Advocate General]] officers) also uses CLAT PG scores. As of January 2026, NLU Meghalaya has started using CLAT scores for admissions in their programmes.

The test is taken after the [[Higher Secondary Examination]] or the 12th grade for admission to integrated [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] degrees in [[Law]] (BA/BBA/B.COM/B.SC/BSW LLB) and after graduation in an undergraduate law program for [[Master of Laws]] ([[LL.M]]) postgraduate programs. It is considered one of the toughest entrance examinations in India with the acceptance rate being as low as 3 percent.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why are student suicides on the rise? Ask any teen applying for CLAT, JEE, NEET, you'll know|date=22 September 2021|url=https://theprint.in/campus-voice/why-are-student-suicides-on-the-rise-ask-any-teen-applying-for-clat-jee-neet-youll-know/737241/|url-status=live|access-date=11 November 2021|archive-date=20 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120020312/https://theprint.in/campus-voice/why-are-student-suicides-on-the-rise-ask-any-teen-applying-for-clat-jee-neet-youll-know/737241/}}</ref>

==Background==
{{See also|Legal education#India|Autonomous law schools in India}}
Before the introduction of Common Law Admission Test, the [[National Law Universities]] conducted their own separate entrance tests, requiring the candidates to prepare and appear separately for each of these tests. The schedule of the administration of these tests sometimes conflicted with the entrance test of other NLUs or with other entrance tests such as the [[Indian Institute of Technology Joint Entrance Examination|IIT-JEE]] and the [[National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (Undergraduate)|NEET]]. This caused students to miss tests and experience much stress.<ref>{{cite web | title = Why CLAT | url = http://www.clat.ac.in/images/brochure.pdf | access-date = 30 May 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080920161150/http://www.clat.ac.in/images/brochure.pdf | archive-date = 20 September 2008 }}</ref>

There are 26 NLUs in India out of which 1 NLU is an off-centre campus of GNLU known as GNLUS, the first NLU in the country is [[National Law School of India University|National Law School of India University, Bengaluru]], which admitted its first batch of students in 1988. Out of 26 NLUs, only the [[National Law University, Delhi]] conducts its own separate entrance test known as All India Law Entrance Test (AILET).<ref>{{cite web | title = NLS History | url = http://www.nls.ac.in/about_history.html | access-date = 30 May 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080521022216/http://www.nls.ac.in/about_history.html | archive-date = 21 May 2008 }}</ref> With the emergence of other law schools, which also sought to conduct their admission tests at around the same time, students faced a hard time preparing for them. From time to time this issue to conduct a common entrance exam to reduce the burden of the students to give multiple test was raised, but given the autonomous status of each law school, there was no nodal agency to co-ordinate action to this regard.<ref name=brochure>{{cite web|title=CLAT 2008 Information Brochue|pages=3–4|url=http://www.clat.ac.in/images/brochure.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226224919/http://www.clat.ac.in/images/brochure.pdf|archive-date=26 December 2008|access-date=30 May 2008}}</ref>

The matter drew national attention when a [[Public Interest Litigation]] was filed by Varun Bhagat against the [[Government of India|Union of India]] and various National Law Universities in the [[Supreme Court of India]] in 2006. The [[Chief Justice of India]] directed the Union of India to consult with the National Law Universities to formulate a common test. The move was strongly supported by the [[Bar Council of India]].<ref>{{cite news | title = CLAT History | url= http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/11/stories/2008011160131400.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080112100254/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/11/stories/2008011160131400.htm | archive-date= 12 January 2008 | location=Chennai, India | work = [[The Hindu]] | date=11 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = About CLAT | url = http://www.clat.ac.in/index.aspx | access-date = 30 May 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080604224804/http://www.clat.ac.in/index.aspx | archive-date = 4 June 2008 }}</ref>

Given the lack of a central nodal authority to bring forth a consensus on the issue, the [[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Ministry of Human Resources Development]], ([[Government of India]]) and the [[University Grants Commission of India]] organised a meeting of the Vice-Chancellors of seven National Law Universities along with the Chairman of the Bar Council of India. After a few such meetings, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed by the Vice-Chancellors of the seven National Law Universities on 23 November 2007 to conduct a common admission test. The Common Law Admission Test was to be conducted each year by each of the law colleges and the responsibility of conducting the exam was to be rotated and given on the basis of seniority in the establishment. Nonetheless, the matter was not resolved completely as there were other national law universities that were not taking part in CLAT. However, finally in 2015, a fresh MoU was signed by the sixteen National Law Universities, except for National Law University, Delhi for the CLAT 2015 being conducted by Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University, Lucknow whereby all the National Law Universities became part of the centralized admission process without anyone being left out (except NLU Delhi).<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.legallyindia.com/201411035262/Pre-law-student/all-16-nlus-can-now-conduct-clat-unlike-earlier-7|title = NLUs enter into new CLAT MoU, ensuring full participation of all 16 NLUs (except NLU Delhi)|date = 3 November 2014|access-date = 19 December 2014|publisher = LegallyIndia|last = Shrivastava|first = Prachi|archive-date = 19 December 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141219151152/http://www.legallyindia.com/201411035262/Pre-law-student/all-16-nlus-can-now-conduct-clat-unlike-earlier-7|url-status = live}}</ref>

The [[Consortium of National Law Universities]] was established on 19 August 2017 with the aim of improving the standard of legal education in the country and justice system through legal education with Prof. R. Venkata Rao, erstwhile Vice-Chancellor, [[National Law School of India University|NLSIU]] as President and Prof. Faizan Mustafa, Vice-Chancellor, [[NALSAR University of Law|NALSAR]], as Vice-President.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Consortium of NLUs |url=https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=consortiumofnlus.ac.in |archive-date=8 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408014533/https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

CLAT examination gained further prominence when in 2023, for the first time, Delhi University's Faculty of Law inaugurated its own 5 Year Integrated LLB Programme, where students can now take admission into the programme on the basis of their CLAT scores itself.

==Eligibility==
Only [[India]]n nationals and [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|NRIs]] can appear in the test. The foreign nationals desirous of taking admission to any course in any of the participating Law Universities may directly contact the concerned University having seats for foreign nationals.<ref name=Instructions>{{cite web|title=Common Law Admission Test - Instructions|url=http://clat.ac.in/instruction.php|publisher=Common Law Admission Test Core Committee|access-date=23 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231010057/http://www.clat.ac.in/instruction.php|archive-date=31 December 2012}}</ref> The Consortium of National Law Universities (NLUs) releases the CLAT eligibility criteria mentions details regarding the minimum educational qualification, minimum marks and age limit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Consortium |url=https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/clat-2025/objectives.html |access-date= |website=consortiumofnlus.ac.in}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

The eligibility requirements are as follows:

===Under-graduate courses===
Senior Secondary School/Intermediate (10+2) or its equivalent certificate from a recognized Board with not less than 45% marks in aggregate (40% in case of SC and ST candidates). There is no upper age restriction for the test.<ref name=eligibility>{{cite web|title=Eligibility|url=http://www.clat.ac.in/eligibility.html|website=www.clat.ac.in|access-date=28 December 2017|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228024810/http://clat.ac.in/eligibility.html|archive-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>

===Post-graduate courses===
LL. B/B. L. Degree or an equivalent degree from a recognized University with not less than 50% marks in aggregate (45% in case of SC and ST candidates). The candidates who have passed the qualifying degree examination through supplementary/ compartment and repeat attempts are also eligible for appearing in the test and taking Admission provided that such candidates will have to produce the proof of having passed the qualifying examination with fifty-five/fifty percent marks, as the case may be, on the date of their admission or within the time allowed by the respective universities.<ref name=eligibility />

== Exam pattern ==
This law entrance exam is of two hours duration. The CLAT question paper consists of 120 multiple-choice questions. There are five sections in CLAT exam paper which are:<ref>{{Cite web |title=CLAT 2025 UG Question Paper, CLAT 2025 Paper Pattern & Sample Papers - Consortium of NLUS |url=https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/clat-2025/ug-question-format.html |access-date= |website=consortiumofnlus.ac.in}}</ref>
* English including Comprehension
* Current affairs including General Knowledge
* Legal Reasoning
* Logical Reasoning
* Quantitative Techniques (Maths)

All the questions have been paragraph-based from CLAT 2020. One paragraph will be followed by 5-6 questions. The break up of marks is generally as follows :
{| class="wikitable"
! Subjects
! Number of Questions
! Marks
|-
|English Language
|22-26 questions
|22 - 26
|-
|Current Affairs, including General Knowledge
|28-32 questions
|28 - 32
|-
|Legal Reasoning
|28-32 questions
|28 - 32
|-
|Logical Reasoning
|22-26 questions
|22 - 26
|-
|Quantitative Techniques
|10-14 questions
|10 - 14
|-
!Total
!120
!120
|}
Marking Scheme: For every correct answer, aspirants are given one mark and for each wrong answer 0.25 marks are deducted from their total score.

== Preparation Techniques ==
The exam preparation strategy is broadly classified into two:

# Offline learning
# Online preparation

While offline is the traditional, online became a choice from 2020 onwards. Here is how aspirants are leveraging online platforms:

* Access to free study material: Aspirants have access to free PDFs with insightful question banks for section-wise preparation, previous year question papers with solutions and free mocks. YouTube being a hub of information helps resolve explanation for topics.
* Access to online learning/classrooms: While self study is a good way to learn or prepare, a guidance from experienced teachers adds an extra edge. CLAT Online Coaching offer a platform to not just understand topics but also clear doubts, practice questions and find tricks to solve them faster as time management plays a key role in this exam.
* Mocks and Quizzes: Practice makes a man perfect, hence, online quizzes around different sections or topics and full length mocks makes it easier to navigate the exam.
* News and Current Affairs: Reading a newspaper is a great habit, however, for the final revision, one shall need simpler resources with important and highlighted summaries of important events. Online resources are advantageous here.
* Online material by Consortium: After registration, your dashboard will enable access to preparatory materials.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CLAT 2026 UG Syllabus, CLAT 2026 Exam Syllabus, CLAT 2026 Law Preparation Syllabus - Consortium of NLUS |url=https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/clat-2026/ug-syllabus.html |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=consortiumofnlus.ac.in}}</ref>

== List of National Law Universities ==
# [[National Law School of India University]], [[Bangalore]]
# [[NALSAR University of Law]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]
# [[The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences]], [[Kolkata]]
# [[National Law Institute University]], [[Bhopal]]
# [[National Law University]], [[Jodhpur]]
# [[Gujarat National Law University]], [[Gandhinagar]]
# GNLU Silvassa, [[Silvassa]] is an off-centre campus of [[GNLU]]
# [[Hidayatullah National Law University]], [[Raipur]]
# [[Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University]], [[Lucknow]]
#[[National University of Advanced Legal Studies]], [[Kochi, India|Kochi]]
# [[Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law]], [[Patiala]]
#[[Chanakya National Law University]], [[Patna]]
#[[National Law University Odisha]], [[Cuttack]]
# [[Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University]], [[Vishakhapatnam]]
#[[National University of Study and Research in Law]], [[Ranchi]]
# [[National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam|National Law School and Judicial Academy]], [[Guwahati]]
# [[Tamil Nadu National Law University]], [[Trichy]]
# [[Maharashtra National Law University, Mumbai|Maharashtra National Law University]], [[Mumbai]]
# [[Maharashtra National Law University, Nagpur|Maharashtra National Law University]], [[Nagpur]]
# [[Maharashtra National Law University, Aurangabad|Maharashtra National Law University]], [[Aurangabad]]
# [[Himachal Pradesh National Law University]], [[Shimla]]
# [[Dharmashastra National Law University]], [[Jabalpur]]
# [[Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Law University]], [[Sonipat]]
# National Law University Tripura, [[Agartala]]
# [[Dr. Rajendra Prasad National Law University]], [[Prayagraj]]
# NLU Meghalaya, [[Shillong]]

Note: NLU Delhi has a separate exam known as AILET.

==Method of allocation==
The CLAT form has a provision for the students to add their preferred list of colleges in order of their consideration through a preference list option.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Fill CLAT 2025 Preference List Complete Guide [Filling Strategy & Insights on Top NLUs] |url=https://www.toprankers.com/how-to-fill-clat-preference-list |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=LegalEdge by Toprankers |language=en}}</ref> Each student fills the preference list, according to the colleges they desire.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} On the basis of these preferences and ranks obtained, students are allocated colleges. As the NLUs are established by the respective state governments, therefore most NLUs also have reservations for their domiciled candidates.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

==Conducting organisation==
The first CLAT Core Committee consisting of Vice-Chancellors of the seven participating NLUs at that time decided that the test should be conducted by rotation in the order of their establishment.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} Accordingly, the first CLAT was conducted in 2008 by the [[National Law School of India University]].<ref name=brochure/> Subsequently, CLAT-2009, CLAT-2010, CLAT-2011, CLAT-2012, CLAT-2013, CLAT-2014, CLAT-2015, CLAT-2016, CLAT-2017, CLAT-2018 CLAT-2019 and CLAT-2020 have been conducted{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} by [[NALSAR University of Law]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], [[National Law Institute University]], [[The West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences]], [[National Law University, Jodhpur]], [[Hidayatullah National Law University]], [[Gujarat National Law University]], [[Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia National Law University]], [[Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law]], [[Chanakya National Law University]], [[National University of Advanced Legal Studies]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shrivastava |first1=Prachi |title=CLAT 2018 was 98.5% smooth, says Nuals Kochi, promises to investigate, but many of 59,300+ candidates faced problems, some filed police complaints |url=https://www.legallyindia.com/pre-law-student/clat-2018-90-smooth-says-nuals-kochi-remaining-10-of-the-59300-candidates-devastated-20180514-9342 |access-date=14 July 2019 |work=www.legallyindia.com |date=14 May 2018 |language=en-gb |archive-date=14 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714082817/https://www.legallyindia.com/pre-law-student/clat-2018-90-smooth-says-nuals-kochi-remaining-10-of-the-59300-candidates-devastated-20180514-9342 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[National Law University Odisha]]<ref>{{cite news |title=CLAT 2019 to be conducted today: Here is all you need to know |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/notification/story/clat-2019-to-be-conducted-today-here-is-all-you-need-to-know-1534831-2019-05-26 |access-date=14 July 2019 |work=[[India Today]] |date=25 May 2019 |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714082350/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/notification/story/clat-2019-to-be-conducted-today-here-is-all-you-need-to-know-1534831-2019-05-26 |url-status=live }}</ref> respectively.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} However, from 2019, CLAT is conducted by Consortium of NLUs, a body consisting of Vice-chancellors of all the NLU's except NLU DELHI, which was formed in March, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Consortium of NLUs|url=https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/|access-date=2020-09-27|website=consortiumofnlus.ac.in|archive-date=8 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408014533/https://consortiumofnlus.ac.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Controversies==
CLAT-2009, which was scheduled to be held on 17 May 2009 was rescheduled to 31 May 2009 due to leak of question papers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Law admission test postponed after paper leak|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mobile/report.php?n=1255874|access-date=4 June 2012|newspaper=DNA|date=14 May 2009|archive-date=16 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716161106/https://www.dnaindia.com/education/report-law-admission-test-postponed-after-paper-leak-1255874|url-status=live}}</ref>

CLAT-2011 candidates were disappointed with the standard of exam, as up to 12 questions in the various sections had underlined answers due to the oversight of the organisers and students also found the paper lengthy in comparison to the time limit provided (i.e. 2 hours).<ref>{{cite web|title=Yesterday's CLAT aspirants in a tizzy over difficulty, strange underlines|url=http://www.legallyindia.com/201105162082/Pre-law-student/yesterdays-clat-aspirants-in-a-tizzy-over-difficulty-strange-underlines|publisher=Legally India|access-date=4 June 2012|archive-date=14 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414034743/http://www.legallyindia.com/201105162082/Pre-law-student/yesterdays-clat-aspirants-in-a-tizzy-over-difficulty-strange-underlines|url-status=live}}</ref>

CLAT-2012 was marred by a number of controversies, which includes allegations of setting questions out of syllabus and out of the pre-declared pattern.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shrivastava|first=Prachi|title=CLAT to be PILed as NLU-J shocks with 2012 paper mismatch with prescribed syllabus|url=http://www.legallyindia.com/201205132813/Pre-law-student/clat|publisher=Legally India|access-date=4 June 2012|archive-date=15 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615014120/http://www.legallyindia.com/201205132813/Pre-law-student/clat|url-status=live}}</ref> The declared rank list also contained an error, due to which the first list was taken down and a fresh list was put up.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ganz|first=Kian|title=Download new, reshuffled 2012 CLAT University Allotment; NUJS now tops NLIU in prefs again|url=http://www.legallyindia.com/201206012863/Pre-law-student/download-new-reshuffled-2012-clat-university-allotment|work=1 June 2012|access-date=4 June 2012|archive-date=3 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603222309/http://www.legallyindia.com/201206012863/Pre-law-student/download-new-reshuffled-2012-clat-university-allotment|url-status=live}}</ref> The declared question-answer keys contained several errors, which resulted in petitions being filed by the aggrieved students in different High Courts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/up-high-court-noitce-to-nlu-jodhpur-on-clat-2012-question-paper-anomalies/articleshow/13451060.cms|title=UP High Court noitce to NLU Jodhpur on CLAT 2012 question paper 'anomalies'|date=24 May 2012|via=The Economic Times - The Times of India|access-date=13 April 2022|archive-date=13 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413110318/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/up-high-court-noitce-to-nlu-jodhpur-on-clat-2012-question-paper-anomalies/articleshow/13451060.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

CLAT-2014 was conducted by [[GNLU]], [[Gandhinagar]] and was also heavily criticized for being poorly conducted<ref name="LegallyIndia Ref 1">{{cite news | url=http://www.legallyindia.com/201406064780/Pre-law-student/clat-results-still-wrong-mixed-up-claim-students-despite-gnlu-s-new-reconciliated-results | title=CLAT results still wrong & mixed up claim students, despite GNLU's new 'reconciliated'(sic) results | date=6 June 2014 | access-date=17 June 2014 | author=Ganz, Kian | archive-date=18 June 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618003535/http://www.legallyindia.com/201406064780/Pre-law-student/clat-results-still-wrong-mixed-up-claim-students-despite-gnlu-s-new-reconciliated-results | url-status=live }}</ref> with results being withdrawn and declared again.<ref name="Times Of India Ref 1">{{cite news | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/entrance-exams/After-the-botch-up-CLAT-results-revised/articleshow/36167717.cms | title=After the botch-up, CLAT results revised | date=6 June 2014 | access-date=17 June 2014 | author=Times News Network | archive-date=9 June 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609201932/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/entrance-exams/After-the-botch-up-CLAT-results-revised/articleshow/36167717.cms | url-status=live }}</ref> Even lawsuits had been filed for re-examination.<ref name="LegallyIndia Ref 2">{{cite news | url=http://www.legallyindia.com/201406094784/Law-schools/clat-taker-files-legal-challenge-seeks-fresh-exam-and-halt-to-counselling | title=Update: CLAT to respond to challenge by 18 June {{!}} CLAT taker files legal challenge, seeks fresh exam and halt to counselling | date=9 June 2014 | access-date=17 June 2014 | author=Legally India | archive-date=18 June 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618001639/http://www.legallyindia.com/201406094784/Law-schools/clat-taker-files-legal-challenge-seeks-fresh-exam-and-halt-to-counselling | url-status=live }}</ref> The uploaded OMRs were then allowed to be physically verified in the GNLU Campus after students demanded the same.

CLAT-2017 the English paper had several errors.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tyagi |first1=Akshat |title=CLAT 2017: A Case of a Failed Question Paper |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/clat-2017-a-case-of-a-failed-question-paper |access-date=30 August 2018 |work=The Quint |date=19 May 2017 |language=en |archive-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826150414/https://www.thequint.com/news/india/clat-2017-a-case-of-a-failed-question-paper |url-status=live }}</ref>

CLAT-2018 students approached the Supreme Court since there were server problems during the examination. However, the Court refused to order a re-examination.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jain |first1=Mehal |title=CLAT 2018: Supreme Court Rules Out Retest |url=https://www.livelaw.in/clat-2018-sc-rules-out-retest-asks-grievance-redressal-committee-to-file-final-report-by-june-16/ |access-date=30 August 2018 |work=livelaw.in |date=11 June 2018 |archive-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826163429/https://www.livelaw.in/clat-2018-sc-rules-out-retest-asks-grievance-redressal-committee-to-file-final-report-by-june-16/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2020, NLSIU announced that it would be withdrawing from CLAT, and conducting its own entrance test, the National Law Aptitude Test (NLAT).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2020-09-03|title=NLSIU Bangalore will not accept CLAT, to conduct own test for 2020-21, apply now|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/nlsiu-bangalore-will-not-accept-clat-to-conduct-own-test-for-2020-21-apply-now/story-8YY6ZaM24WImxg16K84LIM.html|access-date=2020-09-07|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=6 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906101010/https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/nlsiu-bangalore-will-not-accept-clat-to-conduct-own-test-for-2020-21-apply-now/story-8YY6ZaM24WImxg16K84LIM.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the Supreme Court of India struck down the separate entrance test conducted by NLSIU and ordered it to re-join CLAT.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Top Court Cancels Bengaluru National Law School's Separate Entrance Exam|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/supreme-court-cancels-bengaluru-national-law-schools-nlsiu-separate-entrance-exam-nlat-2020-2298616|access-date=2020-09-27|website=NDTV.com|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930062918/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/supreme-court-cancels-bengaluru-national-law-schools-nlsiu-separate-entrance-exam-nlat-2020-2298616|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|

* [[List of law schools in India]]
* [[Autonomous law schools in India]]
* [[Legal education#India|Legal education in India]]
* [[Law School Admission Test]]
*[[National Law Universities]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Standardised tests in India]]
[[Category:Legal profession exams]]
[[Category:Legal education in India]]
[[Category:Year of establishment missing]]

Syamal Bhushan Ghosh Dastidar

2026-02-12T03:08:51Z

FrancisClement: created some info nd citations

{{short description|Indian civil servant (born 1947)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = S.B. Ghosh Dastidar
| image = File:Syamal Bhushan Ghosh Dastidar.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1947|04|01}}
| birth_place = [[Barisal District]], Bengal
| occupation = [[Civil servant]], advisor to Gateway Rail Freight Ltd.
| years_active =
| awards = [[Padma Shri]]
}}

'''Syamal Bhushan Ghosh Dastidar''' is an ex-Indian [[civil servant]], former Member Traffic of the Railway Board and Ex-Officio Secretary to the Government of India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rail Budget 2016: Spending On Capacity Expansion Will Be Welcome, Says Dastidar |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/economy/rail-budget-2016-spendingcapacity-expansion-will-be-welcome-says-dastidar-1036691.html |website=www.moneycontrol.com}}</ref> In 2009, he was the only person to be awarded the [[Padma Shri]], India's fourth highest civilian award, in the civil service category.<ref name='padma'>{{cite web |title=Padma Awards 2009 |url=http://www.dashboard-padmaawards.gov.in/?Year=2009-2009 |website=padmaawards.gov.in |language=en}}</ref>

Ghosh Dastidar served as Vice Chairman of the Railway Claims Tribunal, New Delhi. He has also served in the Board of Directors of [[NTPC Limited|National Thermal Power Corporation of India]]<ref name='ntpc'>{{cite web |title=NTPC Ltd. |url=https://www.ntpc.co.in/sites/default/files/downloads/NTPCTaxFreeBondsProspectusSeptember172015Final.pdf |website=Ntpc.co.in}}</ref> and [[Bharat Coking Coal|Bharat Coking Coal Limited]].<ref name='bccl'>{{cite web |title=Annual Report 2013-2014 |url=http://www.bcclweb.in/files/2014/08/report13-14.pdf |website=BCCL}}</ref> In addition, he is an advisor to Gateway Rail Freight Ltd, India's leading private container train operator.

==Early life and education==
S.B. Ghosh Dastidar was born on 1 April 1947, in the [[Barisal district]] of British India to Haridas Ghosh Dastidar (father) and Amiyabala Ghosh Dastidar (mother). Ghosh Dastidar's family moved to Calcutta during the [[Partition of India]]. He completed his initial studies from [[Hooghly Collegiate School]]. Mr Ghosh Dastidar joined the Indian Railway Traffic Service in 1969 after completing his [[Bachelor of Engineering]] (Mechanical) from [[Calcutta University]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

==Career==
As Assistant Operating Superintendent, Sahibgunj, Ghosh Dastidar introduced a new system of clubbing wagon load consignments to trainload for a Single Destination which increased the productivity of wagons fourfold. In 1975, Ghosh Dastidar almost doubled the Freight loading of Barkakhana subdivision by revamping the coal pilot working of Patratu Coalfield. Later, as Senior Divisional Operating Manager of Dhanbad division, he introduced the concept of Pool Allotment in Patratu Coal Field. This improved the supply of coal to power houses by better line capacity utilization and reduced cost of transportation.<ref name='moha'>{{cite book |title=Padma Awards 2009 |date=2 March 2009 |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs |page=507}}</ref>

Ghosh Dastidar has also worked as Traffic Adviser to [[Aqaba Railway Corporation]] in Jordan where he was sent on deputation. He helped improve the freight loading of Aqaba Railways from 1.9 million tons per annum to 4 million tons per annum.<ref name='moha'/>

Later as Chief Operations Manager of South Central Railway he achieved 12% Compounded Annual Growth (C.A.G.) of freight loading compared to only 3% C.A.G of freight loading of Indian Railways. He also introduced running of Long Haul Trains up the world's steepest ghat (hill) section between Qulem and Castle Rock without using locotrol.<ref>{{cite book |title=General Manager's Annual Report 2007-08, South Central Railway |date=28 April 2009 |publisher=Indian Railways |page=215}}</ref>

In Dec 2003, as Additional Member (Traffic) of the Railway Board, Shri S.B.Ghosh signed an agreement with his Pakistani counterpart to re-establish the second rail link between India and Pakistan after about 40 years. Following this, the [[Thar Express]] started its operations between Bhagat Ki Kothi (India) and Karachi Cantonment (Pakistan), on 18 February 2006 during his tenure as Member (Traffic).<ref>{{cite web |title=Joint Press Statement on Samjhauta Express |url=https://mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/5569/Joint_Press_Statement_on_Samjhauta_Express |website=mea.gov.in}}</ref>

In 2005, as General Manager of Central Railway, he restored the railway system in record time during the all-time high torrential rain and flood which paralyzed all systems in the city of Mumbai.<ref>{{cite web |title=Safety is our topmost priority' |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/advertorial/article30205657.ece |website=The Hindu|date=28 July 2005 }}</ref>

As Member Traffic, Railway Board and Ex-Officio Secretary to Government of India from July 2005 to March 2007, Ghosh Dastidar played a pivotal role in scripting the financial turnaround of Indian Railways which generated Rs. 14,453 crores in profit in 2006–07.<ref name='moha'/>

Ghosh helped to improve rail movement of 126 million tons in those two years that far exceeded the average growth of 10-11 million tons per year over the last 50 years. At the core of this new operational strategy was bringing about an increase in axel load of freight wagons.<ref>{{cite web |title=GOVERNMENT OF INDIA (BHARAT SARKAR) MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS (RAIL MANTRALAYA) RAILWAY BOARD |url=https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/traffic_comm/freight_rate-2k6/rate_inst_41-2k6.pdf |website=Indian Railways}}</ref>

With the help of Member Engineering, he modified and increased the height of "Standard Moving Dimensions". He redesigned the rolling stock to substantially increase the carrying capacities of the freight (particularly covered wagons) and passenger cars.<ref>{{cite web |title=Turnaround' of Indian Railways: Increasing the Axle Loading |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6443752.pdf?repositoryId=153 |website=core.ac.uk}}</ref>

During his tenure as Member Traffic, Ghosh Dastidar conceived and developed the blueprint of the Dedicated Freight Corridor Project and initiated and led the development work of [[Western Dedicated Freight Corridor]] and [[Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NATIONAL TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT POLICY COMMITTEE|url=https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/sectors/NTDPC/Working%20Group%20Reports/Railways/Report%20of%20Working%20Group%20on%20Railways_Submitted%20to%20the%20Govt%20on%20Aug%209th,%202012.pdf |website=Niti.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Working Groups for the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012) |url=https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wrk11_16a.htm |website=Niti.gov.in}}</ref>

He also introduced market-driven industry-specific dynamic pricing models and simplified commercial rules.<ref>{{cite web |title=Speech of Shri Lalu Prasad Introducing the Railway Budget for 2006-07, on 24th February 2006 |url=http://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/finance_budget/Previous%20Budget%20Speeches/2006-07.pdf |website=Indian Railways}}</ref> In December 2006, Ghosh Dastidar also introduced ‘Zero Based Time Table’, which is the ‘bedrock’ of all future time tables.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fast forward on Rlys from Dec 1 |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/fast-forward-on-rlys-from-dec-1/17536/ |website=Indian Express}}</ref>

Ghosh Dastidar is the main architect behind many projects in the Indian Railways, such as operation of airconditioned [[Garib Rath]] trains,<ref>{{cite web |title=First "Garib Rath" will roll out after June: Lalu |url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/first-garib-rath-will-roll-out-after-june-lalu_293360.html |website=Zee News |language=en |date=7 May 2006}}</ref> privatization of container train operations,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Das |first1=Mamuni |title=Concor sell off sparks private monopoly concerns |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/experts-differ-on-fallout-of-concor-disinvestment/article30036530.ece |website=@businessline |date=21 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref> [[Ticket machine|computerized self ticketing machines]], dial 139, Internet ticketing system to name a few.<ref>{{cite web |title=GALLERY OF THE GREATS' |url=http://www.nair.indianrailways.gov.in/uploads/files/1499411527916-Distinguished%20Allumni.pdf |website=Indian Railway}}</ref>

After retirement, Ghosh Dastidar served as Vice Chairman of Railway Claims Tribunal, New Delhi. In 2011, he was appointed as Independent Director for [[NTPC Limited|National Thermal Power Corporation of India]]<ref name='ntpc'/> and in 2012 he was appointed as Independent Director of [[Bharat Coking Coal|Bharat Coking Coal Limited]].<ref name='bccl'/>

==Publications==
*Terminals on Indian Railways, S. B. Ghosh Dastidar, Journal of Transport and Infrastructure, Volume 16, 2005, No 1<ref>{{cite web |title=THE ASIAN JOURNAL |url=http://www.aitd.net.in/pdf/AsianJournals/24%20-%20Rail%20Terminal%20Facilities.pdf |website=Aitd}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Ghosh Dastidar is married to Sreela Ghosh, also a civil servant (a recipient of the Presidential Award for Specially Distinguished Record of Service), who retired as Member, Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs and Special Secretary to Government of India.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Gazette of India |url=http://www.aitd.net.in/pdf/AsianJournals/24%20-%20Rail%20Terminal%20Facilities.pdf |website=CBIC}}</ref> They have two children: Rajarshi Ghosh Dastidar and Sharmishtha Ghosh. He is a devotee of [[Yogoda Satsanga Society of India]] established by Sri Sri [[Paramahansa Yogananda]] in 1917.

==Awards==
*[[Padma Shri]] (2009) for distinguished Civil Services<ref name='padma'/>
*Lifetime Achievement Award (2011) by [[National Academy of Indian Railways]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Railway Staff College to be rechristened - Indian Express |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/railway-staff-college-to-be-rechristened/1067824/ |website=Indianexpress.com}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Padma Shri award recipients (2000–2009)]]
*[[Indian Railway Traffic Service]]
*[[Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India|Dedicated Freight Corridor]]
*[[Thar Express]]
*[[Garib Rath]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Civil Service}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghosh Dastidar, Syamal Bhushan}}
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in civil service]]
[[Category:Indian civil servants]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1947 births]]

Naresh Goyal

2026-02-08T18:03:48Z

FrancisClement: brief adjust intro for accuracy

{{short description|Non-resident Indian businessman}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Naresh Goyal
| image = Naresh_Goyal_in_Bombay_in_Nov_2008.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1949|07|29}}<ref name="Vulture">{{cite book |last1=Joseph |first1=Josy |title=A Feast of Vultures—The Hidden Business of Democracy in India |date=2 October 2016 |publisher=Harper Collins |location=Mumbai }}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Sangrur]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Dominion of India]]
| occupation = Former Chairman of [[Jet Airways]]<ref name="forbes.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/naresh-goyal/|title=Naresh Goyal|website=[[Forbes]] }}</ref>
| children = 2<ref name="livemint.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Companies/R99xh6Qyc0QJnuaDDWafmN/Still-uncertain-Namrata-and-Nivaan-Goyal.html|title=Companies|first=P.R.|last=Sanjai|date=7 March 2013}}</ref>
| networth =
| years_active = 1967 – present
}}

'''Naresh Goyal''' (born 29 July 1949) is an Indian businessman who is the founder and Chairman of [[Jet Airways]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Joseph |first1=Josy |title=A jet-propelled by Don Ibrahim |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/a-jet-propelled-by-don-ibrahim/297557 |accessdate=26 October 2018 |publisher=Outlook India |date=21 July 2016}}</ref> He started operating Jet Airways in 1993 with initial seed money from Tail Winds incorporated, [[Isle of Man]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Jet Airways chief Goyal denies tax evasion |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/jet-airways-chief-goyal-denies-tax-evasion-111122800004_1.html |accessdate=26 October 2018 |work=Business Standard|date=20 January 2013}}</ref> Following the 2005 [[Initial public offering|IPO]] of Jet Airways, ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine declared him the 16th richest person in [[India]], with a net worth of {{USD|1.9 billion}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=#16 Naresh Goyal|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/77/D67A.html|work=Forbes.com|accessdate=25 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Indian Billionaires">{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/list/#version:static_country:India|title=The World's Billionaires - India|work=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=2016-09-07}}</ref>

==Early life==
Naresh Goyal was born in [[Sangrur]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2006/jul/21/theairlineindustry.india|title=Naresh Goyal: Indian high-flyer with the world on his radar|first=David|last=Teather|date=21 July 2006|work=The Guardian}}</ref> in 1949 in the house of a jewellery dealer. His father died when he was a child. He studied up to sixth standard at Govt. Raj High School for Boys. When he was eleven years old, his family went through an economic crisis and his house was auctioned. He then lived with his mother's uncle. Goyal holds a Bachelor of Commerce degree from Govt. Bikram College of Commerce, [[Patiala]].<ref name="business-standard.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/newsmaker-naresh-goyal-106012101064_1.html|title=Newsmaker: Naresh Goyal|first=P. R.|last=Sanjai|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=21 January 2006}}</ref>

==Career==
In 1967, Goyal began his career as a cashier in his maternal uncle Seth Charan Das Ram Lal's travel agency, East West Agencies,<ref name="ET_Jet-Etihad_1"/> at a starting salary of Rs 300 a month.<ref name="business-standard.com"/> After graduating in Commerce, Goyal joined the travel business with the GSA for Lebanese International Airlines.<ref name="jetairways.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.jetairways.com/EN/IN/jetexperience/chairman.aspx|title=Chairman's Profile at Jet Airways|access-date=7 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529184308/http://www.jetairways.com/EN/IN/jetexperience/chairman.aspx|archive-date=29 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

From 1967 to 1974, he underwent extensive training in the travel business through his association with several foreign airlines. He travelled overseas extensively on business during this period.<ref name="jetairways.com"/>

In 1969, he was appointed the public relations manager of Iraqi Airways and from 1971 to 1974 was the regional manager for ALIA, [[Royal Jordanian Airlines]]. He also worked with the Indian offices of [[Middle East Airlines]] (MEA), where he gained experience in various areas including ticketing, reservations and sales.<ref name="business-standard.com"/> in 1974, with £500 from his mother, he set up his own agency named Jetair, representing the likes of [[Air France]], [[Austrian Airlines]] and [[Cathay Pacific]].<ref name="theguardian.com"/>

In 1975, he was appointed regional manager of [[Philippines Airlines]] in India.<ref name="business-standard.com"/>

Naresh Goyal stepped down from the Board of [[Jet Airways]] along with his wife Anita Goyal on 25 March 2019 amid a financial crisis in the airline and after two-thirds of the fleet grounded.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-03-25|title=Jet Airways founder Naresh Goyal steps down amid crisis|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47693075|access-date=2020-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-03-25|title=Jet Airways Chairman Resigns After Two-Thirds of Fleet Grounded|language=en|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-25/founder-naresh-goyal-resigns-from-debt-laden-jet-airways|access-date=2020-11-26}}</ref>

He was stopped from flying away in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-25 |title=Jet Airways crisis: Naresh Goyal, wife stopped from flying abroad at Mumbai airport |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/industry/aviation/story/jet-airways-crisis-naresh-goyal-wife-stopped-from-leaving-abroad-at-mumbai-airport-200272-2019-05-25 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Money laundering ==
In September 2019, the [[Enforcement Directorate]] questioned Goyal for investigating charges of foreign exchange violation against him.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/jet-airways-founder-naresh-goyal-questioned-by-ed/articleshow/71010565.cms|title=Jet Airways founder Naresh Goyal questioned by ED - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=6 September 2019 |access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref> He was detained and questioned for money laundering by the ED in 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mar 5 |first1=Vijay V. Singh / TNN / Updated |title=Jet ex-promoter Naresh Goyal detained by ED, booked for laundering {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/jet-ex-promoter-naresh-goyal-detained-by-ed-booked-for-laundering/articleshow/74483943.cms |website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=5 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

=== September 2023 arrest ===
Goyal was arrested by the ED in September 2023 after questioning him for 8 to 10 hours. An FIR had been filed against Goyal based on a complaint by [[Canara Bank]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/jet-airways-founder-naresh-goyal-arrested-by-probe-agency-in-alleged-bank-fraud-case-4350148|title=Jet Airways Founder Naresh Goyal Arrested In ₹ 538 Crore Alleged Bank Fraud Case |first=Arvind |last=Gunasekar |publisher =NDTV |website=ndtv.com|date=1 September 2023|access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/jet-airways-founder-naresh-goyal-arrested-by-ed-in-alleged-money-laundering-case-101693590936132.html|title=Jet Airways founder Naresh Goyal arrested by ED in alleged money laundering case|first=Manjiri| last= Chitre|publisher=Hindustan Times|website=hindustantimes.com|date=2 September 2023|access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/ed-arrests-jet-airways-founder-naresh-goyal-in-bank-fraud-linked-money-laundering-case/articleshow/103293212.cms|title=ED arrests Jet Airways founder Naresh Goyal in bank fraud-linked money laundering case|publisher=Times of India|date=1 September 2023|access-date=2 September 2023}}</ref>

==Jet Airways==
In 1993, Goyal took advantage of the opening of the Indian economy by the [[Rao ministry|Congress government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao]], the then [[Prime Minister of India]] and the enunciation of the Open Skies Policy by the [[Government of India]] to set up Jet Airways for the operation of scheduled air services on domestic sectors in India. Jet Airways commenced commercial operations on 5 May 1993.<ref name="jetairways.com"/> Goyal founded Jet Airways (Private) Limited<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/picturegalleries/10009598/The-richest-people-in-travel.html?frame=2542673|title=The richest people in travel|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=8 May 2017}}</ref> with the objective of providing sales and marketing representation to foreign airlines in India.<ref name="jetairways.com"/>

Goyal served on the board of the [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA) from 2004–2006. He was re-elected in 2010 with his tenure extending until June 2016.<ref name="jetairways.com"/> Naresh Goyal stepped down from the Board of Jet Airways on 25 March 2019 along with his wife.

==Personal life==
Goyal met his wife, Anita, after she joined the company in 1979 as a marketing analyst and rose to become the head of marketing and sales. They married nine years later.<ref name="theguardian.com"/> The couple together have a daughter and a son. Anita died in Mumbai aged 70 following a long battle with cancer in May, 2025.

==Awards==
<ref name="jetairways.com"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Award !! Year
|-
| Entrepreneur of the Year Award for Services from Ernst & Young || September 2010
|-
| Distinguished Alumni Award-2000 for meritorious and distinguished performance as an entrepreneur || October 2000
|-
| Outstanding Asian-Indian award for leadership and contribution to the global community given by the Indian American Centre for Political Awareness || November 2003
|-
| Aerospace Laurels for outstanding contribution in the field of Commercial Air Transport || April 2000 and February 2004
|-
| The first BML Munjal Award for Excellence in Learning & Development in the Private Sector category || 6 January 2006
|-
| NDTV Profit Business Award 2006 || 28 July 2006
|-
| Accorded the TATA AIG – Lifetime Achievement Award || 8 September 2007
|-
| Travel Entrepreneur of the Year award at the 19th annual TTG (Travel Trade Gazette) Travel Awards || 25 October 2007
|-
| Man of the Year Award by the Aviation Press Club (APC) || 9 April 2008
|-
| Business Person of the Year award by UK Trade & Investment at the India Business Awards 2008 || 9 September 2008
|-
| CNBC TV18 India Business Leader Awards || 22 January 2009
|-
| International Entrepreneurs of the Year by the readers of ''Asian Voice'' || 27 February 2009
|-
| Lifetime Achievement Award of the Year by the Travel Agents Association of India (TAAI) || August 2010
|-
| Hall of Fame honour from Hotel Investment Forum of India 2011 || January 2011
|-
| Belgium conferred the Commandeur of the Order of Leopold II, one of the country's highest civilian distinctions || November 2011
|-
| Amity Leadership Award for Business Excellence || October 2012
|}

==References==
<references>

<ref name="ET_Jet-Etihad_1">{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/comments-analysis/jet-etihad-deal-why-naresh-goyal-and-rahul-bhatia-must-work-together/articleshow/21322661.cms|title=Jet-Etihad deal; why Naresh Goyal and Rahul Bhatia must work together - The Economic Times|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

</references>

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120308092013/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/05/06/0528asiastars/image/bp283220.jpg Naresh Goyal image]
* [http://www.jetairways.com/Cultures/en-US/India/About+Us/Corporate+Information/Chairmans+Profile// Jet Airways site Chairman's profile]
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/11/21/202980/naresh-goyal-jet-propelled.html Airline Business magazine profile]
* [https://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/77/D67A.html Forbes – India's 40 richest]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6547941.stm Takeover link]
*[http://www.agarwaltoday.com/jul062.html Jet files a suit of 500 Cr – Agarwal Today Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830230605/http://www.agarwaltoday.com/jul062.html |date=30 August 2007 }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goyal, Naresh}}
[[Category:Indian company founders]]
[[Category:Indian billionaires]]
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Airline founders]]
[[Category:Jet Airways people]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople in aviation]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Punjab, India]]
[[Category:People from Sangrur]]

Jay Chaudhry

2026-02-07T23:03:11Z

FrancisClement: adjust formatting after review

{{Short description|Indian-American businessman (born 1958)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jay Chaudhry
| image = Jay Chaudhry.png
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1958}}<ref name="Forbes profile">{{cite web |title=Forbes profile: Jay Chaudhry |url= https://www.forbes.com/profile/jay-chaudhry/ |website=Forbes |accessdate=27 September 2020}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Una district|Panoh]], [[East Punjab|Punjab]], India (now in [[Himachal Pradesh]], India)
| death_date =
| death_place =
| citizenship = United States<ref name="Forbes profile"/>
| education = {{plainlist|*[[IIT (BHU) Varanasi]]
*[[University of Cincinnati]]}}
| occupation = Chairman, CEO and founder of [[Zscaler]]
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| boards =
| spouse = Jyoti Chaudhry
| children = 3
| parents =
| relatives =
| website = {{URL|zscaler.com/company/leadership/jay-chaudhry}}
}}

'''Jay Chaudhry'''<ref name="Lamare">{{Cite web |last=Lamare |first=Amy |date=2022-02-14 |title=Zscaler founder Jay Chaudhry grew up in a village with no running water – now he's worth $15.4 billion |url=https://www.businessofbusiness.com/articles/zscaler-founder-jay-chaudhry-grew-up-in-a-village-with-no-running-water-software-startups-made-him-a-billionaire/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=www.businessofbusiness.com |language=en}}</ref> (born August 26, 1958)<ref name="mercurynews.com">{{Cite web |last1=News |first1=Steve Johnson {{!}} Mercury |last2=Group |first2=Bay Area News |date=2011-09-09 |title=Mercury News interview: Jay Chaudhry, CEO of Zscaler, a cloud computing security firm |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2011/09/09/mercury-news-interview-jay-chaudhry-ceo-of-zscaler-a-cloud-computing-security-firm/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=The Mercury News |language=en-US}}</ref> is an [[Indian Americans|Indian-American]] technology entrepreneur and the CEO and founder of [[Cloud computing security|cloud security]] company [[Zscaler]].

== Early life and education ==
Chaudhry was born in Panoh, a village in the [[Una district]] of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] (now Himachal Pradesh), India with a population of 800.<ref name="mercurynews.com"/> The village did not have [[Tap water|running water]] or [[Electricity sector in India|electricity]] until he was a teenager.<ref name="Lamare"/> His parents, Bhagat and Surjeet Chaudhry, were small-scale farmers, and he was the youngest of three sons.<ref name="Lamare"/>

In an interview, Jay recalled that he used to walk nearly 4 km every day to attend high school in Dhusara, the neighboring village and, because there was no electricity, he often studied outside under a tree.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meet Jay Chaudhry, the man who studied under a tree in Himachal to become one of the world's top billionaires today |url=https://www.businessinsider.in/thelife/personalities/news/meet-jay-chaudhry-the-man-who-studied-under-a-tree-in-himachal-to-become-one-of-the-worlds-top-billionaires-today/articleshow/81288884.cms |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Business Insider}}</ref>

Following the completion of high school, he earned a bachelor's degree in electronics engineering from [[IIT (BHU) Varanasi|Indian Institute of Technology]], [[Banaras Hindu University]].<ref name="Lamare"/>

In 1980, at age 22, he moved to the United States to attend the [[University of Cincinnati]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jay Chaudhry |url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/jay-chaudhry/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> His first time on a plane was his flight to the U.S. to attend the University of Cincinnati, where he received master's degrees in [[industrial engineering]], [[computer engineering]], and marketing.<ref name="Lamare"/><ref name="Daily">{{Cite web |last=Daily |first=Investor's Business |date=2020-12-17 |title=How Zscaler CEO Jay Chaudhry Turned His Passion Into Billions |url=https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/zscaler-ceo-jay-chaudhry-turned-his-passion-into-billions/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Investor's Business Daily |language=en-US}}</ref>

He also completed the executive management program at [[Harvard Business School]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-03-02 |title=Indian-born cyber tycoon Jay Chaudhry climbs into world's richest list |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/newsbuzz/indian-born-cyber-tycoon-jay-chaudhry-climbs-into-worlds-richest-list/articleshow/68228787.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-02-26 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref name="globalindiantimes.com">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-28 |title=Zscaler co-founder Jay Chaudhry's focus on IT security has led to major success |url=https://www.globalindiantimes.com/globalindiantimes/2021/10/28/zscaler-jay-chaudhry |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Global Indian Times |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Career ==
Chaudhry started out working in engineering, sales, marketing and management at [[IBM]], [[Unisys]], and [[NCR Voyix|NCR]].<ref name="globalindiantimes.com"/> He went on to become the founder of five security software startups.<ref name="Lamare"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Babu |first=Venkatesha |date=2022-05-18 |title=Zscaler's CEO Jay Chaudhry explains why 'zero-trust security' is better than Firewalls or VPNs |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/zscalers-ceo-jay-chaudhry-explains-why-zero-trust-security-is-better-than-firewalls-or-vpns/article65425685.ece |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref>

=== SecureIT (1996–1998) ===
In 1996, he and his wife Jyoti founded Internet security service SecureIT, using their life savings to do so.<ref name="mercurynews.com"/> After SecureIT was acquired by [[Verisign]] in 1998, Chaudhry moved to [[San Francisco]] to lead Verisign's security services division.<ref name="Lamare"/> He left Verisign in 1999.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-24 |title=A Serial Entrepreneur's Journey: Zscaler CEO Jay Chaudhry (Part 6) |url=https://www.sramanamitra.com/2013/06/24/a-serial-entrepreneurs-journey-zscaler-ceo-jay-chaudhry-part-6/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Sramana Mitra |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== CipherTrust and CoreHarbor (2000–2006) ===
In 2000, Chaudhry launched [[email security]] company [[CipherTrust]]. The idea for CipherTrust came from his work at SecureIT, where he became familiar with the types of security issues, vulnerabilities and attacks that were possible. The technology was built from scratch and was later acquired by [[Secure Computing Corporation]] in 2006 for $274 million.<ref name="Lamare"/><ref name="indiatimes.com">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-02 |title=From Studying Under A Tree In India, Jay Chaudhry Is Worth $35 Billion Today |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/technology/news/jay-chaudhry-entrepreneur-indian-origin-billionaire-zscaler-535458.html |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="globalindiantimes.com"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Evans |first=Jonny |date=2023-04-12 |title=Yet more digital spies targeting iPhones exposed by security researchers |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/3692922/yet-more-digital-spies-targeting-iphones-exposed-by-security-researchers.html |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Computerworld |language=en}}</ref>

In 2000, Chaudhry also launched CoreHarbor, a managed e-commerce platform. It was later acquired by USi/[[AT&T]].<ref name="Lamare"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jay Chaudhry |url=https://www.indiaspora.org/founders-circle-bios/jay-chaudhry |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Indiaspora |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== AirDefense (2002–2008) ===
In 2002, Chaudhry launched wireless security company AirDefense, which operates as a provider of a [[wireless intrusion prevention system]] that monitors airwaves and traffic between laptops and [[Wireless access point|WiFi access points]]. AirDefense was acquired by Motorola in 2008.<ref name="Lamare"/><ref name="indiatimes.com"/><ref name="globalindiantimes.com"/>

=== Zscaler (2007–present) ===
Chaudhry founded [[Zscaler]], a [[Zero trust architecture|zero trust]] cloud security company, in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alspach |first=Kyle |date=2022-01-31 |title=Zscaler CEO: Network security firms have 'hijacked' zero trust |url=https://venturebeat.com/security/zscaler-ceo-network-security-firms-have-hijacked-zero-trust/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Burt |first=Jeff |title=Mergers and acquisitions are a strong zero-trust use case |url=https://www.theregister.com/2022/07/13/mergers-zero-trust-zscaler/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=www.theregister.com |language=en}}</ref> His goal was to build the [[Salesforce]] of cloud security, inspired by [[Marc Benioff]].<ref name="Daily"/>

== Recognitions ==
Jay is the recipient of three awards by Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi: Alumnus of the Year (2015), Alumnus of the Century in Making (2019), the Distinguished Alumnus/Alumna Awards (2021–22), and the [[American India Foundation]]'s Corporate Leadership Award (2022).<ref name="admin">{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2022-05-17 |title=AIF Bay Area Gala Raises $2.1Mln for India's Underprivileged |url=https://indiawest.com/aif-bay-area-gala-raises-2-1mln-for-indias-underprivileged/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=IndiaWest Journal News |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2018, Jay was selected as a finalist for the [[EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award]] program in Northern California.

== Personal life ==
Chaudhry and his wife, Jyoti, have three children and live in [[Reno, Nevada]], U.S. Chaudhry is a vegetarian.<ref name="globalindiantimes.com"/>

Jay loves to hike, [[White-water rafting|white-water raft]] and go on “bonding walks” around his neighborhood with his family. Jay is a voracious reader and he particularly favors books on [[history]], [[global politics]] and [[psychology]].<ref name="mercurynews.com"/>

== Philanthropy ==
Jay makes regular trips to Panoh, India, to help the community. In 2011, he arranged for a [[Mobile laboratory|mobile medical lab]] to give older residents blood tests and other checkups.<ref name="mercurynews.com"/>

In 2022, Jay gifted $1 million to his alma mater, IIT-BHU, to fund the school's Entrepreneurship Center and its Software Innovation Center.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-01-07 |title=IIT-BHU alumnus gifts $1 million for entrepreneurship center |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/iit-bhu-alumnus-gifts-1mn-for-entrepreneurship-center/articleshow/88742834.cms |access-date=2024-02-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> That year, he also donated $3 million to the Bay Area Chapter of the American India Foundation (AIF), an organization committed to improving the lives of India's underprivileged, to support [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID relief efforts]].<ref name="admin"/>

In 2023, he donated $1 million to the [[Sankara Eye Foundation]], an organization whose mission is to eradicate curable blindness in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2023-10-11 |title=Sankara Eye Foundation Gala Raises $1.4 Million |url=https://indiawest.com/sankara-eye-foundation-gala-raises-1-4-million/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=IndiaWest Journal News |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chaudhry, Jay}}
[[Category:1958 births]]
[[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:21st-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:American billionaires]]
[[Category:American chief executives in technology]]
[[Category:American Hindus]]
[[Category:American technology company founders]]
[[Category:Banaras Hindu University alumni]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Computer security specialists]]
[[Category:Indian billionaires]]
[[Category:Indian chief executives in technology]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi alumni]]
[[Category:Indian technology company founders]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Saratoga, California]]
[[Category:People from Unnao district]]
[[Category:University of Cincinnati alumni]]
[[Category:IBM employees]]
[[Category:American people of Punjabi descent]]

Thalavady

2026-02-04T02:55:50Z

FrancisClement: added layout per sources

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{for|the town in Tamil Nadu, India|Talavady}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Thalavady
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|9|21|0|N|76|32|0|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Alappuzha district|Alappuzha]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 689572
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#KL.E2.80.94Kerala|KL]]-
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = Alappuzha
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Mavelikkara
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Thalavady''' is an [[Upper Kuttanad]]u village and [[Panchayati raj in India|Panchayat]] located in [[Kuttanad]]u Taluk, [[Alappuzha district]], [[Kerala]], India. The village was ruled by King of Chembakassery Kingdom.
Its geography is dominated by its vast lush green [[paddy field]], unique to Kuttanad villages, bordered by a network of canals running between the fields and the [[Pampa River]] that flows through the village. Thalavady panchayat office is located in [[Trikkayil]].

Thalavady is the site of several famous temples and churches. [[Chakkulathukavu Temple]] on the banks of Pampa river in Thalavady is one of Kerala's most popular pilgrim centres. The 25-year-old Pamba Boat race is held at Neerattupuram on the day of Uthradam.

A book describing the village in detail was published in 1982, based on a socio-economic study conducted in 1971.<ref>{{cite book |title=Slow Flows the Pampa: Socio-economic Changes in a Kuttanad Village in Kerala |first=K. E. |last=Verghese |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1982 |url=https://archive.org/details/slowflowspampaso0000verg |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/slowflowspampaso0000verg/page/15 15]}}</ref>

==Etymology==

Prior to 1750, it was ruled by Chempakassery Kingdom and the capital was [[Ambalapuzha]]. Chempakassery Kings had a summer palace at Thalavady. The distance between Thalavady and Ambalapuzha was about 17 kilometers. At that time there was no roadways connecting Ambalapuzha and Thalavady. Travel was possible only through waterways. The Royal party had to move between these two places frequently. Whenever the Royal entourage start from Thalavady, a ceremonial cracker will be set off. This is a message to the people to clear off the canal through which the entourage is coming. The first cracker was fired at Thalavady. The word 'Thalavedy' means first cracker. It is believed that the present name was derived from 'Thalavedi'.

==Transportation==

Distance from Thalavady:

1.[[Cochin International Airport]]- 111 km
2.[[Trivandrum International Airport]]- 134 km
3.[[Tiruvalla railway station]] - 12.2 km
4. [[Ambalappuzha railway station]] - 16.5 km
5. [[Kerala State Road Transport Corporation]] (KSRTC) operates bus service from [[Thiruvalla]] and [[Edathua]].

==Government==
{{see also |Kuttanad Assembly constituency#Detailed election results}}
Thalavady is designated number 11 of the 13 self-governed segments in the [[Kuttanad Assembly constituency]]. It has an elected Local Self Government standing committee, with one member elected for each of its 15 wards.<ref>{{cite web |title=Local Self Government Department {{!}} Local Self Government Department |url=https://lsgkerala.gov.in/en/lbelection/electdmemberdet/2020/452 |website=lsgkerala.gov.in |publisher=Local Self Government Department, Government of Kerala |access-date=3 November 2024}}</ref>

== Important places ==
*[[Vyasapuram]]
*[[Narakattaramukku]]
*[[Manattara]]
*[[Trikkayil]]
*[[Anaprambal]]
*[[Vellakkinar]]
*[[Shappupadi]]
*[[Parethodu]]

==Educational Institutions==

* Government Vocational Higher Secondary School, Thalavady
* Government Model U.P School, Thalavady
* Anaprampal Devaswom Upper Primary School, Thalavady
*CMS High School, Kunthirikkal Thalavady

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Alappuzha district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in Alappuzha district]]

{{Alappuzha-geo-stub}}

Sarada Prasanna Jena

2026-02-02T01:38:34Z

FrancisClement: created some data initial version

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
'''Sarada Prasanna Jena''' (born 1971) is an Indian politician from the state of [[Odisha]]. He is a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA) from [[Balikuda-Erasama Assembly constituency]] in [[Jagatsinghpur District|Jagatsinghpur district]]. He won the [[2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Biju Janata Dal]] party.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-04 |title=Balikuda-Ersama Election Result 2024 LIVE Updates Highlights: Assembly Winner, Loser, Leading, Trailing, MLA, Margin |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/balikuda-ersama-election-result-2024-live-updates-highlights-assembly-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8917354.html |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Balikuda-Ersama Constituency Election Results 2024: Balikuda-Ersama Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/odisha/constituency-show/balikuda-ersama |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Jena is from [[Baliguda|Balikuda]] Erasama, Jagatsinghpur district, Odisha. He is the son of Shankar Jena. He completed his Bachelor of Commerce degree in 1994 at Banki College, Banki, which is affiliated with [[Utkal University]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sarada Prasanna Jena(BJD):Constituency- BALIKUDA-ERASAMA(JAGATSINGHPUR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/Odisha2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=905 |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Jena won from [[Balikuda-Erasama Assembly constituency]] representing [[Biju Janata Dal]] in the 2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election. He polled 93,517 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Satya Sarathi Mohanty of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), by a margin of 25,959 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sarada Prasanna Jena, BJD Election Results LIVE: Latest Updates On Sarada Prasanna Jena, Assembly Election Constituency Seat |url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections/odisha/vidhan-sabha-election-candidates-list-2024/sarada-prasanna-jena-18103-6 |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Balikuda-Ersama Assembly Election Results 2024: Balikuda-Ersama Election Candidates List, Election Date, Vote Share - IndiaToday |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/odisha/balikuda-ersama-constituency-result-18103 |access-date=2024-10-13 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jena, Sarada Prasanna}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Biju Janata Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Odisha MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:People from Jagatsinghpur district]]

{{Odisha-BJD-politician-stub}}

Hajipur Lok Sabha constituency

2026-01-19T06:27:14Z

FrancisClement:

{{Short description|Lok Sabha Constituency in Bihar, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Hajipur {{Small|BR-31}}
| type = LS
| established = 1957
| reservation = SC
| incumbent_image = Shri Chirag Paswan.jpg
| incumbent_image_size =
| mp = [[Chirag Paswan|Chirag Ram Vilas Paswan]] {{small|[[Ministry of Food Processing Industries|Union Minister of Food Processing Industries]]}} {{small|S/O: [[Ram Vilas Paswan]]}}
| party = {{Party index link|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year =
| preceded_by = [[Pashupati Kumar Paras|Pashupati Paras]]
| state = [[Bihar]]
| assembly_cons = [[Hajipur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Hajipur]] [[Lalganj, Bihar Assembly constituency|Lalganj]] [[Mahua (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mahua]] [[Raja Pakar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raja Pakar]] [[Raghopur, Vaishali (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raghopur]] [[Mahnar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mahnar]]
| constituency_no =
| map_image =
}}

'''Hajipur Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 40 [[Lok Sabha]] constituencies in the [[East India|eastern Indian]] state of [[Bihar]]. The constituency is reserved for SC. Former Bihar Chief Minister [[Ram Sundar Das]] first contested from this seat in 1957 as a Socialist when he was 36 years old, and 57 years later in 2014 for Nitish Kumar's JD-U when he was 93. He lost both those polls but won in 1991 and 2009.

From 1977 to 2019, this seat was dominated by Ram Vilas Paswan who won eight times from here and lost only twice, in 1984 and 2009. In 1991 Paswan contested and won from Rosera, the only time in 42 years that he did not contest from Hajipur. In 2019 he vacated the seat for his younger brother Pashupati Kumar Paras. In 1977, Paswas polled 89.3% votes, probably the highest voting percentage ever, and he also established a record (since broken) of securing a majority of 4.24 lakh votes. Sitting PM Narasimha Rao secured 89.48% votes in 1991 but that was in a bye-poll, not General Election, for Nandyal seat.

{{Pie chart
| value1 = 24
| value2 = 6
| value3 = 5
| value4 = 6
| value5 = 24
| value6 = 12
| value7 = 17
| value8 = 6
| label1 = [[Indian National Congress|'''INC''' (4 times)]]
| label2 = [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)|'''INC(O)''' (1 time)]]
| label3 = [[Janata Party|'''JP''' (1 time)]]
| label4 = [[Janata Party (Secular)|'''JP(S)''' (1 time)]]
| label5 = [[Janata Dal|'''JD''' (4 times)]]
| label6 = [[Janata Dal (United)|'''JDU''' (2 times)]]
| label7 = [[Lok Janshakti Party|'''LJP''' (3 times)]]
| label8 = [[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)|'''LJP(RV)''' (1 time)]]
| color1 = {{party color|Indian National Congress}}
| color2 = {{party color|Indian National Congress (Organisation)}}
| color3 = {{party color|Janata Party}}
| color4 = {{party color|Janata Party (Secular)}}
| color5 = {{party color|Janata Dal}}
| color6 = {{party color|Janata Dal (United)}}
| color7 = {{party color|Lok Janshakti Party}}
| color8 = {{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}
| caption = Most successful parties from [[Hajipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Hajipur Lok Sabha]]
}}

== Vidhan Sabha segments ==
Hajipur Lok Sabha constituency comprises the following six [[Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) segments:

{| class="wikitable"
!#
!Name
!District
!Member
!colspan="2"| Party
!colspan="2"| 2024 lead
|-
|-
|123
|[[Hajipur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Hajipur]]
|rowspan="6"| [[Vaishali district|Vaishali]]
|[[Awadhesh Singh]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|{{party name with color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)|rowspan=4}}
|-
|124
|[[Lalganj, Bihar Assembly constituency|Lalganj]]
|[[Sanjay Kumar Singh (BJP politician)|Sanjay Kumar Singh]]
|-
|126
|[[Mahua (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mahua]]
|Sanjay Kumar Singh
|style="background-color: {{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}" |
|[[Lok Janshakti Party|LJP(RV)]]
|-
|127
|[[Raja Pakar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raja Pakar]] (SC)
|Mahendra Ram
|{{party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}
|-
|128
|[[Raghopur, Vaishali (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raghopur]]
|[[Tejashwi Yadav]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}" |
|[[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}" |
|[[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]
|-
|129
|[[Mahnar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mahnar]]
|[[Umesh Singh Kushwaha]]
|{{party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}
|style="background-color: {{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}" |
|[[Lok Janshakti Party|LJP (RV)]]
|-
|}
{{noteslist}}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Name
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
||[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
| rowspan="2"|[[Rajeshwara Patel]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|-
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1967|1967]]
|[[Valmiki Choudhary]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1971|1971]]
|[[Digvijay Narain Singh]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (O)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (O)]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1977|1977]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ram Vilas Paswan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1980|1980]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party (Secular)}}" |
|[[Janata Party (Secular)]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1984|1984]]
|[[Ram Ratan Ram]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1989|1989]]
|[[Ram Vilas Paswan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1991|1991]]
|[[Ram Sundar Das]]
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Ram Vilas Paswan]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1998|1998]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 1999|1999]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal (United)}}" |
|[[Janata Dal (United)]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2004|2004]]
|{{Full party name with color|Lok Janshakti Party}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2009|2009]]
|[[Ram Sundar Das]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal (United)}}" |
|[[Janata Dal (United)]]
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2014|2014]]
|[[Ram Vilas Paswan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Lok Janshakti Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[Indian general election, 2019|2019]]
|[[Pashupati Kumar Paras]]
|-
|[[2024 Indian General Election|2024]]
|[[Chirag Paswan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)|dab=yes}}
|-
|}

==Election results==

=== 2024 Indian General election===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: [[Hajipur]]<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Hajipur">{{cite news |publisher=Election Commission of India |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Hajipur |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0421.htm |access-date=13 July 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713122125/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0421.htm |archive-date=13 July 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)
|candidate = [[Chirag Paswan]]
|votes = 615,718
|percentage = 53.29
|change = -0.42
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Rashtriya Janata Dal|candidate=[[Shiv Chandra Ram]]|votes=445,613|percentage=38.57|change=+5.24}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the above]]|party=NOTA|votes=32,967|percentage=3.20|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Surendra Kumar Paswan|party=Independent|votes=17,245|percentage=1.49|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=170,105|percentage=14.72|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,155,605|percentage=58.57|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)
|loser = Lok Janshakti Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Hajipur]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|candidate = [[Pashupati Kumar Paras]]
|votes = 541,310
|percentage = 53.76
|change = +3.45
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|candidate = [[Shiv Chandra Ram]]
|votes = 335,861
|percentage = 33.36
|change = +33.36
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Raj Kumar Paswan
|votes = 30,797
|percentage = 3.06
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = None of the Above
|party = None of the above
|votes = 25,256
|percentage = 2.51
|change = +0.85
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Umesh Das
|votes = 14,579
|percentage = 1.45
|change = +0.05
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Dasai Chowdhary]]
|votes = 4,875
|percentage = 0.48
|change = +0.48
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 205,449
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,007,680
|percentage = 55.26
|change = +0.41
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Lok Janshakti Party
|loser = Janata Dal (United)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Elections 2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Hajipur]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2014/33%20-%20Constituency%20wise%20detailed%20result.pdf |title=General Election of India 2014, Constituencywise detail result |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2015-09-23 |page=66 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123041546/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2014/33%20-%20Constituency%20wise%20detailed%20result.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=web-arch-turnout>{{cite web|title=Parliamentary Constituency wise Turnout for General Election - 2014 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/GE2014/PC_WISE_TURNOUT.htm |publisher=ECI New Delhi |access-date=2015-09-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606003137/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/GE2014/PC_WISE_TURNOUT.htm |archive-date=June 6, 2014 }}</ref> }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|candidate = [[Ram Vilas Paswan|Ramvilas Paswan]]
|votes = 455,652
|percentage = 50.31
|change ={{increase}}12.70
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Sanjeev Prasad Toni
|votes = 230,152
|percentage = 25.41
|change ={{increase}}21.52
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Ram Sundar Das]]
|votes = 95,790
|percentage = 10.58
|change = {{decrease}}33.86
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Viphiya Devi
|votes = 24,399
|percentage = 2.69
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Dina Nath Ram
|votes = 21,045
|percentage = 2.32
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Dhaneshwar Ram
|votes = 12,688
|percentage = 1.40
|change ={{increase}}0.47
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = None of the Above
|party = None of the above
|votes = 15,047
|percentage = 1.66
|change = ''N/A''
}}{{Election box majority|
|votes = 225,500
|percentage = 24.90
|change ={{increase}}18.07
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 904,706
|percentage = 54.85
|change ={{increase}}13.02
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Lok Janshakti Party
|loser = Janata Dal (United)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Elections 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections|General Election, 2009]]: [[Hajipur]]<ref name=arc1>{{cite web | url = http://www.indiaelections.co.in/lok-sabha-constituencies/bihar/hajipur/ | title = General Election 2009 | access-date = 2009-05-20 | work = Hajipur | publisher = Indiaelections.co.in | archive-date = 29 May 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090529005131/http://www.indiaelections.co.in/lok-sabha-constituencies/bihar/hajipur/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Ram Sundar Das]]
|votes = 2,46,715
|percentage = 44.44
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|candidate = [[Ram Vilas Paswan]]
|votes = 2,08,761
|percentage = 37.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Dasai Choudhary
|votes = 21,585
|percentage = 3.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = LTSD
|candidate = Dinesh Chandra Bhushan
|votes = 17,150
|percentage = 3.09
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Sanjay Pashwan
|votes = 14,217
|percentage = 2.56
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Rajendra Kumar Paswan
|votes = 13,071
|percentage = 2.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Ram Tirth Paswan
|votes = 10,537
|percentage = 1.90
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Pratima Kumari
|votes = 5,948
|percentage = 1.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Maheshwar Das
|votes = 5,175
|percentage = 0.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Nand Lal Paswan
|votes = 4,621
|percentage = 0.78
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 37,954
|percentage = 6.83
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 5,55,107
|percentage = 41.83
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|loser = Lok Janshakti Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Elections 1989===

{{Election box begin | title=[[1989 Indian general election|General Election, 1989]]: [[Hajipur]]<ref name=arc1/>

}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal
|candidate = [[Ram Vilas Paswan]]
|votes = 6,15,129
|percentage = 84.08
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Indian National Congress (I)
|candidate = Mahabir Paswan
|votes = 1,10,681
|percentage = 15.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 5,04,448
|percentage = 68.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 7,31,592
|percentage = 66.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Janata Dal
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Elections 1977===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1977 Indian general election|General Election, 1977]]: [[Hajipur]]<ref name=arc1/>

}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Party
|candidate = [[Ram Vilas Paswan]]
|votes = 4,69,007
|percentage = 89.30
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link |
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Baleshwar Ram]]
|votes = 44,462
|percentage = 8.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 4,24,545
|percentage = 80.83
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 5,25,179
|percentage = 76.45
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress (O)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Vaishali district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.indiaelections2014.info/parliament/2019/states/bihar/hajipur/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_results.html Hajipur lok sabha constituency election 2019 result details]

{{Vaishali district topics }}
{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Tirhut Division topics}}
{{Bihar elections}}

{{coord|25.7|85.2|display=title}}

[[Category:Hajipur]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Vaishali district]]

Sri (composer)

2026-01-08T00:35:09Z

FrancisClement: created initial article w/ refs - done

{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Sri
| image = Sri Kommineni.png
| birth_name = Srinivasa Chakravarthi Kommineni
| birth_date = {{birth date|1966|09|13|df=y}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|2015|04|18|1966|09|13|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Hyderabad]], India
| origin = [[Guntur district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| instrument = Vocals, guitar, keyboard
| genre = Trendy
| occupation = [[Film composer]], music director
| years_active = 1992–2015
| label =
| website =
| current_members =
| past_members =
}}

'''Sri''' (born '''Kommineni Srinivasa Chakravarthi''', 13 September 1966 – 18 April 2015) was an Indian [[film composer]] playback singer, and television presenter, known for his works in [[Telugu cinema]].<ref name="sakshi.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.sakshi.com/news/movies/music-director-sri-last-time-interview-231211?pfrom=home-top-story|title=ఇండస్ట్రీ నన్ను అర్థం చేసుకోలేదు! – శ్రీ|website=Sakshi.com|date=18 April 2015|accessdate=1 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="idlebrain.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/interview_sri.html|title=Telugu Cinema Etc |website=Idlebrain.com|accessdate=1 July 2017}}</ref> He is the son of veteran Music composer [[K. Chakravarthy]]. He was the lead anchor for the 1995 show Anthakshari aired in Gemini TV.

He lend his vocals for "Jagamanta Kutumbam Naadi" from the movie ''Chakram'' released in 2005.<ref name="sakshi.com"/> He is best known for his compositions in hits for films, such as ''[[Money Money (1995 film)|Money Money]]'', ''[[Little Soldiers]]'', ''[[Sindhooram (1997 film)|Sindhooram]]'', ''[[Anaganaga Oka Roju]]'', ''[[Aavida Maa Aavide]]'', ''[[Gaayam]]'' and ''[[Ammoru]]''.<ref name="sakshi.com"/><ref name="idlebrain.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telugucinemas.in/2015/04/music-director-sri-super-hit-songs.html|title=Music Director Sri Super Hit Songs|first=Telugu|last=Cinemas|website=Telugucinemas.in|date=19 April 2015 |accessdate=1 July 2017}}</ref>

==Education==
He did his BE in industrial engineering from Manipal University.<ref name="sakshi.com"/><ref name="idlebrain.com"/>

==Death==
He died due to a kidney related ailment on 18 April 2015, in [[Hyderabad]], India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telugucinemas.in/2015/04/music-director-sri-passed-away-music-director-sri-is-no-more.html|title=Music Director Sri is No More|first=Telugu|last=Cinemas|website=Telugucinemas.in|date=18 April 2015 |accessdate=1 July 2017}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{colbegin}}
* ''[[Police Brothers]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Money (1993 film)|Money]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Gaayam]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Kurradhi Kurradu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kurradi Kurradu on MovieGQ|url=https://moviegq.com/movie/kurradhi-kurradu-4583/cast-crew|access-date=2023-04-10 |website=MovieGQ}}</ref> (1994)
* ''[[Money Money (1995 film)|Money Money]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Ammoru]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Little Soldiers]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Anaganaga Oka Roju]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Sindhooram (1997 film)|Sindhooram]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Aavida Maa Aavide]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Naa Hrudayamlo Nidurinche Cheli]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Neeke Manasichaanu]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Kaasi (2004 film)|Kaasi]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Chanti (2004 film)|Chanti]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Sahasam (2013 film)|Sahasam]]'' (2013)
* ''[[Aadu Magaadra Bujji]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Amrutham Chandamamalo]]'' (2014)
{{colend}}

=== Dubbing artist===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Title !! Actor
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Anandam]]'' || [[Jai Akash|Akash]]
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Okariki Okaru]]'' || [[Srikanth (actor, born 1979)|Sriram]]
|-
| 2004 || ''[[143 (2004 film)|143]]'' ||[[Sairam Shankar]]
|}

==Private albums==
* ''Hai Rabba'' – Starring Smitha

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Telugu film score composers]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Manipal Academy of Higher Education alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian composers]]
[[Category:Film musicians from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian male playback singers]]
[[Category:Singers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Guntur district]]
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:2015 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male film score composers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male singers]]

Bigg Boss Kannada season 7

2026-01-03T06:32:32Z

FrancisClement:

{{Short description|Indian reality television series}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox television season
| season_number = 7
| bgcolour = #151B54
| image = BiggBossKannada(season7)Logo.jpg
| caption = Season 7 eye logo
| module1 = {{Infobox reality competition season
| host = [[Sudeep]]
| num_days = 112
| num_housemates = 20
| winner = [[Shine Shetty]]
| runner_up = [[Kuri Prathap]]

}}
| num_episodes = 113
| network = [[Colors Kannada]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2019|10|13|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2020|02|02|df=y}}
| prev_series = ''[[Bigg Boss Kannada (season 6)|Season 6]]''
| next_series = ''[[Bigg Boss Kannada (season 8)|Season 8]]''
}}

The seventh season of the [[Kannada]]-language version of Indian [[reality television]] series ''[[Bigg Boss Kannada|Bigg Boss]]'' premiered on 13 October 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ww.news18.com/news/movies/bigg-boss-kannada-7-premier-complete-list-of-contestants-on-kichcha-sudeepas-show-2345001.html|title=Bigg Boss Kannada 7 Premiere: Complete List of Contestants on Kichcha Sudeepa's Show|website=News18|access-date=2019-10-14}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Sudeep]] returned as the host of the show for the seventh time. Based on votes given by viewers, [[Shine Shetty]] was the season winner. He was awarded a cash prize of 50 lakhs with an additional 11 lakh from other various sponsors, with a [[Tata Altroz]] car, for the first time in ''Bigg Boss Kannada'' history.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/kannada/bigg-boss-kannada-7-grand-finale-live-updates-who-will-be-the-winner-tonight/liveblog/73873248.cms |title=Bigg Boss Kannada 7 Grand Finale Highlights: Shine Shetty wins the title|date=3 February 2020|work=Times of India|access-date=3 February 2020}}</ref>

== Production ==
On Day 1, 18 contestants entered the ''Bigg Boss House''. Due to show's popularity and more contestants in the house, the show was extended to another two weeks instead of the regular 98 days format and this season is the second longest season in the ''[[Bigg Boss Kannada]]'' version as compared to previous seasons.

==Housemate status==

{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:center; font-size:85%; line-height:25px; width:auto;"
|bgcolor=#FF6F62|'''S.no.'''
| scope="col" bgcolor=#FF6F62| '''Housemate'''
| scope="col" bgcolor=#FF6F62| '''{{nowrap|Day entered}}'''
| scope="col" bgcolor=#FF6F62| '''{{nowrap|Day exited}}'''
|bgcolor=#FF6F62|'''Status'''
|-
| 1
| Shine
| Day 1
| Day 112
| {{Won|Winner}}
|-
| 2
| Prathap
| Day 1
| Day 112
| {{Runner-up|1st Runner-up}}
|-
| 3
| Vasuki
| Day 1
| Day 112
| style="background:#7FFFD4;"|{{nowrap|2nd Runner-Up}}
|-
| 4
| Deepika
| Day 1
| Day 111
| style="background:#DDA0DD; text-align:center;" |{{nowrap|3rd Runner-Up}}
|-
| 5
| Bhoomi
| Day 1
| Day 111
| style="background:#FF69B4; text-align:center;" |4th Runner-Up
|-
| 6
| Harish
| Day 1
| Day 107
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 7
| Priyanka
| Day 1
| Day 105
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 8
| Chandan
| Day 1
| Day 98
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 9
| Kishen
| Day 1
| Day 97
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 10
| Chandana
| Day 1
| Day 84
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |11
| rowspan="2" |Chaitra K
|Day 1
|Day 28
|{{No|Evicted}}
|-
| Day 44
| Day 77
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 12
| Raju T
| Day 1
| Day 63
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 13
| Raksha
| Day 43
| Day 56
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
|14
| Prithvi
| Day 21
| Day 49
|{{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
|15
| Sujatha
| Day 1
| Day 42
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
|16
| Jagdish
| Day 1
| Day 35
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
|17
| Rashmi
| Day 1
| Day 21
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
|18
| Chaita V
| Day 1
| Day 14
|{{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
|19
| Ravi B
| Day 1
| Day 14
| {{Quit|Walked}}
|-
|20
| Gurulinga
| Day 1
| Day 7
| {{Eliminated|Evicted}}
|}

== Nominations table ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; font-size:58%; line-height:15px;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" |
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 1
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 2
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 3
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 4
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 5
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" |Week 6
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" |Week 7
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" |Week 8
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" |Week 9
! colspan="4" style="width: 5%;" |Week 10
|-
!Day 64-69
! colspan="3" style="background:gold;" |Day 70
|- style="background:#cfc;"
|'''House Captain'''
| colspan="13" rowspan="2" |No captaincy
|-
! Captain's Nomination
|-
| colspan="14" bgcolor="black" |
|-
!Vote to:
! colspan="5" |Evict
!Evict
!''none''
!''none''
!
!WIN
! colspan="3" |Grand Finale
|-
| colspan="14" bgcolor="black" |
|-

!Thanuja
|''No Nominations''
|style="background:#959FFD;"|Nominated
|style="background:orange;"|Safe Zone
|
|
|style="background:orange;"|Safe
|style="background:#959FFD;"|Nominated
|
|Nominated
|
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#73fb76" |<nowiki>''</nowiki>''Winner'' (Day 70)
|-
!Ramu
|''No Nominations''
|style="background:#959FFD;"|Nominated
|style="background:#959FFD;"|Nominated
|
|
|Safe
|
|
|Nominated
|
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#d1e8ef" |'''1st Runner up''' (Day 70)
|-
!Rithu
|''No Nominations''
|Safe
|Safe
|
|
|Safe
|
| colspan="2" |''Finalist''
|
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#7fffd4" |'''2nd Runner up''' (Day 70)
|-
!Srija
| colspan="3" |''Not in the house''
|
|
|style="background:orange;"|Safe
|
|
|style="background:#959FFD;"|Nominated
| bgcolor="#959FFD" |''Nominated''
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#dda0dd" |'''3rd Runner up''' (Day 70)
|-
!Ramya
|''No Nominations''
|Safe
|
|
|
| colspan="4" |''Finalist''
| bgcolor="#959FFD" |Nominated
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#ff69b4" |'''4th Runner up''' (Day 70)
|-
!Divya
|''No Nominations''
|Safe
|
| colspan="5" |''Finalist''
|
|
| colspan="3" |
|-
!Kalyan
| colspan="3" |''Not in the house''
|
|
|Safe
|
|
|
|
| colspan="3" |
|-
!Pavan
|''No Nominations''
|Nominated
|
|
|
|Safe
|
|
|
|
| colspan="3" |
|-
!Ayesha
|''No Nominations''
|Nominated
|Nominated
|
|
|Safe
|
|
|
|
| colspan="3" |
|-
!Sanjjana
|
|
|
|
|
|Safe
|
|
|
|
| colspan="3" |
|-
!Suman
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| colspan="3" |
|-
!Bharani
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| colspan="3" |
|-
!Emmanuel
|
|
|
|Bharani
| colspan="9" style="background:#FA8072;" |''Evicted (Day 28)''
|-
| colspan="3" bgcolor="black" |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!'''Against public vote'''
|No Nominations'
|Ayesha
Pavan
Sanjjana
Thanuja
Ramu
|Ramu
Abhai
Ramya
Kalyan
Suman
Ayesha
|style="background:cyan;"|Ramu
Bharani
Emmanuel
|style="background:cyan;"|Ramu
Thanuja
Bharani
Ramya
Ayesha
|style="background:cyan;"|No Nominees
|style="background:cyan;"|Ramu
Abhai
Rithu
Kalyan
Srija
Sanjjana
Suman
|style="background:cyan;"|Srija
Thanuja
Ayesha
Pavan
Rithu
|style="background:cyan;"|Thanuja
Ramu
Srija
Kalyan
| colspan="4" |Divya
Ramya

Rithhu

Srija

Thanuja

Ramu
|-
! Walked
| colspan="7" bgcolor="#fcf" |
|
|
| colspan="4" |
|-
! rowspan="2" |Eviction
! rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="salmon" |'''Pavan'''
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="salmon" |
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="salmon" |
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="salmon" |
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="salmon" |
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="salmon" |'''Sanjjana'''
| bgcolor="salmon" |'''Ayesha'''
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="salmon" |'''Kalyan'''
| rowspan="2" bgcolor=" salmon" |
| bgcolor="#ff69b4" |'''Ramya'''
| bgcolor="#dda0dd" |'''Rithu'''
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="#73fb76" |'''Thanuja'''
|-
| bgcolor=" salmon" |'''Pavan'''
| bgcolor="#7fffd4" |'''Srija'''
| bgcolor="#d1e8ef" |'''Ramu'''
|-
|}

: {{color box|#959FFD|border=silver}} indicates that the Housemate was directly nominated for eviction.
: {{color box|#FBF373|border=silver}} indicates that the Housemate was immune prior to nominations.
: {{color box|salmon|border=silver}} indicates the contestant has been evicted.
: {{color box|#fcf|border=silver}} indicates the contestant walked out due to emergency.
: {{color box|#FFE08B|border=silver}} indicates the contestant has been ejected.
: {{color box|#CCFFCC|border=silver}} indicates the house captain.

===Nomination notes===
* {{note|1|Note 1}}: During this week's nominations, the House Captain had a special power to directly nominate one of the non-nominated housemates.
* {{note|2|Note 2}}: In Week 6, the nominations took place on Day 35 before the Captaincy Task. And on Day 36, the House Captain was given a special power to directly nominate one of the non-nominated housemates.
* {{note|3|Note 3}}: In Week 7, housemates were allowed to distribute five nomination points between their two nominations, with a maximum of four points to be allocated to one housemate.
* {{note|4|Note 4}}: In Week 13, though the nominations took place, the voting lines were closed as the next week (Week 14) was announced as double eviction week.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Bigg Boss Kannada}}

[[Category:Bigg Boss Kannada]]
[[Category:Bigg Boss seasons|Kannada 7]]
[[Category:2019 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:Colors Kannada original programming]]
[[Category:Kannada-language television shows]]

Rita kuturnee

2025-12-27T06:58:31Z

FrancisClement: Adding Page

{{Short description|Species of fish}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Phractocephalus_kuturnee_Sykes.jpg
| status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Dahanukar, N. |date=2011 |title=''Rita kuturnee'' |volume=2011 |article-number=e.T172420A6888538 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T172420A6888538.en |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref>
| taxon = Rita kuturnee
| authority = ([[William Henry Sykes|Sykes]], 1839)
| synonyms = *''Phractocephalus kuturnee'' Sykes, 1839
*''Arius hastatus'' [[Achille Valenciennes|Valenciennes]], 1840
*''Rita hastata'' (Valenciennes, 1840)
*''Arius pumilus'' Valenciennes, 1840
}}

'''''Rita kuturnee''''' is a species of [[bagrid catfish]] [[endemism|endemic]] to [[India]] where it occurs in the rivers of the [[Deccan Plateau]] up to the [[Krishna River]] system.<ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021" /><ref name=FishBase/> It is an inhabitant of large rivers.<ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021" /> It grows to a total length of 30 cm<ref name=FishBase/> and is [[commercial fishery|commercially fished]] for human consumption.<ref name="iucn status 20 November 2021" /><ref name=FishBase/>

== References ==
<references>

<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase |genus=Rita|species= kuturnee |month=December |year=2019}}</ref>

</references>

{{Taxonbar|from=Q3757966}}

[[Category:Bagridae]]
[[Category:Catfish of Asia]]
[[Category:Freshwater fish of India]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of India]]
[[Category:Taxa named by William Henry Sykes]]
[[Category:Fish described in 1839]]

{{bagridae-stub}}

2017 Indian Federation Cup final

2025-12-23T21:13:39Z

FrancisClement:

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox football match
| title = 2017 Indian Federation Cup final
| image =
| caption =
| event = [[2016–17 Indian Federation Cup]]
| team1 = [[Bengaluru FC]]
| team1association =
| team1score = 2
| team2 = [[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]]
| team2association =
| team2score = 0
| details = After [[Overtime (sports)#Association football|extra time]]
| date = 21 May 2017
| stadium = [[Barabati Stadium]]
| city = [[Cuttack]]
| man_of_the_match1a = [[Amrinder Singh]]
| man_of_the_match1atitle =
| referee =[[C.R. Srikrishna]]
| attendance =
| weather =
| previous = [[2016 Indian Federation Cup final|2016]]
| next =
}}

{{main article|2016–17 Indian Federation Cup}}
The '''2017 Indian Federation Cup final''' was a [[association football|football]] match between [[Bengaluru FC]] and [[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]] played on 21 May 2017 at [[Barabati Stadium]] in [[Cuttack]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thefangarage.com/articles/10573-federation-cup-to-get-underway-at-cuttack-on-7th-may-star-sports-to-telecast-every-game|title=Federation Cup to get underway at Cuttack on 7th May, Star Sports to telecast every game|date=1 May 2017}}</ref> Bengaluru FC won their second Federation Cup title after having won the first time in 2014–15.

==Background==
Mohun Bagan played a record 20th Federation Cup final, having won 14 previously. Bengaluru FC played their second final, having won [[2014–15 Indian Federation Cup]].

After the injury of the captain [[Sunil Chhetri]] in the group stage, due to harsh weather conditions and cramped schedule, Bengaluru FC requested to postpone the match to 24 May, but the request was denied.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/conditions-not-ideal-to-play-quality-football-parth-jindal-tells-aiff/articleshow/58666889.cms|title=Conditions not ideal to play quality football: Parth Jindal tells AIFF|first=Maxin|last=Mathew|work=TNN|date=14 May 2017}}</ref> Before the match, Roca remarked, "I would say Bagan are the favourites with some big names on their roster and the availability of all four foreigners for this fixture. We have no problem being the underdogs."

==Match==
===Details===

{{Football box
|date=21 May 2017
|time=19:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Bengaluru FC]]
|score=2–0
|aet=yes
|report=https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=8178
|team2=[[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]]
|goals1=
* [[Harmanjot Khabra|Khabra]] {{yel|10}}
* [[Eugeneson Lyngdoh|Lyngdoh]] {{yel|13}}
* [[C.K. Vineeth|Vineeth]] {{goal|107||119}}
|goals2=
* [[Sony Norde|Norde]] {{yel|10}}
* [[Sehnaj Singh|Sehnaj]] {{yel|79}}
* [[Pritam Kotal|Kotal]] {{yel|100}}
|stadium=[[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]]
|attendance=
|referee=[[C.R. Srikrishna]]
}}

{| width=92%
|-

|{{Football kit
|pattern_la = _redshoulders
|pattern_b = _redshoulders
|pattern_ra = _redshoulders
|pattern_sh =
|pattern_so =
|leftarm = 0000FF
|body = 0000FF
|rightarm = 0000FF
|shorts = 0000FF
|socks = 0000FF
|title = Bengaluru FC
}}

|{{Football kit
|pattern_la =
|pattern_b = _mbhome_1415
|pattern_ra =
|pattern_sh = _mbhome_1415
|pattern_so = _mbhome_1516
|leftarm = 91191B
|body =
|rightarm = 91191B
|shorts =
|socks = 91191B
|title = Mohun Bagan
}}
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Federation Cup (India)}}
{{2016–17 in Indian football}}
{{Bengaluru FC}}
{{Mohun Bagan Super Giant}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2017 Indian Federation Cup Final}}
[[Category:2016–17 Indian Federation Cup|F]]
[[Category:Indian Federation Cup finals]]
[[Category:Bengaluru FC matches]]
[[Category:Mohun Bagan Super Giant matches]]

Surrender of Tranquebar (1808)

2025-12-15T12:31:37Z

FrancisClement: created new info w/ sources

{{Short description|1808 capture of a European fort in India}}
{{Not to be confused with|Capture of Tranquebar}}{{For|other sieges on Tranquebar|Siege of Dansborg (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Surrender of Tranquebar
| place = [[Tranquebar]], [[Danish India]] (present-day [[India]])
| partof = the [[English Wars (Scandinavia)|English Wars]]
| image = Tranquebar 1790 - Peter Anker (1744–1832) - Kulturhistorisk museum, UiO - UEM4452 (cropped).jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = ''Tranquebar'', by former governor, [[Peter Anker]]
| date = 12 February 1808
| coordinates = {{coord|11|1|45|N|79|50|58|E|display=inline,title}}
| territory = Tranquebar occupied by the British
| result = British victory
| combatant1 = {{flag|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|name=United Kingdom}}
| combatant2 = {{Flag|Denmark-Norway}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[James Watson (British Army officer)|James Watson]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} Thomas Caulfield
| commander2 = {{Flagicon|Denmark-Norway}} Peter Hermanson{{Surrender}}
| units1 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[14th Regiment of Foot|14th Foot Regiment]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} EIC's artillery {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} ''[[HMS Russell (1764)|HMS Russell]]'' {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} ''[[HMS Monmouth (1796)|HMS Monmouth]]''
| units2 = {{Flagicon|Denmark-Norway}} Dansborg garrison {{Flagicon|Denmark-Norway|naval}} ''HDMS Nancy'' {{Flagicon|Denmark-Norway|naval}} ''HDMS Charlotte'' {{Flagicon|Denmark-Norway|naval}} ''HDMS Sophia''
| casualties2 = None
| strength1 = 8 merchantmen 2 ships 74 cannons
| casualties1 = None
| strength2 = 3 ships
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Danish colonial conflicts}}
}}
The '''Surrender of Tranquebar''' ({{Langx|da|Overgivelsen af Trankebar}}) or the '''Capture of Tranquebar''' ({{Langx|da|Overtagelsen af Trankebar|links=no}}) was a surrender of the capital of [[Danish India]], [[Tranquebar]], in 1808 to the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] as a result of the [[English Wars (Scandinavia)|English Wars]]. The capital surrendered almost immediately after the arrival of a British force.

== Background ==
{{Further|Capture of Tranquebar}}
In 1801, [[Battle of Copenhagen (1801)|hostilities]] between [[Denmark–Norway]] spread to their colonial holdings, including [[India]]. On 12 May 1801, [[Tranquebar]], the capital of [[Danish India]], [[Capture of Tranquebar|surrendered]] to the British under [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Richard Wellesley]].{{Sfn|Liisberg|2020}} Similar events would [[Capture of Serampore (1801)|happen to Serampore]] and the [[Invasion of the Danish West Indies|Danish West Indies]], however, hostilities ended after the [[Treaty of Amiens]], where it was decided [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] was to embark from the Danish possessions in 1802.{{Sfn|Glover|2018}}{{Sfn|Liisberg|2020}}

== Surrender ==
In early 1808, [[Battle of Copenhagen (1807)|hostilities broke out again]], and as a response, the British sent [[HMS Russell (1764)|''HMS Russell'']] and [[HMS Monmouth (1796)|HMS Monmouth]] with a detachment of the [[14th Regiment of Foot]] and 74 cannons to Tranquebar.{{Sfn|Liisberg|2020}}{{Sfn|Gold|2014}} Upon anchoring off Tranquebar on 12 February 1808,{{Sfn|Liisberg|2020}} the British recommended the Danish governor, Peter Hermanson,{{Sfn|Larsen|1940|p=76}} to surrender, which he quickly did.{{Sfn|Liisberg|2020}}{{Sfn|Gold|2014}} At 10 PM, articles of capitulation were signed, between Colonel [[James Watson (British Army officer)|James Watson]] and Captain Thomas Caulfield, on behalf of the British, and Governor Hermanson on behalf of the Danish.{{Sfn|Larsen|1940|p=76}}{{Sfn|Gold|2014}}

== Aftermath ==
Tranquebar and the other Danish possessions in India were occupied by Britain until 1815, however, the damage to the trade never recovered, and in 1845 Denmark sold its Indian holdings to Britain for 1.125.000 [[Danish rigsdaler|Danish Rigsdaler]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tranquebar, 1620-1845 |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/trankebar |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |language=da}}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{Annotated link|Battle of West Kay}}
* {{Annotated link|Battle of Copenhagen (1807)}}
* {{Annotated link|Plunder of Nancowry}}

== References ==
{{Ref list}}

== Works cited ==
* {{Cite book |last=Glover |first=Gareth |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pLPNDwAAQBAJ&dq=Amiens+Danish+1801&pg=PT83 |title=The Two Battles of Copenhagen, 1801 and 1807: Britain and Denmark in the Napoleonic Wars |date=2018-09-30 |publisher=Casemate Publishers |isbn=978-1-4738-9833-2 |language=en |chapter=10}}
* {{Cite book |last=Liisberg |first=H. C. Bering |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WxfGDwAAQBAJ&dq=nicobarerne+1805&pg=PT314 |title=Danmarks søfart og søhandel. Bind 1 |date=2020-01-13 |publisher=Lindhardt og Ringhof |isbn=978-87-26-30660-6 |language=da}}
* {{Cite book |last=Larsen |first=Kay |url=https://slaegtsbibliotek.dk/922667.pdf |title=Guvernører, Residenter, Kommandanter og Chefer |publisher=Arthur Jensens Forlag |year=1940 |location=[[Copenhagen]] |pages= |language=Danish}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gold |first=Joyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQVdAAAAcAAJ&dq=Tranquebar+1808+russel&pg=PA145 |title=The Naval Chronicle |publisher=Joyce Gold |year=2014 |volume=20 |pages=145 |language=en}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2025}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Surrender of Tranquebar (1808)}}
[[Category:1800s in Danish India]]
[[Category:Battles involving Denmark]]
[[Category:Battles involving Norway]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars involving Denmark]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Napoleonic Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1808 in India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Danish East India Company|Tranquebar]]
[[Category:Tranquebar]]

Sacred Heart Catholic Church, Mathura

2025-11-29T08:34:26Z

FrancisClement: created new details basic info - done

{{short description|Church in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox church
| name = Sacred Heart Catholic Church
| fullname =
| other name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = Sacred Heart Church, Mathura 1.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Sacred Heart Catholic Church (2023)
| pushpin map =
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| coordinates = {{Coord|27|29|03.7|N|77|41|40.3|E|display=inline,title}}
| osgridref =
| osgraw =
| location = [[Mathura]]
| country = India
| language(s) =
| denomination = [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
| previous denomination =
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| religious institute =
| churchmanship =
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| founded date = 1874
| founder = [[Frederic Growse]]
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| years built = 1870s
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| archdiocese = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Agra|Archdiocese of Agra]]
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}}
The '''Sacred Heart Catholic Church''' is an architecturally notable church in [[Mathura]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. The design combines [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic principles]], Indian craftsmanship, and a Russian dome.

The church was built in the 1870s by [[Frederic Growse]], a British civil servant, and convert to Catholicism, on the site of a shed which had previously been used as a Catholic chapel. Growse paid a third of the cost, with donations also being received from the bankers Seth Lachhman Das and Seth Lakhmi Chand, and others. The [[Persian carpet]] covering the steps of the [[altar]] was given by Agra's superintendent of the central prison [[John W. Tyler]], and the [[Stations of the Cross]] came from the [[10th Royal Hussars]]. Examples of local art are seen in the carvings on its doorways, [[Tracery|window traceries]] and the kiosks by the dome. Growse intended it for a mixed congregation of Europeans and Indians.

==Origins==
The first stone was laid on 18 January 1874, on the site of a shed which had been used as a Catholic chapel dedicated to [[St Francis of Assisi|St Francis Apostle of the Poor]].<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP.160"/> Mathura already had an [[Anglican church]], built in the [[Italianate architecture|Italianate style]], for the use of British troops stationed there.<ref name="Metcalf1984">{{cite journal |last1=Metcalf |first1=Thomas R. |title=Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860–1910 |journal=Representations |date=1984 |issue=6 |page=59 |doi=10.2307/2928537 |jstor=2928537 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2928537 |issn=0734-6018|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Frederic Growse, a [[Indian Civil Service|British civil service officer]] posted to Mathura in the 1870s who had converted to [[Catholicism]],<ref name=OUI1893/> was an enthusiast for Indian arts and crafts, and set out to plan a Catholic church in that style.<ref name="Metcalf1984"/><ref name="Metcalfe1989">{{cite book |last1=Metcalfe |first1=Thomas R. |title=An Imperial Vision: Indian architecture and Britain's Raj|date=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-06235-3 |pages=55–56 |url=https://archive.org/details/AnImperialVision/page/n17/mode/2up?q=growse}}</ref><ref name=JRAS1893>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/25197161 "Notes of the Quarter (April, May, June, 1893) III Obituary Notices"], ''[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland]]'', July 1893, pp. 650–652.</ref>
<gallery>
File:Catholic Church of the Sacred Heart, Mathura.png|Sacred Heart Catholic Church at the time of its construction<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP.160">{{cite book |last1=Growse |first1=Frederic Salmon |title=Mathurá: A district memoir|date=1883 |publisher=North-western provinces and Oudh government Press |location=Allahabad |pages=160–162 |url=https://archive.org/details/mathurdistrict00growrich/page/n203/mode/2up}}</ref>
File:Interior of the Catholic Church.png|Interior view (19th century)<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP417">[https://archive.org/details/mathurdistrict00growrich/page/418/mode/2up Growse, 1883, pp. 417–418.]</ref>
</gallery>

==Design and construction==
The church's grounds and general proportions were planned according to [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic principles]], while the rest of the church is "purely oriental in design".<ref name="Metcalf1984"/> He employed local craftsmen.<ref name=Mayer2010>{{cite book |last1=Mayer |first1=Roberta A. |last2=Forest |first2=Lockwood De |title=Lockwood de Forest: Furnishing the Gilded Age with a Passion for India |date=2010 |publisher=Associated University Presse |location=Newark |isbn=978-0-87413-973-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hx5tDzcwnqcC&dq=bulandshahr&pg=PA83 |language=en|page=83}}</ref> Examples of local art are seen in the carvings on its doorways, the [[Tracery|window traceries]] and the kiosks by the dome.<ref name="Metcalf1984"/> Growse initially proposed to design the dome based on the [[Hindu temple architecture|spire of the Hindu temple]] Madan Mohan, at [[Brindaban]], but fearing opposition, changed his plan and designed it in the [[Russian church architecture|Russian style]] instead.<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP.160"/><ref name="Metcalf1984"/> After the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], attempts to introduce [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]] was seen by the [[British Raj|British in India]] as controversial.<ref name="Metcalf1984"/><ref name="Growse1883MathuraP15"/>

Growse regarded the church as unfinished, due to his forced removal from his post at Mathura to serve in another district.<ref name="Metcalfe1989"/>

<gallery>
File:Sacred Heart Catholic Church Mathura4.jpg|Entrance
File:Sacred Heart Catholic Church Mathura1.jpg|Exterior
File:Sacred Heart Catholic Church Mathura2.jpg|Unfinished pillar
File:Sacred Heart Catholic Church, Mathura (Good Friday).jpg|Interior (Good Friday)
File:Sacred Heart Catholic Church (Mathura) interior.jpg|Interior
File:Sacred Heart Catholic Church (Mathura) celing.jpg|Ceiling
</gallery>

==Contributors==
Frederic Growse paid one third of the cost of the church,<ref name=OUI1893>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AGAaAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA223 "Obituary"], ''[[The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record]]'', New Series, Vol. VI, Nos. 11 & 12 (1893). pp. 223–225.</ref> and donations were also received from the bankers [[Seth Lachhman Das]] and [[Seth Lakhmi Chand]],<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP15">[https://archive.org/details/mathurdistrict00growrich/page/n33/mode/2up Growse, 1883, pp. 15–16.]</ref> Captain Boyce Combe, the Lord Bishop of Agra, Seth Gobind Das, and others.<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP417"/> The crucifix was donated by [[Marquess of Lothian|Lord Ralph Kerr]], the [[Persian carpet]] covering the steps of the [[altar]] was given by John W. Tyler, the Stations of the Cross came from the 10th Royal Hussars, and the crystal chandelier for the choir from John Ellis of Agra.<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP417"/> Lala Badri Prasad donated a marble chair, Lala Ratan Lal gave the font, and Seth Raghunath Das donated a further marble chair and chandelier.<ref name="Growse1883MathuraP417"/>

==Reception==
Growse was proud of the church, saying that visitors would "immediately understand that it was a Catholic Church, built in an eastern country for the use of a mixed congregation of Europeans and orientals" that mixed "oriental and western ideas".<ref name=met101>Metcalfe, 1989, p. 101.</ref> He reproduced favourable press comments in the reprint of his book ''[[Mathurá: A district memoir]]''.<ref name=met101/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{commons category inline|Sacred Heart Catholic Church (Mathura)}}

[[Category:Gothic Revival church buildings in India]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Mathura]]
[[Category:Churches completed in the 1870s]]

Delhi women's football team

2025-11-26T11:02:22Z

FrancisClement:

{{About|the women's team|the men's team|Delhi football team}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Refimprove|date=September 2025}}
{{One source|date=September 2025}}
{{Third-party|date=September 2025}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox football club
| clubname = Delhi
| image =
| image_size = 200px
| fullname = Delhi women's football team
| nickname =
| ground = [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]], [[New Delhi]]
| capacity = 60,254
| owner = [[Delhi Soccer Association]]
| mgrtitle = Head coach
| manager =
| captain =
| league = [[Rajmata Jijabai Trophy]]
| season = [[2025–26 Rajmata Jijabai Trophy|2025–26]]
| position = First round
| current = 2025–26 Rajmata Jijabai Trophy
| pattern_la1 =
| pattern_b1 =
| pattern_ra1 =
| pattern_sh1 =
| pattern_so1 =
| leftarm1 = 0000CD
| body1 = 0000CD
| rightarm1 = 0000CD
| shorts1 = 0000CD
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| pattern_ra2 =
| pattern_sh2 =
| pattern_so2 =
| leftarm2 = FF8C00
| body2 = FF8C00
| rightarm2 = FF8C00
| shorts2 = FF8C00
| socks2 = FF8C00
| website =
}}

The '''Delhi women's football team''' is an Indian women's [[association football|football]] team representing [[Delhi]] in the [[Rajmata Jijabai Trophy|Senior Women's National Football Championship]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/association/491|title=Football Delhi (Delhi Soccer Association) |publisher=[[All India Football Federation]]}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of Indian state football associations]]
* [[Football in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Rajmata Jijabai Trophy}}
{{Indian state football teams}}

[[Category:Football in Delhi]]
[[Category:Rajmata Jijabai Trophy teams]]
[[Category:Year of establishment missing]]

{{India-footyclub-stub}}
{{Delhi-stub}}

Presidency of Ram Nath Kovind

2025-11-19T01:38:23Z

FrancisClement: brief expand information for clarity additionally and updated info

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox administration
|image=Ram Nath Kovind official portrait.jpg
|name=Presidency of Ram Nath Kovind
|term_start={{dts|format=dmy|2017|07|25}}
|term_end={{dts|format=dmy|2022|07|25}}
|president=[[Ram Nath Kovind]]|president_link=President of India
|party=[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|election=[[2017 Indian presidential election]]
|seat=[[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|Rashtrapati Bhawan]]
|predecessor=[[Presidency of Pranab Mukherjee|Pranab Mukherjee]]
|successor=[[Presidency of Droupadi Murmu|Droupadi Murmu]]
|seal=Emblem of India.svg
|seal_caption=Emblem of India
}}
The '''presidency of Ram Nath Kovind''' began on {{dts|format=dmy|2017|07|25}}, when [[Ram Nath Kovind]] took the oath as the fourteenth [[president of India]] administered by Chief Justice [[Jagdish Singh Khehar]]. Kovind was the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP)-led [[National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) nominee and defeated the [[Indian National Congress]] (Congress)-led [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA) nominee and former [[Speaker of the Lok Sabha|speaker of Lok Sabha]], [[Meira Kumar]]. Prior to being the presidential nominee, he was the [[List of governors of Bihar|governor of Bihar]] and a [[Member of parliament, Rajya Sabha|member of parliament]] in [[Rajya Sabha]]. Kovind secured approximately two-thirds of the [[Electoral College (India)|electoral college]] vote of the elected members of the federal, state and [[union territory]] legislatures.

During his presidency, he has undertaken state visits to 28 countries. He has received the highest state honors from six countries, [[Madagascar]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Eswatini]], [[Croatia]], [[Bolivia]] and the [[Guinea|Republic of Guinea]].<ref name="The President of India3">{{Cite web|title=The President of India|url=https://presidentofindia.gov.in/|access-date=2021-03-21|website=presidentofindia.gov.in|language=english|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414021216/https://presidentofindia.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> Just a few weeks after starting his presidency, [[Venkaiah Naidu]], the BJP candidate for vice president won the [[2017 Indian vice presidential election]]; President Kovind administered the oath of the office.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Vishwa Mohan|date=5 Aug 2017|title=Venkaiah Naidu: NDA candidate Venkaiah Naidu wins vice presidential election with 516 votes {{!}} India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nda-candidate-venkaiah-naidu-wins-vice-presidential-election-with-516-votes/articleshow/59931644.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025227/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nda-candidate-venkaiah-naidu-wins-vice-presidential-election-with-516-votes/articleshow/59931644.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, he [[Second swearing-in ceremony of Narendra Modi|administered the oath of office]] to [[Narendra Modi]] upon his [[2019 Indian general election|re-election]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-05-23|title=India election results 2019: Narendra Modi secures landslide win|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48347081|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=21 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321043849/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48347081|url-status=live}}</ref> He has held the office during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and subsequent [[COVID-19 lockdowns|lockdowns]]. He is the first leader from [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] to occupy the office of president of India.<ref>{{Cite news|last=IANS|date=2017-07-20|title=Kovind elected President, first leader with RSS background to occupy Rashtrapati Bhavan (Roundup)|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/kovind-elected-president-first-leader-with-rss-background-to-occupy-rashtrapati-bhavan-roundup-117072001301_1.html|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=13 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113065043/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/kovind-elected-president-first-leader-with-rss-background-to-occupy-rashtrapati-bhavan-roundup-117072001301_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

He appointed [[Dipak Misra]], [[Ranjan Gogoi]], [[Sharad Arvind Bobde]] and [[N. V. Ramana]] as [[Chief Justice of India|chief justice]] of the Supreme Court, and other judges of the Supreme Court and the [[High courts of India|High Courts]].

== Presidential election of 2017 ==
{{main|2017 Indian presidential election}}
[[File:Indian_presidential_election,_2017.svg|alt=The 2017 electoral college vote|thumb|291x291px|The 2017 electoral college vote]]
The presidential election took place on {{dts|format=dmy|2017|07|17}}, with the votes counted and the results announced on {{dts|format=dmy|2017|07|20}}. [[President of India|President]] [[Pranab Mukherjee]], whose term of office was due to expire on {{dts|format=dmy|2017|07|24}}, declined to seek re-election due to health concerns and old age, so the INC nominated Meira Kumar as its candidate for president. Kovind thus resigned from the post of [[Governor of Bihar]] on {{dts|format=dmy|2017|06|20}}, to contest the election.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
!Party (Alliance)
!Candidate
!Electoral Votes
!Vote Percentage
!States carried
|- style="text-align:center"
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] ([[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]])
| data-sort-value="Kovind" |[[File:Ram_Nath_Kovind_official_portrait.jpg|120x120px]] <big>'''[[Ram Nath Kovind]]'''</big>
|702,044
|65.65%
|21
|- style="text-align:center"
|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] ([[United Progressive Alliance|UPA]])
| data-sort-value="Kumar" |[[File:Meira_Kumar.jpg|150x150px]] <big>'''[[Meira Kumar]]'''</big>
|367,314
|34.35%
|10
|-
|}

Kovind won the election, getting roughly two-thirds of the electoral college vote.<ref>{{Cite news|author=|date=2017-07-20|title=Presidential Election 2017 Results: Ram Nath Kovind to be the 14th President of India|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/presidential-election-2017-india-result-ram-nath-kovind-meira-kumar-rashtrapati-after-pranab-mukherjee-117072000001_1.html|access-date=2021-04-27|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032047/http://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/presidential-election-2017-india-result-ram-nath-kovind-meira-kumar-rashtrapati-after-pranab-mukherjee-117072000001_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He defeated the [[Indian National Congress]] (Congress) nominee and former speaker of Lok Sabha, Meira Kumar. He was the first leader from [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] to occupy the office of president of India.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Service|first=Indo-Asian News|title=First leader with RSS background elected as India's President|url=https://www.indiaabroad.com/india/first-leader-with-rss-background-elected-as-indias-president/article_3d165b7e-6d6d-11e7-bf3b-efa0b2fec6af.html|access-date=2021-04-27|website=IndiaAbroad.com|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181717/https://www.indiaabroad.com/india/first-leader-with-rss-background-elected-as-indias-president/article_3d165b7e-6d6d-11e7-bf3b-efa0b2fec6af.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Meira Kumar's vote share was the second-highest for a losing candidate; [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]]'s vote share in the 1969 Presidential elections was the highest ever.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sehgal|first=Diganth Raj|date=2020-12-26|title=Critical analysis of 1969 presidential elections|url=https://blog.ipleaders.in/critical-analysis-1969-presidential-elections/|access-date=2021-04-27|website=iPleaders|language=en-US|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427153623/https://blog.ipleaders.in/critical-analysis-1969-presidential-elections/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) coalition share was around 25,000 electoral votes,<ref>{{Cite web|title=राष्ट्रपति चुनाव 2017: यूपी और उत्तराखंड की जीत से एनडीए का पलड़ा भारी|url=https://hindi.firstpost.com/uc/politics/presidential-election-2017-up-uttarakhand-win-give-nda-an-edge-as-opposition-camp-unify-to-take-on-bjp-might-27967.html?uc_news_item_id=3631343934353830&uc_news_app=browser_iflow&entry=browser&entry1=shareback&entry2=widget|access-date=2021-04-27|website=hindi.firstpost.com|archive-date=30 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030093858/http://hindi.firstpost.com/uc/politics/presidential-election-2017-up-uttarakhand-win-give-nda-an-edge-as-opposition-camp-unify-to-take-on-bjp-might-27967.html?uc_news_item_id=3631343934353830&uc_news_app=browser_iflow&entry=browser&entry1=shareback&entry2=widget|url-status=live}}</ref> but they expected other small parties MLA's and MP's to vote for their candidate.
[[File:The_Chief_Justice_of_India,_Shri_Justice_J.S._Khehar_administering_the_oath_of_the_office_of_the_President_of_India_to_Shri_Ram_Nath_Kovind,_at_a_swearing-in_ceremony_in_the_central_hall_of_Parliament,_in_New_Delhi.jpg|thumb|257x257px|Chief Justice administering oath to President-elect Kovind.]]
Kovind took the presidential oath on {{dts|format=dmy|2017|07|25}}, administered by Justice J.S. Khehar India, at a swearing-in ceremony in the central hall of Parliament, in New Delhi.

== Domestic affairs ==

=== President's rule ===
Under Article 356 of the [[Constitution of India]], if a [[State governments of India|state government]] cannot function according to Constitutional provisions, the Union government can take direct control of the state machinery by imposing the [[President's rule]] in the state. President Kovind has imposed President's rule in three states during his presidency.

Kovind imposed President's rule in the former [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|state of Jammu and Kashmir]] from {{dts|format=dmy|2018|06|19}}, to {{dts|format=dmy|2019|10|31}}, as chief minister [[Mehbooba Mufti]] resigned.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2018 |title=Mehbooba Mufti resigns after BJP pulls out of alliance with PDP in Jammu and Kashmir |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bjp-pulls-out-of-alliance-with-pdp-in-jammu-and-kashmir/articleshow/64646733.cms |url-status=live |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=[[Times of India]] |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109012633/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bjp-pulls-out-of-alliance-with-pdp-in-jammu-and-kashmir/articleshow/64646733.cms }}</ref> It continued until {{dts|format=dmy|2019|10|31}}, when the state was split into two Union Territories on [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]]. After the states were split, President's rule continued in the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir imposed under section 73 of the [[Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-31 |title=President rule imposed in J&K finally revoked DD News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-rule-imposed-jk-finally-20revoked#:~:text=The%20President%27s%20rule%20imposed%20in,UT%20of%20Jammu%20and%20Kashmir.|access-date=2021-03-25|website=ddnews.gov.in}}</ref>

As no party could form a government after a fractured election outcome because of the [[2019 Maharashtra political crisis]], Kovind imposed President's rule in Maharashtra from {{dts|format=dmy|2019|11|12}}, to {{dts|format=dmy|2019|11|23}}.<ref>{{Cite news|title=BJP NCP Government: President's rule revoked in Maharashtra at 5.47 am|date=23 November 2019|work=[[The Economic Times]]|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/presidents-rule-revoked-in-maharashtra-at-5-47-am/articleshow/72194738.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-03-25|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424044946/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/presidents-rule-revoked-in-maharashtra-at-5-47-am/articleshow/72194738.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> It was lifted when [[Devendra Fadnavis]] was sworn in as chief minister; he soon resigned and [[Uddhav Thackeray]] became the chief minister.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Singh|first=Vijaita|date=2019-11-12|title=Maharashtra placed under President's Rule|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/presidents-rule-imposed-in-maharashtra/article29954298.ece|access-date=2021-03-25|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=7 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107063159/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/presidents-rule-imposed-in-maharashtra/article29954298.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], President's rule was imposed from {{dts|format=dmy|2021|02|25}}, upon the resignation of the chief minister when there was no alternate claimant to form the next government.<ref>{{Cite news|author=|date=2021-02-25|title=President's Rule in Puducherry notified|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/presidents-rule-imposed-in-puducherry/article33933493.ece|access-date=2021-03-25|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415212909/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/presidents-rule-imposed-in-puducherry/article33933493.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Oaths administered ==
President Kovind administered oath to judges [[Dipak Misra]], [[Ranjan Gogoi]], [[Sharad Arvind Bobde]] and [[N. V. Ramana]] as [[Chief Justice of India|chief justices]] of the Supreme Court and 29 Supreme Court justices. They were:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! scope="col" |Sr. No.
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Date of Appointment
!Parent High Court
!Source
|-
!1
|[[Indu Malhotra]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|4|27}}
|[[Bar Council of India|Bar Council]]
|
|-
!2
|[[Indira Banerjee]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|8|7}}
|[[Calcutta High Court|Calcutta]]
|<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2018-08-04|title=Supreme Court gets 3 judges including KM Joseph, 7 chief justices of HCs appointed|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/supreme-court-gets-3-judges-including-km-joseph-7-chief-justices-of-hcs-appointed/story-QSVPwuH5Zh8sEqFLnlBWvO.html|access-date=2021-03-21|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109013636/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/supreme-court-gets-3-judges-including-km-joseph-7-chief-justices-of-hcs-appointed/story-QSVPwuH5Zh8sEqFLnlBWvO.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!3
|[[Vineet Saran]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|8|7}}
|[[Allahabad High Court|Allahabad]]
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
!4
|[[K. M. Joseph]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|8|7}}
|[[Kerala High Court|Kerala]]
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
!5
|[[Hemant Gupta]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|11|2}}
|[[Punjab and Haryana High Court|Punjab and Haryana]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Four High Court Chief Justices Elevated As New Supreme Court Judges|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/hemant-gupta-ajay-rastogi-mr-shah-r-subhash-reddy-are-new-judges-of-supreme-court-1941540|access-date=2021-03-21|website=NDTV.com|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108102650/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/hemant-gupta-ajay-rastogi-mr-shah-r-subhash-reddy-are-new-judges-of-supreme-court-1941540|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!6
|[[Ramayyagari Subhash Reddy]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|11|2}}
|[[Telangana High Court|Telangana]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justice Ramayyagari Subhash Reddy: Latest News & Videos, Photos about Justice Ramayyagari Subhash Reddy {{!}} The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/Justice-Ramayyagari-Subhash-Reddy|access-date=2021-03-21|website=The Economic Times|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181727/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/Justice-Ramayyagari-Subhash-Reddy|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!7
|[[Mukesh Shah]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|11|2}}
|[[Gujarat High Court|Gujarat]]
|<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Chief Justice & Judges {{!}} SUPREME COURT OF INDIA|url=https://api.sci.gov.in/chief-justice-judges|access-date=2021-03-22|website=main.sci.gov.in|archive-date=22 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222203708/https://main.sci.gov.in/chief-justice-judges|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!8
|[[Ajay Rastogi]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2018|11|2}}
|[[Rajasthan High Court|Rajasthan]]
|<ref name=":2" />
|-
!9
|[[Dinesh Maheshwari]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|1|18}}
|[[Rajasthan High Court|Rajasthan]]
|<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|author=|date=2019-01-16|title=Justices Dinesh Maheshwari, Sanjiv Khanna elevated to Supreme Court|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/justices-dinesh-maheshwari-sanjiv-khanna-elevated-to-supreme-court/article26005581.ece|access-date=2021-03-21|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=26 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126155600/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/justices-dinesh-maheshwari-sanjiv-khanna-elevated-to-supreme-court/article26005581.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!10
|[[Sanjiv Khanna]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|1|18}}
|[[Delhi High Court|Delhi]]
|<ref name=":3" />
|-
!11
|[[Bhushan Ramkrishna Gavai]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|5|24}}
|[[Bombay High Court|Bombay]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|author=Vaibhav Ganjapure|date=10 May 2019|title=In Gavai, Supreme Court gets its 1st SC judge in a decade {{!}} Nagpur News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/in-gavai-supreme-court-gets-its-1st-sc-judge-in-a-decade/articleshow/69257649.cms|access-date=2021-03-21|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181728/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/in-gavai-supreme-court-gets-its-1st-sc-judge-in-a-decade/articleshow/69257649.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!12
|[[Surya Kant (judge)|Surya Kant]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|5|24}}
|[[Punjab and Haryana High Court|Punjab and Haryana]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-10|title=Know Thy Judge {{!}} Justice Surya Kant|url=https://www.scconline.com/blog/post/2021/02/10/know-thy-judge-justice-surya-kant/|access-date=2021-03-21|website=SCC Blog|language=en-US|archive-date=10 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210112738/https://www.scconline.com/blog/post/2021/02/10/know-thy-judge-justice-surya-kant/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!13
|[[Aniruddha Bose]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|5|24}}
|[[Calcutta High Court|Calcutta]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justice Aniruddha Bose|url=https://www.barandbench.com/topic/justice-aniruddha-bose|access-date=2021-03-21|website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181743/https://www.barandbench.com/topic/justice-aniruddha-bose|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!14
|[[A. S. Bopanna]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|5|24}}
|[[Karnataka High Court|Karnataka]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Orders of appointment of Shri Justice Ajjikuttira Somaiah Bopanna, Chief Justice of Gauhati HC to be a Judge of Supreme Court of India (22.05.2019) {{!}} Department of Justice {{!}} Ministry of Law & Justice {{!}} GoI|url=https://doj.gov.in/latestordersofappointmenttra/orders-appointment-shri-justice-ajjikuttira-somaiah-bopanna-chief|access-date=2021-03-21|website=doj.gov.in|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181755/https://doj.gov.in/latestordersofappointmenttra/orders-appointment-shri-justice-ajjikuttira-somaiah-bopanna-chief|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!15
|[[Krishna Murari]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|9|23}}
|[[Allahabad High Court|Allahabad]]
|<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=2019-09-20|title=Four new judges appointed to SC: Profiles of justices Krishna Murari, SR Bhat, V Ramasubramanian and Hrishikesh Roy|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/four-new-judges-appointed-to-sc-profiles-of-justices-krishna-murari-sr-bhat-v-ramasubramanian-and-hrishikesh-roy-7375401.html|access-date=2021-03-21|website=Firstpost|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181747/https://www.firstpost.com/india/four-new-judges-appointed-to-sc-profiles-of-justices-krishna-murari-sr-bhat-v-ramasubramanian-and-hrishikesh-roy-7375401.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!16
|[[Shripathi Ravindra Bhat]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|9|23}}
|[[Delhi High Court|Delhi]]
|<ref name=":6" />
|-
!17
|[[V. Ramasubramanian]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|9|23}}
|[[Madras High Court|Madras]]
|<ref name=":6" />
|-
!18
|[[Hrishikesh Roy]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2019|9|23}}
|[[Gauhati High Court|Gauhati]]
|<ref name=":6" />
|-
!19
|[[A. S. Oka]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Bombay High Court|Bombay]]
|<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Chief Justice and Judges |url=https://api.sci.gov.in/chief-justice-judges |access-date=August 20, 2022 |publisher=[[Supreme Court of India]]}}</ref>
|-
!20
|[[Vikram Nath]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Allahabad High Court|Allahabad]]
|<ref name=":7" />
|-
!21
|[[Jitendra Kumar Maheshwari]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Madhya Pradesh High Court|Madhya Pradesh]]
|<ref name=":7" />
|-
!22
|[[Hima Kohli]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Delhi High Court|Delhi]]
|<ref name=":7" />
|-
!23
|[[B. V. Nagarathna]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Karnataka High Court|Karnataka]]
|<ref name=":7" />
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!24
|[[C. T. Ravikumar]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Kerala High Court|Kerala]]
|<ref name=":7" />
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!25
|[[M. M. Sundresh]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Madras High Court|Madras]]
|<ref name=":7" />
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!26
|[[Bela Trivedi]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Gujarat High Court|Gujarat]]
|<ref name=":7" />
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!27
|[[P. S. Narasimha]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2021|8|31}}
|[[Bar Council of India|Bar Council]]
|<ref name=":7" />
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!28
|[[Sudhanshu Dhulia]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2022|5|9}}
|[[Uttarakhand High Court|Uttarakhand]]
|<ref name=":7" />
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!29
|[[Jamshed Burjor Pardiwala]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2022|5|9}}
|[[Gujarat High Court|Gujarat]]
|<ref name=":7" />
|}
<gallery class="center" widths="225" heights="225" center="" caption="Chief Justices being administered oath by President Kovind">
File:Ram Nath Kovind with Dipak Mishra.png|President Kovind administering the oath to [[Dipak Misra]].
File:The President, Shri Ram Nath Kovind administering the oath of office to Shri Justice Ranjan Gogoi, as Chief Justice of India, at a swearing-in ceremony, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on October 03, 2018.JPG|President Kovind administering the oath to [[Ranjan Gogoi]].
File:Swearing ceremony of Chief Justice of India (cropped).jpg|Chief Justice Bobde (left), Vice President [[Venkaiah Naidu]] (Center) and President Kovind (right) at the swearing-in ceremony of [[Sharad Arvind Bobde]]
</gallery>

== Addresses to the parliament ==

=== Upon taking the oath ===
{{Infobox President styles|image=[[File:Emblem of India.svg|75px]]|name=Ram Nath Kovind|dipstyle=Hon'ble President Shri Ram Nath Kovind (within India)|offstyle=Ram Nath Kovind|altstyle=Mr. President|image2=File:World Telugu Conference 2017 Closing Ceremony 01.jpg}}On {{dts|format=dmy|2017|07|25}}, the recently sworn in President Ram Nath Kovind addressed the gathering with his inaugural speech in [[Hindi]]. He pledged to protect the Constitution and said the key to India's success and fraternity is '[[unity in diversity]]'. He cherished the ideas of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and his contribution to the independence of India, and his thousands of supporters. He appreciated the work and dedication of former President Pranab Mukherjee, and assured citizens of his promise to stay true to the trust they had bestowed on him.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2017 |title=What President Ram Nath Kovind said in his first address after taking oath |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/president-ram-nath-kovind-first-speech-full-text-1026152-2017-07-25 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=[[India Today]] |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033424/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/president-ram-nath-kovind-first-speech-full-text-1026152-2017-07-25 }}</ref>

=== Joint sitting of the two houses of parliament, 2018 ===
On {{dts|format=dmy|2018|01|29}}, President Kovind addressed the joint sitting of two houses of [[Parliament of India|Parliament]]. He appreciated the schemes and initiatives taken by the government, spoke in favor of [[Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana|Jan Dhan Yojana]] (Prime Minister's People's Wealth Scheme), [[Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana|Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana]] (Save the girl child, educate the girl child) and [[Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana]] (Prime Minister's Lighting Scheme). He also thanked [[UNESCO]] for including [[Kumbh Mela]] on its [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|Intangible Cultural Heritage List]] and appreciated the efforts of the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) launching 104 satellites in one launch.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Address by the President of India, Shri Ram Nath Kovind, to the Joint Sitting of Two Houses of Parliament|date=28 January 2018|url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1518029|access-date=2021-03-24|website=pib.gov.in|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181736/https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1518029|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Joint sitting of the two houses of parliament, 2019 ===
On {{dts|format=dmy|2019|01|31}}, President Kovind addressed the joint sitting of the two houses of Parliament. It was the 150th anniversary year of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s birth. It also marked the centenary of the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]]. He paid tribute to all those martyrs who sacrificed their lives hoping to bring a bright future to the Indian people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 January 2019 |title=Address by the President of India Shri Ram Nath Kovind to the joint sitting of two Houses of Parliament |url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=187885 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129144645/https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=187885 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |access-date=27 April 2021 |website=pub.gov.in}}</ref>

=== Joint sitting of the two houses of parliament, 2020 ===
On {{dts|format=dmy|2020|01|31}}, President Kovind addressed the joint sitting of the two houses of Parliament. Upon entering the third decade of 21st century, he wished for the protection of the rights of every citizen. Upon the abrogation of [[Article 370 of the Constitution of India|Articles 370]] and [[Article 35A of the Constitution of India|35-A]] of the Constitution of India, he congratulated the government and said that the seven decade-old dream of [[Syama Prasad Mukherjee|Syama Mukherjee]] had been fulfilled by the efforts of government. He said the steps the government had taken paved the way for the equitable development of [[Kashmir|Jammu-Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]].<ref name="The President of India3"/>

=== Joint sitting of the two houses of parliament, 2021 ===
On {{dts|format=dmy|2021|01|29}}, the joint sitting of Parliament was held during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. India was also entering her 75th year of Independence. President Kovind praised the government's timely efforts to declare lock-downs in the country, to save the lives of the people. He advised citizens to follow all the safety measures against COVID-19, and mentioned the rapid decline in number of cases.<ref name="The President of India3"/>

== Foreign affairs ==
{{main|List of international presidential trips made by Ram Nath Kovind}}

=== State visits of president ===
==== Djibouti and Ethiopia ====
[[File:The President, Shri Ram Nath Kovind meeting the President of Djibouti, Mr. Ismail Omar Guelleh, at Presidential Palace, in Djibouti on October 04, 2017.jpg|thumb|254x254px|President Kovind in [[Djibouti]] with President [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]]]]President Kovind visited Djibouti and Ethiopia from 3 to 6 October 2017. It was significant as India was trying to establish its presence in Africa.<ref name="ndtv.com">{{Cite web|title=President Ram Nath Kovind Arrives In Ethiopia On African Trip|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-ethiopia-on-african-trip-1758734|access-date=2021-03-23|website=NDTV.com|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214617/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-ethiopia-on-african-trip-1758734|url-status=live}}</ref> The two countries signed an agreement to establish regular India-Djibouti Foreign Office level consultations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian President Ram Nath Kovind arrives in Ethiopia as part of two-day Africa tour|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2017/oct/05/indian-president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-ethiopia-as-part-of-two-day-africa-tour-1667145.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The New Indian Express|archive-date=24 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224140037/http://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2017/oct/05/indian-president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-ethiopia-as-part-of-two-day-africa-tour-1667145.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He granted assistance of $600 million that included an India-Africa Development Fund of $100 million and an India-Africa Health Fund of $10 million.<ref>{{Cite news|title=President Ram Nath Kovind invites Ethiopian and African business to India|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/president-ram-nath-kovind-invites-ethiopian-and-african-business-to-india/articleshow/60968707.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181750/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/president-ram-nath-kovind-invites-ethiopian-and-african-business-to-india/articleshow/60968707.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> His visit was the first by an Indian president to Ethiopia in 45 years after President [[V. V. Giri]]'s trip in 1972.<ref name="ndtv.com"/> As Ethiopian capital [[Addis Ababa]] is the seat of the African Union, he interacted with the Indian community and delivered a speech at the [[Addis Ababa University|University of Addis Ababa]]. He had bilateral talks with President [[Ismaïl Omar Guelleh|Ismail Omar Gulleh]] and signed an agreement and memorandum of understanding on institutionalization of foreign office consultation and greater economic cooperation with Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=2017-10-03|title=President Ram Nath Kovind arrives in Djibouti|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-djibouti/article19792004.ece|access-date=2021-03-23|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031304/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-djibouti/article19792004.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Mauritius and Madagascar ====
From 11 to 15 March 2018, President Kovind visited Mauritius and Madagascar. He was the chief guest at the celebrations commemorating the 50th year of Mauritius' independence.<ref>{{Cite news|title=President Kovind meets Mauritius counterpart in Port Louis|work=D.D. News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president%C2%A0kovind-meets-mauritius-counterpart-port-louis#:~:text=President%20Ramnath%20Kovind%20reaches%20Port,his%20second%20leg%20of%20tour.&text=On%2014%20March%2C%20President%20Ramnath,the%20island%20nation%20of%20Madagascar.|url-status=live|access-date=23 March 2021|archive-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208203215/http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president%C2%A0kovind-meets-mauritius-counterpart-port-louis#:~:text=President%20Ramnath%20Kovind%20reaches%20Port,his%20second%20leg%20of%20tour.&text=On%2014%20March%2C%20President%20Ramnath,the%20island%20nation%20of%20Madagascar.}}</ref> He held delegation-level talks with Prime Minister [[Pravind Jugnauth]]. The president also signed agreements and memoranda of understanding between India and Mauritius. He inaugurated the World Hindi Secretariat building as well as laid foundation stones for two important India-aided projects—a social housing scheme and a hospital.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Reach out, win over: Significance of Kovind's Mauritius, Madagascar tours|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2018/03/16/Reach-out-win-over-Significance-Kovind-Mauritius-Madagascar-tours.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Week|language=en|archive-date=18 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318062824/https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2018/03/16/Reach-out-win-over-Significance-Kovind-Mauritius-Madagascar-tours.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The agreements exchanged were on cooperation between [[Nalanda University]] in [[Bihar]] and Mauritius.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The President of India|url=https://presidentofindia.gov.in/|access-date=2021-03-22|website=presidentofindia.gov.in|language=english|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414021216/https://presidentofindia.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> Union Minister [[Ashwini Kumar Choubey]], Delhi Member of Parliament [[Manoj Tiwari (Delhi politician)|Manoj Tiwari]], [[Hukmdev Narayan Yadav|Hukumdev Narayan Yadav]] and other officials accompanied him.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind meets Mauritius counterpart|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/president-kovind-meets-mauritius-counterpart201803111810340001/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ANI News|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181749/https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/president-kovind-meets-mauritius-counterpart201803111810340001/|url-status=live}}</ref> In Madagascar, Prime Minister [[Olivier Solonandrasana|Olivier Solonandrasan]] received him at the [[Ivato International Airport]], [[Antananarivo]]. He was conferred the Grand Cross of the Second Class by the president of Madagascar, [[Hery Rajaonarimampianina]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=President of India, Ram Nath Kovind conferred Grand Cross of the Second Class by the President of Madagascar, Hery Rajaonarimampianina|url=http://diplomacyindia.com/president-of-india-ram-nath-kovind-conferred-grand-cross-of-the-second-class-by-the-president-of-madagascar-hery-rajaonarimampianina-16557/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Diplomacyindia.com|language=en-US|archive-date=21 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021100137/http://diplomacyindia.com/president-of-india-ram-nath-kovind-conferred-grand-cross-of-the-second-class-by-the-president-of-madagascar-hery-rajaonarimampianina-16557/|url-status=live}}</ref> the highest honor Madagascar confers on a non-citizen. He inaugurated the Center for Geo-informatics Applications in Rural Development, interacted with members of the India-Madagascar Business Forum, and addressed students and the academic community at the [[University of Antananarivo]].<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2018-03-15|title=Kovind arrives in Madagascar|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/kovind-arrives-in-madagascar-118031500038_1.html|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331100616/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/kovind-arrives-in-madagascar-118031500038_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Equatorial Guinea, Swaziland and Zambia ====
President Kovind visited Equatorial Guinea, Swaziland and Zambia during his state visit to Africa from 7 to 12 April 2018. He signed three memoranda of understanding in the fields of [[AYUSH]] (ayurveda, yoga, naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa and homoeopathy) and traditional medicine, medicinal plants, and an action plan for Information and Communication Technology. He was bestowed with the medal of the Gran Colar de la Independencia by President [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]], for his contribution to the cause of development, security and world peace.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind bestowed with Equitorial [sic] Guinea's highest civilian honour|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/apr/09/president-kovind-bestowed-with-equitorial-guineas-highest-civilian-honour-1798844.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The New Indian Express|archive-date=22 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022204756/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/apr/09/president-kovind-bestowed-with-equitorial-guineas-highest-civilian-honour-1798844.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He said that India is ready to partner with Equatorial Guinea, which is diversifying its economy and reducing its dependence on oil and gas exports.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2018-04-08|title=President Kovind on visit to Equatorial Guinea|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/president-kovind-on-visit-to-equatorial-guinea-118040800707_1.html|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=13 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413130019/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/president-kovind-on-visit-to-equatorial-guinea-118040800707_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:The President, Shri Ram Nath Kovind meeting with His Majesty Mswati III, the King of Swaziland, at Lozitha Palace, in Swaziland, Shikhuphe on April 09, 2018.jpg|thumb|President Kovind in [[Swaziland]] with King of Swaziland, His Majesty [[Mswati III]]]]In Swaziland, he addressed members of the [[Parliament of Eswatini|Parliament of Swaziland]] on {{dts|format=dmy|2018|04|10}}. He became the first visiting head of state to do so. He met [[Mswati III|King Mswati III]] and was conferred the highest honor of Swaziland, the Order of the Lion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind conferred highest civilian honour of Swaziland DD News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-conferred-highest-civilian-honour-swaziland|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ddnews.gov.in|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220201908/http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-conferred-highest-civilian-honour-swaziland|url-status=live}}</ref> While addressing the Indian community in Malabo, the president said every member of the Indian community is critical to strengthening relations between India and Equatorial Guinea. He also urged the Indian community to help enhance the business and cultural links between the two countries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-04-11|title=Ram Nath Kovind in Swaziland: Two MoUs signed, India announces help to construct new Parliament; key takeaways|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/ram-nath-kovind-in-swaziland-two-mous-signed-india-announces-help-to-construct-new-parliament-key-takeaways/1129423/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319151023/https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/ram-nath-kovind-in-swaziland-two-mous-signed-india-announces-help-to-construct-new-parliament-key-takeaways/1129423/|url-status=live}}</ref>
He visited Zambia at the invitation of President [[Edgar Lungu|Edgar Chagwa Lungu]]. This was the final leg of his three-nation tour to Africa. He paid tribute to three former presidents of Zambia, [[Frederick Chiluba|Chiluba]], [[Levy Mwanawasa|Mwanawasa]] and [[Michael Sata|Sata]] at the Embassy Park Presidential Memorial. He signed agreements and memoranda of understanding including visa exemption on diplomatic and official passports, judicial cooperation which would result in long and short-term training in law and justice developments and the establishment of the Entrepreneurship Development Institute in Zambia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind's Visit to Zambia: An Appraisal of the Relationship - Indian Council of World Affairs (Government of India)|url=https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=3&ls_id=4920&lid=1793#:~:text=President%20Ram%20Nath%20Kovind%20undertook,of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Zambia.&text=Prime%20Minister%20Indira%20Gandhi%20had,,%201970,%201976%20and%201980.|access-date=2021-03-23|website=www.icwa.in|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181727/https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=3&ls_id=4920&lid=1793#:~:text=President%20Ram%20Nath%20Kovind%20undertook,of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Zambia.&text=Prime%20Minister%20Indira%20Gandhi%20had,,%201970,%201976%20and%201980.|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind in Zambia, Both countries sign four agreements DD News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-zambia-both-countries-sign-four-agreements|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ddnews.gov.in|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126185902/http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-zambia-both-countries-sign-four-agreements|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|agency=PTI|date=11 Apr 2018|title=Kovind: India, Zambia sign 4 agreements during President Kovind's visit India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-zambia-sign-4-agreements-during-president-kovinds-visit/articleshow/63719948.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109025713/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-zambia-sign-4-agreements-during-president-kovinds-visit/articleshow/63719948.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Greece, Suriname and Cuba ====
From 16 to 19 June 2018, President Kovind visited Greece on the first leg of his three-nation State Visit to Greece, Suriname and Cuba.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kovind|first=Ramnath|date=2018-06-23|title=India is a steadfast friend to the people of Greece: Ram Nath Kovind|work=[[Business Standard]] India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-is-a-steadfast-friend-to-the-people-of-greece-ramnath-kovind-118062300638_1.html|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=23 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623201136/https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-is-a-steadfast-friend-to-the-people-of-greece-ramnath-kovind-118062300638_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He visited the sites of historical and archaeological importance, addressed the Indian community and Greek [[Indologists]] at the [[Hotel Grande Bretagne|Grande Bretagne]] hotel, laid a wreath to the Unknown Soldier's Monument, met with Greek Prime Minister [[Alexis Tsipras]] and visited the premises of the child welfare organization [[The Smile of the Child]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2018 |title=President Kovind to embark on 3-nation tour to Greece, Surinam |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-kovind-to-embark-on-3-nation-tour-to-greece-suriname-cuba/articleshow/64561677.cms |url-status=live |access-date=28 April 2021 |website=Times of India |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109031440/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-kovind-to-embark-on-3-nation-tour-to-greece-suriname-cuba/articleshow/64561677.cms }}</ref> President Kovind addressed the India–Greece Business Forum and said that there is immense potential to take the economic ties between India and Greece to a higher level.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind in Greece; Addresses Indian Community in Greece; Urges Indian Community in Greece to Help Enhance Economic, Cultural and People-to-People Links between the two Countries|url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1535701|access-date=2021-03-23|website=pib.gov.in|archive-date=21 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021124202/https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1535701|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=elinepa|date=2018-06-13|title=Visit of President of India Shri Ram Nath Kovind to Greece|url=https://elinepa.org/visit-of-indias-president-shri-ram-nath-kovind-to-greece/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=elinepa.org|language=en-US|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181721/https://elinepa.org/visit-of-indias-president-shri-ram-nath-kovind-to-greece/|url-status=live}}</ref>

During his visit to Suriname, he met President [[Dési Bouterse|Desi Bouterse]] and discussed issues of bilateral concern; both men signed bilateral agreements and memoranda of understanding. They paid tribute at the statue of Father of the Nation of India, Mahatma Gandhi in [[Paramaribo]], Surinam's capital city.<ref>{{Cite news|last=ANI|date=2018-06-20|title=President Kovind arrives in Suriname, pays tribute at Gandhi statue|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/president-kovind-arrives-in-suriname-pays-tribute-at-gandhi-statute-118062000098_1.html|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620044339/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/president-kovind-arrives-in-suriname-pays-tribute-at-gandhi-statute-118062000098_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> President Kovind performed [[yoga]] along with the president of Suriname on the [[International Day of Yoga]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=President Ram Nath Kovind to perform yoga asanas with Suriname counterpart|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/president-ram-nath-kovind-to-perform-yoga-asanas-with-suriname-counterpart/articleshow/64677907.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=20 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720094606/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/president-ram-nath-kovind-to-perform-yoga-asanas-with-suriname-counterpart/articleshow/64677907.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Kovind delivered an address in Suriname assembly and said that India will extend a line of credit of $27.5 Million to support a power transmission project in [[Pikin Saron]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind calls for Indo-Surinamese 'South-South' cooperation|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/president-kovind-calls-for-indo-surinamese-south-south-cooperation201806210110210001/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ANI News|language=en|archive-date=17 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917223849/https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/president-kovind-calls-for-indo-surinamese-south-south-cooperation201806210110210001/|url-status=live}}</ref>

He visited Cuba, marking the first visit by an Indian leader to the [[Caribbean island]] in more than six decades. He spoke on the issue of global cooperation and stressed the importance of South-South cooperation. He held wide-ranging talks with Cuban President [[Miguel Díaz-Canel|Miguel Diaz-Canel]] to further cement the strong bilateral ties. He also addressed the University of Havana on the topic 'India and the Global South'. During his address, President Kovind stressed the need for India and Cuba to work together to push for greater space for developing countries in global governance structures.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-06-23|title=Ram Nath Kovind in Cuba: President says developing countries must work together to gain better place in global order|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/ram-nath-kovind-in-cuba-president-says-developing-countries-must-work-together-to-gain-better-place-in-global-order-4576221.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Firstpost|archive-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617005125/https://www.firstpost.com/india/ram-nath-kovind-in-cuba-president-says-developing-countries-must-work-together-to-gain-better-place-in-global-order-4576221.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Cyprus, Bulgaria and Czech Republic ====
President Kovind visited Cyprus from 2 to 4 September 2018, on the first leg of his three-nation visit to Europe to continue India's high-level engagements with European countries. The president and his wife arrived at the [[Larnaca International Airport]] in Cyprus.<ref>{{Cite web|agency=PTI|date=2 Sep 2018|title=President Ram Nath Kovind arrives in Cyprus India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-cyprus/articleshow/65645843.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034200/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-ram-nath-kovind-arrives-in-cyprus/articleshow/65645843.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The Minister of State for Agriculture and Farmers Welfare [[Parshottam Rupala]] and two members of parliament, [[Ram Shakal]] and [[Anil Baluni]], along with several other officials accompanied him. President Kovind addressed an Extraordinary Session of the House of Representatives of Cyprus, delivered a lecture at the [[University of Cyprus]], and addressed members of the Indian diaspora. He aimed to further strengthen trade and business relations and improve people to people contact.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Ram Nath Kovind meets Indian Community in Cyprus DD News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-ram-nath-kovind-meets-indian-community-cyprus|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ddnews.gov.in|archive-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203034320/http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-ram-nath-kovind-meets-indian-community-cyprus|url-status=live}}</ref>

During his visit to Bulgaria, he held detailed talks with President [[Rumen Radev]] and invited Bulgaria to become a key partner of India in defense and in the IT sector under the Make In India program.<ref>{{Cite web|title=India & Bulgaria sign 4 MoUs;President Kovind invites Bulgaria to become key partner of India DD News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/india-bulgaria-sign-4-mouspresident-kovind-invites-bulgaria-become-key-partner-india|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ddnews.gov.in|archive-date=24 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224100222/http://ddnews.gov.in/national/india-bulgaria-sign-4-mouspresident-kovind-invites-bulgaria-become-key-partner-india|url-status=live}}</ref> He signed four memoranda of understanding between on investment, tourism, civil nuclear cooperation and the establishment of a Hindi Chair at Sofia University. A Program of Cooperation was also signed to enhance scientific cooperation.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-07|title=President Ram Nath Kovind, Bulgarian counterpart Rumen Radev visit Brahmastra set in Sofia |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/president-ram-nath-kovind-bulgarian-counterpart-rumen-radev-visit-brahmastra-set-in-sofia-5134221.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Firstpost|archive-date=14 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114064158/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/president-ram-nath-kovind-bulgarian-counterpart-rumen-radev-visit-brahmastra-set-in-sofia-5134221.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the Czech Republic, the president met Bulgarian Prime Minister [[Boyko Borisov|Boyko Borissov]]. He inaugurated a statue of Mahatma Gandhi. He presented a copy of Gandhi's book to the [[president of Bulgaria]]. Both countries called for reform of the UN Security Council. Bulgaria expressed its support for India's bid for permanent membership on the council.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-07|title=Ram Nath Kovind in Czech Republic: New Delhi, Prague agree to fight terrorism in all its 'forms and manifestations'|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/ram-nath-kovind-in-czech-republic-new-delhi-prague-agree-to-fight-terrorism-in-all-its-forms-and-manifestations-5138901.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Firstpost|archive-date=14 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114154646/https://www.firstpost.com/india/ram-nath-kovind-in-czech-republic-new-delhi-prague-agree-to-fight-terrorism-in-all-its-forms-and-manifestations-5138901.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He invited a Czech defense company to take advantage of the opening of the defense manufacturing sector in India to set-up joint ventures in India.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ram Nath Kovind to visit Cyprus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic from Sep 2-9|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/ram-nath-kovind-to-visit-cyprus-bulgaria-czech-republic-from-sep-2-9/articleshow/65626189.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181735/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/ram-nath-kovind-to-visit-cyprus-bulgaria-czech-republic-from-sep-2-9/articleshow/65626189.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> He also addressed the Czech-Indian Business Forum in [[Prague]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=President of India Ram Nath Kovind in the Czech Republic|url=https://www.mzv.cz/newdelhi/en/bilateral_relations/india/president_of_india_ram_nath_kovind_came.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=www.mzv.cz|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181726/https://www.mzv.cz/newdelhi/en/bilateral_relations/india/president_of_india_ram_nath_kovind_came.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Tajikistan ====
[[File:The President, Shri Ram Nath Kovind meeting the President of Tajikistan, Mr. Emomali Rahmon, at Palace of Nation, in Dushanbe, Tajikistan on October 08, 2018.JPG|thumb|President Kovind in [[Tajikistan]] with President [[Emomali Rahmon]]]]From 7 to 9 October 2018, President Kovind visited Tajikistan. He addressed members of the Indian community at a reception hosted by [[Somnath Ghosh]], the Indian ambassador to Tajikistan in [[Dushanbe]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind in Tajikistan; addresses Indian Community; says our diaspora is key partner in India's International outreach|url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1548859|access-date=2021-03-23|website=pib.gov.in|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181738/https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1548859|url-status=live}}</ref> He met President [[Emomali Rahmon]] and visited the [[Tajik National University]] where he delivered an address on 'Countering Radicalization: Challenges in Modern Societies'.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-08|title=President Kovind arrives in Tajikistan for wide-ranging talks|url=https://rstv.nic.in/president-kovind-arrives-tajikistan-wide-ranging-talks.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Rajya Sabha TV|language=en-US|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928210525/https://rstv.nic.in/president-kovind-arrives-tajikistan-wide-ranging-talks.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He paid his respects to Mahatma Gandhi and [[Rabindranath Tagore]] by visiting their memorials. Areas of bilateral, regional and multilateral cooperation were discussed.<ref>{{Cite news|title=President Ram Nath Kovind to visit Tajikistan from October 7–9|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/president-ram-nath-kovind-to-visit-tajikistan-from-october-7-9/articleshow/66099883.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418061831/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/president-ram-nath-kovind-to-visit-tajikistan-from-october-7-9/articleshow/66099883.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> He said that the two nations will promote the International North-South Transport Corridor and other connectivity initiatives such as the development of Chabahar Port and the Ashgabat Agreement for smooth transport of goods.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-08|title=Ram Nath Kovind meets Tajikistan president Emomali Rahmon in Dushanbe, signs MoUs on agriculture, renewable energy|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/ram-nath-kovind-meets-tajikistan-president-emomali-rahmon-in-dushanbe-signs-mous-on-agriculture-renewable-energy-5339931.html|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Firstpost|archive-date=11 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911025810/https://www.firstpost.com/india/ram-nath-kovind-meets-tajikistan-president-emomali-rahmon-in-dushanbe-signs-mous-on-agriculture-renewable-energy-5339931.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Vietnam and Australia ====
President Kovind visited Vietnam from 18 to 21 November 2018, on the first leg of his visit to Vietnam and Australia. This was his first visit to an [[ASEAN]] country. He visited [[Da Nang]], Me Son, [[Hanoi]] and [[Ho Chi Minh City|Ho Chi Minh]]. He addressed the National Assembly of Vietnam, the second foreign leader to do so after Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]].<ref>{{Cite web|agency=PTI|date=19 Nov 2018|title=President Kovind visits Hindu temple complex in Vietnam India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-kovind-visits-hindu-temple-complex-in-vietnam/articleshow/66690207.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108170531/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-kovind-visits-hindu-temple-complex-in-vietnam/articleshow/66690207.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> President Kovind and President [[Nguyễn Phú Trọng|Nguyen Phu Trong]] discussed all aspects of their country's bilateral relations, and exchanged views on regional and international issues of mutual interest. President Kovind congratulated the Vietnamese president on his election as state president by the National Assembly.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-17|title=President Kovind on six-day visit to Vietnam, Australia from November 18|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/president-ram-nath-kovind-to-pay-3-day-visit-to-vietnam-from-sunday-5448593/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418061831/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/president-ram-nath-kovind-to-pay-3-day-visit-to-vietnam-from-sunday-5448593/|url-status=live}}</ref>

While in Australia, India and Australia signed five agreements to boost investments and enhance cooperation. They included pacts on delivering services to people with disabilities and fostering scientific collaboration and innovation. Other agreements included cooperation in agricultural research and education, and a joint [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] agreement between the [[Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Delhi|Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology]] in Delhi and the [[University of Queensland|Queensland University]] of Technology in [[Brisbane]].<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2018-11-22|title=India, Australia sign five agreements as President Kovind meets PM Morrison|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-australia-sign-five-agreements-as-president-kovind-meets-pm-morrison-118112200163_1.html|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=22 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122134956/https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-australia-sign-five-agreements-as-president-kovind-meets-pm-morrison-118112200163_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Other actions included the expansion of the Australia-India Mining Partnership at the Indian School of Mines, connecting Australian companies to India's mineral-rich northeastern states.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Scroll Staff|title=President Ram Nath Kovind meets Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison, five pacts signed|url=https://scroll.in/latest/903066/president-ram-nath-kovind-meets-australian-prime-minister-scott-morrison-five-pacts-signed|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US|archive-date=2 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202181426/https://scroll.in/latest/903066/president-ram-nath-kovind-meets-australian-prime-minister-scott-morrison-five-pacts-signed|url-status=live}}</ref> Minister of State for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, [[Anant Kumar Hegde]], members of parliament and senior officials of the Government of India accompanied Kovind. This was the first-ever visit of a president of India to Australia.<ref>{{Cite web|agency=PTI|date=21 Nov 2018|title=President Kovind arrives in Australia on maiden state visit {{!}} India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-kovind-arrives-in-australia-on-maiden-state-visit/articleshow/66731618.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108104004/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-kovind-arrives-in-australia-on-maiden-state-visit/articleshow/66731618.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Myanmar ====
From 10 to 14 December 2018, President Kovind visited Myanmar. He visited the Advanced Center for Agricultural Research, Education and the Rice Bio-park and also the shrine of [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]] in [[Yangon|Yangoon]]. He discussed several issues including the issue of '[[Rohingya people|Rohingyas]]' and the trilateral highway connecting India-Myanmar-Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind dedicates ACARE project to people of Myanmar DD News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-dedicates-acare-project-people-myanmar|access-date=2021-03-24|website=ddnews.gov.in|archive-date=4 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104042339/http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-dedicates-acare-project-people-myanmar|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Croatia, Bolivia and Chile ====
Kovind paid a State visit to Croatia, Bolivia and Chile from 25 March – 1 April 2019. He was honored with Croatia's highest civilian award, The Grand Order of the King Tomislav.<ref>{{Cite web|agency=PTI|date=26 Mar 2019|title=Croatia honours President Ram Nath Kovind with highest civilian award {{!}} India News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/croatia-honours-president-ram-nath-kovind-with-highest-civilian-award/articleshow/68582898.cms|access-date=2021-03-23|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=30 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230053025/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/croatia-honours-president-ram-nath-kovind-with-highest-civilian-award/articleshow/68582898.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> He talked with the leaders of Croatia to strengthen ties in key sectors such as trade, investment and renewable energy.<ref>{{Cite news|last=ANI|date=2019-03-29|title=President Kovind 'honoured' to undertake first state visit to Bolivia|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/president-kovind-honoured-to-undertake-first-state-visit-to-bolivia-119032900532_1.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20statement%20issued,meetings%20with%20President%20Morales%20tomorrow.|access-date=2021-03-23|archive-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915000135/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/president-kovind-honoured-to-undertake-first-state-visit-to-bolivia-119032900532_1.html#:~:text=According%20to%20a%20statement%20issued,meetings%20with%20President%20Morales%20tomorrow.|url-status=live}}</ref> He held delegation-level talks with Bolivian president [[Evo Morales]] during the visit. He also participated in an India-Bolivia business meeting, addressed university students, and interacted with Indian community members during his stay.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind holds talks with Chilean counterpart, says India-Chile ties have promising future|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/president-kovind-holds-talks-with-chilean-counterpart-says-india-chile-ties-have-promising-future20210319192736/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=ANI News|language=en|archive-date=21 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321121949/https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/president-kovind-holds-talks-with-chilean-counterpart-says-india-chile-ties-have-promising-future20210319192736/|url-status=live}}</ref> He aimed to strengthen ties in key sectors such as trade, investment and renewable energy in Chile.

==== Benin, Gambia and Guinea ====
President Kovind visited Benin, Gambia and Guinea from 28 to 3 July August. In Benin, he held various discussions with [[Patrice Talon]], president of Benin, and addressed the National Assembly in [[Porto-Novo|Porto Novo]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=ANI|date=2019-07-28|title=Kovind arrives in Benin, first visit by an Indian President|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/kovind-arrives-in-benin-first-visit-by-an-indian-president-119072800772_1.html|access-date=2021-03-24|archive-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190912224624/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/kovind-arrives-in-benin-first-visit-by-an-indian-president-119072800772_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> While in Gambia, he addressed a special session of the National Assembly of Gambia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Kovind reaches Gambia on second leg of three-nation visit {{!}} DD News|url=http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-reaches-gambia-second-leg-three-nation-visit|access-date=2021-03-24|website=ddnews.gov.in|archive-date=2 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202002920/http://ddnews.gov.in/national/president-kovind-reaches-gambia-second-leg-three-nation-visit|url-status=live}}</ref> During his visit to Guinea, he was conferred with the National Order of Merit, the highest award of Guinea.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2019 |title=President Ram Nath Kovind honoured with Guinea's highest award |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/president-ram-nath-kovind-honoured-guinea-highest-award-1576959-2019-08-04 |url-status=live |access-date=28 April 2021 |website=India Today |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108001213/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/president-ram-nath-kovind-honoured-guinea-highest-award-1576959-2019-08-04 }}</ref>

==== Iceland, Switzerland and Slovenia ====
From 9 to 17 September 2019, President Kovind visited Iceland, Switzerland and Slovenia. After discussions between leaders of both countries, India and Iceland signed memoranda of understanding and agreements on fishery, the marine economy, shipping, [[green growth]], energy, construction and the agriculture sector.<ref>{{Cite web|date=10 September 2019|title=President Ram Nath Kovind holds bilateral talks with Iceland president|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/president-ram-nath-kovind-holds-bilateral-talks-with-iceland-president-1597766-2019-09-10|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910231935/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/president-ram-nath-kovind-holds-bilateral-talks-with-iceland-president-1597766-2019-09-10|archive-date=10 September 2019|access-date=28 April 2021|website=India Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-09-09|title=President Kovind in Iceland, talks with top leadership|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/international/president-kovind-in-iceland-talks-with-top-leadership-760246.html|access-date=2021-03-24|website=[[Deccan Herald]]|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181742/https://www.deccanherald.com/international/president-kovind-in-iceland-talks-with-top-leadership-760246.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Switzerland, President Kovind addressed the Indian community and the [[University of Bern]] on the theme 'India-Switzerland new age partnership connecting Himalayas with Alps'.<ref>{{Cite news|last=ANI|date=2019-09-12|title=Kovind reaches Switzerland after concluding Iceland visit|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/kovind-reaches-switzerland-after-concluding-iceland-visit-119091200172_1.html|access-date=2021-03-24|archive-date=8 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208005730/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/kovind-reaches-switzerland-after-concluding-iceland-visit-119091200172_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In Slovenia, he held bilateral talks with President [[Borut Pahor]] in the capital, Ljubljana. India and Slovenia signed and exchanged seven memorandum of understanding.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Asia's Premier News Agency - India News, Business & Political, National & International, Bollywood, Sports ANI News|url=https://www.aninews.in/|access-date=2021-03-24|website=www.aninews.in|language=en|archive-date=30 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730135357/https://www.aninews.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Philippines and Japan ====
Kovind visited the Philippines and Japan from 17 to 23 October. There, President Kovind and the Philippines' President [[Rodrigo Duterte]] had discussions on bilateral issues and international terrorism.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|title=India & the Philippines agree to bolster defence ties; sign 4 agreements during President Kovind's visit|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/india-the-philippines-agree-to-bolster-defence-ties-sign-4-agreements-during-president-kovinds-visit/articleshow/71650293.cms|access-date=2021-03-24|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108111701/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/india-the-philippines-agree-to-bolster-defence-ties-sign-4-agreements-during-president-kovinds-visit/articleshow/71650293.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> He attended the [[enthronement]] ceremony of [[Naruhito|Emperor Naruhito]] in Japan. This was the first presidential visit to Japan by India in 29 years. The last presidential visit was in 1990 by then-President [[Ramaswamy Venkataraman|Ramaswamy Venkatraman]]. He participated in the foundation ceremony of Sino Soto and also visited a Buddhist Temple in Tokyo to plant a [[Bodhi tree]] as well as travel to the city of [[Kakegawa, Shizuoka|Kakegawa]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-10-17|title=President Ram Nath Kovind to be in Japan for emperor's enthronement|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-to-be-in-japan-for-emperors-enthronement/article29711195.ece|access-date=2021-03-23|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428181732/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/president-to-be-in-japan-for-emperors-enthronement/article29711195.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Portal bar|India|Politics|Biography}}
{{Presidents of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kovind, Ram Nath}}
[[Category:2017 establishments in India]]
[[Category:2022 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:2010s in Indian politics]]
[[Category:2020s in Indian politics]]
[[Category:Modi administration]]
[[Category:Presidencies of India]]

Sihahanu

2025-11-14T14:24:26Z

FrancisClement:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Sihahanu
| title =
| titletext =
| more =
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| succession = Ruler of [[Shakya|the Shakyas]]
| moretext =
| reign =
| reign-type =
| coronation =
| cor-type =
| predecessor = Jayasena
| successor = [[Śuddhodana]]
| spouse = Kaccanā of [[Devadaha]]
| spouse-type = Consort
| consort = no
| issue = {{plainlist|*[[Śuddhodana]]<ref>Misra, V.S. (2007). ''Ancient Indian Dynasties'', Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|81-7276-413-8}}, p.286</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chap002.html|title=Mahavamsa, Chapter II|last=Geiger|first=Wilhelm (tr.)|year=1912|publisher=Ceylon Government Information Dept., Colombo (in lakdvia.org website)|accessdate=2009-10-26}}</ref>
*Dhotodana
*Sakkodana
*Sukkadana
*Amitodana
*[[Amitā]]
*Pamitā
}}
| issue-link =
| issue-pipe =
| full name = Sihahanu Jaysena Gautama
| era name =
| era dates =
| regnal name =
| posthumous name =
| temple name =
| house = [[Shakya]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = King Jayasena
| mother =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| burial_date =
| burial_place =
| occupation =
}}
King '''Sihahanu''' ([[Sanskrit|Skt]]:Sīṃhahanu) was an ancient monarch and paternal grandfather of [[Gautama Buddha]]. He was one of the rulers of [[Shakya]] Clan. He was also known as shakya.

== Family ==
{{Portal|Religion}}
Sihahanu was a son of King Jayasena and brother of Princess Yasodhara.<ref>''Dictionary of Pāli proper names'' by [[Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera]]</ref>

He married Kaccanā of [[Devadaha]],<ref>''The Historical Buddha: The Times, Life, and Teachings of the Founder of Buddhism'' by Hans Wolfgang Schumann</ref> daughter of Devadahasakka.<ref>''[[Mahavamsa|Mahāvaṃsa]], the Great Chronicle of Ceylon'' by [[Wilhelm Geiger]].</ref>

Kaccanā and Sihahanu had these children:
*King [[Śuddhodana]]<ref>Misra, V.S. (2007). ''Ancient Indian Dynasties'', Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|81-7276-413-8}}, p.286</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chap002.html|title=Mahavamsa, Chapter II|last=Geiger|first=Wilhelm (tr.)|year=1912|publisher=Ceylon Government Information Dept., Colombo (in lakdvia.org website)|accessdate=2009-10-26}}</ref>
*Dhotodana
*Sakkodana
*Sukkadana
*Amitodana
*Amitā
*Pamitā

As a young prince, Śuddhodana excelled in warfare and [[swordsmanship]]. After a victorious battle, Sihahanu offered him a boon. He requested permission to marry two beautiful sisters, [[Maya (mother of Buddha)|Maya]] and [[Mahapajapati Gotami|Mahāpajābatī Gotamī]].{{fact|date=July 2024}}
[[File:Buddha-little.statue.jpg|110px|Sihahanuʻs grandson [[Gautama Buddha]]|center|thumb]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Gautama Buddha}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Ancient Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Family of Gautama Buddha]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Nepalese monarchs]]
[[Category:Shakyas]]

Nicobar treeshrew

2025-11-10T20:54:06Z

FrancisClement: Adding New Page - done

{{Short description|Species of mammal}}{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Cleanup rewrite|date=October 2025}}
{{Technical|Description section|date=October 2025}}}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Nicobar treeshrew
| image = Nicobar Treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica nicobarica).jpg
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Tupaia nicobarica'' |name-list-style=amp |author1=Laginha Pinto Correia, D. |author2=Kennerley, R. |article-number=e.T22454A115166757 |year=2016 |errata=2017 |access-date=26 January 2022}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A2
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref name=iucn/>
| genus = Tupaia
| species = nicobarica<ref name=msw3/>
| authority = ([[Johann Zelebor|Zelebor]], 1868)
| synonyms =
| range_map = Nicobar Treeshrew area.png
| range_map_caption = Nicobar treeshrew range
}}

The '''Nicobar treeshrew''' ('''''Tupaia nicobarica''''') is a species of small, non-[[Flying and gliding animals|volant]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Kundu |first1=Shantanu |last2=Tyagi |first2=Kaomud |last3=Kamalakannan |first3=Manokaran |last4=Kumar |first4=Vikas |last5=Venkatraman |first5=Chinnadurai |last6=Sivaperuman |first6=Chandrakasan |last7=Chandra |first7=Kailash |date=2020-04-02 |title=Molecular investigation of non-volant endemic mammals through mitochondrial cytochrome b gene from Andaman and Nicobar archipelago |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2020.1738282 |journal=Mitochondrial DNA Part B |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=1447–1452 |doi=10.1080/23802359.2020.1738282|doi-access=free }}</ref> mammal.<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Helgen |id=11900037 |page=108 |heading=''Tupaia nicobarica''}}</ref> It is [[endemic]] to the Nicobar Islands of the Andaman Sea, India.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Kundu |first1=Shantanu |last2=Pakrashi |first2=Avas |last3=Kamalakannan |first3=Manokaran |last4=Singha |first4=Devkant |last5=Tyagi |first5=Kaomud |last6=Banerjee |first6=Dhriti |last7=Venkatraman |first7=Chinnadurai |last8=Kumar |first8=Vikas |date=2022-01-18 |title=Complete mitogenome of the endangered and endemic Nicobar treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica) and comparison with other Scandentians |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=877 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-04907-7 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8766473 |pmid=35042947 |bibcode=2022NatSR..12..877K }}</ref> where it inhabits the islands' [[rain forest]]s. Based on geographical distribution, there are two subspecies identified: ''T. nicobarica nicobarica'' from the Great Nicobar Island and ''T. nicobarica surda'' from the Little Nicobar Island.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Sivaperuman |first1=C. |title=Mammals of Andaman and Nicobar Islands |date=2018 |work=Indian Hotspots: Vertebrate Faunal Diversity, Conservation and Management Volume 2 |pages=151–164 |editor-last=Sivaperuman |editor-first=Chandrakasan |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6983-3_8 |access-date=2025-10-30 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-6983-3_8 |isbn=978-981-10-6983-3 |last2=Gokulakrishnan |first2=G. |last3=Parthipan |first3=P. |editor2-last=Venkataraman |editor2-first=Krishnamoorthy|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

It is threatened by [[habitat loss]],<ref name="iucn" /> anthropogenic activities, forest fragmentation, tsunami events, and predation by other animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Srinivasulu |first1=C. |last2=Srinivasulu |first2=Bhargavi |last3=Rajesh |first3=A. |last4=Rao |first4=C.A.N. |last5=Nagulu |first5=V. |date=2004-05-21 |title=Fauna of Protected Areas - 8: Non-volant small mammals of Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park, Andhra Pradesh |url=https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.zpj.1088.1495-7 |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1495–1497 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.1088.1495-7 |issn=0973-2535}}</ref> and is classified as an [[Endangered species]] in the [[IUCN]] Red List of Threatened Species.<ref name="iucn" /> Despite the listing, it is commonly found in its appropriate habitats.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oommen |first1=MA |last2=Shanker |first2=Kartik |year=2008 |title=Ecology and Behaviour of an endemic treeshrew ''Tupaia nicobarica'' Zelebor 1869 on Great Nicobar Island, India |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=55–63 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/154629}}</ref>

The Nicobar treeshrew was first described by [[Johann Zelebor]] in 1868.<ref>Zelebor, J. (1868). [http://digital.slub-dresden.de/werkansicht/cache.off?id=5363&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=32604&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=23 ''Cladobates Nicobaricus'']. In: Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde. Zoologischer Theil, Band 1 Säugethiere. Wien: Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Pp. 17–19.</ref>

== Habitat ==
The Nicobar treeshrew only occupies the Indian Islands of [[Great Nicobar Island|Great Nicobar]] and [[Little Nicobar]] and can be found on the highest points of these two islands, {{cvt|640|m}} above sea level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narasimmarajan |first1=K. |year=2014 |title=Recent photographic observation of Nicobar Treeshrew ''Tupaia nicobarica'' (Zelebor, 1869) on Great Nicobar Island |journal=Small Mammal Mail |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=2–3 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264628503}}</ref> It lives in different forest types such as scrub jungle, moist deciduous forests, and montane sholas.<ref name=":1" />

== Description ==
Morphologically, the Nicobar treeshrew resembles the [[squirrel]] and the [[mongoose]],<ref name=":0" /> with an elongated [[snout]], hairless and moist nasal pad, and lack of [[whiskers]] on their cheeks.<ref name=":2" />

It possesses distinct craniomandibular and body characteristics that differentiate it from other South Asian treeshrews. Its lambdoid–premaxillary length averages 53.7 ± 0.79 mm (range 52.4–54.9 mm),<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Kamalakannan |first1=Manokaran |last2=Thakur |first2=Mukesh |last3=Marimuthu |first3=Nithyanandam |last4=Pramanik |first4=Subhojit |last5=Banerjee |first5=Dhriti |date=2025 |title=Museum Specimens Reveal the Taxonomic Distinctions Among South Asian Treeshrews |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |article-number=e71202 |doi=10.1002/ece3.71202 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=12017894 |pmid=40270801 |bibcode=2025EcoEv..1569.R2K }}</ref> while the mandibular condylo–incisive length measures 39.7 ± 0.46 mm (range 39.1–40.3 mm).<ref name=":2" /> The orbit to interorbital breadth is 0.90 ± 0.09 mm (range 0.80–1.09 mm),<ref name=":2" /> with the orbits slightly curved in structure. The mandibular coronoid breadth is notably large (3.47 ± 0.26 mm, range 3.02–3.85 mm),<ref name=":2" /> demonstrating the species' robust jaw morphology. Body measurements show relatively long head–body lengths of 193.3 ± 12.99 mm (range 180–224 mm)<ref name=":2" /> and tail lengths of 226.1 ± 10.02 mm (range 210.5–240 mm).<ref name=":2" /> The species displays a dorsal bicolor [[Fur|pelage]] and an average body weight of about 170 g,<ref name=":2" /> which helps with its identification as a comparatively large treeshrew among other treeshrews species.

== Phylogeny ==
[[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic]] analyses indicate that ''T. nicobarica'' diverged from a common ancestor of the ''[[Tupaiidae]]'' lineage approximately 12–19 million years ago, during the [[Miocene]].<ref name=":1" /> This suggests a long period of isolation in the Nicobar Islands. Further genetic studies based on 16S rRNA genes (1667 bp) showed significant genetic variability between ''T. nicobarica'' and other ''Tupaia'' species, which supports the fact that it is endemic to the Nicobar islands. It also demonstrated that ''T. nicobarica'' is related to ''T. minor'', ''T. tana'', ''T. splendidula'', and ''T. montana'', present in Thailand, Peninsular and East Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Sumatra, and Indonesia, including ''T. javanica'', located in Sumatra and Java islands, as a sister specie to ''T. nicobarica''.<ref name=":1" />

== Ecology and behavior ==
The Nicobar treeshrew lives primarily in trees and ground, but it can also exhibit [[scansorial]] habits,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Oommen |first1=Meera Anna |last2=Shanker |first2=Kartik |date=2010-06-23 |title=Shrewd alliances: mixed foraging associations between treeshrews, greater racket-tailed drongos and sparrowhawks on Great Nicobar Island, India |journal=Biology Letters |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=304–307 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0945 |issn=1744-9561 |pmc=2880059 |pmid=20007167}}</ref> which demonstrates diversity in its behavior. The Nicobar treeshrew is [[Insectivore|insectivorous]] and [[Frugivore|frugivorous]],<ref name=":2" /> feeding mainly on insects and fruits. It also contributes to [[seed dispersal]] in tropical forests,<ref name=":0" /> playing an important ecological role in renewal of forest ecosystems. ''T. nicobarica'' has a small social structure. It is most often observed as solitary individuals or breeding pairs that forage and rest together. In its natural habitat, the species is known to be preyed upon by [[Sparrowhawk|sparrowhawks]] (''[[Accipiter]]'' spp.).<ref name=":3" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100916032900/http://www.arkive.org/nicobar-treeshrew/tupaia-nicobarica/ Nicobar treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609145322/http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/kartik/ks_treeshrew.html Nicobar treeshrew]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609145345/http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/kartik/Tupaia%202.jpg Nicobar treeshrew]

{{Scandentia}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1338043}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Treeshrews]]
[[Category:Mammals of India]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1868]]
[[Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot]]

Lotus Lake Wetland Thirunavaya Malappuram

2025-11-05T18:50:32Z

FrancisClement: Adding New Data

{{Short description|Migratory bird sanctuary in Malappuram, Kerala}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name = Lotus Lake and Migratory Birds Sanctuary Thirunavaya
| other_name = Lotus Lake Thirunavaya
| image = Thamara 1.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| image_bathymetry =
| alt_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =

| location = [[Tirunavaya]]
| group =
| coordinates = {{coord|10.8753722|N|75.9908723|E|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| etymology =
| part_of =
| inflow =
| rivers = Bharathappuzha
| outflow =
| oceans = Arabian Sea
| catchment =
| basin_countries =
| agency =
| designation =
| date-built =
| engineer =
| date-flooded =
| frozen =
| islands =
| islands_category =
| sections =
| trenches =
| benches =
| cities =

| pushpin_map = Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =

| website =
| reference =
}}
''' Lotus Lake Thirunavaya''', also called '''Migratory Birds Sanctuary Thirunavaya''' <ref name="deccanchronicle">{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140703/entertainment-bollywood/gallery/anupam-kher-launches-his-talk-show-kucch-bhi-jo-sakta-hain|website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|title=Lotus, Lotus Everywhere|date=3 July 2014 |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref> bird sanctuary on a lake and wetland<ref name="threatenedtaxa">{{cite web |title=View of New breeding site record of Oriental White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus (Aves: Threskiornithidae) at Thirunavaya wetlands, Kerala, India |url=https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/7896/8592#:~:text=The%20Thirunavaya%20wetland%20is%20a,for%20thousands%20of%20migratory%20birds. |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=threatenedtaxa.org}}</ref> located in [[Tirunavaya]], [[Malappuram district]], Kerala, India. Many lotus lakes can be seen here, including South Pallar lotus Lake, Valiyaparapoor lotus Lake and Edakulam lotus Lake. The sanctuary is visited by many [[migratory birds]].<ref name="deccanchronicle2">{{cite web |title=Thirunavaya a second home for migratory birds |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/pets-and-environment/120117/thirunavaya-a-second-home-for-migratory-birds.html |access-date=28 December 2023 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|date=12 January 2017 }}</ref><ref name="deccanchronicle3">{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/pets-and-environment/030817/migrant-storks-find-thirunavaya-best-to-nest.html|website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|title=Migrant storks find Thirunavaya best to nest|date=3 August 2017 |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>

==Lotus Lake Thirunavaya==
[[File:Thamara 1.jpg|thumb|300px|Lotus Lake Thirunavaya]]
Thirunavaya Lotus lake and Lotus farm is a popular tourist destination. it is famous for the lotus plants on the lake and the temples near the lake, the [[Thirunavaya Navamukunda Temple]]. The lotus flowers grown here are exported to many Indian states and temples.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/lotus-farmers-confident-as-pink-flower-finds-value-addition/article31070773.ece|title=Lotus farmers confident as pink flower finds value addition|website=The Hindu|date=14 March 2020 |access-date=28 December 2023 |last1=Naha |first1=Abdul Latheef }}</ref> Their cultivation is largely done by the local people, primarily Muslim farmers.<ref name="madhyamam">{{cite web|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/obituaries/malappuram/thirunavaya-lotus-father-saidalavikka-died-613083|author=മാധ്യമം ലേഖകൻ|title=തിരുനാവായ 'താമരയുടെ പിതാവ്' സെയ്തലവിക്ക ഇനി ഓർമ {{pipe}} thirunavaya lotus father saidalavikka died|website=Madhyamam|date=7 December 2020 |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="kochipost">{{cite web|url=https://kochipost.com/2020/05/13/thirunavaya-lotus-flowers-of-harmony-in-distress/|title=Thirunavaya Lotus: Flowers of Harmony in Distress|website=KochiPost|date=13 May 2020 |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="manoramanews">{{cite web|url=https://www.manoramanews.com/weekly-programs/nattupacha/2019/06/09/lotus-cultivation-at-thirunavaya.html|title=താമരപ്പൂ കൃഷിപ്പെരുമയുമായി തിരുനാവായ; ഇത് മതേതരത്വത്തിന്റെയും കഥ {{pipe}} Lotus Cultivation {{pipe}} Thirunavaya {{pipe}} Nattupacha|website=manoramanews.com|date=9 June 2019 |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>

==Migratory Birds Sanctuary Thirunavaya==
Migratory birds that have visited the sanctuary include the [[Asian openbill]] stork,<ref name="thehindu2">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/asian-openbill-says-no-to-other-migrants-at-tirunavaya/article65879458.ece|title=Asian openbill leaves no room for other migrants at Tirunavaya|website=The Hindu|date=11 September 2022 |access-date=28 December 2023 |last1=Naha |first1=Abdul Latheef }}</ref> and [[Egret|egrets]]. During the September–February season sighting of rare migratory birds are common here as well as [[waterfowl]], [[koel]], [[owl]], [[egret]], [[heron]], [[cormorant]], [[moorhen]], [[darter]], and [[brahminy kite]],<ref name="threatenedtaxa2">{{cite web|url=https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/download/7896/8591/46418|website=threatenedtaxa.org|title=threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/download/7896/8591/46418|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref> and other birds are seen here during their respective migratory seasons. Some of the migratory birds come from the [[Himalayas]], and a few from [[Siberia]].<ref name="manoramaonline">{{cite web|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/environment/earth-n-colors/2021/08/25/thirunavaya-a-second-home-for-migratory-birds.html|title=അപൂർവയിനം ദേശാടനപക്ഷികളുടെ പ്രജനന കേന്ദ്രമായി തിരുനാവായ... {{pipe}} Thirunavaya a second home for migratory birds|website=manoramaonline.com|access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref>[[File:Asian openbill in Migratory Birds Sanctuary Thirunavaya.jpg|thumb|300px|Asian openbill in Migratory Birds Sanctuary Thirunavaya]]
==Geography==
The Lotus Lake and sanctuary is spread over {{convert|20|acre|ha}} on the southern bank of the [[Bharathappuzha]] River

Lotus Lake Thirunavaya is {{convert|0.5|km}} from [[Tirunnavaya railway station]]. State Highway No. 66 leads to [[Puthanathani]] and [[Kuttippuram]] in opposite directions. [[Kozhikode International Airport]] is {{convert|40|km|abbr=on}} from Thirunavaya.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Wikivoyage inline}}
{{Bird Sanctuaries}}
{{Waters of Kerala}}
{{Kerala topics}}
{{Tourism in Kerala}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kerala Backwaters}}
[[Category:Bird sanctuaries of Kerala]]
[[Category:Tourism in Kerala]]
[[Category:Estuaries of India]]
[[Category:Ramsar sites in India]]
[[Category:Landforms of Kerala]]
[[Category:Lagoons of India]]
[[Category:Lakes of Kerala]]
[[Category:Malappuram district]]
[[Category:Wetlands of India]]

Bhonsles of Nagpur

2025-09-29T01:26:49Z

FrancisClement: added a data from scratch.

{{short description|Maratha royal house that ruled the Nagpur Kingdom}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Noble house
| surname = Bhonsles of Nagpur
| estate = [[Nagpur Kingdom|Kingdom of Nagpur]]
| image = Nagpur State flag.png
| image_size = 130px
| image_caption = State flag
| country = [[Nagpur Kingdom|Kingdom of Nagpur]]
| parent house = [[House of Bhonsle]]
| titles = ''Sena Sahib Subah'', ''[[Sardar]]'', [[Maharaja]] of [[Nagpur]]
| members =
| founder = [[Raghoji I]]
| final ruler = [[Raghuji Bhonsle III|Raghuji III]]
| current head = Raghuji V
| founding year = 1739
| cadet branches =
}}
[[File:Bhonsle kingdom of Nagpur.png|thumb|Bhonsle kingdom of Nagpur]]
The '''Bhonsles of Nagpur''' were a [[Maratha]] royal house that ruled the [[Nagpur Kingdom|Kingdom of Nagpur]] from 1739-1853.<ref name="education">{{cite book |author1=S. Shabbir |title=History of Educational Development in Vidarbha, 1882–1923 A.D. |date=2005 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=9788172111878 |pages=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJa3x6lrg7UC&dq=bhonsles+of+nagpur&pg=PA3 |language=English |format=Hardcover}}</ref> They hailed from the [[House of Bhonsle (Royal House)|Bhonsle]] clan of Marathas and were one of the most important and powerful Maratha chiefs in the [[Maratha Empire]].

==Origin==
The Bhonsle family branch of Raghoji was known as Hinganikar as they were originally chiefs of Berdi near Hingani in [[Pune District]], established by Bimbaji Bhonsle I. The earliest prominent historically relevant members of the branch were the two brothers Rupaji I and Mudhoji Bhonsle. They served under [[Shivaji Maharaj]], a fellow Bhonsle clansman of the Verulkar branch. Mudhoji was bestowed with Pandogarh mauza in Maharashtra as a jagir for his spectacular exploits and his brother Rupaji I resided at Bham in the district of [[Yavatmal]].<ref>Proceedings of Indian History Congress Volume 36 - Page 311 [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOBtAAAAMAAJ&q=rupaji+pandogarh]</ref> Though Chhatrapati Shivaji favoured Rupaji, as Rupaji I was childless, his fiefdom passed over to his brother Mudhoji, which gave Hinganikar Bhonsles a foothold in [[Amravati_district|east Maharashtra]] for future conquests. Mudhoji had three sons, Bapuji, Sabaji, and Parsoji who were entrusted with high military command and the forcible collection of ''chauth'' (tribute) in the Mughal territories of [[Amravati_district|Berar]]. Mudhoji's son Sabaji was given the villages of Rakhswari and Poorkikotar; however, it was Parsoji who attained the highest position in the family during the [[Mughal-Maratha Wars]]. The title of "''Senasahibsubha''" (meaning Master of provinces and armies) was bestowed on Parsoji Bhonsle by [[Rajaram_I|Chhatrapati Rajaram]], along with rights to regions of [[Deogarh_Fort|Devgad]], [[Gondwana]], [[Chandrapur|Chanda]] and [[Nagpur_district|Varhad]] from where he could exact tribute and effectively settle. Bapuji only had one son Bimbaji who was the father of Raghuji I. Parsoji had three sons; Santaji, Kanhoji and Ranoji each with a distinguished career. Senasahibsubha Parsoji Bhonsle was among the first Maratha lords to pledge himself and his army of 20,000 to Chhatrapati [[Shahu I]] after his escape from Mughal camp. In recognition of these acts of loyalty, Shahu had the title of ''Senasahibsubha'' reconfirmed in 1708, along with various sanads for Parsoji.

Parsoji's son, Santaji Bhonsle, was part of various campaigns of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the other commanders, until his murder in Delhi during the 1719 campaign to depose [[Farrukhsiyar]] led by Senapati [[Khanderao Dabhade]]. Ranoji was given the title of Sawai Santaji (meaning Superior Santaji) along with other compensations for the loss of his brother's life. In 1722, [[Shahu_I|Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj]] presented Badnera and [[Amravati]] to Ranoji, further extending the presence of Hinganikar Bhonsles in the east. Kanhoji went on to secure the family title of Senasahibsubha after the death of Parsoji in 1709 or 1710. Senasahibsubha Kanhoji ruled for twenty years and laid the foundation of a strict rule in east Maharashtra.<ref>Kanhoji ruled for twenty years and paved the foundation of a solid rule in BerarCoinage of the Bhonsla Rajas of Nagpur by Prashant P. Kulkarni pg. 7 [https://books.google.com/books?id=51caAAAAYAAJ&q=kanhoji+parsoji]</ref><ref name="generals">{{cite book |title=Maratha Generals and Personalities: A gist of great personalities of Marathas |date=1 August 2014 |publisher=Pratik gupta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqYiBAAAQBAJ&dq=raghoji+i+bhonsle&pg=PA80 |language=en}}</ref> the

==Ascension to power==
After [[Chand Sultan]], the Gond raja of Nagpur's death in 1739,<ref name="community"/> there were quarrels over the succession, leading to the throne being usurped by Wali Shah,<ref name="society"/><ref name="hunter"/><ref name="chanda">{{cite book |last1=Thusu |first1=Kidar Nath |title=Gond Kingdom of Chanda: With Particular Reference to Its Political Structure |date=1980 |publisher=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoAtAAAAMAAJ&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref> an illegitimate son of [[Bakht Buland Shah]].<ref name="society"/><ref name="vidarbha"/> Chand Sultan's widow invoked the aid of the Maratha leader Raghuji Bhonsle of Berar in the interest of her sons Akbar Shah and Burhan Shah. Wali Shah was put to death and the rightful heirs placed on the throne. Raghoji I Bhonsle was sent back to Berar with a plentiful bounty for his aid. The Maratha general judged that Nagpur must be a plentiful and rich country by the magnificence of his reward.<ref name="chanda"/><ref name="host">{{cite book |title=Host Bibliographic Record for Boundwith Item Barcode 30112050248951 and Others |date=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4b4uPjJJFOkC&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref><ref name="berar">{{cite book |last1=Sil |first1=Jogendra Nath |title=History of the Central Provinces and Berar |date=1917 |publisher=J.N. Sil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emxBAQAAMAAJ&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref><ref name="gazetteer mp">{{cite book |last=Krishnan |first=V. S. |title=Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Chhindwara |date=1995 |publisher=Government Central Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSELAQAAIAAJ&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref><ref name="bulletin">{{cite book |title=Bulletin of the Anthropological Survey of India |date=1976 |publisher=Director, Anthropological Survey of India, Indian Museum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvK-QHwRM9YC&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref><ref name="man">{{cite book |last1=Bahadur) |first1=Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai |title=Man in India |date=1979 |publisher=A. K. Bose |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O9EAQAAIAAJ&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref><ref name="gazetter mah">{{cite book |title=Maharashtra State Gazetteers: Bhandara |date=1979 |publisher=Director of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WK9hAAAAIAAJ&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref><ref name="society">{{cite book |title=Proceedings of a Public Meeting for the formation of The Northern Central British India Society held in the Corn Exchange, Manchester, on Wednesday evening, August 26th, 1840 |date=1840 |publisher=Northern Central British India Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSFYAAAAcAAJ&dq=bakht+buland+shah&pg=RA2-PA8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="buddhism">{{cite book |last1=Naik |first1=C. D. |title=Buddhism and Dalits: Social Philosophy and Traditions |date=2010 |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |isbn=978-81-7835-792-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrlLNltm5dMC&dq=bakht+buland+shah&pg=PA199 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="community">{{cite book |last1=Kurup |first1=Ayyappan Madhava |title=Continuity and Change in a Little Community |date=1986 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCNfWRGXd04C&q=king+of+deogarh+chand+sultan&pg=PA8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hunter">{{cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=William Wilson |title=Naaf to Rangmagiri |date=1881 |publisher=Trübner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYoIAAAAQAAJ&dq=bakht+buland+shah&pg=PA30 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="vidarbha">{{cite book |last1=Deogaonkar |first1=Shashishekhar Gopal |title=The Gonds of Vidarbha |date=2007 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-474-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X39c2VODLT0C&pg=PA16 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="railways">{{cite book |title=Indian Railways |date=1997 |publisher=Railway Board |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzNUAAAAMAAJ&q=bakht+buland+shah |language=en}}</ref>

However, dissensions continued between the brothers and once again, the elder brother Burhan Shah requested the aid of Raghuji Bhonsla. Akbar Shah was driven into exile and finally poisoned at [[Hyderabad]]. However this time, Ragoji Bhonsle did not have the heart to leave such a plentiful and rich country, with it being within his grasp.<ref name="hunter"/><ref name="society"/> He declared himself 'protector' of the Gond king. Thus in 1743, Burhan Shah was practically made a state pensionary, with real power being in the hands of the Maratha ruler. After this event the history of the Gond kingdom of Deogarh is not recorded.<ref name="community"/> A series of Maratha rulers came to power following the fall of the Gonds from the throne of [[Nagpur Kingdom|Nagpur]], starting with Raghoji Bhonsle.<ref name= "hotels">{{cite web|url=http://www.nagpur-hotels.com/nagpur-tourism/history-of-nagpur-people.aspx|title=Nagpur – History – People – Art and Culture – Festivals|publisher=Nagpur-hotels.com|access-date=25 November 2016|archive-date=9 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509161614/http://nagpur-hotels.com/nagpur-tourism/history-of-nagpur-people.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gond King |url=http://nagpur.nic.in/zpnagpur/English/history.htm |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531051603/http://nagpur.nic.in/zpnagpur/English/history.htm |archivedate=2014-05-31 }}</ref>

==History==
The Bhonsles of Nagpur were near relations of [[Shahu I|Chhatrapati Shahu]], who raised them to riches and power.<ref name="maratha history">{{cite book |author1=R.S. Chaurasia |title=History of the Marathas |date=2004 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |isbn=9788126903948 |pages=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_v3Y7hns8QC&dq=bhonsles+of+nagpur&pg=PA89 |language=English |format=Hardcover}}</ref> [[Raghoji I Bhonsle]] overran Bengal & Bihar during the reign of [[Alivardi Khan]], occupying Orissa from [[Nawab of Bengal|the Nawab]].<ref name="maratha part 2 v4"/><ref name="ebook">{{cite book |author1=Poonam Dalal Dahiya |title=Ancient and Medieval India Ebook |date=15 September 2017 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=9789352606733 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbU6DwAAQBAJ&dq=bhonsles+of+nagpur&pg=PT876 |language=English |format=EBook |quote=The Bhonsles of Nagpur were clearly subordinate to the Satara rulers. An important ruler from this line was Raghuji Bhonsle (c.1727–55 CE), who was responsible for the Maratha incursions on Bengal and Bihar in the 1740s & early 1750s. He occupied Orissa from Nawab Alivardi Khan.}}</ref> However, they did not play any part in the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] and [[First Anglo-Maratha War]], so they gradually sank to a secondary position in the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]].<ref name="maratha history"/> The reason for their half-hearted cooperation with the other Maratha chiefs was that they were bribed by [[Warren Hastings]].<ref name="maratha history"/> They were generally opposed to the ''[[Peshwa]]'', and claimed independent authority as they essentially controlled the Gond king of Nagpur.<ref name="maratha part 2 v4">{{cite book |author1=Stewart Gordon |title=The Marathas 1600-1818 Part 2, Volume 4 |date=February 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521033169 |pages=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&dq=bhonsles+of+nagpur&pg=PA132 |language=English |format=Paperback}}</ref>

==Deposition==
[[Raghuji Bhonsle III]] died without a male heir in 1853, and the kingdom was annexed by the British under the [[doctrine of lapse]].<ref name="princes">{{cite book |author1=Barbara N. Ramusack |title=The Indian Princes and Their States |date=8 January 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139449083 |pages=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kz1-mtazYqEC&q=bhonsles+of+nagpur |language=English |format=EBook}}</ref><ref name="education"/> The territories of the former kingdom was administered as [[Nagpur Province]], under a commissioner appointed by the Governor-General of India, until the formation of the Central Provinces in 1861.<ref name="case of nagpur study">{{cite book |author1=Dr Murhari Kele |title=Distribution Franchisee Business The Case Study of Nagpur |date=2015 |publisher=Dr Murhari Kele |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wq4KEAAAQBAJ&dq=bhonsles+of+nagpur&pg=PA81 |language=English}}</ref>

==Rulers==
* [[Raghoji I Bhonsle]] (1739{{snd}}14{{nbsp}}Feb 1755)
* [[Janoji of Nagpur|Janoji Bhonsle]] (1755{{snd}}21 May 1772)
* [[Mudhoji Bhonsle]] (1772{{snd}}19 May 1788)
* [[Raghoji II Bhonsle]] (1788{{snd}}22{{nbsp}}Mar 1816)
* Parsoji Bhonsle (1816{{snd}} 2 Feb 1817) (b.{{nbsp}}1778{{snd}}d.{{nbsp}}1817)
* [[Mudhoji II Bhonsle]] "Appa Sahib" (1817{{snd}}15{{nbsp}}Mar 1818) (b. 1796{{snd}}d.{{nbsp}}1840)
* [[Raghuji Bhonsle III]] (1818{{snd}}11{{nbsp}}Dec 1853) (b.{{nbsp}}1808{{snd}}d.{{nbsp}}1853)
*Janoji Bhonsle II
*Raghuji Bhonsle IV
*Fatehsingh Rao Bhonsle

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Maratha clans]]
[[Category:Nagpur]]

Raj Rajeshwari Devi

2025-09-24T03:59:49Z

FrancisClement: Creating a bio!

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox Monarch
| image =
| name = Queen Raj Rajeshwari Devi
| full name = Raj Rajeshwari Devi
| title = Queen consort of Ghorka Queen regent of Nepal
| predecessor =
| successor =
| royal house = [[Shah dynasty|House of Shah]] (by birth)
| father =
| spouse = [[Rana Bahadur Shah]]
| birth_date =
| death_date = {{Death date |df=y|1806|05|05}}
| house-type =Dynasty
| reign =
| issue = Tilottoma Devi
| birth_place = [[Kingdom of Nepal]]
| death_place = [[Sankhu]], [[Kingdom of Nepal]]
|coronation =
|mother =
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
}}

'''Raj Rajeshwari Devi''' ({{langx|ne|राज राजेश्वरी}}) (died 5 May 1806) was a [[queen consort]] and twice regent of [[Kingdom of Nepal|Nepal]]. She was the Queen consort of [[Rana Bahadur Shah]]. She ruled as regent during the minority of her son [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah]] in 1799, and in 1801–1804. She was forced to commit [[Sati (practice)|sati]] on the orders of [[Bhimsen Thapa]], on the bank of the Salinadi rivulet, at [[Sankhu]], 5 May 1806.

==Life==
She was the granddaughter of Shiva Shah, [[Raja]] of [[Gulmi District|Gulmi]]. In 1799, her consort abdicated to become a [[Sannyasa|sanyasi]], and she became regent in the name of her underage son. She ruled alongside the other two wives of her consort, [[Subarna Prabha Devi|Maharani Subarna Prabha Devi]]
and [[Queen Tripurasundari of Nepal|Maharani Lalit Tripura Sundari Devi]].<ref>[http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/nepal_heads.htm Guide 2]</ref>

After her husband abdicated in favor of his son [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah|Girvan]], Queen Rajeshwari became the regent. She, however, decided to accompany her husband to exile in [[Benaras]]. Queen Subarna Prabha then became the regent.{{sfn|Acharya|2012|p=32}} On 26 July 1801, however, Queen Rajeshwari returned to Nepal. {{sfn|Nepal|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Acharya|2012|pp=36–37}} As a result, Subarnaprabha's favorite courtier ''Mul Kaji'' (Chief minister) [[Kirtiman Singh Basnyat]] was secretly assassinated on 28 September 1801, by the supporters of Rajrajeswori.{{sfn|Acharya|2012|p=34}} She resumed her role as the regent,{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=14}}{{sfn|Acharya|2012|pp=36–37}} while Queen Subarna Prabha was put under house arrest.{{sfn|Acharya|2012|p=43}}

In 1804, her husband returned and resumed power. Two years later, her spouse was assassinated by his brother, and ten days later, on 5 May 1806, Maharani Raj Rajeshwari Devi, as a [[Hindu]] widow, was forced to commit [[sati (practice)|sati]] on the orders of [[Bhimsen Thapa]]. The sati took place on the bank of the [[Salinadi]] rivulet at [[Sankhu]].<ref>Worldwide Guide to Women in Leadership, [http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/womeninpower/Womeninpower1770.htm "Women In Power, 1770-1800"] ("1799-1800 and 1802-04 Regent Sri Sri Sri Maharani Raj Rajeshwari Devi of Nepal ... she was imprisoned at Helambu and killed by being forced to commit sati.").</ref> Her co-regents, Subarna Prabha Devi
and Lalit Tripura Sundari Devi, were not, however, forced to commit sati despite the fact that they were widows after the same man, and continued their rule as regents.<ref>[http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/nepal_heads.htm Guide 2]</ref>

== References ==
<references/>

===Bibliography===
*{{citation | last = Acharya | first = Baburam | editor-last = Acharya | editor-first = Shri Krishna |title = Janaral Bhimsen Thapa : Yinko Utthan Tatha Pattan | location = Kathmandu | year = 2012 | pages = 228 | language = Nepali | publisher = Education Book House | isbn = 9789937241748}}
*{{citation | last = Nepal | first = Gyanmani | title = Nepal ko Mahabharat | publisher = Sajha | language = Nepali | year = 2007 | edition = 3rd | pages = 314 | location = Kathmandu | isbn = 9789993325857 }}
*{{citation | last = Pradhan | first = Kumar L. | title = Thapa Politics in Nepal: With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839 | publisher = Concept Publishing Company | year = 2012 | isbn = 9788180698132 | location = New Delhi | pages = 278 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7PP1yElRzIUC&q=the+assassination+of+rana+bahadur+shah }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Devi, Maharani Raj Rajeshwari}}
[[Category:1806 deaths]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:People murdered in Nepal]]
[[Category:Nepalese women in politics]]
[[Category:Queens consort of Nepal]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:People who committed sati]]
[[Category:18th-century women regents]]
[[Category:18th-century regents]]
[[Category:19th-century women regents]]
[[Category:19th-century regents]]
[[Category:1800s suicides]]
[[Category:People of the Nepalese unification]]
[[Category:People from Gulmi District]]
[[Category:18th-century Nepalese nobility]]
[[Category:19th-century Nepalese nobility]]
[[Category:Nepalese Hindus]]
[[Category:Suicides in Nepal]]
[[Category:Violence against women in Nepal]]
[[Category:People murdered in 1806]]
[[Category:Royalty who died by suicide]]