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European Commission

2023-01-13T08:23:51Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " The '''European Commission''' ('''EC''') is the executive of the European Union (EU). It operates as a cabinet government, with 27 members of the Commission (informally known as "Commissioners") headed by a President.<ref>{{cite book |author = European Commission |url = http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/eu_glance/53/2006-en.pdf |title = How the European Union works: Your guide to the EU institutions |y..."

The '''European Commission''' ('''EC''') is the [[Executive (government)|executive]] of the [[European Union]] (EU). It operates as a [[cabinet government]], with 27 [[European Commissioner|members of the Commission]] (informally known as "Commissioners") headed by a President.<ref>{{cite book |author = European Commission |url = http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/eu_glance/53/2006-en.pdf |title = How the European Union works: Your guide to the EU institutions |year=2006 |isbn=92-79-02225-3 |page=20 |quote = Informally, the appointed members of the Commission are known as 'Commissioners'.|access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112030418/http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/eu_glance/53/2006-en.pdf |archive-date=12 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = How the Commission is organised |url = https://ec.europa.eu/info/about-european-commission/organisational-structure/how-commission-organised_en |access-date = 13 September 2019 |publisher = European Commission |quote = The Commission is steered by a group of 28 Commissioners, known as 'the college'.}}</ref> It includes an administrative body of about 32,000 European civil servants. The Commission is divided into departments known as [[Directorate-General|Directorates-General]] (DGs) that can be likened to departments or [[Ministry (government department)|ministries]] each headed by a Director-General who is responsible to a Commissioner.

There is one member per [[European Union member state|member state]], but members are bound by their [[oath of office]] to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.<ref name="oath">{{cite web|title=European Commission – PRESS RELEASES – Press release – European Commission swears oath to respect the EU Treaties|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-10-487_en.htm|website=europa.eu}}</ref> The [[President of the European Commission|Commission President]] (currently [[Ursula von der Leyen]]) is proposed by the [[European Council]]<ref>{{cite web |title=EUROPEAN COUNCIL DECISION of 27 June 2014 proposing to the European Parliament a candidate for President of the European Commission |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:JOL_2014_192_R_0010 |access-date=13 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225094856/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:JOL_2014_192_R_0010 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |language=English |date=1 July 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> (the 27 heads of state/governments) and elected by the [[European Parliament]].<ref name="Schütze 2012" /> The [[Council of the European Union]] then nominates the other members of the Commission in agreement with the nominated President, and the 27 members as a team are then subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament.<ref name="Article 17:7 TEU">[[s:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title III: Provisions on the Institutions#Article 17|Treaty on European Union: Article 17:7]]</ref> The current Commission is the [[Von der Leyen Commission]], which took office in December 2019, following the [[2019 European Parliament election|European Parliament elections in May of the same year]].

The governmental powers of the Commission have been such that some, including former [[Belgian Prime Minister]] [[Guy Verhofstadt]], have suggested changing its name to the "European Government", calling the present name of the Commission "ridiculous", likening it to a misnomer.

==History==
{{Further|History of the European Union}}
The European Commission derives from one of the five key institutions created in the [[Supranational union|supranational]] European Community system, following the proposal of [[Robert Schuman]], French Foreign Minister, on 9 May 1950. Originating in 1951 as the High Authority in the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], the commission has undergone numerous changes in power and composition under various presidents, involving three Communities.<ref name="ENA commission history">{{cite web|title = European Commission|publisher=CVCE|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/european_commission-en-281a3c0c-839a-48fd-b69c-bc2588c780ec.html|year=2016}}</ref>

===Establishment===
{{Structural evolution of the European Commission}}

The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member "[[High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community|High Authority]]" under President [[Jean Monnet]] (see [[Monnet Authority]]). The High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg City. In 1958, the [[Treaty of Rome|Treaties of Rome]] had established two new communities alongside the ECSC: the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC) and the [[European Atomic Energy Community]] (Euratom). However their executives were called "Commissions" rather than "High Authorities".<ref name="ENA commission history"/> The reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the [[Council of the European Union|Council]]. Some states, such as France, expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, and wished to limit it by giving more power to the Council rather than the new executives.<ref name="ENA Council history">{{cite web|publisher =CVCE|title=Council of the European Union|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_council_of_the_european_union-en-de23700c-e50a-4e0e-a7de-80665e4caf9f.html|year=2016}}</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F028459-0019, Robert-Schuman-Preis, Verleihung an Walter Hallstein.jpg|thumb|left|[[Walter Hallstein]], the first President of the Commission]]
[[Louis Armand]] led the [[Armand Commission|first Commission of Euratom]]. [[Walter Hallstein]] led the [[Hallstein Commission|first Commission of the EEC]], holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the [[Château of Val-Duchesse]]. It achieved agreement on a contentious cereal price accord, as well as making a positive impression upon third countries when it made its international debut at the [[Kennedy Round]] of [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) negotiations.<ref name="LSE Chair">{{cite web |last=Ludlow |first=N |year=2006 |publisher=[[London School of Economics]] |title=De-commissioning the Empty Chair Crisis: the Community institutions and the crisis of 1965–6 |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/2422/01/Decommisioningempty.pdf |access-date=24 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025203706/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/2422/01/Decommisioningempty.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007}}</ref> Hallstein notably began the consolidation of [[Law of the European Union|European law]] and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. Little heed was taken of his administration at first but, with help from the [[European Court of Justice]], his Commission stamped its authority solidly enough to allow future Commissions to be taken more seriously.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eppink |first1=Derk-Jan |author-link=Derk Jan Eppink |translator=Ian Connerty |title=Life of a European Mandarin: Inside the Commission |publisher=Lannoo |edition=1st |location=Tielt, Belgium |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofeuropeanma00eppi/page/221 221–2] |isbn=978-90-209-7022-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofeuropeanma00eppi/page/221 }}</ref> In 1965, however, accumulating differences between the French government of [[Charles de Gaulle]] and the other member states on various subjects (British entry, direct elections to Parliament, the [[Fouchet Plan]] and the budget) triggered the [[Empty chair crisis|"empty chair" crisis]], ostensibly over proposals for the [[Common Agricultural Policy]]. Although the institutional crisis was solved the following year, it cost [[Étienne Hirsch]] his presidency of [[Euratom]] and later Walter Hallstein the EEC presidency, despite his otherwise being viewed as the most 'dynamic' leader until [[Jacques Delors]].<ref name="LSE Chair"/>

===Early development===
{{Politics of the European Union}}

The three bodies, collectively named the '''European Executives''', co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the [[Merger Treaty]], they were combined into a single administration under President [[Jean Rey (politician)|Jean Rey]].<ref name="ENA commission history"/> Owing to the merger, the [[Rey Commission]] saw a temporary increase to 14 members—although subsequent Commissions were reduced back to nine, following the formula of one member for small states and two for larger states.<ref name="ENA composition">{{cite web |title=Composition |publisher=CVCE |url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/composition_of_the_european_commission-en-4b39ad5f-6376-44e4-8144-07e1f84647aa.html|date=31 August 2016 }}</ref> The Rey Commission completed the Community's [[customs union]] in 1968, and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, [[European Parliament]].<ref name="Meet Rey">{{cite web|title=Discover the former Presidents: The Rey Commission |publisher=Europa (web portal) |url=http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/history/rey/index_en.htm |access-date=23 August 2007}}</ref> Despite Rey being the first President of the combined communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission.<ref name="ENA commission history"/>

The [[Malfatti Commission|Malfatti]] and [[Mansholt Commission]]s followed with work on monetary co-operation and the first [[Enlargement of the European Union|enlargement]] to the north in 1973.<ref name="Meet Mansholt">{{cite web |title=Discover the former Presidents: The Mansholt Commission |publisher=Europa (web portal) |url=http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/history/mansholt/index_en.htm |access-date=23 August 2007}}</ref><ref name="Meet Malfatti">{{cite web |title=Discover the former Presidents: The Malfatti Commission|publisher=Europa (web portal)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/history/malfatti/index_en.htm|access-date=23 August 2007}}</ref> With that enlargement, the College of Commissioners membership increased to thirteen under the [[Ortoli Commission]] (the United Kingdom as a large member was granted two Commissioners), which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time.<ref name="ENA composition"/><ref name="Meet Ortoli">{{cite web|title=Discover the former Presidents: The Ortoli Commission|publisher=Europa (web portal)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/history/ortoli/index_en.htm|access-date=23 August 2007}}</ref> The external representation of the Community took a step forward when President [[Roy Jenkins]], recruited to the presidency in January 1977 from his role as [[Home Secretary]] of the United Kingdom's [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/3/newsid_3287000/3287511.stm | work=BBC News|title=1977: Jenkins quits Commons for Brussels|date=3 January 1977}}</ref> became the first President to attend a [[G8]] summit on behalf of the Community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deljpn.ec.europa.eu/union/showpage_en_union.external.g8.php |title=EU and the G8 |access-date=25 September 2007 |publisher=European Commission |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070226165606/http://www.deljpn.ec.europa.eu/union/showpage_en_union.external.g8.php |archive-date=26 February 2007}}</ref> Following the [[Jenkins Commission (EU)|Jenkins Commission]], [[Gaston Thorn]]'s [[Thorn Commission|Commission]] oversaw the Community's enlargement to the south, in addition to beginning work on the [[Single European Act]].<ref name="Meet Thorn">{{cite web|title=Discover the former Presidents: The Thorn Commission|publisher=Europa (web portal)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/history/thorn/index_en.htm|access-date=23 August 2007}}</ref>

===Jacques Delors===
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F078267-0023, Bonn, Ministerpräsidenten mit EU-Kommissar Delors-CROPPED.jpg|thumb|upright|left|President [[Jacques Delors|Delors]], one of the most notable presidents in the commission's history]]
{{main|Delors Commission}}
The Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Burson-Marsteller |title=The new Commission – some initial thoughts |year=2004 |url=http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php |access-date=17 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923001700/http://www.bmbrussels.be/box_bmnewcomm.php |archive-date=23 September 2006}}</ref> Delors and his College are also considered as the "[[founding father]]s of the [[euro]]".<ref name="Meet Delors">{{cite web |title=Discover the former Presidents: The Delors Commission |publisher=Europa (web portal) |url=http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/history/delors/index_en.htm |access-date=23 August 2007}}</ref> The ''[[International Herald Tribune]]'' noted the work of Delors at the end of his second term in 1992: "Mr. Delors rescued the European Community from the doldrums. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst. Although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. In his first term, from 1985 to 1988, he rallied Europe to the call of the single market, and when appointed to a second term he began urging Europeans toward the far more ambitious goals of economic, monetary and political union".<ref name="IHT Delors quote">{{cite web|last=Merritt|first=Giles|title =A Bit More Delors Could Revamp the Commission|work=International Herald Tribune|date=21 January 1992|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/01/21/edgi_0.php|access-date=17 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121053056/http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/01/21/edgi_0.php|archive-date=21 January 2008}}</ref>

===Jacques Santer===
{{main|Santer Commission}}
The successor to Delors was [[Jacques Santer]]. As a result of a fraud and corruption scandal, the entire Santer Commission was forced by the Parliament to resign in 1999; a central role was played by [[Édith Cresson]]. These frauds were revealed by an internal auditor, [[Paul van Buitenen]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul van Buitenen|title=Blowing the Whistle: Fraud in the European Commission|publisher=Politicos Pub|year=2000|isbn=978-1-902301-46-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/experts/default_en.htm |title=Second report on Reform of the Commission. Analysis of current practice and proposals for tackling mismanagement, irregularities, and fraud. Committee of Independent Experts, 1999 |publisher=European Parliament }}</ref>

That was the first time a College of Commissioners had been forced to resign ''en masse'', and represented a shift of power towards the Parliament.<ref>{{cite web|last=Topan|first=Angelina|title=The resignation of the Santer-Commission: the impact of 'trust' and 'reputation'|date=30 September 2002|publisher=European Integration Online Papers|url=http://eiop.or.at/eiop/pdf/2002-014.pdf|access-date=12 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040312015435/http://eiop.or.at/eiop/pdf/2002-014.pdf|archive-date=12 March 2004|url-status=live }}</ref> However, the Santer Commission did carry out work on the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]] and the euro.<ref name="Meet Santer">{{cite web|title=Discover the former Presidents: The Santer Commission|publisher=Europa (web portal)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/history/santer/index_en.htm|access-date=23 August 2007}}</ref> In response to the scandal, the [[European Anti-Fraud Office]] (OLAF) was created.

===Romano Prodi===
{{main|Prodi Commission}}
Following Santer, [[Romano Prodi]] took office. The Amsterdam Treaty had increased the commission's powers and Prodi was dubbed by the press as something akin to a Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web|last=James|first=Barry|title=Prodi to Have Wide, New Powers as Head of the European Commission|work=International Herald Tribune|date=16 April 1999|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1999/04/16/eu.2.t_0.php|access-date=17 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017203411/http://iht.com/articles/1999/04/16/eu.2.t_0.php|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Rossant |first=John |title=Commentary: Romano Prodi: Europe's First Prime Minister? (int'l edition) |magazine=[[Business Week]] |date=27 September 1999 |url=http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_39/b3648256.htm |access-date=17 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023012122/http://businessweek.com/1999/99_39/b3648256.htm |archive-date=23 October 2007}}</ref> Powers were strengthened again; the [[Treaty of Nice]], signed in 2001, gave the Presidents more power over the composition of the College of Commissioners.<ref name="ENA commission history"/>

===José Manuel Barroso===
{{main|Barroso Commission}}
[[José Manuel Barroso]] became president in 2004: the Parliament once again asserted itself in objecting to the proposed membership of the Barroso Commission. Owing to this opposition, Barroso was forced to reshuffle his College before taking office.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tobais|first=Troll|title=We have to democratise procedures|date=2 November 2004|publisher=Café Babel|url=http://www.cafebabel.com/en/article.asp?T=T&Id=2620|access-date=12 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051129143940/http://www.cafebabel.com/en/article.asp?T=T&Id=2620|archive-date=29 November 2005}}</ref> The Barroso Commission was also the first full Commission since the enlargement in 2004 to 25 members; hence, the number of Commissioners at the end of the Prodi Commission had reached 30. As a result of the increase in the number of states, the Amsterdam Treaty triggered a reduction in the number of Commissioners to one per state, rather than two for the larger states.<ref name="ENA composition"/>

Allegations of fraud and corruption were again raised in 2004 by former chief auditor Jules Muis.<ref>{{cite news |title = Auditor blames politicians for EC waste and corruption |date=8 August 2004 |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-10004001.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924182952/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-10004001.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 September 2015 |newspaper= The Sunday Herald |first=Ian |last=Fraser}}</ref> A Commission officer, [[Guido Strack]], reported alleged fraud and abuses in his department in the years 2002–2004 to OLAF, and was fired as a result.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/1028391-guido-strack-downfall-whistleblower |title = Guido Strack – the downfall of a whistleblower |date = 6 October 2011 |publisher = VoxEurop |first = Sebastien |last = Beck |access-date = 25 October 2011 |archive-date = 27 December 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131227115236/http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/1028391-guido-strack-downfall-whistleblower |url-status = dead }}</ref> In 2008, Paul van Buitenen (the former auditor known from the Santer Commission scandal) accused the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF) of a lack of independence and effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eur-law.eu/EN/Written-question-E-0860-08-Paul-van-Buitenen,488061,d |title=Paul van Buitenen: Alleged irregularities in OLAF |publisher=Eur-law.eu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330084358/http://eur-law.eu/EN/Written-question-E-0860-08-Paul-van-Buitenen,488061,d |archive-date=30 March 2012}}</ref>

Barroso's first Commission term expired on 31 October 2009. Under the Treaty of Nice, the first Commission to be appointed after the number of member states reached 27 would have to be reduced to "less than the number of Member States". The exact number of Commissioners was to be decided by a unanimous vote of the [[European Council]], and membership would rotate equally between member states. Following the [[2007 enlargement of the European Union|accession of Romania and Bulgaria]] in January 2007, this clause took effect for the next Commission.<ref>See the attached Protocol, Article 4</ref> The Treaty of Lisbon, which came into force on 1 December 2009, mandated a reduction of the number of commissioners to two-thirds of member-states from 2014 unless the Council decided otherwise. Membership would rotate equally and no member state would have more than one Commissioner. However, the treaty was rejected by voters in Ireland in 2008 with one main concern being the loss of their Commissioner. Hence a guarantee given for a rerun of the vote was that the council would use its power to amend the number of Commissioners upwards. However, according to the treaties it still has to be fewer than the total number of members, thus it was proposed that the member state that does not get a Commissioner would get the post of High Representative – the so-called 26+1 formula.<ref>{{cite news|last=Smyth|first=Jamie|title=Rejection may undermine EU's effectiveness, warns Swedish premier|newspaper=The Irish Times|date=5 September 2009|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2009/0905/1224253907844.html|access-date=15 September 2009|archive-date=24 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224173619/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2009/0905/1224253907844.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[http://euobserver.com/843/27360 Czechs prepare for possible second Irish No], ''EUobserver'', 8 January 2009</ref> This guarantee (which may find its way into the next treaty amendment, probably in an accession treaty) contributed to the Irish approving the treaty in a second referendum in 2009.

Lisbon also combined the posts of [[European Commissioner for External Relations]] with the council's [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]]. This post, also a [[Vice-President of the European Commission|Vice-President of the Commission]], would chair the Council of the European Union's foreign affairs meetings as well as the commission's external relations duties.<ref name="Europa web portal">{{cite web |title=The Union's institutions: Commission |publisher=Europa (web portal) |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/constitution/commission_en.htm |access-date=6 July 2007 |archive-date=19 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819052953/http://europa.eu/scadplus/constitution/commission_en.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Council of the European Union |title=Brussels European Council 21/22 June 2007: Presidency Conclusions |date=20 June 2007 |url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/94932.pdf |access-date=22 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070627032310/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/94932.pdf |archive-date=27 June 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> The treaty further provides that the most recent European elections should be "''taken into account''" when appointing the President of the European Commission, and although they are still proposed by the European Council; the European Parliament "''elects''" candidates to the office, rather than "''approves''" them as under the Treaty of Nice.<ref name="Article 17:7 TEU" /><ref name="Europa web portal"/>

The Barroso Commission is, in reaction to [[Euroscepticism]], said to have toned down enforcement to increase integration.<ref>[https://www.politico.eu/article/curious-case-eu-disappearing-infringements/ The curious case of the EU’s disappearing infringements] Politico. 2022.</ref><ref>[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3994918 Where Have the Guardians Gone? Law Enforcement and the Politics of Supranational Forbearance in the European Union] SSRN. 2021.</ref>

===Jean-Claude Juncker===
{{main|Juncker Commission}}
In 2014, [[Jean-Claude Juncker]] became President of the European Commission.

Juncker appointed his previous campaign director and head of the transition team, [[Martin Selmayr]], as his chief of cabinet. During the Juncker presidency Selmayr has been described as "the most powerful EU chief of staff ever."<ref name="politico">{{cite news|last1=HERSZENHORN|first1=DAVID M.|title='Monster' at the Berlaymont|url=http://www.politico.eu/article/monster-at-the-berlaymont-martin-selmayr-european-commission-jean-claude-juncker/|access-date=3 May 2017|agency=Politico|date=17 November 2016}}</ref>

===Ursula von der Leyen===
[[File:(Ursula_von_der_Leyen)_2019.07.16._Ursula_von_der_Leyen_presents_her_vision_to_MEPs_2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Incumbent [[Ursula von der Leyen|President von der Leyen]]]]
{{main|Von der Leyen Commission}}

In 2019, [[Ursula von der Leyen]] was appointed as the next President of the European Commission. She submitted the guidelines of her policy for 2019–2024 to the [[European Parliament]] on 16 July 2019, following her confirmation. She had not been considered a likely candidate (in general, the elected candidate is determined, according to the results of the [[Elections to the European Parliament|European election]], as winner of internal election into the dominant European party known as "spitzenkandidat"). While the [[European People's Party]] had won the European parliament election, they had performed worse than expected and therefore nominated von der Leyen instead of [[Manfred Weber]], their original candidate. On 9 September, the [[Council of the European Union]] declared a list of candidate-commissioners, which are sent to Brussels by the governments of each member state and which had to be officially approved by the parliament.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Commission press release of 9 September 2019|publisher=European Commission|date=9 September 2019|url=https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-19-5537_en.htm|access-date=9 September 2019}}</ref>

==Powers and functions==
The commission was set up from the start to act as an independent supranational authority separate from governments; it has been described as "the only body paid to think European".<ref name="Day">{{cite web|title=Interview with European Commission Secretary-General Catherine Day|publisher=EurActiv|date=25 September 2006|url=http://www.euractiv.com/en/future-eu/interview-european-commission-secretary-general-catherine-day/article-158149|access-date=17 June 2007|archive-date=24 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224073529/http://www.euractiv.com/en/future-eu/interview-european-commission-secretary-general-catherine-day/article-158149|url-status=dead}}</ref> The members are proposed by their member state governments, one from each. However, they are bound to act independently – free from other influences such as those governments which appointed them. This is in contrast to the Council of the European Union, which represents governments, the European Parliament, which represents [[EU citizen|citizens]], the [[Economic and Social Committee]], which represents organised civil society, and the [[European Committee of the Regions|Committee of the Regions]], which represents local and regional authorities.<ref name="Europa Institutions">{{cite web|title=Institutions of the EU: The European Commission|url=http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/comm/index_en.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623104055/http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/comm/index_en.htm|archive-date=23 June 2007|access-date=18 June 2007|publisher=[[Europa (web portal)|Europa]]}}</ref>

Through [[s:Consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union/Title III: Provisions on the Institutions#Article 17|Article 17 of the Treaty on European Union]] the commission has several responsibilities: to develop medium-term strategies; to draft legislation and arbitrate in the legislative process; to represent the EU in trade negotiations; to make rules and regulations, for example in competition policy; to draw up the [[budget of the European Union]]; and to scrutinise the implementation of the treaties and legislation.<ref>Hix, Simon (1999) "The political system of the European Union" MacMillan, Basingstoke. p32</ref> The rules of procedure of the European Commission set out the commission's operation and organisation.<ref name="rules">{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – o10004 – EN – EUR-Lex|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:o10004|website=eur-lex.europa.eu}}</ref>

===Executive power===
Before the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] came into force, the executive power of the EU was held by the council: it conferred on the Commission such powers for it to exercise. However, the council was allowed to withdraw these powers, exercise them directly, or impose conditions on their use.<ref>{{cite web|title=Executive body|publisher=CVCE|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/executive_body-en-1ea2c754-b3fe-42ea-b6ab-44f07291d9ee.html|date=15 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Implementing powers of the Council of the European Union|publisher=CVCE|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/implementing_powers_of_the_council_of_the_european_union-en-5d4d07d9-bba1-467e-93c2-8241444be9a2.html|year=2016}}</ref> This aspect has been changed by the Treaty of Lisbon, after which the Commission exercises its powers just by virtue of the treaties. Powers are more restricted than most national executives, in part due to the commission's lack of power over areas like [[Common Foreign and Security Policy|foreign policy]] – that power is held by the Council of the European Union and the European Council, which some analysts have described as another executive.<ref name="dragoman"/>

Considering that under the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Council has become a formal institution with the power of appointing the commission, it could be said that the two bodies hold the executive power of the EU (the European Council also holds individual national executive powers). However, it is the Commission that currently holds executive powers over the [[European Union]].<ref name="dragoman">{{cite web |last=Stark |first=Christine |publisher=Dragoman |title=Evolution of the European Council: The implications of a permanent seat |date=4 September 2002 |url=http://www.dragoman.org/ec/belfast-2002.pdf |access-date=10 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325005346/http://www.dragoman.org/ec/belfast-2002.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bermann|first=George|title=Executive Power in the New European Constitution|year=2004|url=http://www.jeanmonnetprogram.org/archive/papers/04/040501-13.rtf|format=RTF|publisher=New York University|access-date=18 June 2006}}</ref>

===Legislative initiative===
The Commission differs from the other institutions in that it alone has [[legislative initiative]] in the EU. Only the commission can make formal proposals for legislation: they cannot originate in the legislative branches. Under the Treaty of Lisbon, no legislative act is allowed in the field of the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]]. In the other fields, the Council and Parliament are able to request legislation; in most cases the Commission initiates on the basis of these proposals. This monopoly is designed to ensure coordinated and coherent drafting of [[Law of the European Union|EU law]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Europa (web portal)|title=Glossary: Right of initiative|url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/initiative_right_en.htm|access-date=18 June 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708112656/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/initiative_right_en.htm|archive-date=8 July 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Europa (web portal)|title=The Commission's right of initiative|url=http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/02/cv00/00230en2.pdf|access-date=18 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025203706/http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/02/cv00/00230en2.pdf|archive-date=25 October 2007}}</ref> This monopoly has been challenged by some who claim the Parliament should also have the right, with most national parliaments holding the right in some respects.<ref>{{cite web|last=Murray |first=Alasdair |title=Reform now or languish later |publisher=Centre for European Reform |date=30 September 2002 |url=http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/murray_parl_0902.html |access-date=18 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151215/http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/murray_parl_0902.html |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> However, the Council and Parliament may request the commission to draft legislation, though the Commission does have the power to refuse to do so<ref>Peterson, John and Michael Shackelton (2006) "Institutions of European Union" p152.</ref> as it did in 2008 over transnational collective conventions.<ref>Anne-Cécile Robert (March 2009) "Et la crise sociale a rattrapé le Parlement européen", ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]''. p. 6–7</ref> Under the Lisbon Treaty, EU citizens are also able to request the commission to legislate in an area via [[European Citizens' Initiative|a petition carrying one million signatures]], but this is not binding.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wallis|first1=Diana|author-link=Diana Wallis|last2=Picard|first2=Severine|title=The Citizens' Right of Initiative in the European Constitution: A Second Chance for Democracy|url=http://www.eumap.org/journal/features/2005/demodef/wallis|access-date=18 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060306034741/http://www.eumap.org/journal/features/2005/demodef/wallis|archive-date=6 March 2006}}</ref>

The commission's powers in proposing law have usually centred on economic regulation. It has put forward a large number of regulations based on a "[[precautionary principle]]". This means that pre-emptive regulation takes place if there is a credible hazard to the environment or human health: for example on tackling [[climate change]] and restricting [[genetically modified organisms]]. The European Commission has committed EU member states to [[carbon neutrality]] by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EU/China/US climate survey shows public optimism about reversing climate change|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/citizen-global-warming-concerns|access-date=24 August 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Anonymous|date=23 November 2016|title=2050 long-term strategy|url=https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2050_en|access-date=24 August 2020|website=Climate Action – European Commission|language=en}}</ref> This is opposed to weighting regulations for their effect on the economy. Thus, the Commission often proposes stricter legislation than other countries. Owing to the size of the European market, this has made EU legislation an important influence in the global market.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Economist|date=20 September 2007|title=Brussels rules OK|url=http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9832900|access-date=22 October 2007}}</ref>

Recently the commission has moved into creating [[Law of the European Union#Criminal law|European criminal law]]. In 2006, a [[2006 Côte d'Ivoire toxic waste spill|toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire]], from a European ship, prompted the commission to look into legislation against toxic waste. Some EU states at that time did not even have a crime against shipping toxic waste; this led the Commissioners [[Franco Frattini]] and [[Stavros Dimas]] to put forward the idea of "ecological crimes". Their right to propose criminal law was challenged in the [[European Court of Justice]] but upheld. As of 2007, the only other criminal law proposals which have been brought forward are on the [[Proposed directive on criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights|intellectual property rights directive]],<ref name="E!Sharp0507 Legal">{{cite news|last=Charter|first=David|title=A new legal environment|work=E!Sharp|pages=23–5|publisher=People Power Process|year=2007}}</ref> and on an amendment to the 2002 counter-terrorism framework decision, outlawing terrorism‑related incitement, recruitment (especially via the internet) and training.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=European Commission|date=6 November 2007|title=Counter‑terrorism – EU steps up a gear|url=http://ec.europa.eu/news/justice/071106_1_en.htm|access-date=21 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213232626/http://ec.europa.eu/news/justice/071106_1_en.htm|archive-date =13 December 2007}}</ref>

===Enforcement===
Once legislation is passed by the Council and Parliament, it is the Commission's responsibility to ensure it is implemented. It does this through the member states or through its [[Agencies of the European Union|agencies]]. In adopting the necessary technical measures, the Commission is assisted by committees made up of representatives of member states and of the public and private [[Lobbying|lobbies]]<ref>[http://www.legaltoday.com/index.php/actualidad/noticias/la-lobbycracia-europea La Lobbycracia Europea] – Aparicio Caicedo, analyst, Gertrude Ryan Law Observeratory, opinion piece in Legal Today magazine.</ref> (a process known in jargon as "[[comitology]]").<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Europa (web portal)|title=Glossary: Comitology|url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/comitology_en.htm|access-date=18 June 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629121630/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/comitology_en.htm|archive-date=29 June 2007}}</ref> Furthermore, the commission is responsible for the implementation of the [[EU budget]], ensuring, along with the [[Court of Auditors]], that EU funds are correctly spent.

In particular the Commission has a duty to ensure the treaties and law are upheld, potentially by taking member states or other institutions to the [[European Court of Justice|Court of Justice]] in a dispute. In this role it is known informally as the "Guardian of the Treaties".<ref name="oispex">{{cite web|publisher=Europa (web portal) |title=The European Commission |url=http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/comm/index_en.htm |access-date=18 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623104055/http://europa.eu/institutions/inst/comm/index_en.htm |archive-date=23 June 2007 }}</ref> Finally, the Commission provides some [[foreign relations of the European Union|external representation]] for the Union, alongside the member states and the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], representing the Union in bodies such as the [[World Trade Organization]]. It is also usual for the President to attend meetings of the [[G8]].<ref name="oispex"/>

==College==
{{for|members of the current Commission|Von der Leyen Commission}}
The commission is composed of a College of "[[European Commissioner|Commissioners]]" of {{EUnum}} members, including the President and vice-presidents. Even though each member is nominated on the basis of the suggestions made by the national governments, one per state, they do not represent their state in the commission.<ref name="bbc examine">{{cite news|last=Lungescu|first=Oana|work=BBC News|title =Examining the EU executive|date=23 July 2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/letter_from_america/3921303.stm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201095441/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/letter_from_america/3921303.stm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 February 2012|access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref> In practice, however, they do occasionally press for their national interest.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eppink|first=Derk-Jan|author-link=Derk Jan Eppink|translator=Ian Connerty|title=Life of a European Mandarin: Inside the Commission|publisher=Lannoo|edition=1st|location=Tielt, Belgium|year=2007|isbn=978-90-209-7022-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofeuropeanma00eppi/page/119 119]|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofeuropeanma00eppi/page/119}}</ref> Once proposed, the President delegates [[List of European Commission portfolios|portfolios]] among each of the members. The power of a Commissioner largely depends upon their portfolio, and can vary over time. For example, the [[European Commissioner for Education, Training & Culture|Education Commissioner]] has been growing in importance, in line with the rise in the importance of education and culture in European policy-making.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/99410.pdf|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080705113103/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/99410.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 July 2008|title=Brussels European Council, Presidency Conclusions|publisher=Council of the European Union|year=2008|access-date=20 August 2009|quote=See paragraphs 7, 8 & 13 of the Presidency conclusions of the European Council on 13/14 March 2008}}</ref> Another example is the [[European Commissioner for Competition|Competition Commissioner]], who holds a highly visible position with global reach.<ref name="bbc examine"/> Before the commission can assume office, the College as a whole must be approved by the Parliament.<ref name="Europa Institutions"/> Commissioners are supported by their [[Cabinet (European Commission)|personal cabinet]] who give them political guidance, while the [[European Civil Service|Civil Service]] (the DGs, see below) deal with technical preparation.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/europeancommissi0000nuge|url-access=registration|title=The European Commission|first=Neill|last=Nugent|date=2 July 2001|publisher=Palgrave|via=Internet Archive|isbn=9780333587430}}</ref>

===Appointment===
[[File:European Commission Room (Open Day) 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Floor 13 of the Berlaymont, Commission's meeting room]]
The [[President of the European Commission|President of the Commission]] is first proposed by the [[European Council]], following a [[Voting in the Council of the European Union|Qualified Majority Vote]] (QMV), taking into account the latest [[Elections in the European Union|parliamentary elections]] (any person from the largest party can be picked<ref>{{Cite web |last=Welle (www.dw.com) |first=Deutsche |title=Ursula von der Leyen's EU nomination is a win for Emmanuel Macron {{!}} DW {{!}} 05.07.2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/ursula-von-der-leyens-eu-nomination-is-a-win-for-emmanuel-macron/a-49494510 |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=DW.COM |language=en-GB}}</ref>); that candidate then faces a formal election in the [[European Parliament]]. If the European Parliament fails to elect the candidate, the European Council shall propose another within one month.<ref name="Article 17:7 TEU" /><ref name="Schütze 2012">{{cite book|last1=Schütze|first1=Robert|title=European Constitutional Law|date=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521-73275-8|pages=99–100, 118}}</ref>

Following the selection of the President, and the appointment of the [[High Representative]] by the European Council, each [[European Commissioner|Commissioner]] is nominated by their member state (except for those states who provided the President and High Representative) in consultation with the Commission President, who is responsible for the allocation of portfolios. The President's proposed College of Commissioners is then subject to hearings at the [[European Parliament]] which will question them and then vote on their suitability as a whole. If the European Parliament submits a negative opinion of a candidate, the President must either reshuffle them or request a new candidate from the member state to avoid the College's outright rejection by the European Parliament. Once the College is approved by parliament, it is formally appointed following a QMV vote by the [[European Council]].<ref name="Article 17:7 TEU" />

Following the College's appointment, the President appoints a number of [[Vice-President of the European Commission|Vice-Presidents]] (the High Representative is mandated to be one of them) from among the commissioners. For the most part, the position grants little extra power to Vice-Presidents, except the first Vice-President who stands in for the President when they are away.<ref name="bbc examine"/>

===Dismissal===
The European Parliament can dissolve the College of Commissioners as a whole following a [[vote of no-confidence]], which requires a two-thirds vote.

Only the President can request the resignation of an individual Commissioner. However, individual Commissioners, by request of the council or Commission, can be compelled to retire on account of a breach of obligation(s) and if so ruled by the European Court of Justice (Art. 245 and 247, Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union).

===Political styles===
The [[Barroso Commission]] took office in late 2004 after being delayed by objections from the Parliament, which forced a reshuffle. In 2007 the Commission increased from 25 to 27 members with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria who each appointed their own Commissioners. With the increasing size of the commission, Barroso adopted a more presidential style of control over the college, which earned him some criticism.<ref>{{cite web|last=Beunderman|first=Mark|publisher=EU Observer|title=EU commission sees civil servants' power grow|date=22 February 2007|url=http://euobserver.com/843/23553|access-date=27 February 2007}}</ref>

However, under Barroso, the commission began to lose ground to the larger member states as countries such as France, the UK and Germany sought to sideline its role. This has increased with the creation of the [[President of the European Council]] under the [[Treaty of Lisbon]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Iey Berry|first=Peter Sain |publisher=EU Observer|title=[Comment] Power is slipping from the commission to the council|date=18 January 2008|url=http://euobserver.com/9/25484|access-date=18 January 2008}}</ref> There has also been a greater degree of [[European Commissioner#Politicisation|politicisation within the Commission]].

==Administration==
{{Further|European Civil Service}}
[[File:Androulla Vassiliou2.jpg|thumb|Cypriot politician [[Androulla Vassiliou]] was European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth between 2010 and 2014.]]
The commission is divided into departments known as [[Directorate-General|Directorates-General]] (DGs) that can be likened to departments or [[Ministry (government department)|ministries]]. Each covers a specific policy area such as agriculture or justice and citizens' rights or internal services such as human resources and translation and is headed by a director-general who is responsible to a commissioner. A commissioner's portfolio can be supported by numerous DGs; they prepare proposals for them and if approved by a majority of commissioners proposals go forward to the Parliament and Council for consideration.<ref name="Europa Institutions"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Eurojargon|publisher=Europa (web portal)|url=http://europa.eu/abc/eurojargon/index_en.htm|access-date=18 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029224734/http://europa.eu/abc/eurojargon/index_en.htm|archive-date=29 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[European Civil Service|Commission's civil service]] is headed by a [[Secretary-General of the European Commission|Secretary General]]. The position is currently held by [[Ilze Juhansone]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.contexte.com/pouvoirs/briefing/2020/01/15/#briefitem-110023|title=La Commission européenne a une nouvelle secrétaire générale|date=15 January 2020|work=Contexte|access-date=5 April 2020}}</ref> The rules of procedure of the European Commission set out the Commission's operation and organisation.<ref name=rules/>

There has been criticism from a number of people that the highly fragmented DG structure wastes a considerable amount of time in [[wikt:turf war|turf war]]s as the different departments and Commissioners compete with each other. Furthermore, the DGs can exercise considerable control over a Commissioner with the Commissioner having little time to learn to assert control over their staff.<ref name="LEM">{{cite web|last=Amies|first=Nick|title=Former EU Mandarin Spills the Beans on Commission Intrigue|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=21 September 2007|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2790009,00.html|access-date=17 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="Press Releases"/>

According to figures published by the Commission, 23,803 persons were employed by the Commission as officials and temporary agents in September 2012. In addition to these, 9230 "external staff" (e.g. Contractual agents, detached national experts, young experts, [[Traineeship scheme of the European Commission|trainees]] etc.) were employed. The single largest DG is the [[Directorate-General for Translation (European Commission)|Directorate-General for Translation]], with a 2309-strong staff, while the largest group by nationality is Belgian (18.7%), probably due to a majority (17,664) of staff being based in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Civil Service: Staff figures|publisher=Europa (web portal)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/civil_service/about/figures/index_en.htm |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref>

===Press===
[[File:Berlaymont Press Room.jpg|thumb|Press Room in the Berlaymont]]

Communication with the press is handled by the [[Directorate-General Communication (European Commission)|Directorate-General Communication]]. The Commission's chief spokesperson is Eric Mamer who holds the midday [[Mass media|press]] briefings, commonly known as the "Midday Presser". It takes place every weekday in the Commission's press room at the Berlaymont where journalists may ask questions to the Commission officials on any topic and legitimately expect to get an "on the record" answer for live TV. Such a situation is unique in the world.<ref>{{cite news|last =Lynam|first=Joe|title=The peculiar world of the European Union|work=BBC News|date=1 April 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6496813.stm|access-date=17 June 2007}}</ref>

As an integral part of the Directorate-General for Communication, the [https://ec.europa.eu/info/contact/press-services/press-contacts/press-contacts-spokespersons-service_en Spokesperson's Service], in coordination with the Executive Communication Adviser in the President’s Cabinet, supports the President and Commissioners so that they can communicate effectively. On political communication matters, the chief spokesperson reports directly to the President of the European Commission.

It has been noted by one researcher that the press releases issued by the Commission are uniquely political. A release often goes through several stages of drafting which emphasises the role of the Commission and is used "for justifying the EU and the Commission" increasing their length and complexity. Where there are multiple departments involved a press release can also be a source of competition between areas of the Commission and Commissioners themselves. This also leads to an unusually high number of press releases, and is seen as a unique product of the EU's political set-up.<ref name="Press Releases">{{cite web|last =Mahony|first=Honor|title=EU carefully manages PR through 1000s of press releases|publisher=EU Observer|date=17 October 2007|url=http://euobserver.com/9/24971|access-date=17 October 2007}}</ref>

There is a larger press corps in Brussels than Washington, D.C.; in 2020, media outlets in every Union member-state had a Brussels [[correspondent]]. Although there has been a worldwide cut in journalists, the considerable press releases and operations such as [[Europe by Satellite]] and [[EuroparlTV]] leads many news organisations to believe they can cover the EU from these source and [[News agency|news agencies]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Castle |first=Stephen |title=As the E.U. Does More, Fewer Tell About It |work=International Herald Tribune |date=21 March 2010 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/23/business/global/23press.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/23/business/global/23press.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited |access-date=3 April 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In the face of high-level criticism,<ref>{{cite news |author= Martin Schulz |author-link= Martin Schulz |date= 10 December 2013 |title= Presseurop's role is essential |url= http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/blog/4390871-martin-schulz-presseurop-s-role-essential |access-date= 14 December 2013 |work= Presseurop |archive-date= 14 December 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131214062137/http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/blog/4390871-martin-schulz-presseurop-s-role-essential |url-status= dead }}</ref> the Commission shut down [[Presseurop]] on 20 December 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |author= Editorial |date= 2 December 2013 |title= Without Presseurop? |url= http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/editorial/4369791-without-presseurop |work= Presseurop |access-date= 9 December 2013 |archive-date= 4 December 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131204234653/http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/editorial/4369791-without-presseurop |url-status= dead }}</ref>

==Legitimacy and criticism==
{{See also|Democratic legitimacy of the European Union#European Commission}}
As the Commission is the executive branch, candidates are chosen individually by the {{EUnum}} national governments. Within the EU, the legitimacy of the Commission is mainly drawn from the vote of approval that is required from the European Parliament, along with its power to dismiss the body. Eurosceptics have therefore raised the concern of the relatively low turnout (often less than 50%) in elections for the European Parliament [[1999 European Parliament election|since 1999]]. While that figure may be higher than that of some national elections, including the off-year elections of the [[United States Congress]], the fact that there are no direct elections for the position of Commission President calls the position's legitimacy into question in the eyes of some Eurosceptics.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mulvey|first=Stephen|title=The EU's democratic challenge|work=BBC News|date=21 November 2003|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3224666.stm|access-date=17 June 2007}}</ref> The fact that the Commission can directly decide (albeit with oversight from specially formed [[Comitology|'comitology committees']]) on the shape and character of implementing legislation further raises concerns about democratic legitimacy.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/1468-0491.00185 | volume=15 | issue=2 | title=The Democratic Legitimacy of the European Union Committee System | year=2002 | journal=Governance | pages=185–210 | last1 = Rhinard | first1 = Mark}}</ref>

Even though democratic structures and methods are changing there is not such a mirror in creating a European [[civil society]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Lamming|first=Richard|title=The democratic credentials of the new European Union: does the Constitution increase the EU's democratic legitimacy?|publisher=[[Federal Union]]|date=10 September 2004|url=http://www.federalunion.org.uk/europe/democraticcredentials.shtml|access-date=17 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515052243/http://www.federalunion.org.uk/europe/democraticcredentials.shtml|archive-date=15 May 2007}}</ref> The [[Treaty of Lisbon]] may go some way to resolving the perceived deficit in creating greater democratic controls on the Commission, including enshrining the procedure of linking elections to the selection of the Commission president. Historically, the Commission had indeed been seen as a technocratic expert body which, akin with institutions such as independent [[central bank]]s, deals with technical areas of policy and therefore ought to be removed from party politics.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thiemeyer|first=Guido|title=Das Demokratiedefizit der Europäischen Union. Geschichtswissenschaftliche Perspektiven|work=Themenportal Europäische Geschichte|date=2008|url=https://www.europa.clio-online.de/essay/id/fdae-1456|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> From this viewpoint, electoral pressures would undermine the Commission's role as an independent regulator.<ref name="Majone 2002 375">{{cite journal|last=Majone|first=Giandomenico|year=2002|title=Perils of Parliamentarization|journal=Governance|volume=15|issue=3|pages=375–392|doi=10.1111/0952-1895.00193}}</ref> Defenders of the Commission point out that legislation must be approved by the Council in all areas (the ministers of member states) and the [[European Parliament]] in most areas before it can be adopted, thus the amount of legislation which is adopted in any one country without the approval of its government is limited.<ref name="Majone 2002 375"/>

In 2009 the European ombudsman published [[statistics]] of citizens' complaints against EU institutions, with most of them filed against the Commission (66%) and concerning lack of transparency (36%).<ref>{{cite web|last=Mahony |first=Honor |url= http://euobserver.com/18/28008 |title=EU citizens complain about lack of transparency, 2009 |work=EUobserver |date=18 November 2013}}</ref> In 2010 the Commission was sued for blocking access to documents on EU biofuel policy.<ref>{{cite web|last=Willis |first=Andrew |url=http://euobserver.com/19/30853 |title=EU sued over lack of transparency, 2010 |work= EUobserver |date=18 November 2013}}</ref> This happened after media accused the Commission of blocking scientific evidence against biofuel subsidies.<ref>{{cite news|last=Harrison |first=Pete |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-biofuels-europe-idUKTRE6641G020100705 |title=Special Report – Europe finds politics and biofuels don't mix, 2010 |work=Reuters }}</ref> Lack of transparency, unclear lobbyist relations, conflicts of interests and excessive spending of the Commission was highlighted in a number of reports by internal and independent auditing organisations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2011/06/01/analysis-eu-commission-expense-scandal-highlights-lack-of-transparency-in-brussels/ |title=Analysis: EU Commission expenses highlight lack of transparency in Brussels, 2011 |publisher=Thebureauinvestigates.com |access-date=25 October 2011 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123201657/https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2011/06/01/analysis-eu-commission-expense-scandal-highlights-lack-of-transparency-in-brussels/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2011/06/01/get-the-data-eu-commission-expenses/ |title=/EU Commission Expenses: Cocktail parties, private jets, luxury away-days and limousines, 2011 |publisher=Thebureauinvestigates.com |access-date=25 October 2011 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123201310/https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2011/06/01/get-the-data-eu-commission-expenses/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.euractiv.com/en/pa/ex-commissioners-face-conflict-interest-accusations-news-494139 |title=Ex-commissioners face conflict of interest accusations, 2010 |publisher=Euractiv.com |date=14 May 2010 |access-date=25 October 2011 |archive-date=28 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628030426/http://www.euractiv.com/en/pa/ex-commissioners-face-conflict-interest-accusations-news-494139 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Sarah McInerney |url= http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/article162250.ece |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121115171936/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/article162250.ece |url-status= dead |archive-date= 15 November 2012 |title=Be careful what you write, Eurocrats told |work=The Sunday Times|date=18 April 2009}}</ref> It has also been criticised on IT-related issues, particularly with regard to [[Microsoft]].<ref>{{Cite news |last= Hourdaux |first= Jérôme |date= 17 December 2013 |title= The EU and Microsoft's 20-year marriage |url= http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/4411131-eu-and-microsoft-s-20-year-marriage |work= Mediapart |publisher= [[VoxEurop]] |access-date= 17 December 2013 |archive-date= 19 December 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131219073004/http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/4411131-eu-and-microsoft-s-20-year-marriage |url-status= dead }}</ref>
In September 2020, the European Commission put forward an Anti-Racism Action Plan to tackle the structural racism in the European Union, including measures to address the lack of racial diversity among the European decision makers in Brussels, as denounced by the [[Brussels So White | #BrusselsSoWhite]] movement.<ref>{{cite news| last = Islam | first = Shada | title = In a messy world, EU's clout depends on respecting values | newspaper = EUobserver| date = 16 December 2020| url = https://euobserver.com/opinion/150394| access-date = 7 May 2021}}</ref>

==Initiatives==

===Anti-terrorism===
The European Commission has an Action Plan to enhance preparedness against [[CBRN defense|chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear]] (CBRN) security risks as part of its anti-terrorism package released in October 2017. In recent times Europe has seen an increased threat level{{Quantify|date=April 2022}}{{From whom?|date=April 2022}} of CBRN attacks.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}{{According to whom|date=April 2022}} As such, the European Commission's preparedness plan is important, said Steven Neville Chatfield, a director for the Centre for Emergency Preparedness and Response in the United Kingdom's [[Health Protection Agency]]. For the first time, the European Commission proposed that medical preparedness for CBRN attack threats is a high priority. "The European Commission's (EC) Action Plan to enhance preparedness against CBRN security risks is part of its anti-terrorism package released in October 2017, a strategy aimed at better protecting the more than 511 million citizens across the 27 member states of the European Union (EU)."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://homelandprepnews.com/countermeasures/26013-european-anti-terrorism-package-prioritizes-cbrn-preparedness-experts-say/|title=European anti-terrorism package prioritizes CBRN preparedness, expert says|last=Riley|first=Kim|date=2 January 2018|work=Homeland Preparedness News|access-date=8 January 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

===COVID-19 response===
The European Commission organized a video conference of world leaders on 4 May 2020 to raise funds for [[COVID-19 vaccine]] development. US$8 billion was raised. The United States declined to join this video conference or to contribute funds.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Stevis-Gridneff|first1=Matina|last2=Jakes|first2=Lara|date=4 May 2020|title=World Leaders Join to Pledge $8 Billion for Vaccine as U.S. Goes It Alone|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/04/world/europe/eu-coronavirus-vaccine.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504224053/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/04/world/europe/eu-coronavirus-vaccine.html |archive-date=2020-05-04 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=10 May 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The European Commission issued a new multi-year data plan in February 2020 pushing the digitalization of all aspects of [[European Union|EU]] society for the benefit of civic and economic growth.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Does This Change Everything? Coronavirus and your private data|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/coronavirus-impact-data-privacy|access-date=7 June 2021|website=European Investment Bank|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=Strategy for Data {{!}} Shaping Europe's digital future|url=https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/strategy-data|access-date=7 June 2021|website=digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web|date=7 November 2018|title=What is GDPR, the EU's new data protection law?|url=https://gdpr.eu/what-is-gdpr/|access-date=7 June 2021|website=GDPR.eu|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|title=Data protection in the EU|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/law-topic/data-protection/data-protection-eu_en|access-date=7 June 2021|website=European Commission – European Commission|language=en}}</ref>

The goal of this data strategy is to create a single market for data in which data flows across the EU and across sectors while maintaining full respect for privacy and data protection, where access rules are fair, and where the European economy benefits enormously as a global player as a result of the new data economy.<ref name=":7"/><ref name=":8"/><ref name=":9"/><ref name=":10"/>

==Location==
[[File:Belgique - Bruxelles - Schuman - Berlaymont - 01.jpg|thumb|Headquarters of the European Commission in Brussels (Berlaymont building)]]

The commission is primarily based in Brussels, with the President's office and the commission's meeting room on the 13th floor of the [[Berlaymont building]]. The commission also operates out of [[Brussels and the European Union|numerous other buildings in Brussels]] and [[Luxembourg City]].<ref name="European Commission locations">{{cite web|title= European Commission|publisher=[[Europa (web portal)|Europa]]|url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-commission/index_en.htm|work = European Union|date=16 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Castle |first=Stephen |work=[[The Independent]] |title=After 13 years of hold-ups and incompetence, the EU's 'Berlaymonster' rises like a phoenix |date=5 August 2004 |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article50224.ece |access-date=18 June 2007 |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071001085743/http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article50224.ece |archive-date=1 October 2007}}</ref> When the Parliament is meeting in [[Strasbourg]], the Commissioners also meet there in the [[Seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg#Secondary buildings|Winston Churchill building]] to attend the Parliament's debates.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eppink|first=Derk-Jan|translator=Ian Connerty|title=Life of a European Mandarin: Inside the Commission|publisher=Lannoo|edition=1st|location=Tielt, Belgium|year=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofeuropeanma00eppi/page/213 213]|isbn=978-90-209-7022-7|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofeuropeanma00eppi/page/213}}</ref> The Members of the Commission and their "cabinets" (immediate teams) are also based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. Additionally, the European Commission has in-house scientific facilities that support it in: [[Ispra]], Italy; [[Petten]], the Netherlands; [[Karlsruhe]], Germany; [[Geel]], Belgium and [[Seville]], Spain. In [[Grange]], Ireland there is a Commission site hosting part of DG Santè.

==See also==
{{Portal|European Union}}
* [[European Free Trade Association Surveillance Authority]]
* [[List of European Commissioners by nationality]]
* [[EU Open Data Portal]]
* [[European Data Portal]]
{{Clear right}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Roberta Metsola

2023-01-13T08:22:38Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Roberta Metsola''' ({{IPA-mt|ɹɔˈbɝta ˈmɛtsɔla|lang}}; née '''Tedesco Triccas'''; born 18 January 1979) is a Maltese politician serving as President of the European Parliament since January 2022.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2022-01-18|title=Roberta Metsola elected new President of the European Parliament {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220114IPR21012/roberta-metsola-elected-new-p..."

'''Roberta Metsola''' ({{IPA-mt|ɹɔˈbɝta ˈmɛtsɔla|lang}}; [[given name|née]] '''Tedesco Triccas'''; born 18 January 1979) is a Maltese politician serving as [[President of the European Parliament]] since January 2022.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2022-01-18|title=Roberta Metsola elected new President of the European Parliament {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220114IPR21012/roberta-metsola-elected-new-president-of-the-european-parliament|access-date=2022-01-18|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

Metsola was first elected to as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] (MEP) in 2013, and became the [[Vice-President of the European Parliament|First Vice-President of the European Parliament]] in November 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-11|title=Roberta Metsola elected as First Vice-President of the European Parliament {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20201109IPR91126/roberta-metsola-elected-as-first-vice-president-of-the-european-parliament|access-date=2022-01-18|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref> Following the death of the incumbent President [[David Sassoli]], Metsola was elected as President of the European Parliament on 18 January 2022,<ref name=":1" /> becoming the youngest ever President,<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2022-01-18|title=Malta's Roberta Metsola elected EU Parliament's third woman president|url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20220118-malta-s-roberta-metsola-set-to-become-eu-parliament-s-third-woman-president|access-date=2022-01-18|website=France 24|language=en}}</ref> the first Maltese person to hold the office, and the first female President since 2002.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Roberta Metsola elected European Parliament president in landslide victory|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/roberta-metsola-elected-european-parliament-president-in-landslide.928588|access-date=2022-01-18|website=Times of Malta|language=en-gb}}</ref>

== Biography ==

The Tedesco Triccas family stems from [[Swieqi]]<ref name=indepMay2004>[https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2004-05-03/local-news/MEP-Candidates-launch-campaigns-66267 Malta Independent], 3 May 2004</ref><ref>" her home town, Swieqi," [https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/roberta-tedesco-triccas-a-european-perspective.123401 Times of Malta], 9 May 2004</ref> near [[St. Julian's, Malta]], and Roberta grew up with her father Geoffrey (son of Emmanuel Tedesco and Helen Triccas Dimech), her mother Rita (daughter of Carmelo Bezzina and Francesca Briffa) and her two sisters Ann and Lisa<ref>[https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/watch-we-arent-a-political-family-metsolas-parents-watch-her-make.928618 Times of Malta], 18 Jan 2022</ref> in [[Gżira]].<ref name=robertametsola>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220116014929/https://robertametsola.eu/roberta/ Roberta Metsola On-Line], Retrieved : 18 Jan 2022</ref> She studied at St Joseph School in [[Sliema]], [[St Aloysius' College (Malta)|St Aloysius' College]] [[sixth form]], and she graduated in law from the [[University of Malta]] in 2003<ref name=robertametsola/> and obtained a diploma in European studies from the [[College of Europe]] in [[Bruges]] in 2004.<ref name=18jan22>[https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/roberta-metsola-from-student-eu-campaigner-to-its-parliaments.928600 Roberta Metsola: From student EU campaigner to its parliament’s president], [[Times of Malta]], 18 Jan 2022</ref>

Roberta Tedesco Triccas and her Finnish husband Ukko Metsola ([[National Coalition Party]]) met in 1999 and married in [[Rabat (Malta)|Rabat]], Malta, on 1 October 2005.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2022-01-11|title=Two seats, two kids and one marriage|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/two-seats-two-kids-and-one-marriage.242160|website=Times of Malta}}</ref> Together, they have four sons: Luca Matias (born 2007), Alec Emil (born 2008), Marc (born 2012) and Kristian (born 2016).<ref>{{cite web |title=MEP Roberta Metsola Welcomes Fourth Son |url=https://www.ourwedding.mt/en/mep-roberta-metsola-welcomes-fourth-son |website=Our Wedding |access-date=11 January 2022 |date=6 December 2016}}</ref> They both ran for the [[2009 European Parliament election]], becoming the first married couple to run in the same European Parliament election from two different member states.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hs.fi/kotimaa/art-2000004658199.html |title=Ukko Metsola poltti tappion sikarin |date=8 June 2009 |website=[[Helsingin Sanomat]] |language=fi |access-date=31 January 2021 |quote=UKKO METSOLA, 36, tavoitteli maltalaisen vaimonsa Roberta Metsolan kanssa harvinaista tuplajäsenyyttä Euroopan parlamentissa. He olivat ensimmäinen eurooppalainen aviopari, joka pyrkii samoissa vaaleissa parlamenttiin kahdesta eri jäsenmaasta.}}</ref>

Metsola has been active since youth within Malta's [[Partit Nazzjonalista]] (PN), serving within the party's international secretariat and volunteering with the PN's election arm ELCOM.<ref name="ep-2019-candidate"/><ref name=indepMay2004/> In her student years, Metsola formed part of the SDM (Studenti Demokristjani Maltin), KNZ (The National Youth Council) and MŻPN (Moviment Żgħażagħ Partit Nazzjonalista), before being elected as Secretary General of the [[European Democrat Students]] (EDS), the student branch of the EPP, as well as to posts within the [[European Youth Forum]] (YFJ).<ref name=indepMay2004/><ref name="ep-2019-candidate">{{cite web |url=https://www.timesofmalta.com/mepelections/candidates/roberta-metsola-tedesco-triccas |title=European Parliament candidate Roberta Metsola Tedesco Triccas |newspaper=[[Times of Malta]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501062845/https://timesofmalta.com/mepelections/candidates/roberta-metsola-tedesco-triccas |archive-date=1 May 2009 }}</ref>

In 2002, at 23 years, she was elected as one of the two vice-presidents of the executive board of the Youth Convention on the Future of Europe,<ref>[https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/elected-to-youth-convention-board.171195 Times of Malta], 12 July 2002; [https://www.politico.eu/article/young-being-frozen-out-of-convention-debate-claim-youth-leaders-2/ Politico.eu], 30 Oct 2002; [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs_all/committees/conv/20020702/007.pdf europarl], 2 July 2002</ref> and the following year she actively campaigned with the PN for a Yes vote in the [[2003 Maltese European Union membership referendum|2003 EU membership referendum]].<ref name=18jan22/>

Following her engagement in the EU referendum campaign, 25-year-old Metsola was encouraged by Malta's Prime Minister [[Lawrence Gonzi]]<ref name=indepMay2004/> to run for the [[2004 European Parliament election in Malta|2004 European elections]] as a candidate for the [[Nationalist Party (Malta)|Nationalist Party]].<ref name=robertametsola/> She was not elected.

In October 2004 Metsola joined the Permanent Representation of Malta to the European Union in Brussels, headed by [[Richard Cachia Caruana]], where she worked for 8 years as legal and judicial cooperation attaché, also participating for Malta in the negotiations of the [[Lisbon Treaty]] and working on files such as the set-up of the [[European Asylum Support Office]] in Malta.<ref name=18jan22/><ref name="ep-2019-candidate"/>

She ran again for the [[2009 European Parliament election in Malta|2009 European elections]],<ref>[https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2008-11-30/local-news/PN-Candidate-launches-EP-campaign-216764 Malta Independent], 30 Nov 2008</ref> without being elected.<ref>[https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/provisional-first-count-results.260202 Times of Malta], 8 June 2009</ref>

In 2013-2014 Metsola briefly served as legal advisor to the [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy]], [[Catherine Ashton]].<ref name=17jan22>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-17|title=Roberta Metsola cements rise to European Parliament presidency|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/roberta-metsola-european-parliament-president/|access-date=2022-01-18|website=POLITICO|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Member of the European Parliament ===
[[File:Hearing of Margaritis Schinas (Greece) - Protecting our European way of life (48838400822) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Metsola asks a question in 2019 hearings for the [[Von der Leyen Commission]]]]

On 24 April 2013 Metsola successfully contested the casual election to fill the vacated seat of [[Simon Busuttil]], becoming one of Malta's first female Members of the European Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20130424/local/marlene-mizzi-is-malta-s-first-woman-mep.466805|title = Update 3 - Three women elected to the European Parliament}}</ref> In the Parliament, she sits as a member of the [[European People's Party Group]] (EPP).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Roberta METSOLA {{!}} MEPs {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/118859/ROBERTA_METSOLA/home|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-11|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

Following her re-election at the [[2014 European Parliament election in Malta|2014 elections]], Metsola was elected as a vice-chair of the [[European Parliament Committee on Petitions|Committee on Petitions]] (PETI) in July 2014.<ref>Dave Keating (July 7, 2014), [http://www.politico.eu/article/members-of-parliaments-committees-choose-their-leaders/ EFDD loses out as groups share the spoils] ''[[European Voice]]''.</ref> In addition, she served as a member of a number of [[Committees of the European Parliament|committees]] and delegations.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=8th parliamentary term {{!}} Roberta METSOLA {{!}} MEPs {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/118859/ROBERTA_METSOLA/history/8|access-date=2022-01-11|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref> She also joined the parliamentary intergroup on [[children's rights]].<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/intergroupes/VIII_LEG_04_Childrens_rights.pdf Members of the European Parliament Intergroup on Children’s Rights] [[European Parliament]].</ref> Metsola was further re-elected at the [[2019 European Parliament election in Malta|2019 elections]]; in this legislature she has followed closely the party line, voting together with the EPP delegation in over 90% of the cases.<ref name=17jan22/>

In 2014 Metsola led the EPP representation in the [[Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs]] (LIBE) in the work on the non-binding EU roadmap against [[homophobia]] and discrimination on grounds of [[sexual orientation]] and [[gender identity]], whose rapporteur was Green MEP [[Ulrike Lunacek]].<ref>Dave Keating (February 4, 2014), [http://www.politico.eu/article/manif-pour-tous-fails-to-defeat-eu-gay-rights-report/ "'Manif pour tous' fails to defeat EU gay rights report"] ''[[European Voice]]''.</ref> She was also the parliament's rapporteur on the [[Frontex|European Border and Coastguard]] Regulation in 2019 and was co-rapporteur on an anti-[[SLAPP]] report in 2021.<ref name=18jan22/>

Metsola also co-authored a non-binding report on the [[European migrant crisis]] in 2016, aimed at establishing a "binding and mandatory legislative approach" on resettlement and new EU-wide "readmission" agreements which should take precedence over bilateral ones between EU and non-EU countries.<ref>Maïa de La Baume (March 16, 2016), [http://www.politico.eu/article/european-parliament-fixes-the-refugee-crisis-migration-asylum-europe-news/ European Parliament ‘fixes’ the refugee crisis] ''[[Politico Europe]]''.</ref>

From 2016 until 2017, Metsola was part of the Parliament's Committee of Inquiry into Money Laundering, Tax Avoidance and Tax Evasion (PANA) that investigated the [[Panama Papers]] revelations and tax avoidance schemes more broadly.<ref name=":2" />

Within LIBE, where she chaired the EPP representation between January 2017 and 2020,<ref name=18jan22/> she has been part of the Rule of Law Monitoring Group (ROLMG) since 2018.<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20180605IPR05046/rule-of-law-civil-liberties-meps-to-report-on-corruption-and-press-freedom Rule of law: Civil Liberties MEPs to report on corruption and press freedom] [[European Parliament]], press release of June 5, 2018.</ref>

In 2019, during the controversies following the murder of [[Daphne Caruana Galizia]], she famously refused to shake hands with Malta's Prime Minister [[Joseph Muscat]] at a meeting with the Members of European Parliament from Malta. "If he thinks he can try to brush off responsibility he is sorely mistaken. Get out now, before you do irreparable damage to the country", she wrote.<ref name=18jan22/>
In 2020 Metsola considered contesting the leadership of [[Partit Nazzjonalista]], but finally decided against it. "Some ceilings need a few more cracks before they can be smashed through", she stated. The post was later filled by [[Bernard Grech]].<ref name=18jan22/>

In October 2020, in the discussion in LIBE on a parliamentary resolution on "the rule of law and fundamental rights in [[Bulgaria]]",<ref>{{cite news |date=2020-10-07 |title=European Parliament to Vote on Amednments to Draft Resolution on Rule of Law in Bulgaria |url=https://bnr.bg/en/post/101352552/european-parliament-to-vote-on-amendments-to-draft-resolution-on-rule-of-law-in-bulgaria |access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2020-10-07 |title=Евродепутатката от ЕНП Роберта Мацола е изтеглила предложенията си за промени в резолюцията |trans-title=MEP from EPP Roberta Metsola withdrew the proposed amendments to the resolution |url=https://frognews.bg/novini/evrodeputatkata-enp-roberta-matsola-izteglila-predlojeniiata-promeni-rezoliutsiiata.html |language=Bulgarian |access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> Metsola tabled amendments<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/B-9-2020-0309-AM-034-043_EN.pdf 5.10.2020 B9-0309/34, Amendment 34, Roberta Metsola on behalf of the PPE Group]</ref> on behalf of the EPP which were widely interpreted as shielding Bulgaria's EPP government from criticism, including by proposing to remove references to [[Venice Commission]] findings and to the misuse of EU funds and high-level corruption allegations directly involving Prime Minister [[Boyko Borisov]]. Other amendments, which she later withdrew, also alleged that a gambling boss had been financing the [[2020–2021 Bulgarian protests|street protest movement]]. This caused outrage in Bulgaria, leading to Metsola's social media accounts being flooded by protest messages, including threats and misogyny.<ref>[https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/metsola-faces-twitter-abuse-over-bulgaria-resolution-amendments.823294 Times of Malta], 8 oct 2020; [https://newsbook.com.mt/en/metsola-faces-flak-online-abuse-over-bulgaria-resolution-amendments/ Newsbook], 8 oct 2020; [https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/europe/105175/metsola_takes_flak_from_bulgarian_critics_in_twitter_storm_over_rule_of_law#.Yehk8f7MI2w Malta Today], 8 Oct 2020;</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2020-10-08 |title=Роберта Мецола от ЕНП трие коментари от фейсбука си и забранява достъп до него от България |trans-title=Roberta Metsola deletes Facebook comments and blocks access from Bulgaria |url=https://frognews.bg/novini/roberta-metsola-enp-trie-komentari-feisbuka-zabraniava-dostap-nego-balgariia.html |language=Bulgarian |access-date=2020-10-08}}</ref> The EPP amendments were finally defeated, and the resolution was adopted as it had been originally proposed.<ref>[https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/short_news/brussels-sofia-heavy-defeat-over-bulgarias-rule-of-law/ EurActiv], 9 Oct 2020; [https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2020-10-08/local-news/PN-MEPs-voted-against-report-condemning-corruption-in-Bulgaria-PL-6736227639 Malta Independent], 9 Oct 2020</ref>

In November 2020, Metsola was elected as First Vice-President of the European Parliament, replacing [[Mairead McGuinness]], who had become [[European Commission]]er. She was the first Maltese MEP to become a vice-president.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-11|title=Roberta Metsola elected as First Vice-President of the European Parliament {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20201109IPR91126/roberta-metsola-elected-as-first-vice-president-of-the-european-parliament|access-date=2021-10-24|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

=== President of the European Parliament ===
[[File:Memorial for President Sassoli- “Your fight for democracy will live on” - 51828613594.jpg|thumb|Metsola speaks in a memorial ceremony for [[David Sassoli]] in the European Parliament in January 2022]]
In November 2021, Metsola was chosen as EPP candidate to succeed [[David Sassoli]] as President of the European Parliament on the expiry of his term as president in January 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-24|title=EPP taps Roberta Metsola to run for Parliament presidency|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/brussels-epp-roberta-metsola-european-parliament-presidency/|access-date=2022-01-11|website=POLITICO|language=en-US}}</ref> Sassoli had been hospitalised with pneumonia in September 2021<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2022-01-11|title=EU parliament president David Sassoli dies in Italian hospital|url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20220111-eu-parliament-president-david-sassoli-dies-after-hospitalisation|access-date=2022-01-11|website=France 24|language=en}}</ref> and in December announced that he would not seek a second term as president, making Metsola his likely successor.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-14|title=David Sassoli won't seek second term as EU Parliament president|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/david-sassoli-second-term-eu-parliament-president/|access-date=2022-01-11|website=POLITICO|language=en-US}}</ref> Following further hospitalisation, Sassoli died on 11 January 2022,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2022-01-11|title=European Parliament President David Sassoli dies aged 65|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/european-parliament-president-david-sassoli-dies-aged-65/|access-date=2022-01-11|website=POLITICO|language=en-US}}</ref> one week before the end of his term.<ref name=":3" /> On Sassoli's death, Metsola became the acting President of the European Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-11|title=EU flags at half-mast after death of parliament speaker Sassoli|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220111-eu-flags-at-half-mast-after-death-of-parliament-speaker-sassoli|access-date=2022-01-11|website=France 24|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Roberta Metsola elected new President of the European Parliament - 51829016030.jpg|thumb|Metsola in the European Parliament during her election in January 2022]]

On 18 January 2022, on her 43rd birthday, Metsola was elected [[President of the European Parliament]] for a two-and-a-half-year term. She was elected in the first round of voting, receiving an absolute majority of 458 votes out of the 690 cast.<ref name=":1" /> As the candidate of the [[European People's Party Group|EPP]], she was also supported by the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]] and [[Renew Europe]] parliamentary groups, after the three groups reached an agreement on the election of the President and the vice-presidents and legislative priorities for the second half of the Parliament's term.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-18|title=Brussels Playbook: Metsola for president — Russia sanctions latest — Zemmour hate crimes|url=https://www.politico.eu/newsletter/brussels-playbook/metsola-for-president-russia-sanctions-latest-zemmour-hate-crimes/|access-date=2022-01-18|website=POLITICO|language=en-US}}</ref> On her election, Metsola became the youngest ever President,<ref name=":4"/> the first Maltese person to hold the office, and the first woman President since 2002 (and only third woman president ever).<ref name=":5" /> The subject made a statement days after being present as Belgian police searched the residence of [[Eva Kaili|Greek MEP Eva Kaili]] in the [[Qatar corruption scandal at the European Parliament|widening investigation]] of members of the European parliament over alleged corruption, money laundering and other offenses in relation to possible schemes of [[Qatar]], [[Morocco]], [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and the [[FIFA World Cup]].<ref>EuroNews. (15 December 2022). "EU Parliament President Roberta Metsola promises reforms to prevent corruption". [https://www.euronews.com/2022/12/15/eu-parliament-president-roberta-metsola-promises-reforms-to-prevent-corruption EuroNews website] Retrieved 16 December 2022.</ref><ref>Suzanne Lynch. (15 December 2022). "EU leaders try to sideline Qatar scandal — while they still can" [https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-leaders-sideline-qatar-scandal-corruption-election-european-council-euco-summit/ Politico website] Retrieved 16 December 2022.</ref>

==== Anti-abortion views ====
Metsola had consistently voted for [[anti-abortion]] resolutions,<ref>[https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2013-10-21/news/abortion-maltese-meps-set-to-vote-against-pro-choice-resolution-2947153921/ The Malta Independent (October 21, 2013)]</ref> and from the beginning of her tenure, she faced questions over her opposition to abortion, which is legal in every EU member state, except [[Malta]] and [[Poland]].<ref>{{Cite web|author=Rob Picheta, James Frater, Sharon Braithwaite and Amy Cassidy|title=The European Parliament's new President immediately faced questions on her views on abortion|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/18/europe/roberta-metsola-european-parliament-election-intl/index.html|access-date=2022-01-19|website=CNN}}</ref> She once said in a 2015 statement that she was "categorically against abortion."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Abortion remains a red-line say PN MEPs|url=https://www.eppgroup.eu/how-we-make-it-happen/with-eu-countries/malta/news/abortion-remains-a-red-line-say-pn-meps|access-date=2022-01-19|website=www.eppgroup.eu|language=en}}</ref> On her election as President of the European Parliament, she stated that during her tenure, she will represent the Parliament's position, which recognises safe access to [[abortion]] as a human right.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lory|first=Gregoire|date=2022-01-18|title=Metsola on abortion: 'My position is the EU Parliament's position'|url=https://www.euronews.com/2022/01/18/roberta-metsola-on-abortion-my-position-is-the-european-parliament-s-position|access-date=2022-01-18|website=euronews|language=en}}</ref>

Metsola has called for strengthening the powers of the European Parliament.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Casert | first1=Raf | title=Malta legislator becomes 3rd female EU Parliament president | url=https://apnews.com/article/european-parliament-european-union-europe-malta-6bfc4b1ab7f43ecfb5e8d30d3d677c45 | date=18 January 2022 | work=[[Associated Press]] | access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref>

==Other activities==
* [[Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies]], Member of the Executive Board<ref>[https://www.martenscentre.eu/wilfried-martens-centre-european-studies Executive Board] [[Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies]].</ref>
* [[Friends of Europe]], Member of the Board of Trustees (since 2020)<ref>[https://www.friendsofeurope.org/insights/trustees/ Friends of Europe appoints 29 new members to its Board of Trustees] [[Friends of Europe]], press release of June 25, 2020.</ref>

==Honours==
* {{flagu|Ukraine}}
** [[File:Order of Princess Olha 1st Class of Ukraine.png|70px|class=noviewer]] Recipient of the First Class of the [[Order of Princess Olga]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/zelenskyy-bestows-ukrainian-award-on-roberta-metsola.946297 |title=Zelenskyy bestows Ukrainian award on Roberta Metsola |newspaper=Times of Malta |date=5 April 2022 |access-date=6 April 2022}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

San Francisco

2023-01-13T08:21:58Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''San Francisco''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|æ|n|_|f|ɹ|ə|n|ˈ|s|ɪ|s|k|oʊ}}; Spanish for "Saint Francis"), officially the '''City and County of San Francisco''', is the commercial, financial, and cultural center of Northern California in the United States. The city proper is the fourth most populous in California and List of United States cities by population|17th most populous in th..."

'''San Francisco''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|æ|n|_|f|ɹ|ə|n|ˈ|s|ɪ|s|k|oʊ}}; [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "[[Francis of Assisi|Saint Francis]]"), officially the '''City and County of San Francisco''', is the commercial, financial, and cultural center of [[Northern California]] in the United States. The city proper is the [[List of California cities by population|fourth most populous in California]] and [[List of United States cities by population|17th most populous in the United States]], with 815,201 residents {{As of|2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=U.S. Census Bureau |date=1970-01-01 |title=Resident Population in San Francisco County/city, CA |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CASANF0POP |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref> It covers a land area of {{convert|46.9|sqmi|km2|abbr=off|sp=us}},<ref name="Census 2010-GCT-PH1-density"/> at the end of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]], making it the second most densely populated large U.S. city after [[New York City]], and the [[County statistics of the United States|fifth most densely populated U.S. county]], behind only four of the five [[New York City boroughs]]. Among the 91 U.S. cities proper with over 250,000 residents, San Francisco was ranked first by per capita income (at $160,749<ref>{{Cite journal |last=U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis |date=1969-01-01 |title=Per Capita Personal Income in San Francisco County/city, CA |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PCPI06075 |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref>) and sixth by aggregate income {{As of|2021|lc=y}}.<ref name="ipums_nhgis">{{Cite web |title=IPUMS NHGIS {{!}} National Historical Geographic Information System |url=https://www.nhgis.org/ |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=www.nhgis.org}}</ref> Colloquial nicknames for San Francisco include ''SF'', ''San Fran'', ''The {{not a typo|City}}'', ''Frisco'', and ''Baghdad by the Bay''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brinklow |first1=Adam |date=January 26, 2018 |title=Is it ever okay to use "San Fran?" |url=https://sf.curbed.com/2018/1/26/16936872/san-fran-frisco-survey-nickname-francisco |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513094720/https://sf.curbed.com/2018/1/26/16936872/san-fran-frisco-survey-nickname-francisco |archive-date=May 13, 2019 |access-date=August 31, 2019 |website=Curbed}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Rose |first=Aimee |date=September 9, 2015 |title=The Best Nicknames For San Francisco |url=https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/california/articles/top-5-nicknames-for-san-francisco/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190812002808/https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/california/articles/top-5-nicknames-for-san-francisco/ |archive-date=August 12, 2019 |access-date=August 21, 2019 |website=The Culture Trip}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | newspaper=Messenger-Inquirer | location=Owensboro, Kentucky | date=July 17, 1960 | page=16 | last=Caen | first=Herb | title=San Francisco, Baghdad-By-The-Bay, Has Lived Many Turbulent Lives In Its Slightly More Than 100 Years | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/107882430/baghdad-by-the-bay-caen/}}</ref>

San Francisco and the surrounding [[San Francisco Bay Area]] are a global center of economic activity and the arts and sciences,<ref name="Nature Index 2018 Science cities">{{cite web |title=Top 200 Science cities |url=https://www.natureindex.com/supplements/nature-index-2018-science-cities/tables/overall |access-date=August 17, 2019 |website=Nature Index}}</ref><ref name="Cultural times: the first global map of cultural and creative industries">{{cite web |title=The Global Creative Economy Is Big Business |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000235710 |access-date=August 17, 2019}}</ref> spurred by leading universities,<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Best Global Universities Rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/rankings |website=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> [[IT|high-tech]], healthcare, [[FIRE economy|FIRE]], and professional services sectors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regional Data: GDP and Personal Income |url=https://apps.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?reqid=70&step=1 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=apps.bea.gov}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, the metropolitan area, with 6.7 million residents, ranked 5th by GDP ($874 billion) and 2nd by GDP per capita ($131,082) across the [[OECD]] countries, ahead of [[Global city|global cities]] like [[Paris]], [[London]], and [[Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Metropolitan areas |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=CITIES |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=1947-01-01 |title=Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers: All Items in U.S. City Average |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CPIAUCSL |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref> San Francisco anchors the [[Metropolitan statistical area#United States|13th most populous metropolitan statistical area in the United States]] with 4.6 million residents, and the fourth-largest by aggregate income and economic output, with a GDP of $669 billion in {{As of|2021|bare=yes}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Gross Domestic Product by County, 2021 {{!}} U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) |url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2022/gross-domestic-product-county-2021 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=www.bea.gov}}</ref> The wider [[San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, CA Combined Statistical Area]] is the fifth most populous, with 9.5 million residents, and the third-largest by economic output, with a GDP of $1.25 trillion in {{As of|2021|bare=yes}}. In the same year, San Francisco proper had a GDP of $236.4 billion, and a GDP per capita of $289,990.<ref name=":7" /> San Francisco was ranked seventh in the world and third in the United States on the [[Global Financial Centres Index]] {{As of|2022|March|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Global Financial Centres Index 31|url= https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-31-explore-data/gfci-31-rank/|access-date=August 14, 2022 |website=Longfinance.net}}</ref>

{{As of|2022|September}}, the Bay Area was home to [[List of public corporations by market capitalization|four of the world's ten largest companies by market capitalization]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Companies ranked by Market Cap - CompaniesMarketCap.com |url=https://companiesmarketcap.com/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=companiesmarketcap.com |language=en-us}}</ref> and the city proper is headquarters to companies such as [[Wells Fargo]], [[Salesforce.com|Salesforce]], [[Uber]], [[First Republic Bank]], [[Airbnb]], [[Twitter, Inc.|Twitter]], [[Square, Inc.|Block]], [[Levi Strauss & Co.|Levi's]], [[Gap Inc.|Gap]], [[Dropbox (service)|Dropbox]], [[Pacific Gas and Electric Company]], [[Lyft]], and [[Cruise (autonomous vehicle)|Cruise]], although the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]] has accelerated the exodus of business from downtown San Francisco.<ref name=SanFranExodus2/><ref name="SanFranExodus3">{{cite web |author=Mclean |first=Tessa |date=November 30, 2022 |title=The Container Store near Union Square plans to close |url=https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/sf-container-store-relocating-17622063.php |access-date=November 30, 2022 |publisher=Hearst Corporation |quote=The Union Square area of downtown has been struggling with an increase in crime in recent years, coupled with losing several big retailers since 2020, including Crate & Barrel, DSW and Gap.}}</ref> The city is home to a number of educational and cultural institutions, such as the [[University of California, San Francisco]], the [[University of San Francisco]], [[San Francisco State University]], the [[de Young Museum]], the [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]], the [[San Francisco Symphony]], the [[San Francisco Ballet]], the [[San Francisco Opera]], the [[SFJAZZ Center]], the [[California Academy of Sciences]], the [[San Francisco Giants]], and the [[Golden State Warriors]]. A popular tourist destination,<ref>{{cite web |title=Top U.S. Destinations for International Visitors |url=http://www.hotel-price-index.com/2013/fall/american-travel-habits/top-locations-for-americans.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327035130/http://www.hotel-price-index.com/2013/fall/american-travel-habits/top-locations-for-americans.html |archive-date=Mar 27, 2014 |access-date=April 12, 2014 |website=The Hotel Price Index}}</ref> San Francisco is known for its steep rolling [[List of hills in San Francisco|hills]] and [[Architecture of San Francisco|eclectic mix of architecture]] across [[San Francisco neighborhoods|varied neighborhoods]], as well as its cool summers, [[San Francisco fog|fog]], and landmarks, including the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], [[San Francisco cable car system|cable cars]], [[Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary|Alcatraz]], and [[Chinatown, San Francisco|Chinatown]] and [[Mission District, San Francisco|Mission]] districts.

San Francisco was founded on June 29, 1776, when [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonists from Spain]] established the [[Presidio of San Francisco]] at the [[Golden Gate]] and [[Mission San Francisco de Asís]] a few miles away, both named for [[Francis of Assisi]].<ref name="DeAnza-Moraga-Palou">{{cite web |author=O'Day |first=Edward F. |date=October 1926 |title=The Founding of San Francisco |url=http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist6/founding.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727190828/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist6/founding.html |archive-date=July 27, 2010 |access-date=February 14, 2009 |work=San Francisco Water |publisher=Spring Valley Water Authority}}</ref> The [[California Gold Rush]] of 1849 brought rapid growth, transforming an unimportant hamlet into a busy port, making it the largest city on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] at the time; between 1870 and 1900, approximately one quarter of California's population resided in the city proper.<ref name="ipums_nhgis"/> In 1856, San Francisco became a [[consolidated city-county]].<ref name="Coy 1919 409">{{cite book
|last = Coy
|first = Owen Cochran
|title = Guide to the County Archives of California
|publisher=California Historical Survey Commission
|year = 1919
|location = Sacramento, California
|page = 409
}}</ref> After three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake|1906 earthquake and fire]],<ref name="Montagne" /> it was quickly rebuilt, hosting the [[Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915)|Panama-Pacific International Exposition]] nine years later. In [[World War II]], it was a major port of embarkation for [[United States Department of the Navy|naval service]] members shipping out to the [[Pacific Ocean theater of World War II|Pacific Theater]].<ref name="WWII"/> It then became the birthplace of the [[United Nations]] in 1945.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/charter-united-nations/|title=Charter of the United Nations {{!}} United Nations|website=Un.org|access-date=December 29, 2016|date=August 10, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=August 21, 2015 |title=History of the United Nations {{!}} United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212182312/https://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/index.html |archive-date=Dec 12, 2016 |access-date=December 29, 2016 |website=Un.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Schlesinger |first=Stephen |date=June 19, 2015 |title=San Francisco – the birthplace of the United Nations |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfchronicle.com/opinion/article/San-Francisco-the-birthplace-of-the-United-6336655.php |access-date=December 29, 2016}}</ref> After the war, the confluence of returning servicemen, significant [[Immigration to the United States|immigration]], liberalizing attitudes, the rise of the [[beatnik]] and [[hippie]] countercultures, the [[sexual revolution]], the [[peace movement]] growing from [[opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War]], and other factors led to the [[Summer of Love]] and the [[LGBT rights in the United States|gay rights]] movement, cementing San Francisco as a center of [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal activism in the United States]]. More recently, statewide [[droughts in California]] have strained the city's [[water security]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ktvu.com/news/san-francisco-now-included-in-statewide-drought-emergency-proclamation |title=San Francisco now included in statewide drought emergency proclamation |date=October 19, 2021 |work=KTVU FOX 2 |access-date=June 26, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.drought.gov/location/San%20Francisco%2C%20California |title=Conditions for San Francisco, CA (San Francisco County) |website=[[National Integrated Drought Information System]] (NDIS) |access-date=June 26, 2022|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116053514/https://www.drought.gov/location/San%20Francisco%2C%20California |archive-date=16 January 2022}}</ref>

== History ==
{{see also|History of San Francisco}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of San Francisco}}

=== 3000 BC–1845 AD: Early history and rule by Spain and Mexico ===
{{Quote box
| title = Historical affiliations of San Francisco
| quote = {{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Spanish Empire]] 1776–1821 {{flagdeco|Mexico|1821}} [[First Mexican Empire|Mexican Empire]] 1821–1823 {{flagdeco|Mexico|1823}} [[Centralist Republic of Mexico|Mexican Republic]] 1823–1848 {{flagu|United States|1848}} 1848–present
| align = left
| width = 22em
| fontsize = 90%
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}}

The earliest archaeological evidence of [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|human habitation]] of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonoma.edu/asc/projects/pointreyes/overview2.pdf|title=Archaeological Research Issues for the Point Reyes National Seashore – Golden Gate National Recreation Area|access-date=June 12, 2008|last=Stewart|first=Suzanne B.|date=November 2003|publisher=Sonoma State University – Anthropological Studies Center}}</ref> The [[Yelamu]] group of the [[Ohlone]] people resided in a few small villages when an overland [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish exploration party]] (led by Don [[Gaspar de Portolá]]) arrived on November 2, 1769, the first documented European visit to [[San Francisco Bay]].<ref name="Portola">{{cite web
|title= Visitors: San Francisco Historical Information
|url= http://sfgov.org/site/visitor_index.asp?id=8091
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060301022510/http://sfgov.org/site/visitor_index.asp?id=8091
|archive-date= March 1, 2006
|date= n.d.
|access-date=June 10, 2008
|publisher=City and County of San Francisco
}}</ref>
[[File:Mission San Francisco de Asis old.jpg|thumb|[[Mission San Francisco de Asís]] (Mission Dolores)]]
The first European maritime presence occurred on August 5, 1775, when the Spanish [[San Carlos (1768 ship)|''San Carlos'']]{{efn|Described as a [[packet boat]].}} commanded by [[Juan Manuel de Ayala]] became the first ship to anchor in the bay.<ref>Raup, H. F. “The Delayed Discovery of San Francisco Bay.” California Historical Society Quarterly, vol. 27, no. 4, 1948, p. 293. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3816007. Accessed November 12, 2020.</ref> Soon after, on March 28, 1776, the Spanish explorer [[Juan Bautista de Anza]] established the [[Presidio of San Francisco]]. On October 9, [[Mission San Francisco de Asís]] (Mission Dolores) was founded by Padre [[Francisco Palóu]].<ref name="DeAnza-Moraga-Palou"/> In 1804, the province of [[Alta California]] was created, which included San Francisco.

In 1821, the Presidio and the Mission were [[Mexican War of Independence|ceded to Mexico]] by Spain. The extensive [[missions in California|California mission system]] gradually lost its influence during the period of [[First Mexican Republic|Mexican rule]]. Agricultural land became largely privatized as [[Ranchos of California|ranchos]], as was occurring in other parts of California. Coastal trade increased, including a half-dozen [[barques]] from various Atlantic ports which regularly sailed in California waters.<ref name="From 1820 to the Gold Rush">[http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/early.html "From 1820 to the Gold Rush"], at San Francisco Museum.org, accessed 2022.06.03.</ref><ref>Cf., Richard Henry Dana Jr., ''[[Two Years before the Mast]]'' (1840).</ref>

[[Yerba Buena, California|Yerba Buena]] (after a native herb), a trading post with settlements between the Presidio and Mission grew up around the ''Plaza de Yerba Buena''. The plaza was later renamed [[Portsmouth Square]] (now located in the city's [[Chinatown, San Francisco|Chinatown]] and [[Financial District, San Francisco|Financial District]]). The Presidio was commanded in 1833 by Captain [[Mariano G. Vallejo]].<ref name="From 1820 to the Gold Rush"/>

In 1834, [[Francisco de Haro]] became the first [[Alcalde]] of Yerba Buena. De Haro was a native of Mexico, from the west coast city of [[Compostela, Nayarit]]. A land survey of Yerba Buena was made by the Swiss immigrant [[Jean Jacques Vioget]] as prelude to the city plan. The second Alcalde [[José Joaquín Estudillo]] was a [[Californio]] from a prominent [[Monterey, California|Monterey]] family. In 1835, while in office, he approved the first land grant in Yerba Buena: to [[William A. Richardson|William Richardson]], a naturalized Mexican citizen of English birth. Richardson had arrived in San Francisco aboard a [[whaler|whaling ship]] in 1822. In 1825, he married Maria Antonia Martinez, eldest daughter of the Californio [[Ygnacio Martínez]].<ref name="Richardson">{{cite web
|last=The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
|title=From the 1820s to the Gold Rush
|date=July 16, 2004
|url=http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/early.html
|access-date=June 13, 2008
|publisher=The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091022224825/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/early.html
|archive-date=October 22, 2009
}}</ref>{{efn|The land grant was near a boat anchorage around what is today [[Portsmouth Square]].}}

=== 1846–1905: Population growth and American acquisition ===
[[File:Doña_Juana_Briones_de_Miranda_(7222900876)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Juana Briones de Miranda]], considered the "Founding Mother of San Francisco"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Juana-Briones-San-Francisco-s-founding-mother-4757183.php|title=Juana Briones - San Francisco's founding mother|first=Gary|last=Kamiya|date=August 23, 2013|website=SFGATE}}</ref>]]
Yerba Buena began to attract American and European settlers; an 1842 census listed 21 residents (11%) born in the United States or Europe, as well as one Filipino merchant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=san_francisco_history:san_francisco_census_1842 [SFgenealogy] |url=https://www.sfgenealogy.org/doku.php?id=san_francisco_history:san_francisco_census_1842 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.sfgenealogy.org}}</ref> Commodore [[John D. Sloat]] claimed California for the United States on July 7, 1846, during the [[Mexican–American War]], and Captain [[John B. Montgomery]] arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, and Mexico officially [[Mexican Cession|ceded the territory]] to the United States at the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo|end of the war in 1848]]. Despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York |pages = 4–5 |oclc = 44313415
|isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9}}</ref> Its 1847 population was said to be 459.<ref name="From 1820 to the Gold Rush"/>

The [[California Gold Rush]] brought a flood of treasure seekers (known as "forty-niners", as in "1849"). With their [[sourdough|sourdough bread]] in tow,<ref>Sourdough bread was a staple of western explorers and miners of the 19th century. It became an iconic symbol of San Francisco, and is still a staple of city life today.{{cite journal
|last = Tamony
|first = Peter
|title = Sourdough and French Bread
|journal=Western Folklore
|volume = 32
|issue = 4
|pages = 265–270
|date=October 1973
|doi = 10.2307/1498306
|jstor = 1498306
}}</ref> prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival [[Benicia, California|Benicia]],<ref>{{cite web
|title = San Francisco's First Brick Building
|publisher=The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
|date = July 16, 2004
|url = http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/brick.html
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849.<ref name="1849pop">{{cite book
|last = Richards
|first = Rand
|title = Historic San Francisco: A Concise History and Guide
|publisher = Heritage House
|year = 1992
|isbn = 978-1-879367-00-5
|oclc = 214330849
|url = https://archive.org/details/historicsanfranc00rich
}}</ref> The promise of wealth was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor.<ref name="buriedships">{{cite news
|last = Harris |first = Ron
|title = Crews Unearth Shipwreck on San Francisco Condo Project
|agency=Associated Press
|date = November 14, 2005
|url = http://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/story.asp?story=6287&headline=Crews
|access-date =September 4, 2006
}}</ref> Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, [[bar (establishment)|saloons]], and hotels; many were left to rot, and some were sunk to establish title to the underwater lot. By 1851, the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870, [[Yerba Buena Cove]] had been filled to create new land. Buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings.<ref name="buriedshipsSFgenalogy">{{cite web
|url = http://www.sfgenealogy.org/sf/history/hgshp1.htm
|title = Buried Ships
|last = Filion
|first = Ron S.
|publisher = SFgenealogy
|access-date = April 19, 2016
}}</ref>
[[File:SanFranciscoharbor1851c sharp.jpg|thumb|[[Port of San Francisco]] in 1851]]
California was quickly [[Compromise of 1850|granted statehood]] in 1850, and the U.S. military built [[Fort Point, San Francisco|Fort Point]] at the [[Golden Gate]] and a fort on [[Alcatraz Island]] to secure the San Francisco Bay. San Francisco County was one of the state's 18 original counties established at California statehood in 1850.<ref>Report of Committee on Counties, January 4, 1850, revised to 27 counties on February 18, 1850 - {{cite book
|last = Coy, Ph D. |first = Owen C.
|title = California County Boundaries
|publisher= California Historical Survey Commission
|year = 1923
|location = Berkeley
|pages = 1–2
}}</ref> Until 1856, San Francisco's city limits extended west to Divisadero Street and Castro Street, and south to 20th Street. In 1856, the California state government divided the county. A straight line was then drawn across the tip of the San Francisco Peninsula just north of [[San Bruno Mountain]]. Everything south of the line became the new San Mateo County while everything north of the line became the new consolidated City and County of San Francisco.<ref>{{cite book
|author=
|title= Statutes of California and Digests of Measures
|url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Statutes_of_California_and_Digests_of_Me/4a83AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA145&printsec=frontcover
|publisher= J. Winchester
|page=145
|date=1856
}}</ref>
[[File:Seal of San Francisco 1850-56.jpg|thumb|City seal from before the Consolidation Act of 1856. The phoenix references the early fires that burn early San Francisco. Significant fires occurred December 1849, May 1850, June 1850, September 1850, May 1851, and June 1851.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Armes |first = Wm. Dallam
|title = Sunset Cinders: The Phoenix on the Seal
|publisher=Sunset |date = June–July 1906 |location = San Francisco |pages = 113–115
}}</ref> ]]
Entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush. Silver discoveries, including the [[Comstock Lode]] in [[Nevada]] in 1859, further drove rapid population growth.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York |pages = 31–33 |oclc = 44313415
|isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9
}}</ref> With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the [[Barbary Coast, San Francisco|Barbary Coast]] section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, bootlegging, and gambling.<ref>"The miners came in forty-nine, / The whores in fifty-one, / And when they got together / They produced the native son." {{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York
|pages = 237–238 |oclc = 44313415 |isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9}}</ref> Early winners were the banking industry, with the founding of [[Wells Fargo]] in 1852 and the [[Bank of California]] in 1864. Development of the [[Port of San Francisco]] and the establishment in 1869 of overland access to the eastern U.S. rail system via the newly completed [[First transcontinental railroad|Pacific Railroad]] (the construction of which the city only reluctantly helped support<ref>Construction of the Pacific Railroad was partially (albeit reluctantly) funded by the [[:File:Pacific RR Bond SF 1865.jpeg|City and County of San Francisco Pacific Railroad Bond issue]] under the provisions of ''"An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto."'' approved on April 22, 1863, as amended by §5 of the ''"Compromise Act of 1864"'' approved on April 4, 1864. The bond issue was objected to by the Mayor and the Board of Supervisors, however, and they were not delivered to the WPRR and CPRR until 1865 after Writs of Mandamus ordering such were issued by the Supreme Court of the State of California in 1864 (''"The People of the State of California on the relation of the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco"'' 25 Cal 635) and 1865 (''"The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk"'' 27 Cal 655)</ref>) helped make the Bay Area a center for trade. Catering to the needs and tastes of the growing population, [[Levi Strauss]] opened a [[dry goods]] business and [[Domingo Ghirardelli]] began manufacturing chocolate. Chinese immigrants made the city a polyglot culture, drawn to "Old Gold Mountain", creating the city's [[Chinatown, San Francisco|Chinatown]] quarter. By 1880, Chinese made up 9.3% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IPUMS USA |url=https://usa.ipums.org/usa/ |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=usa.ipums.org}}</ref> The first [[San Francisco cable car system|cable cars]] carried San Franciscans up [[Clay Street Hill Railroad|Clay Street]] in 1873. The city's sea of [[Victorian house]]s began to take shape, and civic leaders campaigned for a spacious public park, resulting in plans for [[Golden Gate Park]]. San Franciscans built schools, churches, theaters, and all the hallmarks of civic life. The [[Presidio of San Francisco|Presidio]] developed into the most important American military installation on the Pacific coast.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Under Three Flags |work=Golden Gate National Recreation Area Brochures
|publisher=US Department of the Interior
|date=November 2004
|url = http://www.nps.gov/goga/planyourvisit/upload/3flags_7-03.pdf |access-date =June 22, 2011
}}</ref> By 1890, San Francisco's population approached 300,000, making it the [[Largest cities in the United States by population by decade#1890|eighth-largest city]] in the United States at the time. Around 1901, San Francisco was a major city known for its flamboyant style, stately hotels, ostentatious mansions on [[Nob Hill, San Francisco|Nob Hill]], and a thriving arts scene.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York |pages = 44–55 |oclc = 44313415
|isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9}}</ref> The first North American plague epidemic was the [[San Francisco plague of 1900–1904]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kalisch |first=Philip A. |title=The Black Death in Chinatown: Plague and Politics in San Francisco 1900–1904 |journal=Arizona and the West |volume=14 |date=Summer 1972 |pages=113–136 |jstor=40168068 |issue=2|pmid=11614219 }}</ref>

=== 1906–1940: San Francisco earthquake and reconstruction ===
At 5:12 am on April 18, 1906, a major [[1906 San Francisco earthquake|earthquake struck San Francisco]] and northern California. As buildings collapsed from the shaking, ruptured [[pipeline transport|gas lines]] ignited fires that spread across the city and burned out of control for several days. With [[water main]]s out of service, the [[Presidio of San Francisco|Presidio]] Artillery Corps attempted to contain the [[conflagration|inferno]] by dynamiting blocks of buildings to create firebreaks.<ref name="Funston">{{cite web
|title = 1906 Earthquake: Fire Fighting
|work=Golden Gate National Recreation Area
|publisher=US Department of the Interior |date = December 24, 2003
|url = http://www.nps.gov/prsf/historyculture/1906-earthquake-fire-fighting.htm
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> More than three-quarters of the city lay in ruins, including almost all of the downtown core.<ref name="Montagne">{{cite news
|last = Montagne |first = Renée
|title = Remembering the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake
|work=People & Places |publisher=NPR
|date = April 11, 2006
|url = https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5334411
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> Contemporary accounts reported that 498 people died, though modern estimates put the number in the several thousands.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Casualties and Damage after the 1906 earthquake
|work=Earthquake Hazards Program – Northern California
|publisher=US Geological Survey
|date = January 25, 2008
|url = https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/events/1906calif/18april/casualties.php
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> More than half of the city's population of 400,000 was left homeless.<ref>{{cite web
|title = 1906 Earthquake and the Army
|work=Golden Gate National Recreation Area
|publisher=US Department of the Interior |date =August 25, 2004
|url = http://www.nps.gov/prsf/historyculture/1906-earthquake.htm
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> [[Refugee]]s settled temporarily in makeshift tent villages in Golden Gate Park, the Presidio, on the beaches, and elsewhere. Many fled permanently to the [[East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)|East Bay]].

{{Wide image|San francisco fire 1906.jpg|936px|align-cap=center|"Not in history has a modern imperial city been so completely destroyed. San Francisco is gone." –[[Jack London]] after the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake|1906 earthquake]] and fire<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/jlondon.html |title=Jack London Writes of the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire |publisher=Sfmuseum.org |date=May 5, 1906 |access-date=June 15, 2013}}</ref>||center}}

Rebuilding was rapid and performed on a grand scale. Rejecting calls to completely remake the street grid, San Franciscans opted for speed.<ref name="NatTrust1">{{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York
|pages = 56–62 |oclc = 44313415 |isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9
}}</ref> [[Amadeo Giannini]]'s [[Bank of Italy (United States)|Bank of Italy]], later to become [[Bank of America]], provided loans for many of those whose livelihoods had been devastated. The influential [[San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association]] or SPUR was founded in 1910 to address the quality of housing after the earthquake.<ref>{{cite web|title=SPUR Our Mission and History|url=http://www.spur.org/about/our_mission_and_history|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> The earthquake hastened development of western neighborhoods that survived the fire, including [[Pacific Heights, San Francisco|Pacific Heights]], where many of the city's wealthy rebuilt their homes.<ref>{{cite book
|last = O'Brien |first = Tricia
|title = San Francisco's Pacific Heights and Presidio Heights
|publisher = Arcadia Publishing |year = 2008 |location = San Francisco |isbn = 978-0-7385-5980-3
|page = 7
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J8dEQubtnqYC&pg=PA7}}</ref> In turn, the destroyed mansions of Nob Hill became grand hotels. [[San Francisco City Hall|City Hall]] rose again in splendid [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux Arts]] style, and the city celebrated its rebirth at the [[Panama–Pacific International Exposition (1915)|Panama–Pacific International Exposition]] in 1915.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York |oclc = 44313415 |isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9
|page = 9}}</ref>
[[File:PalaceofFineArts1915.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Palace of Fine Arts]] at the 1915 [[Panama–Pacific International Exposition (1915)|Panama–Pacific Exposition]] ]]

During this period, San Francisco built some of its most important infrastructure. Civil Engineer [[Michael O'Shaughnessy]] was hired by San Francisco Mayor [[James Rolph]] as chief engineer for the city in September 1912 to supervise the construction of the Twin Peaks Reservoir, the [[Stockton Street Tunnel]], the [[Twin Peaks Tunnel]], the [[San Francisco Municipal Railway]], the [[San Francisco Fire Department Auxiliary Water Supply System|Auxiliary Water Supply System]], and new sewers. San Francisco's streetcar system, of which the [[J Church|J]], [[K Ingleside|K]], [[L Taraval|L]], [[M Ocean View|M]], and [[N Judah|N]] lines survive today, was pushed to completion by O'Shaughnessy between 1915 and 1927. It was the [[Hetch Hetchy|O'Shaughnessy Dam]], [[Hetch Hetchy Reservoir]], and [[Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct]] that would have the largest effect on San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web|title=Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco – M.M. O'Shaughnessy Employed as City Engineer|url=http://www.sfmuseum.net/bio/mmo.html|access-date=March 16, 2013}}</ref> An abundant water supply enabled San Francisco to develop into the city it has become today.

[[File:SF-Oakland-Bay-Bridge-Construction.jpg|thumb|The original [[San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge|Bay Bridge]], shown here under construction in 1935, took 40 months to complete.]]

In ensuing years, the city solidified its standing as a financial capital; in the wake of the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|1929 stock market crash]], not a single San Francisco-based bank failed.<ref>{{cite web
|title = San Francisco Gold Rush Banking – 1849
|publisher=The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
|date = June 24, 2004
|url = http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist9/banking.html
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> Indeed, it was at the height of the [[Great Depression]] that San Francisco undertook two great civil engineering projects, simultaneously constructing the [[San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge]] and the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], completing them in 1936 and 1937, respectively. It was in this period that the island of [[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]], a former military stockade, began its service as a federal maximum security prison, housing notorious inmates such as [[Al Capone]], and [[Robert Franklin Stroud]], the Birdman of Alcatraz. San Francisco later celebrated its regained grandeur with a [[World's fair]], the [[Golden Gate International Exposition]] in 1939–40, creating [[Treasure Island, San Francisco|Treasure Island]] in the middle of the bay to house it.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Treasure Island History|url=https://www.treasureislandmuseum.org/island-history|access-date=2021-08-05|website=timuseum|language=en}}</ref>

=== 1941–present: World War II and urbanization ===
During [[World War II]], the [[San Francisco Naval Shipyard|Hunters Point Naval Shipyard]] became a hub of activity, and [[Fort Mason]] became the primary port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the [[Asiatic-Pacific Theater|Pacific Theater of Operations]].<ref name="WWII">{{cite web |date=August 28, 2007 |title=Port of Embarkation Essay—World War II in the San Francisco Bay Area |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/wwIIbayarea/embarkation.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624074834/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/wwIIbayarea/embarkation.htm |archive-date=Jun 24, 2011 |access-date=June 22, 2011 |work=A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary |publisher=US Department of the Interior}}</ref> The explosion of jobs drew many people, especially African Americans [[Second Great Migration (African American)|from the South]], to the area. After the end of the war, many military personnel returning from service abroad and civilians who had originally come to work decided to stay. The [[United Nations Charter]] creating the [[United Nations]] was drafted and signed in San Francisco in 1945 and, in 1951, the [[Treaty of San Francisco]] re-established peaceful relations between [[Japan]] and the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Powers]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Price |first1=John |title=A Just Peace? The 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty in Historical Perspective |url=http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp78.html |website=[[Japan Policy Research Institute]] |access-date=December 8, 2020 |date=June 2001 |archive-date=December 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207102227/http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp78.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Urban planning projects in the 1950s and 1960s involved widespread destruction and redevelopment of west-side neighborhoods and the construction of new [[freeway]]s, of which only a series of short segments were built before being halted by [[Highway revolts in the United States#San Francisco|citizen-led opposition]].<ref>{{cite news
|last=Fang
|first=Eric
|title=Urban Renewal Revisited: A Design Critique
|work=SPUR Newsletter
|publisher=San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association
|date=February 1999
|url=http://www.spur.org/publications/library/article/urbanrenewalrevisited02011999
|access-date=August 3, 2009
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091011043744/http://www.spur.org/publications/library/article/urbanrenewalrevisited02011999
|archive-date=October 11, 2009
}}</ref> The onset of [[containerization]] made San Francisco's small piers obsolete, and cargo activity moved to the larger [[Port of Oakland]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last = Rubin
|first = Jasper
|title = The Decline of the Port – A look at the transformation of the Port of San Francisco
|journal=SPUR Newsletter
|date=November 1999
|url = http://www.spur.org/publications/library/article/declineofport11011999
|quote = The final, insurmountable decline in San Francisco's shipping activity was heralded in 1958 by the departure of the first containerized freighter from San Francisco Bay.
|access-date = January 5, 2013
}}</ref> The city began to lose industrial jobs and turned to tourism as the most important segment of its economy.<ref>{{Cite journal
|last = Terplan
|first = Egon
|title = Organizing for Economic Growth – A new approach to business attraction and retention in San Francisco
|journal=SPUR Report
|date = June 7, 2010
|url = http://www.spur.org/publications/library/report/organizing-economic-growth
|quote = During the 1960s and 1970s San Francisco's historic maritime industry relocated to Oakland. ... San Francisco remained a center for business and professional services (such as consulting, law, accounting and finance) and also successfully developed its tourism sector, which became the leading local industry.
|access-date = January 5, 2013
}}</ref> The suburbs experienced rapid growth, and San Francisco underwent significant demographic change, as large segments of the white population left the city, supplanted by an increasing wave of [[Immigration to the United States|immigration]] from Asia and Latin America.<ref>{{cite web
|last = Willis |first = James
|author2 = Habib, Jerry|author3= Brittan, Jeremy
|title = San Francisco Planning Department Census Data Analysis
|publisher=San Francisco State University
|date = April 19, 2004
|url = http://bss.sfsu.edu/pamuk/SFDemographics.ppt
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110718191827/http://bss.sfsu.edu/pamuk/SFDemographics.ppt
|archive-date = July 18, 2011
|format = PPT |access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|last = Minton |first = Torri
|title = Race Through Time
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
|page = SC-4

|date = September 20, 1998
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/health/article/Race-Through-Time-2990221.php
|access-date =September 11, 2013
}}</ref> From 1950 to 1980, the city lost over 10 percent of its population.

[[File:SF Transamerica full CA.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Transamerica Pyramid]] was the tallest building in San Francisco until 2016, when [[Salesforce Tower]] surpassed it.]]

Over this period, San Francisco became a magnet for America's [[counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]]. [[Beat Generation]] writers fueled the [[San Francisco Renaissance]] and centered on the [[North Beach, San Francisco|North Beach]] neighborhood in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York
|pages = 240–242 |oclc = 44313415 |isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9
}}</ref> [[Hippie]]s flocked to [[Haight-Ashbury]] in the 1960s, reaching a peak with the 1967 [[Summer of Love]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/love/filmmore/fd.html
|title = American Experience: Summer of Love: Film Description
|access-date = June 17, 2008
|date = March 14, 2007
|work = Website for American Experience documentary on the Summer of Love
|publisher = PBS
|archive-date = June 5, 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080605215315/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/love/filmmore/fd.html
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> In 1974, the [[Zebra murders]] left at least 16 people dead.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,911212,00.html |title=Fear in the Streets of San Francisco |date=April 29, 1974 |magazine=Time |access-date=August 28, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203143933/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,911212,00.html |archive-date=December 3, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the 1970s, the city became a center of the [[LGBT social movements|gay rights movement]], with the emergence of [[The Castro, San Francisco|The Castro]] as an urban [[gay village]], the election of [[Harvey Milk]] to the [[San Francisco Board of Supervisors|Board of Supervisors]], and his [[Moscone–Milk assassinations|assassination]], along with that of Mayor [[George Moscone]], in 1978.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.frommers.com/destinations/sanfrancisco/0029033660.html
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010718020050/http://www.frommers.com/destinations/sanfrancisco/0029033660.html
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=July 18, 2001
|title=San Francisco History: The 1970s and 1980s: Gay Rights
|access-date=June 17, 2008
|work=Destinations: San Francisco
|publisher=Frommers.com
}}</ref>

Bank of America completed [[555 California Street]] in 1969 and the [[Transamerica Pyramid]] was completed in 1972,<ref>{{cite web
|title = Pyramid Facts and Figures |work=Company Profile
|publisher=Transamerica Insurance and Investment Group
|url = http://www.transamerica.com/company_profile/about_the_pyramid/pyramid_facts_and_figures.asp
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> igniting a wave of "[[Manhattanization]]" that lasted until the late 1980s, a period of extensive high-rise development downtown.<ref name="NatTrust2">{{cite book
|last = Wiley |first = Peter Booth
|title = National trust guide- San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year = 2000 |location = New York
|pages = 95–96 |oclc = 44313415 |isbn = 978-0-471-19120-9
}}</ref> The 1980s also saw a dramatic increase in the number of homeless people in the city, an issue that remains today, despite many attempts to address it.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/08/04/MNGILKB9KV1.DTL&ao=all
|title = S.F.'s Homeless Aging on the Street / Chronic health problems on the rise as median age nears 50
|work = San Francisco Chronicle
|author = Fagan, Kevin
|date = August 4, 2006
|access-date =March 6, 2012
|quote = The findings support what many social workers have long suspected – that there was a "big bang" homeless population explosion as federal housing programs were slashed and the closing of mental hospitals hit home in the mid-1980s and that this core group constitutes the bulk of the street population.
}}</ref> The [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake]] caused destruction and loss of life throughout the Bay Area. In San Francisco, the quake severely damaged structures in the [[Marina District, San Francisco|Marina]] and [[South of Market, San Francisco|South of Market]] districts and precipitated the demolition of the damaged [[California State Route 480|Embarcadero Freeway]] and much of the damaged [[Central Freeway]], allowing the city to reclaim [[Embarcadero (San Francisco)|The Embarcadero]] as its historic downtown waterfront and revitalizing the [[Hayes Valley, San Francisco|Hayes Valley]] neighborhood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hayes Valley Neighborhood Association|url=https://hayesvalleysf.org/|access-date=2021-08-05|website=Hayes Valley Neighborhood Association|language=en-US}}</ref>

The two recent decades have seen booms driven by the internet industry. During the [[Dot-com bubble|dot-com boom]] of the late 1990s, [[startup company|startup companies]] invigorated the San Francisco economy. Large numbers of entrepreneurs and computer application developers moved into the city, followed by marketing, design, and sales professionals, changing the social landscape as once poorer neighborhoods became increasingly [[Gentrification|gentrified]].<ref>{{cite news
|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/05/us/mission-district-fights-case-of-dot-com-fever.html
|title = Mission District Fights Case of Dot-Com Fever
|work = The New York Times
|date = November 5, 2000
|author = Nieves, Evelyn
|access-date =March 5, 2012
}}</ref> Demand for new housing and office space ignited a second wave of high-rise development, this time in the South of Market district.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/High-rises-are-a-sign-of-the-times-in-changing-3233641.php
|title = High-rises are a sign of the times in changing San Francisco
|work = San Francisco Chronicle
|date = January 2, 2008
|author = Nolte, Carl
|access-date = July 9, 2012
}}</ref> By 2000, the city's population reached new highs, surpassing the previous record set in 1950. When the bubble burst in 2001, many of these companies folded and their employees were laid off. Yet high technology and entrepreneurship remain mainstays of the San Francisco economy. By the mid-2000s (decade), the [[Web 2.0|social media boom]] had begun, with San Francisco becoming a popular location for tech offices and a common place to live for people employed in [[Silicon Valley]] companies such as [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Google]].<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.sfeconomicstrategy.org/site/uploadedfiles/moed/economic_strat/ExecutiveSummary_EconomicPerformanceReview.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090201053456/http://www.sfeconomicstrategy.org/site/uploadedfiles/moed/economic_strat/ExecutiveSummary_EconomicPerformanceReview.pdf
|archive-date = February 1, 2009
|title = City and County of San Francisco: An Overview of San Francisco's Recent Economic Performance
|access-date =June 19, 2008
|author=Ted Egan
|date = April 3, 2006
|work=Report prepared for Mayor's Office of Economic and Workforce Development
|publisher=ICF Consulting
|quote = Another positive trend for the future is San Francisco's highly entrepreneurial, flexible and innovative economy...San Francisco's very high reliance on small business and self-employment is typical of other dynamic, fast-growing, high-technology areas across the country.}}</ref>

The [[Ferry Station Post Office Building]], [[Armour & Co. Building]], [[Atherton House]], and [[YMCA Hotel (San Francisco, California)|YMCA Hotel]] are historic buildings among dozens of historical landmarks in the city according to the [[National Register of Historic Places listings in San Francisco]].{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

==Geography==
[[File:San Francisco Peninsula by Sentinel-2, 2019-03-11.jpg|thumb|upright|The San Francisco Peninsula]]

San Francisco is located on the [[West Coast of the United States]] at the north end of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] and includes significant stretches of the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[San Francisco Bay]] within its boundaries. Several picturesque [[islands of San Francisco Bay|islands]]—[[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]], [[Treasure Island, San Francisco|Treasure Island]] and the adjacent [[Yerba Buena Island]], and small portions of [[Alameda (island)|Alameda Island]], [[Red Rock Island]], and [[Angel Island, California|Angel Island]]—are part of the city. Also included are the uninhabited [[Farallon Islands]], {{convert|27|mi|km}} offshore in the Pacific Ocean. The mainland within the city limits roughly forms a "seven-by-seven-mile square", a common local colloquialism referring to the city's shape, though its total area, including water, is nearly {{convert|232|sqmi|km2}}.

There are more than 50 hills within the city limits.<ref name=peak_experience>{{cite news
|last = Graham |first = Tom
|title = Peak Experience
|work = San Francisco Chronicle
|page = PK-23
|publisher = Hearst Communications
|date = November 7, 2004
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/11/07/PKGJ99K7KD1.DTL
|access-date =June 13, 2008
}}</ref> Some neighborhoods are named after the hill on which they are situated, including [[Nob Hill, San Francisco|Nob Hill]], [[Potrero Hill, San Francisco|Potrero Hill]], and [[Russian Hill, San Francisco|Russian Hill]].
Near the geographic center of the city, southwest of the downtown area, are a series of less densely populated hills. [[Twin Peaks (San Francisco)|Twin Peaks]], a pair of hills forming one of the city's highest points, forms an overlook spot. San Francisco's tallest hill, [[Mount Davidson (California)|Mount Davidson]], is {{convert|928|ft|m|0}} high and is capped with a {{convert|103|foot|m|0|adj=on}} tall cross built in 1934.<ref>{{cite news
|first=Henry K. |last = Lee
|title = Mount Davidson Cross Called Landmark by Panel
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/1997/01/16/MN71385.DTL
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
|date = January 16, 1997
|access-date =June 17, 2008}}</ref> Dominating this area is [[Sutro Tower]], a large red and white radio and television transmission tower reaching 1,811 ft (552 m) above sea level.

The nearby [[San Andreas Fault|San Andreas]] and [[Hayward Fault]]s are responsible for much earthquake activity, although neither physically passes through the city itself. The San Andreas Fault caused the earthquakes in 1906 and 1989. Minor earthquakes occur on a regular basis. The threat of major earthquakes plays a large role in the city's infrastructure development. The city constructed an [[San Francisco Fire Department Auxiliary Water Supply System|auxiliary water supply system]] and has repeatedly upgraded its building codes, requiring retrofits for older buildings and higher engineering standards for new construction.<ref>{{cite news
|first = Charles |last = Smith
|title = What San Francisco didn't learn from the '06 quake
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/04/15/HOGQ9I7P2T1.DTL
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
|date = April 15, 2006
|access-date =June 30, 2008
}}</ref> However, there are still thousands of smaller buildings that remain vulnerable to quake damage.<ref>{{cite news
|first = Robert |last = Selna
|title = S.F. leaders ignore weak buildings' quake risk
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2008/06/29/MNDD110U2E.DTL
|page = A-1 |work=San Francisco Chronicle
|date = June 29, 2008
|access-date =June 30, 2008}}</ref> USGS has released the [[California]] earthquake forecast which models earthquake occurrence in California.<ref>[http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2015/3009/pdf/fs2015-3009.pdf California Earthquake forecast – UCERF3 – USGS Factsheet (non-technical) Mar, 2015.] predicts Earthquake risk for 30 years in California, [[California earthquake forecast]].</ref>

San Francisco's shoreline has grown beyond its natural limits. Entire neighborhoods such as the [[Marina District, San Francisco|Marina]], [[Mission Bay, San Francisco|Mission Bay]], and [[Hunters Point, San Francisco|Hunters Point]], as well as large sections of the [[The Embarcadero (San Francisco)|Embarcadero]], sit on areas of [[Land reclamation|landfill]]. Treasure Island was constructed from material dredged from the bay as well as material resulting from the excavation of the [[Yerba Buena Tunnel]] through [[Yerba Buena Island]] during the construction of the Bay Bridge. Such land tends to be unstable during earthquakes. The resulting [[soil liquefaction]] causes extensive damage to property built upon it, as was evidenced in the Marina district during the [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake]].<ref>{{cite web
|title = Liquefaction Damage in the Marina District during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake
|publisher=California Geological Survey
|url = http://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/information/outreach/Documents/Marina%20Poster%2011x17rw2b.pdf
|access-date =June 17, 2008}}</ref> Most of the city's natural watercourses, such as [[Islais Creek]] and [[Mission Creek]], have been [[culvert]]ed and built over, although the [[San Francisco Public Utilities Commission|Public Utilities Commission]] is studying proposals to daylight or restore some creeks.<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Lure of the Creeks Buried Beneath San Francisco's Streets
|publisher = Streetsblog San Francisco
|author = Matt Baume
|url = http://sf.streetsblog.org/2010/04/14/the-lure-of-the-creeks-buried-beneath-san-franciscos-streets/
|date = April 14, 2010
|access-date = January 31, 2013}}
</ref>

===Cityscape===
{{See also|List of Landmarks and Historic Places in San Francisco}}
[[File:San Francisco aerial.jpg|thumb|550x550px|Aerial view from the west in April 2018. San Francisco is seen in the foreground, with [[Oakland]] and [[Alameda, California|Alameda]] in the background.|left]]
[[File:San Francisco from Mount Tamalpais on February 18, 2019.jpg|none|thumb|550x550px|San Francisco viewed from [[Mount Tamalpais|Mt. Tamalpais]] in February 2019]]

====Neighborhoods====
{{Main|Neighborhoods in San Francisco}}
{{See also|List of tallest buildings in San Francisco}}
[[File:SF Chinatown CA.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco Chinatown]] is the oldest in North America and one of the largest Chinese enclaves outside of Asia.]]

The historic center of San Francisco is the northeast quadrant of the city anchored by [[Market Street (San Francisco)|Market Street]] and the waterfront. It is here that the [[Financial District, San Francisco|Financial District]] is centered, with [[Union Square (San Francisco)|Union Square]], the principal shopping and hotel district, and the [[Tenderloin, San Francisco|Tenderloin]] nearby. [[Cable car (railway)|Cable cars]] carry riders up steep inclines to the summit of [[Nob Hill]], once the home of the city's business tycoons, and down to the waterfront tourist attractions of [[Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco|Fisherman's Wharf]], and [[Pier 39]], where many restaurants feature [[Dungeness crab]] from a still-active fishing industry. Also in this quadrant are [[Russian Hill, San Francisco|Russian Hill]], a residential neighborhood with the famously crooked [[Lombard Street (San Francisco)|Lombard Street]]; [[North Beach, San Francisco|North Beach]], the city's [[Little Italy]] and the former center of the [[Beat Generation]]; and [[Telegraph Hill, San Francisco|Telegraph Hill]], which features [[Coit Tower]]. Abutting Russian Hill and North Beach is San Francisco's [[Chinatown, San Francisco|Chinatown]], the oldest [[Chinatown]] in North America.<ref>[http://www.sanfranciscochinatown.com/history/index.html The Official San Francisco Chinatown Website]. Sanfranciscochinatown.com. Retrieved February 16, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/offices/comm/csj/101102/chinatown.shtml Depicting Otherness: Images of San Francisco's Chinatown]. College Street Journal (October 11, 2002). Retrieved February 16, 2012.</ref><ref name="Bacon, Daniel pages 52-53">Bacon, Daniel: Walking the Barbary Coast Trail 2nd ed., pp. 52–53, Quicksilver Press, 1997</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sanfranciscodays.com/chinatown/ |title=Chinatown/Grant Avenue |access-date=August 31, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615053119/http://www.sanfranciscodays.com/chinatown/ |archive-date=June 15, 2011 }}. San Francisco Days</ref> The [[South of Market, San Francisco|South of Market]], which was once San Francisco's industrial core, has seen significant redevelopment following the construction of [[Oracle Park]] and an infusion of [[Startup company|startup companies]]. New skyscrapers, live-work lofts, and condominiums dot the area. Further development is taking place just to the south in [[Mission Bay, San Francisco|Mission Bay]] area, a former railroad yard, which now has a second campus of the [[University of California, San Francisco]] and [[Chase Center]], which opened in [[2019–20 Golden State Warriors season|2019]] as the new home of the [[Golden State Warriors]].<ref>{{cite web|title = S.F. supervisors OK Warriors arena for Mission Bay|url = http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/S-F-supervisors-OK-Warriors-arena-for-Mission-Bay-6685450.php|website = San Francisco Chronicle|access-date = February 8, 2016|date = December 9, 2015}}</ref>

West of downtown, across [[Van Ness Avenue (San Francisco)|Van Ness Avenue]], lies the large [[Western Addition, San Francisco|Western Addition]] neighborhood, which became established with a large African American population after [[World War II]]. The Western Addition is usually divided into smaller neighborhoods including [[Hayes Valley, San Francisco|Hayes Valley]], [[Fillmore District, San Francisco|the Fillmore]], and [[Japantown, San Francisco|Japantown]], which was once the largest Japantown in North America but suffered when its [[Japanese American]] residents were [[Japanese American internment|forcibly removed and interned]] during World War II. The Western Addition survived the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake|1906 earthquake]] with its [[Victorian house|Victorians]] largely intact, including the famous "[[Painted Ladies]]", standing alongside [[Alamo Square]]. To the south, near the geographic center of the city is [[Haight-Ashbury]], famously associated with 1960s [[hippie]] culture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haight-Ashbury's Hippie House: Preserving San Francisco's 1960s Counterculture {{!}} National Trust for Historic Preservation|url=https://savingplaces.org/stories/haight-ashburys-hippie-house-preserving-san-franciscos-1960s-counterculture|access-date=2021-08-05|website=savingplaces.org|language=en-US}}</ref> The Haight is now{{reltime|date=March 2022}} home to some expensive boutiques<ref>{{cite news |title=The Haight |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfgate.com/neighborhoods/sf/haight/ |access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=30-year old source|date=March 2022}} and a few controversial chain stores,<ref>{{cite news |first=Katherine |last=Bishop |title=Haight-Ashbury Journal; Love and Hate Linger in Ex-Hippie District |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/13/us/haight-ashbury-journal-love-and-hate-linger-in-ex-hippie-district.html?sec=&spon= |work=The New York Times |date=October 13, 1988 |access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> although it still retains{{reltime|date=March 2022}}{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} some [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] character.

North of the Western Addition is [[Pacific Heights, San Francisco|Pacific Heights]], an affluent neighborhood that features the homes built by wealthy San Franciscans in the wake of the 1906 earthquake. Directly north of Pacific Heights facing the waterfront is the [[Marina District, San Francisco|Marina]], a neighborhood popular with young professionals that was largely built on reclaimed land from the Bay.<ref>{{cite news
|title = The Marina
|work = SFGate San Francisco Neighborhood Guide
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/neighborhoods/sf/marina/
|access-date =August 20, 2013
|date=October 27, 2011
}}</ref>

In the southeast quadrant of the city is the [[Mission District]]—populated in the 19th century by [[Californios]] and working-class immigrants from Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Scandinavia. In the 1910s, a wave of Central American immigrants settled in the Mission and, in the 1950s, immigrants from [[Mexican American|Mexico]] began to predominate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qualityoflife-themovie.com/website/mission.html |title=Quality of Life (film website) |work=Mission District History |author=Morgan, Benjamin (Director) |year=2007 |access-date=July 25, 2010}}</ref> In recent years, gentrification has changed the demographics of parts of the Mission from Latino, to [[Twentysomething (term)|twenty-something]] professionals. [[Noe Valley, San Francisco|Noe Valley]] to the southwest and [[Bernal Heights, San Francisco|Bernal Heights]] to the south are both increasingly popular among young families with children. East of the Mission is the [[Potrero Hill]] neighborhood, a mostly residential neighborhood that features sweeping views of downtown San Francisco. West of the Mission, the area historically known as [[Eureka Valley, San Francisco|Eureka Valley]], now popularly called [[The Castro, San Francisco|the Castro]], was once a working-class Scandinavian and Irish area. It has become North America's first [[gay village]], and is now the center of [[homosexuality|gay]] life in the city.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Castro |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfgate.com/neighborhoods/sf/castro/ |access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> Located near the city's southern border, the [[Excelsior District, San Francisco|Excelsior District]] is one of the most ethnically diverse neighborhoods in San Francisco. The predominantly African American [[Bayview–Hunters Point, San Francisco|Bayview-Hunters Point]] in the far southeast corner of the city is one of the poorest neighborhoods and suffers from a high rate of crime, though the area has been the focus of several revitalizing and controversial [[urban renewal]] projects.

[[File:FerryBuildingEmbarcaderoBayBridge.JPG|thumb|The [[San Francisco Ferry Building|Ferry Building]] along the [[Embarcadero (San Francisco)|Embarcadero]]]]

The construction of the [[Twin Peaks Tunnel]] in 1918 connected southwest neighborhoods to downtown via streetcar, hastening the development of [[West Portal, San Francisco|West Portal]], and nearby affluent [[Forest Hill, San Francisco|Forest Hill]] and [[St. Francis Wood, San Francisco|St. Francis Wood]]. Further west, stretching all the way to the Pacific Ocean and north to [[Golden Gate Park]] lies the vast [[Sunset District, San Francisco|Sunset District]], a large middle-class area with a predominantly Asian population.<ref>{{cite news
|last = Chow |first = Andrew
|title = Dismal APA Turnout at First Redistricting Meetings
|work=Asian Week
|date = March 22, 2002
}}</ref>

The northwestern quadrant of the city contains the [[Richmond District, San Francisco|Richmond]], a mostly middle-class neighborhood north of Golden Gate Park, home to immigrants from other parts of Asia as well as many [[Russian people|Russian]] and [[Ukrainian people|Ukrainian]] immigrants. Together, these areas are known as [[Neighborhoods in San Francisco|The Avenues]]. These two districts are each sometimes further divided into two regions: the Outer Richmond and Outer Sunset can refer to the more western portions of their respective district and the Inner Richmond and Inner Sunset can refer to the more eastern portions.

Many piers remained derelict for years until the demolition of the [[Embarcadero Freeway]] reopened the downtown waterfront, allowing for redevelopment. The centerpiece of the port, the [[San Francisco Ferry Building|Ferry Building]], while still receiving commuter ferry traffic, has been restored and redeveloped as a gourmet marketplace.

===Climate===

San Francisco has a [[warm-summer Mediterranean climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Csb'') characteristic of California's coast, with moist, mild winters and dry summers.<ref>[http://ggweather.com/sf/narrative.html Climate of San Francisco: Narrative Description] Golden Gate Weather Services. Retrieved September 5, 2006.</ref> San Francisco's weather is strongly influenced by the [[California Current|cool currents]] of the Pacific Ocean on the west side of the city, and the water of [[San Francisco Bay]] to the north and east. This moderates temperature swings and produces a remarkably mild year-round climate with little seasonal temperature variation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=San Francisco climate: Average Temperature, weather by month, San Francisco water temperature - Climate-Data.org|url=https://en.climate-data.org/north-america/united-states-of-america/california/san-francisco-385/|access-date=2021-08-05|website=en.climate-data.org}}</ref>

[[File:San francisco in fog with rays.jpg|thumb|upright|[[San Francisco fog|Fog]] is a regular feature of San Francisco summers.]]

Among major U.S. cities, San Francisco has the coolest daily mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures for June, July, and August.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.currentresults.com/Weather-Extremes/US/coldest-cities-summer.php
|title = Coolest US Cities in Summer
|author=Osborn, Liz
|work=Weather Extremes
|publisher=Current Results Nexus
|access-date =July 25, 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100724192713/http://www.currentresults.com/Weather-Extremes/US/coldest-cities-summer.php |archive-date = July 24, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>
During the summer, rising hot air in California's interior valleys creates a low-pressure area that draws winds from the [[North Pacific High]] through the [[Golden Gate]], which creates the city's [[San Francisco fog|characteristic cool winds and fog]].<ref>{{Cite journal
|last = Gilliam
|first = Harold
|author-link = Harold Gilliam
|title = Cutting Through the Fog: Demystifying the Summer Spectacle
|journal=Bay Nature
|date = July–September 2002
|url = http://baynature.org/articles/jul-sep-2002/cutting-through-the-fog
}}</ref> The fog is less pronounced in eastern neighborhoods and during the late summer and early fall. As a result, the year's warmest month, on average, is September, and on average, October is warmer than July, especially in daytime.

Temperatures reach or exceed {{convert|80|°F|abbr=on}} on an average of only 21 and 23 days a year at downtown and [[San Francisco International Airport]] (SFO), respectively.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA"/> The dry period of May to October is mild to warm, with the normal monthly mean temperature peaking in September at {{convert|62.7|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA"/> The rainy period of November to April is slightly cooler, with the normal monthly mean temperature reaching its lowest in January at {{convert|51.3|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA"/> On average, there are 73 rainy days a year, and annual precipitation averages {{convert|23.65|in|mm|0}}.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA"/> Variation in precipitation from year to year is high. Above-average rain years are often associated with warm [[El Niño]] conditions in the Pacific while dry years often occur in cold water [[La Niña]] periods. In 2013 (a "La Niña" year), a record low {{convert|5.59|in|mm|abbr=on}} of rainfall was recorded at downtown San Francisco, where records have been kept since 1849.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA"/> Snowfall in the city is very rare, with only 10 measurable accumulations recorded since 1852, most recently in 1976 when up to {{convert|5|in|cm}} fell on Twin Peaks.<ref>[http://ggweather.com/sf/snow.html Climate of San Francisco: Snowfall] Golden Gate Weather Services. Retrieved December 3, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url = http://blog.sfgate.com/thebigevent/2012/11/29/blizzard-of-awesome-the-san-francisco-snowfall-of-1976/
|title = Blizzard of awesome: The San Francisco snowfall of 1976
|author = Peter Hartlaub
|work = San Francisco Chronicle
|date = November 29, 2012
|access-date = February 1, 2013}}</ref>

The highest recorded temperature at the official [[National Weather Service]] downtown observation station{{efn|Station currently at the [[San Francisco Mint#Current building|United States Mint]] building<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hoodline.com/2014/05/secretly-awesome-the-lower-haight-weather-station/|title=Secretly Awesome: The Lower Haight Weather Station|author=Dudley, Andrew|date=May 1, 2014|website=hoodline}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2021}} }} was {{convert|106|F|C}} on September 1, 2017.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ruberstein |first1=Steve |last2=Asimov |first2=Nanette |last3=Lyons |first3=Jenna |title=San Francisco hits 106 degrees – shatters all-time record |url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Hey-San-Francisco-get-ready-for-the-heat-12166706.php |date=September 1, 2017 |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref> During that hot spell, the warmest ever night of {{convert|71|F|C}} was also recorded.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA2">{{cite web|url=https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo=mtr|title=NOWData for San Francisco, CA forecast office|publisher=[[NOAA]]|access-date=26 July 2022}}</ref> The lowest recorded temperature was {{convert|27|F|C}} on December 11, 1932.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliGCStT.pl?ca7772
|title = San Fran Mission Dolore, California (047772) Period of Record General Climate Summary – Temperature
|work=Western Regional Climate Center
|publisher=[[Desert Research Institute]]
|year = 2010
|access-date =July 25, 2010|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110513121708/http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?ca7772 |archive-date = May 13, 2011|url-status=live}} ([http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?ca7772 Main page])</ref> The National Weather Service provides a helpful visual aid<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/climate/yeardisp.php?wfo=mtr&stn=KSFO&submit=Yearly+Charts|title=National Weather Service – NWS San Francisco/Monterey Bay Area|website=Wrh.noaa.gov|access-date=April 16, 2021}}</ref> graphing the information in the table below to display visually by month the annual typical temperatures, the past year's temperatures, and record temperatures.{{importance inline|date=September 2022}}

During a normal year between 1991 and 2020 San Francisco would record a warmest night at {{convert|64|F|C}} and a coldest day at {{convert|49|F|C}}.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA"/> The coldest daytime high since the station's opening in 1945 was recorded in December 1972 at {{convert|37|F|C}}.<ref name="San Francisco NOAA"/>

As a coastal city, San Francisco will be heavily affected by [[climate change]]. {{as of|2021}}, sea levels are projected to rise by as much as {{convert|5|ft}}, resulting in periodic flooding, rising groundwater levels, and lowland floods from more severe storms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tuma |first1=Drew |last2=Didion |first2=Tim |title=UN climate report puts focus on sea level rise threat to San Francisco Bay |url=https://abc7news.com/un-climate-report-bay-area-rising-sea-level-change-ocean/10941431/ |access-date=31 January 2022 |work=ABC7 San Francisco |date=10 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

San Francisco falls under the [[USDA]] 10b Plant [[hardiness zone]], though some areas, particularly downtown, border zone 11a.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/#
|title = USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map
|author = Agricultural Research Center, PRISM Climate Group Oregon State University
|website = USDA
|publisher = USDA
|access-date = February 24, 2014
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140227032333/http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/
|archive-date = February 27, 2014
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.plantmaps.com/interactive-california-usda-plant-zone-hardiness-map.php|title=California Interactive USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map|access-date=December 19, 2016}}</ref>

{{San Francisco weatherbox}}

===Flora and fauna===
Historically, [[tule elk]] were present in San Francisco County, based on archeological evidence of elk remains in at least five different [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] shellmounds: at Hunter's Point, Fort Mason, Stevenson Street, Market Street, and Yerba Buena.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Declines in Mammalian Foraging Efficiency during the Late Holocene, San Francisco Bay, California |author=Broughton, Jack M. |date=1994 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=371–401 |doi=10.1006/jaar.1994.1019 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278416584710191 |access-date=May 27, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Paleoecological inferences from a faunal analysis of CA-SFr-07 |author=McCrossin, M. |year=1982 |journal=Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology |volume=4 |pages=138–141}}</ref> Perhaps the first historical observer record was from the [[De Anza Expedition]] on March 23, 1776. [[Herbert Eugene Bolton]] wrote about the expedition camp at Mountain Lake, near the southern end of today's [[Presidio of San Francisco|Presidio]]: "Round about were grazing deer, and scattered here and there were the antlers of large elk."<ref>{{cite book |title=Anza's California Expeditions Volume I. An Outpost of Empire. |author=Herbert Eugene Bolton |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, California |year=1930 |page=393}}</ref> Also, when [[Richard Henry Dana Jr.]] visited San Francisco Bay in 1835, he wrote about vast elk herds near the Golden Gate: on December 27 "...we came to anchor near the mouth of the bay, under a high and beautifully sloping hill, upon which herds of hundreds and hundreds of red deer [note: "red deer" is the European term for "elk"], and the stag, with his high branching antlers, were bounding about...", although it is not clear whether this was the Marin side or the San Francisco side.<ref>{{cite book |title=Two Years Before the Mast. A Personal Narrative. | author=Richard Henry Dana Jr. |year=1840 |publisher=Harper and Brothers |location=New York |isbn=9781441405401 |page=270}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of San Francisco}}
{{Historical populations
|type= USA
|1848|1000
|1849|25000
|1852|34776
|1860|56802
|1870|149473
|1880|233959
|1890|298997
|1900|342782
|1910|416912
|1920|506676
|1930|634394
|1940|634536
|1950|775357
|1960|740316
|1970|715674
|1980|678974
|1990|723959
|2000|776733
|2010|805235
|2020|873965
|2021|815201
|2022|842754
|align-fn=center
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="DecennialCensus">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html|title=Census of Population and Housing|publisher=Census.gov|access-date=June 4, 2016}}</ref> 2010–2020<ref name="QuickFacts"/>
}}

The [[2020 United States census]] showed San Francisco's population to be 873,965, an increase of 8.5% from the [[2010 United States census|2010 census]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: San Francisco city, California |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/sanfranciscocitycalifornia/POP010220 |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=www.census.gov |language=en}}</ref> With roughly one-quarter the population density of [[Manhattan]], San Francisco is the [[List of United States cities by population density|second-most densely populated large American city]], behind only New York City among cities greater than 200,000 population, and the [[County statistics of the United States|fifth-most densely populated U.S. county]], following only four of the five New York City [[Boroughs of New York City|boroughs]].

San Francisco forms part of the five-county [[San Francisco–Oakland–Hayward, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area]], a region of 4.7 million people ([[Metropolitan statistical area|13th most populous in the U.S.]]), and has served as its traditional demographic focal point. It is also part of the greater 14-county [[San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland, CA Combined Statistical Area]], whose population is over 9.6 million, making it the [[Combined statistical area|fifth-largest in the United States]] as of 2018.<ref name="USCensusPopEstimateSF">{{cite web |title=QuickFacts: San Francisco County, California |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/sanfranciscocountycalifornia,CA,US/PST045217 |publisher=US Census Bureau |access-date=April 5, 2019}}</ref>

===Race, ethnicity, religion, and languages===
San Francisco has a [[majority minority]] population, as [[non-Hispanic whites]] comprise less than half of the population, 41.9%, down from 92.5% in 1940.<ref name="census">{{cite web |title=Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For Large Cities And Other Urban Places in the United States |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812191959/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |archive-date=August 12, 2012 |access-date=December 18, 2011 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>
As of the 2020 census, the racial makeup and population of San Francisco included: 361,382 [[White Americans|Whites]] (41.3%), 296,505 [[Asian Americans|Asians]] (33.9%), 46,725 [[African Americans]] (5.3%), 86,233 [[Multiracial Americans]] (9.9%), 6,475 [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] and [[Alaska Natives]] (0.7%), 3,476 [[Native Hawaiians]] and other [[Pacific Islands Americans|Pacific Islanders]] (0.4%) and 73,169 persons of other races (8.4%). There were 136,761 [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics or Latinos]] of any race (15.6%).

In 2010, residents of [[Chinese Americans|Chinese ethnicity]] constituted the largest single ethnic minority group in San Francisco at 21% of the population; other large Asian groups include [[Filipino Americans|Filipinos]] (5%) and [[Vietnamese Americans|Vietnamese]] (2%), with [[Japanese Americans|Japanese]], [[Korean Americans|Koreans]] and many other Asian and Pacific Islander groups represented in the city.<ref name="Census 2010-GCT-PH1-racial">{{cite web
|title = QT-P3 – Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin: 2010
|url = http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP3
|work = [[2010 United States Census]] Summary File 1
|publisher = United States Census Bureau
|access-date = July 11, 2011
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20200212210601/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP3
|archive-date = February 12, 2020
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
The population of Chinese ancestry is most heavily concentrated in Chinatown and the [[Sunset District, San Francisco|Sunset]] and [[Richmond District, San Francisco|Richmond District]]s. [[Filipinos]] are most concentrated in [[South of Market, San Francisco|SoMa]] and the [[Crocker-Amazon]]; the latter neighborhood shares a border with [[Daly City, California|Daly City]], which has one of the highest concentrations of Filipinos in North America.<ref name="Census 2010-GCT-PH1-racial"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faleo.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=62 |title=Training and Education /PET |access-date=April 28, 2012 |publisher=Filipino-American Law Enforcement Officers Association |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116021343/http://www.faleo.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=62 |archive-date=January 16, 2013 }}</ref> The [[Tenderloin, San Francisco|Tenderloin District]] is home to a large portion of the city's Vietnamese population as well as businesses and restaurants, which is known as the city's Little Saigon.<ref name="Census 2010-GCT-PH1-racial"/>

The principal [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic]] groups in the city were those of [[Mexican Americans|Mexican]] (7%) and [[Salvadoran Americans|Salvadoran]] (2%) ancestry. The Hispanic population is most heavily concentrated in the [[Mission District, San Francisco|Mission District]], Tenderloin District, and [[Excelsior District, San Francisco|Excelsior District]].<ref name="interactivemap"/> The city's percentage of Hispanic residents is less than half of that of the state.

[[African Americans]] constitute 6% of San Francisco's population,<ref name=census/> a percentage similar to that for California as a whole.<ref name="SF QuickFacts">{{cite web
|title=QuickFacts: San Francisco County, California
|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/06075.html
|publisher=United States Census Bureau
|access-date=July 11, 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713075807/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/06075.html
|archive-date=July 13, 2011
}}</ref> The majority of [[African Americans in San Francisco|the city's black population]] reside within the neighborhoods of [[Bayview-Hunters Point]], [[Visitacion Valley]], and the [[Fillmore District]].<ref name="interactivemap">{{cite news
|title = Interactive: Mapping the census
|newspaper=The Washington Post |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/nation/census/2010/
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110513090510/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/nation/census/2010/
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = May 13, 2011
|access-date =February 9, 2012
}}</ref> The city has long been home to a thriving and growing Jewish community, today [[Jewish Americans]] make up 10% (80,000) of the city's population as of 2018. The Jewish population of San Francisco is relatively young compared to many other major cities, and at 10% of the population, San Francisco has the third-largest Jewish community in terms of percentages after [[New York City]], and [[Los Angeles]], respectively.<ref name="ToI">{{cite news |last1=Ghert Zand |first1=Renee |title=Vast, young San Fran Jewish community is growing — but unaffiliated, says study |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/unprecedented-study-yields-surprising-results-on-san-francisco-area-jews/amp/ |access-date=13 July 2022 |agency=Times of Israel |publisher=The Times of Israel |date=14 February 2018}}</ref> The Jewish community is one of the largest minority groups in the city and is scattered throughout the city, but the [[Richmond District, San Francisco|Richmond District]] is home to an ethnic enclave of mostly [[Russian Jews]].<ref name="SF Travel">{{cite web |title=THE GUIDE TO JEWISH HERITAGE IN SAN FRANCISCO |url=https://www.sftravel.com/article/guide-jewish-heritage-san-francisco |website=San Francisco Travel Association |publisher=SF Travel |access-date=13 July 2022}}</ref> The [[Fillmore District]] was formerly a mostly-Jewish neighborhood from the 1920s until the 1970s, when many of its Jewish residents moved to other neighborhoods of the city as well as the suburbs of nearby [[Marin County]].<ref name="Found SF">{{cite web |last1=Shvetsky |first1=Kate |title=The Fillmore: A Jewish Neighborhood in the 1920s |url=https://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=The_Fillmore:_A_Jewish_Neighborhood_in_the_1920s |website=Found SF |publisher=Found SF |access-date=13 July 2022}}</ref>
[[File:San-francisco-race-and-origins.png|thumb|Race and ethnic/ancestral origins of San Franciscans, 2019]]
[[File:Race and ethnicity 2010- San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley (5560477152).png|thumb|Map of racial distribution in San Francisco Bay Area, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#ff0000|White}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#0000ff|Black}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#00ffaa|Asian}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#ffa600|Hispanic}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#ffff07|Other}}]]
{|
| align="left" |
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align: left;font-size: 90%;"
!Demographic profile<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|title=IPUMS USA|url=https://usa.ipums.org/usa/|access-date=2022-02-25|website=usa.ipums.org}}</ref>
!1860
!1880
!1920
!1960
!1980
!1990
!2000
!2010
!2020<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bureau|first=US Census|title=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census|url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html|access-date=2022-02-25|website=Census.gov}}</ref>
|-
| align="left" |'''[[Non-Hispanic whites|Non-Hispanic White]] alone'''
|'''90.2%'''
|'''87.7%'''
|'''93.5%'''
|'''72.7%'''
|'''52.8%'''
|'''46.9%'''
|'''43.5%'''
|'''41.7%'''
|'''39.1%'''
|-
| align="left" |'''[[Asian Americans|Non-Hispanic Asian]] alone'''
|'''4.6%'''
|'''9.3%'''
|'''2.7%'''
|'''7.9%'''
|'''21.3%'''
|'''28.0%'''
|'''30.7%'''
|'''33.1%'''
|'''33.7%'''
|-
|— [[Chinese Americans|Chinese American]]
|4.6%
|9.3%
|1.5%
|5.1%
|12.1%
|17.6%
|20.0%
|19.8%
|21.0%
|-
|— [[Filipino Americans|Filipino American]]
|—
|—
|0.2%
|1.5%
|5.2%
|5.4%
|5.0%
|4.9%
|4.4%
|-
| align="left" |'''[[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]], any race(s)'''
|'''3.0%'''
|'''2.4%'''
|'''3.4%'''
|'''9.4%'''
|'''12.6%'''
|'''13.3%'''
|'''14.2%'''
|'''15.2%'''
|'''15.6%'''
|-
|— [[Mexican Americans|Mexican American]]
|1.8%
|1.4%
|1.5%
|5.1%
|5.0%
|5.2%
|6.0%
|7.5%
|7.9%
|-
| align="left" |'''[[African Americans|Non-Hispanic Black]] alone'''
|'''2.1%'''
|'''0.6%'''
|'''0.4%'''
|'''9.7%'''
|'''12.3%'''
|'''10.7%'''
|'''7.6%'''
|'''6.0%'''
|'''5.1%'''
|-
| align="left" |'''[[Pacific Islands Americans|Non-Hispanic Pacific Islander]] alone'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''<0.1%'''
|'''—'''
|'''0.2%'''
|'''0.4%'''
|'''0.4%'''
|'''0.5%'''
|'''0.3%'''
|-
| align="left" |'''[[Native Americans in the United States|Non-Hispanic Native American]] alone'''
|'''<0.1%'''
|'''<0.1%'''
|'''<0.1%'''
|'''0.1%'''
|'''0.4%'''
|'''0.4%'''
|'''0.3%'''
|'''0.3%'''
|'''0.2%'''
|-
| align="left" |'''Non-Hispanic Other'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''0.2%'''
|'''0.4%'''
|'''0.2%'''
|'''0.3%'''
|'''0.3%'''
|'''0.8%'''
|-
| align="left" |'''Non-Hispanic [[Multiracial Americans|Two or more races]]'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''—'''
|'''3.0%'''
|'''2.9%'''
|'''5.2%'''
|-
| colspan="10" |
|-
|[[Immigration to the United States|'''Foreign-born''']]'''{{Efn|Those not born in the 50 states or D.C., excluding California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas before 1850.}}'''
|'''50.2%'''
|'''44.5%'''
|'''30.1%'''
|'''20.2%'''
|'''29.5%'''
|'''35.4%'''
|'''38.4%'''
|'''38.2%'''
|'''34.2%'''
|}
{{see also|Demographics of San Francisco#Historical estimates}}

Source: US Census and IPUMS USA<ref name=":03" />
|}
According to a 2018 study by the Jewish Community Federation of San Francisco, Jews make up 10% (80,000) of the city's population, making [[Judaism]] the second-largest religion in San Francisco after [[Christianity]].<ref name="ToI" /> A prior 2014 study by the [[Pew Research Center]], the largest religious groupings in San Francisco's [[San Francisco–Oakland–Hayward, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area|metropolitan area]] are [[Christianity|Christians]] (48%), followed by those of [[Irreligion|no religion]] (35%), [[Hinduism|Hindus]] (5%), [[Judaism|Jews]] (3%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (2%), [[Islam|Muslims]] (1%) and a variety of other religions have smaller followings. According to the same study by the [[Pew Research Center]], about 20% of residents in the area are [[Protestantism|Protestant]], and 25% professing [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] beliefs. Meanwhile, 10% of the residents in metropolitan San Francisco identify as [[agnostics]], while 5% identify as [[Atheism|atheists]].<ref>[http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/07/29/major-u-s-metropolitan-areas-differ-in-their-religious-profiles/ Major U.S. metropolitan areas differ in their religious profiles], Pew Research Center</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ |title=America's Changing Religious Landscape |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]: Religion & Public Life |date=May 12, 2015}}</ref>

{{As of|2010}}, 55% (411,728) of San Francisco residents spoke only [[English language|English]] at home, while 19% (140,302) spoke a [[variety of Chinese]] (mostly [[Taishanese]] and [[Cantonese]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/2007/12/21/chung-chinese-peasant-dialect-redeemed/|title=Chung: Chinese 'peasant' dialect redeemed – The Mercury News|access-date=December 19, 2016|date=December 22, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.modernluxury.com/san-francisco/story/chinatown-decoded-what-language-everybody-speaking|title=Chinatown Decoded: What Language Is Everybody Speaking?|access-date=December 19, 2016}}</ref>), 12% (88,147) [[Spanish language|Spanish]], 3% (25,767) [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], and 2% (14,017) [[Russian language|Russian]]. In total, 45% (342,693) of San Francisco's population spoke a language at home other than English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mla.org/cgi-shl/docstudio/docs.pl?map_data_results |title=San Francisco County, California |publisher=[[Modern Language Association]] |access-date=August 6, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815140430/http://www.mla.org/cgi-shl/docstudio/docs.pl?map_data_results |archive-date=August 15, 2013 }}</ref>

==== Ethnic clustering ====
San Francisco has several prominent Chinese, Mexican, and Filipino neighborhoods including [[Chinatown, San Francisco|Chinatown]] and [[Mission District, San Francisco|the Mission District]]. Research collected on the immigrant clusters in the city show that more than half of the Asian population in San Francisco is either Chinese-born (40.3%) or Philippine-born (13.1%), and of the Mexican population 21% were Mexican-born, meaning these are people who recently immigrated to the United States.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Pamuk|first=Ayse|date=Fall 2017|title=Geography of immigrant clusters in global cities: a case study of San Francisco|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research|volume=28|issue=2|pages=287–307|doi=10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00520.x}}</ref> Between the years of 1990 and 2000, the number of foreign-born residents increased from 33% to nearly 40%.<ref name=":02"/> During this same time period, the San Francisco metropolitan area received 850,000 immigrants, ranking third in the United States after Los Angeles and New York.<ref name=":02"/>

===Education, households, and income===
Of all major cities in the United States, San Francisco has the second-highest percentage of residents with a college degree, second only to [[Seattle]]. Over 44% of adults have a bachelor's or higher degree.<ref name="Bizjournals">{{cite news
|url = http://www.bizjournals.com/specials/pages/12.html
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060701071804/http://www.bizjournals.com/specials/pages/12.html
|archive-date = July 1, 2006
|title = The brainpower of America's largest cities
|access-date =August 5, 2010
|year = 2006
|publisher = Bizjournals.com (data interpreted from U.S. Census)}}</ref>
San Francisco had the highest rate at 7,031 per square mile, or over 344,000 total graduates in the city's {{convert|46.7|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name="USA Today">{{cite news
|last = Winter |first = Michael
|url = http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2010/06/new-measure-ranks-san-francisco-the-smartest-us-city/1
|title = New measure ranks San Francisco the 'smartest' U.S. city
|work = USA Today
|access-date =August 5, 2010
|date = June 9, 2010}}</ref>

San Francisco has the highest estimated percentage of gay and lesbian individuals of any of the 50 largest U.S. cities, at 15%.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.law.ucla.edu/williamsinstitute/publications/SameSexCouplesandGLBpopACS.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070702202709/http://www.law.ucla.edu/williamsinstitute/publications/SameSexCouplesandGLBpopACS.pdf
|archive-date = July 2, 2007
|title = Same-sex Couples and the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual Population: New Estimates from the American Community Survey
|last = Gates |first=Gary
|access-date =July 10, 2008
|date=October 2006
|publisher = The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law
}}</ref>
San Francisco also has the highest percentage of same-sex households of any American county, with the Bay Area having a higher concentration than any other [[metropolitan area]].<ref name="gaystats">{{cite web
|title = Gay and Lesbian Families in the United States: Same-Sex Unmarried Partner Households
|url = http://www.hrc.org/documents/gayandlesbianfamilies.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080413201016/http://www.hrc.org/documents/gayandlesbianfamilies.pdf
|archive-date = April 13, 2008
|access-date =August 26, 2006
|publisher = Human Rights Campaign}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! colspan="6" |Income in 2011
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |Per capita income<ref name="US-CB-B19301">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19301. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website]. Retrieved October 21, 2013.</ref>
|colspan="2" |$46,777
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |Median household income<ref name="US-CB-B19013">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19013. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website]. Retrieved October 21, 2013.</ref>
|colspan="2" |$72,947
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |Median family income<ref name="US-CB-B19113">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19113. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website]. Retrieved October 21, 2013.</ref>
|colspan="2" |$87,329
|}
San Francisco ranks third of American cities in median household income<ref name="Census ACS 2003">{{cite web
|url=https://www.census.gov/acs/www/Products/Ranking/2003/R07T160.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041209192629/http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Products/Ranking/2003/R07T160.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=December 9, 2004
|title=Median Household Income (In 2003 Inflation-adjusted Dollars) (Place Level)
|access-date=June 23, 2009
|date=August 22, 2007
|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau
}}</ref> with a 2007 value of $65,519.<ref name="SF QuickFacts"/> Median family income is $81,136.<ref name="SF QuickFacts"/>
An emigration of middle-class families has left the city with a lower proportion of children than any other large American city,<ref>{{cite news
|first=Aaron|last=Sankin
|url = https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/families-flee-san-francisco_n_1335639
|title = Families Flee San Francisco: City Has Lowest Percentage Of Kids Of Any Major U.S. City
|access-date =August 8, 2018
|date = March 9, 2012
|work = HuffPost}}</ref> with the dog population cited as exceeding the child population of 115,000, in 2018.<ref>{{cite news
|last = Hendrix |first = Michael
|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/young-americans-loneliness-sets-the-table-for-friendsgiving/2018/11/21/4de85848-ed9c-11e8-8679-934a2b33be52_story.html
|title = Young Americans' loneliness sets the table for Friendsgiving
|newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]
|access-date = November 21, 2018
|date = November 21, 2018}}</ref>
The city's [[poverty rate]] is 12%, lower than the national average.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=&geo_id=05000US06075&_geoContext=01000US%7C04000US06%7C05000US06075&_street=&_county=san+francisco&_cityTown=san+francisco&_state=&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=050&_submenuId=factsheet_1&ds_name=null&_ci_nbr=null&qr_name=null&reg=null%3Anull&_keyword=&_industry=
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200211174518/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=&geo_id=05000US06075&_geoContext=01000US%7C04000US06%7C05000US06075&_street=&_county=san+francisco&_cityTown=san+francisco&_state=&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=050&_submenuId=factsheet_1&ds_name=null&_ci_nbr=null&qr_name=null&reg=null:null&_keyword=&_industry=
|archive-date=February 11, 2020
|title=Economic Characteristics
|access-date=January 9, 2015
|year=2007
|work=2005–2009 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates – Data Profile Highlights
|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
[[Homelessness in San Francisco|Homelessness has been a chronic problem for San Francisco]] since the early 1970s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/asylums/special/excerpt.html |publisher=PBS |title=Deinstitutionalization: A Psychiatric 'Titanic' |access-date=August 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720013649/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/asylums/special/excerpt.html |archive-date=July 20, 2014}}</ref>
The city is believed to have the highest number of homeless inhabitants per capita of any major U.S. city.<ref>{{cite web
|title = San Francisco Program Combats Homelessness with Innovation
|publisher = [[PBS]]
|date = April 5, 2005
|url = https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/jan-june05/homeless_4-8.html
|access-date = September 6, 2007
|url-status=dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120110054843/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/jan-june05/homeless_4-8.html
|archive-date = January 10, 2012
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|last = Pratt
|first = Timothy
|title = Critics say regional plan won't solve the problem
|newspaper=Las Vegas Sun
|date = August 12, 2006
|url = http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2005/aug/12/critics-say-regional-plan-wont-solve-the-problem/
|access-date =August 30, 2006}}</ref>

There are 345,811 households in the city, out of which: 133,366 households (39%) were individuals, 109,437 (32%) were [[marriage|opposite-sex married couples]], 63,577 (18%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 21,677 (6%) were [[POSSLQ|unmarried opposite-sex partnerships]], and 10,384 (3%) were [[same-sex partnerships|same-sex married couples or partnerships]]. The average household size was 2.26; the average family size was 3.11. 452,986 people (56%) lived in rental housing units, and 327,985 people (41%) lived in owner-occupied housing units.
The median age of the city population is 38 years.

San Francisco declared itself a [[sanctuary city]] in 1989, and city officials strengthened the stance in 2013 with its 'Due Process for All' ordinance. The law declared local authorities could not hold immigrants for immigration officials if they had no violent felonies on their records and did not currently face charges."<ref>{{cite news|first1=Cindy|last1= Carcamo|first2= Kate |last2=Mather|first3=Dakota|last3= Smith|url=https://latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-sanctuary-cities-20161114-story.html |title=Trump's crackdown on illegal immigration leaves a lot unanswered for sanctuary cities like L.A.|work=Los Angeles Times|date=November 15, 2016|access-date=December 5, 2019}}</ref> The city issues a [[SF City ID Card|Resident ID Card]] regardless of the applicant's immigration status.<ref>{{cite news| last = Buchanan| first = Wyatt| title = S.F. supervisors approve ID cards for residents| publisher = [[San Francisco Chronicle]]| date = November 14, 2007| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/11/14/BAB9TBP5H.DTL&tsp=1 | access-date = April 17, 2019}}</ref>

=== Homelessness ===
{{See also|Homelessness in the San Francisco Bay Area}}
[[File:Memorial Day 2020 - San Francisco Under Quarantine (49935628848).jpg|thumb|A [[tent city]] in San Francisco in May 2020]]
[[Homelessness in San Francisco]] emerged as a major issue in the late 20th century and remains a growing problem in modern times.<ref>{{cite web|last=Saunders |first=Debra |url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/saunders/article/San-Francisco-s-summer-of-urine-and-6430084.php |title=San Francisco's summer of urine and drug-addicted homeless |work=San Francisco Gate |access-date=March 17, 2017 |date=August 9, 2015}}</ref>

8,035 homeless people were counted in San Francisco's 2019 point-in-time street and shelter count. This was an increase of more than 17% over the 2017 count of 6,858 people. 5,180 of the people were living unsheltered on the streets and in parks.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=2019|title=2019 San Francisco Homeless Count Report|url=https://hsh.sfgov.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/2019HIRDReport_SanFrancisco_FinalDraft-1.pdf}}</ref> 26% of respondents in the 2019 count identified job loss as the primary cause of their homelessness, 18% cited alcohol or drug use, and 13% cited being evicted from their residence.<ref name=":6" />
The city of San Francisco has been dramatically increasing its spending to service the growing population homelessness crisis: spending jumped by $241 million in 2016–17 to total $275 million, compared to a budget of just $34 million the previous year. In 2017–18 the budget for combatting homelessness stood at $305 million.<ref name="Amy Graff">{{cite news|author=Amy Graff|date=January 24, 2018|title=UN expert on San Francisco homelessness: 'I couldn't help but be completely shocked'|publisher=sfgate.com|url=https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Leilani-Farah-UN-rapporteur-homelessness-SF-CA-12519117.php|access-date=August 6, 2018}}</ref> In the 2019–2020 budget year, the city budgeted $368 million for homelessness services. In the proposed 2020–2021 budget the city budgeted $850 million for homelessness services.<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 2020|title=San Francisco Proposed Budget 2020–2021|url=https://sfmayor.org/sites/default/files/CSF_Proposed_Budget_Book_July_2020_LR_Web_REV2.pdf}}</ref>

In January 2018 a United Nations special rapporteur on homelessness, Leilani Farha, stated that she was "completely shocked" by San Francisco's homelessness crisis during a visit to the city. She compared the "deplorable conditions" of the homeless camps she witnessed on San Francisco's streets to those she had seen in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="Amy Graff"/> In May 2020, San Francisco officially sanctioned [[Homelessness in the United States|homeless]] [[List of tent cities in the United States|encampments]].<ref>{{cite news |title=San Francisco sanctions once-shunned homeless encampments |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/wireStory/san-francisco-sanctions-shunned-homeless-encampments-70825370 |work=ABC News |date=May 23, 2020}}</ref>

==Crime==
{{main|Crime in San Francisco}}
{{Infobox UCR|city_name=San Francisco|year=2018|homicide=2.4|forcible_rape=20.8|aggravated_assault=149.9|motor_vehicle_theft=222.4|larceny_theft=2,136.3|burglary=290.5|violent_crime=344.1|property_crime=2,649.2|source_url=https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/preliminary-report/tables/table-4/state-cuts/table-4-alabama-through-california.xls|source_name=FBI 2019 UCR data|arson=14.4|robbery=171.0}}

In 2011, 50 murders were reported, which is 6.1 per 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite news|author=Demian Bulwa |url=http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Through-hard-times-S-F-killings-at-historic-lows-2441692.php |title=Through hard times, S.F. killings at historic lows |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=January 5, 2012 |access-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> There were about 134 rapes, 3,142 robberies, and about 2,139 assaults. There were about 4,469 burglaries, 25,100 thefts, and 4,210 motor vehicle thefts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neighborhoodscout.com/ca/san-francisco/crime/ |title=San Francisco crime rates and statistics |publisher=NeighborhoodScout |access-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> The [[Tenderloin, San Francisco|Tenderloin]] area has the highest crime rate in San Francisco: 70% of the city's violent crimes, and around one-fourth of the city's murders, occur in this neighborhood. The Tenderloin also sees high rates of drug abuse, gang violence, and prostitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://foundsf.org/index.php?title=The_Tenderloin |title=The Tenderloin |publisher=FoundSF |access-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> Another area with high crime rates is the [[Bayview–Hunters Point, San Francisco|Bayview-Hunters Point]] area. In the first six months of 2015 there were 25 murders compared to 14 in the first six months of 2014. However, the murder rate is still much lower than in past decades.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/Bay-Area-homicide-rates-remain-low-6366518.php|title=Bay Area homicide rates remain low|author=Vivian Ho|date=July 4, 2015|work=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> That rate, though, did rise again by the close of 2016. According to the San Francisco Police Department, there were 59 murders in the city in 2016, an annual total that marked a 13.5% increase in the number of homicides (52) from 2015.<ref>Bodley, Michael (January 4, 2017). [http://www.sfgate.com/crime/article/SF-cops-say-they-notch-2-arrests-in-last-2-10835808.php "SF cops say they notch 2 arrests in last 2 homicides of 2016."] ''SFGate.'' Retrieved January 17, 2017.</ref> The city has also gained a reputation for car break-ins, with over 19,000 car break-ins occurring in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shaban |first1=Bigad |last2=Campos |first2=Robert |last3=Carroll |first3=Jeremy |last4=Villarreal |first4=Mark |title=Breaking Point: SF Suffers Highest Rate of Car Break-Ins Compared to Atlanta, DC, Dallas, LA |url=https://www.nbcbayarea.com/investigations/breaking-point-sf-suffers-highest-rate-of-car-break-ins-compared-to-atlanta-dc-dallas-la/2731757/ |website=nbcbayarea.com |access-date=12 July 2022}}</ref>

During the first half of 2018, human feces on San Francisco sidewalks were the second-most-frequent complaint of city residents, with about 65 calls per day. The city has formed a "poop patrol" to attempt to combat the problem.<ref name=sfchroniclepoop>{{cite news |last=Knight |first=Heather |date=August 14, 2018 |title=It's no laughing matter — SF forming Poop Patrol to keep sidewalks clean |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/heatherknight/article/It-s-no-laughing-matter-SF-forming-Poop-13153517.php |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=August 15, 2018}}</ref>

===Gangs===
Several [[street gang]]s have operated in the city over the decades, including [[MS-13]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sfweekly.com/related/to/La+Mara+Salvatrucha+Street+Gang/ |title=La Mara Salvatrucha Street Gang – San Francisco |publisher=Sfweekly.com |access-date=July 29, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726192405/http://www.sfweekly.com/related/to/La+Mara+Salvatrucha+Street+Gang/ |archive-date=July 26, 2013 }}</ref> the [[Sureños]] and [[Norteños]] in the Mission District.<ref>{{cite news|author=Bulwa, Demian|url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/SAN-FRANCISCO-Sure-o-gang-s-threat-growing-in-2667647.php |title=SAN FRANCISCO / Sureño gang's threat growing in Bay Area / Widow's apartment is at heart of group's Mission District turf|work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=May 27, 2005 |access-date=March 29, 2014}}</ref> In 2008, a MS-13 member [[Murder of the Bologna family|killed three family members]] as they were arriving home in the city's [[Excelsior District]]. His victims had no relationship with him, nor did they have any known gang or street crime involvement.{{fact|date=November 2022}}

African-American street gangs familiar in other cities, including the [[Bloods gang|Bloods]], [[Crips]] and their sets, have struggled to establish footholds in San Francisco,<ref>{{cite news|author=Albert Samaha |url=http://www.sfweekly.com/2012-09-26/news/crips-gangs-sfpd-bloods-bayview-hunters-point/ |title=Crip-less: S.F.'s Dislike of Franchises Extends to Street Gangs – Page 1 – News – San Francisco |newspaper=SF Weekly |date=September 26, 2012 |access-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> while police and prosecutors have been accused of liberally labeling young African-American males as gang members.<ref>{{cite news|author=Chris Roberts |url=http://archives.sfweekly.com/sanfrancisco/mario-woods-news-police-black-lives-matter-gangs-oakdale-mob-west-mob-public-defender/Content?oid=4330336 |title=Mario Woods and Gang Injunctions |newspaper=SF Weekly |date=December 2015 |access-date=September 5, 2016}}</ref> However, gangs founded in San Francisco with majority Black memberships have made their presence in the city. The gang [[Westmob]], associated with Oakdale Mob and Sunnydale housing project gangs from the southeast area of the city, was involved in a gang war with Hunters Point-based Big Block from 1999 to the 2000s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.streetgangs.com/movies/hunterspoint.html |title=Straight Outta Hunter's Point DVD |access-date=September 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.is/20120914064929/http://www.streetgangs.com/movies/hunterspoint.html |archive-date=September 14, 2012 }}</ref> They claim territory from West Point to Middle Point in the [[Hunters Point, San Francisco, California|Hunters Point]] projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/THE-KILLING-STREETS-A-Cycle-of-Vengeance-2839391.php|title=THE KILLING STREETS / A Cycle of Vengeance / BLOOD FEUD / In Bayview-Hunters Point, a series of unsolved homicides has devastated one of S.F.'s most close-knit communities|first=Susan|last=Sward|date=December 16, 2001|website=SFGATE}}</ref>{{update inline|date=November 2021}} In 2004, a Westmob member fatally shot a SFPD officer and wounded his partner; he was sentenced to life without parole in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/AK-47-cop-killer-gets-life-2600660.php|title=AK-47 cop killer gets life|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle|date=April 20, 2007|author1=Van Derbeken, Jaxon|author2=Lagos, Marisa|author3=Buchanan, Wyatt}}</ref>

Criminal gangs with shotcallers in China, including [[Triad (organized crime)|Triad]] groups such as the [[Wo Hop To]], have been reported active in San Francisco.<ref>{{cite news|author=Mary Spicuzza|url=http://archives.sfweekly.com/sanfrancisco/enter-the-dragon-head/Content?oid=2163615 |title=Enter The Dragon |newspaper=SF Weekly |date=August 1, 2007 |access-date=September 5, 2016}}</ref> In 1977, an ongoing rivalry between two Chinese gangs led to a [[Golden Dragon massacre|shooting attack at the Golden Dragon restaurant in Chinatown]], which left 5 people dead and 11 wounded. None of the victims in this attack were gang members. Five members of the [[Joe Boys]] gang were arrested and convicted of the crime.<ref>{{cite news|author=Vanessa Hua |url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/07/BAGMMLKK661.DTL |title=Golden Dragon Closes and owes a million |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=October 7, 2006 |access-date=December 6, 2011}}</ref> In 1990, a gang-related shooting killed one man and wounded six others outside a nightclub near Chinatown.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jim Herron Zamora |url=https://articles.latimes.com/1990-05-15/news/mn-198_1_asian-gang |title=S.F. Chinatown Shootings May Be Tied to Gang
|work=Los Angeles Times |date=May 15, 1990 |access-date=September 16, 2012}}</ref> In 1998, six teenagers were shot and wounded at the Chinese Playground; a 16-year-old boy was subsequently arrested.<ref>{{cite news|author=Vanessa Hua |url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Boy-16-Arrested-In-S-F-Chinatown-Shooting-3003614.php |title=Boy, 16, Arrested in S.F. Chinatown Shooting Rampage / Suspect was at scene but didn't fire gun, cops say |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=June 20, 1998 |access-date=September 16, 2012}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{See also|List of companies based in San Francisco}}
[[File:Real GDP in San Francisco by Major Sector, 2001-2021.png|thumb|330x330px|Real GDP in San Francisco proper by sector from 2001 to 2021.]]
According to academic Rob Wilson, San Francisco is a [[global city]], a status that pre-dated the city's popularity during the [[California Gold Rush]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Wilson|first=Rob|date=November 2008|title=Spectral city: San Francisco as Pacific Rim city and counter-cultural contado|journal=Inter-Asia Cultural Studies|volume=9|issue=4|pages=583–597|doi=10.1080/14649370802386503|s2cid=145302676}}</ref> However, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]] has accelerated the exodus of business from the downtown core of San Francisco.<ref name="SanFranExodus2">{{cite news|url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/opinion/editorials/article/Downtown-San-Francisco-bill-economy-17383169.php|title=Downtown San Francisco is dying. This bill could help save it|author=San Francisco Chronicle Editorial Board|newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle|date=August 21, 2022|access-date=August 22, 2022}}</ref><ref name="SanFranExodus4">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/17/business/economy/california-san-francisco-empty-downtown.html|title=What Comes Next for the Most Empty Downtown in America - Tech workers are still at home. The $17 salad place is expanding into the suburbs. So what is left in San Francisco?|author=Conor Dougherty and Emma Goldberg|newspaper=The New York Times|date=December 17, 2022|access-date=December 17, 2022|quote=On any given week in San Francisco, office buildings are at about 40 percent of their prepandemic occupancy.}}</ref>

San Francisco has a diversified [[service economy]], with employment spread across a wide range of professional services, including [[financial services]], [[tourism]], and (increasingly) [[high tech]]nology.<ref name="caedd-2016">{{cite web |url=http://www.labormarketinfo.edd.ca.gov/file/indhist/sanfrhaw.xls |title=Industry Employment & Labor Force – by Annual Average for San Francisco County |year=2016 |publisher=California Employment Development Department}}</ref> In 2016, approximately 27% of workers were employed in professional business services; 14% in leisure and hospitality; 13% in government services; 12% in education and health care; 11% in trade, transportation, and utilities; and 8% in financial activities.<ref name="caedd-2016" /> In 2019, GDP in the five-county [[San Francisco–Oakland–Hayward, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area|San Francisco metropolitan area]] grew 3.8% in real terms to $592 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|last=U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis|date=January 1, 2001|title=Total Real Gross Domestic Product for San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA (MSA)|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/RGMP41860|access-date=January 5, 2021|website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=GDP by County, Metro, and Other Areas |url=https://www.bea.gov/data/gdp/gdp-county-metro-and-other-areas |access-date=March 27, 2021 |website=Bea.gov |language=en}}</ref> Additionally, in 2019 the 14-county [[San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, CA Combined Statistical Area|San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland]] [[combined statistical area]] had a GDP of $1.086 trillion,<ref name=":4" /> ranking 3rd among [[Combined statistical area|CSA]]s, and ahead of all but [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|16 countries]]. As of 2019, San Francisco County was the 7th highest-income county in the United States (among 3,142), with a per capita personal income of $139,405.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Personal Income by County, Metro, and Other Areas {{!}} U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) |url=https://www.bea.gov/data/income-saving/personal-income-county-metro-and-other-areas |access-date=January 5, 2021 |website=Bea.gov}}</ref> [[Marin County, California|Marin County]], directly to the north over the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], and [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]], directly to the south on the [[San Francisco Peninsula|Peninsula]], were the 6th and 9th highest-income counties respectively.[[File:Median housing price by metro area.webp|thumb|San Francisco has the second most expensive housing in the United States after [[San Jose, California]].]]The legacy of the California Gold Rush turned San Francisco into the principal banking and finance center of the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] in the early twentieth century.<ref name="California2011">{{cite book|author=Federal Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration of Northern California|title=San Francisco in the 1930s: The WPA Guide to the City by the Bay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gejyWi3CI74C&pg=PA114|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26880-7|page=114}}</ref> [[Montgomery Street]] in the [[Financial District, San Francisco|Financial District]] became known as the "[[Wall Street of the West]]", home to the [[Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco]], the [[Wells Fargo]] corporate headquarters, and the site of the now-defunct [[Pacific Exchange|Pacific Coast Stock Exchange]].<ref name="California2011"/> [[Bank of America]], a pioneer in making banking services accessible to the middle class, was founded in San Francisco and in the 1960s, built the landmark modern skyscraper at [[555 California Street]] for its corporate headquarters. Many large financial institutions, multinational banks, and venture capital firms are based in or have regional headquarters in the city. With over 30 international financial institutions,<ref name="CityData.com">{{cite web
|title = San Francisco: Economy
|publisher=City-Data.com
|url = http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-West/San-Francisco-Economy.html
|access-date =June 15, 2008
}}</ref> six [[Fortune 500]] companies,<ref>{{cite news
|title = Fortune 500
|publisher = Fortune magazine, Time Inc
|year = 2013
|url = https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2013/full_list/index.html?iid=F500_sp_full
|access-date = April 6, 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140327164549/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2013/full_list/index.html?iid=F500_sp_full
|archive-date = March 27, 2014
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> and a large support infrastructure of professional services—including law, public relations, [[San Francisco architecture|architecture]] and design—San Francisco is designated as an [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network#Alpha|Alpha(-) World City]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2012.html|title=The World According to GaWC 2012|work=Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network|publisher=[[Loughborough University]]|access-date=January 25, 2014}}</ref> The 2017 [[Global Financial Centres Index]] ranked San Francisco as the sixth-most competitive financial center in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.montrealinternational.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/gfci_21.pdf|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 21|date=March 2017|publisher=China Development Institute|access-date=September 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918090407/http://www.montrealinternational.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/gfci_21.pdf|archive-date=September 18, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:SF California Street USA.jpg|thumb|upright|California Street in San Francisco’s downtown financial district]]
Beginning in the 1990s, San Francisco's economy diversified away from finance and tourism towards the growing fields of high tech, [[biotechnology]], and [[medical research]].<ref name="Waters2009"/> Technology jobs accounted for just 1 percent of San Francisco's economy in 1990, growing to 4 percent in 2010 and an estimated 8 percent by the end of 2013.<ref>{{cite news
|title = Forecasting San Francisco's Economic Fortunes
|first = Jennifer |last = Warburg
|date = February 27, 2014
|work = SPUR
|url = http://www.spur.org/blog/2014-02-27/forecasting-san-francisco-s-economic-fortunes
|access-date = April 6, 2014
}}</ref> San Francisco became a center of Internet [[Startup company|start-up companies]] during the [[dot-com bubble]] of the 1990s and the subsequent [[social media]] boom of the late 2000s (decade).<ref>{{cite news
|last = Selna |first = Robert
|title = New jobs, houses spur S.F. population in 2007
|work=San Francisco Chronicle |page = B-1

|date = May 15, 2008
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/05/15/BA2110LPHB.DTL
|access-date =June 14, 2008
}}</ref> Since 2010, San Francisco proper has attracted an increasing share of venture capital investments as compared to nearby [[Silicon Valley]], attracting 423 financings worth US$4.58 billion in 2013.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/venturecapital/2014/02/27/as-bay-area-investment-shifts-north-institutional-venture-partners-opens-san-francisco-office/ |title=As Bay Area Investment Shifts North, Institutional Venture Partners Opens San Francisco Office |date=February 27, 2014 |first=Russ |last=Garland |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=April 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://martinprosperity.org/2014/03/26/startup-city-the-urban-shift-in-venture-capital-and-high-technology/ |title=Startup City: The Urban Shift in Venture Capital and High Technology |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=April 6, 2014 |publisher=Martin Prosperity Institute, Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405044024/http://martinprosperity.org/2014/03/26/startup-city-the-urban-shift-in-venture-capital-and-high-technology/ |archive-date=April 5, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/San-Francisco-s-urban-tech-boom-3850039.php |title=San Francisco's urban tech boom |first=Richard |last=Florida |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=September 8, 2012 |access-date=April 6, 2014}}</ref> In 2004, the city approved a payroll tax exemption for biotechnology companies<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/stories/2010/05/03/daily38.html |title=S.F. extends biotech payroll tax exemption |date=May 4, 2010 |first=Eric |last=Young |work=San Francisco Business Times |access-date=April 6, 2014}}</ref> to foster growth in the [[Mission Bay, San Francisco|Mission Bay]] neighborhood, site of a second campus and hospital of the [[University of California, San Francisco]] (UCSF). Mission Bay hosts the [[UCSF Medical Center]], the [[California Institute for Regenerative Medicine]], [[California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences]], and [[Gladstone Institutes]],<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://sfced.org/case-for-business/sectors/life-sciences-biotech/sector-data/ |title=Life Sciences & Biotech |publisher=San Francisco Center for Economic Development |access-date=April 6, 2014}}</ref> as well as more than 40 private-sector life sciences companies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sfmayor.org/index.aspx?page=899&recordid=91 |title=Mayor Lee Announces New Biotech Incubator in Mission Bay |date=September 10, 2013|publisher=Office of the Mayor, City and County of San Francisco|access-date=April 6, 2014}}</ref>

The top employer in the city is the city government itself, employing 5.6% (31,000+ people) of the city's workforce, followed by [[UCSF]] with over 25,000 employees.<ref name="cafr2018">{{cite web |url=https://sfcontroller.org/sites/default/files/Documents/AOSD/CCSF%20CAFR%20FY2018%20v6%20%28FinalV4%29.pdf |title=City and County of San Francisco, California Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, for the Year ended June 30, 2018 |page=243 |access-date=May 10, 2019}}</ref> The largest private-sector employer is [[Salesforce]], with 8,500 employees, as of 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/business/article/Salesforce-to-house-1-500-more-workers-in-second-13392853.php |title=Salesforce to house 1,500 more workers in second Transbay tower |first=Roland |last=Li |date=November 14, 2018 |access-date=May 10, 2019 |work=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> Small businesses with fewer than 10 employees and self-employed firms make up 85% of city establishments,<ref>
{{cite news
|last = Tan |first = Aldrich M.
|title = San Francisco is gateway city for immigrants and Silicon Valley Technology
|publisher=Fogcityjournal.com
|date = April 12, 2006
|url = http://www.fogcityjournal.com/news_in_brief/sf_tech_gateway_060412.shtml
|access-date =June 15, 2008
}}</ref> and the number of San Franciscans employed by firms of more than 1,000 employees has fallen by half since 1977.<ref name="SFEconomicStrategy" /> The growth of national [[big-box store|big box]] and [[formula retail]] chains into the city has been made intentionally difficult by political and civic consensus. In an effort to buoy small privately owned businesses in San Francisco and preserve the unique retail personality of the city, the Small Business Commission started a publicity campaign in 2004 to keep a larger share of retail dollars in the local economy,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Main Street Fights Chain Street
|author=Said, Carolyn
|date=November 29, 2005
|url=http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/SMALL-BUSINESS-Main-Street-fights-Chain-Street-2592370.php
|access-date =August 27, 2006 |work=San Francisco Chronicle
}}</ref> and the Board of Supervisors has used the planning code to limit the neighborhoods where formula retail establishments can set up shop,<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/SAN-FRANCISCO-Supervisors-OK-limits-on-2776613.php
|author=Hetter, Katia
|date=March 21, 2004
|title=Supervisors OK limits on chain-store expansion
|access-date=January 19, 2007
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
}}</ref> an effort affirmed by San Francisco voters.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://smartvoter.org/2006/11/07/ca/sf/meas/G/
|title=Proposition G: Limitations on Formula Retail Stores, City of San Francisco
|access-date=January 19, 2007
|publisher=smartvoter.org
}}</ref> However, by 2016, San Francisco was rated low by small businesses in a Business Friendliness Survey.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.thumbtack.com/survey#/2016/11/states |title=Nevada|work=[[Thumbtack (website)|Thumbtack]]|access-date= October 21, 2016}}</ref>

[[File:San Francisco from Pier 7 September 2013 panorama edit.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Ships docked at Pier 3, with [[w:Financial District, San Francisco|Financial District]] skyscrapers in the background]]

[[Manufacturing in the United States|Like many U.S. cities]], San Francisco once had a significant manufacturing sector employing nearly 60,000 workers in 1969, but nearly all production left for cheaper locations by the 1980s.<ref name="Frojo2014">
{{cite news
|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/print-edition/2014/02/14/made-in-san-francisco-manufacturing.html?page=all
|title=Made in San Francisco: Manufacturing a comeback
|first=Renée |last=Frojo
|date=February 14, 2014
|access-date=April 6, 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2014}}, San Francisco has seen a small resurgence in manufacturing, with more than 4,000 manufacturing jobs across 500 companies, doubling since 2011. The city's largest manufacturing employer is [[Anchor Brewing Company]], and the largest by revenue is [[Timbuk2]].<ref name="Frojo2014"/>

As of the first quarter of 2022, the median value of homes in San Francisco County was $1,297,030. It ranked third in the US for counties with highest median home value, behind [[Nantucket]] and [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=County Median Home Price |url=https://www.nar.realtor/research-and-statistics/housing-statistics/county-median-home-prices-and-monthly-mortgage-payment |date=2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420122337/https://www.nar.realtor/research-and-statistics/housing-statistics/county-median-home-prices-and-monthly-mortgage-payment |archive-date=April 20, 2022 |website=National Association of Realtors |access-date=October 26, 2022}}</ref>

===Technology===
San Francisco became a hub for technological driven economic growth during the [[internet boom]] of the 1990s, and still holds an important position in the world city network today.<ref name=":02"/><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Aranya|first=Rolee|date=Fall 2017|title=A Global 'Urban Roller Coaster'? Connectivity Changes in the World City Network, 2000–2004|journal=Regional Studies|volume=42|pages=1–16|doi=10.1080/00343400601145202|s2cid=154611136|url=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/13311}}</ref> Intense redevelopment towards the "[[new economy]]" makes business more technologically minded. Between the years of 1999 and 2000, the job growth rate was 4.9%, creating over 50,000 jobs in technology firms and internet content production.<ref name=":02" />

In the second technological boom driven by social media in the mid-2000s, San Francisco became a location for companies such as [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Google]], [[Ubisoft San Francisco|Ubisoft]], [[Facebook]] and [[Twitter]] to base their tech offices and for their employees to live.<ref name=":22">{{cite web|url=http://www.sfeconomicstrategy.org/site/uploadedfiles/moed/economic_strat/ExecutiveSummary_EconomicPerformanceReview.pdf|title=City and County of San Francisco: An Overview of San Francisco's Recent Economic Performance|author=Egan|date=April 3, 2006|work=Report prepared for Mayor's Office of Economic and Workforce Development|publisher=ICF Consulting|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201053456/http://www.sfeconomicstrategy.org/site/uploadedfiles/moed/economic_strat/ExecutiveSummary_EconomicPerformanceReview.pdf|archive-date=February 1, 2009|url-status=dead|access-date=December 6, 2017}}</ref> Since then, tech employment has continued to increase. In 2014, San Francisco's tech employment grew nearly 90% between 2010 and 2014, beating out [[Silicon Valley]]'s 30% growth rate over the same period.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Stehlin|first=John|date=2016|title=The Post-Industrial "Shop Floor": Emerging Forms of Gentrification in San Francisco's Innovation Economy|journal=Antipode|volume=48|issue=2|pages=474–493|doi=10.1111/anti.12199|url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-postindustrial-shop-floor(57141d6e-1a66-45d7-aa51-454bd43fbb0e).html}}</ref>

The tech sector's dominance in the [[San Francisco Bay Area|Bay Area]] is internationally recognized and continues to attract new businesses and young entrepreneurs from all over the globe.<ref name=":12" /> San Francisco is now widely considered the most important city in the world for new [[Startup company|technology startups]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McNeill|first=Donald|date=2016|title=Governing a city of unicorns: technology capital and the urban politics of San Francisco|journal=Urban Geography|volume=37|issue=4|pages=494–513|doi=10.1080/02723638.2016.1139868|s2cid=147381972}}</ref> A recent high of $7 billion in [[venture capital]] was invested in the region.<ref name=":12" /> These startup companies hire well educated individuals looking to work in the tech industry, which helps the city have a well educated citizenry. Over 50% of San Franciscans have a four-year university degree, thus the city ranks high in terms of its population's educational level.<ref name=":22" />

===Tourism and conventions===
{{See also|Port of San Francisco}}
[[File:Lombard St.jpg|thumb|[[Lombard Street (San Francisco)|Lombard Street]] is a popular tourist destination in San Francisco, known for its "crookedness".]]
[[File:Pier 39 Sealions, SF, CA, jjron 26.03.2012.jpg|thumb|The [[sea lions]] at [[Pier 39]] have become a tourist attraction in their own right.]]
Tourism is one of the city's largest private-sector industries, accounting for more than one out of seven jobs in the city.<ref name="Waters2009">{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a0OqYCnyJ8eY |title=Biotech Jobs Germinate as San Francisco Diversifies Economy |first=Rob |last=Waters |date=May 15, 2009 |work=Bloomberg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023145832/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a0OqYCnyJ8eY |archive-date=October 23, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="tourism-largest-private-sector">{{cite news
|last = Flinn |first = Ryan
|title = S.F. tourism picks up, but spending stays flat
|work = San Francisco Chronicle |page= D-1
|date = September 3, 2010
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2010/09/02/BU8S1F7CUG.DTL
|access-date =February 4, 2012
}}</ref> The city's [[San Francisco in popular culture|frequent portrayal]] in music, film, and popular culture has made the city and its landmarks recognizable worldwide. In 2016, it attracted the fifth-highest number of foreign tourists of any city in the United States.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Overseas Visitors to Select U.S. Cities 2015–2016
|work = National Travel and Tourism Office
|publisher = International Trade Administration, US Department of Commerce
|year = 2016
|url = http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/outreachpages/download_data_table/Top%20Cities%202016.pdf
|access-date = February 22, 2018
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180222165421/http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/outreachpages/download_data_table/Top%20Cities%202016.pdf
|archive-date = February 22, 2018
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> More than 25 million visitors arrived in San Francisco in 2016, adding US$9.96 billion to the economy.<ref>{{cite press release
|title = San Francisco Travel Reports Record-Breaking Tourism in 2016
|work=San Francisco Travel Association
|date = January 18, 2017
|url = http://www.sftravel.com/article/san-francisco-travel-reports-record-breaking-tourism-2016
|access-date = December 8, 2017
}}</ref>
With a large hotel infrastructure and a world-class convention facility in the [[Moscone Center]], San Francisco is a popular destination for annual conventions and conferences.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sanfrancisco.travel/research/ |title=San Francisco Visitor Industry Statistics |year=2013 |publisher=San Francisco Travel Association |access-date=April 5, 2014}}</ref>

Some of the most popular tourist attractions in San Francisco noted by the Travel Channel include the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] and [[Alamo Square, San Francisco|Alamo Square Park]], which is home to the famous "[[Painted Ladies]]". Both of these locations were often used as landscape shots for the hit American televisionsitcom ''[[Full House]]''. There is also [[Lombard Street (San Francisco)|Lombard Street]], known for its "crookedness" and extensive views. Tourists also visit [[Pier 39]], which offers dining, shopping, entertainment, and views of the bay, sunbathing [[California sea lions]], the [[Aquarium of the Bay]], and the famous [[Alcatraz Island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.travelchannel.com/destinations/us/ca/san-francisco/photos/san-francisco/page/16|title=Alcatraz Island : Explore Sensational San Francisco : TravelChannel.com|website=Travel Channel|access-date=November 9, 2016}}</ref>

San Francisco also offers tourists cultural and unique nightlife in its neighborhoods.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.sftravel.com/article/top-20-attractions-san-francisco|title=Top 20 Attractions in San Francisco|newspaper=San Francisco Travel|access-date=November 9, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=McLean |first=Tessa |title=San Francisco has almost 200 tiny streets. This is my favorite. |url=https://www.sfgate.com/essays/article/best-tiny-streets-alleyways-san-francisco-16386175.php |date=August 16, 2021 |website=SFGATE |language=en-US |access-date=October 26, 2022}}</ref>

The new Terminal Project at Pier 27 opened September 25, 2014, as a replacement for the old Pier 35.<ref>{{cite web|title=SFPort – James R. Herman Cruise Terminal Project at Pier 27|url=http://www.sfport.com/index.aspx?page=282|access-date=March 16, 2013}}</ref> Itineraries from San Francisco usually include round-trip cruises to Alaska and Mexico.

A heightened interest in conventioneering in San Francisco, marked by the establishment of convention centers such as Yerba Buena, acted as a feeder into the local tourist economy and resulted in an increase in the hotel industry: "In 1959, the city had fewer than thirty-three hundred first-class hotel rooms; by 1970, the number was nine thousand; and by 1999, there were more than thirty thousand."<ref>{{cite book|title=City for sale: The transformation of San Francisco|first=Chester |last=Hartman|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|page=24}}</ref> The [[pink capitalism|commodification]] of the [[Castro District, San Francisco|Castro District]] has contributed to San Francisco's tourist economy.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = San Francisco's Castro district: from gay liberation to tourist destination|journal = Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change|pages = 237–248|volume = 9|issue = 3|doi = 10.1080/14766825.2011.620122|first = Nan Alamilla|last = Boyd|year = 2011|s2cid = 143916613}}</ref>

==Arts and culture==
{{Main|Culture of San Francisco}}
{{See also|San Francisco in popular culture}}
[[File:Fillmore-sidewalk-1.jpg|thumb|Boutiques along [[Fillmore Street]] in [[Pacific Heights, San Francisco|Pacific Heights]]]]

Although the [[Financial District, San Francisco|Financial District]], [[Union Square, San Francisco|Union Square]], and [[Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco|Fisherman's Wharf]] are well known around the world, San Francisco is also characterized by its numerous culturally rich streetscapes featuring [[mixed-use development|mixed-use]] neighborhoods anchored around [[List of streets in San Francisco|central commercial corridors]] to which residents and visitors alike can walk.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} Because of these characteristics,{{original research inline|date=January 2022}} San Francisco is ranked the "most walkable" city in the United States by Walkscore.com.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.walkscore.com/cities-and-neighborhoods/
|title = Most Walkable Cities in the U.S.
|access-date = 23 August 2022
|publisher = Walkscore.com
}}</ref> Many neighborhoods feature a mix of businesses, restaurants and venues that cater to the daily needs of local residents while also serving many visitors and tourists. Some neighborhoods are dotted with boutiques, cafés and nightlife such as Union Street in [[Cow Hollow, San Francisco|Cow Hollow]], 24th Street in [[Noe Valley, San Francisco|Noe Valley]], Valencia Street in the [[Mission District, San Francisco|Mission]], Grant Avenue in [[North Beach, San Francisco|North Beach]], and Irving Street in the [[Sunset District, San Francisco|Inner Sunset]]. This approach especially has influenced the continuing South of Market neighborhood redevelopment with businesses and neighborhood services rising alongside high-rise residences.<ref name="FogDev">{{cite news
|last = Wach |first = Bonnie
|title = Fog City rises from the funk
|work=USA Today |date = October 3, 2003
|url = https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/cityguides/sanfrancisco/worthdoing.htm
|access-date =September 4, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515150859/https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/cityguides/sanfrancisco/worthdoing.htm|archive-date=May 15, 2006}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=January 2022}}

[[File:South of Market, San Francisco.jpg|thumb|High-rises surround [[Yerba Buena Gardens]], South of Market.]]

Since the 1990s, the demand for skilled [[information technology]] workers from local startups and nearby [[Silicon Valley]] has attracted [[white-collar worker]]s from all over the world and created a high standard of living in San Francisco.<ref>{{cite news
|last = Schwarzer |first = Michelle
|title = San Francisco by the Numbers: Planning After the 2000 Census
|work=SPUR Newsletter |publisher=San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association
|date=July 2001
|url = http://www.spur.org/documents/010701_article_03.shtm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050211032911/http://spur.org/documents/010701_article_03.shtm
|archive-date = February 11, 2005
|access-date =July 25, 2010
}}</ref> Many neighborhoods that were once [[blue-collar]], middle, and lower class have been [[Gentrification|gentrifying]], as many of the city's traditional business and industrial districts have experienced a renaissance driven by the redevelopment of the [[The Embarcadero (San Francisco)|Embarcadero]], including the neighborhoods [[South Beach, San Francisco|South Beach]] and [[Mission Bay, San Francisco|Mission Bay]]. The city's property values and household income have risen to among the highest in the nation,<ref>{{cite web
|last = Sadovi |first = Maura Webber
|title = San Francisco's Home Prices Remain Among the Highest in U.S.
|work=The Wall Street Journal
|date = April 12, 2006
|url = http://www.realestatejournal.com/columnists/livingthere/20060412-livingthere.html
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070301092505/http://www.realestatejournal.com/columnists/livingthere/20060412-livingthere.html
|archive-date = March 1, 2007
|access-date =June 14, 2008
}}</ref><ref name="MedianIncome">{{cite web
|title=Median Family Income (In 2003 Inflation-adjusted Dollars)
|work=American Community Survey
|publisher=US Census Bureau
|date=August 22, 2007
|url=https://www.census.gov/acs/www/Products/Ranking/2003/R14T160.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041013165845/http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Products/Ranking/2003/R14T160.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=October 13, 2004
|access-date=June 14, 2008
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|last = Hawn |first = Carleen
|title = It may not feel like it, but your shot at the good life is getting better. Here's why
|work=San Francisco magazine |publisher=Modern Luxury
|date=March 2007
|url = http://www.sanfran.com/archives/view_story/1068/
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070224105246/http://www.sanfran.com/archives/view_story/1068/
|archive-date = February 24, 2007
|access-date =June 14, 2008
}}</ref> creating a large and upscale restaurant, retail, and entertainment scene. According to a 2014 quality of life survey of global cities, San Francisco has the [[Most livable cities|highest quality of living]] of any U.S. city.<ref>"{{cite web
|title = 2014 Quality of Living worldwide city rankings – Mercer survey
|work=Mercer Consulting
|date=February 2014
|url = http://www.mercer.com/newsroom/2014-quality-of-living-survey.html
|access-date =November 4, 2015
}}</ref> However, due to the exceptionally high cost of living, many of the city's middle and lower-class families have been leaving the city for the outer suburbs of the Bay Area, or for California's [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]].<ref name="MiddleClass">{{cite news
|last = Hendricks |first = Tyche
|title = Rich City Poor City: Middle-class neighborhoods are disappearing from the nation's cities, leaving only high- and low-income districts, new study says.
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
|page = A-1

|date = June 22, 2006
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/06/22/MNG6HJIDMM1.DTL
|access-date =June 14, 2008}}</ref> By June 2, 2015, the median rent was reported to be as high as $4,225.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.sfgate.com/ontheblock/2015/06/02/san-franciscos-median-rent-hits-a-ridiculous-4225/|title=San Francisco's median rent hits a ridiculous $4,225|author=Anna Marie Erwert|date=June 2, 2015|work=On The Block}}</ref> The high cost of living is due in part to restrictive planning laws which limit new residential construction.<ref>"Hot in the City." ''The Economist'' April 2, 2016: 71. print.</ref>

The international character that San Francisco has enjoyed since its founding is continued today by large numbers of immigrants from Asia and Latin America. With 39% of its residents born overseas,<ref name="SFEconomicStrategy">{{cite web
|last = Egan |first = Ted
|title = An Overview of San Francisco's Recent Economic Performance – Executive Summary
|publisher=ICF Consulting
|date = April 3, 2006
|url = http://www.sfgov.org/site/uploadedfiles/moed/economic_strat/ExecutiveSummary_EconomicPerformanceReview.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070710072642/http://www.sfgov.org/site/uploadedfiles/moed/economic_strat/ExecutiveSummary_EconomicPerformanceReview.pdf
|archive-date = July 10, 2007
|access-date =June 14, 2008
}}</ref> San Francisco has numerous neighborhoods filled with businesses and civic institutions catering to new arrivals. In particular, the arrival of many ethnic Chinese, which began to accelerate in the 1970s, has complemented the long-established community historically based in [[Chinatown, San Francisco|Chinatown]] throughout the city and has transformed the annual [[San Francisco Chinese New Year Festival and Parade|Chinese New Year Parade]] into the largest event of its kind in its hemisphere.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_17424032|title=Nearly one million spectators expected for Chinese New Year parade|date=February 18, 2011|newspaper=[[San Jose Mercury News]]|location=San Jose, California|access-date=February 19, 2011}}</ref><ref name="SFTravel">{{cite web|last1=Hu|first1=Cindy|title=Chinese New Year 2017 Parade & Events |url=http://www.sftravel.com/article/chinese-new-year-2017-parade-events|publisher=San Francisco Travel Association|access-date=May 16, 2017}}</ref>

With the arrival of the [[Beat Generation|"beat"]] writers and artists of the 1950s and societal changes culminating in the [[Summer of Love]] in the [[Haight-Ashbury]] district during the 1960s, San Francisco became a center of [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] activism and of the [[counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]] that arose at that time. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] and to a lesser extent the [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]] have dominated [[Politics of San Francisco|city politics]] since the late 1970s, after the [[John Barbagelata|last serious]] [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] challenger for city office [[1975 San Francisco mayoral election|lost the 1975 mayoral election]] by a narrow margin. San Francisco has not voted more than 20% for a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] presidential or senatorial candidate since [[1988 United States presidential election|1988]].<ref>{{cite web
|last = Leip |first = Dave
|title = Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections
|publisher=Dave Leip
|date = June 4, 2008
|url = http://www.uselectionatlas.org/
|access-date =June 14, 2008
}}</ref> In 2007, the city expanded its [[Medicaid]] and other [[indigent]] medical programs into the [[Healthy San Francisco]] program,<ref>[http://www.californiahealthline.org/articles/2011/4/19/reform-law-could-curb-healthy-san-franciscos-enrollment-by-up-to-60.aspx Reform Law Could Curb Healthy San Francisco's Enrollment by Up to 60% – California Healthline]. Californiahealthline.org. Retrieved February 16, 2012.</ref> which [[subsidy|subsidizes]] certain medical services for eligible residents.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060703084949/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1207599,00.html "San Francisco's Latest Innovation: Universal Health Care"], by Laura A. Locke, ''Time'', June 23, 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.healthysanfrancisco.org/visitors/Participant_Costs.aspx "Participant Costs"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327140533/http://www.healthysanfrancisco.org/visitors/Participant_Costs.aspx |date=March 27, 2010 }}, healthysanfrancisco.org. Retrieved April 10, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/west/2006/07/20/70664.htm "Universal Health Care Plan Approved in San Francisco"], ''Insurance Journal'', July 20, 2006.</ref>

Since 1993, the San Francisco Department of Public Health has distributed 400,000 [[Needle and syringe programmes#San Francisco|free syringes]] every month aimed at reducing HIV and other health risks for drug users, as well as providing disposal sites and services.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180509152417/https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/matier-ross/article/Those-needles-littering-the-streets-The-city-12898656.php Those needles littering the streets? The city gave them out], San Francisco Chronicle, May 8, 2018</ref><ref>[https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2018/05/10/san-francisco-free-syringes-litter/ San Francisco’s Free Syringes Are Littering Its Streets], CBS San Francisco, May 10, 2018</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Sydney |title=Second-chance city: San Francisco's plan to reduce overdose crisis |url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/news/second-chance-city-san-franciscos-plan-to-reduce-overdose-crisis/ |date=July 5, 2022 |website=The San Francisco Examiner |language=en-US |access-date=December 7, 2022}}</ref>

San Francisco also has had a very active environmental community. Starting with the founding of the [[Sierra Club]] in 1892 to the establishment of the non-profit [[Friends of the Urban Forest]] in 1981, San Francisco has been at the forefront of many global discussions regarding the environment.<ref>{{cite web|title=About the Sierra Club|url=http://sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/about/sierra.aspx|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Friends of the Urban Forest – About us|url=http://www.fuf.net/about-us/|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> The 1980 [[San Francisco Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance|San Francisco Recycling Program]] was one of the earliest curbside recycling programs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Recology Residential Service Program|url=http://www.sunsetscavenger.com/residentialFAQ.htm|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> The city's GoSolarSF incentive promotes solar installations and the [[San Francisco Public Utilities Commission]] is rolling out the [[CleanPowerSF]] program to sell electricity from local renewable sources.<ref>{{cite web|title=SFPUC GoSolarSF|url=http://sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=133|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=About Clean Power SF |url=http://sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=577 |access-date=February 21, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220034605/http://sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=577 |archive-date=February 20, 2015 }}</ref> SF Greasecycle is a program to recycle used cooking oil for conversion to biodiesel.<ref>{{cite web|title=SFPUC Greasecycle|url=http://www.sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=465|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref>

The [[Sunset Reservoir]] Solar Project, completed in 2010, installed 24,000 solar panels on the roof of the reservoir. The 5-megawatt plant more than tripled the city's 2-megawatt solar generation capacity when it opened in December 2010.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Mayor Newsom Praises SFPUC For Approving New Five Megawatt Solar Project at Sunset Reservoir |url=http://www.sfmayor.org/ftp/archive/209.126.225.7/archives/PressRoom_NewsReleases_2008_94667/index.html |publisher=Office of the Mayor, San Francisco |date=December 12, 2008 |access-date=September 29, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=resources/lifestyle_community/green&id=7830862 |title=SF gets new way to generate renewable energy |author=Leigh Glaser |date=December 7, 2010 |publisher=KGO ABC7 News}}</ref>

===LGBT===
{{Main|LGBT culture in San Francisco}}
[[File:Castro Rainbow Flag.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Rainbow flag (LGBT movement)|rainbow flag]], symbol of [[LGBT]] pride, originated in San Francisco; banners like this one decorate streets in [[The Castro, San Francisco|the Castro]].]]

San Francisco has long had an [[LGBT]]-friendly [[LGBT culture in San Francisco|history]]. It was home to the first lesbian-rights organization in the United States, [[Daughters of Bilitis]]; the first openly gay person to run for public office in the United States, [[José Sarria]]; the first openly gay man to be elected to public office in California, [[Harvey Milk]]; the first openly lesbian judge appointed in the U.S., [[Mary C. Morgan]]; and the first [[transgender]] police commissioner, [[Theresa Sparks]]. The city's large gay population has created and sustained a politically and culturally active community over many decades, developing a powerful presence in San Francisco's civic life.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} Survey data released in 2015 by [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] places the proportion of LGBT adults in the San Francisco metro area at 6.2%, which is the highest proportion of the 50 most populous metropolitan areas as measured by the polling organization.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/182051/san-francisco-metro-area-ranks-highest-lgbt-percentage.aspx|title=San Francisco Metro Area Ranks Highest in LGBT Percentage|date=March 20, 2015|website=Gallup.com}}</ref>

One of the most popular destinations for gay tourists internationally, the city hosts [[San Francisco Pride]], one of the largest and oldest [[pride parades]]. San Francisco Pride events have been held continuously since 1972. The events are themed and a new theme is created each year.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} In 2013, over 1.5 million people attended, around 500,000 more than the previous year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Court victories boost gay pride parades|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/06/30/san-francisco-gay-pride-parade-gay-marriage/2473379/|website=USA Today}}</ref>

The [[Folsom Street Fair]] (FSF) is an annual [[BDSM]] and [[leather subculture]] street fair that is held in September, capping San Francisco's "Leather Pride Week".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rababy|first=Michael|title=Folsom Street Food Court|publisher=Delancey Street Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0692183731|location=Los Angeles, California|page=64}}</ref> It started in 1984 and is California's third-largest single-day, outdoor spectator event and the world's largest leather event and showcase for BDSM products and culture.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.folsomstreetfair.com/photos/http://www.cnn.com/2007/LIVING/personal/11/02/cheap.date/index.html |title=Cheap date – what to do? |work=CNN }}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Performing arts===
{{See also|List of theatres in San Francisco}}
[[File:SFWMOHLobbySouth.jpg|thumb|The lobby of the [[War Memorial Opera House (San Francisco)|War Memorial Opera House]], one of the last buildings erected in [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux Arts]] style in the United States]]

San Francisco's [[San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center|War Memorial and Performing Arts Center]] hosts some of the most enduring performing-arts companies in the country. The [[War Memorial Opera House]] houses the [[San Francisco Opera]], the second-largest opera company in North America<ref>{{Cite web|title=San Francisco Opera {{!}} San Francisco Classical Voice|url=https://www.sfcv.org/organizations/san-francisco-opera#|access-date=2021-12-29|website=www.sfcv.org}}</ref> as well as the [[San Francisco Ballet]], while the [[San Francisco Symphony]] plays in [[Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall|Davies Symphony Hall]]. Opened in 2013, the [[SFJAZZ Center]] hosts jazz performances year round.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SFJAZZ.org {{!}} About|url=https://www.sfjazz.org/about/|access-date=2021-12-29|website=www.sfjazz.org}}</ref>

[[The Fillmore]] is a music venue located in the [[Western Addition, San Francisco|Western Addition]]. It is the second incarnation of the historic venue that gained fame in the 1960s, housing the stage where now-famous musicians such as the [[Grateful Dead]], [[Janis Joplin]], [[Led Zeppelin]] and [[Jefferson Airplane]] first performed, fostering the [[San Francisco Sound]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=SAN FRANCISCO SOUND|url=https://www.shsu.edu/~lis_fwh/book/regional_styles/San%20Francisco%20Sound2.htm|access-date=2021-08-05|website=www.shsu.edu}}</ref>

San Francisco has a large number of [[List of theatres in San Francisco|theaters and live performance venues]]. Local theater companies have been noted for risk taking and innovation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.7x7.com/stage-left-san-franciscos-theater-history-1781795434.html|title=Stage Left: San Francisco's Theater History|date=November 9, 2012|website=7x7 Bay Area}}</ref> The [[Tony Award]]-winning non-profit [[American Conservatory Theater]] (A.C.T.) is a member of the national [[League of Resident Theatres]]. Other local winners of the [[Regional Theatre Tony Award]] include the [[San Francisco Mime Troupe]].<ref>Jones, Chad. [http://www.theatrebayarea.org/news/175997/Tonys-by-the-Bay.htm "Tonys By the Bay"]. ''Theatre Bay Area Magazine'', May/June 2014.</ref>
San Francisco theaters frequently host pre-[[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] engagements and tryout runs,<ref>Sanders, Adrienne, "S.F. Raises Curtain For Broadway Hits" ''San Francisco Business Times'', April 3, 2005. [http://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/stories/2005/04/04/story3.html?page=all]</ref> and some original San Francisco productions have later moved to Broadway.<ref>Jones, Chad. "Tonys By the Bay". ''Theatre Bay Area Magazine'', May/June 2014. [http://www.theatrebayarea.org/news/175997/Tonys-by-the-Bay.htm]</ref>

===Museums===
{{Further|List of museums in San Francisco Bay Area, California#San Francisco}}

The [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]] (SFMOMA) houses 20th century and contemporary works of art. It moved to its current building in the [[South of Market, San Francisco|South of Market]] neighborhood in 1995 and attracted more than 600,000 visitors annually.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Corporate Sponsorship – Why Sponsor
|publisher=San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
|url = http://www.sfmoma.org/membership/corp_sponsors_why_sponsor.html
|access-date =June 14, 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071229011210/http://www.sfmoma.org/membership/corp_sponsors_why_sponsor.html |archive-date = December 29, 2007}}</ref> SFMOMA closed for renovation and expansion in 2013. The museum reopened on May 14, 2016, with an addition, designed by [[Snøhetta (company)|Snøhetta]], that has doubled the museum's size.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfmoma.org/about/our-expansion-2016/|title=Our Expansion · SFMOMA|website=SFMOMA}}</ref>

The [[California Palace of the Legion of Honor|Palace of the Legion of Honor]] holds primarily European antiquities and works of art at its [[Lincoln Park (San Francisco)|Lincoln Park]] building modeled after its [[Palais de la Légion d'Honneur|Parisian namesake]]. The [[M. H. de Young Memorial Museum|de Young Museum]] in Golden Gate Park features American decorative pieces and anthropological holdings from Africa, Oceania and the Americas, while Asian art is housed in the [[Asian Art Museum of San Francisco|Asian Art Museum]]. Opposite the de Young stands the [[California Academy of Sciences]], a natural history museum that also hosts the [[Morrison Planetarium]] and [[Steinhart Aquarium]]. Located on Pier 15 on the Embarcadero, the [[Exploratorium]] is an interactive science museum. The [[Contemporary Jewish Museum]] is a non-collecting institution that hosts a broad array of temporary exhibitions. On Nob Hill, the [[San Francisco Cable Car Museum|Cable Car Museum]] is a working museum featuring the cable car powerhouse, which drives the cables.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sanfrancisco.net/museums|title=Museums in San Francisco|publisher=SanFrancisco.net|access-date=November 15, 2015}}</ref>

==Sports==
{{Further|Sports in the San Francisco Bay Area}}
[[File:AT&T Park July 24, 2016.jpg|thumb|[[Oracle Park]] opened in 2000.]]
[[File:Olympic Club, San Francisco.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Olympic Club]]]]

[[Major League Baseball]]'s [[San Francisco Giants]] have played in San Francisco since moving from New York in 1958. The Giants play at [[Oracle Park]], which opened in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|title = Federal Brownfields Tax Incentive: SBC Park|work=Brownfields|publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency|date=May 2005|url = http://www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/pdf/sfcasestudy070505.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060921012953/http://www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/pdf/sfcasestudy070505.pdf|archive-date=September 21, 2006|access-date =June 15, 2008}}</ref> The Giants won [[World Series]] titles in [[2010 World Series|2010]], [[2012 World Series|2012]], and in [[2014 World Series|2014]]. The Giants have boasted such stars as [[Willie Mays]], [[Willie McCovey]] and [[Barry Bonds]]. In 2012, San Francisco was ranked No. 1 in a study that examined which U.S. metro areas have produced the most Major Leaguers since 1920.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sperling|first=Bert|title=Best Baseball Cities|url=http://www.bertsperling.com/2012/10/25/best-baseball-cities/|access-date=October 29, 2012}}</ref>

The [[San Francisco 49ers]] of the [[National Football League]] (NFL) began play in 1946 as an [[All-America Football Conference]] (AAFC) league charter member, moved to the NFL in 1950 and into [[Candlestick Park]] in 1971. The team began playing its home games at [[Levi's Stadium]] in [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]] in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/09/BAGNJM99FK1.DTL |title=SAN FRANCISCO / 49ers say they are moving to Santa Clara |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=November 9, 2006 |access-date=March 28, 2012 |first1=Phillip |last1=Matier |first2=Andrew |last2=Ross}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pressdemocrat.com/csp/mediapool/sites/PressDemocrat/News/story.csp?cid=2493373&sid=555&fid=181 |title=San Francisco mayor: 49ers move to Santa Clara all but assured |publisher=PressDemocrat.com |date=December 6, 2011 |access-date=March 28, 2012}}</ref> The 49ers won five [[Super Bowl]] titles between 1982 and 1995.

The San Francisco Warriors played in the NBA from 1962 to 1971, before being renamed the [[Golden State Warriors]] prior to the 1971–1972 season in an attempt to present the team as a representation of the whole state of California, which had already adopted "The Golden State" nickname.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nba.com/warriors/news/behind_the_name.html|title=Behind The Name – Warriors {{!}} THE OFFICIAL SITE OF THE GOLDEN STATE WARRIORS|website=Nba.com|access-date=November 9, 2016}}</ref> The Warriors' arena, [[Chase Center]], is located in San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oraclearena.com/teams/detail/golden-state-warriors|title=Golden State Warriors {{!}} Oracle Arena and Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum|last=Coliseum|first=Oracle Arena and Oakland-Alameda County|website=Oraclearena.com|access-date=November 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209042505/http://www.oraclearena.com/teams/detail/golden-state-warriors|archive-date=December 9, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> They have won seven championships,<ref>{{cite web |title=Golden State Warriors Win 2022 NBA Championship: Warriors Earn Seventh Title in Franchise History |url=https://www.nba.com/warriors/news/warriors-2022-nba-champions-20220616 |date=June 16, 2022 |website=NBA |access-date=June 17, 2022}}</ref> and made five consecutive [[NBA Finals]] from 2015 to 2019, winning three of them. They won again in 2022, the franchise's first championship while residing in San Francisco proper.

At the collegiate level, the [[San Francisco Dons]] compete in [[NCAA Division I]]. [[Bill Russell]] led the Dons basketball team to [[NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|NCAA championships]] in 1955 and 1956. There is also the [[San Francisco State Gators]], who compete in [[NCAA Division II]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfsu.edu/~bulletin/previous_bulletins/1314/athletic.htm|title=Athletics and Sports – San Francisco State University Bulletin 2013 – 2014|website=Sfsu.edu|access-date=November 9, 2016}}</ref> Oracle Park hosted the annual [[Fight Hunger Bowl]] college football game from 2002 through 2013 before it moved to Santa Clara.

There are a handful of lower-league soccer clubs in San Francisco playing mostly from April – June.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Club
! Founded
! Venue
! League
! Tier level
|-
| [[El Farolito]]
| 1985
| [[Boxer Stadium]]
| [[National Professional Soccer League (1967)|NPSL]]
| 4
|-
| [[San Francisco City FC]]
| 2001
| [[Kezar Stadium]]
| [[USL League Two]]
| 4
|-
| [[San Francisco Glens SC]]
| 1961
| [[Skyline College]]
| [[USL League Two]]
| 4
|-
| [[SF Elite Metro]]
| 2017
| [[Negoesco Stadium]]
| [[NISA Nation]]
| 5
|}

The [[Bay to Breakers]] footrace, held annually since 1912, is best known for colorful costumes and a celebratory community spirit.<ref>{{cite web
|title=About Us – History
|work=ING Bay to Breakers
|publisher=ING Group
|date=March 11, 2008
|url=http://baytobreakers.com/index.php?page=race-history
|access-date=July 25, 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124013003/http://baytobreakers.com/index.php?page=race-history
|archive-date=November 24, 2012
|url-status=live
}}</ref> The [[San Francisco Marathon]] attracts more than 21,000 participants.<ref>{{cite news
|last = Bulwa |first = Demian
|title = S.F. Marathon: 26.2 miles of feel-good pain
|work=[[News release|Press Release]]
|date = July 27, 2009
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/07/26/BA0218VCGF.DTL
|access-date =September 7, 2010
}}</ref> The [[Escape from Alcatraz (triathlon)|Escape from Alcatraz]] [[triathlon]] has, since 1980, attracted 2,000 top professional and amateur triathletes for its annual race.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Fact Sheet
|work = [[News release|Press Release]]
|publisher = Accenture Escape from Alcatraz Triathlon
|date = May 23, 2008
|url = http://www.escapefromalcatraztriathlon.com/Assets/ESCAPE+From+Alcatraz/Fact+Sheet.pdf
|access-date = January 19, 2009
|url-status=dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090125053129/http://www.escapefromalcatraztriathlon.com/Assets/ESCAPE+From+Alcatraz/Fact+Sheet.pdf
|archive-date = January 25, 2009
}}</ref> The [[Olympic Club]], founded in 1860, is the oldest [[Sports club|athletic club]] in the United States. Its private golf course has hosted the [[U.S. Open (golf)|U.S. Open]] on five occasions. San Francisco hosted the [[2013 America's Cup]] yacht racing competition.<ref>{{cite news
|last = Cote |first = John
|title = San Francisco selected to host America's Cup
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
|year = 2010
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/San-Francisco-chosen-to-host-America-s-Cup-2479352.php
|access-date =September 11, 2013
}}</ref>

With an ideal climate for outdoor activities, San Francisco has ample resources and opportunities for amateur and participatory sports and recreation. There are more than {{convert|200|mi|km}} of [[segregated cycle facilities|bicycle paths, lanes]] and bike routes in the city.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Bicycle Network Facilities
|work=Commuting and Resources
|publisher=SF Municipal Transportation Authority
|date = May 12, 2008
|url = http://www.sfmta.com/cms/bcomm/3180.html
|access-date =June 15, 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404210802/http://www.sfmta.com/cms/bcomm/3180.html |archive-date=April 4, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
San Francisco residents have often ranked among the fittest in the country.<ref name="fitness">{{cite news
|last = Hübler |first = Eric
|title = The Fittest and Fattest Cities in America
|work=Men's Fitness |year = 2008
|url = http://www.mensfitness.com/city_rankings/454
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081011203124/http://www.mensfitness.com/city_rankings/454
|archive-date = October 11, 2008
|access-date =June 15, 2008}}</ref> [[Golden Gate Park]] has miles of paved and unpaved running trails as well as a [[golf course]] and [[disc golf]] course.
Boating, sailing, [[windsurfing]] and [[kitesurfing]] are among the popular activities on San Francisco Bay, and the city maintains a yacht harbor in the [[Marina District, San Francisco|Marina District]].

San Francisco also has had [[Esports]] teams, such as the [[Overwatch League]]'s [[San Francisco Shock]]. Established in 2017,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-10-16|title=Esports Comes to Shake Up Northern California: Meet the San Francisco Shock|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20171016005990/en/Esports-Comes-to-Shake-Up-Northern-California-Meet-the-San-Francisco-Shock|access-date=2021-04-23|website=www.businesswire.com}}</ref> they won two back-to-back championship titles in 2019 and 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Samples|first=Rachel|date=2019-09-29|title=San Francisco Shock crowned 2019 Overwatch League champions|url=https://dotesports.com/overwatch/news/san-francisco-shock-crowned-2019-overwatch-league-champions|access-date=2021-04-23|website=Dot Esports|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-10|title=San Francisco Shock are 2020 Overwatch League Champions|url=https://www.esportznetwork.com/2020-overwatch-league-champion-crowned-for-san-francisco-shock/|access-date=2021-04-23|website=Esportz Network}}</ref>

==Parks and recreation==
{{See also|List of parks in San Francisco}}
[[File:Cliff House from Ocean Beach.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ocean Beach, San Francisco]], with a view of the [[Cliff House, San Francisco|Cliff House]] ]]

Several of San Francisco's parks and nearly all of its beaches form part of the regional [[Golden Gate National Recreation Area]], one of the most visited units of the [[National Park Service|National Park system]] in the United States with over 13 million visitors a year. Among the GGNRA's attractions within the city are [[Ocean Beach, San Francisco|Ocean Beach]], which runs along the Pacific Ocean shoreline and is frequented by a vibrant [[surfing]] community, and [[Baker Beach]], which is located in a cove west of the Golden Gate and part of the [[Presidio of San Francisco|Presidio]], a former military base. Also within the Presidio is [[Crissy Field]], a former airfield that was restored to its natural [[salt marsh]] [[ecosystem]]. The GGNRA also administers [[Fort Funston]], [[Lands End, San Francisco|Lands End]], [[Fort Mason]], and [[Alcatraz]]. The National Park Service separately administers the [[San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park]] – a fleet of historic ships and waterfront property around [[Aquatic Park Historic District|Aquatic Park]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

[[File:Alamo Square with Painted Ladies, SF, CA, jjron 26.03.2012.jpg|thumb|[[Alamo Square]] is one of the most well-known parks in the area, and is often a symbol of San Francisco for its popular location for film and pop culture.]]

There are more than [[List of parks in San Francisco|220 parks]] maintained by the [[San Francisco Recreation & Parks Department]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://sf-recpark.org/index.aspx?page=56
|title=Facility Listings
|access-date=July 25, 2010
|work=San Francisco Recreation and Parks Department
|publisher=City and County of San Francisco
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816184256/http://sf-recpark.org/index.aspx?page=56
|archive-date=August 16, 2010
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The largest and best-known city park is [[Golden Gate Park]],<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.tpl.org/content_documents/ccpe_Most_Visited_Parks.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090318011047/http://www.tpl.org/content_documents/ccpe_Most_Visited_Parks.pdf
|archive-date = March 18, 2009
|title = The Most Visited City Parks
|access-date =June 17, 2008
|date = October 11, 2007
|work=Center for City Park Excellence
|publisher=The Trust for Public Land
}}</ref> which stretches from the center of the city west to the Pacific Ocean. Once covered in native grasses and sand dunes, the park was conceived in the 1860s and was created by the extensive planting of thousands of non-native trees and plants. The large park is rich with cultural and natural attractions such as the [[Conservatory of Flowers]], [[Japanese Tea Garden (San Francisco)|Japanese Tea Garden]] and [[San Francisco Botanical Garden]].{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} [[Lake Merced]] is a fresh-water lake surrounded by parkland{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} and near the [[San Francisco Zoo]], a city-owned park that houses more than 250 animal species, many of which are endangered.<ref>{{cite web
|title = What to See at the Zoo
|publisher=San Francisco Zoo
|url = http://www.sfzoo.org/openrosters/ViewOrgPageLink.asp?LinkKey=15015&orgkey=1821
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110719005811/http://www.sfzoo.org/openrosters/ViewOrgPageLink.asp?LinkKey=15015&orgkey=1821
|archive-date = July 19, 2011
|access-date =June 14, 2008
}}</ref> The only [[List of California state parks|park]] managed by the [[California Department of Parks and Recreation|California State Park]] system located principally in San Francisco, [[Candlestick Point State Recreation Area|Candlestick Point]] was the state's first urban recreation area.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Candlestick Point SRA
|publisher=California State Parks Department
|url = http://parks.ca.gov/?page_id=519
|access-date =January 27, 2009}}</ref>

San Francisco is the first city in the U.S. to have a park within a [[10-Minute Walk]] of every resident.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/SF-1st-city-in-nation-with-a-park-10-minute-walk-11150987.php|title=SF 1st city in nation with a park 10-minute walk from every home|work=San Francisco Chronicle|access-date=May 23, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2017/05/16/in-san-francisco-everyone-lives-within-a-10-minute-walk-of-a-park/|title=In San Francisco, Everyone Lives Within A 10-Minute Walk of a Park|date=May 16, 2017|work=CBS SF Bay Area|access-date=May 23, 2018|language=en}}</ref> It also ranks fifth in the U.S. for park access and quality in the 2018 ParkScore ranking of the top 100 park systems across the United States, according to the nonprofit [[Trust for Public Land]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parkscore.tpl.org/rankings.php|title=ParkScore|website=Parkscore.tpl.org|language=en-US|access-date=May 23, 2018|archive-date=May 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524003623/http://www.parkscore.tpl.org/rankings.php|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Government==
{{Main|Government of San Francisco|Politics of San Francisco|Mayor of San Francisco|l3=Mayors of San Francisco}}
{{See also|San Francisco City Hall}}


San Francisco—officially known as the City and County of San Francisco—is a [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4616983 consolidated city-county], a status it has held since the 1856 secession of what is now [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]].<ref name="Coy 1919 409" /> It is the only such consolidation in California.<ref name="CityCounty">{{cite web
|url=http://sf311.org/index.aspx?page=262
|title=Board of Supervisors – Does San Francisco have a City Council?
|access-date=June 16, 2008
|work=SFGov SF311
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129121724/http://sf311.org/index.aspx?page=262
|archive-date=November 29, 2010
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> The [[Mayor of San Francisco|mayor]] is also the county executive, and the county [[San Francisco Board of Supervisors|Board of Supervisors]] acts as the [[city council]]. The government of San Francisco is a [[charter city]] and is constituted of two co-equal branches: the executive branch is headed by the mayor and includes other citywide elected and appointed officials as well as the civil service; the 11-member Board of Supervisors, the legislative branch, is headed by a president and is responsible for passing laws and budgets, though San Franciscans also make use of [[Initiative|direct ballot initiatives]] to pass legislation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgov.org/site/sf311_index.asp?id=55765|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826045706/http://www.sfgov.org/site/sf311_index.asp?id=55765|title=Board of Supervisors – Does San Francisco have a City Council?|access-date=October 28, 2015|archive-date=August 26, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:San Francisco City Hall September 2013 panorama 3.jpg|thumb|[[San Francisco City Hall]]]]

The members of the Board of Supervisors are elected as representatives of specific districts within the city.<ref name="SF_Gov_Supervisor_Districts">{{cite web
|title = Board of Supervisors District Information
|url = http://www.sfgov.org/site/bdsupvrs_index.asp?id=4385
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070714005328/http://www.sfgov.org/site/bdsupvrs_index.asp?id=4385
|archive-date = July 14, 2007
|publisher=City and County of San Francisco, Board of Supervisors
|access-date =January 29, 2006
}}</ref> Upon the death or resignation of the mayor, the President of the Board of Supervisors becomes acting mayor until the full Board elects an interim replacement for the remainder of the term. In 1978, [[Dianne Feinstein]] assumed the office following the assassination of [[George Moscone]] and was later selected by the board to finish the term.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} In 2011, [[Ed Lee (politician)|Ed Lee]] was selected by the board to finish the term of [[Gavin Newsom]], who resigned to take office as [[Lieutenant Governor of California]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blog.sfgate.com/cityinsider/2011/01/11/ed-lee-becomes-the-citys-first-chinese-american-mayor/ |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |first=John |last=Coté |title=Ed Lee becomes the city's first Chinese American mayor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012112709/http://blog.sfgate.com/cityinsider/2011/01/11/ed-lee-becomes-the-citys-first-chinese-american-mayor/| archive-date=12 October 2013 | date=January 11, 2011}}</ref> Lee (who won two elections to remain mayor) was temporarily replaced by San Francisco Board of Supervisors President [[London Breed]] after he died on December 12, 2017. Supervisor [[Mark Farrell (politician)|Mark Farrell]] was appointed by the Board of Supervisors to finish Lee's term on January 23, 2018.

Because of its unique city-county status, the local government is able to exercise jurisdiction over certain property outside city limits. [[San Francisco International Airport]], though located in [[San Mateo County]], is owned and operated by the City and County of San Francisco. San Francisco's largest jail complex (County Jail No. 5) is located in San Mateo County, in an [[unincorporated area]] adjacent to [[San Bruno, California|San Bruno]]. San Francisco was also granted a perpetual leasehold over the [[Hetch Hetchy Valley]] and [[drainage basin|watershed]] in [[Yosemite National Park]] by the [[Raker Act]] in 1913.<ref name="CityCounty"/>

San Francisco serves as the regional hub for many arms of the federal bureaucracy, including the [[Ninth Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals|U.S. Court of Appeals]], the [[Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco|Federal Reserve Bank]], and the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]]. Until [[Base Realignment and Closure|decommissioning]] in the early 1990s, the city had major military installations at the [[Presidio of San Francisco|Presidio]], [[Treasure Island, San Francisco|Treasure Island]], and [[San Francisco Naval Shipyard|Hunters Point]]—a legacy still reflected in the annual celebration of [[Fleet Week]]. The State of California uses San Francisco as the home of the [[Supreme Court of California|state supreme court]] and other state agencies. Foreign governments maintain more than seventy consulates in San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/91446.pdf
|title = Foreign Consular Offices in the United States, 2007
|access-date = December 12, 2008
|publisher = United States Department of State
}}</ref>

The municipal budget for fiscal year 2015–16 was $8.99 billion,<ref>{{cite web |title=Budget and Appropriation Ordinance as of July 21, 2015 – Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 2016 and June 30, 2017 |url=http://sfcontroller.org/sites/default/files/FileCenter/Documents/6643-FY16%20%26%20FY17%20AAO%20Board%20FINAL.pdf |date=July 21, 2015 |website=SF Controller |access-date=April 16, 2020}}</ref> and is one of the largest city budgets in the United States.<ref name="ballotpedia.org">{{Cite news|url=https://ballotpedia.org/Analysis_of_spending_in_America's_largest_cities|title=Analysis of spending in America's largest cities – Ballotpedia|access-date=March 16, 2017|language=en}}</ref> The City of San Francisco spends more per resident than any city other than Washington D.C, over $10,000 in FY 2015–2016.<ref name="ballotpedia.org"/> The city employs around 27,000 workers.<ref>{{cite news
|author = Gordon, Rachel
|title = 1 in 3 San Francisco employees earned $100,000
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2010/04/25/MNC51CLUBN.DTL
|work = San Francisco Chronicle
|date = April 26, 2010
|access-date =March 7, 2012}}</ref>

In the [[United States House of Representatives]], San Francisco is split between California's [[California's 12th congressional district|12th]] and [[CA-14|14th]] districts. The city has voted strongly along [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] lines for decades; in 2020, the city voted 85% to 13% in favor of [[Joe Biden|President Joe Biden]] over [[Donald Trump]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-11-03 |title=Presidential Election Results: Biden Wins |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/11/03/us/elections/results-president.html |access-date=2022-06-18 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==Education==

===Colleges and universities===
{{See also|List of colleges and universities in San Francisco}}
[[File:SFSU Campus JPL Library Nov2012.JPG|thumb|[[San Francisco State University]] Main Quad]]
[[File:Lone Mountain Campus.jpg|thumb|upright|The Lone Mountain Campus of the [[University of San Francisco]]]]

The [[University of California, San Francisco]] is the sole campus of the [[University of California|University of California system]] entirely dedicated to graduate education in health and biomedical sciences. It is ranked among the top five medical schools in the United States<ref>{{cite magazine
|url=http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-medical-schools/primary-care-rankings
|title=America's Best Graduate Schools: Best Medical Schools
|access-date=July 25, 2010
|year=2010
|magazine=[[U.S. News & World Report]]
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421213522/http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-medical-schools/primary-care-rankings
|archive-date=April 21, 2010
}}</ref> and operates the [[UCSF Medical Center]], which ranks as the number one hospital in California and the number 5 in the country.<ref>{{cite magazine
|url = http://health.usnews.com/health-news/best-hospitals/articles/2011/07/18/best-hospitals-2011-12-the-honor-roll
|title = Best Hospitals 2011–12: the Honor Roll
|magazine=U.S. News & World Report
|author=Comarow, Avery
|date = July 14, 2010
|access-date =July 25, 2010
}}</ref> UCSF is a major local employer, second in size only to the city and county government.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.sfced.org/docs/Largest_Employers_in_SF_2007.doc
|title = San Francisco Business Information: Largest Employers in San Francisco
|access-date =June 9, 2008
|work=San Francisco Business Times Book of Lists, 2007
|format = Microsoft Word
|publisher=San Francisco Center for Economic Development
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070817111006/http://www.sfced.org/docs/Largest_Employers_in_SF_2007.doc|archive-date = August 17, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|title = UCSF packs a $6B punch for economy
|work=[[San Francisco Business Times]]
|author=Leuty, Ron
|date = June 11, 2010
|url = http://sanfrancisco.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/stories/2010/06/14/story1.html
|access-date =July 26, 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100616084742/http://sanfrancisco.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/stories/2010/06/14/story1.html |archive-date = June 16, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ucsf.edu/eir/employment-economic-stimulus
|title = Employment & Economic Stimulus
|access-date =July 26, 2010
|work=2010 Economic Impact Report
|publisher=[[University of California, San Francisco]]
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100701173949/http://www.ucsf.edu/eir/employment-economic-stimulus |archive-date = July 1, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> A {{convert|43|acre|ha|adj=on}} [[Mission Bay, San Francisco|Mission Bay]] campus was opened in 2003, complementing its original facility in [[List of hills in San Francisco|Parnassus Heights]]. It contains research space and facilities to foster biotechnology and life sciences entrepreneurship and will double the size of UCSF's research enterprise.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2003/07/4846/new-ucsf-mission-bay-campus-countrys-largest-biomedical-university-expansio
|title = New UCSF Mission Bay campus: country's largest biomedical university expansion
|author=Wallace Ravven
|access-date =June 9, 2008
|publisher=UCSF
|date = July 22, 2003
}}</ref> All in all, UCSF operates more than 20 facilities across San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ucsf.edu/locations
|title = Locations
|author= UCSF
|access-date =February 21, 2015
|year = 2015
}}</ref> The [[University of California, Hastings College of the Law]], founded in [[Civic Center, San Francisco|Civic Center]] in 1878, is the oldest law school in California and claims more judges on the state bench than any other institution.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.uchastings.edu/?pid=37
|title = Hastings Quick Facts
|access-date =August 30, 2006
|publisher=University of California, Hastings College of the Law}}</ref>
San Francisco's two University of California institutions have recently formed an official affiliation in the UCSF/UC Hastings Consortium on Law, Science & Health Policy.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://ucsfconsortium.uchastings.edu/
|title = UCSF/UC Hastings Consortium
|access-date =June 2, 2013
|publisher=University of California, Hastings College of the Law}}</ref>

[[San Francisco State University]] is part of the [[California State University]] system and is located near [[Lake Merced]].<ref name=sfsu>{{cite web
|url = http://www.sfsu.edu/~puboff/sfsufact/archive/0809/files/SFSU_Facts_0809.pdf
|title = SF State Facts 2008–2009
|access-date =March 7, 2009
|publisher=SFSU
}}</ref> The school has approximately 30,000 students and awards undergraduate, master's and doctoral degrees in more than 100 disciplines.<ref name=sfsu/> The [[City College of San Francisco]], with its main facility in the Ingleside district, is one of the largest two-year [[community college]]s in the country. It has an enrollment of about 100,000 students and offers an extensive continuing education program.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.ccsf.edu/Offices/Public_Information/factsheet.html
|title =City College of San Francisco Fact Sheet
|access-date =June 16, 2008
|date=April 2008
|format = PDF
|publisher=City College of San Francisco}}</ref>

Founded in 1855, the [[University of San Francisco]], a private [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] university located on [[Lone Mountain (California)|Lone Mountain]], is the oldest institution of higher education in San Francisco and one of the oldest universities established west of the Mississippi River.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.usfca.edu/online/about_USF/USFAlmanac2007.pdf
|title = University of San Francisco Fact Book and Almanac 2007
|date = December 31, 2007
|publisher=University of San Francisco
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080624193135/http://www.usfca.edu/online/about_USF/USFAlmanac2007.pdf
|archive-date = June 24, 2008
|access-date =July 25, 2010
}}</ref> [[Golden Gate University]] is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational university formed in 1901 and located in the [[Financial District, San Francisco|Financial District]].
With an enrollment of 13,000 students, the [[Academy of Art University]] is the largest institute of art and design in the nation.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.academyart.edu/whoweare.html
|title = Who We Are
|access-date =February 18, 2009
|publisher=Academy of Art University
|year = 2008
}}</ref> Founded in 1871, the [[San Francisco Art Institute]] is the oldest [[art school]] west of the Mississippi.<ref>{{cite book
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2kz2R2rPFXgC&q=Roadtripping+USA
|title = Let's Go: Roadtripping USA
|access-date =February 18, 2009
|page = 489
|publisher=MacMillan
|year = 2007
|isbn = 9780312361822
}}</ref> The [[California College of the Arts]], located north of [[Potrero Hill, San Francisco|Potrero Hill]], has programs in architecture, fine arts, design, and writing.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.cca.edu/admissions/undergrad/campuses
|title = Oakland & San Francisco Campuses
|access-date =May 23, 2012
|publisher=California College of the Arts
|year = 2012
}}</ref> The [[San Francisco Conservatory of Music]], the only independent [[music school]] on the West Coast, grants degrees in orchestral instruments, chamber music, composition, and conducting. The [[California Culinary Academy]], associated with the [[Le Cordon Bleu]] program, offers programs in the culinary arts, baking and pastry arts, and hospitality and restaurant management.
[[California Institute of Integral Studies]], founded in 1968, offers a variety of graduate programs in its Schools of Professional Psychology & Health, and Consciousness and Transformation.

===Primary and secondary schools===
{{see also|List of high schools in California#San Francisco County}}


[[Public school (government funded)|Public schools]] are run by the [[San Francisco Unified School District]], which covers the entire city and county,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06_ca/schooldistrict_maps/c06075_san_francisco/DC20SD_C06075.pdf|title=2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: San Francisco County, CA|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|access-date=2022-07-22}} - [https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06_ca/schooldistrict_maps/c06075_san_francisco/DC20SD_C06075_SD2MS.txt Text list]</ref> as well as the [[California State Board of Education]] for some charter schools. [[Lowell High School (San Francisco)|Lowell High School]], the oldest public high school in the U.S. west of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]],<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Oldest Public High School West of the Mississippi
|work=About Lowell: Lowell History
|publisher=San Francisco Unified School District
|date = February 22, 2002
|url = http://www.sfusd.edu/schwww/sch697/about/history/
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020414125943/http://www.sfusd.edu/schwww/sch697/about/history/
|archive-date = April 14, 2002
|access-date =July 25, 2010
}}</ref> and the smaller [[School of the Arts High School (San Francisco)|School of the Arts High School]] are two of San Francisco's [[magnet school]]s at the secondary level. Public school students attend schools based on an assignment system rather than neighborhood proximity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/education/article/S-F-board-sticks-with-school-assignment-system-6317632.php|title=S.F. board sticks with school-assignment system|author=Jill Tucker|date=June 10, 2015|work=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref>

Just under 30% of the city's school-age population attends one of San Francisco's more than 100 [[private school|private]] or [[parochial school]]s, compared to a 10% rate nationwide.<ref name="SFGPrvtSchools">{{cite news
|last = Knight |first = Heather
|title = Many reluctantly chose private schools
|work=San Francisco Chronicle |page = A-1

|date = May 31, 2006
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/05/31/MNGJIJ50T41.DTL
|access-date =June 16, 2008
}}</ref> Nearly 40 of those schools are [[Catholic school]]s managed by the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco|Archdiocese of San Francisco]].<ref>{{cite web
|title = School Directory August 2010
|publisher=Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco
|date = August 2010
|url = http://sfdcs.org/dcs/sites/default/files/docs/school_directory/Directory_Regular_10-11.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101127114957/http://sfdcs.org/dcs/sites/default/files/docs/school_directory/Directory_Regular_10-11.pdf
|archive-date = November 27, 2010
|access-date =January 23, 2011
}}</ref>

===Early education===
San Francisco has nearly 300 [[preschool]] programs primarily operated by [[Head Start (program)|Head Start]], [[San Francisco Unified School District]], private for-profit, private non-profit and [[Child care#Licensed home day care or family child care|family child care]] providers.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Preschools in San Francisco
|publisher=Winnie
|access-date = May 18, 2017
|url = https://winnie.com/search?category=childcare&find=preschool&ne=37.829105%2C-122.065999&sw=37.685788%2C-122.817189
}}</ref> All 4-year-old children living in San Francisco are offered [[Universal preschool|universal access to preschool]] through the Preschool for All program.<ref>{{cite web
|title = Preschool for All
|publisher = San Francisco Office of Early Care and Education
|access-date = May 18, 2017
|url = http://sfoece.org/preschool-for-all-pfa-first-5-sf-and-oece/
|url-status=dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170524225949/http://sfoece.org/preschool-for-all-pfa-first-5-sf-and-oece/
|archive-date = May 24, 2017
}}</ref>

==Media==
{{Further|Media in the San Francisco Bay Area}}
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2022}}
[[File:SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE BUILDING.jpg|thumb|upright|[[San Francisco Chronicle]] Building]]

The major daily newspaper in San Francisco is the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'', which is currently Northern California's most widely circulated newspaper.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessabc.com/products/top200.htm|title=Top 200 Newspapers by Largest Reported Circulation|date=March 31, 2007|publisher=Audit Bureau of Circulations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813073544/http://www.accessabc.com/products/top200.htm|archive-date=August 13, 2007|access-date=June 14, 2008}}</ref> The Chronicle is most famous for a former columnist, the late [[Herb Caen]], whose daily musings attracted critical acclaim and represented the "voice of San Francisco". ''[[The San Francisco Examiner]]'', once the cornerstone of [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s media empire and the home of [[Ambrose Bierce]], declined in circulation over the years and now takes the form of a free daily tabloid, under new ownership.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archive.salon.com/media/feature/2000/03/21/examiner/index.html|title=The San Francisco Examiner, 1887–2000|last=Rosenberg|first=Scott|date=March 21, 2000|work=Salon|access-date=June 15, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627064603/http://archive.salon.com/media/feature/2000/03/21/examiner/index.html|archive-date=June 27, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2000/11/22/MN121380.DTL&hw=san+francisco+examiner&sn=005&sc=498|title=Examiner Staff Ends an Era With Tears, Newsroom Tales|last=Nolte|first=Carl|date=November 22, 2000|work=San Francisco Chronicle|access-date=June 15, 2008|page=A-1}}</ref> ''[[Sing Tao Daily]]'' claims to be the largest of several Chinese language dailies that serve the Bay Area.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/08/03/BAGI781MM91.DTL|title=Newspaper war in the Bay Area: Ming Pao becomes 6th Chinese-language daily|last=Hua|first=Vanessa|date=August 3, 2004|work=San Francisco Chronicle|access-date=June 14, 2008|page=B-1}}</ref> ''[[SF Weekly|SF Weekly]]'' is the city's [[alternative weekly]] newspaper. ''[[San Francisco (magazine)|San Francisco]]'' and ''[[7x7 (magazine)|7x7]]'' are major glossy magazines about San Francisco. The national newsmagazine ''[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]'' is also based in San Francisco. San Francisco is home to online-only media publications such as [[SFist]], and ''[[AsianWeek]]'', which was the first and the largest English language publication focusing on Asian Americans.

The San Francisco Bay Area is the sixth-largest [[designated market area|television market]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nielsenmedia.com/nc/nmr_static/docs/2007-2008_DMA_Ranks.xls|title=Local Television Market Universe Estimates|date=September 22, 2007|format=XLS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200433/http://www.nielsenmedia.com/nc/nmr_static/docs/2007-2008_DMA_Ranks.xls|archive-date=September 27, 2007|access-date=June 15, 2008}}</ref> and the fourth-largest [[designated market area|radio market]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arbitron.com/radio_stations/mm001050.asp|title=Arbitron Radio Market Rankings: Spring 2008|date=April 16, 2008|publisher=Arbitron|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710153242/http://www.arbitron.com/Radio_Stations/mm001050.asp|archive-date=July 10, 2007|url-status=live|access-date=June 14, 2008}}</ref> in the U.S. The city's oldest radio station, [[KCBS (AM)|KCBS]], began as an experimental station in San Jose in 1909, before the beginning of commercial broadcasting. [[KALW]] was the city's first FM radio station when it signed on the air in 1941. The city's first television station was [[KPIX]], which began broadcasting in 1948.

All major U.S. television networks have [[List of television stations in the San Francisco Bay Area|affiliates]] serving the region, with most of them based in the city. [[CNN]], [[MSNBC]], [[BBC]], [[RT (TV network)|Russia Today]], and [[CCTV America]] also have regional news bureaus in San Francisco. [[Bloomberg West]] was launched in 2011 from a studio on the Embarcadero and [[CNBC]] broadcasts from [[One Market Plaza]] since 2015. [[ESPN]] uses the local ABC studio for their broadcasting. The [[regional sports network]], [[Comcast SportsNet Bay Area]] and its sister station [[Comcast SportsNet California]], are both located in San Francisco. The [[Pac-12 Network]] is also based in San Francisco.

[[Public broadcasting]] outlets include both a [[KQED-TV|television station]] and a [[KQED-FM|radio station]], both broadcasting under the call letters KQED from a facility near the [[Potrero Hill, San Francisco|Potrero Hill]] neighborhood. KQED-FM is the most-listened-to [[National Public Radio]] affiliate in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pacifica.org/documents/pdf/ArbitronRatingsWinter2004.pdf|title=Top 30 Public Radio Subscribers – Winter 2004 Arbitron|date=June 17, 2004|work=Radio Research Consortium|publisher=Arbitron Media Research|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050423215537/http://www.pacifica.org/documents/pdf/ArbitronRatingsWinter2004.pdf|archive-date=April 23, 2005|access-date=June 14, 2008}}</ref> Another local broadcaster, [[KPOO]], is an independent, African-American owned and operated noncommercial radio station established in 1971.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kpoo.com/about|title=KPOO – About Us|website=kpoo.com}}</ref> [[CNET Networks|CNET]], founded 1994, and [[Salon.com]], 1995, are based in San Francisco.

San Francisco-based inventors made important contributions to modern media. During the 1870s, [[Eadweard Muybridge]] began recording motion photographically and invented a [[zoopraxiscope]] with which to view his recordings. These were the first motion pictures. Then in 1927, [[Philo Farnsworth]]'s image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image. This was a refinement of the first television system which was invented by [[John Logie Baird]] in 1926.

==Infrastructure==

===Transportation===
{{see also|Transportation in the San Francisco Bay Area}}

====Public transportation====
{{See also|San Francisco Municipal Railway}}
[[File:Cable Car No. 1 and Alcatraz Island.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car]] ascending Hyde St, with [[Alcatraz]] on the bay behind]]

Transit is the most used form of transportation every day in San Francisco. Every weekday, more than 560,000 people travel on Muni's 69 bus routes and more than 140,000 customers ride the Muni Metro light rail system.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfmta.com/sites/default/files/reports-and-documents/2020/01/sfmta_annual_2019_spreads_r2.pdf|title=SFMTA 2019 Annual Report|website=Sfmta.com|access-date=April 16, 2021}}</ref> 32% of San Francisco residents use public transportation for their daily commute to work, ranking it first on the West Coast and third overall in the United States.<ref>{{cite news|author=Les Christie|date=June 29, 2007|title=New Yorkers are Top Transit Users|work=CNNMoney.com|url=https://money.cnn.com/2007/06/13/real_estate/public_transit_commutes/index.htm|access-date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> The [[San Francisco Municipal Railway]], primarily known as Muni, is the primary public transit system of San Francisco. Muni is the seventh-largest transit system in the United States, with 210,848,310 rides in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fiscal Year 2008 Short Range Transit Plan: Chapter 4|url=http://www.sfmta.com/cms/rsrtp/documents/09Chapter4-CurrentServiceaccessible-fy08PublicDraftforMTAB10-2.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327154059/http://www.sfmta.com/cms/rsrtp/documents/09Chapter4-CurrentServiceaccessible-fy08PublicDraftforMTAB10-2.pdf|archive-date=March 27, 2009|access-date=May 6, 2009|publisher=San Francisco Metropolitan Transportation Agency}}</ref> The system operates a combined [[light rail]] and subway system, the [[Muni Metro]], as well as large bus and [[Trolleybuses in San Francisco|trolley coach]] networks.<ref name="transportation">{{cite news|date=March 2007|title=Bay Area Traveler: Transportation Information|work=San Francisco Chronicle Inc|url=http://www.sfgate.com/traveler/guide/transportation/publictrans.shtml|url-status=dead|access-date=June 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830051722/http://sfgate.com/traveler/guide/transportation/publictrans.shtml|archive-date=August 30, 2008}}</ref> Additionally, it runs a [[F Market|historic streetcar line]], which runs on Market Street from [[The Castro|Castro Street]] to [[Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco|Fisherman's Wharf]].<ref name="transportation"/> It also operates the famous [[San Francisco cable car system|cable cars]],<ref name="transportation"/> which have been designated as a [[National Historic Landmark]] and are a major tourist attraction.<ref>{{cite web|date=May 2007|title=Report on San Francisco's Cable Cars|url=http://www.sfbeautiful.org/PDF/2007_Cable_Car_Report.pdf|access-date=June 16, 2008|publisher=San Francisco Beautiful}}</ref>

[[Bay Area Rapid Transit]] (BART), a regional Rapid Transit system, connects San Francisco with the [[East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)|East Bay]] and San Jose through the underwater [[Transbay Tube]]. The line runs under Market Street to [[Civic Center, San Francisco|Civic Center]] where it turns south to the Mission District, the southern part of the city, and through northern [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]], to the [[San Francisco International Airport]], and [[Millbrae, California|Millbrae]].<ref name="transportation"/>

Another commuter rail system, [[Caltrain]], runs from San Francisco along the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] to [[San Jose, California|San Jose]].<ref name="transportation"/> Historically, trains operated by [[Southern Pacific Lines]] ran from San Francisco to [[Los Angeles]], via [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] and [[San Jose, California|San Jose]].

[[Amtrak California]] [[Thruway Motorcoach]] runs a shuttle bus from three locations in San Francisco to its station across the bay in [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Emeryville Station (EMY)|url=https://www.amtrak.com/stations/emy|access-date=July 25, 2010|publisher=Amtrak}}</ref> Additionally, BART offers connections to San Francisco from Amtrak's stations in Emeryville, Oakland and [[Richmond, California|Richmond]], and Caltrain offers connections in San Jose and [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]. Thruway service also runs south to [[San Luis Obispo, California|San Luis Obispo]] with connection to the [[Pacific Surfliner]].

[[File:GGT ferry Del Norte.JPG|thumb|The Golden Gate Ferry [[MV Del Norte|M/V ''Del Norte'']] docked at the Ferry Building]]
[[San Francisco Bay Ferry]] operates from the [[San Francisco Ferry Building|Ferry Building]] and [[Pier 39]] to points in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Alameda, California|Alameda]], [[Bay Farm Island, Alameda, California|Bay Farm Island]], [[South San Francisco, California|South San Francisco]], and north to [[Vallejo, California|Vallejo]] in [[Solano County, California|Solano County]].<ref>{{cite web|title=San Francisco Bay Ferry|url=http://sanfranciscobayferry.com/|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> The [[Golden Gate Ferry]] is the other ferry operator with service between San Francisco and [[Marin County]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Golden Gate Ferry|url=http://goldengateferry.org/|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> [[SolTrans]] runs supplemental bus service between the Ferry Building and Vallejo.

San Francisco was an early adopter of [[carsharing]] in America. The non-profit [[City CarShare]] opened in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|title=City CarShare Out Mission|url=https://www.citycarshare.org/why-city-car-share/our-mission/|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> [[Zipcar]] closely followed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zipcar Our Mission|url=http://www.zipcar.com/about|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref>

To accommodate the large amount of San Francisco citizens who commute to the [[Silicon Valley]] daily, employers like [[Genentech]], [[Google]], and [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] have begun to provide private bus transportation for their employees, from San Francisco locations. These buses have quickly become a heated topic of debate within the city, as [[San Francisco tech bus protests|protesters]] claim they block bus lanes and delay public buses.<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 9, 2016|title=Google bus blocked in San Francisco protest vs gentrification|newspaper=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-google-protest-idUSBRE9B818J20131209|access-date=November 9, 2016}}</ref>[[File:San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge at night.jpg|thumb|right|The [[San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge|Bay Bridge]] offers the only direct automobile connection to the East Bay.]]

====Freeways and roads====
{{Further|List of streets in San Francisco}}

In 2014, only 41.3% of residents commuted by driving alone or carpooling in private vehicles in San Francisco, a decline from 48.6% in 2000.<ref name=":5" /> There are 1,088 miles of streets in San Francisco with 946 miles of these streets being surface streets, and 59 miles of freeways.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=2015|title=SFMTA Transportation Fact Sheet|url=https://www.sfmta.com/sites/default/files/reports/2016/2015%20SFMTA%20Transportation%20Factsheet.pdf}}</ref> Due to its unique geography, and the [[Highway revolts in the United States#San Francisco|freeway revolts]] of the late 1950s,<ref name="freeway">{{cite news
|last = Gordon |first = Rachel
|title = Boulevard of dreams, the premiere
|work=San Francisco Chronicle |page = B-1

|date = September 8, 2005
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/09/08/BAGBFEJVE21.DTL
|access-date =June 16, 2008
}}</ref>
[[Interstate 80 in California|Interstate 80]] begins at the approach to the [[San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge|Bay Bridge]] and is the only direct automobile link to the East Bay. [[U.S. Route 101 in California|U.S. Route 101]] connects to the western terminus of Interstate 80 and provides access to the south of the city along San Francisco Bay toward [[Silicon Valley]]. Northward, the routing for U.S. 101 uses arterial streets to connect to the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], the only direct automobile link to [[Marin County]] and the North Bay.

As part of the retrofitting of the Golden Gate Bridge and installation of a suicide barrier, starting in 2019 the railings on the west side of the pedestrian walkway were replaced with thinner, more flexible [[slat (aircraft)|slats]] in order to improve the bridge's aerodynamic tolerance of high wind to {{convert|100|mph|km/h|0|abbr=on}}. Starting in June 2020, reports were received of a loud hum produced by the new railing slats, heard across the city when a strong west wind was blowing.<ref name="bridge harmonic resonance issues">{{cite news |first=Eric |last=Ting |url=https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Golden-Gate-Bridge-noise-humming-why-wind-sound-15321767.php |title=Why the Golden Gate Bridge made strange noises with the wind Friday |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |date=June 6, 2020 |access-date=July 5, 2020 |archive-date=July 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705073455/https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Golden-Gate-Bridge-noise-humming-why-wind-sound-15321767.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[California State Route 1|State Route 1]] also enters San Francisco from the north via the Golden Gate Bridge and bisects the city as the [[19th Avenue (San Francisco)|19th Avenue]] arterial thoroughfare, joining with [[Interstate 280 (California)|Interstate 280]] at the city's southern border. Interstate 280 continues south from San Francisco, and also turns to the east along the southern edge of the city, terminating just south of the Bay Bridge in the [[South of Market (San Francisco)|South of Market]] neighborhood. After the [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake]], city leaders demolished the [[Embarcadero Freeway]] and a portion of the [[Central Freeway]], converting them into street-level boulevards.<ref name="freeway" />

[[California State Route 35|State Route 35]] enters the city from the south as [[Skyline Boulevard]] and terminates at its intersection with Highway 1. [[California State Route 82|State Route 82]] enters San Francisco from the south as [[Mission Street]], and terminates shortly thereafter at its junction with 280. The western terminus of the historic transcontinental [[Lincoln Highway]], the first road across America, is in San Francisco's [[Lincoln Park (San Francisco)|Lincoln Park]].

===== Vision Zero =====
In 2014, San Francisco committed to [[Vision Zero]], with the goal of ending all traffic fatalities caused by motor vehicles within the city by 2024.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kwong|first=Jessica|date=February 19, 2014|title=SF takes step forward in education for pedestrians, cyclists and drivers|newspaper=San Francisco Examiner|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/sf-takes-step-forward-in-education-for-pedestrians-cyclists-and-drivers/Content?oid=2708625|access-date=February 26, 2014|archive-date=February 26, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226232558/http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/sf-takes-step-forward-in-education-for-pedestrians-cyclists-and-drivers/Content?oid=2708625|url-status=dead}}</ref> San Francisco's Vision Zero plan calls for investing in engineering, enforcement, and education, and focusing on dangerous intersections. In 2013, 25 people were killed by car and truck drivers while walking and biking in the city and 9 car drivers and passengers were killed in collisions. In 2019, 42 people were killed in traffic collisions in San Francisco.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019|title=Vision Zero 2019 End of Year Traffic Fatality Report|url=https://www.visionzerosf.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Vision-Zero-2019-End-of-Year-Traffic-Fatality-Report_final.pdf}}</ref>

====Airports====
{{Main|San Francisco International Airport}}
[[File:SFOApril2005.JPG|thumb|San Francisco International Airport is the primary airport of San Francisco and the Bay Area.]]

Though located {{convert|13|mi|km}} south of downtown in [[Unincorporated area|unincorporated]] [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]], [[San Francisco International Airport]] (SFO) is under the jurisdiction of the City and County of San Francisco. SFO is a hub for [[United Airlines]]<ref name="UAL">{{cite news
|last = Young |first = Eric
|title = Pact keeps United from flying away
|work=San Francisco Business Times
|date = April 2, 2004 |url = http://www.bizjournals.com/sanfrancisco/stories/2004/04/05/story1.html
|access-date =June 16, 2008
}}</ref> and [[Alaska Airlines]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newsroom.alaskaair.com/2016-12-14-Alaska-Air-Group-closes-acquisition-of-Virgin-America-becomes-the-5th-largest-U-S-airline |title=Alaska Air Group closes acquisition of Virgin America, becomes the 5th largest U.S. airline |date=December 14, 2016 |access-date=February 24, 2019}}</ref> SFO is a major international gateway to Asia and Europe, with the largest international terminal in North America.<ref name="intlterminalfactsheet">{{cite web
|title = Fact Sheet: International Terminal
|publisher=San Francisco International Airport
|date=May 2007
|url = http://www.flysfo.com/web/export/sites/default/download/about/news/pressres/fact-sheet/pdf/International_Terminal_Fact_Sheet.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807172338/http://www.flysfo.com/web/export/sites/default/download/about/news/pressres/fact-sheet/pdf/International_Terminal_Fact_Sheet.pdf
|archive-date=August 7, 2013
|access-date =June 16, 2008
|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2011, SFO was the eighth-busiest airport in the U.S. and the 22nd-busiest in the world, handling over 40.9 million passengers.<ref name="SFO-stats-2011">{{cite web
|title = Preliminary World Airport Traffic 2011 (Table 2 – Total Passenger Traffic 2011)
|publisher=Airports Council International
|date = March 27, 2012
|url = http://www.centreforaviation.com/files/analysis/70690/PR_2012-03-27_PreliminaryResults_2011.pdf
|access-date =April 22, 2012}}</ref>

Located across the bay, [[Oakland International Airport]] is a popular, low-cost alternative to SFO. Geographically, Oakland Airport is approximately the same distance from downtown San Francisco as SFO, but due to its location across [[San Francisco Bay]], it is greater driving distance from San Francisco.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}}

====Cycling and walking ====
[[File:San_Francisco_bike_lane_Market_Street.jpg|thumb|A bike lane in San Francisco]]

Cycling is a popular mode of transportation in San Francisco, with 75,000 residents commuting by bicycle each day.<ref name="2011 Bicycle Count Report">{{cite news
|title = 2011 Bicycle Count Report
|work=SFMTA
|publisher=City of San Francisco
|date = December 2011
|url = http://www.sfmta.com/sites/default/files/2011BicycleCountReport-accessible.pdf
|access-date =May 17, 2012
}}</ref> In recent years, the city has installed better [[cycling infrastructure]] such as [[protected bike lane]]s and parking racks.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/cs/impl/ca-sanfrancisco-2012report.pdf|title=2012 San Francisco State of Cycling Report|publisher=San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency|page=2|access-date=October 24, 2015|year=2012}}
</ref> [[Bay Wheels]], previously named Bay Area Bike Share at inception, launched in August 2013 with 700 bikes in downtown San Francisco, selected cities in the East Bay, and San Jose. The [[San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency]] and [[Bay Area Air Quality Management District]] are responsible for the operation with management provided by [[Motivate (company)|Motivate]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Bialick |first=Aaron |title=Ford GoBike Launches, Bringing Bike-Share to New SF Neighborhoods |url=https://www.sfmta.com/blog/ford-gobike-launches-bringing-bike-share-new-sf-neighborhoods |date=June 29, 2017 |website=SFMTA: Municipal Transportation Agency |access-date=April 30, 2018}}</ref> A major expansion started in 2017, along with a rebranding as Ford GoBike; the company received its current name in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=Grab an ebike and go |url=https://www.fordgobike.com/ |website=Ford GoBike |access-date=April 30, 2018 |archive-date=December 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171217041452/https://www.fordgobike.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Pedestrian traffic is also widespread. In 2015, [[Walk Score]] ranked San Francisco the second-most walkable city in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2011/07/20/BUUK1KCC67.DTL&tsp=1 |title=S.F., Oakland in top 10 most walkable U.S. cities |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=July 20, 2011 |first=Carolyn |last=Said |date=July 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/the-10-most-walkable-us-cities-2011-07-20?link=MW_popular |title=The 10 most walkable U.S. cities |publisher=MarketWatch |year=2011 |access-date=July 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Walk Score Ranks The Most Walkable Cities of 2015 – @Redfin|url = https://www.redfin.com/blog/2015/04/walk-score-ranks-the-most-walkable-cities-of-2015.html|access-date = September 25, 2015|date = April 7, 2015}}</ref>

San Francisco has significantly higher rates of pedestrian and bicyclist traffic deaths than the United States on average. In 2013, 21 pedestrians were killed in vehicle collisions, the highest since 2001,<ref name="SF Examiner ped safety">{{cite news|last=Sabatini|first=Joshua|title=Lee unveils push for pedestrian safety|url=http://www.sfexaminer.com/sanfrancisco/lee-unveils-push-for-pedestrian-safety-measures/Content?oid=2678662|access-date=January 19, 2014|newspaper=SF Examiner|date=January 16, 2014}}</ref> which is 2.5 deaths per 100,000 population – 70% higher than the national average of 1.5.<ref name="NHTSA 2012 Crashes">{{cite web|title=Traffic Safety Facts, 2012 Motor Vehicle Crashes: Overview|url=http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/811856.pdf|publisher=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration|access-date=January 19, 2014}}</ref>

[[Cycling in San Francisco|Cycling]] is becoming increasingly popular in the city. Annual bicycle counts conducted by the [[San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency|Municipal Transportation Agency (MTA)]] in 2010 showed the number of cyclists at 33 locations had increased 58% from the 2006 baseline counts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://128.121.89.101/cms/bhome/documents/City_of_San_Francisco_2010_Bicycle_Count_Report_edit12082010.pdf|title=City of San Francisco 2010 Bicycle Count Report|work= San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency, 2010, p. 3}}</ref> In 2008, the MTA estimated that about 128,000 trips were made by bicycle each day in the city, or 6% of total trips.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://archives.sfmta.com/cms/rbikes/documents/2008SFStateofCyclingReport.pdf
|title = 2008 San Francisco State of Cycling Report
|publisher = San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency
|year = 2008
|page = 9
|access-date = October 1, 2014}}
</ref> As of 2019, 2.6% of the city's streets have protected bike lanes, with 28 miles of protected bike lanes in the city.<ref name=":0" /> Since 2006, San Francisco has received a Bicycle Friendly Community status of "Gold" from the [[League of American Bicyclists]].<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Bicycle Friendly America 2010
|url=http://www.bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/american_bicyclists_jan_feb10.pdf
|date=2010
|page=17
|journal=American Bicyclist
|access-date=October 24, 2015}}</ref> In 2022 a measure on the ballot passed to protect JFK drive in Golden Gate Park as a pedestrian and biking space with 59% of voters in favor.<ref>{{cite web | last=Cano | first=Ricardo | title=JFK Drive will remain car-free after S.F. voters reject Prop. I, pass Prop. J | website=San Francisco Chronicle | date=November 9, 2022 | url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/election/article/JFK-Drive-will-remain-car-free-after-S-F-voters-17570182.php | access-date=December 5, 2022}}</ref>

===Public safety===
The [[San Francisco Police Department]] was founded in 1849.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sanfranciscopolice.org/sfpd-history|title=SFPD History|publisher=San Francisco Police Department|access-date=February 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301011255/http://sanfranciscopolice.org/sfpd-history|archive-date=March 1, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> The portions of the [[Golden Gate National Recreation Area]] located within the city, including the [[Presidio of San Francisco|Presidio]] and [[Ocean Beach, San Francisco|Ocean Beach]], are patrolled by the [[United States Park Police]].

The [[San Francisco Fire Department]] provides both fire suppression and emergency medical services to the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sf-fire.org/fire-commission-response-grand-jury-report|title=Fire Commission Response to Grand Jury Report|publisher=San Francisco Fire Department|access-date=February 12, 2017}}</ref>

== Nicknames ==
Bay Area residents generally refer to San Francisco as "the City".<ref name="TBI20130630"/> For residents of San Francisco living in the more suburban parts of the city, "the City" generally refers to the densely populated areas around Market Street. Its use, or lack thereof, is a common way for locals to distinguish long time residents from tourists and recent arrivals (as a [[shibboleth]]).

San Francisco has several nicknames, including "The City by the Bay", "Golden Gate City",<ref name="SFnicknames">{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/community/article/The-odd-nicknames-of-California-cities-5367760.php|title=The odd nicknames of California cities|author=Mike Moffitt|date=April 4, 2014|publisher=SFChronicle.com|access-date=July 22, 2017}}</ref> "Frisco", "SF", "San Fran", and "Fog City"; as well as older ones like "The City that Knows How", "Baghdad by the Bay", or "The Paris of the West".<ref name="TBI20130630">{{cite web|url=https://thebolditalic.com/don-t-call-it-frisco-the-history-of-san-francisco-s-nicknames-the-bold-italic-san-francisco-5c14348d49c#.m605gfvq5|title=Don't Call It Frisco: The History of San Francisco's Nicknames|last=Garling|first=Caleb|date=June 30, 2013|website=[[The Bold Italic]]|access-date=June 18, 2016}}</ref> "San Fran" and "Frisco" are controversial as nicknames among San Francisco residents.<ref>{{cite web |title=Don't Call It 'Frisco': The History of San Francisco's Nicknames |url=https://thebolditalic.com/don-t-call-it-frisco-the-history-of-san-francisco-s-nicknames-the-bold-italic-san-francisco-5c14348d49c |website=The Bold Italic|access-date=February 17, 2020 |date=December 20, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gilson |first1=Dave |title=Why San Francisco's "Frisco" debate will never, ever die |url=https://www.motherjones.com/media/2016/01/san-francisco-frisco-timeline/ |website=Mother Jones |access-date=February 17, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Brinklow |first1=Adam |title=Is it ever okay to use "San Fran?" |url=https://sf.curbed.com/2018/1/26/16936872/san-fran-frisco-survey-nickname-francisco |website=Curbed SF |access-date=February 17, 2020 |language=en |date=January 26, 2018}}</ref>

==Sister cities==
{{Main|Sister cities of San Francisco, California|List of diplomatic missions in San Francisco}}
San Francisco participates in the [[Sister Cities International|Sister Cities]] program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oewd.org/san-francisco-sister-cities|title=San Francisco Sister Cities|access-date=February 1, 2017}}</ref> A total of 41 consulates general and 23 honorary consulates have offices in the San Francisco Bay Area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oewd.org/media/docs/SF%20Register%20of%20Foreign%20Consulates.pdf|title=REGISTER OF FOREIGN CONSULATES IN SAN FRANCISCO|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141123011642/http://www.oewd.org/media/docs/SF%20Register%20of%20Foreign%20Consulates.pdf|archive-date=November 23, 2014|access-date=March 11, 2013}}</ref>

=={{anchor|Notable people}}Notable residents==
{{main|List of people from San Francisco}}

==See also==
{{portal|San Francisco Bay Area|Cities|California}}
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[San Francisco Bay Area]]
* [[List of cities and towns in California]]
* [[List of counties in California]]
* [[List of people from San Francisco]]
* [[Northern California Megaregion]]
* [[Ships lost in San Francisco]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=


<ref name="Census 2010-GCT-PH1-density">{{cite web
|title = GCT-PH1 – Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2010 – County – Census Tract
|url = https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/GCTPH1.CY07/0500000US06075
|work = [[2010 United States Census]] Summary File 1
|publisher = United States Census Bureau
|access-date = February 8, 2018
|archive-url = https://archive.today/2020.02.13-235157/https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/GCTPH1.CY07/0500000US06075
|archive-date = February 13, 2020
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}

* {{cite book
|last=De La Perouse
|first=Jean Francois
|author2=Yamane, Linda Gonsalves
|author3=Margolin, Malcolm
|title=Life in a California Mission: Monterey in 1786: The Journals of Jean Francois De La Perouse
|year=1989
|publisher=[[Heyday Books]]
|isbn=978-0-930588-39-7
|oclc=20368802
|url=https://archive.org/details/montereyin1786jo00lape
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Hansen
|first = Gladys
|author-link1 = Gladys Hansen
|title = San Francisco Almanac: Everything you want to know about the city
|publisher = Chronicle Books
|year = 1995
|isbn = 978-0-8118-0841-5
|oclc = 30702907
|url = https://archive.org/details/sanfranciscoalma00hans_0
}}
* {{cite journal
|last = London
|first = Jack
|title = The Story of an Eyewitness by Jack London
|journal=Collier's, the National Weekly
|date = May 5, 1906}}
* {{cite book
|last = Richards
|first = Rand
|title = Historic San Francisco: A Concise History and Guide
|publisher = Heritage House
|year = 1991
|isbn = 978-1-879367-00-5
|oclc = 214330849
|url = https://archive.org/details/historicsanfranc00rich
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Ungaretti
|first = Lorri
|title = San Francisco's Richmond District
|publisher = Arcadia Publishing
|year = 2005
|isbn = 978-0-7385-3053-6
|oclc = 62249656
|url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/sanfranciscosric0000unga
}}
* {{cite book |author=Wiley, Peter Booth |title=National trust guide San Francisco: America's guide for architecture and history travelers |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-471-19120-9 |oclc=44313415}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |year= 1989 |publisher=Dorset Press |title=The Barbary Coast: An Informal History of the San Francisco Underworld |author=Asbury, Hubert |isbn=978-0-88029-428-7 |oclc= 22719465}}
* {{cite book |author=Bronson, William |title=The Earth Shook, the Sky Burned |url=https://archive.org/details/earthshookskybur0000bron |url-access=registration |publisher=Chronicle Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8118-5047-6 |oclc=65223734}}
* {{cite book |year= 1987 |publisher=Square Books |title=Spanning the Gate |author=Cassady, Stephen |isbn=978-0-916290-36-8 |oclc= 15229396}}
* {{cite book |year= 1998 |publisher=Celestial Arts (Reissue edition) |title=High Steel: Building the Bridges Across San Francisco Bay |author=Dillon, Richard H. |isbn=978-0-88029-428-7 |oclc= 22719465}}
* {{cite book |last=Eldredge |first=Zoeth Skinner |author-link=Zoeth Skinner Eldredge |title=The Beginnings of San Francisco: from the Expedition of Anza, 1774, to the City Charter of April 15, 1850 |url=https://www.library.sfgenealogy.org/books/san_francisco_county/The_Beginnings_of_San_Francisco_1912%20(ACPL).pdf |date=1912 |location=New York |publisher=John C. Rankin Company}}
* {{cite book |title=Literary San Francisco: A pictorial history from its beginnings to the present day |author=Ferlinghetti, Lawrence |isbn=978-0-06-250325-1 |year=1980 |publisher=Harper & Row |oclc=6683688 |url=https://archive.org/details/literarysanfranc00ferl }}
* {{cite book |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |title=City for Sale: The Transformation of San Francisco |author=Hartman, Chester |isbn=978-0-520-08605-0 |oclc=48579085}}
* Heller, Nathan. [https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/10/14/bay-watched ''Bay Watched – How San Francisco's New Entrepreneurial Culture is Changing the Country'' (article)] (October 2013). ''[[The New Yorker]]''
* {{ cite book |title=Rush for Riches: Gold Fever and the Making of California |url=https://archive.org/details/rushforrichesgol00holl |url-access=registration |author=Holliday, J. S. |isbn = 978-0-520-21402-6 |year=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |oclc=37545551}}
* {{cite book |year= 1997 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |title=San Francisco, 1846–1856: From Hamlet to City |author=Lotchin, Roger W. |isbn=978-0-252-06631-3 |oclc= 35650934}}
* {{cite book |year=1981 |publisher=Heydey Books |title=The Ohlone Way: Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area |author=Margolin, Malcolm |isbn=978-0-930588-01-4 |oclc=4628382 |url=https://archive.org/details/ohlonewayindianl00marg_0 }}
* {{cite book |year=1978 |publisher=Harper Collins |title=Tales of the City |author=Maupin, Armistead |isbn=978-0-06-096404-7 |oclc=29847673 |url=https://archive.org/details/talesofcity000maup }}
* Solnit, Rebecca. ''Infinite City: A San Francisco Atlas'' (University of California Press, 2010). 144 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-520-26250-8}}; [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=34658 online review]
* {{cite book |year=1971 |publisher=Stein and Day |title=The San Francisco Earthquake |author1=Thomas, Gordon |author2=Witts, Max Morgan |name-list-style=amp |isbn=978-0-8128-1360-9 |oclc=154735 |url=https://archive.org/details/sanfranciscoeart00thom }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Watkins |first=James F. |title=San Francisco |url=http://cprr.org/Museum/SF_Overland_Monthly_1870.html |date=January 1870 |magazine=[[Overland Monthly|The Overland Monthly]] |volume=4 |number=1 |pages=9–23 |location=San Francisco |publisher=A. Roman & Co.}}
* Winfield, P.H., ''The Charter of San Francisco'' (The fortnightly review Vol. 157–58:2 (1945), p. 69–75)

Vice-President of the European Parliament

2023-01-13T08:20:58Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " There are fourteen '''vice-presidents of the European Parliament''' who sit in for the president in presiding over the plenary of the European Parliament. ==Role== Vice-presidents are members of the Bureau and chair the plenary when the president is not in the chair. The president may also delegate any duty, task or power to one of the vice-presidents. Three vice-presidents, designated by the..."

There are fourteen '''vice-presidents of the European Parliament''' who sit in for the [[President of the European Parliament|president]] in presiding over the plenary of the [[European Parliament]].

==Role==
Vice-presidents are members of the [[Bureau (European Parliament)|Bureau]] and chair the plenary when the president is not in the chair. The president may also delegate any duty, task or power to one of the vice-presidents. Three vice-presidents, designated by the Conference of Presidents, traditionally have more power than the others; the right to be on the [[Codecision procedure|conciliation committee]].<ref name="EMS">[http://euobserver.com/9/28457 New European Conservatives group in disarray over renegade MEP], ANDREW WILLIS 14 July 2009</ref>

==Election==
The vice-presidents are elected following the election of the president, which takes place every two and a half years.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.euparliament.eu/european-organisation |title=European Organisation - European Parliamentary Yearbook |access-date=15 June 2011 |archive-date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314225013/http://www.euparliament.eu/european-organisation |url-status=dead }}</ref>

There tends to be an agreement dividing up the 14 posts between the groups,{{citation needed|reason=it seems dubious that in 2014, ECR agreed to have fewer posts than the smaller ALDE faction, and EFDD to have no posts, unlike the only marginally larger GUE/NGL and Greens|date=August 2014}} and thus they are usually elected without formal opposition.{{dubious|many candidates have needed 2 or 3 rounds of voting at least since 2009|date=August 2014}} However, in 2009 [[Edward McMillan-Scott]], through the individual support of 40 MEPs, successfully challenged his group's (the [[European Conservatives and Reformists]]) formal candidate; [[Michał Kamiński]]. Having been elected and prevented the election of Kaminski, McMillan-Scott was expelled from the ECR and Kaminski gained the group chair.<ref name="EMS"/>

==6th parliament==
{{see|6th European Parliament}}
[[File:EP VP 04.png|thumb|Vice-presidents elected by country in 2004
{{legend|#4885D6|Three}}
{{legend|#5CCFD6|Two}}
{{legend|#56D683|One}}
{{legend|#D6C695|None}}]]
;30 July 2004 to 16 January 2007
Elected (unopposed) in order of precedence;
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|1||[[Alejo Vidal-Quadras Roca]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|ESP}} Spain
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|2||[[Antonios Trakatellis]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|3||[[Dagmar Roth-Behrendt]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|4||[[Edward McMillan-Scott]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|GBR}} United Kingdom
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|5||[[Ingo Friedrich]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|6||[[Mario Mauro]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|7||[[António Costa]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|POR}} Portugal
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|8||[[Luigi Cocilovo]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|9||[[Jacek Saryusz-Wolski]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|10||[[Pierre Moscovici]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|FRA}} France
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|11||[[Miroslav Ouzký]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|CZE}} Czech Republic
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|12||[[Janusz Onyszkiewicz]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|13||[[Gérard Onesta]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|FRA}} France
|---- bgcolor=#FFC0CB
|14||[[Sylvia-Yvonne Kaufmann]]||[[European United Left–Nordic Green Left|EUL/NGL]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany
|}

[[File:EP VP 07.png|thumb|Vice-presidents elected by country in 2007
{{legend|#4885D6|Three}}
{{legend|#5CCFD6|Two}}
{{legend|#56D683|One}}
{{legend|#D6C695|None}}]]
;16 January 2007 to 14 July 2009
Elected (unopposed) in order of precedence;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/008-1954-015-01-03-901-20070115IPR01953-15-01-2007-2007-true/default_en.htm|title=European Parliament Press Release on election (2007)|website=europa.eu|access-date=28 June 2008|archive-date=3 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703090607/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/008-1954-015-01-03-901-20070115IPR01953-15-01-2007-2007-true/default_en.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
! Votes
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|1||[[Rodi Kratsa-Tsagaropoulou]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||322
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|2||[[Alejo Vidal-Quadras]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|ESP}} Spain||300
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|3||[[Gérard Onesta]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|FRA}} France||285
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|4||[[Edward McMillan-Scott]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|GBR}} United Kingdom||274
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|5||[[Mario Mauro]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP-ED]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||262
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|6||[[Miguel Angel Martínez Martínez]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|ESP}} Spain||260
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|7||[[Luigi Cocilovo]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||234
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|8||[[Mechtild Rothe]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany||217
|---- bgcolor=#FFC0CB
|9||[[Luisa Morgantini]]||[[European United Left–Nordic Green Left|GUE/NGL]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||207
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|10||[[Pierre Moscovici]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|FRA}} France||207
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|11||[[Manuel António Dos Santos]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|POR}} Portugal||193
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|12||[[Diana Wallis]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|GBR}} United Kingdom||192
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|13||[[Marek Siwiec]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|PES]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||180
|---- bgcolor=#E0FFFF
|14||[[Adam Bielan]]||[[Union for Europe of the Nations|UEN]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||128
|}

==7th parliament==
{{see|7th European Parliament}}
[[File:EP VP 09.png|thumb|Vice-presidents elected by country in 2009
{{legend|#4885D6|Three}}
{{legend|#5CCFD6|Two}}
{{legend|#56D683|One}}
{{legend|#D6C695|None}}]]
;14 July 2009 to 17 January 2012
Elected in order of precedence;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/008-58148-195-07-29-901-20090714IPR58147-14-07-2009-2009-true/default_en.htm|title=European Parliament Press Release on election (2009)|website=europa.eu|access-date=14 July 2009|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112222/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/008-58148-195-07-29-901-20090714IPR58147-14-07-2009-2009-true/default_en.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
! Votes
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|1||[[Giovanni Pittella]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||360
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|2||[[Rodi Kratsa-Tsagaropoulou]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||355
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|3||[[Stavros Lambrinidis]] ||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||346
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|4||[[Miguel Angel Martínez Martínez]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ESP}} Spain||327
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|5||[[Alejo Vidal-Quadras]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|ESP}} Spain||308
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|6||[[Dagmar Roth-Behrendt]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany||287
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|7||[[Libor Rouček]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|CZE}} Czech Republic||278
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|8||[[Isabelle Durant]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|BEL}} Belgium||276
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|9||[[Roberta Angelilli]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||274
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|10||[[Diana Wallis]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|UK}} United Kingdom||272
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|11||[[Pál Schmitt]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||257
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|12||[[Edward McMillan-Scott]]||[[Non-attached]]<ref>Was elected with the [[Conservative Party (UK)|British Conservatives]] and sat with [[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]. However successfully stood against ECR's official candidate and was expelled. Although he joined the Liberal Democrats in the UK, he sits as a Non-attached Member in the European Parliament.</ref>||{{Flag icon|UK}} United Kingdom||244
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|13||[[Rainer Wieland]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany||237
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|14||[[Silvana Koch-Mehrin]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany||186
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=9|Changes since election
|-
! Departed member
! Group
! State
! Date
! Reason
! Replacement
! Elected
! Group
! State
|- style="background: #DDEEFF"
|[[Pál Schmitt]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||14 May 2010||Resigned due to becoming president of Hungary||[[László Tőkés]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://wireupdate.com/local/european-parliament-elects-laszlo-tokes-as-vice-president/ |title=European Parliament elects László Tőkés as Vice-President » WireUpdate Local | Local Breaking News | Local Breaking Wire - |access-date=13 May 2011 |archive-date=6 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106022211/http://wireupdate.com/local/european-parliament-elects-laszlo-tokes-as-vice-president/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>||May 2010||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|ROM}} Romania
|- style="background: #FFFFDD"
|[[Silvana Koch-Mehrin]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany||11 May 2011||Resigned due to doctorate plagiarism scandal||- style="background: #CCDDEE"|[[Giles Chichester]]||- bgcolor=#CCDDEE|6 July 2011||- bgcolor= #CCDDEE|[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]||- bgcolor= #CCDDEE|{{Flag icon|UK}} UK
|}

;17 January 2012 to 1 July 2014
Elected in order of precedence;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/content/20120106FCS34949/4/html/14-Vice-Presidents-of-the-European-Parliament-elected|title=European Parliament Press Release on election (2012)|website=europa.eu|access-date=19 January 2012|archive-date=12 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512044023/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/content/20120106FCS34949/4/html/14-Vice-Presidents-of-the-European-Parliament-elected|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
! Votes
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|1||[[Giovanni Pittella|Gianni Pittella]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||319
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|2||[[Miguel Angel Martínez Martínez]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ESP}} Spain||295
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|3||[[Anni Podimata]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||281
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|4||[[Alejo Vidal-Quadras]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|ESP}} Spain||269
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|5||[[Georgios Papastamkos]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||248
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|6||[[Roberta Angelilli]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||246
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|7||[[Othmar Karas]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|AUT}} Austria||244
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|8||[[Edward McMillan-Scott]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|UK}} United Kingdom||239
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|9||[[Isabelle Durant]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|BEL}} Belgium||238
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|10||[[Alexander Alvaro]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany||235
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|11||[[Rainer Wieland]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|DEU}} Germany||230
|---- bgcolor=#CCDDEE
|12||[[Oldřich Vlasák]]||[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]||{{Flag icon|CZE}} Czech Republic||223
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|13||[[Jacek Protasiewicz]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||206
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|14||[[László Surján]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||188
|}

==8th parliament==
{{see|8th European Parliament}}
;1 July 2014 to 18 January 2017
Elected in order of precedence;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/news-room/content/20140630IPR51011/html/Fourteen-Vice-Presidents-of-the-European-Parliament-elected|title=Fourteen Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament elected – News – European Parliament|website=europa.eu|date=7 January 2014}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
! Votes
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|1||[[Antonio Tajani]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||452, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|2||[[Mairead McGuinness]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|IRE}} Ireland||441, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|3||[[Rainer Wieland]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||437, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|4||[[Ramón Luis Valcárcel]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|SPA}} Spain||406, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|5||[[Ildikó Pelczné Gáll]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||400, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|6||[[Adina Vălean]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|ROM}} Romania||394, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|7||[[Corina Crețu]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ROM}} Romania||406, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|8||[[Sylvie Guillaume]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|FRA}} France||406, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|9||[[David Sassoli]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||394, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|10||[[Olli Rehn]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|FIN}} Finland||377, Round 3
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|11||[[Alexander Graf Lambsdorff]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||365, Round 3
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|12||[[Ulrike Lunacek]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|AUT}} Austria||319, Round 3
|---- bgcolor=#FFC0CB
|13||[[Dimitrios Papadimoulis]]||[[European United Left–Nordic Green Left|GUE/NGL]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||302, Round 3
|---- bgcolor=#CCDDEE
|14||[[Ryszard Czarnecki]]||[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||284, Round 3
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=9|Changes since election
|-
! Departed member
! Group
! State
! Date
! Reason
! Replacement
! Elected
! Group
! State
|- style="background: #FFE8E8"
|[[Corina Crețu]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ROM}} Romania||October 2014||Resigned due to becoming European Commissioner||[[Ioan Mircea Pașcu]]||November 2014||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ROM}} Romania
|- style="background: #FFFFDD"
|[[Olli Rehn]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|FIN}} Finland||May 2015||Resigned due to becoming Minister of Economic Affairs of Finland||[[Anneli Jäätteenmäki]]||May 2015||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|FIN}} Finland
|}

;18 January 2017 to 3 July 2019
Elected in order of precedence;

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
! Votes
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|1||[[Mairead McGuinness]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|IRE}} Ireland||466, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|2||[[Bogusław Liberadzki]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||378, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|3||[[David Sassoli]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||377, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|4||[[Rainer Wieland]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||336, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|5||[[Sylvie Guillaume]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|FRA}} France||335, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#CCDDEE
|6||[[Ryszard Czarnecki]]||[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||328, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|7||[[Ramón Luis Valcárcel]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|SPA}} Spain||323, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=FFE8E8
|8||[[Evelyne Gebhardt]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||315, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|9||[[Pavel Telička]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|CZ}} Czech Republic||313, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|10||[[Ildikó Pelczné Gáll]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||310, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|11||[[Ioan Mircea Pașcu]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ROM}} Romania||517, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFC0CB
|12||[[Dimitrios Papadimoulis]]||[[European United Left–Nordic Green Left|GUE/NGL]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||469, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|13||[[Ulrike Lunacek]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|AUT}} Austria||441, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|14||[[Alexander Graf Lambsdorff]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||393, Round 2
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=9|Changes since election
|-
! Departed member
! Group
! State
! Date
! Reason
! Replacement
! Elected
! Group
! State
|- style="background: #DDEEFF"
|[[Ildikó Pelczné Gáll]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||1 September 2017||Resigned due to joining the [[European Court of Auditors]]||[[Lívia Járóka]]||15 November 2017<ref name="JarokaCastaldo">{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20171110IPR87822/livia-jaroka-and-fabio-massimo-castaldo-elected-vice-presidents-of-the-ep|title=Livia Járóka and Fabio Massimo Castaldo elected Vice-Presidents of the EP – News – European Parliament|website=europa.eu|date=15 November 2017}}</ref>||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary
|- style="background: #CCFFCC"
|[[Ulrike Lunacek]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|AUT}} Austria||23 October 2017||Resigned from politics after a defeat in national elections||[[Heidi Hautala]]||26 October 2017<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20171020IPR86557/heidi-hautala-elected-vice-president-of-the-european-parliament|title=Heidi Hautala elected Vice-President of the European Parliament – News – European Parliament|website=europa.eu|date=26 October 2017}}</ref>||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|FIN}} Finland
|- style="background: #FFFFDD"
|[[Alexander Graf Lambsdorff]]||[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||23 October 2017||Resigned due to becoming member of the [[Bundestag]]||- style="background: #24B9B9"|[[Fabio Massimo Castaldo]]||- bgcolor= #24B9B9|15 November 2017<ref name="JarokaCastaldo"/>||- bgcolor= #24B9B9|[[Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy|EFDD]]||- bgcolor= #24B9B9|{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy
|- style="background: #CCDDEE"
|[[Ryszard Czarnecki]]||[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||7 February 2018||Removed from office due to serious misconduct<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20180202IPR97029/ryszard-czarnecki-no-longer-vice-president-of-parliament|title=Ryszard Czarnecki no longer Vice-President of Parliament – News – European Parliament|website=europa.eu|date=2 July 2018}}</ref>||[[Zdzisław Krasnodębski (sociologist)|Zdzisław Krasnodębski]]||1 March 2018<ref name = "Zdzisław Krasnodębski">{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20180226IPR98616/zdzislaw-krasnodebski-elected-vice-president-of-the-european-parliament|title=Zdzisław Krasnodębski elected Vice-President of the European Parliament – News – European Parliament|website=europa.eu|date=3 January 2018}}</ref> ||[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]] || {{Flag icon|POL}} Poland
|}

== 9th Parliament ==

{{see|9th European Parliament}}
;3 July 2019 to 18 January 2022
Elected in order of precedence;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20190627IPR55411/the-new-european-parliament-vice-presidents|title=The new European Parliament Vice-Presidents|website=europa.eu|date=3 July 2019}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
! Votes
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|1||[[Mairead McGuinness]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|IRE}} Ireland||618, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|2||[[Pedro Silva Pereira]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|POR}} Portugal||556, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|3||[[Rainer Wieland]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||516, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|4||[[Katarina Barley]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||516, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|5||[[Othmar Karas]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|AUT}} Austria||477, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|6||[[Ewa Kopacz]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||461, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|7||[[Klára Dobrev]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||402, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|8||[[Dita Charanzová]]||[[Renew Europe|RE]]||{{Flag icon|CZE}} Czech Republic||395, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|9||[[Nicola Beer]]||[[Renew Europe|RE]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||363, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|10||[[Lívia Járóka]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|HUN}} Hungary||349, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|11||[[Heidi Hautala]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|FIN}} Finland||336, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|12||[[Marcel Kolaja]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|CZE}} Czech Republic||426, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|13||[[Dimitrios Papadimoulis]]||[[European United Left–Nordic Green Left|GUE/NGL]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||401, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#CCDDEE
|14||[[Fabio Massimo Castaldo]]||[[Non-Inscrits|NI]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||285, Round 3
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=9|Changes since election
|-
! Departed member
! Group
! State
! Date
! Reason
! Replacement
! Elected
! Group
! State
|- style="background: #DDEEFF"
|[[Mairead McGuinness]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|IRE}} Ireland||October 2020||Resigned due to becoming European Commissioner||[[Roberta Metsola]]||November 2020||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|MLT}} Malta
|}

;18 January 2022 to present
Elected in order of precedence;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220114IPR21013/parliament-s-new-vice-presidents|title=Parliament's new Vice-Presidents|website=europa.eu|date=18 January 2022}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! class="unsortable" |
! Members
! Group
! State
! Votes
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|1||[[Othmar Karas]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|AUT}} Austria||536, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|2||[[Pina Picierno]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|ITA}} Italy||527, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|3||[[Pedro Silva Pereira]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|POR}} Portugal||517, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|4||[[Ewa Kopacz]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|POL}} Poland||467, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|5||[[Eva Kaili]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||454, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|6||[[Evelyn Regner]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|AUT}} Austria||434, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|7||[[Rainer Wieland]]||[[European People's Party (European Parliament group)|EPP]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||432, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|8||[[Katarina Barley]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||426, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|9||[[Dita Charanzová]]||[[Renew Europe|RE]]||{{Flag icon|CZE}} Czech Republic||406, Round 1
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|10||[[Michal Šimečka]]||[[Renew Europe|RE]]||{{Flag icon|SVK}} Slovakia||494, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|11||[[Nicola Beer]]||[[Renew Europe|RE]]||{{Flag icon|GER}} Germany||410, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#CCDDEE
|12||[[Roberts Zīle]]||[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]||{{Flag icon|LAT}} Latvia||403, Round 2
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|13||[[Dimitrios Papadimoulis]]||[[European United Left–Nordic Green Left|GUE/NGL]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||492, Round 3
|---- bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|14||[[Heidi Hautala]]||[[The Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]]||{{Flag icon|FIN}} Finland||304, Round 3
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=9|Changes since election<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek MEP stripped of vice president powers over graft probe|url=https://www.dw.com/en/greek-mep-stripped-of-vice-president-powers-over-graft-probe/a-64057460|access-date=11 December 2022}}</ref>
|-
! Member
! Group
! State
! Date
! Reason
! Replacement
! Elected
! Group
! State
|- style="background: #FFE8E8"
|[[Eva Kaili]]||[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]]||{{Flag icon|GRE}} Greece||December 2022||Expelled from group due to arrest||- style="background: #DCDCDC"|Awaiting Election|| bgcolor= #DCDCDC| -||- bgcolor= #DCDCDC|-||- bgcolor= #DCDCDC|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

Social Democratic Party of Austria

2023-01-13T08:20:17Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " The '''Social Democratic Party of Austria''' ({{lang-de|Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs}} {{IPA-de|zoˈtsi̯aːldemoˌkraːtɪʃə parˌtaɪ ˈøːstəraɪçs|}}, '''SPÖ'''), founded and known as the '''Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria''' ({{lang-de|link=no|Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs}}, '''SDAPÖ''') until 1945 and later the '''Socialist Party of Austria''' ({{lang-de|link=no|Sozialistische Partei Österreichs}}) until 1991,<ref>..."

The '''Social Democratic Party of Austria''' ({{lang-de|Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs}} {{IPA-de|zoˈtsi̯aːldemoˌkraːtɪʃə parˌtaɪ ˈøːstəraɪçs|}}, '''SPÖ'''), founded and known as the '''Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria''' ({{lang-de|link=no|Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs}}, '''SDAPÖ''') until 1945 and later the '''Socialist Party of Austria''' ({{lang-de|link=no|Sozialistische Partei Österreichs}}) until 1991,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/place/Austria/Transportation-and-telecommunications#ref409271|last=Encyclopaedia Britannica|title=Austria: Transport and telecommunications - history - geography|access-date=24 October 2019}}</ref> is a [[social-democratic]]<ref name="Almeida">{{cite book|author=Dimitri Almeida|title=The Impact of European Integration on Political Parties: Beyond the Permissive Consensus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oD7bKbo0FYEC&pg=PT71|access-date=14 July 2013|date=27 April 2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-136-34039-0|page=71}}</ref><ref name="Nordsieck2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/austria.html|title=Parties and Elections in Europe|website=www.parties-and-elections.eu|accessdate=18 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bale |first=Tim |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1256593260 |title=Riding the populist wave: Europe's mainstream right in crisis |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser |isbn=978-1-009-00686-6 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=35 |oclc=1256593260}}</ref> [[political party in Austria]]. Founded in 1889, it is the oldest extant political party in Austria. Along with the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP), it is one of the country's two traditional [[major parties]]. It is positioned on the [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] on the political spectrum.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Connolly|first1=Kate|last2=Oltermann|first2=Philip|last3=Henley|first3=Jon|date=23 May 2016|title=Austria elects Green candidate as president in narrow defeat for far right|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/23/far-right-candidate-defeated-austrian-presidential-election-norbert-hofer|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=15 October 2017|title=The Latest: Election tally shows Austria turning right|newspaper=The Washington Times|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2017/oct/15/the-latest-polls-close-in-pivotal-austrian-electio/|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Oliphant|first1=Roland|last2=Csekö|first2=Balazs|date=5 December 2016|title=Austrian far-right defiant as Freedom Party claims 'pole position' for general election: 'Our time comes'|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/05/time-comes-says-defiant-austrian-far-right-freedom-party-claims/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/05/time-comes-says-defiant-austrian-far-right-freedom-party-claims/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=24 April 2018|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Since November 2018, the party has been led by [[Pamela Rendi-Wagner]]. It is currently the second largest of five parties in the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]], with 40 of the 183 seats, and won 21.2% of votes cast in the [[2019 Austrian legislative election|2019 legislative election]]. It holds seats in the legislatures of all nine [[States of Austria|states]]; of these, it is the largest party in three ([[Burgenland]], [[Carinthia]], and [[Vienna]].) The SPÖ is supportive of Austria's membership in the [[European Union]],<ref>{{cite web|title=SPOE Partei Programm|url=https://spoe.at/bilder/d251/spoe_partei_programm.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114082323/http://spoe.at/bilder/d251/spoe_partei_programm.pdf|archive-date=14 November 2012|language=de|df=dmy-all}} (458 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]) Party platform, see articles I.(1) and III.7.(1): "strive for a society that overcomes class antagonisms", "only the advancement of political to economic, and therefore social, democracy establishes the precondition for the realization of our basic principles".{{dead link|date=June 2017}}</ref> and it is a member of the [[Socialist International]], [[Progressive Alliance]], and [[Party of European Socialists]]. It sits with the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats]] in the [[European Parliament]]; of Austria's 19 [[MEPs]], five are members of the SPÖ. The party has close ties to the [[Austrian Trade Union Federation]] (ÖGB) and the [[Austrian Chamber of Labour]] (AK).

The SDAPÖ was the second largest party in the [[Imperial Council (Austria)|Imperial Council]] of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] from the 1890s through 1910s. After the [[First World War]], it briefly governed the [[First Austrian Republic]], but thereafter returned to opposition. The party was banned in 1934 following the [[Austrian Civil War]], and was suppressed throughout [[Austrofascism]] and the [[Austria under National Socialism|Nazi period]]. The party was refounded as the Socialist Party of Austria in 1945 and governed as a junior partner of the ÖVP until 1966. In 1970, the SPÖ became the largest party for the first time in post-war history, and [[Bruno Kreisky]] became [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]], winning three consecutive majorities ([[1971 Austrian legislative election|1971]], [[1975 Austrian legislative election|1975]], and [[1979 Austrian legislative election|1979]]). From 1987 to 2000 the SPÖ led a grand coalition with the ÖVP before returning to opposition for the first time in 30 years. The party governed again from 2007 to 2017. Since 2017, the SPÖ have been the primary opposition to the [[Kurz government (disambiguation)|ÖVP governments of Sebastian Kurz]], [[Schallenberg government|Alexander Schallenberg]], and [[Nehammer government|Karl Nehammer]].

== History ==
{{main|History of Social Democracy in Austria}}
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
Since its foundation in 1889, the SDAPÖ has been one of the main political forces in Austria. At the start of the [[First World War]], it was the strongest party in parliament. At the ending of that war in 1918, the party leader [[Karl Renner]] became [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] of the [[First Austrian Republic|First Republic]]. The SDAPÖ lost power in 1920, but it retained a strong base of support.

After the break-up of the [[Austro-hungarian empire|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] (1918), the Social Democratic Party supported for a time the idea of a union with Berlin in order to constitute a great democratic German republic, thus taking up a [[Revolutions of 1848|revolutionary project of 1848]]. The victors of the war did not see it that way and set the borders of Austria. In the [[interwar period]], [[Austromarxism|Austro-Marxism]], maintaining its particularities in the face of German social democracy - guilty of having suppressed the [[Spartacist uprising|Spartakist uprising]] of 1919 in blood - and Soviet communism, envisaged the creation of a new international aimed at bringing together the different currents of socialism. However, the attempt did not succeed. The more left-wing Social Democrats, such as [[Max Adler (Marxist)|Max Adler]], relied on the [[Workers' council|Workers' Councils]] that had developed throughout Central Europe in 1918-1919, particularly in Vienna.<ref name=":0">Rabinbach, Anson. The Austrian socialist experiment : social democracy and austromarxism, 1918-1934. Boulder: Westview Press</ref>

The SDAP was the most established of the European social democratic parties. In the 1920s, about 15 percent of Austrians were members of an association linked to the party. In 1929, it had 720,000 members. The SDAP was almost hegemonic among the working class, but could not compete with the conservatives in the countryside and small towns. The [[Great Depression|economic crisis]] of the 1930s, which caused factory closures and increased unemployment, weakened the labor movement and with it the SDAP. In 1930, its membership was down to 650,000 militants.<ref name=":0" />

From 1919 to February 1934, the Social Democrats were in continuous control of the Vienna municipality, which acquired the nickname "[[Red Vienna]]". The municipality developed an ambitious policy, including a vast program of construction of workers' housing, which included 60,000 communal social housing units. In addition, free medical care was introduced, and income and luxury taxes were introduced. Culture was clearly emphasized: "Arbeiterbildung" (working-class education and culture) reigned supreme, and the city was home to many internationally renowned intellectuals and artists. Numerous cinemas and theaters subsidized by the municipality opened their doors, and sports became more democratic. This socialist experiment, supported by some renowned intellectuals such as [[Otto Neurath]] and [[Sigmund Freud]], also inspired a violent disgust in conservative circles. The press readily described red Vienna as a "Jewish creation" in the hands of "Bolshevism".<ref name=":0" />

In 1934, the Christian Social Party, the dominant party on the right, overthrew the democratic system and established a regime inspired by fascism. The social democrats and [[Communist Party of Austria|communists]] put up armed resistance, but it was quickly crushed.<ref name=":0" />

When Anschluss took place in 1938 at the hands of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany]], he brought Austria into the [[Second World War]]. In 1945, the party was reconstituted as the Socialist Party of Austria ({{lang-de|Sozialistische Partei Österreichs}}, SPÖ) and was led by [[Adolf Schärf]]. The SPÖ entered the government of the [[Second Austrian Republic|Second Republic]] as part of a [[grand coalition]] with the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) until 1966 and with the [[Communist Party of Austria]] until 1949. Renner became the first [[President of Austria]].

From 1971 to 1983, the SPÖ under [[Bruno Kreisky]] was the sole governing party. For the following three years, it ruled in coalition with the [[Freedom Party of Austria]] (FPÖ), then up to 2000 it was again part of a grand coalition with the ÖVP, with [[Franz Vranitzky]] as Chancellor until 1997. In 1991, it reverted to including ''Democratic'' in its name, becoming the Social Democratic Party of Austria ({{lang-de|link=no|Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs}}). During this period, the grand coalition combined with the [[Proporz]] system, whereby important posts throughout the government were shared out between members of the two main parties, evoked rising discontent. This was a factor in the growing popularity of the FPÖ which came second to the SPÖ in the [[1999 Austrian legislative election]]. The following year, the FPÖ and ÖVP formed a [[right-wing]] coalition, displacing the SPÖ from a share in government. While this coalition was still in power, the SPÖ's [[Heinz Fischer]] was elected president in the [[2004 Austrian presidential election]]. Following the [[2006 Austrian legislative election]], another grand coalition was formed between the SPÖ and the ÖVP, lasting until 2017, when the SPÖ went back to the [[Opposition (politics)|opposition]]. In the [[2019 Austrian legislative election]], the SPÖ lost 12 seats and shrunk to 21.2%.

== Confronting the past of 1938–1945 ==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
Concerning the role of the SDAPÖ during [[Austria under National Socialism|Nazi rule]] from 1938 to 1945, the party started opening its archives and set in a commission to investigate its past conduct. Despite the fact the SDAPÖ had been outlawed and many party members imprisoned under [[Austrofascism]], many SDAPÖ members initially welcomed the ''[[Anschluss]]'' of Austria into Germany back then and some became members of the [[Nazi Party]]. [[Alfred Gusenbauer]] issued a declaration promising and supporting a full and open investigation ("Klarheit in der Vergangenheit – Basis für die Zukunft"). In 2005, the report about the so-called "brown spots" ({{lang-de|braune Flecken}}) was completed and published. The report talks about SDAPÖ members and leaders who became members of the Nazi Party during German rule after the ''Anschluss''. One example given in the report is the case of [[Heinrich Gross]], who received many honours from the party and even the government in the post-war period. This was despite the fact that he worked as a Nazi doctor in the [[euthanasia]] ward Am Spiegelgrund in Vienna, where [[human experiment]]s on children were performed. Those children with presumptive mental defects were eventually killed, often by lethal [[Injection (medicine)|injection]]. Gross was probably himself involved in the experimentations and killings. The Austrian judicial system protected him for a very long time from any kind of prosecution, something that was very typical in the post-war period. He enjoyed wide support from the SPÖ and party leaders for a very long time.

Reflecting the change in attitude towards the past, President [[Heinz Fischer]] in a 10 April 2006 interview with the liberal newspaper ''[[Der Standard]]'' strongly criticised Austria's view on its historical role during Nazi rule. He called the traditional view that Austria was the [[Austria — the Nazis' first victim|first victim]] of Nazi aggression as false. The [[Moscow Declaration of 1943]] by [[émigré]]s which called for the independence of Austria from Nazi Germany was a problem since it stated that the war was neither started nor wanted by any Austrian ("Und das ist nicht richtig"), that Austrian Jewish victims were not mentioned in the declaration ("kein Wort für die jüdischen Opfer"), that it took decades for them to receive any kind of compensation and justice from the government and that it was regrettable and inexcusable. His statements were direct criticism of the right-wing government of the coalition ÖVP–FPÖ which rejected compensation to victims and the admission of the co-guilt Austrians carried for crimes committed by them during the [[Second World War]].

== Election results by states ==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
{{outdated section|date=January 2020}}

=== Burgenland ===
[[Burgenland]] is a state that is a traditional stronghold of the SPÖ. Since 1964, the governors of this easternmost state have come from the SPÖ. Burgenland is one of the few states that are ruled by a SPÖ majority in the state assembly (''Landtag''). In 2000, the SPÖ received 46.6%. In 2005, it received 5.2% more votes and ended up with an absolute majority of 51.8%. After losing it in 2010, the SPÖ was able to regain it in the latest election in January 2020. From 2015 to 2020, the SPÖ in Burgenland was in an unusual coalition with the FPÖ. The Governor (''Landeshauptmann'') of the Burgenland is [[Hans Peter Doskozil]].

=== Carinthia ===
The SPÖ used to be strong in [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] as it regularly won the most seats in state elections and the governors used to be Social Democrats until 1989. Since the rise of [[Jörg Haider]] and his [[FPÖ]], he successfully pushed the SPÖ out of their leading position. In state elections in 1999, the SPÖ received 32.9%. However, this went up to 38.4% in 2004. Until 2005, the SPÖ was in a coalition with the right-wing FPÖ in Carinthia, where Haider was Governor. This constellation is in question after the chairperson of the Carinthian SPÖ Gabi Schauning decided to resign from her post as Vice-Governor of Carinthia after a fall-out with Haider. Carinthia has a mandatory concentration government, where each party with a certain number of seats in the state parliament automatically participates in the state government. The term ''coalition'' refers to the co-operation between parties and not to the participation in the state cabinet.

=== Lower Austria ===
In [[Lower Austria]], the SPÖ received 29.2% in 1998. It increased its shares by 3.2% in 2003 and ended up with 32.4%. In the [[2008 Lower Austrian state election]], the SPÖ received 25.5% of the vote.

=== Salzburg ===
In 2004, the SPÖ won a surprising victory in [[Salzburg]]. It was able to increase its share of votes from 32.2% (1999) to 45.3%. For the first time, the conservative [[ÖVP]] lost its traditional dominant position. [[Gabi Burgstaller]] became the first SPÖ governess (''[[Landeshauptfrau]]'') in the state's history. In March 2009, the party lost 2 seats (from 17 to 15) with a 39.5% of the popular votes, going to the FPÖ (from 3 to 5) with a 13% of the votes. The ÖVP had 14 seats with a 36.5% of the votes and the [[The Greens – The Green Alternative|Grüne]] 2 seat with a 7.3% . The [[BZÖ]] had no seat with a 3.7% of the votes, showing a growing of the right-wing parties. In the State elections 2013 the SPÖ lost its majority to the ÖVP. Since then, the ÖVP has providing the governor (Landeshauptmann) with Wilfried Haslauer jun. again.

=== Styria ===
[[Styria]] was traditionally ruled by the ÖVP. In 2000, the Styrian SPÖ ended up with 32.3%. In 2005, the voters shifted towards the left, something that also benefited the [[KPÖ]], the local communist party. The SPÖ won 9.4% more and ended up with 40.7%, defeating the ÖVP which got 38.7% of the votes. Styrian SPÖ Chairman [[Franz Voves]] became the state Governor. After the State elections 2015 the SPÖ lost the governorship to the ÖVP. Since then, the ÖVP has providing the governor (Landeshauptmann) with Hermann Schützenhöfer again.

=== Tyrol ===
In [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]], the SPÖ receive few votes since the state is a traditional conservative stronghold. In 2018, the Tyrolean SPÖ received 17.3% of all votes. The winner of the election was the ÖVP under long-term governor Günther Platter, which received 44,3% of the total vote.

=== Upper Austria ===
In 2003, the SPÖ was able to raise its voters share in [[Upper Austria]] by 11.3% from 27% (1997) to 38.3%. It was in a grand coalition with the ÖVP in the state government as the junior partner, with four out of nine of the state government ministers coming from the SPÖ.

=== Vienna ===
[[Vienna]] was always traditionally the stronghold of the SPÖ. The current Governor-Mayor of Vienna is [[Michael Ludwig]]. In the 2020 Viennese state election the SPÖ raised its vote-share to 41,6%. The party with the largest gains was the ÖVP which doubled its vote-share and won 20,4% of the votes.

=== Vorarlberg ===
[[Vorarlberg]] is a traditional stronghold of the conservative ÖVP. Of all the Austrian states, the SPÖ receives the fewest votes in this westernmost state.
In the 2019 the SPÖ ended up with 9,5% of the vote, a raise of 0,7%. The winner of the election was the conservative ÖVP under governor Markus Wallner which won around 45%.

== Chairpersons since 1945 ==
{{main|List of chairpersons of the SPÖ and SDAPÖ}}
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
The chart below shows a timeline of the social-democratic chairpersons and the [[Chancellors of Austria]] since 1945. The left bar shows all the chairpersons (''Bundesparteivorsitzende'', abbreviated as ''CP'') of the SPÖ, and the right bar shows the corresponding make-up of the Austrian government at that time. The red (SPÖ) and black (ÖVP) colours correspond to which party led the federal government (''Bundesregierung'', abbreviated as ''Govern.''). The last names of the respective chancellors are shown, with the Roman numeral standing for the [[Cabinet (government)|cabinets]].

<timeline>
ImageSize = width:420 height:560
PlotArea = width:350 height:500 left:50 bottom:50
Legend = columns:3 left:50 top:25 columnwidth:50

DateFormat = yyyy
Period = from:1945 till:2023
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1945

# there is no automatic collision detection,
# so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap

Colors =
id:canvas value:gray(0.95)
id:SPÖ value:red legend:SPÖ
id:ÖVP value:gray(0.25) legend:ÖVP
id:independent value:gray(0.85) legend:independent

BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas
Define $dx = 25 # shift text to right side of bar
Define $dy = -5 # adjust height

PlotData =

bar:CP color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S

from:1945 till:1957 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Adolf Schärf]]
from:1957 till:1967 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Bruno Pittermann]]
from:1967 till:1983 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Bruno Kreisky]]
from:1983 till:1988 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Fred Sinowatz]]
from:1988 till:1997 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Franz Vranitzky]]
from:1997 till:2000 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Viktor Klima]]
from:2000 till:2008 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Alfred Gusenbauer]]
from:2008 till:2016 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Werner Faymann]]
from:2016 till:2018 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Christian Kern]]
from:2018 till:end shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Pamela Rendi-Wagner]]

bar:Govern. color:red width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:7

from:1945 till:1946 shift:($dx,-2) color:SPÖ text:[[Karl Renner|Renner]]
from:1946 till:1949 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Leopold Figl|Figl]] I
from:1949 till:1952 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:Figl II
from:1952 till:1953 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:Figl III
from:1953 till:1956 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Julius Raab|Raab]] I
from:1956 till:1959 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:Raab II
from:1959 till:1960 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:Raab III
from:1960 till:1961 shift:($dx,-2) color:ÖVP text:Raab IV
from:1961 till:1963 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Alfons Gorbach|Gorbach]] I
from:1963 till:1964 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:Gorbach II
from:1964 till:1966 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Josef Klaus|Klaus]] I
from:1966 till:1970 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:Klaus II
from:1970 till:1971 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Bruno Kreisky|Kreisky]] I
from:1971 till:1975 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:Kreisky II
from:1975 till:1979 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:Kreisky III
from:1979 till:1983 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:Kreisky IV
from:1983 till:1986 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Fred Sinowatz|Sinowatz]]
from:1986 till:1987 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Franz Vranitzky|Vranitzky]] I
from:1987 till:1990 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:Vranitzky II
from:1990 till:1994 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:Vranitzky III
from:1994 till:1996 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:Vranitzky IV
from:1996 till:1997 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:Vranitzky V
from:1997 till:2000 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Viktor Klima|Klima]]
from:2000 till:2003 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Wolfgang Schüssel|Schüssel]] I
from:2003 till:2007 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Second Schüssel government|Schüssel II]]
from:2007 till:2008 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Gusenbauer government|Gusenbauer]]
from:2008 till:2013 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[First Faymann government|Faymann I]]
from:2013 till:2016 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Second Faymann government|Faymann II]]
from:2016 till:2017 shift:($dx,$dy) color:SPÖ text:[[Kern government|Kern]]
from:2017 till:2019 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[First Kurz government|Kurz I]]
from:2019 till:2020 shift:($dx,$dy) color:independent text:[[Bierlein government|Bierlein]]
from:2020 till:2021 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Second Kurz government|Kurz II]]
from:2021 till:2021 shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Alexander Schallenberg|Schallenberg]]
from:2021 till:end shift:($dx,$dy) color:ÖVP text:[[Karl Nehammer|Nehammer]]

</timeline>

== Select list of other SPÖ politicians ==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
* [[Josef Broukal]], journalist and [[Member of Parliament]]
* [[Josef Cap]], head of the parliamentary club (''Klubobmann'')
* [[Johanna Dohnal]], the first minister for women's affairs during the government of [[Bruno Kreisky]]
* [[Christoph Matznetter]], budget and financial matters spokesman in the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]]
* [[Barbara Prammer]], first female [[National Council President of Austria]]

== Minority factions ==
Some groups within the SPÖ such as [[Der Funke]] (The Spark) are [[Marxist]] and proponents of a radical strain of [[democratic socialism]].{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} [[SJ Austria]], a youth organisation maintaining close relations with the party, is generally perceived of as being more towards the left-wing than the SPÖ itself.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

== Election results ==
=== Imperial Council ===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:right;"
|-
! Election
! Votes
! %
! Seats
! +/–
! Government
|-
! [[1891 Cisleithanian legislative election|1891]]
| 3,848
| 1.2 (#12)
| {{composition bar|0|353|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{steady}}
| style="background:Lightgray;" align="center"| Extra-parliamentary
|-
! [[1897 Cisleithanian legislative election|1897]]
| 245,001
| 23.1 (#2)
| {{composition bar|14|425|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 14
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1900–1901 Cisleithanian legislative election|1900–1901]]
| 251,652
| 23.3 (#2)
| {{composition bar|12|425|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 2
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1907 Cisleithanian legislative election|1907]]
| 513,219
| 11.1 (#2)
| {{composition bar|50|516|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 38
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1911 Cisleithanian legislative election|1911]]
| 542,549
| 11.9 (#2)
| {{composition bar|46|516|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 4
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|}

=== Constituent National Assembly ===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:right;"
|-
! Election
! Votes
! %
! Seats
! +/–
! Government
|-
! [[1919 Austrian Constituent Assembly election|1919]]
| 1,211,814
| 40.8 (#1)
| {{composition bar|72|170|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 72
| {{yes2|SPÖ–CS majority}}
|}

=== National Council ===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:right;"
|-
! Election
! Votes
! %
! Seats
! +/–
! Government
|-
! [[1920 Austrian legislative election|1920]]
| 1,072,709
| 36.0 (#2)
| {{composition bar|69|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 3
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1923 Austrian legislative election|1923]]
| 1,311,870
| 39.6 (#2)
| {{composition bar|68|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 1
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1927 Austrian legislative election|1927]]
| 1,539,635
| 43.3 (#2)
| {{composition bar|71|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 3
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1930 Austrian legislative election|1930]]
| 1,517,146
| 41.1 (#1)
| {{composition bar|72|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 1
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1945 Austrian legislative election|1945]]
| 1,434,898
| 44.6 (#2)
| {{composition bar|76|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 4
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ–KPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1949 Austrian legislative election|1949]]
| 1,623,524
| 38.7 (#2)
| {{composition bar|67|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 9
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1953 Austrian legislative election|1953]]
| 1,818,517
| 42.1 (#1)
| {{composition bar|73|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 6
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1956 Austrian legislative election|1956]]
| 1,873,295
| 43.0 (#2)
| {{composition bar|74|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 1
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1959 Austrian legislative election|1959]]
| 1,953,935
| 44.8 (#1)
| {{composition bar|78|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 4
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1962 Austrian legislative election|1962]]
| 1,960,685
| 44.0 (#2)
| {{composition bar|76|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 2
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1966 Austrian legislative election|1966]]
| 1,928,985
| 42.6 (#2)
| {{composition bar|74|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 2
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[1970 Austrian legislative election|1970]]
| 2,221,981
| 48.4 (#1)
| {{composition bar|81|165|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 7
| {{yes2|SPÖ minority supported by FPÖ}}
|-
! [[1971 Austrian legislative election|1971]]
| 2,280,168
| 50.0 (#1)
| {{composition bar|93|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 12
| {{yes2|SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1975 Austrian legislative election|1975]]
| 2,326,201
| 50.1 (#1)
| {{composition bar|93|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{steady}}
| {{yes2|SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1979 Austrian legislative election|1979]]
| 2,413,226
| 51.0 (#1)
| {{composition bar|95|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 2
| {{yes2|SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1983 Austrian legislative election|1983]]
| 2,312,529
| 47.6 (#1)
| {{composition bar|90|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 5
| {{yes2|SPÖ–FPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[1986 Austrian legislative election|1986]]
| 2,092,024
| 43.1 (#1)
| {{composition bar|80|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 10
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP majority}}
|-
! [[1990 Austrian legislative election|1990]]
| 2,012,787
| 42.8 (#1)
| {{composition bar|80|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{steady}}
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP majority}}
|-
! [[1994 Austrian legislative election|1994]]
| 1,617,804
| 34.9 (#1)
| {{composition bar|65|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 15
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP majority}}
|-
! [[1995 Austrian legislative election|1995]]
| 1,843,474
| 38.1 (#1)
| {{composition bar|71|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 6
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP majority}}
|-
! [[1999 Austrian legislative election|1999]]
| 1,532,448
| 33.2 (#1)
| {{composition bar|65|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 6
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[2002 Austrian legislative election|2002]]
| 1,792,499
| 36.5 (#2)
| {{composition bar|69|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 4
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[2006 Austrian legislative election|2006]]
| 1,663,986
| 35.3 (#1)
| {{composition bar|68|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 1
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP majority}}
|-
! [[2008 Austrian legislative election|2008]]
| 1,430,206
| 29.3 (#1)
| {{composition bar|57|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 9
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP majority}}
|-
! [[2013 Austrian legislative election|2013]]
| 1,258,605
| 26.8 (#1)
| {{composition bar|52|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 5
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP majority}}
|-
! [[2017 Austrian legislative election|2017]]
| 1,351,918
| 26.9 (#2)
| {{composition bar|52|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{steady}}
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[2019 Austrian legislative election|2019]]
| 1,011,868
| 21.2 (#2)
| {{composition bar|40|183|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 12
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|}

=== Presidency ===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:left;"
|-
! rowspan="2"|Election
! rowspan="2"|Candidate
! colspan=3|First round result
! colspan=3|Second round result
|-
! Votes
! %
! Result
! Votes
! %
! Result
|-
! [[1951 Austrian presidential election|1951]]
| [[Theodor Körner (Austrian president)|Theodor Körner]]
| 1,682,881
| 39.1
| {{depends|Runner-up}}
| 2,178,631
| 52.1
| {{yes2|Won}}
|-
! [[1957 Austrian presidential election|1957]]
| [[Adolf Schärf]]
| 2,258,255
| 51.1
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[1963 Austrian presidential election|1963]]
| [[Adolf Schärf]]
| 2,473,349
| 55.4
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[1965 Austrian presidential election|1965]]
| [[Franz Jonas]]
| 2,324,436
| 50.7
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[1971 Austrian presidential election|1971]]
| [[Franz Jonas]]
| 2,487,239
| 52.8
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[1974 Austrian presidential election|1974]]
| [[Rudolf Kirchschläger]]
| 2,392,367
| 51.7
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[1980 Austrian presidential election|1980]]
| [[Rudolf Kirchschläger]]
| 3,538,748
| 79.9
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[1986 Austrian presidential election|1986]]
| [[Kurt Steyrer]]
| 2,061,104
| 43.7
| {{depends|Runner-up}}
| 2,107,023
| 46.1
| {{no2|Lost}}
|-
! [[1992 Austrian presidential election|1992]]
| [[Rudolf Streicher]]
| 1,888,599
| 40.7
| {{depends|Runner-up}}
| 1,915,380
| 41.1
| {{no2|Lost}}
|-
! [[1998 Austrian presidential election|1998]]
| colspan="7" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|No candidate
|-
! [[2004 Austrian presidential election|2004]]
| [[Heinz Fischer]]
| 2,166,690
| 52.4
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[2010 Austrian presidential election|2010]]
| [[Heinz Fischer]]
| 2,508,373
| 79.3
| {{yes2|Won}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[2016 Austrian presidential election|2016]]
| [[Rudolf Hundstorfer]]
| 482,790
| 11.3
| {{no2|4th place}}
| colspan="3" style="background-color:lightgrey;"|
|}

=== European Parliament ===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:right;"
|-
! Election
! Votes
! %
! Seats
! +/–
|-
! [[1996 European Parliament election in Austria|1996]]
| 1,105,910
| 29.2 (#2)
| {{composition bar|6|21|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
|
|-
! [[1999 European Parliament election in Austria|1999]]
| 888,338
| 31.7 (#1)
| {{composition bar|7|21|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 1
|-
! [[2004 European Parliament election in Austria|2004]]
| 833,517
| 33.3 (#1)
| {{composition bar|7|18|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{steady}}
|-
! [[2009 European Parliament election in Austria|2009]]
| 680,041
| 23.7 (#2)
| {{composition bar|4|17|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{decrease}} 3
|-
! [[2014 European Parliament election in Austria|2014]]
| 680,180
| 24.1 (#2)
| {{composition bar|5|18|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{increase}} 1
|-
! [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]]
| 903,151
| 23.9 (#2)
| {{composition bar|5|18|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| {{steady}}
|-
|}

===[[Distribution of seats in the Austrian Landtage|State Parliaments]]===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
! State
! Year
! Votes
! %
! Seats
! ±
! Government
|-
! [[Burgenland]]
| align=center| [[2020 Burgenland state election|2020]]
| 92,633
| 49.9 (#1)
| {{composition bar|19|36|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="4"| {{increase}} 4
| {{yes2|SPÖ majority}}
|-
! [[Carinthia]]
| align=center| [[2018 Carinthian state election|2018]]
| 140,994
| 47.9 (#1)
| {{composition bar|18|36|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="4"| {{increase}} 4
| {{yes2|SPÖ–ÖVP}}
|-
! [[Lower Austria]]
| align=center| [[2018 Lower Austrian state election|2018]]
| 217,289
| 23.9 (#2)
| {{composition bar|13|56|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="0"| {{steady}} 0
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ–FPÖ}}
|-
! [[Salzburg]]
| align=center| [[2018 Salzburg state election|2018]]
| 50,175
| 20.0 (#2)
| {{composition bar|8|36|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="-1"| {{decrease}} 1
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[Styria]]
| align=center| [[2019 Styrian state election|2019]]
| 138,572
| 23.0 (#2)
| {{composition bar|12|48|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="-3"| {{decrease}} 3
| {{yes2|ÖVP–SPÖ}}
|-
! [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]]
| align=center| [[2018 Tyrolean state election|2018]]
| 55,223
| 17.2 (#2)
| {{composition bar|6|36|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="1"| {{increase}} 1
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
! [[Upper Austria]]
| align=center| [[2021 Upper Austrian state election|2021]]
| 150,094
| 18.6 (#3)
| {{composition bar|11|56|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="0"| {{steady}} 0
| {{yes2|ÖVP–FPÖ–SPÖ–Grüne}}
|-
! [[Vienna]]
| align=center| [[2020 Viennese state election|2020]]
| 301,967
| 41.6 (#1)
| {{composition bar|46|100|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="2"| {{increase}} 2
| {{yes2|SPÖ–NEOS}}
|-
! [[Vorarlberg]]
| align=center| [[2019 Vorarlberg state election|2019]]
| 15,635
| 9.5 (#4)
| {{composition bar|4|36|hex={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}}}
| data-sort-value="1"| {{increase}} 1
| {{no2|Opposition}}
|}

===Results timeline===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:80%; text-align:center"
|-
! Year
! {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Austria|AT]]
! {{flagicon|European Union}} [[European Union|EU]]
! class="unsortable"|
! {{flagicon|Burgenland}} [[Burgenland|Bgld]] !! {{flagicon|Carinthia}} [[Carinthia|Ktn]] !! {{flagicon|Lower Austria}} [[Lower Austria|NÖ]] !! {{flagicon|Salzburg}} [[Salzburg (state)|Sbg]] !! {{flagicon|Styria}} [[Styria|Stmk]] !! {{flagicon|Tyrol}} [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]] !! {{flagicon|Upper Austria}} [[Upper Austria|OÖ]] !! {{flagicon|Vienna}} [[Vienna|Wien]] !! {{flagicon|Vorarlberg}} [[Vorarlberg|Vbg]]
|-
! 1945
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 44.6
| rowspan=51| ''N/A''
| rowspan=77 bgcolor=lightgrey|
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 44.9
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| 48.8
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 40.4
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 39.5
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 41.6
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 28.0
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 38.3
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| 57.2
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| 27.2
|-
! 1946
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Communist Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Communist Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1947
|-
! 1948
|-
! 1949
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 38.7
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 40.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 40.8
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 37.4
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 33.6
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 37.4
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 24.0
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 30.8
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 49.9
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 19.1
|-
! 1950
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Freedom Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1951
|-
! 1952
|-
! 1953
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 42.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 44.7
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 48.2
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 41.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 27.4
|-
! 1954
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 41.0
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 38.2
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 52.7
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 26.0
|-
! 1955
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 39.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Freedom Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1956
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 43.0
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 46.0
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 48.1
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1957
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 43.6
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 31.0
|-
! 1958
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1959
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 44.8
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 42.3
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 38.6
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 54.4
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 29.3
|-
! 1960
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 46.2
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 48.5
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Freedom Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1961
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 41.7
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 30.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 39.6
|-
! 1962
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 44.0
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1963
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1964
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 48.2
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 42.8
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 40.9
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 54.7
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''29.5'''
|-
! 1965
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 49.2
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 42.2
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 30.5
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Freedom Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1966
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 42.6
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1967
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''46.0'''
|-
! 1968
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 50.3
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1969
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 44.6
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 40.4
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 56.9
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 27.7
|-
! 1970
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 48.4 {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 53.1
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''44.7'''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''33.5'''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Freedom Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1971
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 50.0
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1972
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 50.5
|-
! 1973
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 43.4
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''60.1'''
|-
! 1974
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 43.9
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 36.2
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 41.2
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 27.6
|-
! 1975
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 50.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 51.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 32.4
|-
! 1976
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1977
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 52.0
|-
! 1978
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 40.3
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 57.2
|-
! 1979
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''51.0'''
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''54.0'''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''45.4'''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 39.1
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 29.3
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 41.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 29.0
|-
! 1980
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1981
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 42.7
|-
! 1982
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''53.2'''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1983
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 47.7
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 41.4
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 55.5
|-
! 1984
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Freedom Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 51.7
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 35.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 25.2
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 24.0
|-
! 1985
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 38.0
|-
! 1986
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 43.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 37.6
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1987
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 47.3
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 54.9
|-
! 1988
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 37.3
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1989
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 46.0
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 31.3
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 22.8
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 21.3
|-
! 1990
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 42.8
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1991
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 48.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 34.9
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 31.4
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 47.8
|-
! 1992
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1993
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 33.9
|-
! 1994
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 34.9 {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 37.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 27.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 19.8
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 16.2
|-
! 1995
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 38.1
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 35.9
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1996
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| 29.2
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 44.5
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 39.2
|-
! 1997
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 27.0
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 1998
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 30.4
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
|-
! 1999
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 33.2
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 31.7
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 32.9
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 32.3
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 21.8
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 13.0
|-
! 2000
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 46.6
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 32.3
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 2001
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 46.9
|-
! 2002
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 36.5
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 2003
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 33.6
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 25.9
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 38.3
|-
! 2004
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''33.3'''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 38.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} '''45.4'''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 16.9
|-
! 2005
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 52.2
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 41.7
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 49.1
|-
! 2006
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 35.3
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 2007
| style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 2008
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 29.3
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 25.5
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 15.5
|-
! 2009
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 23.7
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 28.7
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 39.4
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 24.9
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 10.0
|-
! 2010
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 48.3
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 38.3
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 44.3
|-
! 2011
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|The Greens – The Green Alternative}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 2012
|-
! 2013
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 26.8
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 37.1
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 21.6
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 23.8
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 13.7
|-
! 2014
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 24.1
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 8.8
|-
! 2015
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 41.9
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 29.3
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 18.4
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 39.6
|-
! 2016
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Freedom Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|The Greens – The Green Alternative}}|border=silver}}
|-
! 2017
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 26.9
|-
! 2018
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 47.9
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 23.9
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 20.0
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 17.3
|-
! 2019
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 21.2
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 23.9
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party (2017)}}|border=silver}}
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 23.0
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FFBEBE;vertical-align:top"| {{decrease}} 9.5
|-
! 2020
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 49.9
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FF788C;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Austrian People's Party (2017)}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| style="background:#FF3C50;color:#FFFFFF; vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 41.6
|-
! 2021
| style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}
| style="background:#FF788C;vertical-align:top"| {{increase}} 18.6 ''[[Proporz]]''
| style="background:#FF3C50;border-top-style:hidden"| {{Colour box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party of Austria}}|border=silver}}{{Colour box|{{party color|NEOS – The New Austria}}|border=silver}}
|-
! Year
! {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Austria|AT]]
! {{flagicon|European Union}} [[European Union|EU]]
! class="unsortable"|
! {{flagicon|Burgenland}} [[Burgenland|Bgld]] !! {{flagicon|Carinthia}} [[Carinthia|Ktn]] !! {{flagicon|Lower Austria}} [[Lower Austria|NÖ]] !! {{flagicon|Salzburg}} [[Salzburg (state)|Sbg]] !! {{flagicon|Styria}} [[Styria|Stmk]] !! {{flagicon|Tyrol}} [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]] !! {{flagicon|Upper Austria}} [[Upper Austria|OÖ]] !! {{flagicon|Vienna}} [[Vienna|Wien]] !! {{flagicon|Vorarlberg}} [[Vorarlberg|Vbg]]
|-
| colspan=13 align=left| '''Bold''' indicates best result to date. {{Colour box|#FFBEBE|border=silver}} Present in legislature (in opposition) {{Colour box|#FF788C|border=silver}} Junior coalition partner {{Colour box|#FF3C50|border=silver}} Senior coalition partner
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Literature ==
* Gordon Brook-Shepherd. ''The Austrians''. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. London, 1995. {{ISBN|3-552-04876-6}}.
* [[Caspar Einem]], Wolfgang Neugebauer, Andreas Schwarz. ''Der Wille zum aufrechten Gang''. Czernin Verlag, Vienna, 2005. {{ISBN|3-7076-0196-X}} (discussion on book is available online on [http://buecher.hagalil.com/czernin/bsa.htm hagalil.com]).
* [[Maria Mesner]] (Ed.). ''Entnazifizierung zwischen politischem Anspruch, Parteienkonkurrenz und Kaltem Krieg: Das Beispiel der SPÖ''. Oldenbourg Verlag, Vienna, 2005. {{ISBN|3-486-57815-4}}.
* Bruno Kreisky, Matthew Paul Berg (Translator), Jill Lewis (Ed.).''The Struggle for a Democratic Austria: Bruno Kreisky on Peace and Social Justice''. Berghahn Books, New York, 2000. {{ISBN|1-57181-155-9}}.
* Barbara Kaindl-Widhalm. ''Demokraten wider Willen? Autoritäre Tendenzen und Antisemitismus in der 2. Republik''. Verlag für Gesellschaftskritik, Vienna, 1990.
* [[Norbert Leser]]: ''Zwischen Reformismus und Bolschewismus. Der Austromarxismus in Theorie und Praxis'', 1968.
* Wolfgang Neugebauer. ''Widerstand und Opposition'', in: ''NS-Herrschaft in Österreich''. öbv und hpt, Vienna, 2000. {{ISBN|3-209-03179-7}}.
* Peter Pelinka. ''Eine kurze Geschichte der SPÖ. Ereignisse, Persönlichkeiten, Jahreszahlen''. Ueberreuter, Vienna, 2005. {{ISBN|3-8000-7113-4}}.

Member of the European Parliament

2023-01-13T08:19:07Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " A '''member of the European Parliament''' ('''MEP''') is a person who has been elected to serve as a popular representative in the European Parliament.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.europarl.europa.eu/omk/sipade3?L=EN&PROG=RULES-EP&OBJID=0&PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20060703+RULE-001+DOC+XML+V0//EN&LEVEL=1&SAME_LEVEL=1&NAV=S&HNAV=Y |title= Rule 1 in Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament |publisher= Europarl.europa.eu |date= 20 September 1976 |access-d..."

A '''member of the European Parliament''' ('''MEP''') is a person who has been elected to serve as a popular representative in the [[European Parliament]].<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.europarl.europa.eu/omk/sipade3?L=EN&PROG=RULES-EP&OBJID=0&PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20060703+RULE-001+DOC+XML+V0//EN&LEVEL=1&SAME_LEVEL=1&NAV=S&HNAV=Y
|title= Rule 1 in Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament
|publisher= Europarl.europa.eu
|date= 20 September 1976
|access-date= 28 November 2011
|archive-date= 10 December 2019
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191210120010/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do;jsessionid=9C64885556B6DA4DDA66C40091124471.node2?navigationBar=YES&pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20060703+RULE-001+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN&objRefId=0
|url-status= dead
}}</ref>

When the European Parliament (then known as the Common Assembly of the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]]) first met in 1952, its members were directly appointed by the governments of member states from among those already sitting in their own national parliaments. Since 1979, however, MEPs have been elected by direct [[universal suffrage]]. Earlier European organizations that were a precursor to the [[European Union]] did not have MEPs. Each [[Member state of the European Union|member state]] establishes its own method for electing MEPs – and in some states this has changed over time – but the system chosen must be a form of [[proportional representation]]. Some member states elect their MEPs to represent a single national constituency; other states apportion seats to sub-national regions for election.

They are sometimes referred to as '''delegates'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Delegations {{!}} European Parliament |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/delegations/en/home |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> They may also be known as '''observers''' when a [[Enlargement of the European Union|new country is seeking membership of the European Union]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005-09-14 |title=Observer MEPs must squeeze into overcrowded Parliament |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/observer-meps-must-squeeze-into-overcrowded-parliament/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=POLITICO |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Election==
{{Main|Elections to the European Parliament}}
From 1 January 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU, there were 785 MEPs, but their number was reduced to 736 at the elections in 2009. With effect from the elections held in May 2014 the number had risen to 751. This has been reduced to 705 members after the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union in January 2020, with each member state now having at least six and at most 96 MEPs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/11/the-european-parliament-historical-background|title=The European Parliament: historical background {{!}} Fact Sheets on the European Union {{!}} European Parliament|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|access-date=15 May 2019}}</ref>

Elections are held once every five years, on the basis of [[universal suffrage]]. There is no uniform [[voting system]] for the election of MEPs; rather, each member state is free to choose its own system, subject to three restrictions:
* The system must be a form of [[proportional representation]], under either the [[party-list proportional representation|party list]] or [[Single Transferable Vote]] system.
* The electoral area may be subdivided if this will not generally affect the proportional nature of the voting system.
* Any [[election threshold]] on the national level must not exceed five per cent.

The allocation of seats to each member state is based on the principle of [[degressive proportionality]], so that, while the size of the population of each nation is taken into account, smaller states elect more MEPs than would be strictly justified by their populations alone. As the number of MEPs granted to each member state has arisen from treaty negotiations, there is no precise formula for the apportionment of seats. No change in this configuration can occur without the unanimous consent of all national governments.

===Length of service===
The European Parliament has a high turnover of members compared to some national parliaments. For instance, after the 2004 elections, the majority of elected members had not been members in the prior parliamentary session, though that could largely be put down to the recent enlargement. [[Hans-Gert Pöttering]] served the longest continuous term from the first elections in 1979 until 2014.

== MEPs within the Parliament ==
[[File:EU 2020.svg|thumb|[[List of members of the European Parliament, 2019–2024|Members]] of the [[ninth European Parliament]]:
{{legend2|{{party color|European People's Party}}|[[European People's Party group|EPP]] (178)}}
{{legend2|{{party color|Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats}}|[[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]] (145)}}
{{legend2|{{party color|Renew Europe}}|[[Renew Europe|Renew]] (100)}}
{{legend2|{{party color|European Greens–European Free Alliance}}|[[Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA]] (73)}}
{{legend2|{{party color|Identity and Democracy}}|[[Identity and Democracy|ID]] (70)}}
{{legend2|{{party color|European Conservatives and Reformists}}|[[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]] (63)}}
{{legend2|{{party color|European United Left–Nordic Green Left}}|[[European United Left–Nordic Green Left|GUE-NGL]] (39)}}
{{legend2|{{party color|Non-Inscrits}}|[[Non-Inscrits]] (37)}}
]]
{{See also|Political groups of the European Parliament}}

MEPs are organised into seven different cross-nationality [[Political groups of the European Parliament|political groups]], except the 37 non-attached members known as ''[[Non-Inscrits]]''. The two largest groups are the [[European People's Party]] (EPP) and the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|Socialists & Democrats]] (S&D). These two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 40 and 70 per cent of the seats together. No single group has ever held a majority in Parliament.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|last=Kreppel |first=Amie |title=The European Parliament and Supranational Party System |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2002 |url=http://193.60.94.203/97805218/06251/sample/9780521806251ws.pdf|access-date=12 June 2007 }}{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> As a result of being broad alliances of national parties, European groups parties are very decentralised and hence have more in common with parties in federal states like Germany or the United States than unitary states like the majority of the EU states.<ref name="Kreppel">{{cite web|first= Amie|last= Kreppel|title = Understanding the European Parliament from a Federalist Perspective: The Legislatures of the USA and EU Compared|publisher=Center for European Studies, [[University of Florida]]|year=2006|url=http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/kreppel/COMFEDFINAL.pdf|access-date = 26 September 2008}}</ref> Although, the European groups, between 2004 and 2009, were actually more cohesive than their US counterparts.<ref>{{cite web|title="What to expect in the 2009–14 European Parliament": Analysis from a leading EU expert|publisher=European Parliament website|year=2009|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-60547-292-10-43-901-20090911STO60546-2009-19-10-2009/default_en.htm|access-date=17 February 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210105843/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-60547-292-10-43-901-20090911STO60546-2009-19-10-2009/default_en.htm|archive-date=10 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Cohesion rates|publisher=Vote Watch|year=2010|url=http://www.votewatch.eu/cx_european_party_groups.php|access-date = 17 February 2010 }}</ref>

Aside from working through their groups, individual members are also guaranteed a number of individual powers and rights within the Parliament:
* the right to table a motion for resolution
* the right to put questions to the [[Council of the European Union]], the [[European Commission|Commission]], and to the leaders of the Parliament
* the right to table an amendment to any text in committee
* the right to make explanations of vote
* the right to raise points of order
* the right to move the inadmissibility of a matter

==Job of an MEP==
Every month except August the Parliament meets in [[Strasbourg]] for a four-day plenary session. Six times a year the Parliament meets for two days each in [[Brussels]],<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/plenary/staticDisplay.do?language=EN&id=2100&pageRank=3 European Parliament – Work in Session] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921045621/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/plenary/staticDisplay.do?language=EN&id=2100&pageRank=3 |date=21 September 2011 }} Retrieved 20 May 2010</ref> where the Parliament's committees, political groups, and other organs also mainly meet.<ref>Indeed, Brussels is de facto the main base of the Parliament, as well as of the Commission and the Council. [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/introduction/home.do?language=EN European Parliament in brief.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125082214/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/introduction/home.do?language=en |date=25 November 2011 }} Retrieved 20 May 2010.</ref> The obligation to spend one week a month in Strasbourg was imposed on Parliament by the member state governments at the [[1992 Edinburgh summit]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=LEGISSUM:a21000|title=The European Parliament § Future organisation of the European Parliament|website=EUR-Lex|quote=A Protocol on the seats of the institutions will be annexed to the various Treaties, confirming the agreement reached at the Edinburgh European Council (December 1992) and stating that the European Parliament is to have its seat "in Strasbourg where the twelve periods of monthly plenary sessions, including the budget session, shall be held". Any additional plenary sessions are to be held in Brussels, as are the meetings of the various Parliamentary committees. 'The General Secretariat of the European Parliament and its departments shall remain in Luxembourg.'}}</ref>

==Payment and privileges==
The total cost of the European Parliament is approximately €1.756 billion per year according to its 2014 budget, about €2.3 million per member of parliament.<ref name = EPBudget>{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/20150201PVL00012/The-EP's-budget |title= The budget of the European Parliament|publisher= European Parliament web site|access-date= 26 July 2015}}</ref>

===Salary===
Until 2009, MEPs were paid (by their own Member State) exactly the same salary as a member of the lower House of their own national parliament. As a result, there was a wide range of salaries in the European Parliament. In 2002, Italian MEPs earned €130,000, while Spanish MEPs earned less than a quarter of that at €32,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3430517.stm|title=Germany blocks MEP pay rises | work=BBC News | date=26 January 2004 | access-date=5 January 2010 | first1=Oana | last1=Lungescu | first2=Laszlo | last2=Matzko}}</ref>

However, in July 2005, the Council agreed to a single statute for all MEPs, following a proposal by the Parliament. Thus, since the 2009 elections, all MEPs receive a monthly pre-tax salary set at 38.5 per cent of that of a [[judge]] at the [[European Court of Justice]].<ref>''[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+IM-PRESS+20090626STO57497+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN Fresh start with new Members' Statute: The salary – a judgmental question]''. European Parliament Press Release. 7 January 2009.</ref> As of July 1, 2019, the monthly salary is of {{€|{{formatnum:8932.86}}}}, or just over {{€|{{formatnum:107000}}}} per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=About {{!}} MEPs {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/about|access-date=2020-10-10|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref> MEPs also receive a general expenditure allowance of {{€|{{formatnum:4563}}}} per month.<ref name=":0" />

The single statute represented a pay cut for MEPs from some member states (e.g. Italy, Germany, and Austria), a rise for others (particularly the low-paid eastern European members) and status quo for those from the United Kingdom, until January 2020 (depending on the euro-pound exchange rate). The much-criticised expenses arrangements were also partially reformed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/file.jsp?id=5254742|title=EP adopts a single statute for MEPs.}}</ref>

=== Financial interests ===
Members declare their financial interests in order to prevent any conflicts of interest. These declarations are published annually in a register and are available on the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|title=EU Parliament Users' Guide Code of Conduct for Members|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/meps/CoC_Users_Guide_draft4web_EN_rev.pdf|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=6 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221115415/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/meps/CoC_Users_Guide_draft4web_EN_rev.pdf|archive-date=21 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Immunities ===
Under the protocol on the privileges and immunities of the [[European Union]], MEPs in their home state receive the same immunities as their own national parliamentarians. In other member states, MEPs are immune from detention and from legal proceedings, except when caught in the act of committing an offense. This immunity may be waived by application to the European Parliament by the authorities of the member state in question.

==Individual members==

===Members' experience===
Around a third of MEPs have previously held national parliamentary mandates, and over 10 per cent have ministerial experience at a national level. There are usually a number of former prime ministers and former members of the [[European Commission]]. Many other MEPs have held office at a regional or local level in their home states.

Current MEPs also include former judges, trade union leaders, media personalities, actors, soldiers, singers, athletes, and political activists.

Many outgoing MEPs move into other political office. Several presidents, prime ministers or deputy prime ministers of member states are former MEPs, including former President of France [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], former Deputy PM of the United Kingdom [[Nick Clegg]], former Prime Minister of Italy [[Silvio Berlusconi]], Danish former Prime Minister [[Helle Thorning-Schmidt]], and Belgian former PM [[Elio Di Rupo]].

===Dual mandates===
{{Main|Dual mandate}}

The so-called "dual mandate", in which an individual is a member of both his or her national parliament and the [[European Parliament]], was officially discouraged by a growing number of political parties and Member States, and is prohibited as of 2009. In the 2004–2009 Parliament, a small number of members still held a dual mandate. Notably, [[Ian Paisley]] and [[John Hume]] once held "triple mandates" as MEP, [[Member of Parliament|MP]] in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]], and [[Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly|MLA]] in the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] simultaneously.

===Gender===
{{Image frame
| caption= Evolution of the proportion of women and men in the European Parliament<ref name=edjnet /><ref name=edjnet2 />
| content =
{{Graph:Chart
| width=450
| height=200
| xAxisTitle= Legislatures
| yAxisTitle= %
| legend=Legend
| type=stackedrect
| x=1979–84,1984–89,1989–94,1994–99,1999–04,2004–09,2009–14,2014–19,2019–24
| y1=84.80,84.30,80.10,72.60,72.50,70.10,64.50,63.60,59
| y2=15.2,15.7,19.9,27.4,27.5,29.9,35.5,36.4,41
| y1Title=Men
| y2Title=Women
| colors=green, purple
}}
}}
Women are generally under-represented in politics and public life in the EU, as well as in national parliaments, governments and local assemblies.<ref name=edjnet>{{cite news |last1=Raibagi |first1=Kashyap |title=In parliaments across Europe women face alarming levels of sexism, harassment and violence |url=https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/index.php/eng/News/Data-news/In-parliaments-across-Europe-women-face-alarming-levels-of-sexism-harassment-and-violence |access-date=3 June 2019 |work=VoxEurop/EDJNet |date=22 May 2019}}</ref> The percentage of women in the EU parliament has increased from 15.2 per cent after the [[1979 European Parliament election|first European Parliament election in 1979]] to 41 per cent after [[2019 European Parliament election]]. To reach gender parity, women should hold 50 per cent of seats and positions of power. However, according to the goal set by the [[European Institute for Gender Equality]], a ratio between 40 and 60 per cent is considered acceptable.<ref name=Pavone>{{cite news |last1=Pavone |first1=Gina |title=How gender balanced will the next European Parliament be? |url=https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/How-gender-balanced-will-the-next-European-Parliament-be |access-date=10 June 2019 |work=OBC Transeuropa/EDJNet |date=26 March 2019}}</ref>

After the [[2014 European Parliament election]] 11 countries of 28 reached this goal in their own quota of elected candidates. While in nine EU countries there were mechanisms in place to facilitate female representation, only in four of these countries did women exceeded 40 per cent of elected candidates. On the other hand, in eight countries this goal was reached despite the absence of such systems.<ref name=Pavone /> The [[European Parliament Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality|FEMM Committee]] requested a study exploring the results of the election in terms of gender balance.<ref>{{cite book |title=Analysis of political parties' and independent candidates' policies for gender balance in the European Parliament after the elections of 2014 |year=2015 |url=https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/574af67d-6d06-11e5-9317-01aa75ed71a1/language-en |publisher=Publications Office of the EU |isbn=9789282378700 |access-date=7 June 2019}}</ref> EU institutions have focused on how to achieve a better gender balance (at least 40 per cent) or gender parity (50 per cent) in the next Parliament, and for other high-level posts in other institutions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shreeves |first1=Rosamund |last2=Prpic |first2=Martina |last3=Claros |first3=Eulalia |title=Women in politics in the EU |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/635548/EPRS_BRI(2019)635548_EN.pdf |publisher=European Parliament |access-date=3 June 2019}}</ref>

In the 2019 elections 308 female MEPs were elected (41 per cent). Sweden elected the highest percentage of female MEPs: 55 per cent. Overall, thirteen countries elected 45 to 55 per cent female MEPs, with seven countries reaching exactly 50 per cent. On the other hand, [[Cyprus]] has elected zero women, and [[Slovakia]] elected only 15 percent. Other Eastern European countries, namely [[Romania]], [[Greece]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Bulgaria]], all elected fewer than 30 per cent female MEPs. Eight member states elected a lower number of women in 2019 than in 2014. [[Malta]], Cyprus and [[Estonia]] lost the most female representation in the EU parliament, dropping by 17 percentage points, while Slovakia dropped by 16. However, despite the drop, Malta still elected 50 per cent women in 2019. Cyprus dropped from 17 per cent in 2014 to zero women this year, while Estonia dropped from 50 to 33 per cent. [[Hungary]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Luxembourg]] made the greatest gains (19, 18 and 17 percentage points respectively) when we compare 2019 with 2014, followed by [[Slovenia]] and [[Latvia]], both increasing their percentage of women MEPs by 13 points. Luxembourg, Slovenia and Latvia all elected 50 per cent female MEPs.<ref name=edjnet2>{{cite news |last1=Raibagi |first1=Kashyap |title=EU closes in on target for gender parity in the European Parliament |url=https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/EU-closes-in-on-target-for-gender-parity-in-the-European-Parliament |access-date=11 July 2019 |work=VoxEurop/EDJNet |date=10 July 2019}}</ref>

===Age===
{{As of|2019}}, the youngest MEP is [[Kira Marie Peter-Hansen]] of Denmark, who was 21 at the start of the July 2019 session, and is also the youngest person ever elected to the European Parliament.<ref name = Observer2019>{{cite news|url = https://euobserver.com/tickers/145336|title = 40% of MEPs in EU Parliament are female, new figures show|work = [[EUObserver]]|date = 2 July 2019|access-date = 15 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-48840665|work = [[BBC News]]|date = 2 July 2019|access-date = 15 August 2019|title = Meet the European Parliament's youngest ever MEP}}</ref> The oldest MEP is [[Silvio Berlusconi]] of Italy, who was 82 at the start of the July 2019 session.<ref name = Observer2019/>

==Election of non-nationals==
European citizens are eligible for election in the member state where they reside (subject to the residence requirements of that state); they do not have to be a national of that state. The following citizens have been elected in a state other than their native country;<ref>1984 to 2004 from: Corbett, R. ''et al'' (2007) ''The European Parliament'' (7th ed) London, John Harper Publushing. p.21</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Year (first election)
! Nationality
! State of election
! Party
|-
| [[Bárbara Dührkop Dührkop]]
| 1987
| German
| Spain
| Socialist
|-
| [[Anita Pollack]]
| [[1989 European Parliament election|1989]]
| Australian<ref>In addition, Australian and other Commonwealth citizens residing in the United Kingdom, up until [[Brexit]], were eligible to vote and stand for election there.</ref>
| UK
| [[Party of European Socialists|Socialist]]
|-
| [[Maurice Duverger]]
| [[1989 European Parliament election|1989]]
| French
| Italy
| [[European United Left (1989–1993)|GUE]]
|-
| [[Wilmya Zimmermann]]
| [[1994 European Parliament election|1994]]
| Dutch
| Germany
| Socialist
|-
| [[Oliver Dupuis]]
| [[1994 European Parliament election|1994]]
| [[Belgium|Belgian]]
| Italy
| Radical
|-
| [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]]
| [[1999 European Parliament election|1999]]
| German
| France
| [[European Green Party|Green]]
|-
| [[Monica Frassoni]]
| [[1999 European Parliament election|1999]]
| Italian
| Belgium
| Green
|-
| [[Miquel Mayol i Raynal]]
| 2001
| French
| Spain
| [[European Green Party|Green]]
|-
| [[Bairbre de Brún]]
| [[2004 European Parliament election|2004]]
| Irish
| UK
| The Left
|-
| [[Willem Schuth]]
| [[2004 European Parliament election|2004]]
| Dutch
| Germany
| Liberal
|-
| [[Daniel Strož]]
| [[2004 European Parliament election|2004]]
| German
| [[Czech Republic]]
| GUE
|-
| [[Ari Vatanen]]
| [[2004 European Parliament election|2004]]
| Finnish
| France
| [[European People's Party|EPP]]
|-
| [[Derk Jan Eppink]]
| [[2009 European Parliament election|2009]]
| Dutch
| Belgium
| [[European Conservatives and Reformists|ECR]]
|-
| [[Marta Andreasen]]
| [[2009 European Parliament election|2009]]
| Spanish
| UK
| [[Europe of Freedom and Democracy|EFD]]
|-
| [[Anna Maria Corazza Bildt]]
| [[2009 European Parliament election|2009]]
| Italian
| Sweden
| [[European People's Party|EPP]]
|-
| [[Konstantina Kouneva]]
| [[2014 European Parliament election|2014]]
| Bulgarian
| Greece
| The Left
|-
| [[Henrik Overgaard-Nielsen]]
| [[2019 European Parliament election|2019]]
| Danish
| UK
| [[Non-inscrits|NI]]
|-
| [[Sandro Gozi]]
| [[2019 European Parliament election|2019]]
| Italian
| [[France]]
| [[Renew Europe|Renew]]
|}
:''2009 figures incomplete''

==Observers==
{{Main|List of observers to the European Parliament}}
It is conventional for countries acceding to the European Union to send a number of observers to Parliament in advance. The number of observers and their method of appointment (usually by national parliaments) is laid down in the joining countries' Treaties of Accession.

Observers may attend debates and take part by invitation, but they may not vote or exercise other official duties. When the countries then become full member states, these observers become full MEPs for the interim period between accession and the next European elections. From 26 September 2005 to 31 December 2006, [[Bulgaria]] had 18 observers in Parliament and [[Romania]] 35. These were selected from government and opposition parties as agreed by the countries' national parliaments. Following accession on 1 January 2007, the observers became MEPs (with some personnel changes). Similarly, [[Croatia]] had 12 observer members from 17 April 2012, appointed by the Croatian parliament in preparation for its accession in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20120330IPR42291/parliament-to-welcome-croatian-observer-members|work = [[European Parliament]]|date = 2 July 2019|access-date = 30 March 2012|title = Parliament to welcome Croatian "observer" members}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[EUobserver]]
* [[Apportionment in the European Parliament]]
* [[:Category:Members of the European Parliament]]
* [[List of current members of the European Parliament]]

==References==
{{Free-content attribution
|title= How gender balanced will the next European Parliament be?
|author = Gina Pavone/OBC Transeuropa
|publisher = EDJNet
|documentURL= https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/How-gender-balanced-will-the-next-European-Parliament-be
|license=CC BY 4.0
}}

{{Free-content attribution
|title= EU closes in on target for gender parity in the European Parliament
|author = Kashyap Raibagi/VoxEurop
|publisher = EDJNet
|documentURL= https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/EU-closes-in-on-target-for-gender-parity-in-the-European-Parliament
|license=CC BY 4.0
}}
{{Reflist}}

The Parliament Magazine

2023-01-13T08:03:43Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|Magazine covering politics from the European Union}} {{Infobox magazine | title = The Parliament Magazine | image_file = | image_size = 200px | image_caption = Cover of The Parliament Magazine Issue 320, 24 Jan 2011 | publisher = Dods | paid_circulation = | unpaid_circulation = | total_circulation = | circulation_year = | language = English | frequency = Monthly | editor = Sarah Murphy Madia (since 2022) | founded = 1995 | c..."

{{Short description|Magazine covering politics from the European Union}}
{{Infobox magazine
| title = The Parliament Magazine
| image_file =
| image_size = 200px
| image_caption = Cover of The Parliament Magazine Issue 320, 24 Jan 2011
| publisher = [[Dods (publishers)|Dods]]
| paid_circulation =
| unpaid_circulation =
| total_circulation =
| circulation_year =
| language = English
| frequency = Monthly
| editor = Sarah Murphy Madia (since 2022)
| founded = 1995
| country = Belgium
| based = Brussels
| website = [http://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu http://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu]
| issn =
}}

'''''The Parliament Magazine''''' is a monthly [[Politics of the European Union|EU politics]], policy and culture magazine. Its website, www.theparliamentmagazine.eu, is a forum for discussion on the latest developments in EU politics and policy, featuring regular contributions from prominent European policymakers, the magazine's editorial team and freelance journalists.

==History and profile==
''The Parliament Magazine'' was founded in 1995.<ref name="medp">{{cite news|title=Media Partners|url=http://www.greenweek2016.eu/media-partners|accessdate=7 August 2016|work=European Commission}}</ref> The magazine is owned by [[Dods (Group) PLC|Dods]], a British company that provides contact and biographical information about the [[Houses of Parliament]] and the [[Civil Service (United Kingdom)|Civil Service]] since 1832. It is one of the oldest political publishing houses in the world, and has produced essential publications for over 174 years. They also publish ''[[Dod's Parliamentary Companion]]''.

''The Parliament Magazine'' is based in [[Brussels]], Belgium.<ref>{{cite web|title=Contact Us|url=https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/contact-us|work=The Parliament Magazine|accessdate=7 August 2016}}</ref> It is published on a monthly basis as of September 2021, having previously been produced on a fortnightly basis.<ref name="medp"/>

==Contributors and editorial agenda==
The magazine is based upon contributions—both [[editorial]] and [[advertorial]]—from sitting members of parliament, [[NGO]]s, [[pressure group|pressure]] and [[interest group]]s on issues currently under discussion within the European institutions. In the last parliamentary session, more than 200 members of the [[European Parliament]] and 19 of the 27 [[European Commissioner]]s wrote specifically for the magazine, providing in-depth policy coverage and analysis. Managing editor is Brian Johnson, who also oversees the publication of www.theparliamentmagazine.eu.<ref>[http://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu Europe edition]</ref>

Special feature editions include Green Week, Employment Week, the [[OECD]] Forum as well as in-depth [[EU Presidency]] supplements.

==Readership and distribution==
[[European Parliament]]
* All [[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]]
* All Secretaries-General and senior press
* Officers of the nine political groups

[[EU President]] and Presidency officials
* [[EU Council of Ministers|Council of Ministers]]
* Senior officials in the General Secretariat of the Council

[[European Commission]]
* All EU Commissioners, [[Chef de Cabinet|Chefs de Cabinet]] and officials with responsibility for parliamentary relations

[[European Economic and Social Committee|Economic and Social Committee]]
* All members in Brussels

[[Committee of the Regions]]
* Brussels secretariat

[[European Court of Justice]]
* Senior officials

[[European Investment Bank]]
* Senior officials

==Sister publications==
===''Regional Review''===
The ''Regional Review'' is a sister publication to ''The Parliament Magazine'' that focuses on news and analysis of regional policy legislation and developments at EU, national and regional levels.<ref>[http://www.theparliament.com/pages/about#regional TheParliament.com - About: Regional Review]</ref> It has been described as "unique on the EU publishing scene".<ref>[http://www.dods.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=26&Itemid=13 Dods.eu]</ref>

===''Research Review''===
Published every quarter, the ''Research Review'' focuses on research news and analysis across the EU.<ref>[http://www.theparliament.com/pages/about#research TheParliament.com - About: Research Review]</ref>

==Awards and events==
===The MEP Awards===
''The Parliament Magazine'' organises the annual MEP Awards, a ceremony to highlight the work of MEPs across various policy areas. Former Commission Vice-President [[Margot Wallström]] has hailed the event as highlighting the European Parliament's work.<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/en/media-professionals/content/20051012SHL01343/html/The-Parliament-Magazine%E2%80%99s-MEP-Awards-Ceremony European Parliament website - "The Parliament Magazine’s MEP Awards Ceremony"]</ref> Winners at past awards included prominent MEPs such as [[Paul Rübig]],<ref>[http://www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20081009_OTS0126/paul-ruebig-ist-eu-abgeordneter-des-jahres-2008 Award announcement], Press release, retrieved 11 April 2013.</ref> [[Jo Leinen]], [[Malcolm Harbour]] and [[Eva-Britt Svensson]],<ref>[http://www.epha.org/a/4220 European Public Health Alliance website - "2010 Winners of MEP awards"]</ref> as well as a nomination for [[Liz Lynne]] for her work to advance the rights of blind people.<ref>[http://dudleylibdems.org.uk/en/article/2010/322172/european-blind-union-nominates-liz-lynne-for-mep-awards Dudley Liberal Democrats - "European Blind Union nominates Liz Lynne for MEP Awards"]</ref>

===The EPA Awards===
Analogous to the MEP Awards, the European Public Affairs (EPA) Awards aim to highlight the work of outstanding Public Affairs professionals across Europe. Judges at the 2010 awards included a number of senior professionals from influential organisations.<ref>[http://www.epaawards.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3&Itemid=4 EPA Awards website - judges]</ref>

===Events===
''The Parliament Magazine'' regularly organises roundtables, conferences, debates and receptions on a range of topics.<ref>[http://www.theparliament.com/events/pastevents/ TheParliament.com - Past events]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

Die Presse

2023-01-13T08:03:16Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " {{Infobox newspaper | name = Die Presse | image = Die Presse 2010.jpg | caption = Front page on 30 September 2010. The headline reads "EU goes soft on Sarkozy" and refers to the French president's deportation of Roma migrants from France. | type = Daily newspaper | format = Broadsheet | foundation = {{start date and age|1848}}<ref group=note>Established as ''Die Presse'' in 1848, the staff split in 1864 to form the ''Neue Freie Presse'', aryanization..."

{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Die Presse
| image = Die Presse 2010.jpg
| caption = Front page on 30 September 2010. The headline reads "EU goes soft on [[Sarkozy]]" and refers to the French president's [[deportation of Roma migrants from France]].
| type = [[Daily newspaper]]
| format = [[Broadsheet]]
| foundation = {{start date and age|1848}}<ref group=note>Established as ''Die Presse'' in 1848, the staff split in 1864 to form the ''Neue Freie Presse'', [[aryanization (Nazism)|aryanized]] by the [[Nazis]] in 1938 and effectively closed in 1939, reestablished as ''Die Presse'' in 1946, after the [[Second World War]].{{cite web|url=http://www.styria.com/de/konzernunternehmen/subpage.php?&pcat=1&cat=29&tochter=2&lng=de&sub=3|title=Die Presse - Die Geschichte|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140206200341/http://www.styria.com/de/konzernunternehmen/subpage.php?&pcat=1&cat=29&tochter=2&lng=de&sub=3|archive-date=6 February 2014}}</ref>
| owners = Styria Media Group AG
| headquarters = [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]
| language = [[German language|German]]
| circulation = 80,000 (2013)
| political = [[Classical liberalism]] [[Christian democracy]] [[Conservatism]]
| editor = Rainer Nowak
| publisher = Die Presse Verlags-Gesellschaft m.b.H. & Co KG
| website = [http://diepresse.com/ diepresse.com]
}}
'''''Die Presse''''' is a [[German-language]] daily broadsheet [[newspaper]] based in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Biotechnology|url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/ebe_report_300603_ec.pdf|work=EU|access-date=5 October 2013|format=Report|date=31 May 2002|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007123457/http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/ebe_report_300603_ec.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is considered a [[newspaper of record]] for Austria.<ref>{{
cite encyclopedia
|title=Die Presse
|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/475363/Die-Presse
|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013230422/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/475363/Die-Presse
|archive-date=13 October 2013
}}</ref>

==History and profile==
''Die Presse'' was first printed on 3 July 1848<ref>{{cite web|title=European News Resources|url=http://guides.nyu.edu/content.php?pid=74313&sid=704214|work=NYU Libraries|access-date=24 January 2015}}</ref> as a [[Liberalism|liberal (libertarian)]]-[[Bourgeois liberalism|bourgeois]] newspaper within the meaning of the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire|revolutions of 1848]] by the entrepreneur [[August Zang]]. Its staff split in 1864 under the leadership of [[Max Friedländer (journalist)|Max Friedländer]], [[Michael Etienne]] and [[Adolf Werthner]] to form the ''[[Neue Freie Presse]]'', which later was [[Aryanization (Nazism)|aryanized]] by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] in 1938 and effectively closed in 1939. In 1946, after the [[World War II|Second World War]], [[Austrian resistance|resistance]] fighter [[Ernst Molden]], who had been [[editor-in-chief|vice-editor-in-chief]] of the ''Neue Freie Presse''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diepresse.com/unternehmen/geschichte/unternehmen/geschichte/10765/|title=Die Neugründung nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016200433/http://diepresse.com/unternehmen/geschichte/unternehmen/geschichte/10765/index.do|archive-date=16 October 2007}}</ref> from 1921 until 1939, reestablished the newspaper as ''Die Presse''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.styria.com/de/konzernunternehmen/subpage.php?&pcat=1&cat=29&tochter=2&lng=de&sub=3|title=Die Presse - Die Geschichte|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140206200341/http://www.styria.com/de/konzernunternehmen/subpage.php?&pcat=1&cat=29&tochter=2&lng=de&sub=3|archive-date=6 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Gunter Bischof|author2=Anton Pelinka|author3=Dagmar Herzog|title=Sexuality in Austria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JsR0u8f8MMMC&pg=PA229|access-date=16 January 2015|date=31 December 2011|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-0978-8|page=229}}</ref>

The ''"Presse"'' had been struggling for financial survival for a long time, until during the 1960s, the Austrian [[Chamber of Commerce]] became the main shareholder. Since 1999 it has been owned by the [[Styria Medien AG]],<ref name=rustel>{{cite web|title=Media Markets: Austria Country Overview|url=http://oldtelecoms.kondrashov.ru/world/austria.html|publisher=Russian Telecom|access-date=1 January 2015|date=August 2004}}</ref> a [[conservative-liberal]] media group founded by the [[Catholic Church]].{{doubtful|date=December 2012}} Its publisher is Die Presse Verlag GmbH.<ref name=wpt/>

The paper covers general news topics. It is frequently quoted in international media concerning news from Austria. Since March 2009 it has also been operating a [[weekly newspaper]] under the name ''"Die Presse am Sonntag"''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diepresse.com/unternehmen/pressenews/453722/index.do|title=Der Sonntag hat eine neue Qualität "Die Presse am Sonntag"|work=Die Presse|date=31 March 2010|access-date=13 August 2011}}</ref><ref name=atimes9>{{cite news|author=Thomas Hochwarterlump|title=Der Standard extends its readership as Die Presse's numbers slump|url=http://austriantimes.at/index.php?id=12135-newentry|access-date=1 January 2015|work=Austrian Times|date=3 March 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101144308/http://austriantimes.at/index.php?id=12135-newentry|archive-date=1 January 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The daily covers half-page science news each day.<ref name=eu7>{{cite web|title=Science News? Overview of Science Reporting in the EU|url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/conferences/2007/bcn2007/overview_of_science_reporting_eu_en.pdf|work=EU|access-date=5 October 2013|year=2007}}</ref>

The political position of the ''"Die Presse"'' can be described as [[classical liberal]], with a strong emphasis on [[free-market economy]] and [[small government]], traditionally opposing Austria's [[grand coalition]] and its [[corporatism|neocorporatist]] tendencies. It therefore stands in contrast to other Austrian newspapers of quality including the more [[conservative]] ''[[Wiener Zeitung]]'' and the [[Social liberalism|social-liberal]] ''[[Der Standard]]''. Emphasis is put on the 1848 revolutions as the beginning of its tradition as a liberal newspaper, citing it in its slogan "''Free since 1848''". Despite its liberal free-market orientation, [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] wrote a series of articles on the [[American Civil War]] for ''Die Presse'' in the early 1860s, which were later collected into the book ''[[The Civil War in the United States]]''.

In 2007 the editor-in-chief of ''Die Presse'' was [[Michael Fleischhacker]] who had been appointed to the post in 2004.<ref name=eu7/><ref>{{cite web|title=Communicating Europe: Austria Manual|url=http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/enlargement_debates_manual_austria.pdf|work=European Stability Initiative|access-date=12 October 2013|date=12 December 2007}}</ref> Next year the paper was named Best Editorial Team in Austria.<ref name=atimes9/>

==Circulation==
In 2002 ''Die Presse'' was one of four quality daily newspapers with nationwide distribution along with ''[[Der Standard]]'', ''[[Salzburger Nachrichten]]'', and ''[[Wiener Zeitung]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Ulrike Felt|author2=Martina Erlemann|title=The Austrian media landscape: Mass-production of public images of science and technology|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/virusss/OPUSReport/Media%20Chapters/Media_Au.htm|work=OPUS Report|access-date=1 January 2015|date=June 2003|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013081452/http://www.univie.ac.at/virusss/OPUSReport/Media%20Chapters/Media_Au.htm|archive-date=13 October 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The same year its circulation was 120,000 copies.<ref name=wpt>{{cite web|title=World Press Trends|url=http://www.wan-press.org/ecrire/upload/wpt2004.pdf|work=World Association of Newspapers|access-date=8 February 2015|location=Paris|date=2004}}</ref> In 2004 the paper had a circulation of 115,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Media pluralism in the Member States of the European Union|url=http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media_taskforce/doc/pluralism/media_pluralism_swp_en.pdf|work=Commission of the European Communities|access-date=27 March 2015|location=Brussels|date=16 January 2007}}</ref>

The 2007 circulation of ''Die Presse'' was 121,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web |author=Anne Austin |display-authors=et al. |title=Western Europe Market & Media Fact |url=http://conan.lib.muohio.edu/ebooks/Western_Europe_Market_MediaFact_2008/Western%20Europe%20Market%20&%20MediaFact%202008.pdf |work=ZenithOptimedia |access-date=8 April 2015 |date=2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205131709/http://conan.lib.muohio.edu/ebooks/Western_Europe_Market_MediaFact_2008/Western%20Europe%20Market%20%26%20MediaFact%202008.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2015 |df=dmy }}</ref> The circulation of the daily was 120,363 copies in 2008 and 102,598 copies in 2009.<ref name=ifabc>{{cite web|title=National newspapers total circulation|url=http://www.ifabc.org/site/assets/media/National-Newspapers_total-circulation_IFABC_09-07-12.xls|work=International Federation of Audit Bureaux of Circulations|access-date=2 December 2014}}</ref> It was 97,091 copies in 2010.<ref name=ifabc/> The paper had a circulation of 74,032 copies in 2011.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paul Murschetz|author2=Matthias Karmasin|editor=Paul Murschetz|title=State Aid for Newspapers|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|location=Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-35691-9|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6-9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA134|access-date=30 December 2014|chapter=Austria: Press Subsidies in Search of a New Design}}</ref> Its circulation was 80,000 copies in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Austria 2013|url=http://www.wptdatabase.org/reports/2013/austria#wpt-report-chapter-3|work=WAN IFRA|access-date=25 February 2015}}</ref>

==CIA involvement==
In 2009, reports claimed that the long-time editor [[Otto Schulmeister]] had been working for the [[CIA]] in the 1960s and the 1970s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salzburg.com/nwas/index.php?article=DText/wknhb%240d36ursw-sqogwtfx&img=&text=&mode=&section=ticker&channel=nachrichten&sort=|title=Salzburger Nachrichten |publisher=Salzburg|access-date=13 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/475363/Die-Presse|title=Die Presse (Austrian newspaper)|encyclopedia=Britannica Online Encyclopedia|access-date=13 August 2011}}</ref> and the CIA already described it internally as “CIA-subsidized” as early as 1951, when the CIA used it to distribute ''[[Animal Farm]]'' in the [[Allied-occupied Austria|Soviet Zone of Vienna]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1951-09-01.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812171523/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1951-09-01.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 August 2016|title=Director's Log|work=Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room|page=194|date=6 Dec 1951|access-date=15 Jul 2020|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Merrill |first1=John Calhoun |last2=Fisher |first2=Harold A. |title=The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers |year=1980 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8038-8095-5 |pages=250–255 |language=en}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Die Presse |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Die-Presse |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=18 November 2021 |date=6 September 2017 |language=en}}
{{refend}}

Der Standard

2023-01-13T08:02:39Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " {{Infobox newspaper | name = Der Standard | image =  | caption = The 27 June 2007 front page of ''Der Standard'' | type = Daily newspaper | format = | foundation = {{start date and age|1988|10|19|df=yes}} | owners = Oscar Bronner | headquarters = Vienna | political = Social liberalism | editor = Martin Kotynek | publisher = Oscar Bronner | circulation = 86,000 (2013) | website = {{url|https:..."

{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Der Standard
| image = 
| caption = The 27 June 2007 front page of ''Der Standard''
| type = [[Daily newspaper]]
| format =
| foundation = {{start date and age|1988|10|19|df=yes}}
| owners = [[Oscar Bronner]]
| headquarters = [[Vienna]]
| political = [[Social liberalism]]
| editor = Martin Kotynek
| publisher = Oscar Bronner
| circulation = 86,000 (2013)
| website = {{url|https://www.derstandard.at}}
| logo = DER STANDARD schwarz.png
}}
'''''Der Standard''''' is an [[Austria]]n daily [[newspaper]] published in Vienna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://derstandard.at/2004778/derStandardat|title=derStandard.at - Impressum und Offenlegung|trans-title=derStandard.at - Credits and disclosure|date=14 October 2014|access-date=24 December 2014|work=Der Standard}}</ref>

==History and profile==
''Der Standard'' was founded by [[Oscar Bronner]] as a financial newspaper<ref>{{cite web|title=Despite Everything: The Oscar Bronner Story|url=http://deutscheshaus.as.nyu.edu/object/dh.event.DespiteEverythingTheOscarBronnerStory051513|work=Deutsches Haus at New York University|access-date=24 December 2014|archive-date=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216092430/http://deutscheshaus.as.nyu.edu/object/dh.event.DespiteEverythingTheOscarBronnerStory051513|url-status=live}}</ref> and published its first edition on 19 October 1988.<ref name=bild>{{cite web|title=List of Attendees for 2013 Bilderberg Group Meeting|url=http://news.rapgenius.com/The-bilderberg-group-list-of-attendees-for-2013-bilderberg-group-meeting-lyrics#note-1853354|work=The Bilderberg Group|access-date=15 October 2013|archive-date=16 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116054603/http://news.rapgenius.com/The-bilderberg-group-list-of-attendees-for-2013-bilderberg-group-meeting-lyrics#note-1853354|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=European News Resources|url=http://guides.nyu.edu/content.php?pid=74313&sid=704214|work=NYU Libraries|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-date=28 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128112921/http://guides.nyu.edu/content.php?pid=74313&sid=704214|url-status=dead}}</ref> German media company [[Axel Springer SE|Axel Springer]] acquired a stake in the paper in 1988 and sold it in 1995.<ref>{{cite web|title=Axel Springer Group: landmarks|url=http://ketupa.net/axelspringer2.htm|work=Ketupa|access-date=7 February 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025102225/http://ketupa.net/axelspringer2.htm|archive-date=25 October 2014}}</ref>

Bronner remains the paper's [[publisher]], Martin Kotynek is [[editor-in-chief]]. ''Der Standard'' sees itself as—in a Continental European sense (socially and culturally, but not economically)—[[Liberalism|liberal]] and independent. Third parties{{who|date=December 2019}} have described the paper as having a left-liberal stance. Until 2007, the editor-in-chief of the daily was Gerfried Sperl, Alexandra Föderl-Schmid succeeded him in the post.<ref name=esi/>

In 2002 the paper was one of four quality daily newspapers with nationwide distribution along with ''[[Salzburger Nachrichten]]'', ''[[Die Presse]]'', and ''[[Wiener Zeitung]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Ulrike Felt|author2=Martina Erlemann|title=The Austrian media landscape: Mass-production of public images of science and technology|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/virusss/OPUSReport/Media%20Chapters/Media_Au.htm|work=OPUS Report|access-date=1 January 2015|date=June 2003|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013081452/http://www.univie.ac.at/virusss/OPUSReport/Media%20Chapters/Media_Au.htm|archive-date=13 October 2013}}</ref> Although ''Der Standard'' is intended to be a national paper, in the past it had an undeniable tendency to focus on Vienna. This has been mitigated by having editorial offices in other federal states (currently [[Styria]], [[Upper Austria]] and [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]]) and the introduction of regional sections. ''Der Standard'' is a paper from which foreign [[Mass media|media]] readily quote when an opinion from the Austrian [[Mass media|press]] is required. It is one of Austria's best-selling quality newspapers<ref name=esi>{{cite web|title=Communicating Europe: Austria Manual|url=http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/enlargement_debates_manual_austria.pdf|work=European Stability Initiative|access-date=12 October 2013|date=12 December 2007|archive-date=14 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014020031/http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/enlargement_debates_manual_austria.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and on 18 June 2005 celebrated its 5000th edition.

''Der Standard'' is published in accordance with the ''honour code'' of the Austrian press (which sets rules on matters such as a transparent division between [[news]] and [[Criticism|comment]] and the [[right to privacy]]). The paper's general editorial stance could be described as [[social liberalism|socially liberal]] and most of its regular columnists also tend to this position, although guest writers come from a wide variety of political positions. As a participant in [[Project Syndicate]] ''Der Standard'' also regularly publishes commentary from individuals with an international reputation, whose work has worldwide distribution as part of this project.

''Der Standard'' is published by the Standard Verlagsgesellschaft m. b. H. In August 2008, the newly created Bronner Online AG bought 49% of the shares of this company, which [[Süddeutscher Verlag]] previously owned. The Bronner Family Foundation has long owned 41% of the shares, and Oskar Bronner himself owns the remaining 10%. Süddeutscher Verlag had bought into the company in December 1998; previously, between 1988 and April 1995, [[Axel Springer Verlag]] had owned 50% of the shares.

Since 2005, the paper has cooperated with ''[[The New York Times]]'' and has published ''[[The New York Times International Weekly]]'' on Mondays, which is a six-page supplement, featuring select articles from ''the Times'' in English.<ref name=esi/> ''Der Standard'' participates in [[Atomium Culture]], the Permanent Platform for European Excellence that brings together some of the most authoritative European universities, newspapers and businesses to increase the movement of knowledge: across borders, across sectors and to the public at large.

According to the 2007 Austrian Media Analysis, ''Der Standard'' has 352,000 readers in Austria, a 5% share of all readers. With a share of 19.4%, the paper is the most widely read newspaper among people with college or university education. A full online edition (''Der Standard digital'') is available as an e-paper on a subscription-basis.

==Circulation==
The circulation of ''Der Standard'' was 104,000 copies in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Press Trends|url=http://www.wan-press.org/ecrire/upload/wpt2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208082604/http://www.wan-press.org/ecrire/upload/wpt2004.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2015-02-08|work=World Association of Newspapers|access-date=8 February 2015|location=Paris|date=2004}}</ref> In 2004 its circulation was 106,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Media pluralism in the Member States of the European Union|url=http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media_taskforce/doc/pluralism/media_pluralism_swp_en.pdf|work=Commission of the European Communities|access-date=27 March 2015|location=Brussels|date=16 January 2007|archive-date=18 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018040147/http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media_taskforce/doc/pluralism/media_pluralism_swp_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The paper had a circulation of 118,000 copies in 2007.<ref>{{cite web |author=Anne Austin |display-authors=etal |title=Western Europe Market & MediaFact |url=http://conan.lib.muohio.edu/ebooks/Western_Europe_Market_MediaFact_2008/Western%20Europe%20Market%20&%20MediaFact%202008.pdf |work=ZenithOptimedia |access-date=1 January 2015 |date=2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205131709/http://conan.lib.muohio.edu/ebooks/Western_Europe_Market_MediaFact_2008/Western%20Europe%20Market%20%26%20MediaFact%202008.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> The circulation of the paper was 117,131 copies in 2008 and 108,772 copies in 2009.<ref name=ifabc>{{cite web| title=National newspapers total circulation| url=http://www.ifabc.org/site/assets/media/National-Newspapers_total-circulation_IFABC_09-07-12.xls| work=[[International Federation of Audit Bureaux of Circulations]]| access-date=2 December 2014| archive-date=6 December 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206234846/http://www.ifabc.org/site/assets/media/National-Newspapers_total-circulation_IFABC_09-07-12.xls| url-status=live}}</ref> It was 104,004 copies in 2010.<ref name=ifabc/> The paper had a circulation of 72,693 copies in 2011.<ref>{{cite book| editor=Paul C. Murschetz|title=State Aid for Newspapers: Theories, Cases, Actions| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v6-9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA134|access-date=2 December 2014|date=25 January 2014|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-35691-9|page=134}}</ref> The circulation of the paper was about 86,000 copies in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Austria 2013|url=http://www.wptdatabase.org/reports/2013/austria#wpt-report-chapter-3|work=WAN IFRA|access-date=25 February 2015|archive-date=27 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227102845/http://www.wptdatabase.org/reports/2013/austria#wpt-report-chapter-3|url-status=live}}</ref>

==derStandard.at==
''Der Standard'' has run its own [[web portal]]—derStandard.at—since February 1995<ref>{{cite journal|author1=José A. Garcia Avilés|author2=Klaus Meier|author3=Andy Kaltenbrunner|author4=Miguel Carvajal|author5=Daniela Kraus|title=Newsroom integration in Austria, Spain and Germany|journal=Journalism Practice|date=2009| volume=3|issue=3|pages=285–303|doi=10.1080/17512780902798638|s2cid=142640530 }}</ref> and claims this was the first appearance of a German-language newspaper on the web. In Q4 of 2011, according to ''Die Österreichische Webanalyse'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oewa.at/index.php?id=35|title=Daten|publisher=Österreichische Webanalyse (ÖWA Plus)|access-date=24 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109064456/http://oewa.at/index.php?id=35|archive-date=9 January 2015}}</ref> derstandard.at had a readership of 1,135,000 unique users (2,379,231 unique clients in December 2011)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oewa.at/index.php?id=14808&sort=DESC&by=uc&cat=gesamt#ea|title=ÖWA - Dezember|work=ÖWA|date=1 January 2012|access-date=12 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014090027/http://oewa.at/index.php?id=14808&sort=DESC&by=uc&cat=gesamt#ea|archive-date=14 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> and is consequently one of the largest and most wide-ranging web portals in Austria. Articles published online can be commented on by registered users. The portal diestandard.at publishes articles on women's issues and [[feminism]]. In 2011, derStandard.at yielded a higher profit than the print edition of ''Der Standard''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Übersicht: Österreichs größte Medienunternehmen 2011|url=http://images.derstandard.at/2012/04/20/STANDARD_Branchenuebersicht.pdf|trans-title=Overview: Austria's largest media companies|work=Der Standard|date=20 April 2012|access-date=24 December 2014|language=de|archive-date=14 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014100437/http://images.derstandard.at/2012/04/20/STANDARD_Branchenuebersicht.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In June 2019, ''derStandard.at'' underwent its first major relaunch in almost 19 years, updating the site's design for the first time since September 2000 and introducing up-to-date technologies under the hood.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apps.derstandard.at/privacywall/story/2000105560683/standard-relaunch-wir-haben-uns-fuer-sie-fesch-gemacht|title=STANDARD-Relaunch: Wir haben uns für Sie fesch gemacht - derStandard.at|website=DER STANDARD|language=de-AT|access-date=16 July 2019|archive-date=16 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716093506/https://apps.derstandard.at/privacywall/story/2000105560683/standard-relaunch-wir-haben-uns-fuer-sie-fesch-gemacht|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Eric Frey]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

European Parliament

2023-01-13T08:01:52Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " The '''European Parliament''' ('''EP''') is one of the legislative bodies of the European Union and one of its seven institutions. Together with the Council of the European Union (known as the Council and informally as the Council of Ministers), it adopts European legislation, following a proposal by the European Commission. The Parliament is composed of 705 members..."

The '''European Parliament''' ('''EP''') is one of the [[Legislature|legislative bodies]] of the [[European Union]] and one of its seven [[Institutions of the European Union|institutions]]. Together with the [[Council of the European Union]] (known as the Council and informally as the Council of Ministers), it adopts European legislation, following a proposal by the [[European Commission]]. The Parliament is composed of 705 [[Member of the European Parliament|members]] (MEPs). It represents the second-largest democratic electorate in the world (after the [[Parliament of India]]), with an electorate of 375 million eligible [[Voting|voters]] in 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/06/07/AR2009060702402.html |title=Conservatives Post Gains In European Elections |author1=Brand, Constant |author2=Wielaard, Robert |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=8 June 2009 |access-date=17 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Ian Traynor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/jun/07/eu-elections-social-democrats |title=Misery for social democrats as voters take a turn to the right |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=7 June 2009 |access-date=17 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="18 new MEPs take their seats">{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/content/20120103MUN34829/html/18-new-MEPs-take-their-seats |title=18 new MEPs take their seats |publisher=European Parliament |date=10 January 2012 |access-date=14 February 2012 |archive-date=11 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511172955/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/content/20120103MUN34829/html/18-new-MEPs-take-their-seats |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Since 1979, the Parliament has been directly elected every five years by the [[Citizenship of the European Union|citizens of the European Union]] through [[universal suffrage]]. [[Voter turnout]] in parliamentary elections decreased each time after [[1979 European Parliament election|1979]] until [[2019 European Parliament election|2019]], when voter turnout increased by eight percentage points, and rose above 50% for the first time since [[1994 European Parliament election|1994]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Results of the 2014 European elections|url=http://www.results-elections2014.eu/en/turnout.html|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=7 August 2014|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203022915/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/elections2014-results/en/election-results-2014.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[voting age]] is 18 in all [[Member state of the European Union|EU member states]] except for [[Malta]] and [[Austria]], where it is 16, and [[Greece]], where it is 17.<ref>{{cite web |last=Panizza |first=Roberta |title=The European Parliament: electoral procedures |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/21/the-european-parliament-electoral-procedures |publisher=European Parliament |date=May 2019 |access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref>

Although the European Parliament has legislative power, as does the Council, it does not formally possess the [[Right of initiative (legislative)|right of initiative]] as most [[National parliaments of the European Union|national parliaments]] of the member states do, with the right of initiative being solely a prerogative of the [[European Commission]].<ref name="Parliament's powers"/><ref name="Pot initiative"/> The Parliament is the "first institution" of the European Union (mentioned first in [[Treaties of the European Union|its treaties]] and having ceremonial precedence over the other EU institutions),<ref name="Protocol"/> and shares equal legislative and [[Budget of the European Union|budgetary powers]] with the Council (except on a few issues where [[Legislature of the European Union#Special legislative procedures|special legislative procedures]] apply). It likewise has equal control over the [[Budget of the European Union|EU budget]]. Ultimately, the European Commission, which serves as the executive branch of the EU, is accountable to Parliament. In particular, Parliament can decide whether or not to approve the European Council's nominee for [[President of the European Commission|President of the Commission]], and is further tasked with approving (or rejecting) the appointment of the Commission as a whole. It can subsequently force the current Commission to resign by adopting a [[motion of censure]].<ref name="Parliament's powers"/>

The [[president of the European Parliament]] is the body's [[Speaker (politics)|speaker]] and presides over the multi-party chamber. The five largest political groups are the [[European People's Party Group]] (EPP), the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats]] (S&D), [[Renew Europe]] (previously [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe group|ALDE]]), the [[Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/European Free Alliance]] (Greens/EFA) and [[Identity and Democracy]] (ID). The last EU-wide election was [[2019 European Parliament election|held in 2019]].

The Parliament is headquartered in [[Strasbourg]], [[France]],<ref name="treaty">[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012M%2FTXT Article 28] of the [[Treaty on European Union]]</ref> and has [[Secretariat of the European Parliament|its administrative offices]] in [[Luxembourg City]]. [[Plenary session]]s take place in Strasbourg as well as in [[Brussels]], Belgium, while the Parliament's committee meetings are held primarily in Brussels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-parliament/index_en.htm |title=European Parliament |publisher=Europa |date=19 April 2010 |access-date=2012-12-08}}</ref><ref name="Consolidated Treaty">{{cite web|title=Consolidated versions of the treaty on European Union and of the treaty establishing the European Community|publisher=[[Europa (web portal)|Eur-lex]]|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/ce321/ce32120061229en00010331.pdf|access-date=12 June 2007|archive-date=1 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201005900/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2006/ce321/ce32120061229en00010331.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
{{further|History of the European Union}}
[[File:Flag of the European Parliament (1973-1983).svg|thumb|The European Parliament's flag until 1983]]
The Parliament, like the other EU institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the '''Common Assembly''' of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC). It was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians [[dual mandate|drawn]] from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers.<ref name="ENA History">{{cite web|title = European Parliament|publisher=[[European NAvigator]]|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/european_parliament-en-ad6a0d57-08ef-427d-a715-f6e3bfaf775a.html|access-date =19 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = EPP-ED Chronology – 1951–1960|publisher=[[European People's Party]]|url=http://www.epp-ed.eu/group/en/chronology02.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215140042/http://www.epp-ed.eu/group/en/chronology02.asp|archive-date=2009-02-15}}</ref> The change since its foundation was highlighted by Professor [[David Farrell (political scientist)|David Farrell]] of the [[University of Manchester]]: "For much of its life, the European Parliament could have been justly labelled a 'multi-lingual talking shop'."<ref name="Farrell Powerful">{{cite web|title = Professor Farrell: "The EP is now one of the most powerful legislatures in the world"|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20070615IPR07837|date=18 June 2007|access-date =5 July 2007}}</ref>

Its development since its foundation shows how the [[European Union]]'s structures have evolved without a clear 'master plan'. [[T. R. Reid|Tom Reid]] of ''[[The Washington Post]]'' has said of the union that "nobody would have deliberately designed a government as complex and as redundant as the EU".<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Tom|title=The United States of Europe|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=2004|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofeu00trre/page/272 272]|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesofeu00trre/page/272|isbn=0-14-102317-1|url-access=registration}}</ref> Even the Parliament's [[Location of European Union institutions#European Parliament|two seats]], which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements. Although most [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]s would prefer to be based just in Brussels, at [[John Major]]'s 1992 Edinburgh [[European Council|summit]], France engineered a treaty amendment to maintain Parliament's plenary seat permanently at Strasbourg.<ref name="ENA History"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.european-council.europa.eu/media/854346/1992_december_-_edinburgh__eng_.pdf|title=The European Council - Consilium|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912031712/http://www.european-council.europa.eu/media/854346/1992_december_-_edinburgh__eng_.pdf|archive-date=12 September 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Consultative assembly===
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F023908-0002, Straßburg, Tagung des Europarates.jpg|thumb|left|Session of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in the former [[House of Europe]] in Strasbourg, France in January 1967. [[Willy Brandt]], [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Germany)|West German minister for Foreign Affairs]], is speaking.]]

The body was not mentioned in the original [[Schuman Declaration]]. It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British{{clarify|reason=What were the difficulties with the British?|date=July 2021}} would be resolved to allow the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]] to perform legislative tasks. A separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution to counterbalance and monitor the [[Executive (government)|executive]] while providing democratic legitimacy.<ref name="ENA History"/> The wording of the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|ECSC Treaty]] demonstrated leaders' desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by allowing for direct election and using the term "representatives of the people". Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the draft treaty to establish a [[European Political Community (1952)|European Political Community]]. By this document, the Ad Hoc Assembly was established on 13 September 1952<ref name="AEIpolitical_union_draft_treaty_1">{{cite web|title =Ad Hoc Assembly, Information and Official Documents of the Constitutional Committee, October 1952 to April 1953|publisher=[[Archive of European Integration]]|year=1953|url=http://aei.pitt.edu/991/01/political_union_draft_treaty_1.pdf|access-date =29 October 2008}}</ref> with extra members, but after the failure of the negotiated and proposed [[European Defence Community]] (French parliament veto), the project was dropped.<ref name="ENA composition">{{cite web|title = Composition of the European Parliament|publisher=[[Centre virtuel de la connaissance sur l'Europe|CVCE]]|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/political_composition_of_the_european_parliament_2004-en-13cdefb7-829e-4567-b709-6057d1fcb990.html |access-date =19 April 2013}}</ref>

Despite this, the [[European Economic Community]] and [[Euratom]] were established in 1958 by the [[Treaty of Rome|Treaties of Rome]]. The Common Assembly was shared by all three communities (which had separate executives) and it renamed itself the '''European Parliamentary Assembly'''.<ref name="ENA History"/> The first meeting was held on 19 March 1958 having been set up in Luxembourg City, it elected Schuman as its president and on 13 May it rearranged itself to sit according to political ideology rather than nationality.<ref name="1958 history">{{cite web|title = 1945–1959 The beginnings of cooperation: 1958|publisher = European Parliament|url = http://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/1945-1959/1958/index_en.htm|access-date = 20 September 2012|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121022231815/http://europa.eu/about-eu/eu-history/1945-1959/1958/index_en.htm|archive-date = 22 October 2012|df = dmy-all}}</ref> This is seen as the birth of the modern European Parliament, with Parliament's 50 years celebrations being held in March 2008 rather than 2002.<ref name="50 years">{{cite web|title =50th anniversary of the European Parliament celebrated in Strasbourg|publisher=European Parliament|date=12 March 2008|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+IM-PRESS+20080311IPR23707+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN |access-date =6 April 2010}}</ref>

The three communities [[Merger Treaty|merged]] their remaining organs as the [[European Communities]] in 1967, and the body's name was changed to the current "European Parliament" in 1962.<ref name="ENA History"/> In 1970 the Parliament was granted power over areas of the [[Budget of the European Union|Communities' budget]], which were expanded to the whole budget in 1975.<ref name="ENA Budget">{{cite web|title = Power of the purse of the European Parliament|publisher=[[European NAvigator]]|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/power_of_the_purse_of_the_european_parliament-en-f0eebff2-b760-467d-951c-7ef14a350199.html |access-date =19 April 2013}}</ref> Under the Rome Treaties, the Parliament should have become elected. However, the Council was required to agree a uniform voting system beforehand, which it failed to do. The Parliament threatened to take the Council to the [[European Court of Justice]]; this led to a compromise whereby the Council would agree to elections, but the issue of voting systems would be put off until a later date.<ref name="Hoskyns">{{cite book| last = Hoskyns | first = Catherine |author2=Michael Newman | title = Democratizing the European Union: Issues for the twenty-first Century (Perspectives on Democratization) | publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-7190-5666-6 }}</ref>

For its sessions the assembly, and later the parliament, until 1999 convened in the same premises as the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]]: the House of Europe<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/maison_de_l_europe_strasbourg_1950_1977-en-7cdb49c6-fc79-44bc-9b58-be425bd8cba7.html |title='Maison de l'Europe' (Strasbourg, 1950-1977) |website=www.cvce.eu |date= 8 December 2011|access-date=18 March 2022}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.strasbourg-europe.eu/l-europe-a-strasbourg/quartier-europeen/ |title=Le quartier européen de Strasbourg | Strasbourg Europe |website=www.strasbourg-europe.eu |access-date=18 March 2022}}</ref> until 1977, and the [[Palace of Europe]] until 1999.

===Elected Parliament===
[[File:Europa Parlament 1985.jpg|thumb|left|A plenary session in the [[Palace of Europe]] in April 1985, in Strasbourg, France. It was the EP's seat until 1999.]]

In 1979, its members were [[Elections in the European Union|directly elected]] for the [[1979 European Parliament election|first time]]. This sets it apart from similar institutions such as those of the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]] or [[Pan-African Parliament]] which are appointed.<ref name="ENA History"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Framework|url=http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?Link=/AboutUs/APCE_framework.htm|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|access-date=5 July 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609093551/http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?Link=%2FAboutUs%2FAPCE_framework.htm|archive-date=9 June 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title =Overview of the Pan-African Parliament|publisher =[[Pan-African Parliament]]|url =http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/AboutPAP_Overview.aspx|access-date =5 July 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070929025936/http://www.pan-africanparliament.org/AboutPAP_Overview.aspx|archive-date =29 September 2007|df =dmy-all}}</ref> After that first election, the parliament held its first session on 17 July 1979, electing [[Simone Veil]] MEP as its president.<ref>{{Cite web|title=40 years ago - The first session of the directly elected European Parliament|url=https://multimedia.europarl.europa.eu/en/40-years-ago-the-first-session-of-directly-elected-european-parliament_12503_pk|access-date=2021-03-26|website=Multimedia Centre|language=en}}</ref> Veil was also the first female president of the Parliament since it was formed as the Common Assembly.

As an elected body, the Parliament began to draft proposals addressing the functioning of the EU. For example, in 1984, inspired by its previous work on the Political Community, it drafted the "draft Treaty establishing the European Union" (also known as the 'Spinelli Plan' after its rapporteur [[Altiero Spinelli]] MEP). Although it was not adopted, many ideas were later implemented by other treaties.<ref name="ENA TEU">{{cite web|title = The European Parliament's proposals|publisher=CVCE|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_european_parliament_s_proposals-en-9169f4c4-6aa2-40d7-af99-9004fb85332c.html |access-date =19 April 2013}}</ref> Furthermore, the Parliament began holding votes on proposed [[President of the European Commission|Commission Presidents]] from the 1980s, before it was given any formal right to veto.<ref name="Commission Appointment">{{cite web |last=European Parliament Website |title=Oversight over the Commission and Council |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+PRESS+BI-20041022-1+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209131410/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+PRESS+BI-20041022-1+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN |archive-date=2022-02-09 |access-date=1 July 2007 |website=europarl.europa.eu}}</ref>

Since it became an elected body, the membership of the European Parliament has simply expanded whenever new nations have joined (the membership was also adjusted upwards in 1994 after [[German reunification]]). Following this, the [[Treaty of Nice]] imposed a cap on the number of members to be elected: 732.<ref name="ENA History"/>

Like the other institutions, the Parliament's [[Seat (legal entity)|seat]] was not yet fixed. The provisional arrangements placed Parliament in [[Strasbourg]], while the Commission and Council had their seats in Brussels. In 1985 the Parliament, wishing to be closer to these institutions, built a second chamber in Brussels and moved some of its work there despite protests from some states. A final agreement was eventually reached by the [[European Council]] in 1992. It stated the Parliament would retain its formal seat in Strasbourg, where twelve sessions a year would be held, but with all other parliamentary activity in Brussels. This two-seat arrangement was contested by the Parliament, but was later enshrined in the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]]. To this day the [[Location of European Union institutions|institution's locations]] are a source of contention.<ref name="ENA seats">{{cite web|title=The seats of the institutions of the European Union|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/the_seats_of_the_institutions_of_the_european_union-en-cd672879-aeb1-4cad-a0c1-9e4ff75ff660.html|publisher=CVCE|access-date=19 April 2013}}</ref>

The Parliament gained more powers from successive treaties, namely through the extension of the [[ordinary legislative procedure]] (then called the codecision procedure),<ref name="ENA legis">{{cite web|title=Power to legislate of the European Parliament|url=http://www.cvce.eu/obj/power_to_legislate_of_the_european_parliament-en-4f35fdb4-323e-49a0-a138-5b11d701d9a3.html|publisher=[[Centre virtuel de la connaissance sur l'Europe|CVCE]]|access-date=19 April 2013}}</ref> and in 1999, the Parliament forced the resignation of the [[Santer Commission]].<ref>{{cite web|last = Topan|first=Angelina|title = The resignation of the Santer-Commission: the impact of 'trust' and 'reputation' |date=30 September 2002|publisher=European Integration Online Papers|url=http://eiop.or.at/eiop/pdf/2002-014.pdf|access-date =19 April 2013}}</ref> The Parliament had refused to approve the [[Budget of the European Union|Community budget]] over allegations of fraud and mis-management in the Commission. The two main parties took on a government-opposition dynamic for the first time during the crisis which ended in the Commission resigning en masse, the first of any forced resignation, in the face of an impending censure from the Parliament.<ref name="Ringe"/>

===Parliament pressure on the Commission===

In 2004, following the largest trans-national election in history, despite the European Council choosing a President from the largest political group (the EPP), the Parliament again exerted pressure on the Commission. During the Parliament's hearings of the proposed [[European Commissioner|Commissioners]] MEPs raised doubts about some nominees with the [[Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs|Civil Liberties committee]] rejecting [[Rocco Buttiglione]] from the post of [[European Commissioner for Justice, Freedom and Security|Commissioner for Justice, Freedom and Security]] over his views on homosexuality. That was the first time the Parliament had ever voted against an incoming Commissioner and despite Barroso's insistence upon Buttiglione the Parliament forced Buttiglione to be withdrawn. A number of other Commissioners also had to be withdrawn or reassigned before Parliament allowed the [[Barroso Commission]] to take office.<ref name="IHT Butt"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Tobais|first=Troll|title =We have to democratise procedures|date=2 November 2004|publisher=Café Babel|url=http://www.cafebabel.com/en/article.asp?T=T&Id=2620|access-date =12 June 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051129143940/http://www.cafebabel.com/en/article.asp?T=T&Id=2620| archive-date = 29 November 2005}}</ref>

[[File:Bolkestein.png|thumb|left|Parliament's overhaul of the [[Bolkestein directive]] signalled a major growth in status for Parliament]]

Along with the extension of the ordinary legislative procedure, the Parliament's democratic mandate has given it greater control over legislation against the other institutions. In voting on the [[Bolkestein directive]] in 2006, the Parliament voted by a large majority for over 400 amendments that changed the fundamental principle of the law. The ''[[Financial Times]]'' described it in the following terms:<ref name="FT CIO">{{cite web|title = How the European parliament got serious|date=23 February 2006|work=Financial Times |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/56b6d760-a412-11da-83cc-0000779e2340.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/56b6d760-a412-11da-83cc-0000779e2340.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref>

{{Blockquote
| text = That is where the European parliament has suddenly come into its own. It marks another shift in power between the three central EU institutions. Last week's vote suggests that the directly elected MEPs, in spite of their multitude of ideological, national and historical allegiances, have started to coalesce as a serious and effective EU institution, just as enlargement has greatly complicated negotiations inside both the Council and Commission.
| author =
| title = "How the European parliament got serious"
| source = ''Financial Times'' (23 February 2006)
}}

In 2007, for the first time, Justice Commissioner [[Franco Frattini]] included Parliament in talks on the second [[Schengen Information System]] even though MEPs only needed to be consulted on parts of the package. After that experiment, Frattini indicated he would like to include Parliament in all justice and criminal matters, informally pre-empting the new powers they were due to gain in 2009 as part of the [[Treaty of Lisbon]].<ref name="Frattini 2009">{{cite web|last = Beunderman |first=Mark|title = Frattini seeks to apply new EU treaty rules before 2009|publisher=EU Observer|date=9 November 2007|url=http://euobserver.com/9/25117|access-date =9 November 2007 }}</ref> Between 2007 and 2009, a [[special working group on parliamentary reform]] implemented a series of changes to modernise the institution such as more speaking time for rapporteurs, increased committee co-operation and other efficiency reforms.<ref name="REFO12">{{cite web|title =Parliamentary reform put into practice|publisher=European Parliament|date=17 January 2008|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=IM-PRESS&reference=20080116BKG18998&language=EN|access-date =3 February 2009 }}</ref><ref name="REFO3">{{cite web|title =Parliamentary reform: third package adopted|publisher=European Parliament|date=20 March 2009|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+IM-PRESS+20090320IPR52228+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN|access-date =3 February 2009 }}</ref>

===Recent history===
{{Further|Barroso Commission}}

The Lisbon Treaty came into force on 1 December 2009, granting Parliament powers over the entire [[Budget of the European Union|EU budget]], making Parliament's [[Ordinary legislative procedure|legislative powers]] equal to the Council's in nearly all areas and linking the appointment of the [[President of the European Commission|Commission President]] to Parliament's own elections.<ref name="Constitution info"/> Barroso gained the support of the European Council for a second term and secured majority support from the Parliament in September 2009. Parliament voted 382 votes in favour and 219 votes against (117 abstentions) with support of the [[European People's Party]], [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] and the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]].<ref name="B2V">{{cite web|title=MEPs elect Barroso to a second term as Commission President|publisher=European Parliament|date=16 September 2009|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/008-60584-257-09-38-901-20090911IPR60583-14-09-2009-2009-false/default_en.htm|access-date=28 June 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923032006/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/expert/infopress_page/008-60584-257-09-38-901-20090911IPR60583-14-09-2009-2009-false/default_en.htm|archive-date=23 September 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The liberals gave support after Barroso gave them a number of concessions; the liberals previously joined the socialists' call for a delayed vote (the EPP had wanted to approve Barroso in July of that year).<ref name="B2C">{{cite web|last=Taylor|first=Simon|title = A second term – but at what price?|publisher=[[European Voice]]|date=17 September 2009|url=http://www.europeanvoice.com/article/imported/a-second-term-–-but-at-what-price-/65887.aspx|access-date =28 June 2007 }}</ref>

Once Barroso put forward the candidates for his next Commission, another opportunity to gain concessions arose. Bulgarian nominee [[Rumiana Jeleva]] was forced to step down by Parliament due to concerns over her experience and financial interests. She only had the support of the EPP which began to retaliate on left wing candidates before Jeleva gave in and was replaced (setting back the final vote further).<ref name="RJ">{{cite web|last=Taylor|first=Simon|title = How Jeleva was forced out|publisher=[[European Voice]]|date=21 January 2010|url=http://www.europeanvoice.com/article/imported/how-jeleva-was-forced-out/66933.aspx|access-date =28 June 2007 }}</ref>

Before the final vote, Parliament demanded a number of concessions as part of a future working agreement under the new Lisbon Treaty. The deal includes that Parliament's President will attend high level Commission meetings. Parliament will have a seat in the EU's Commission-led international negotiations and have a right to information on agreements. However, Parliament secured only an observer seat. Parliament also did not secure a say over the appointment of [[List of diplomatic missions of the European Union|delegation]] heads and [[European Union Special Representative|special representatives]] for foreign policy. Although they will appear before parliament after they have been appointed by the [[High Representative]]. One major internal power was that Parliament wanted a pledge from the Commission that it would put forward legislation when parliament requests. Barroso considered this an infringement on the Commission's powers but did agree to respond within three months. Most requests are already responded to positively.<ref name="B2A">{{cite web|last=Taylor|first=Simon|title =MEPs agree working relations with Barroso|publisher=[[European Voice]]|date=28 January 2010|url=http://www.europeanvoice.com/article/imported/meps-agree-working-relations-with-barroso/66982.aspx|access-date =28 June 2007 }}</ref>

During the setting up of the [[European External Action Service]] (EEAS), Parliament used its control over the EU budget to influence the shape of the EEAS. MEPs had aimed at getting greater oversight over the EEAS by linking it to the Commission and having political deputies to the [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|High Representative]]. MEPs didn't manage to get everything they demanded. However, they got broader financial control over the new body.<ref name="EEAS"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Vogel|first=Toby|title =Backing of MEPs paves way for launch of diplomatic corps|publisher=EurActiv|date=21 October 2010|url=http://www.europeanvoice.com/article/imported/backing-of-meps-paves-way-for-launch-of-diplomatic-corps/69215.aspx|access-date =19 September 2011 }}</ref>
In December 2017, [[Politico]] denounced the lack of racial diversity among Members of the European Parliament.<ref>{{cite news| last = Heath | first = Ryan | title = Brussels is blind to diversity | newspaper = Politico| date = 11 December 2017| url = https://www.politico.eu/article/brussels-blind-to-diversity-whiteout-european-parliament/| access-date = 7 May 2021}}</ref> The subsequent news coverage contributed to create the Brussels So White movement.<ref>{{cite news| last = Chander | first = Sarah | title = Why is Brussels so white? The EU's race problem that no one talks about | newspaper = The Guardian| date = 19 May 2019| url = https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/may/19/eu-race-problem-european-elections-meps-migrants-minorities| access-date = 7 May 2021}}</ref>
In January 2019, Conservative MEPs supported proposals to boost opportunities for women and tackle sexual harassment in the European Parliament.<ref>{{cite news|title=MEPs follow UK's lead to promote gender equality|url=http://conservativeeurope.com/news/gender-equality|work=Conservative Europe|date=15 January 2019|access-date=29 January 2019|archive-date=23 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323130356/http://conservativeeurope.com/news/gender-equality|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2022, four people were arrested because of corruption. This came to be known as the [[Qatar corruption scandal at the European Parliament]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-63941509 | title=EU corruption scandal puts democracy under attack - European Parliament head | work=BBC News | date=12 December 2022 }}</ref>

==Powers and functions==
{{Politics of the European Union}}

The Parliament and Council have been compared to the two [[Chambers of parliament|chambers]] of a [[bicameral]] legislature.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bicameral Traits At EU Level |url=https://epthinktank.eu/2013/01/25/bicameral-traits-at-eu-level/|date=25 January 2013|access-date=29 April 2016|publisher=European Parliamentary Research Service|quote=A bicameral structure for the European Union has been proposed on numerous occasions. A frequent suggestion, and one designed to address the EU's alleged democratic deficit, is for a second chamber composed of national parliamentarians alongside the European Parliament. However, it is also argued that the EU already has a second chamber, the Council of the EU – representing Europe's nations, with the first chamber, the EP, representing its citizens. In regard to this latter view there are differing opinions.}}</ref> However, there are some differences from [[National parliaments of the European Union|national legislatures]]; for example, neither the Parliament nor the Council have the power of [[legislative initiative]] (except for the fact that the Council has the power in some [[Intergovernmentalism#A theory of regional integration|intergovernmental]] matters). In [[European Community|Community matters]], this is a power uniquely reserved for the [[European Commission]] (the executive). Therefore, while Parliament can amend and reject legislation, to make a proposal for legislation, it needs the Commission to draft a [[Bill (proposed law)|bill]] before anything can become law.<ref>{{cite web|title = Fact Sheets 1.3.8 The Commission|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/1_3_8_en.htm|access-date =14 June 2007 }}</ref> The value of such a power has been questioned by noting that in the national legislatures of the member states 85% of initiatives introduced without executive support fail to become law.<ref name="Kreppel">{{cite book|first= Amie|last= Kreppel |editor1-first=Anand |editor1-last=Menon |editor2-first=Martin A. |editor2-last=Schain |title= Comparative Federalism:The European Union and the United States in Comparative Perspective: The European Union and the United States in Comparative Perspective|url= https://archive.org/details/comparativefeder00meno|url-access= limited|pages=[https://archive.org/details/comparativefeder00meno/page/n255 245]–274|chapter= Understanding the European Parliament from a Federalist Perspective: The Legislatures of the USA and EU Compared|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2006|isbn= 978-0-19-929110-6 }}</ref> Yet it has been argued by former Parliament president [[Hans-Gert Pöttering]] that as the Parliament does have the right to ask the Commission to draft such legislation, and as the Commission is following Parliament's proposals more and more Parliament does have a ''de facto'' right of legislative initiative.<ref name="Pot initiative">{{cite web|last=Williams|first=Matt|date=24 June 2008|title=Pöttering defends parliament's role at EU summits|publisher=The Parliament Magazine|url=http://www.theparliament.com/policy-focus/foreign-affairs/foreign-affairs-article/newsarticle/poettering-defends-parliaments-role-at-eu-summits/|access-date=25 June 2008|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524113601/http://www.theparliament.com/policy-focus/foreign-affairs/foreign-affairs-article/newsarticle/poettering-defends-parliaments-role-at-eu-summits/|archive-date=24 May 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The Parliament also has a great deal of indirect influence, through [[European Union law#Legislation|non-binding resolutions]] and [[Committees of the European Parliament|committee hearings]], as a "pan-European [[soapbox]]" with the ear of [[Brussels and the European Union#Lobbyists and journalists|thousands of Brussels-based journalists]]. There is also an indirect effect on [[Common Foreign and Security Policy|foreign policy]]; the Parliament must approve all development grants, including those overseas. For example, the support for [[Iraq War|post-war Iraq]] reconstruction, or incentives for the cessation of [[Nuclear program of Iran|Iranian nuclear development]], must be supported by the Parliament. Parliamentary support was also required for the [[Atlantic Ocean|transatlantic]] passenger data-sharing deal with the United States.<ref name="Rockwell">{{cite book | last = Schnabel | first = Rockwell |author2=Francis Rocca | title = The Next Superpower?: the Rise of Europe and its Challenge to the United States | publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] Publishers | year = 2005 | location = Oxford | page = 111 | isbn = 978-0-7425-4548-9 }}</ref> Finally, Parliament holds a non-binding vote on new EU treaties but cannot veto it. However, when Parliament threatened to vote down the Nice Treaty, the [[Belgian Federal Parliament|Belgian]] and [[Parliament of Italy|Italian Parliaments]] said they would veto the treaty on the European Parliament's behalf.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kirk|first=Lizabeth|date=11 January 2001|title = No guarantee EP will back Treaty of Nice|publisher=EU Observer|url=http://euobserver.com/9/1249|access-date =19 September 2011 }}</ref>

===Legislative procedure===
With each new treaty, the powers of the Parliament, in terms of its role in the [[Ordinary legislative procedure|Union's legislative procedures]], have expanded. The procedure which has slowly become dominant is the "[[ordinary legislative procedure]]" (previously named "codecision procedure"), which provides an equal footing between Parliament and Council. In particular, under the procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council which can only become law if both agree on a text, which they do (or not) through successive readings up to a maximum of three. In its first reading, Parliament may send amendments to the Council which can either adopt the text with those amendments or send back a "common position". That position may either be approved by Parliament, or it may reject the text by an [[Majority|absolute majority]], causing it to fail, or it may adopt further amendments, also by an absolute majority. If the Council does not approve these, then a "[[Conciliation Committee]]" is formed. The Committee is composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs who seek to agree a compromise. Once a position is agreed, it has to be approved by Parliament, by a simple majority.<ref name="Parliament's powers">{{cite web|title = Parliament's powers and procedures|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/parliament/public/staticDisplay.do?language=EN&id=46|access-date =12 June 2007}}</ref><ref name="decision making">{{cite web|title=Decision-making in the European Union|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europa.eu/institutions/decision-making/index_en.htm|access-date=18 September 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011040316/http://europa.eu/institutions/decision-making/index_en.htm|archive-date=11 October 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> This is also aided by Parliament's mandate as the only directly democratic institution, which has given it leeway to have greater control over legislation than other institutions, for example over its changes to the [[Bolkestein directive]] in 2006.<ref name="FT CIO"/>

The few other areas that operate the ''special legislative procedures'' are justice and home affairs, budget and taxation, and certain aspects of other policy areas, such as the fiscal aspects of environmental policy. In these areas, the Council or Parliament decide law alone.<ref name="lisbon explain"/> The procedure also depends upon which type of [[European Union law#Legislation|institutional act]] is being used.<ref name="Parliament's powers"/> The strongest act is a [[Regulation (European Union)|regulation]], an [[Act of Parliament|act]] or [[Statutory law|law]] which is directly applicable in its entirety. Then there are [[Directive (European Union)|directives]] which bind member states to certain goals which they must achieve. They do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them. A [[European Union decision|decision]] is an instrument which is focused at a particular person or group and is directly applicable. Institutions may also issue [[European Union recommendation|recommendations and opinions]] which are merely non-binding, declarations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Community legal instruments |publisher=European Parliament |url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/community_legal_instruments_en.htm |access-date=18 September 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708114002/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/community_legal_instruments_en.htm |archive-date=8 July 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> There is a further document which does not follow normal procedures, this is a "written declaration" which is similar to an [[early day motion]] used in the [[Westminster system]]. It is a document proposed by up to five MEPs on a matter within the EU's activities used to launch a debate on that subject. Having been posted outside the entrance to the hemicycle, members can sign the declaration and if a majority do so it is forwarded to the President and announced to the plenary before being forwarded to the other institutions and formally noted in the minutes.<ref name="EP WD">{{cite web|title=Written declarations|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/plenary/writtenDecl.do|access-date=1 November 2007|archive-date=15 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315090645/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/plenary/writtenDecl.do|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Budget===
The legislative branch officially holds the Union's budgetary authority with powers gained through the [[Budgetary treaties of the European Communities|Budgetary Treaties]] of the 1970s and the [[Lisbon Treaty]]. The [[Budget of the European Union|EU budget]] is subject to a form of the ordinary legislative procedure with a single reading giving Parliament power over the entire budget (before 2009, its influence was limited to certain areas) on an equal footing to the Council. If there is a disagreement between them, it is taken to a conciliation committee as it is for legislative proposals. If the joint conciliation text is not approved, the Parliament may adopt the budget definitively.<ref name="lisbon explain">{{cite web|title = Explaining the Treaty of Lisbon|publisher=[[Europa (web portal)|Europa website]]|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/09/531|access-date =4 December 2009 }}</ref>

The Parliament is also responsible for discharging the implementation of previous budgets based on the annual report of the [[European Court of Auditors]]. It has refused to approve the budget only twice, in 1984 and in 1998. On the latter occasion it led to the resignation of the [[Santer Commission]]; highlighting how the budgetary power gives Parliament a great deal of power over the Commission.<ref name="Hoskyns"/><ref name="Ringe"/><ref name="budget background">{{cite web | title=Budgetary control: 1996 discharge raises issue of confidence in the Commission | publisher=European Parliament| year=1999 | url =http://www.europarl.europa.eu/election/bilan/en/pf1901en.htm | access-date =15 October 2007 }}</ref> Parliament also makes extensive use of its budgetary, and other powers, elsewhere; for example in the setting up of the [[European External Action Service]], Parliament has a de facto veto over its design as it has to approve the budgetary and staff changes.<ref name="EEAS">{{cite web|first=Honor|last=Mahoney|title = Member states to signal broad backing for diplomatic service blueprint|publisher=[[EU Observer]]|url=http://euobserver.com/24/29916|date=23 April 2010|access-date =2 May 2010 }}</ref>

===Control of the executive===
The [[President of the European Commission]] is proposed by the European Council on the basis of the European elections to Parliament.<ref name="Constitution info">{{cite web|title=The Union's institutions: The European Parliament|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/constitution/parliament_en.htm|access-date=28 June 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201174755/http://europa.eu/scadplus/constitution/parliament_en.htm|archive-date=1 February 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> That proposal has to be approved by the Parliament (by a simple majority) who "elect" the President according to the treaties. Following the approval of the Commission President, the members of the Commission are proposed by the President in accord with the member states. Each Commissioner comes before a relevant parliamentary committee hearing covering the proposed portfolio. They are then, as a body, approved or rejected by the Parliament.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|title = Background Information: Election of the European Commission|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+PRESS+BI-20041022-1+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN|access-date =1 July 2007 }}</ref><ref name="Commission Oversight">{{cite web|title = Oversight over the Commission and Council|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/parliament/public/staticDisplay.do?id=46&pageRank=9&language=EN|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref>

In practice, the Parliament has never voted against a President or his Commission, but it did seem likely when the Barroso Commission was put forward. The resulting pressure forced the proposal to be withdrawn and changed to be more acceptable to parliament.<ref name="IHT Butt">{{cite web|last =Bowley|first =Graham|title =Buttiglione affair highlights evolving role of Parliament : Questions arise on democracy at the EU|work =International Herald Tribune|date =18 October 2004|url =http://www.iht.com/articles/2004/10/18/brussels_ed3_.php|access-date =1 July 2007|archive-date =10 February 2009|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090210125124/http://www.iht.com/articles/2004/10/18/brussels_ed3_.php|url-status =dead}}</ref> That pressure was seen as an important sign by some of the evolving nature of the Parliament and its ability to make the Commission accountable, rather than being a rubber stamp for candidates. Furthermore, in voting on the Commission, MEPs also voted along party lines, rather than national lines, despite frequent pressure from national governments on their MEPs. This cohesion and willingness to use the Parliament's power ensured greater attention from national leaders, other institutions and the public{{snd}} who previously gave the lowest ever turnout for the Parliament's elections.<ref>{{cite web |last=Murray |first=Alasdair |title=Three cheers for EU democracy |publisher=[[Open Europe]] |year=2004 |url=http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/39_murray.html |access-date=7 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610003606/http://www.cer.org.uk/articles/39_murray.html |archive-date=10 June 2007 |url-status = dead|df=dmy }}</ref>

The Parliament also has the power to censure the Commission if they have a two-thirds majority which will force the resignation of the entire Commission from office. As with approval, this power has never been used but it was threatened to the [[Santer Commission]], who subsequently [[Santer Commission#Resignation|resigned of their own accord]]. There are a few other controls, such as: the requirement of Commission to submit reports to the Parliament and answer questions from MEPs; the requirement of the President-in-office of the Council to present its programme at the start of their [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|presidency]]; the obligation on the President of the [[European Council]] to report to Parliament after each of its meetings; the right of MEPs to make requests for legislation and policy to the Commission; and the right to question members of those institutions (e.g. "Commission [[Question Time]]" every Tuesday).<ref name="Commission Appointment"/><ref name="Commission Oversight"/> At present, MEPs may ask a question on any topic whatsoever, but in July 2008 MEPs voted to limit questions to those within the EU's mandate and ban offensive or personal questions.<ref name="EUO rise">{{cite web|last=Mahony|first=Honor|title=New rules to make it harder for MEPs to form political groups|url=http://euobserver.com/9/26468|date=9 July 2008|work=International Herald Tribune |access-date=10 July 2008}}</ref>

===Supervisory powers===
The Parliament also has other powers of general supervision, mainly granted by the [[Maastricht Treaty]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Maastricht Treaty 15 years on: birth of the "European Union"|publisher=European Parliament|date=7 February 2007|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-2784-036-02-06-901-20070206STO02783-2007-05-02-2007/default_en.htm|access-date=6 July 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209191039/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-2784-036-02-06-901-20070206STO02783-2007-05-02-2007/default_en.htm|archive-date=9 February 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Parliament has the power to set up a Committee of Inquiry, for example over mad cow disease or CIA detention flights{{snd}} the former led to the creation of the [[European Medicines Agency|European veterinary agency]]. The Parliament can call other institutions to answer questions and if necessary to take them to [[Court of Justice of the European Communities|court]] if they break EU law or treaties.<ref name="supervisory">{{cite web|title = Supervisory power|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/parliament/public/staticDisplay.do?id=46&pageRank=8&language=EN|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref> Furthermore, it has powers over the appointment of the members of the Court of Auditors<ref>{{cite web|title =Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament. Rule 101: Appointment of the Members of the Court of Auditors|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20070101+RULE-101+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN&navigationBar=YES|access-date =7 July 2007}}</ref> and the president and executive board of the [[European Central Bank]]. The [[List of Presidents of the European Central Bank|ECB president]] is also obliged to present an annual report to the parliament.<ref name="supervisory"/>

The [[European Ombudsman]] is elected by the Parliament, who deals with public complaints against all institutions.<ref name="supervisory"/> [[European Citizens' Initiative|Petitions]] can also be brought forward by any [[Citizenship of the European Union|EU citizen]] on a matter within the EU's sphere of activities. The [[Committee on Petitions]] hears cases, some 1500 each year, sometimes presented by the citizen themselves at the Parliament. While the Parliament attempts to resolve the issue as a mediator they do resort to legal proceedings if it is necessary to resolve the citizens dispute.<ref name="petitions">{{cite news|last=Rickards|first=Mark|title = MEPs get taste of people power|work=BBC News|date=3 November 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7075573.stm|access-date =3 November 2007 }}</ref>

==Members==
{{National apportionment of MEPs}}
{{Main|Members of the European Parliament}}

The [[Member of Parliament|parliamentarians]] are known in English as [[Members of the European Parliament]] (MEPs). They are elected every five years by [[universal suffrage|universal adult suffrage]] and sit according to political allegiance; about one third are women. Before the [[1979 European Parliament election|first direct elections, in 1979]], they were appointed by their national parliaments.<ref name="ENA composition"/><ref name="EP Members">{{cite web|title = Members|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/parliament/public/staticDisplay.do?id=45&pageRank=3 |access-date =27 October 2007}}</ref>

The Parliament has been criticized for underrepresentation of minority groups. In 2017, an estimated 17 MEPs were non-white,<ref>{{cite web|first=Ginger |last=Hervey |title = When Britain exits the EU, its diversity departs too |publisher=politico.eu |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/brexit-diversity-exits-the-eu-brussels/amp/ |date=12 November 2017 |access-date =24 October 2018}}</ref> and of these, three were black, a disproportionately low number.<ref>{{cite news|title = The EU is too white – and Brexit likely to make it worse, MEPs and staff say |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/29/eu-is-too-white-brexit-likely-to-make-it-worse |newspaper=The Guardian |date=29 August 2018 |first=Jennifer |last=Rankin |access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref> According to activist organization [[European Network Against Racism]], while an estimated 10% of Europe is composed of racial and ethnic minorities, only 5% of MEPs were members of such groups following the [[2019 European Parliament election]].<ref name="Psaledakis2020">{{cite news |last1=Psaledakis |first1=Daphne |title=Minorities still lack a strong voice in new European Parliament |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-jobs-minorities/minorities-still-lack-a-strong-voice-in-new-european-parliament-idUSKCN1TD28X |access-date=25 October 2020 |work=Reuters |date=12 June 2019}}</ref>

Under the [[Treaty of Lisbon|Lisbon Treaty]], [[Apportionment in the European Parliament|seats are allocated]] to each state according to population and the maximum number of members is set at 751 (however, as the President cannot vote while in the chair there will only be 750 voting members at any one time).<ref name="EUO Lisbon">{{cite web|last=Goldirova|first=Renata|title =EU agrees new 'Treaty of Lisbon'|date=19 October 2007|publisher=EU Observer|url=http://euobserver.com/9/25001|access-date =19 November 2007}}</ref> Since 1 February 2020, [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/faq/12/how-many-meps 705 MEPs] (including the president of the Parliament) sit in the European Parliament, the reduction in size due to the United Kingdom [[Brexit|leaving the EU]].

Representation is currently limited to a maximum of 96 seats and a minimum of 6 seats per state and the seats are distributed according to "[[degressive proportionality]]", i.e., the larger the state, the more citizens are represented per MEP. As a result, Maltese and Luxembourgish voters have roughly 10x more influence per voter than citizens of the six largest countries.

{{As of|2014}}, Germany (80.9 million inhabitants) has 96 seats (previously 99 seats), i.e. one seat for 843,000 inhabitants. Malta (0.4 million inhabitants) has 6 seats, i.e. one seat for 70,000 inhabitants.

The new system implemented under the Lisbon Treaty, including revising the seating well before elections, was intended to avoid political [[horse trading (political)|horse trading]] when the allocations have to be revised to reflect demographic changes.<ref>{{cite web|quote=In approving the European Council's draft decision, the committee asks that the proposed distribution be revised, well in advance of the beginning of the 2014-2019 legislative term, so as to set up an objective and fair system for allocating the seats in the EP, in order take account of demographic changes and 'avoid the traditional political horse-trading between Member States'. |title = Distribution of EP seats: Constitutional Affairs Committee approvals proposal|date=4 October 2007|publisher=European Parliament|url= http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+IM-PRESS+20070927BRI10862+ITEM-002-EN+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN |access-date =3 November 2018}}</ref>

Pursuant to this apportionment, the [[European Parliament constituency|constituencies]] are formed. In four EU member states (Belgium, Ireland, Italy and Poland), the national territory is divided into a number of constituencies. In the remaining member states, the whole country forms a single constituency. All member states hold elections to the European Parliament using various forms of [[proportional representation]].

===Transitional arrangements===
Due to the delay in ratifying the Lisbon Treaty, the [[7th European Parliament|seventh parliament]] was elected under the lower Nice Treaty cap. A [[Treaties of the European Union#Transitional provisions protocol|small scale treaty amendment]] was ratified on 29 November 2011.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=IM-PRESS&reference=20100223BKG69359&language=EN | title=Ratification of Parliament's 18 additional MEPs completed | publisher=European Parliament | date=29 November 2011 | access-date=14 February 2012}}</ref> This amendment brought in transitional provisions to allow the 18 additional MEPs created under the Lisbon Treaty to be elected or appointed before the 2014 election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agreement details: Protocol amending the Protocol on Transitional Provisions annexed to the Treaty on European Union, to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and to the Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (Deposited with the Government of the Italian Republic)|publisher=Council of the European Union|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/App/accords/Default.aspx?command=details&id=297&lang=EN&aid=2010057&doclang=EN|access-date=4 October 2011|archive-date=25 May 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120525113731/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/policies/agreements/search-the-agreements-database?lang=en&command=details&id=297&lang=en&aid=2010057&doclang=en|url-status=dead}}</ref> Under the Lisbon Treaty reforms, Germany was the only state to lose members from 99 to 96. However, these seats were not removed until the 2014 election.<ref name="extra meps">{{cite web|last=Willis|first=Andrew|title = MEPs seek change to Lisbon Treaty to accommodate new colleagues|date=8 April 2010|publisher=[[EU Observer]]|url=http://euobserver.com/18/29822|access-date =2 May 2010}}</ref>

===Salaries and expenses===
Before 2009, members received the same salary as members of their national parliament. However, from 2009 a new members statute came into force, after years of attempts, which gave all members an equal monthly pay, of €8,484.05 each in 2016, subject to a European Union tax and which can also be taxed nationally. MEPs are entitled to a pension, paid by Parliament, from the age of 63. Members are also entitled to allowances for office costs and subsistence, and travelling expenses, based on actual cost.<ref>{{cite web|title = About MEPs|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/about-meps.html|access-date=13 January 2019}}</ref> Besides their pay, members are granted a number of privileges and [[Diplomatic immunity|immunities]]. To ensure their free movement to and from the Parliament, they are accorded by their own states the facilities accorded to senior officials travelling abroad and, by other state governments, the status of visiting [[Diplomat|foreign representative]]s. When in their own state, they have all the immunities accorded to national parliamentarians, and, in other states, they have immunity from [[Detention (imprisonment)|detention]] and [[Criminal procedure|legal proceedings]]. However, immunity cannot be claimed when a member is found committing a criminal offence and the Parliament also has the right to strip a member of their immunity.<ref name="LEX Prot">{{cite web|title = 7. Protocol on the privileges and immunities of the European Union|publisher=[[Europa (web portal)|Eur-Lex]]|date=16 December 2004|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2004/c_310/c_31020041216en02610266.pdf|access-date =27 October 2007}}</ref>

===Political groups===
{{Main|Political groups of the European Parliament}}

MEPs in Parliament are organised into eight different [[parliamentary group]]s, including thirty non-attached members known as ''[[non-inscrits]]''. The two largest groups are the [[European People's Party]] (EPP) and the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|Socialists & Democrats]] (S&D). These two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 50 and 70 percent of the seats between them. No single group has ever held a majority in Parliament.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|last=Kreppel |first=Amie |title=The European Parliament and Supranational Party System |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2002 |url=https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/06251/sample/9780521806251ws.pdf |access-date=12 June 2007 }}</ref> As a result of being broad alliances of national parties, European group parties are very decentralised and hence have more in common with parties in federal states like Germany or the United States than unitary states like the majority of the EU states.<ref name="Kreppel"/> Nevertheless, the European groups were actually more cohesive than their US counterparts between 2004 and 2009.<ref>{{cite web|title="What to expect in the 2009–14 European Parliament": Analysis from a leading EU expert|publisher=European Parliament website|year=2009|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-60547-292-10-43-901-20090911STO60546-2009-19-10-2009/default_en.htm|access-date=17 February 2010|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210105843/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-60547-292-10-43-901-20090911STO60546-2009-19-10-2009/default_en.htm|archive-date=10 February 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Cohesion rates|publisher=Vote Watch|year=2010|url=http://www.votewatch.eu/cx_european_party_groups.php|access-date =17 February 2010 }}</ref>

Groups are often based on a single [[European political party]] such as the [[European People's Party]]. However, they can, like the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|liberal group]], include more than one European party as well as national parties and independents.<ref>{{cite web|title=Party Politics in the EU |publisher=civitas.org.uk |url=http://www.civitas.org.uk/eufacts/download/CIT.3.EU%20Political%20Parties.pdf |access-date=12 June 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019072737/http://www.civitas.org.uk/eufacts/download/CIT.3.EU%20Political%20Parties.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2007 }}</ref> For a group to be recognised, it needs 23 MEPs from seven different countries. Groups receive funding from the parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/faq/1/what-are-political-groups-and-how-are-they-formed|title=What are political groups and how are they formed?|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=20 August 2021}}</ref>

===Coalitions===
Given that the Parliament does not form the government in the traditional sense of a Parliamentary system, its politics have developed along more [[consensus democracy|consensual]] lines with dynamical coalitions<ref>[http://aei.pitt.edu/97364/1/wp75_marie.pdf European Parliament: Is the grand coalition really a thing of the past?, Awenig Marié, 2019]</ref> rather than [[majority rule]] of competing parties and coalitions. Indeed, for much of its life it has been dominated by a [[grand coalition]] of the [[European People's Party]] and the [[Party of European Socialists]]. The two major parties tend to co-operate to find a compromise between their two groups leading to proposals endorsed by huge majorities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Settembri |first=Pierpaolo |title=Is the European Parliament competitive or consensual ... "and why bother"? |url=http://www.fedtrust.co.uk/admin/uploads/FedT_workshop_Settembri.pdf |publisher=Federal Trust |date=2 February 2007 |access-date=7 October 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026181653/http://www.fedtrust.co.uk/admin/uploads/FedT_workshop_Settembri.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> However, this does not always produce agreement, and each may instead try to build other alliances, the EPP normally with other centre-right or right wing Groups and the PES with centre-left or left wing groups. Sometimes, the Liberal Group is then in the pivotal position. There are also occasions where very sharp party political divisions have emerged, for example over the [[Santer Commission#Budget controversy|resignation of the Santer Commission]].<ref name = "Ringe"/>

When the initial allegations against the Commission emerged, they were directed primarily against [[Édith Cresson]] and [[Manuel Marín]], both socialist members. When the parliament was considering refusing to discharge the [[Budget of the European Union|Community budget]], President [[Jacques Santer]] stated that a no vote would be tantamount to a [[vote of no confidence]]. The Socialist group supported the Commission and saw the issue as an attempt by the EPP to discredit their party ahead of the 1999 elections. Socialist leader, [[Pauline Green]] MEP, attempted a vote of confidence and the EPP put forward counter motions. During this period the two parties took on similar roles to a government-[[Opposition (parliamentary)|opposition]] dynamic, with the Socialists supporting the executive and EPP renouncing its previous coalition support and voting it down.<ref name="Ringe"/> Politicisation such as this has been increasing, in 2007 Simon Hix of the [[London School of Economics]] noted that:<ref name="Farrell Powerful"/>
{{blockquote|Our work also shows that politics in the European Parliament is becoming increasingly based around party and ideology. Voting is increasingly split along left-right lines, and the cohesion of the party groups has risen dramatically, particularly in the fourth and fifth parliaments. So there are likely to be policy implications here too.}}

During the fifth term, 1999 to 2004, there was a break in the grand coalition resulting in a centre-right coalition between the Liberal and People's parties.<ref name="Watson interview">{{cite web|title=Interview: Graham Watson, leader of group of Liberal Democrat MEPs |url=http://www.euractiv.com/en/elections/interview-graham-watson-leader-group-liberal-democrat-meps/article-128543 |publisher=Euractiv |date=15 June 2004 |access-date=1 November 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814000107/http://www.euractiv.com/en/elections/interview-graham-watson-leader-group-liberal-democrat-meps/article-128543 |archive-date=14 August 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> This was reflected in the Presidency of the Parliament with the terms being shared between the EPP and the ELDR, rather than the EPP and Socialists.<ref>{{cite news|title = European Parliament elects new president |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/398892.stm|work=BBC News|date=20 July 1999|access-date=1 November 2007}}</ref> In the following term the liberal group grew to hold 88 seats, the largest number of seats held by any third party in Parliament.<ref name="ALDE formed">{{cite web|title=The Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe is born |date=14 July 2004 |publisher=Graham Watson MEP website |url=http://www.grahamwatsonmep.org/news/000017/the_alliance_of_liberals_and_democrats_for_europe_is_born.html |access-date=7 October 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071205090940/http://www.grahamwatsonmep.org/news/000017/the_alliance_of_liberals_and_democrats_for_europe_is_born.html |archive-date=5 December 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> The EPP-S&D coalition lost their majority after the [[2019 European Parliament election]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-05-27 |title=European elections 2019: Power blocs lose grip on parliament |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48417744 |access-date=2022-10-19}}</ref> requiring support by other political groups for a majority.

===Elections===
{{Main|Elections to the European Parliament}}
{{EP election results graph (percentage)}}

Elections have taken place, directly in every member state, every five years since 1979. {{As of|2019}} there have been nine elections. When a nation joins mid-term, a by-election will be held to elect their representatives. This has happened six times, most recently when Croatia joined in 2013. Elections take place across four days according to local custom and, apart from having to be [[Proportional representation|proportional]],<ref>The one notable exception is the [[German-speaking electoral college]] constituency in [[Belgium]]. Having a district magnitude of one, the constituency ''de facto'' elects its Member of the European Parliament via [[first-past-the-post]].</ref> the [[electoral system]] is chosen by the member state.<ref>The motto "[[Unity in diversity]]" could not be better confirmed in the European election law: {{cite journal|last1=Buonomo|first1=Giampiero|title=Le incompatibilità (per ora rinviate per motivi di salute) che bloccano l'ingresso al Parlamento europeo|journal=Diritto&Giustizia Edizione Online|date=2003|url=https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89371998|access-date=3 April 2016|archive-date=24 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324160801/https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89371998|url-status=dead}}</ref> This includes allocation of [[European Parliament constituency|sub-national constituencies]]; while most members have a national list, some divide their allocation between regions. Seats are allocated to member states according to their population, since 2014 with no state having more than 96, but no fewer than 6, to maintain proportionality.<ref>{{cite web|title=The European Parliament: electoral procedures |publisher=European Parliament |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/1_3_4_en.htm |access-date=12 June 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617144910/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/facts/1_3_4_en.htm |archive-date=17 June 2007 }}</ref>

The most recent Union-wide elections to the European Parliament were the [[2019 European Parliament election|European elections of 2019]], held from 23 to 26 May 2019. They were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world.
The first session of the ninth parliament started 2 July 2019.<ref>
[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20190627IPR55404/constitution-of-the-9th-legislature-of-the-european-parliament "Constitution of the 9th legislature of the European Parliament | News | European Parliament"]. European Parliament. 7 February 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2019.</ref>

[[European political parties]] have the exclusive right to campaign during the European elections (as opposed to their corresponding EP groups).<ref>{{cite web |title=European political parties |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/contracts-and-grants/en/20150201PVL00101/Political-parties-and-foundations |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=europarl.europa.eu |publisher=European Parliament}}</ref> There have been a number of proposals designed to attract greater public attention to the elections. One such innovation in the 2014 elections was that the [[European political party|pan-European political parties]] fielded "candidates" for [[President of the European Commission|president]] of the [[European Commission|Commission]], the so-called ''Spitzenkandidaten'' (German, "leading candidates" or "top candidates"). However, European Union governance is based on a mixture of intergovernmental and supranational features: the President of the European Commission is nominated by the European Council, representing the governments of the member states, and there is no obligation for them to nominate the successful "candidate". The Lisbon Treaty merely states that they should take account of the results of the elections when choosing whom to nominate. The so-called ''Spitzenkandidaten'' were [[Jean-Claude Juncker]] for the [[European People's Party]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://juncker.epp.eu|title=Jean-Claude Juncker: Experience. Solidarity. Future.|publisher=European People's Party|access-date=20 July 2021|archive-date=17 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117130239/http://juncker.epp.eu/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Martin Schulz]] for the [[Party of European Socialists]], [[Guy Verhofstadt]] for the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party]], [[Ska Keller]] and [[José Bové]] jointly for the [[European Green Party]] and [[Alexis Tsipras]] for the [[Party of the European Left]].

Turnout dropped consistently every year since the first election, and from 1999 until 2019 was below 50%. In 2007 both [[2007 European Parliament election|Bulgaria and Romania elected their MEPs]] in by-elections, having joined at the beginning of 2007. The Bulgarian and Romanian elections saw two of the lowest turnouts for European elections, just 28.6%<ref>{{cite web|title=New GERB party narrowly wins Bulgaria's first European Parliament election|date=21 May 2007|publisher=[[Southeast European Times]]|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/05/21/nb-01|access-date=8 July 2007}}</ref> and 28.3% respectively.<ref>{{cite web|title=Romania chooses its 35 MEPS|date=26 November 2007|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/011-13241-329-11-47-902-20071115STO13229-2007-25-11-2007/default_en.htm|access-date=24 February 2008|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213202736/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/011-13241-329-11-47-902-20071115STO13229-2007-25-11-2007/default_en.htm|archive-date=13 December 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> This trend was interrupted in the 2019 election, when turnout increased by 8% EU-wide, rising to 50.6%, the highest since 1994.

In England, Scotland and Wales, EP elections were originally held for a constituency MEP on a first-past-the-post basis. In 1999 the system was changed to a form of [[proportional representation]] where a large group of candidates stand for a post within a very large regional constituency.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/voting-in-the-uk/european-elections|title=Ways of voting - GOV.UK}}</ref> One could vote for a party, but not a candidate (unless that party had a single candidate).

==Proceedings==
[[File:CantinesEUbrussel.jpg|thumb|These "relocation boxes" of the European Parliament, called "cantines", are ready to be transported from [[Brussels]] to [[Strasbourg]] where a [[plenary session]] will take place. Each month, the EP moves back and forth to meet the EU obligation to also hold meetings in France.]]

Each year the activities of the Parliament cycle between committee weeks where reports are discussed in committees and interparliamentary delegations meet, political group weeks for members to discuss work within their political groups and session weeks where members spend 3½ days in [[Strasbourg]] for part-sessions. In addition six 2-day part-sessions are organised in [[Brussels]] throughout the year. Four weeks are allocated as constituency week to allow members to do exclusively constituency work. Finally there are no meetings planned during the summer weeks.<ref>{{cite web|title = European Parliament 2007 calendar of activities|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sed/doc/ext/hemicycle/PLAN_BRU.pdf|access-date =14 September 2009 }}</ref> The Parliament has the power to meet without being convened by another authority. Its meetings are partly controlled by the treaties but are otherwise up to Parliament according to its own "Rules of Procedure" (the regulations governing the parliament).<ref name=rules>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/AUTO/?uri=URISERV:o10000|title=EUR-Lex - o10000 - EN - EUR-Lex}}</ref>

During sessions, members may speak after being called on by the President. Members of the Council or Commission may also attend and speak in debates.<ref>{{cite web|title = Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament. Rule 141: Calling speakers and content of speeches|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20070101+RULE-141+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN&navigationBar=YES|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament. Rule 142: Allocation of speaking time|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20070101+RULE-142+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN&navigationBar=YES|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref> Partly due to the need for interpretation, and the politics of consensus in the chamber, debates tend to be calmer and more polite than, say, the [[Westminster system]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Yeomans|first=Chris|title=Democracy 1, Autocracy 0?|publisher=Café Babel|date=2 November 2004|url=http://www.cafebabel.com/en/article.asp?T=A&Id=976|access-date=9 July 2007| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050608053201/http://www.cafebabel.com/en/article.asp?T=A&Id=976| archive-date = 8 June 2005}}</ref> Voting is conducted primarily by a show of hands, that may be checked on request by electronic voting.<ref>{{cite web|title = Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament. Rule 164: Disputes on voting|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20070101+RULE-164+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN&navigationBar=YES|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref> Votes of MEPs are not recorded in either case, however; that only occurs when there is a roll-call ballot. This is required for the final votes on legislation and also whenever a political group or 30 MEPs request it. The number of roll-call votes has increased with time. Votes can also be a completely secret ballot (for example, when the president is elected).<ref>{{cite web|title = How do MEPs vote?|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060628STO09319&secondRef=0|date=28 June 2006|access-date =6 July 2007 }}</ref><ref>Hix &al (see [[#Further reading|further reading]] below), §1.4 ("The dataset: roll-call votes in the European Parliament"), p.29–30.</ref> All recorded votes, along with minutes and legislation, are recorded in the ''[[Official Journal of the European Union]]'' and can be accessed online.<ref>{{cite web|title = The different types of document available on Europarl|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/guide/search/docsearch_en.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016212424/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/guide/search/docsearch_en.htm|archive-date=16 October 2006|access-date =7 July 2007}}</ref> Votes usually do not follow a debate, but rather they are grouped with other due votes on specific occasions, usually at noon on Tuesdays, Wednesdays or Thursdays. This is because the length of the vote is unpredictable and if it continues for longer than allocated it can disrupt other debates and meetings later in the day.<ref name="Corbett 174">{{Cite book|last=Corbett|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Corbett|author2=Francis Jacobs|author3=Michael Shackleton|title = The European Parliament|edition=7|year=2007|place=London|publisher=John Harper|isbn=978-0-9551144-7-2|page=174|author-link2=Francis Jacobs}}</ref>

Members are arranged in a [[Hemicycle (chamber)|hemicycle]] according to their political groups (in the Common Assembly, prior to 1958, members sat alphabetically<ref name="Corbett 167"/>) who are ordered mainly by left to right, but some smaller groups are placed towards the outer ring of the Parliament. All desks are equipped with microphones, headphones for translation and electronic voting equipment. The leaders of the groups sit on the front benches at the centre, and in the very centre is a podium for guest speakers. The remaining half of the circular chamber is primarily composed of the raised area where the President and staff sit. Further benches are provided between the sides of this area and the MEPs, these are taken up by the Council on the far left and the Commission on the far right. Both the Brussels and Strasbourg hemicycle roughly follow this layout with only minor differences.<ref>{{cite web|title = Brussels seating plan|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sce/data/fast_access/doc//PLAN_BRX_30%20JAN_2008.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227035017/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sce/data/fast_access/doc//PLAN_BRX_30%20JAN_2008.pdf|url-status = dead|archive-date=27 February 2008|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref> The hemicycle design is a compromise between the different Parliamentary systems. The British-based system has the different groups directly facing each other while the French-based system is a semicircle (and the traditional German system had all members in rows facing a rostrum for speeches). Although the design is mainly based on a semicircle, the opposite ends of the spectrum do still face each other.<ref name="Corbett 167">{{Cite book|last=Corbett|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Corbett|author2=Francis Jacobs|author3=Michael Shackleton|title = The European Parliament|edition=7|year=2007|place=London|publisher=John Harper|isbn=978-0-9665544-7-2|page=167|author-link2=Francis Jacobs}}</ref> With access to the chamber limited, entrance is controlled by ushers who aid MEPs in the chamber (for example in delivering documents). The ushers can also occasionally act as a form of police in enforcing the President, for example in ejecting an MEP who is disrupting the session (although this is rare). The first head of protocol in the Parliament was French, so many of the duties in the Parliament are based on the French model first developed following the [[French Revolution]]. The 180 ushers are highly visible in the Parliament, dressed in black [[Tailcoat|tails]] and wearing a silver chain, and are [[EU Concours|recruited]] in the same manner as the [[European Civil Service|European civil service]]. The President is allocated a personal usher.<ref>{{cite web|title = The European Parliament Ushers|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20051017FCS01532&secondRef=0|access-date =21 June 2007 }}</ref>

===President and organisation===
[[File:Roberta Metsola elected new President of the European Parliament (51828380418) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Roberta Metsola]], the current [[President of the European Parliament]]]]
{{Main|President of the European Parliament}}

The President is essentially the [[Speaker (politics)|speaker]] of the Parliament and presides over the plenary when it is in session. The President's signature is required for all acts adopted by co-decision, including the EU budget. The President is also responsible for representing the Parliament externally, including in legal matters, and for the application of the rules of procedure. The President is elected for two-and-a-half-year terms, meaning two elections per parliamentary term.<ref>{{cite web|title = Duties of the President|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-019+DOC+XML+V0//EN&navigationBar=YES|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Functions|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/the-president/en/president/functions.html|access-date =20 September 2012}}</ref> The current President of the European Parliament is [[Roberta Metsola]], who was elected in January 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-18|title=Roberta Metsola elected new President of the European Parliament {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220114IPR21012/roberta-metsola-elected-new-president-of-the-european-parliament|access-date=2022-01-18|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

In most countries, the protocol of the [[head of state]] comes before all others; however, in the EU the Parliament is listed as the first institution, and hence the protocol of its president comes before any other European, or national, protocol. The gifts given to numerous visiting dignitaries depend upon the President. President [[Josep Borrell]] MEP of Spain gave his counterparts a crystal cup created by an artist from Barcelona who had engraved upon it parts of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union|Charter of Fundamental Rights]] among other things.<ref name="Protocol">{{cite web|title = Parliament's Protocol Service |date=28 July 2006|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060728FCS09980&secondRef=0|publisher=European Parliament|access-date =28 October 2007 }}</ref>

A number of notable figures have been President of the Parliament and its predecessors. The first President was [[Paul-Henri Spaak]] MEP,<ref>though the history of Parliament sometimes excludes the early Common Assembly, in which interpretation the first President would be [[Robert Schuman]] (another founding father) in those circumstances.</ref> one of the [[Founding fathers of the European Union|founding fathers of the Union]]. Other founding fathers include [[Alcide de Gasperi]] MEP and [[Robert Schuman]] MEP. The two female Presidents were [[Simone Veil]] MEP in 1979 (first President of the elected Parliament) and [[Nicole Fontaine]] MEP in 1999, both Frenchwomen.<ref>{{cite web|title=Former E.P. Presidents|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/the-president/en/president/formers.html|access-date=20 September 2012|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422224508/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/the-president/en/president/formers.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The previous president, [[Jerzy Buzek]] was the first [[East-Central Europe]]an to lead an EU institution, a former [[Prime Minister of Poland]] who rose out of the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement in Poland that helped overthrow communism in the [[Eastern Bloc]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Jerzy Buzek elected new President of the European Parliament|publisher=European Parliament|date=14 July 2009|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-58049-201-07-30-901-20090710STO58039-2009-20-07-2009/default_en.htm|access-date=14 July 2009|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723091956/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/story_page/008-58049-201-07-30-901-20090710STO58039-2009-20-07-2009/default_en.htm|archive-date=23 July 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

During the election of a President, the previous President (or, if unable to, one of the previous Vice-Presidents) presides over the chamber.<ref name="LeP">{{cite news|title=MEPs move to deny extremist Jean-Marie Le Pen platform
|work=The Guardian | location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/26/le-pen-eu-france|access-date=15 April 2009 | first=Ian | last=Traynor | date=26 March 2009}}</ref> Prior to 2009, the [[President of the European Parliament#Oldest member|oldest member]] fulfilled this role<ref>{{cite web|title = Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament. Rule 11: Oldest member|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20070101+RULE-011+DOC+XML+V0//EN&navigationBar=YES|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref> but the rule was changed to prevent far-right French MEP [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] taking the chair.<ref name="LeP"/>

Below the President, there are 14 [[Vice President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents]] who chair debates when the President is not in the chamber. There are a number of other bodies and posts responsible for the running of parliament besides these speakers. The two main bodies are the [[Bureau (European Parliament)|Bureau]], which is responsible for budgetary and administration issues, and the [[Conference of Presidents]] which is a governing body composed of the presidents of each of the parliament's political groups. Looking after the financial and administrative interests of members are five [[Quaestor (European Parliament)|Quaestors]].

{{As of|2014}}, the European Parliament budget was EUR 1.756 billion.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/00059f3ea3/The-budget-of-the-European-Parliament.html| title = The budget of the European Parliament| publisher = European Union| access-date =22 April 2011| quote = The 2014 EP budget amounts to € 1,756 billion of which 35% is for staff expenses, mainly salaries for the 6000 officials working in the General Secretariat and in the Political Groups.. }}</ref> A 2008 report on the Parliament's finances highlighted certain overspending and miss-payments. Despite some MEPs calling for the report to be published, Parliamentary authorities had refused until an MEP broke confidentiality and leaked it.<ref>{{cite news|title=MEP makes fraud report public
|work=BBC News |location=UK |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7280032.stm|access-date=28 October 2011 | date=5 March 2008}}</ref>

===Committees and delegations===
[[File:Committee Room of the European Parliament in Brussels.jpg|thumb|A Committee room]]
{{Main|Committees of the European Parliament}}

The Parliament has 20 [[Standing Committee]]s consisting of 25 to 73 MEPs each (reflecting the political make-up of the whole Parliament) including a chair, a bureau and secretariat. They meet twice a month in public to draw up, amend to adopt legislative proposals and reports to be presented to the plenary.<ref name="Organised">{{cite web|title = Organisation|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/20150201PVL00010/Organisation|access-date =3 May 2016|quote=In order to do the preparatory work for Parliament's plenary sittings, the Members are divided up among a number of specialised standing committees. There are 20 parliamentary committees. A committee consists of between 25 and 71 MEPs, and has a chair, a bureau and a secretariat. The political make-up of the committees reflects that of the plenary assembly. }}</ref> The [[rapporteur]]s for a committee are supposed to present the view of the committee, although notably this has not always been the case. In the events leading to the resignation of the Santer Commission, the rapporteur went against the [[Committee on Budgetary Control|Budgetary Control Committee's]] narrow vote to discharge the budget, and urged the Parliament to reject it.<ref name="Ringe">{{cite web | last =Ringer | first =Nils F. | title =The Santer Commission Resignation Crisis | publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh]] |date=February 2003 | url =http://aei.pitt.edu/2919/01/156.pdf | access-date =7 October 2007 }}</ref>

Committees can also set up sub-committees (e.g. the [[Subcommittee on Human Rights]]) and temporary committees to deal with a specific topic (e.g. on [[extraordinary rendition]]). The chairs of the Committees co-ordinate their work through the "[[Committees of the European Parliament#Conference of Committee Chairs|Conference of Committee Chairmen]]".<ref name="Organised"/> When co-decision was introduced it increased the Parliament's powers in a number of areas, but most notably those covered by the [[European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety|Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety]]. Previously this committee was considered by MEPs as a "[[Cinderella]] committee"; however, as it gained a new importance, it became more professional and rigorous, attracting increasing attention to its work.<ref name="Hoskyns"/>

The nature of the committees differ from their national counterparts as, although smaller in comparison to those of the [[United States Congressional committee|United States Congress]], the European Parliament's committees are unusually large by European standards with between eight and twelve dedicated members of staff and three to four support staff. Considerable administration, archives and research resources are also at the disposal of the whole Parliament when needed.<ref name="Kreppel"/>

[[European Parliament Delegations|Delegations of the Parliament]] are formed in a similar manner and are responsible for relations with Parliaments outside the EU. There are 34 delegations made up of around 15 MEPs, chairpersons of the delegations also cooperate in a conference like the committee chairs do. They include "Interparliamentary delegations" (maintain relations with Parliament outside the EU), "joint parliamentary committees" (maintaining relations with parliaments of states which are candidates or associates of the EU), the delegation to the [[ACP EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly]] and the delegation to the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]].<ref name="Organised"/> MEPs also participate in other international activities such as the [[Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly]], the [[Transatlantic Legislators' Dialogue]] and through [[Election monitoring|election observation]] in third countries.<ref>{{cite web|title =European Parliament: In Detail|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/parliament/expert.do?language=EN|publisher=European Parliament|access-date =9 July 2007 }}</ref>

===Intergroups===
[[File:Dvorana Jožeta Pučnika Jože Pučnik Hall.jpg|thumb|[[Jože Pučnik]] conference room]]

The [[Intergroups in the European Parliament]] are informal fora which gather MEPs from various political groups around any topic. They do not express the view of the European Parliament. They serve a double purpose: to address a topic which is transversal to several committees and in a less formal manner. Their daily secretariat can be run either through the office of MEPs or through interest groups, be them corporate lobbies or NGOs. The favored access to MEPs which the organization running the secretariat enjoys can be one explanation to the multiplication of Intergroups in the 1990s.<ref>[http://www.cairn.info/revue-politique-europeenne-2003-1-page-123.htm Dutoit Laurent, « L'influence au sein du Parlement européen : les intergroupes », Politique européenne 1/2003 (n° 9), p. 123-142].</ref> They are now strictly regulated and financial support, direct or otherwise (via Secretariat staff, for example) must be officially specified in a declaration of financial interests.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/intergroupes/legislature_8/DecisionofCoPof16Dec1999-Rules_governing_the_establishment_of_integroupes.pdf|title=Article 6, Rules governing the establishment of intergroups, decision of the Conference of Presidents, 16 december 1999 (last updated 11 September 2014)}}</ref> Also Intergroups are established or renewed at the beginning of each legislature through a specific process. Indeed, the proposal for the constitution or renewal of an Intergroup must be supported by at least 3 political groups whose support is limited to a specific number of proposals in proportion to their size (for example, for the legislature 2014-2019, the EPP or S&D political groups could support 22 proposals whereas the Greens/EFA or the EFDD political groups only 7).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/intergroupes/legislature_8/DecisionofCoPof16Dec1999-Rules_governing_the_establishment_of_integroupes.pdf|title=Annex 1, Rules governing the establishment of intergroups, decision of the Conference of Presidents, 16 december 1999 (last updated 11 September 2014)}}</ref>

===Translation and interpretation===
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| header = Interpretation in the European Parliament
| width =
| image1 = 2007 07 16 parlament europejski bruksela 47.JPG
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Interpreting booths in the hemicycle simultaneously interpret debates between 24 languages
| image2 = Hearing of Commissioner-designate Thierry Breton (49068586441).jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Interpreter at a committee hearing for the confirmation of [[Thierry Breton]] to the European Commission in 2019
}}
{{See also|Languages of the European Union}}

Speakers in the European Parliament are entitled to speak in any of the 24 official [[languages of the European Union]], ranging from French and German to [[Maltese language|Maltese]] and [[Irish language|Irish]]. Simultaneous interpreting is offered in all plenary sessions, and all final texts of legislation are translated. With twenty-four languages, the European Parliament is the most multilingual parliament in the world<ref>{{cite web|title = Press Release: Irish language arrives in European Parliament|date=11 January 2007|publisher=European Parliament Irish Office|url=http://www.europarl.ie/news_press_release_2_2007.html|access-date =12 June 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928103833/http://www.europarl.ie/news_press_release_2_2007.html| archive-date = 28 September 2007}}</ref> and the biggest employer of interpreters in the world (employing 350 full-time and 400 free-lancers when there is higher demand).<ref name="Interpreters">{{cite web|title = The European Parliament's Interpreters.|date=12 April 2006|publisher=European Parliament|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20060403FCS06935&secondRef=0|access-date =21 June 2007}}</ref> Citizens may also address the Parliament in [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]]/[[Valencian language|Valencian]] and [[Galician language|Galician]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The European Parliament allows the written communication of citizens in Basques in Basque, Catalan and Galician. |year=2006 |publisher=Ciemen |url=http://www.ciemen.org/mercator/notidetail.cfm?IDA=897&lg=gb |access-date=21 June 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927003800/http://www.ciemen.org/mercator/notidetail.cfm?IDA=897&lg=gb |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>

Usually a language is translated from a foreign tongue into a translator's native tongue. Due to the large number of languages, some being minor ones, since 1995 interpreting is sometimes done the opposite way, out of an interpreter's native tongue (the "retour" system). In addition, a speech in a minor language may be interpreted through a third language for lack of interpreters ("relay" interpreting){{snd}} for example, when interpreting out of [[Estonian language|Estonian]] into [[Maltese language|Maltese]].<ref name="Interpreters"/> Due to the complexity of the issues, interpretation is not word for word. Instead, interpreters have to convey the political meaning of a speech, regardless of their own views. This requires detailed understanding of the politics and terms of the Parliament, involving a great deal of preparation beforehand (e.g. reading the documents in question). Difficulty can often arise when MEPs use profanities, jokes and word play or speak too fast.<ref name="Interpreters"/>

While some see speaking their native language as an important part of their identity, and can speak more fluently in debates, interpretation and its cost has been criticised by some. A 2006 report by [[Alexander Stubb]] MEP highlighted that by only using English, French and German costs could be reduced from [[Euro|€]]118,000 per day (for 21 languages then{{snd}} [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]] having not yet been included) to €8,900 per day.<ref>{{cite news|title = In European Parliament, debate – in 21 languages – can be pricey|date=12 September 2006|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0912/p05s01-woeu.html|newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref> There has also been a small-scale campaign to make French the reference language for all legal texts, on the basis of an argument that it is more clear and precise for legal purposes.<ref>{{cite web|title = Campaign to make French sole legal language in EU|date=7 February 2007|work=International Herald Tribune |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/02/07/europe/EU-GEN-EU-French.php|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref>

Because the proceedings are translated into all of the official EU languages, they have been used to make a multilingual [[Text corpus|corpus]] known as [[Europarl corpus|Europarl]]. It is widely used to train [[statistical machine translation]] systems.<ref>Philipp Koehn (2005) Europarl: [http://www.iccs.inf.ed.ac.uk/~pkoehn/publications/europarl-mtsummit05.pdf A Parallel Corpus for Statistical Machine Translation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705060514/http://www.iccs.inf.ed.ac.uk/~pkoehn/publications/europarl-mtsummit05.pdf |date=5 July 2010 }}, in ''MT Summit 2005''</ref>

== Corruptions ==
{{Main articles|Qatar corruption scandal at the European Parliament}}
On 12 December President Metsola announced that all work with Qatar would be suspended.<ref name="EA">{{cite news |date=12 December 2022 |title=EU Parliament suspends work with Qatar as MEPs demand corruption probe |newspaper=[[EurActiv]] |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news/eu-parliament-suspends-work-with-qatar-as-meps-demand-corruption-probe/|access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref>

A [[European Union]] correspondent, Jack Parrock confirmed on the basis of close sources to Qatar that the UAE was involved in plotting the corruption scandal. Parrock said the official investigations, leaked documents and a number of European sources have confirmed the Emirati involvement in planning the alleged bribery case against Qatar. In a separate report by The European Microscope, documents revealed that the UAE made extensive efforts to woo multiple members of the European Parliament. Abu Dhabi intensified the lobbying campaign to built its support within the European Parliament and to push its members to speak in favour of the Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://emiratesleaks.com/2022/12/revealed-uae-involved-in-the-so-called-qatar-corruption-scandal-in-the-eu/?lang=en|title=Revealed: UAE involved in the so-called Qatar corruption scandal in the EU|access-date=14 December 2022|website=Emirati Leaks}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/jackeparrock/status/1602966494450778113|title=Tweet by Jack Parrock|access-date=14 December 2022|website=Twitter}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.watanserb.com/2022/12/14/مصادر-حكومية-قطرية-تؤكد-وقوف-الإمارات/ |title=مصادر حكومية قطرية تؤكد وقوف الإمارات وراء مؤامرة ضدها في البرلمان الأوروبي |trans-title=Qatari government sources confirm that the UAE is behind a plot against it in the European Parliament |date=14 December 2022 |first1=Salem Muhammad |last1=Hanafi |newspaper=[[Watan (newspaper)]] |language=ar}}</ref> After Qatari officials, an Italian web publisher, Dagospia alleged that the UAE’s plan against Qatar involved Tahnoun bin Zayed. Brother of the UAE President Mohammed bin Zayed, TbZ allegedly gave Belgium the tips, which lead to the investigations against Qatar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.dagospia.com/la-strategia-degli-emiri-per-il-qatargate-negare-tutto-e-urlare-al-complotto-336537|title=Tahnoun bin Zayed spilled everything to Belgium|access-date=21 December 2022|website=Dagospia}}</ref>

At the same meeting the [[Greens–European Free Alliance]] and [[Renew Europe]] both called for an inquiry committee to be set up by the European Parliament.{{r|EA}} The suspension of Parliamentary business at this time is significant as it comes just three days before the Parliament was due to vote on introducing a [[Travel visa|visa-free travel]] agreement with Qatar and other countries.{{r|EA}} This resulted in the vote on visa-free travel to Ecuador, Kuwait, and Oman also being canceled.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 December 2022 |title=EU Parliament Postpones Voting on Schengen Visa Exemption for Ecuador |url=https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/news/eu-parliament-postpones-voting-on-schengen-visa-exemption-for-ecuador/ |access-date=13 December 2022 |website=Schengen Visa Info}}</ref> In addition, a major and controversial [[Air transport agreement|air transit agreement]] that would have allowed [[Qatar Airways]] unlimited access to the EU market was put on hold after warning that Qatar may have interfered in Parliament's internal deliberations on the agreement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-13 |title=Scandal pushes MEPs to review Qatar Airways' access deal with EU |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/scandal-european-parliament-qatar-airways/ |access-date= |website=[[Politico]] |language=en}}</ref> During the negotiations there was criticism by EU member states that the agreement, negotiated by the Parliament's [[European Parliament Committee on Transport and Tourism|transport committee]], was unduly favourable of Qatar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-05 |title=Troubled skies over attempt to protect EU's aviation industry |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/troubled-skies-over-attempt-to-protect-eus-aviation-industry/ |access-date= |website=[[Politico]] |language=en}}</ref>

On 16 December 2022, an article published by Politico, elucidate the connection between [[Antonio Panzeri]] and Abderrahim Atmoun. Pier Antonio Panzeri a former Italian member of the European parliament who headed the assembly of Maghreb delegation and Abderrahim Atmoun, his co-president of EU-Morocco joint parliamentary committee attended an award ceremony in 2014 where they were awarded by the king [[Mohammed VI of Morocco]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-07-30 |title=Décoration de plusieurs personnalités de Ouissams royaux à l'occasion de la Fête du Trône |url=https://www.maroc.ma/fr/activites-royales/decoration-de-plusieurs-personnalites-de-ouissams-royaux-loccasion-de-la-fete-du |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=Maroc.ma |language=fr}}</ref> Atmoun, now Morocco’s ambassador to Warsaw posted some pictures from the ceremony with the king and also posted the series of pictures showcasing the long term association between him and Panzeri - a man whom he publicly claims as his friend from as long as 2011. The later pictures also involves Francesco Giorgi where three of them can be seen sitting together at the meeting room. Later in 2022, the three men caught in the biggest corruption scandal as Belgium launches an investigation into whether Qatar and Morocco bought the influence in the European parliament. Panzeri and Giorgi, along with his partner Eva kaili are in jail facing preliminary charges of corruption. Also warrants were issued against Panzeri’s wife and daughter in connection with influence buying which mentions the Atmoun giving gifts to them. The Lawyers have declined to comment and Morocco’s embassies in Warsaw and Brussel are not responding to calls. Panzeri’s wife and daughter also denied any wrongdoings. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-16 |title=EU Parliament scandal: The Morocco connection |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/qatargate-antonio-panzeri-francesco-giogrio-eu-parliament-scandal-the-morocco-connection/ |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=POLITICO |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-13 |title=The 'giant' and the Moroccan envoy tied to the EU Parliament scandal |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/qatargate-giant-moroccan-envoy-alleged-scandal-corruption-eu-parliament-antonio-panzeri/ |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=POLITICO |language=en-US}}</ref>

In January 2023, a statement from Parliamentary President [[Roberta Metsola]] said that the EU will launch proceedings to remove parliamentary immunity from two [[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]] implicated in an ongoing corruption scandal. Without naming the MEPs involved in the corruption and [[Money laundering|money-laundering]] case, Metsola said she had taken the move after a request from Belgian police. <ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-01-02 |title=More MEPs could lose immunity in corruption probe, president says |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-64146807 |access-date=2023-01-03}}</ref>

==Annual costs==
According to the European Parliament website, the annual parliament budget for 2021 was €2.064 billion, which corresponds to 1.2% of [[Budget of the European Union|EU budget]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliament's budget |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/organisation-and-rules/parliaments-budget |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=europarl.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> The main cost categories were:
* 45%{{snd}} staff (staff expenses, contract agents, linguistic services)
* 22%{{snd}} operational costs (buildings, IT, administration)
* 26%{{snd}} political activities (members, activities of political groups, parties and foundations)
* 6%{{snd}} communications

According to a European Parliament study prepared in 2013, the Strasbourg seat costs an extra €103 million over maintaining a single location and according to the Court of Auditors an additional €5 million is related to travel expenses caused by having two seats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/faq/19/why-does-parliament-move-between-brussels-and-strasbourg|title=Why does Parliament move between Brussels and Strasbourg?|website=www.europarl.europa.eu}}</ref>

As a comparison, the German lower house of parliament ([[Bundestag]]) is estimated to cost €517 million in total for 2018, for a parliament with 709 members.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article169033905/So-viel-zahlen-die-Deutschen-fuer-die-Demokratie.html|title=So viel zahlen die Deutschen für die Demokratie|newspaper=Die Welt|date=26 September 2017|last1=Eckert|first1=Daniel}}</ref> The [[British House of Commons]] reported total annual costs in 2016-2017 of £249 million (€279 million). It had 650 seats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-expenditure/Admin%20Annual%20Accounts/AdminAnnualReport1617.pdf|title=Annual Report and Accounts 2016–17, p. 70|last=House of Commons|website=www.parliament.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718205626/https://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-expenditure/Admin%20Annual%20Accounts/AdminAnnualReport1617.pdf|archive-date=18 July 2018|url-status = dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

According to ''The Economist'', the European Parliament costs more than the British, French and German parliaments combined. A quarter of the costs is estimated to be related to translation and interpretation costs (c. €460 million) and the double seats are estimated to add an additional €180 million a year.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2014/05/15/elected-yet-strangely-unaccountable|title=Elected, yet strangely unaccountable|last=Economist|date=May 15, 2014|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> For a like-for-like comparison, these two cost blocks can be excluded.

On 2 July 2018, MEPs rejected proposals to tighten the rules around the General Expenditure Allowance (GEA),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/strasbourg-european-parliament-meps-reject-scrutiny-of-expenses/|title=MEPs reject scrutiny of their expenses|date=July 3, 2018|website=www.politico.eu}}</ref> which "is a controversial €4,416 per month payment that MEPs are given to cover office and other expenses, but they are not required to provide any evidence of how the money is spent".<ref>[https://www.politico.eu/article/brexit-european-parliament-nigel-farage-daniel-hannan-british-members-of-european-parliament-to-bag-lucrative-post-brexit-pay-out/ MAÏA DE LA BAUME, ''British MEPs to bag lucrative post-Brexit payout'', Politico, 9 Jan. 2019].</ref>

==Seat==
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| header = Seats of the European Parliament
| width =
| image1 =
| alt1 = Louise Weiss building in [[Strasbourg]], France
| caption1 = [[Seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg|Louise Weiss]] building in [[Strasbourg]], {{Flag|France}}
| image2 = European Parliament (DSC01793).jpg
| alt2 = Espace Léopold building in [[Brussels]], Belgium
| caption2 = [[Espace Léopold]] building in [[Brussels]], {{Flag|Belgium}}
| image3 = Le parlement Européen (bâtiment Konrad Adenauer) - Septembre 2010.jpg
| alt3 = Konrad Adenauer building in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| caption3 = [[Konrad Adenauer]] building in [[Luxembourg City]], {{Flag|Luxembourg}} (seat of the Secretariat-General)
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}}
{{Further|Location of European Union institutions|Espace Léopold|Seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg}}

The Parliament is based in three different cities with numerous buildings. A protocol attached to the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]] requires that 12 plenary sessions be held in [[Strasbourg]] (none in August but two in September), which is the Parliament's official seat, while extra part sessions as well as committee meetings are held in [[Brussels]]. Luxembourg City hosts the [[Secretariat of the European Parliament]].<ref name="Consolidated Treaty"/> The European Parliament is one of at least two assemblies in the world with more than one meeting place (another being the [[Tynwald|parliament of the Isle of Man, Tynwald]]) and one of the few that does not have the power to decide its own location.<ref name="Strange">{{cite web|last=Alvaro|first=Alexander|title=Europe's strangest migrants|date=6 July 2006|publisher=Café Babel|url=http://www.cafebabel.co.uk/article/1906/europes-strangest-migrants.html|access-date=1 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122025558/http://www.cafebabel.co.uk/article/1906/europes-strangest-migrants.html|archive-date=22 January 2012|url-status = dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The Strasbourg seat is seen as a symbol of reconciliation between France and Germany, the Strasbourg region having been fought over by the two countries in the past. However, the cost and inconvenience of having two seats is questioned. While Strasbourg is the official seat, and sits alongside the [[Council of Europe]],<ref>{{cite web|title = The Council of Europe and the European Union sign an agreement to foster mutual cooperation|date=23 May 2007|url=https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=PR331(2007)&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=original&BackColorInternet=F5CA75&BackColorIntranet=F5CA75&BackColorLogged=A9BACE&ShowBanner=no&Target=_self|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|access-date =12 June 2007 }}</ref> [[Brussels and the European Union|Brussels is home to nearly all other major EU institutions]], with the majority of Parliament's work being carried out there. Critics have described the two-seat arrangement as a "travelling circus",<ref name="Seat Green">{{cite web|title=Greens condemn EU parliament's 'traveling circus' |date=26 April 2007 |url=http://www.4ecotips.com/eco/article_show.php?aid=1222&id=280 |publisher=4ecotips |access-date=5 July 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519183136/http://www.4ecotips.com/eco/article_show.php?aid=1222&id=280 |archive-date=19 May 2007 }}</ref> and there is a strong movement to establish Brussels as the sole seat. This is because the other political institutions (the Commission, Council and European Council) are located there, and hence Brussels is treated as the '[[Capital city|capital]]' of the EU. This movement has received strong backing from numerous figures, including [[Margot Wallström]], Commission First-Vice President from 2004 to 2010, who stated that "something that was once a very positive symbol of the EU reuniting France and Germany has now become a negative symbol{{snd}} of wasting money, bureaucracy and the insanity of the Brussels institutions".<ref>{{cite web|title=Wallstrom: "Strasbourg has become a negative symbol"|date=5 September 2006|publisher=EurActiv|url=http://www.euractiv.com/future-eu/wallstroem-strasbourg-negative-s-news-216926|access-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> The [[European Green Party|Green Party]] has also noted the environmental cost in a study led by [[Jean Lambert]] MEP and [[Caroline Lucas]] MEP; in addition to the extra 200 million euro spent on the extra seat, there are over 20,268 tonnes of additional carbon dioxide, undermining any environmental stance of the institution and the Union.<ref name="Seat Green"/> The campaign is further backed by a million-strong online petition started by [[Cecilia Malmström]] MEP.<ref>{{cite web|last=Malmström|first=Cecilia|author-link=Cecilia Malmström|title=OneSeat.eu|url=http://www.oneseat.eu/|access-date=12 June 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609081546/http://www.oneseat.eu/|archive-date=9 June 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In August 2014, an assessment by the European Court of Auditors calculated that relocating the Strasbourg seat of the European Parliament to Brussels would save €113.8 million per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euractiv.com/sections/future-eu/auditors-put-price-tag-eu-parliament-travelling-circus-303846|title=Auditors put price tag on EU Parliament 'travelling circus'|date=August 2014}}</ref> In 2006, there were allegations of irregularities in the charges made by the city of Strasbourg on buildings the Parliament rented, thus further harming the case for the Strasbourg seat.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kroeger|first=Alix|title=EU and Strasbourg in rent row|date=27 April 2006|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4952228.stm|access-date=5 July 2007}}</ref>

Most MEPs prefer Brussels as a single base.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wheatly|first=Paul|title = The two-seat parliament farce must end|date=2 October 2006|url=http://www.cafebabel.co.uk/article/2047/the-two-seat-parliament-farce-must-end.html|publisher=Café Babel|access-date =12 June 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070610174433/http://www.cafebabel.com/en/article.asp?T=A&Id=2047| archive-date = 10 June 2007}}</ref> A poll of MEPs found 89% of the respondents wanting a single seat, and 81% preferring Brussels.<ref>{{cite web|title = Euro MPs want to scrap Strasbourg base: poll|date=13 June 2007|url=http://www.eubusiness.com/news_live/1181757615.41|publisher=EU Business|access-date =22 June 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070930165033/http://www.eubusiness.com/news_live/1181757615.41| archive-date = 30 September 2007}}</ref> Another survey found 68% support.<ref name="Farrell Powerful"/> In July 2011, an absolute majority of MEPs voted in favour of a single seat.<ref>[http://www.theparliament.com/latest-news/article/newsarticle/majority-of-meps-now-favour-single-seat/ Majority of MEPs now favour single seat] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716022548/http://www.theparliament.com/latest-news/article/newsarticle/majority-of-meps-now-favour-single-seat/ |date=16 July 2011 }} theparliament.com</ref> In early 2011, the Parliament voted to scrap one of the Strasbourg sessions by holding two within a single week.<ref>{{cite web|title=MEPs vote to reduce Strasbourg calendar |date=10 March 2011 |publisher=EurActiv |access-date=24 March 2011 |url=http://www.euractiv.com/en/future-eu/meps-vote-reduce-strasbourg-calendar-news-502987 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312115210/http://www.euractiv.com/en/future-eu/meps-vote-reduce-strasbourg-calendar-news-502987 |archive-date=12 March 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> The [[Roland Ries|mayor of Strasbourg]] officially reacted by stating "we will counter-attack by upturning the adversary's strength to our own profit, as a [[judo]]ka would do".<ref>{{cite web|title = Le conseil municipal adopte à l'unanimité une motion confortant et élargissant le siège du Parlement européen à Strasbourg|date=21 March 2011|publisher=EurActiv|access-date =24 March 2011 | url = http://www.strasbourg.eu/accueil?ItemID=1633917363}}</ref> However, as Parliament's seat is now fixed by the treaties, it can only be changed by the Council acting unanimously, meaning that France could veto any move.<ref name="Strange"/> Former [[French President]] [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] stated that the Strasbourg seat is "non-negotiable" and that France has no intention of surrendering the only EU Institution on French soil.<ref>{{cite web|last=Banks |first=Martin |title=Sarkozy slated over Strasbourg seat |date=24 May 2007 |publisher=EU Politix: The Parliament |url=http://www.eupolitix.com/EN/News/200705/8216d9d5-0c44-46e2-a6d8-6166c30e812f.htm |access-date=22 June 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225555/http://www.eupolitix.com/EN/News/200705/8216d9d5-0c44-46e2-a6d8-6166c30e812f.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref> Given France's declared intention to veto any relocation to Brussels, some MEPs have advocated [[civil disobedience]] by refusing to take part in the monthly exodus to Strasbourg.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/legacy/thereporters/markmardell/2007/12/post_5.html Giving up the Strasbourg junket] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325182034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/markmardell/2007/12/post_5.html |date=25 March 2019 }} Mark Mardell, BBC News. 4 December 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.policyreview.eu/meps-demand-single-seat-in-brussels-but-france-refuses-to-give-up-on-strasbourg/|title=MEPs demand single seat in Brussels but France refuses to give up on Strasbourg - Policy Review|url-status = dead|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517215034/http://www.policyreview.eu/meps%2Ddemand%2Dsingle%2Dseat%2Din%2Dbrussels%2Dbut%2Dfrance%2Drefuses%2Dto%2Dgive%2Dup%2Don%2Dstrasbourg/|archive-date=17 May 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euractiv.com/future-eu/meps-voted-monthly-travels-stras-news-515651|title=MEPs vote to end monthly travel to Strasbourg|date=25 October 2012}}</ref>

==Channels of dialogue, information, and communication with European civil society==

Over the last few years, European institutions have committed to promoting transparency, openness, and the availability of information about their work.<ref>{{Cite report|author=Juan Mayoral|date=February 2011|title=Democratic improvements in the European Union under the Lisbon Treaty Institutional changes regarding democratic government in the EU|publisher=European Union Democracy Observatory (EUDO). Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute|access-date=25 May 2017|url=https://www.eui.eu/Projects/EUDO-Institutions/Documents/EUDOreport922011.pdf|language=en|archive-date=30 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530022226/http://www.eui.eu/Projects/EUDO-Institutions/Documents/EUDOreport922011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In particular, transparency is regarded as pivotal to the action of European institutions and a general principle of EU law, to be applied to the activities of EU institutions in order to strengthen the Union's democratic foundation.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Giordano Locchi|language=it|date=8 February 2017|title=Il principio di trasparenza in Europa nei suoi risvolti in termini di Governance amministrativa e di comunicazione istituzionale dell'Unione|journal=Amministrazione in Cammino|access-date=22 May 2017|url=https://www.dispi.unisi.it/sites/st06/files/allegatiparagrafo/08-02-2017/locchi_principio-di-trasparenza_e-governance_11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803052649/https://www.dispi.unisi.it/sites/st06/files/allegatiparagrafo/08-02-2017/locchi_principio-di-trasparenza_e-governance_11.pdf|archive-date=3 August 2017|url-status = dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The general principles of openness and transparency are reaffirmed in the articles 8 A, point 3 and 10.3 of the [[Treaty of Lisbon]] and the [[Maastricht Treaty]] respectively, stating that "every citizen shall have the right to participate in the democratic life of the Union. Decisions shall be taken as openly and as closely as possible to the citizen".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/IT/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3AC2007%2F306%2F01|title=Trattato di Lisbona che modifica il Trattato sull'Unione europea e il Trattato che istituisce la Comunità europea (2007/C 306/01)|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|publisher=EUR-lex}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:2bf140bf-a3f8-4ab2-b506-fd71826e6da6.0017.02/DOC_1&format=PDF|title=Trattato sull'Unione europea (Versione consolidata)|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|access-date=23 May 2017|language=it}}</ref> Furthermore, both treaties acknowledge the value of dialogue between citizens, representative associations, civil society, and European institutions.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

===Dialogue with religious and non-confessional organisations===

Article 17 of the [[Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union]] (TFEU) lays the juridical foundation for an open, transparent dialogue between European institutions and churches, religious associations, and non-confessional and philosophical organisations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/it/20160919PVL00112/Dialogo-con-le-religioni-e-le-organizzazioni-non-confessionali|title=Dialogo con le organizzazioni religiose e non confessionali Articolo 17 TFUE|website=europarl.europa.eu|publisher=Parlamento europeo|access-date=22 May 2017|language=it}}</ref> In July 2014, in the beginning of the 8th term, then President of the European Parliament [[Martin Schulz]] tasked [[Antonio Tajani]], then Vice-President, with implementing the dialogue with the religious and confessional organisations included in article 17.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lastampa.it/2015/03/27/vaticaninsider/ita/nel-mondo/lue-a-bruxelles-il-dialogo-interreligioso-come-strategia-contro-lestremismo-bbjEnG3KL5FtW7ykRfeElO/pagina.html|title=L'Ue a Bruxelles: il dialogo interreligioso come strategia contro l'estremismo|newspaper=La Stampa|date=27 March 2015|access-date=22 May 2017|language=it|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809211604/http://www.lastampa.it/2015/03/27/vaticaninsider/ita/nel-mondo/lue-a-bruxelles-il-dialogo-interreligioso-come-strategia-contro-lestremismo-bbjEnG3KL5FtW7ykRfeElO/pagina.html|archive-date=9 August 2017|url-status = dead}}</ref> In this framework, the European Parliament hosts high-level conferences on inter-religious dialogue, also with focus on current issues and in relation with parliamentary works.<ref name=":0" />

===European Parliament Mediator for International Parental Child Abduction===

The chair of European Parliament Mediator for International Parental Child Abduction was established in 1987 by initiative of British MEP Charles [[Henry Plumb]], with the goal of helping minor children of international couples victim of parental abduction. The Mediator finds negotiated solutions in the higher interest of the minor when said minor is abducted by a parent following separation of the couple, regardless whether married or unmarried.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.altalex.com/documents/news/2015/04/10/sottrazione-internazionale-e-mediazione|title=Sottrazione internazionale di minore: ammessa la mediazione familiare|publisher=Altalex|date=19 June 2015|access-date=22 May 2017|language=it}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/it/20150201PVL00040/Mediatore-europeo-per-i-casi-di-sottrazione-di-minori|title=Mediatore del Parlamento europeo per i casi di sottrazione internazionale di minori|website=europarl.europa.eu|publisher=European Parliament|access-date=22 May 2017}}</ref> Since its institution, the chair has been held by [[Mairead McGuinness]] (since 2014), Roberta Angelilli (2009–2014), Evelyne Gebhardt (2004–2009), Mary Banotti (1995–2004), and Marie-Claude Vayssade (1987–1994).<ref name=":1" /> The Mediator's main task is to assist parents in finding a solution in the minor's best interest through mediation, i.e. a form of controversy resolution alternative to lawsuit. The Mediator is activated by request of a citizen and, after evaluating the request, starts a mediation process aimed at reaching an agreement. Once subscribed by both parties and the Mediator, the agreement is official. The nature of the agreement is that of a private contract between parties.<ref name=":1" /> In defining the agreement, the European Parliament offers the parties the juridical support necessary to reach a sound, lawful agreement based on legality and equity. The agreement can be ratified by the competent national courts and can also lay the foundation for consensual separation or divorce.<ref name=":1" />

==European Parliamentary Research Service==
The [[European Parliamentary Research Service]] (EPRS) is the European Parliament's in-house research department and think tank. It provides [[Member of the European Parliament|Members of the European Parliament]]{{snd}} and, where appropriate, [[Committees of the European Parliament|parliamentary committees]]{{snd}} with independent, objective and authoritative analysis of, and research on, policy issues relating to the European Union, in order to assist them in their parliamentary work. It is also designed to increase Members' and EP committees' capacity to scrutinise and oversee the [[European Commission]] and other [[Bodies of the European Union|EU executive bodies]].

EPRS aims to provide a comprehensive range of products and services, backed by specialist internal expertise and knowledge sources in all policy fields, so empowering Members and committees through knowledge and contributing to the Parliament's effectiveness and influence as an institution. In undertaking this work, the EPRS supports and promotes parliamentary outreach to the wider public, including dialogue with relevant stakeholders in the [[European Union|EU]]'s system of multi-level governance. All EPRS publications are publicly available on the EP Think Tank platform.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/en/20150201PVL00031/European-Parliamentary-Research-Service |title=European Parliamentary Research Service |publisher=Europarl.europa.eu |access-date=2017-08-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/The_work_of_EPRS-2014_to_2016.pdf|title=The work of EPRS – The first three years: 2014 to 2016|publisher=European Parliamentary Research Service|access-date=2017-09-07}}</ref>

==Eurobarometer of the European Parliament==
The European Parliament periodically commissions opinion polls and studies on public opinion trends in Member States to survey perceptions and expectations of citizens about its work and the overall activities of the European Union. Topics include citizens' perception of the European Parliament's role, their knowledge of the institution, their sense of belonging in the European Union, opinions on European elections and European integration, identity, citizenship, political values, but also on current issues such as climate change, current economy and politics, etc. [[Eurobarometer]] analyses seek to provide an overall picture of national situations, regional specificities, socio-demographic cleavages, and historical trends.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/en/20161110PVL00113/Eurobarometer|title=Parlemeter 2016|website=europarl.europa.eu|access-date=23 May 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.it/it/scoprire-l-europa/eurobarometro-i-sondaggi-d-opinione-del-pe?webaction=view.acceptCookies|title=Eurobarometro: i sondaggi d'opinione del PE|website=europarl.it|access-date=23 May 2017|language=it}}</ref>

==Prizes==
===Sakharov Prize===
[[File:Remise du Prix Sakharov à Aung San Suu Kyi Strasbourg 22 octobre 2013-11.jpg|right|thumb|The ceremony of the [[Sakharov Prize]] awarded to [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] by [[Martin Schulz]], in 2013]]
With the [[Sakharov Prize]], created in 1988, the European Parliament supports human rights by awarding individuals that contribute to promoting human rights worldwide, thus raising awareness on human rights violations. Priorities include: protection of human rights and fundamental liberties, with particular focus on freedom of expression; protection of minority rights; compliance with international law; and development of democracy and authentic rule of law.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/it/20150201PVL00043/Premi|title=Premi|website=europarl.europa.eu|access-date=23 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sakharovprize/it/home/the-prize.html|title=Il Parlamento europeo sostiene i diritti umani|website=europarl.europa.eu|access-date=23 May 2017|language=it|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521050536/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sakharovprize/it/home/the-prize.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===European Charlemagne Youth Prize===

The [[European Charlemagne Youth Prize]] seeks to encourage youth participation in the European integration process. It is awarded by the European Parliament and the Foundation of the International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen to youth projects aimed at nurturing common European identity and European citizenship.<ref name=":4" />

===European Citizens' Prize===

The [[European Citizens' Prize]] is awarded by the European Parliament to activities and actions carried out by citizens and associations to promote integration between the citizens of EU member states and transnational cooperation projects in the EU.<ref name=":4" />

===LUX Prize===

Since 2007, the [[LUX Prize]] is awarded by the European Parliament to films dealing with current topics of public European interest that encourage reflection on Europe and its future. Over time, the Lux Prize has become a prestigious cinema award which supports European film and production also outside the EU.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.luxprize.eu/why-and-what|title=Lux Prize. About|website=luxprize.eu|language=en|access-date=24 May 2017|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205023843/https://luxprize.eu/why-and-what|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Daphne Caruana Galizia Journalism Prize===

From 2021, the Daphne Caruana Galizia Journalism prize shall be awarded by the European Parliament to outstanding journalism that reflect EU values. The prize consists in an award of 20,000 euros and the very first winner will be revealed in October 2021. This award is named after the late Maltese journalist, [[Daphne Caruana Galizia]] who was assassinated in Malta on 16 October 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20201009STO88911/parliament-launches-the-daphne-caruana-galizia-journalism-prize|date=16 October 2020|title=Parliament launches the Daphne Caruana Galizia journalism prize|website=europarl.europa.eu|access-date=5 Nov 2020}}</ref> In 2021 the prize was awarded to the [[Pegasus Project (investigation)|Pegasus Project]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-16|title=Daphne Caruana Galizia journalism prize goes to Pegasus Project {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20201009STO88911/daphne-caruana-galizia-journalism-prize-goes-to-pegasus-project|access-date=2021-10-23|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Parlamentarium]]
* [[Parliamentwatch]]
* [[State of the Union address (European Union)]]
* [[Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book| last = Attwool | first = Elspeth | author-link = Elspeth Attwooll | title = To the Power of Ten: UK Liberal Democrats in the European Parliament (Centre for Reform Papers) | publisher=[[Open Europe]] | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-1-902622-17-0 }}
* {{cite book| last = Butler | first = David | author-link = David Butler (academic) |author2=Martin Westlake | title = British Politics and European Election | publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] | year = 2005 | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4039-3585-4 }}
* {{cite book| last = Farrell | first = David |author2=Roger Scully | title = Representing Europe's Citizens?: Electoral Institutions and the Failure of Parliamentary Representation | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-19-928502-0 | author2-link = Roger Scully }}
* {{cite journal | last = Gazzola | first = Michele | title = Managing Multilingualism in the European Union: Language Policy Evaluation for the European Parliament | journal = Language Policy | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 393–417 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1007/s10993-006-9032-5 | s2cid = 53576362 | url = https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:110594 }}
* {{Cite book | last1 = Corbett | first1 = Richard | author-link = Richard Corbett | last2 = Jacobs | first2 = Francis | last3 = Shackleton | first3 = Michael | title = The European Parliament | edition = 9th | publisher=John Harper Publishing | date= 2016 | location = London | isbn = 978-0-9564508-5-2}} The same three co-authors have written every edition since the first in 1990.
* {{cite book| last = Corbett | first = Richard | author-link = Richard Corbett | title = The European Parliament's Role in Closer EU Integration | publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] | date= June 1998 | location = LBasingstoke | isbn = 978-0333722527 }}
* {{Cite book | last1 = Hix | first1 = Simon | last2 = Noury | first2 = Abdul | last3 = Roland | first3 = Gérard | title = Democratic Politics in the European Parliament (Themes in European Governance) | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 2007 | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-521-69460-5 }} ([http://emlab.berkeley.edu/users/groland/pubs/HNR-Democracy_in_the_EP-11July05.pdf draft version on-line])
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hix | first1 = Simon | last2 = Noury | first2 = Abdul | last3 = Roland | first3 = Gérard | title = Dimensions of politics in the European Parliament | journal = [[American Journal of Political Science]] | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 494–520 | doi = 10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00198.x | jstor = 3694286 | date = April 2006 | s2cid = 56074538 | url = http://personal.lse.ac.uk/hix/Working_Papers/Hix_et_al_ajps_2006.pdf | access-date = 27 February 2016 | archive-date = 1 March 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210301120342/https://personal.lse.ac.uk/hix/Working_Papers/Hix_et_al_ajps_2006.pdf | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite book| last = Hoskyns | first = Catherine |author2=Michael Newman | title = Democratizing the European Union: Issues for the twenty-first Century (Perspectives on Democratization) | publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-7190-5666-6 }}
* {{cite book| last = Kreppel | first = Amie | title = The European Parliament and Supranational Party System: A Study in Institutional Development (Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics) | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 2001 | location = Cambridge | isbn = 978-0-521-00079-6 }}
* {{cite book| last = Van der Laan | first = Lousewies | author-link = Lousewies van der Laan | title = The Case For a Stronger European Parliament | publisher=Centre for European Reform | date= 2003 | location = London | isbn = 978-1-901229-49-3 }}
* {{cite book| last = Lodge | first = Juliet | title = The 2004 Elections to the European Parliament | publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] | date = 23 June 2005 | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4039-3518-2 }}
* Lodge, Juliet, ed. ''The 2009 Elections to the European Parliament'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 327 pages
* {{cite book| last1 = Maier | first1 = Michaela | last2 = Tenscher | first2 = Jens | title = Campaigning in Europe, Campaigning for Europe: Political Parties, Campaigns, Mass Media and the European Parliament Elections 2004 (Medien) | publisher=Lit Verlag | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-3-8258-9322-4 }}
* {{cite book| last = Rittberger | first = Berthold | title = Building Europe's Parliament: Democratic Representation Beyond the Nation State | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-19-923199-7 }}
* Sabbati, Giulio (2015). [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2015)545725 ''European Parliament: Facts and Figures'']. European Parliament – [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/en/20150201PVL00031/European-Parliamentary-Research-Service European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS)].
* {{cite book| last = Schmitter | first = Philippe | title = How to Democratize the EU ... and Why Bother? (Governance in Europe) | publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] Publishers | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-8476-9905-6 }}
* {{cite book| last = [[Roger Scully|Scully]] | first = Roger | title = Becoming European?: Attitudes, Behaviour, and Socialization in the European Parliament | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-19-928432-0 }}
* {{cite book| last1 = Serodes| first1 = Fabrice| first2= Michel|last2= Heinz|others=Foreword by Martin Schulz | title = Le Parlement européen | publisher=Nane Editions | year = 2013 | location = Paris| isbn = 978-2-84368-100-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Smith | first = Julie | title = Europe's Elected Parliament (Contemporary European Studies) | publisher = [[Continuum International Publishing Group]] | year = 1999 | location = London | isbn = 978-0-333-59874-0 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/europeanparliame0000judg }}
* {{cite book| last = Steuenberg | first = Bernard |author2=Jacques Thomassen | author-link2 = Jacques Thomassen | title = The European Parliament on the Move: Toward Parliamentary Democracy in Europe (Governance in Europe) | publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] Publishers | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-7425-0126-3 }}
* Dick Toornstra; Christian Meseth (2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511175820/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/oppd/Page_1/OPPD_EP_GUIDE_for_webFINAL_EN.pdf ''Inside the European Parliament: A guide to its parliamentary and administrative structures'']. European Parliament – [https://archive.today/20130412152839/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/oppd/ Office for Promotion of Parliamentary Democracy (OPPD)].
* {{cite book| last = Watson | first = Graham | author-link = Graham Watson | title = EU've Got Mail!: Liberal Letters from the European Parliament | publisher=Bagehot Publishing | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-9545745-1-2 }}
* {{cite book| last = Wood | first = David M. |author2=Birol A. Yesilada | title = The Emerging European Union (4th Ed.) | publisher=Pearson Longman | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-321-43941-3 }}
{{refend}}

Othmar Karas

2023-01-13T08:00:12Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|Austrian politician serving as First Vice-President of the European Parliament}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Othmar Karas | image = Karas, Othmar-2508.jpg | office = First Vice-President of the European Parliament | president = Roberta Metsola | term_start = 18 January 2022 | term_end = | predecessor = Roberta Metsol..."

{{Short description|Austrian politician serving as First Vice-President of the European Parliament}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Othmar Karas
| image = Karas, Othmar-2508.jpg
| office = [[Vice President of the European Parliament|First Vice-President of the European Parliament]]
| president = [[Roberta Metsola]]
| term_start = 18 January 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Roberta Metsola]]
| office1 = [[Vice-President of the European Parliament]]
|alongside1 = ''[[Vice-President of the European Parliament#9th Parliament|See List]]''
| president1 = [[David Sassoli]]
| term_start1 = 3 July 2019
| term_end1 = 18 January 2022
|alongside2 = ''[[Vice-President of the European Parliament#7th Parliament|See List]]''
| president2 = [[Martin Schulz]] [[Gianni Pittella]] (acting)
| term_start2 = 18 January 2012
| term_end2 = 30 June 2014
| office3 = [[Member of the European Parliament]] for [[Austria (European Parliament constituency)|Austria]]
| term_start3 = 1 July 1999
| term_end3 =
| office4 = Leader of the [[Austrian People's Party]] in the [[European Parliament]]
| leader4 = [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] [[Wilhelm Molterer]] [[Josef Pröll]] [[Michael Spindelegger]] [[Reinhold Mitterlehner]] [[Sebastian Kurz]]
| term_start4 = 1 July 1999
| term_end4 = 2019
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1957|12|24|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Ybbs an der Donau]], [[Austria]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party = [[Austrian People's Party]]
| otherparty = [[European People's Party]]
| spouse = Christa Waldheim
| children = 2
| education = [[University of Vienna]] [[University of St. Gallen]]
| website = {{url|othmar-karas.at|Official website}}
}}
'''Othmar Karas''' (born 24 December 1957) is an [[Austria]]n politician who has been serving as the First Vice-President of the European Parliament since January 2022,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2022-01-18|title=Parliament's new Vice-Presidents {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220114IPR21013/parliament-s-new-vice-presidents|access-date=2022-01-18|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref> having been a [[Member of the European Parliament]] (MEP) since 1999. He is a member of the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP), which in turn affiliates with the [[European People's Party]].

Karas sits on the [[European Parliament]]'s [[European Parliament Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs|Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs]] and the Special Committee on Tax Rulings and Other Measures Similar in Nature or Effect. Between 2012 and 2022, he was one of the [[Vice President of the European Parliament|vice presidents of the European Parliament]]. He was elected as First Vice-President on 18 January 2022.<ref name=":0" />

==Education and early career==
* Manager in the banking and insurance sector (since 1981)
* Magister of Philosophy, political science, University of Vienna (1996)
* Master of European and International Business Law (MBL), [[University of St. Gallen]] (1997)
* Doctor of Philosophy, political science, University of Vienna (2017)
* Assistant Secretary-General of [[Uniqa Insurance Group|Bundesländer Versicherung]] (currently on leave of absence)

==Political career==

===Beginnings===
* Federal president of the Union of Students (1976–1979)
* Political adviser to the ÖVP (1979–1980)
* First Vice-Chairman of the Austrian Federal Youth Association (1980–1990)
* Federal Chairman of the Young ÖVP (1981–1990)
* Member of the national executive of the ÖVP (1981–1991)
* Secretary-General of the ÖVP (1995–1999)
* Vice-President of the Young European Christian-Democrats (EUJCD) (1981–1990)
* Member of the EPP Bureau and Council (since 1995)
* Member of the steering committee of the [[European Democrat Union]] (EDU) (since 1995)
* Member of the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]] (1983–1990)

===Member of the European Parliament, 1999–present===
Karas has been a [[Member of the European Parliament]] since the [[1999 European Parliament election in Austria|1999 European elections]]. He has since been serving on the [[Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs]]. In the past, he has in served as a substitute for the [[European Parliament Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection|Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection]] and as member of the temporary committee on policy challenges and budgetary means of the enlarged Union 2007–2013. More recently, he was a member of the Special Committee on Tax Rulings and Other Measures Similar in Nature or Effect in 2015 and the Committee of Inquiry to investigate alleged contraventions and maladministration in the application of Union law in relation to money laundering, tax avoidance and tax evasion in 2016. In 2020, he also joined the Subcommittee on Tax Matters.<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sed/doc/news/flash/24221/Full%20Members%20new%20committees_09-07-2020_en.pdf Members of the Subcommittee on Tax Matters] [[European Parliament]], press release of July 9, 2020.</ref>

In the European Parliament, Karas has become one of the center-right's experts on [[financial regulation]]. As the [[rapporteur]] for the [[Capital Requirements Regulation and Directive|Capital Requirements Directive IV]], he played a central role in the parliamentary implementation of capital requirements agreed in the [[Basel III]] accords.<ref>Silke Wettach (October 6, 2010), [http://www.politico.eu/article/consensus-builder/ Consensus builder] ''[[European Voice]]''.</ref> He helped negotiate a 2013 agreement on an EU-wide cap on [[bankers' bonuses]].<ref>John O'Donnell and Claire Davenport (February 28, 2013), [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-bonus-idUSBRE91R12O20130228 EU clinches deal to cap bankers' bonuses] ''[[Reuters]]''.</ref> Alongside [[Liêm Hoang Ngoc]], he later co-drafted a controversial 2014 report highlighting problems with the European Union-led bail-outs of [[Greece]], [[Economic Adjustment Programme for Portugal|Portugal]], [[2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis|Cyprus]] and [[Ireland]] during the [[European debt crisis]].<ref>Nicholas Hirst (March 13, 2015), [http://www.politico.eu/article/meps-temper-criticism-of-the-troika/ MEPs temper criticism of the troika] ''[[European Voice]]''.</ref>

In addition to his committee assignments, Karas has been the chairman of the parliament's delegation to the EU-Russia Parliamentary Cooperation Committee since 2014. He previously serves as member of the delegation for relations with [[Japan]] and as substitute for the delegation for relations with the [[People's Republic of China]].

Within his political bloc, the centre-right [[European People's Party Group]], Karas served as the group's spokesperson on economic affairs from 2002 until 2004 and as vice-president and treasurer from 2004 until 2011. From 2011 until 2019, he led the ÖVP delegation within the EPP group.

In the [[2009 European Parliament election in Austria|2009 European elections]], the ÖVP leadership replaced Karas by [[Ernst Strasser]] as its lead candidate for the European Parliament;<ref>Silke Wettach (October 6, 2010), [http://www.politico.eu/article/consensus-builder/ Consensus builder] ''[[European Voice]]''.</ref> Strasser later had to resign as a consequence of the [[2011 cash for influence scandal]]. Ahead of the [[2014 European Parliament election in Austria|2014 European elections]], the ÖVP re-nominated Karas as its lead candidate. At the time, he was considered by Austrian media as a possible successor to [[Johannes Hahn]] as Austrian nominee for [[European Commissioner]].<ref>Thomas Mayer (May 7, 2014), [http://derstandard.at/1397522671040/Othmar-Karas-koennte-Johannes-Hahn-als-EU-Kommissar-ersetzen Othmar Karas könnte Johannes Hahn als EU-Kommissar ersetzen] ''[[Der Standard]]''.</ref>

Since the [[2019 European Parliament election]], Karas has been serving as one of its [[Vice-President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents]]; in this capacity, he is part of the Parliament's leadership under President [[David Sassoli]].<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20190627IPR55411/the-new-european-parliament-vice-presidents The new European Parliament Vice-Presidents] [[European Parliament]], press release of July 3, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://diepresse.com/home/ausland/eu/5653895/Karas-zum-Vizepraesidenten-des-EUParlaments-gewaehlt Karas zum Vizepräsidenten des EU-Parlaments gewählt] ''[[Die Presse]]'', July 3, 2019.</ref>

In 2021, Karas was appointed to the [[European People's Party group|EPP group]]'s task force for proposing changes to its rules of procedure to allow for “the possibility of the collective termination of membership of a group of Members rather than just individual membership”, alongside [[Esteban González Pons]], [[Jan Olbrycht]], [[Esther de Lange]] and [[Paulo Rangel]].<ref>Mia Bartoloni (January 15, 2021), [https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/news/article/movers-and-shakers-15-january-2021 Movers and Shakers] ''[[The Parliament Magazine]]''.</ref>

In late 2021, Karas announced his candidacy to succeed Sassoli as [[President of the European Parliament]].<ref>Maïa de La Baume (16 November 2021), [https://www.politico.eu/article/roberta-metsola-european-parliament-president-epp-david-sassoli/ Maltese MEP Roberta Metsola will seek Parliament presidency] ''[[Politico Europe]]''.</ref> The EPP selected Roberta Metsola as their candidate for President to succeed Sassoli, and she was elected President on 18 January 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Roberta Metsola elected European Parliament president in landslide victory|url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/roberta-metsola-elected-european-parliament-president-in-landslide.928588|access-date=2022-01-18|website=Times of Malta|language=en-gb}}</ref> On the same day, Karas was elected First Vice-President of the European Parliament.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2022-01-18|title=Parliament's new Vice-Presidents {{!}} News {{!}} European Parliament|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220114IPR21013/parliament-s-new-vice-presidents|access-date=2022-01-18|website=www.europarl.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>

==Political positions==
Following the 2014 elections, Karas joined fellow MEPs [[Sven Giegold]], [[Sylvie Goulard]], [[Sophie in 't Veld]] and [[Alessia Mosca]] in an [[open letter]] aimed at exerting pressure on the [[President of the European Commission]] and national government leaders during the nominations process to improve the [[gender balance]] in the composition of the [[European Commission]].<ref>Cynthia Kroet (June 26, 2014), [http://www.politico.eu/article/a-shortage-of-women-round-the-commission-table/ A shortage of women round the Commission table] ''[[European Voice]]''.</ref>

In 2020, Karas led an initiative of nearly 40 other EPP members who pushed to expel [[Tamás Deutsch (politician) | Tamás Deutsch]] from their parliamentary group after the latter had compared comments made by group leader [[Manfred Weber]] to the slogans of the [[Gestapo]] and Hungary's communist-era secret police; Deutsch was eventually suspended but not expelled from the group.<ref>Maïa de La Baume (December 17, 2020), [https://www.politico.eu/article/epp-sanctions-head-of-viktor-orbans-meps-hungary-tamas-deutsch/ EPP sanctions head of Viktor Orbán’s MEPs] ''[[Politico Europe]]''.</ref>

==Timeline of positions held==
* Hilfswerk Austria, President (since 1998)
* [[Political Academy of the Austrian People's Party]], Vice-President
* Austrian Society for China Studies (ÖGCF), Member of the Presidium
* Austrian Association of Graduates, Member of the Board
* Institute for Public Social Responsibility, Member of the Board of Trustees
* Kangaroo Group, President (2009-2013), Member of the Board (since 2013)

==EU expenses scandal==
In 2005, EU parliamentarian Hans Peter Martin revealed that Karas collected thousands of euros of "daily allowance" of 262 euros a day, even though he was often only in Brussels for a few hours on those days or it was a matter of holiday weeks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news.at/a/neuer-eu-spesen-skandal-umstrittene-unterschriften-vp-karas-104735|title=- Neuer EU-Spesen-Skandal: Umstrittene Unterschriften von VP-Karas|last=GmbH|first=news networld Internetservice|date=2005-02-09|website=news.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref>

==Awards==
* 2003 – [[Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria]]

==Private life==
Karas is married to Dr. Christa Waldheim-Karas, daughter of [[Kurt Waldheim]] and [[Elisabeth Waldheim]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Karas, Othmar}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Austrian People's Party MEPs]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Karoline Edtstadler

2023-01-13T07:59:25Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Karoline Edtstadler''' (born 28 March 1981) is an Austrian lawyer and politician who has served as minister for the EU and the Constitution at the Austrian Chancellery in the governments of Chancellors Sebastian Kurz, Alexander Schallenberg and Karl Nehammer since 2020. A member of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP), she previously served as a State Secretary at the Ministry of the Interior (Austri..."

'''Karoline Edtstadler''' (born 28 March 1981) is an Austrian lawyer and politician who has served as minister for the EU and the Constitution at the [[Chancellery (Austria)|Austrian Chancellery]] in the governments of [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellors]] [[Sebastian Kurz]], [[Alexander Schallenberg]] and [[Karl Nehammer]] since 2020. A member of the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP), she previously served as a State Secretary at the [[Ministry of the Interior (Austria)|Ministry of the Interior]] from 2017 to 2019 and a [[Member of the European Parliament]] (MEP) from 2019 until 2020.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=http://salzburg.orf.at/news/stories/2884313/|title=Salzburgerin Edtstadler neue Staatssekretärin|date=2017-12-16|access-date=2018-06-12|language=de-DE}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Key dates ahead|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/elections-press-kit/0/key-dates-ahead |publisher=European Parliament |accessdate=28 May 2019 |language=en |date=20 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Key dates ahead|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-48365702|publisher=BBC News |accessdate=28 May 2019 |language=en |date=22 May 2017}}</ref>

== Early life and career ==
Edtstadler is the daughter of former director of the Salzburg state [[Landtag|provincial parliament]] Karl W. Edtstadler, and was raised in [[Elixhausen]] in the [[Salzburg-Umgebung District|Salzburg-Umgebung]] district.<ref name=":0" /> She attended elementary school in Elixhausen and went on to the Salzburg Fine Arts Grammar School. Edtstadler studied law at the [[University of Salzburg]] and graduated in 2004 with a [[Magister degree|magistra]] degree. Court internships at the [[Mondsee (town)|Mondsee]] district court and at the Salzburg Regional Court followed. In 2006 she became a judge's candidate at the higher regional court of [[Linz]] and in 2008 she became a judge at the Salzburg regional court.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/innenpolitik/5339536/Karoline-Edtstadler_Salzburger-Richterin-als-Staatssekretaerin-im|title=Karoline Edtstadler: Salzburger Richterin als Staatssekretärin im Innenministerium|work=www.kleinezeitung.at|access-date=2018-06-12|language=de}}</ref>

In 2010, Edtstadler passed relatively heavy sentences on two upstanding brothers, who had been charged with injuring a police officer at a demonstration against the asylum policy of minister of the interior [[Maria Fekter]]. The higher regional court of Linz reversed the judgements in significant points, as even the public prosecutor considered the sentences to be too heavy.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.sn.at/politik/innenpolitik/karoline-edtstadler-salzburgerin-ist-oevp-staatssekretaerin-im-innenministerium-21802297|title=Karoline Edtstadler - Salzburgerin ist ÖVP-Staatssekretärin im Innenministerium|last=Nachrichten|first=Salzburger|access-date=2018-06-12|language=de}}</ref> The president of the regional court Hans Rathgeb praised Edtstadler's work at the court: "She was a very goal-oriented and experienced judge".<ref name=":0" />

In October 2011, Edtstadler moved to Section IV (Criminal Law) in the [[Ministry of Justice (Austria)|Ministry of Justice]]. From 2014, she was a personal expert in the cabinet of Minister of Justice [[Wolfgang Brandstetter]], where she was involved in the reform of the criminal code and of criminal law relating to young offenders. In early 2015, she became Senior Prosecutor at the Vienna Corruption Prosecutor's Office, while she remained assigned to the Ministry of Justice. From May 2016 she was a legal employee at the [[European Court of Human Rights]] (ECHR) in [[Strasbourg]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

== Political career ==
===Career in national politics===
From 2004 to 2006, Edtstadler served as councilor in [[Henndorf am Wallersee]] for the [[Austrian People's Party|ÖVP]].

From 2017 until 2019, Edtstadler served as secretary of state in the Austrian [[Ministry of the Interior (Austria)|Ministry of the Interior]], in the government of [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] [[Sebastian Kurz]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>Joanna Plucinska and Laurens Cerulus (August 29, 2018), [https://www.politico.eu/article/brussels-nears-boiling-point-on-technology-austria-digital-single-market/ Austrians race to wrap up digital single market] ''[[Politico Europe]]''.</ref>

===Member of the European Parliament, 2019–2020===
In the [[2019 European Parliament election]], Edtstadler was number two on her party's list, following [[Othmar Karas]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Weisskircher |first1=Manès |title=The European Parliament elections: Trouble in paradise for Austria’s right-wing government? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2019/02/25/the-european-parliament-elections-trouble-in-paradise-for-austrias-right-wing-government/ |website=European Politics and Policy |publisher=The London School of Economics and Political Science |accessdate=25 May 2019}}</ref> As [[Member of the European Parliament]], she served on the [[Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs]] and on the [[Subcommittee on Human Rights]]. Within the centre-right [[European People's Party Group]] (EPP), she led the ÖVP delegation.

===Return to national politics===
Since 2020, Edtstadler has been serving as minister for the EU and the Constitution at the Austrian [[Chancellery (Austria)|Chancellery]] in the government of [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] [[Sebastian Kurz]]. In addition, she has been co-chairing of the [[European People's Party|EPP European Affairs Ministers Meeting]] (alongside [[Helen McEntee]]), which gathers the center-right EPP ministers ahead of meetings of the [[General Affairs Council]] (GAC).<ref>[https://www.epp.eu/structure/ministerial-meetings/ Council of the EU and Ministerial meetings] [[European People’s Party]] (EPP).</ref>

In 2022, [[United Nations Secretary-General]] [[António Guterres]] appointed Edtstadler to serve on his inaugural [[Internet Governance Forum]] (IGF) Leadership Panel.<ref>[https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/personnel-appointments/2022-08-16/internet-governance-forum-leadership-panel%C2%A0 Internet Governance Forum Leadership Panel] [[United Nations]], press release of 16 August 2022.</ref>

== Personal life ==
Edtstadler has a son and lives in Salzburg.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Edtstadler, Karoline}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Christian Sagartz

2023-01-13T07:58:47Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Christian Sagartz''' (born 1981) is an Austrian politician of the Austrian People's Party (ÖPP) who has been serving as Member of the European Parliament since 2020. ==Early life and education== Sagartz holds a BA in political science and a master's degree in political advice. ==Political career== Sagartz holds several positions in Pöttsching: councillor (since 2002), vice-mayor (since 2007), and chairman of the town's party in 2006. He was the Burge..."

'''Christian Sagartz''' (born 1981) is an Austrian politician of the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖPP) who has been serving as [[Member of the European Parliament]] since 2020.

==Early life and education==
Sagartz holds a BA in political science and a master's degree in political advice.

==Political career==
Sagartz holds several positions in [[Pöttsching]]: councillor (since 2002), vice-mayor (since 2007), and chairman of the town's party in 2006. He was the Burgenland chairman of [[Young People's Party (Austria)|Young People's Party]] from 2002 to 2008 and became chairman of the Mattersburg district chapter in 2010. He became a member of the Landtag on 25 October 2005.<ref name=mla>[http://www.bgld-landtag.at/organe/abgeordnete/oevp-klub.html?tx_seatplanner_memberlist%5Bmember%5D=27&tx_seatplanner_memberlist%5Baction%5D=show&tx_seatplanner_memberlist%5Bcontroller%5D=Member&cHash=b1cdada0cf04e39fa09f27d86c952ff9 Profile] at Landtag site</ref>

===Member of the European Parliament, 2020–present===
Sagartz has been a [[Member of the European Parliament]] since 2020. In parliament, he has been serving on the [[Committee on Development]] (since 2020), its [[Subcommittee on Human Rights]] (since 2020) and the [[Committee on Employment and Social Affairs]].<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/204368/CHRISTIAN_SAGARTZ/home Profile] at European Parliament</ref><ref>Mia Bartoloni (March 26, 2021), [https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/news/article/movers-and-shakers-26-march-2021 Movers & Shakers] ''[[The Parliament Magazine]]''.</ref>

In addition to his committee assignments, Sagartz is a substitute member of the parliament's delegations to the EU-Albania Stabilisation and Association Parliamentary Committee; the EU-Montenegro Stabilisation and Association Parliamentary Committee; the [[ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly]]; and for relations with South Africa.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sagartz, Christian}}
[[Category:1981 births]]

Angelika Winzig

2023-01-13T07:58:10Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Angelika Winzig''' (born 9 May 1963) is an Austrian politician of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) who has been serving as a Member of the European Parliament since 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2..."

'''Angelika Winzig''' (born 9 May 1963) is an Austrian politician of the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) who has been serving as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] since [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref>

==Political career==
===Member of the Austrian Parliament, 2013–2019===
From 2013 until 2019, Winzig was a member of the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]]. During her time in parliament, she served on the Committee on Economic Affairs (2013-2019), the Committee on Foreign Affairs (2013-2017), the Defense Committee (2013-2017), the Budget Committee (2017-2019) and the Finance Committee (2017-2019).

===Member of the European Parliament, 2019–present===
Since becoming a [[Member of the European Parliament]], Winzig has been serving on the [[Committee on Budgets]] and of the [[Committee on Budgetary Control]]. As substitute member of the [[European Parliament Committee on Industry, Research and Energy|Committee on Industry, Research and Energy]], she served as the parliament's [[rapporteur]] on a 2021 proposal for deeper cuts in wholesale roaming tariffs paid by telecoms operators to their counterparts than those proposed by the EU Commission, in an effort to boost competition.<ref>Foo Yun Chee (14 October 2021), [https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/eu-lawmakers-committee-votes-bigger-cuts-wholesale-roaming-fees-2021-10-14/ EU lawmakers' committee votes for bigger cuts in wholesale roaming fees] ''[[Reuters]]''.</ref>

In addition to her committee assignments, Winzig is part of the European Parliament Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/files/organisation-and-rules/organisation/intergroups/list-of-members-sme.pdf Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs)] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Winzig, Angelika}}
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Simone Schmiedtbauer

2023-01-13T07:57:36Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Simone Schmiedtbauer''' (born 8 June 1974) is an Austrian politician of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) who has been serving as a Member of the European Parliament since 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|last=Uhr|first=14 09|last2=Mai 2019|first2=28|date=2019-05-28|we..."

'''Simone Schmiedtbauer''' (born 8 June 1974) is an Austrian politician of the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) who has been serving as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] since [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|last=Uhr|first=14 09|last2=Mai 2019|first2=28|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref>

In parliament, Schmiedtbauer has been serving on the [[Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development]] (since 2019) and the [[Committee on Budgetary Control]] (since 2022).<ref>Nisa Khan (6 January 2022), [https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/news/article/movers-and-shakers-7-january-2022 Movers and Shakers] ''[[The Parliament Magazine]]''.</ref> In addition to her committee assignments, she is part of the European Parliament Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/files/organisation-and-rules/organisation/intergroups/list-of-members-sme.pdf Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs)] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Schmiedtbauer, Simone}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1974 births]]

Lukas Mandl

2023-01-13T07:56:59Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Lukas Mandl''' (born 12 July 1979) is an Austrian politician of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) who has been a Member of the European Parliament since November 2017 and was re-elected in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|la..."

'''Lukas Mandl''' (born 12 July 1979) is an Austrian politician of the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) who has been a [[Member of the European Parliament]] since November 2017 and was re-elected in [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Lukas Mandl was born as fourth of five children to Victoire Van Ditzhuyzen and Harald Mandl. He graduated in communications from the [[University of Vienna]] in 2004. From 2002 until 2005, he also completed a [[traineeship]] at the [[Federation of Austrian Industries]] (IV).

==Political career==
===Career in national politics===
Lukas Mandl began his political work in the Austrian ''Schülerunion'' and later in the ''Junge Volkspartei''. In 2008, he was elected as MP into the state parliament of [[Lower Austria]] and defended his seat again in 2013. In 2010, Mandl also became secretary general of the ''ÖAAB'' which is the trade union body associated with the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP). With the "Meeting Mauerbach" Mandl initialized a debate on renewing and modernizing the ''Austrian People's Party'' in 2011. From 2008 until 2016 Lukas Mandl served as district chairman for the Austrian People's Party in Lower Austrian district of ''Wien Umgebung'' and was also elected as vice mayor of ''Grasdorf'' from 2015 to 2017.

===Member of the European Parliament, 2017–present===
Mandl took the seat of [[Elisabeth Köstinger]] in 2017. During his first term, he served on the [[European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety|Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety]] and on the [[Committee on Petitions]]. Following the [[2019 European Parliament election|2019 elections]], he moved to the [[Committee on Development]], the [[European Parliament Committee on Foreign Affairs|Committee on Foreign Affairs]] and its [[Subcommittee on Security and Defence]]. He later also joined the Special Committee on Foreign Interference in all Democratic Processes in the European Union in 2020.<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sed/doc/news/flash/24221/Full%20Members%20new%20committees_09-07-2020_en.pdf Members of the Special Committee on Foreign Interference in all Democratic Processes in the European Union] [[European Parliament]], press release of July 9, 2020.</ref>

In addition to his committee assignments, Mandl has been chairing the parliament's delegation for relations with the [[Korean Peninsula]] since 2020. He is also a member of the European Parliament Intergroup on Artificial Intelligence and Digital<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/files/organisation-and-rules/organisation/intergroups/list-of-members-artificial-intelligence-and-digital.pdf Intergroup on Artificial Intelligence and Digital] [[European Parliament]].</ref> and the URBAN Intergroup.<ref>[http://urban-intergroup.eu/members/ Members] URBAN Intergroup.</ref>

==Other activities==
* [[Institute of the Regions of Europe]] (IRE), member of the board of trustees<ref>[http://ir000044.host.inode.at/de/about-us/board-of-trustees/ Board of Trustees] [[Institute of the Regions of Europe]] (IRE).</ref>
* [[Rotary International]], member<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/mepdif/190713_DFI_LEG8_rev0_DE.pdf Lukas Mandl - Declaration of financial interests, 25 December 2017] [[European Parliament]]</ref>
* [[SK Rapid Wien]], member

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mandl, Lukas}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1979 births]]

Barbara Thaler

2023-01-13T07:55:57Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Barbara Thaler''' (born 16 February 1982) is an Austrian politician who was elected as a Member of the European Parliament in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref> She has since been serving..."

'''Barbara Thaler''' (born 16 February 1982) is an Austrian politician who was elected as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] in [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref> She has since been serving on the [[Committee on Transport and Tourism]]. In addition to her committee assignments, she is part of the Parliament's delegation for relations with [[India]] and the European Parliament Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/files/organisation-and-rules/organisation/intergroups/list-of-members-sme.pdf Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs)] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thaler, Barabara}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1982 births]]

Alexander Bernhuber

2023-01-13T07:54:06Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Infobox officeholder | honorific-prefix = | name = | honorific-suffix = {{Post-nominals|size=100%|MEP}} | party = Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) | image = | caption = | constituency_MP = Austria | term_start = 2 July 2019<ref>{{cite web |title=Key dates ahead|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/electi..."

{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix =
| name =
| honorific-suffix = {{Post-nominals|size=100%|MEP}}
| party = [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP)
| image =
| caption =
| constituency_MP = [[Austria (European Parliament constituency)|Austria]]
| term_start = [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2 July 2019]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Key dates ahead|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/elections-press-kit/0/key-dates-ahead |publisher=European Parliament |access-date=28 May 2019 |language=en |date=20 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Key dates ahead|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-48365702|work=BBC News |access-date=28 May 2019 |language=en |date=22 May 2017}}</ref>
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1992|5|18|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[St. Pölten]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Austrian
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| website =
}}
'''Alexander Bernhuber''' (born 18 May 1992) is an Austrian farmer politician of the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) who was elected as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] in [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref> with over 30,000 preferential votes.

==Early life and education==
Bernhuber attended the Federal Institute of Education and Research [[Francisco Josephinum]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.josephinum.at/en/ | title=Francisco Josephinum Wieselburg, Josephinum - Bundeslehr- und Forschungsanstalt - Francisco Josephinum Wieselburg }}</ref> which trains farmers, agricultural and food technologists and agricultural computer scientists. The focus is set on research, test and evaluate in the fields of agricultural engineering, digital farming, energetic use of biomass and in food and biotechnology. After his graduation he studied at the [[University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna|University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences]] (BOKU) in Vienna.

==Career==
Since 2016, Bernhuber has been an Austrian delegate to the European Council of Young Farmers (CEJA). From November 2017 till November 2018 he was the Deputy Federal Director of the Austrian Rural Youth Organisation.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/197648/ALEXANDER_BERNHUBER/cv#detailedcardmep | title=Curriculum vitae | Alexander BERNHUBER | MEPs | European Parliament }}</ref>
Bernhuber runs a farm with crops and beef cattle in Lower Austria <ref>{{cite web | url=https://alex-bernhuber.at/ueber-mich | title=Über mich }}</ref> In addition to his work as a farmer, he worked as an agricultural policy consultant in the [[Lower Austrian Farmers' Union]].<ref>https://noebauernbund.at/</ref>

Since becoming a [[Member of the European Parliament]], Bernhuber has been serving on the [[European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety|Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety]]; the [[Committee on Petitions]] and the Committee on [[Culture and Education]]. In addition to his committee assignments, he is part of the European Parliament Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs).<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/files/organisation-and-rules/organisation/intergroups/list-of-members-sme.pdf Intergroup on Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs)] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

He is very active in the environmental field and has published a booklet called [[the Austrian Green Deal]] which focuses on the implementation of the European Green Deal in Austria.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://alex-bernhuber.at/austrian-green-deal | title=Austrian Green Deal }}</ref> As representative of farmers his main objective is to stand up for protecting rural livelihoods; strengthening regional and high quality food and food supply; making rural areas more attractive.
As youngest member of the European Peoples Party in the European Parliament.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://alex-bernhuber.at/en/meine-themen | title=My Topics }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Deepak Balutia

2023-01-13T07:51:58Z

Flying Bee:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Deepak Balutia
| image = Deepak Balutia.jpeg
| native_name = दीपक बल्यूटिया
| native_name_lang = hi
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1972|8|19|df=y}}
| birth_place = Baluti, [[Nainital]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[India]]
| office = Spokesperson of [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee]]
| term_start = 2021
| term_end =
| president =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| office1 = Vice president of [[Indian Youth Congress|State Youth Congress]]
| term_start1 = 2007
| term_end1 = 2011
| alma_mater = Bharath Virtual University
| occupation = [[Politician]]
| organization =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| relatives =
| status =
| father =
| mother =
| website =
| nickname =
| source =
}}
'''Deepak Balutia''' ({{lang-hi|दीपक बल्यूटिया}}) is an [[Indian]] [[politician]] who is the Spokesperson at [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee]] and also the party's Media In-charge of Kumaun Region in the state. He also served as a [[Vice president]] of the State Youth Congress from [[Uttarakhand]] from the year 2007 to 2011.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=जांच से क्यों डर रहे हैं मुख्यमंत्री : बल्यूटिया|url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttarakhand/nainital/why-is-the-chief-minister-afraid-of-investigation-balutia-haldwani-news-hld4023129158|website= [[Amar Ujala]]}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=कांग्रेस प्रदेश प्रवक्ता दीपक बल्यूटिया को पीसीसी ने कुमाऊं मीडिया प्रभारी भी बनाया|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-congress-state-spokesperson-deepak-balutia-has-also-been-made-kumaon-media-in-charge-by-pcc-21875151.html|website= [[Jagran]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=नए-पुराने सभी साथियों को साथ लेकर चलूंगा : दीपक बल्यूटिया|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-i-will-take-all-my-friends-new-and-old-with-me-deepak-balutia-21859623.html|website= [[Jagran]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=बयानों के बजाय विकास की बंशी बजाएं भगत|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-congress-said-bhagat-should-talk-about-development-instead-of-statements-21126020.html|website= [[Jagran]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=सड़क पर जलभराव देख कांग्रेस प्रदेश प्रवक्ता बल्यूटिया ने कार्यकर्ताओं संग पानी में बैठ जताया विरोध|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-congress-state-spokesperson-deepak-balutia-expressed-opposition-by-sitting-in-water-with-workers-23030883.html|website=[[Jagran]]}}</ref>
==Early life & education==
Deepak Balutia was born on 19 Aug 1972 in the village Baluti of the district [[Nainital]], [[Uttarakhand]] to a middle-class family in a farming community. He belongs to the family of [[Politician|Veteran Politician]] late [[N. D. Tiwari|Shri Narayan Dutt Tiwari]] former chief Minister of [[Uttar Pradesh]] And [[Uttarakhand]] and former [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)| Home Minister of India]].
He completed his schooling at Nirmala Convent School Haldwani. And later he completed his studies with a Bachelor of Science, B.Ed, and MBA (HR). He was Felicitated with the honorary Doctorate award in social work by Bharath Virtual University registered under the NITI AYOG, [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=राहुल गांधी के नये अवतार ने बदल दी है सियासत|url=https://www.abplive.com/blog/rahul-gandhi-bharat-jodi-yatra-change-political-scenario-2301299|website= [[ABP News]]}}</ref>
==Political career==
He began his political career in the year 1993 as a secretary of the [[Indian Youth Congress|District Youth Congress]] from [[Nainital]] and served until 1995 in the same profile. In 1999 he was promoted to the designation of [[President]] of the [[Indian Youth Congress|District youth congress]] from [[Nainital]].<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=उत्तराखंड: कांग्रेस प्रदेश अध्यक्ष करन माहरा ने बनाई प्रवक्ताओं की नई टीम, दीपक बल्यूटिया समेत 25 को मिली जिम्मेदारी|url=https://www.amritvichar.com/article/238841/uttarakhand-congress-state-president-karan-mahra-formed-a-new-team-of-spokespersons-25-including-deepak-balutia-got-the-responsibility#gsc.tab=0|website= www.amritvichar.com}}</ref> This meteoric rise of Balutia in the congress party made him earn huge accolades along with the change in the life of the people of [[Nainital]] with a room of pride and support.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=दीपक की दावेदारी से हल्द्वानी में राजनीतिक हलचल तेज|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttarakhand/haldwani/story-political-stir-in-haldwani-due-to-deepak-39-s-claim-5393742.html|website= [[Hindustan (newspaper)|Live Hindustan]]}}</ref> Then he was promoted to [[Vice president]] of the [[Indian Youth Congress|State Youth Congress]] from [[Uttarakhand]] from the year 2007 until 2011. In the year 2014, Balutia earned the position as a Spokesperson of the [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee|Uttarakhand state congress committee]] until 21 July 2021. On 22 July 2021, he was toppled as Media In-charge of Kumaun Region and Spokesperson of [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee|Uttarakhand state congress committee]]. He remained a Candidature for [[State legislative assemblies of India| State legislative assemblie]] 59, Haldwani ([[Uttarakhand]]).
<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=कांग्रेस कार्यकर्ताओं का अनोखा प्रदर्शन, पानी में बैठ प्रशासन को चेताया |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/uttarakhand/videos/top-videos/congress-leader-deepak-balutia-sitting-on-protest-against-waterlogging-in-haldwani/uttarakhand20220831202034835835720|website=[[ETV Network|ETV Bharat]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=हल्द्वानी में कांग्रेस का अनोखा प्रदर्शन, ट्रैक्टर लेकर सिटी मजिस्ट्रेट को ज्ञापन देने पहुंचे प्रदेश प्रवक्ता समेत कई नेता|url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/uttarakhand/haldwani-congress-spokesman-deepak-balutia-tractor-protest-against-waterlogging-and-poor-roads-localuk-nodark-4444492.html|website=[[News18 India|News18]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=विधानसभा सीट की उम्मीदवारी पर कांग्रेस में गुटबाजी, इन दो युवाओं ने ठोकी ताल|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/uttarakhand/state/nainital/sumit-hridayesh-and-deepak-balutia-have-submitted-their-candidature-from-haldwani-assembly-seat/uttarakhand20211124152332288|website=[[ETV Network|ETV Bharat]]}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=देवभूमि की अस्मिता को कलंकित कर गया यमकेश्वर का मामला : दीपक बल्यूटिया|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttarakhand/haldwani/story-yamkeshwar-39-s-case-has-tarnished-the-identity-of-devbhoomi-deepak-balutia-7123526.html|website= [[Hindustan (newspaper)|Live Hindustan]]}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*{{URL|https://deepakbalutia.in/}}
*{{Instagram|balutiadeepak}}
*{{Facebook|deepakbalutia?mibextid=LQQJ4d}}
*{{Twitter|DBalutia}}
[[Category:Living people]]

Deepak Balutia

2023-01-13T07:51:18Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|Indian politician}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}} {{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Deepak Balutia | image = Deepak Balutia.jpeg | native_name = दीपक बल्यूटिया | native_name_lang = hi | caption = | birth_name = | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1972|8|19|df=y}} | birth_place = Baluti, Nainital, ..."

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Deepak Balutia
| image = Deepak Balutia.jpeg
| native_name = दीपक बल्यूटिया
| native_name_lang = hi
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1972|8|19|df=y}}
| birth_place = Baluti, [[Nainital]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[India]]
| office = Spokesperson of [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee]]
| term_start = 2021
| term_end =
| president =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| office1 = Vice president of [[Indian Youth Congress|State Youth Congress]]
| term_start1 = 2007
| term_end1 = 2011
| alma_mater = Bharath Virtual University
| occupation = [[Politician]]
| organization =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| relatives =
| status =
| father =
| mother =
| website =
| nickname =
| source =
}}

'''Deepak Balutia''' ({{lang-hi|दीपक बल्यूटिया}}) is an [[Indian]] [[politician]] who is the Spokesperson at [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee]] and also the party's Media In-charge of Kumaun Region in the state. He also served as a [[Vice president]] of the State Youth Congress from [[Uttarakhand]] from the year 2007 to 2011.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=जांच से क्यों डर रहे हैं मुख्यमंत्री : बल्यूटिया|url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttarakhand/nainital/why-is-the-chief-minister-afraid-of-investigation-balutia-haldwani-news-hld4023129158|website= [[Amar Ujala]]}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=कांग्रेस प्रदेश प्रवक्ता दीपक बल्यूटिया को पीसीसी ने कुमाऊं मीडिया प्रभारी भी बनाया|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-congress-state-spokesperson-deepak-balutia-has-also-been-made-kumaon-media-in-charge-by-pcc-21875151.html|website= [[Jagran]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=नए-पुराने सभी साथियों को साथ लेकर चलूंगा : दीपक बल्यूटिया|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-i-will-take-all-my-friends-new-and-old-with-me-deepak-balutia-21859623.html|website= [[Jagran]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=बयानों के बजाय विकास की बंशी बजाएं भगत|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-congress-said-bhagat-should-talk-about-development-instead-of-statements-21126020.html|website= [[Jagran]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=सड़क पर जलभराव देख कांग्रेस प्रदेश प्रवक्ता बल्यूटिया ने कार्यकर्ताओं संग पानी में बैठ जताया विरोध|url=https://www.jagran.com/lite/uttarakhand/nainital-congress-state-spokesperson-deepak-balutia-expressed-opposition-by-sitting-in-water-with-workers-23030883.html|website=[[Jagran]]}}</ref>
==Early life & education==
Deepak Balutia was born on 19 Aug 1972 in the village Baluti of the district [[Nainital]], [[Uttarakhand]] to a middle-class family in a farming community. He belongs to the family of [[Politician|Veteran Politician]] late [[N. D. Tiwari|Shri Narayan Dutt Tiwari]] former chief Minister of [[Uttar Pradesh]] And [[Uttarakhand]] and former [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)| Home Minister of India]].
He completed his schooling at Nirmala Convent School Haldwani. And later he completed his studies with a Bachelor of Science, B.Ed, and MBA (HR). He was Felicitated with the honorary Doctorate award in social work by Bharath Virtual University registered under the NITI AYOG, [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=राहुल गांधी के नये अवतार ने बदल दी है सियासत|url=https://www.abplive.com/blog/rahul-gandhi-bharat-jodi-yatra-change-political-scenario-2301299|website= [[ABP News]]}}</ref>
==Political career==
He began his political career in the year 1993 as a secretary of the [[Indian Youth Congress|District Youth Congress]] from [[Nainital]] and served until 1995 in the same profile. In 1999 he was promoted to the designation of [[President]] of the [[Indian Youth Congress|District youth congress]] from [[Nainital]].<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=उत्तराखंड: कांग्रेस प्रदेश अध्यक्ष करन माहरा ने बनाई प्रवक्ताओं की नई टीम, दीपक बल्यूटिया समेत 25 को मिली जिम्मेदारी|url=https://www.amritvichar.com/article/238841/uttarakhand-congress-state-president-karan-mahra-formed-a-new-team-of-spokespersons-25-including-deepak-balutia-got-the-responsibility#gsc.tab=0|website= www.amritvichar.com}}</ref> This meteoric rise of Balutia in the congress party made him earn huge accolades along with the change in the life of the people of [[Nainital]] with a room of pride and support.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=दीपक की दावेदारी से हल्द्वानी में राजनीतिक हलचल तेज|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttarakhand/haldwani/story-political-stir-in-haldwani-due-to-deepak-39-s-claim-5393742.html|website= [[Hindustan (newspaper)|Live Hindustan]]}}</ref> Then he was promoted to [[Vice president]] of the [[Indian Youth Congress|State Youth Congress]] from [[Uttarakhand]] from the year 2007 until 2011. In the year 2014, Balutia earned the position as a Spokesperson of the [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee|Uttarakhand state congress committee]] until 21 July 2021. On 22 July 2021, he was toppled as Media In-charge of Kumaun Region and Spokesperson of [[Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee|Uttarakhand state congress committee]]. He remained a Candidature for [[State legislative assemblies of India| State legislative assemblie]] 59, Haldwani ([[Uttarakhand]]).
<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=कांग्रेस कार्यकर्ताओं का अनोखा प्रदर्शन, पानी में बैठ प्रशासन को चेताया |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/uttarakhand/videos/top-videos/congress-leader-deepak-balutia-sitting-on-protest-against-waterlogging-in-haldwani/uttarakhand20220831202034835835720|website=[[ETV Network|ETV Bharat]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=हल्द्वानी में कांग्रेस का अनोखा प्रदर्शन, ट्रैक्टर लेकर सिटी मजिस्ट्रेट को ज्ञापन देने पहुंचे प्रदेश प्रवक्ता समेत कई नेता|url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/uttarakhand/haldwani-congress-spokesman-deepak-balutia-tractor-protest-against-waterlogging-and-poor-roads-localuk-nodark-4444492.html|website=[[News18 India|News18]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=विधानसभा सीट की उम्मीदवारी पर कांग्रेस में गुटबाजी, इन दो युवाओं ने ठोकी ताल|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/uttarakhand/state/nainital/sumit-hridayesh-and-deepak-balutia-have-submitted-their-candidature-from-haldwani-assembly-seat/uttarakhand20211124152332288|website=[[ETV Network|ETV Bharat]]}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-13|title=देवभूमि की अस्मिता को कलंकित कर गया यमकेश्वर का मामला : दीपक बल्यूटिया|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttarakhand/haldwani/story-yamkeshwar-39-s-case-has-tarnished-the-identity-of-devbhoomi-deepak-balutia-7123526.html|website= [[Hindustan (newspaper)|Live Hindustan]]}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*{{URL|https://deepakbalutia.in/}}
*{{Instagram|balutiadeepak}}
*{{Facebook|deepakbalutia?mibextid=LQQJ4d}}
*{{Twitter|DBalutia}}
[[Category:Living people]]

Andreas Schieder

2023-01-13T07:51:05Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|Austrian politician}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Andreas Schieder | image = Bruno-Kreisky-Preis für das Politische Buch (26448179202).jpg | office = Member of the European Parliament from Austria | term_start = 2 July 2019 | term_end = | office1 = Leader of the Social Democratic Party in the National..."

{{Short description|Austrian politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Andreas Schieder
| image = Bruno-Kreisky-Preis für das Politische Buch (26448179202).jpg
| office = [[Member of the European Parliament]] from [[Austria]]
| term_start = 2 July 2019
| term_end =
| office1 = [[parliamentary leader|Leader]] of the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] in the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]]
| term_start1 = 28 October 2013
| term_end1 = 25 September 2018
| 1blankname1 = [[List of chairpersons of the SPÖ and SDAPÖ|Chairperson]]
| 1namedata1 = [[Christian Kern]]
| predecessor1 = Josef Cap
| successor1 = [[Pamela Rendi-Wagner]]
| office2 = State secretary in the [[Ministry of Finance (Austria)|Ministry of Finance]]
| chancellor2 = [[Werner Faymann]]
| minister2 = [[Josef Pröll]] [[Maria Fekter]]
| term_start2 = 2 December 2008
| term_end2 = 16 December 2013
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1969|4|16|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Vienna]], Austria
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party = [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]]
| spouse =
| children = 1 son
| alma_mater = [[University of Vienna]]
}}
'''Andreas Schieder''' (born 16 April 1969) is an [[Austria]]n politician who has been a [[Member of the European Parliament]] since 2019.

Previously in his career, Schieder served as [[parliamentary leader]] of the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] in the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]]. He was also state secretary in the [[Ministry of Finance (Austria)|Ministry of Finance]] in the government of [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] [[Werner Faymann]] from 2008 to 2013.

== Education ==
Schieder attended primary school in [[Hütteldorf]], in the western suburbs of [[Vienna]], the Goethe-Gymasium in Astgasse, and the Gymnasium Kundmanngasse. He graduated from the [[University of Vienna]] with a master's degree in economics. Subsequently, he started work in the economic policy department of the [[Austrian Chamber of Labour]].

== Political career ==
===Early beginnings===
Politicized through the debates about the war history of [[Kurt Waldheim]], Schieder joined the [[Socialist Youth Austria|Young Socialists]]. He served as vice president of the [[International Union of Socialist Youth]] from 1994 to 1997, from 1997 to 1999 as president of the [[Young European Socialists]], as district councilor of [[Penzing (Vienna)|Penzing]] and as a member of the ''[[Wiener Landtag und Gemeinderat]]''. Since 2002 Schieder chairs the SPÖ Penzing, as successor of his father Peter Schieder. And since 2005 he has also been a member of the party leadership of the [[SPÖ Vienna]].

===Member of the Austrian Parliament, 2006–2019===
In the [[2006 Austrian legislative election|2006 national elections]], Schieder became a member of the [[National Council (Austria)|National Council]]. In parliament, he served as his group's spokesperson on foreign policy. From 10 January 2007 he also served as international secretary of the [[SPÖ]] federal organisations.

On 1 July 2008 Schieder was appointed state secretary in the [[Federal Chancellery (Austria)|Federal Chancellery]] in the government of [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] [[Alfred Gusenbauer]], succeeding Heidrun Silhavy. As state secretary he was responsible for the public service. After the [[First Faymann government|first cabinet]] of [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] [[Werner Faymann]] was appointed in 2. December 2008, he also became state secretary in the [[Ministry of Finance (Austria)|Ministry of Finance]].

On 28 October 2013 Schieder was elected [[parliamentary leader]] of the SPÖ in the National Council by the [[Parliamentary group|parliamentary club]] of his party; he succeeded [[Josef Cap]] who had held this position for 12 years. He resigned in 2017 and instead chaired the Committee on Foreign Affairs. In addition to his parliamentary work, he was a member of the Austrian delegation to the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|Parliamentary Assembly]] of the [[Council of Europe]] from 2014 until 2019. Within the Assembly, he served on the Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights.<ref>[http://www.assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/AssemblyList/MP-Details-EN.asp?MemberID=6025 PACE Member File: Andreas Schieder] [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]].</ref>

Since June 2016 Schieder has been serving as one of the deputy chairmen of the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria]].

===Member of the European Parliament, 2019–present===
Since becoming a [[Member of the European Parliament]] in the [[2019 European Parliament election|2019 elections]], Schieder has been serving on the [[European Parliament Committee on Foreign Affairs|Committee on Foreign Affairs]]. In 2020, he also joined the Special Committee on Foreign Interference in all Democratic Processes in the European Union.<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sed/doc/news/flash/24221/Full%20Members%20new%20committees_09-07-2020_en.pdf Members of the Special Committee on Foreign Interference in all Democratic Processes in the European Union] [[European Parliament]], press release of July 9, 2020.</ref> Since 2021, he has been part of the Parliament's delegation to the [[Conference on the Future of Europe]].<ref>[https://conference-delegation.europarl.europa.eu/en/members.html Members of the delegation to the Conference on the Future of Europe] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

In addition to his committee assignments, Schieder is part of the parliament's delegations to the EU-North Macedonia Joint Parliamentary Committee and for relations with Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo.<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/197670/ANDREAS_SCHIEDER/home Andreas Schieder] [[European Parliament]].</ref> He is also a member of the [[European Parliament Intergroup on LGBT Rights]]<ref>[https://lgbti-ep.eu/who-we-are/members/ Members] European Parliament Intergroup on LGBTI Rights.</ref> and of the URBAN Intergroup.<ref>[http://urban-intergroup.eu/members/ Members] URBAN Intergroup.</ref>

From 2020 until 2021, Schieder was one of the parliament's [[rapporteur|co-rapporteurs]] on the [[EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement]] (TCA).<ref>Martin Banks (28 April 2021), [https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/news/article/meps-give-green-light-to-euuk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement MEPs give green light to EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement] ''[[The Parliament Magazine]]''.</ref>

In November 2021, Schieder joined a group of seven Members of the European Parliament led by [[Raphaël Glucksmann]] to [[Taiwan]] to send a strong signal in support of the self-ruling island, despite a threat of retaliation from China.<ref>Sarah Anne Aarup and Stuart Lau (2 November 2021), [https://www.politico.eu/article/meps-set-to-land-in-taiwan-on-tuesday-defying-beijing/ MEPs set to land in Taiwan on Tuesday, defying Beijing] ''[[Politico Europe]]''.</ref>

==Other activities==
* [[SK Rapid Wien]], member of the board of trustees (since 2016)<ref>[https://www.skrapid.at/de/startseite/verein/der-sk-rapid/kuratorium/ Board of Trustees]</ref>
* [[Friends of Nature]], chairman (since 2014)

== Personal life ==
Schieder has one son with fellow SPÖ politician Sonja Wehsely. In his private life schieder is involved as functionary at the [[SK Rapid Wien]] and as president of the FV Austria XIII. He is inspired hiker, health athlete, and long-term member of the Austrian Friends of Nature.

== Recognition ==
* 2011 – [[File: AUT Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria - 3rd Class BAR.png|60px]] [[Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria|Grand Decoration of Honour in Silver with Sash]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Schieder, Andreas}}
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Evelyn Regner

2023-01-13T07:50:13Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|Austrian politician}} {{Infobox officeholder |name = Evelyn Regner |honorific-suffix = MEP |image = Evelyn Regner im Plenum Straßburg.jpg |office = Vice-President of the European Parliament |alongside = ''See List'' |term_start = 18 January 2022 |term_end = |president = [[Roberta Metsola]..."

{{Short description|Austrian politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Evelyn Regner
|honorific-suffix = [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
|image = Evelyn Regner im Plenum Straßburg.jpg
|office = [[Vice-President of the European Parliament]]
|alongside = ''[[Vice-President of the European Parliament#9th Parliament|See List]]''
|term_start = 18 January 2022
|term_end =
|president = [[Roberta Metsola]]
|office1 = [[Member of the European Parliament]]
|term_start1 = 1 July 2009
|term_end1 =
|constituency1 = [[Austria (European Parliament constituency)|Austria]]
|birth_name =
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1966|1|24|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = '''''{{flag|Austria|name=Austrian}}''''' [[Social Democratic Party of Austria]] '''''{{flag|EU}}''''' [[Party of European Socialists]]
|spouse =
|children =
|alma_mater = [[Vienna University]]
|website = {{URL|http://www.evelyn-regner.at}}
}}

'''Evelyn Regner''' (born 24 January 1966) is an [[Austrian people|Austrian]] lawyer and politician who has been serving as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] from [[Austria]] since 2009. She is a member of the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria]], part of the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats]]<ref>[https://socialistsanddemocrats.eu/meps/regner-evelyn Evelyn REGNER] S&D</ref> and elected Vice-President of the [[European Parliament]].

==Early life and education==
Regner grew up in the second district of Vienna and went to school at Sigmund-Freud-Gymnasium. She graduated from gymnasium and went on to study law in Vienna and Salzburg. After obtaining her degree in law studies at the University of Salzburg and finishing up her clerkship, she first worked at [[Amnesty International]] as a refugee consultant during 1992-1993.

==Early career==
The following years, Regner worked as a lawyer at the Social Department of the [[Austrian Trade Union Federation]] (ÖGB) before becoming the head of ÖGB's Brussels office at the permanent representation of Austria at the EU in 1999. From the time period of January 2009 until her election to the [[European Parliament]] she served as head of the department of EU and International Affairs of the Austrian Trade Union Federation.

Further memberships that Regner has taken up in this time period were of the European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) and of the Social Dialogue Committee. Moreover, she was a board member of the [[European Trade Union Confederation]] (ETUC), of the [[International Trade Union Confederation]] (ITUC) as well as the Trade Union and Advisory Committee to the OECD (TUAC).

In July 2009, Regner was first elected a member of the European Parliament and has been representing the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) as well as the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats group in the EU during the 7th, 8th and currently the 9th legislative term.

==Political career==
In national as well as European politics, Regner's main focus has always been on labour-related affairs, namely the improvement of workers' rights and the reduction of unemployment. Additionally, she is dedicating her work to arising matters of financial markets and inequality in the fields of gender politics, taxes and wealth.

===Member of the European Parliament, 2009–present===
Regner's functions during the 7th legislative term of the European Parliament included those of the vice-chairwoman of the Committee on Legal Affairs (JURI), substitute member of the [[Committee on Employment and Social Affairs]] (EMPL), substitute member of the [[Committee on Constitutional Affairs]] (AFCO), member of the Delegation for relations with the countries of the [[Andean Community]] and substitute member of the Delegation in Israel. In addition to her committee assignments, Regner was a member of the European Parliament’s Advisory Committee on the Conduct of Members from 2012 until 2014.<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/meps/Annual_Report_2012_FINAL_2013_02_19_EN_rev.pdf Annual Report 2012] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

Regner's functions during the 8th legislative term of the European Parliament included those of the coordinator of the [[Committee on Legal Affairs]] for the S&D group, substitute member of the [[Committee on Employment and Social Affairs]] as well as substitute member of the Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality (FEMM). Further, she was a member of the Delegation for relations with the countries of the Andean Community, the Trade Union Intergroup, the Delegation to the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly and a substitute member of the Delegation to the EU-Chile Joint Parliamentary Committee. Moreover, she has been elected a member of the special parliamentary committee on tax ruling (TAXE) in February 2015. In addition to her committee assignments, Regner is a member of the European Parliament Intergroup on [[Western Sahara]].<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdf/intergroupes/VIII_LEG_26-Western%20Sahara.pdf Members] European Parliament Intergroup on Western Sahara.</ref>

After being re-elected in 2019, Regner has been elected chair of the [[Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality]] (FEMM) and as such initiated the [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/european-gender-equality-week-october-25/product-details/20211006EOT05921 European Gender Equality Week]. Additionally, she is member of the Conference of Committee Chairs, member of the [[Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs]], member of the [[Committee on Employment and Social Affairs]] and substitute member of the Subcommittee on Tax Matters. Further, she is the Vice-Chair of the Delegation for relations with countries of South Asia, member of the Delegation for relations with the Federative Republic of Brazil, member of the Delegation to the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly and substitute member of the Delegation to the EU-Mexico Joint Parliamentary Committee.<ref>https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/96998/EVELYN_REGNER/home EVELYN REGNER Europa.eu</ref>

In her role as Parliament negotiator on public country-by-country reporting (pCBCR), the European Parliament adopted a law which will compel large multinationals to financial transparency and publish in which countries they make their profits and where they pay their taxes. The new law includes the obligation for companies to publish how many full-time employees they have, their turnover and taxes paid, as well as all profits and losses they have in each country they operate in, inside the European Union and in [[tax haven]]s.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/under-sd-leadership-european-parliament-adopt-pioneering-financial-transparency-rules | title=Under S&D leadership, European Parliament to adopt pioneering financial transparency rules }}</ref>

In addition to her committee assignments, Regner is a member of the [[European Parliament Intergroup on LGBT Rights]]<ref>[https://lgbti-ep.eu/who-we-are/members/ Members] European Parliament Intergroup on LGBTI Rights.</ref>

On 19 January 2022, Evelyn Regner was elected Vice-President of the [[European Parliament]] She is the first [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|SPÖ]] politician to serve on the Presidency of the EU Parliament.

==Political Position==

Regner's main topics in the EU Parliament are:

- Tax justice: fair taxes for multinational corporations and the fight against tax evasion and fraud

- Social Europe: Europe-wide application of collective agreements, minimum social standards, minimum income schemes and the fight against wage and social dumping

- Employment: Employee participation in corporations through the participation by trade unions in legislative negotiations in the EU and the formation of European Works Councils

- Equality: Eliminate income inequality and improve the social and economic position of women in Europe

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Regner, Evelyn}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Günther Sidl

2023-01-13T07:49:17Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "Günther Sidl (2019) '''Günther Sidl''' (19 March 1975) is an Austrian politician who was elected as a Member of the European Parliament in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language..."

[[File:Günther Sidl (2019).jpg|thumb|309x309px|Günther Sidl (2019)]]

'''Günther Sidl''' (19 March 1975) is an Austrian politician who was elected as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] in [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref> He has since been serving on the [[European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety|Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety]] (full member) and on the [[Committee on Industry, Research and Energy]] (substitute member).

In addition to his committee assignments, Sidl is part of the Parliament's delegation to the EU-Kazakhstan, EU-Kyrgyzstan, EU-Uzbekistan and EU-Tajikistan Parliamentary Cooperation Committees and for relations with [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Mongolia]]. He is also a member of the Animal Welfare Intergroup of the European Parliament.<ref>[http://www.animalwelfareintergroup.eu/about-us/members/ Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831215301/http://www.animalwelfareintergroup.eu/about-us/members/ |date=31 August 2019 }} European Parliament Intergroup on the Welfare and Conservation of Animals.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1975 births]]

Bettina Vollath

2023-01-13T07:48:18Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Bettina Vollath''' (born 29 October 1962) is an Austrian politician of the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) who served as a Member of the European Parliament from 2019 until 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=28 May 2019|website=www.k..."

'''Bettina Vollath''' (born 29 October 1962) is an Austrian politician of the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] (SPÖ) who served as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] from [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]] until 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=28 May 2019|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref>

==Political career==
In parliament, Vollath served on the [[Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs]].<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/197678/BETTINA_VOLLATH/home Bettina Vollath] [[European Parliament]].</ref> In 2021, she also joined the parliament's working group on [[Frontex]], led by [[Roberta Metsola]].<ref>Mia Bartoloni (February 26, 2021), [https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/news/article/movers-and-shakers-26-february-2021 Movers and Shakers] ''[[The Parliament Magazine]]''.</ref>

In addition to her committee assignments, Vollath was part of the parliament's delegation to the EU-Albania Stabilisation and Association Parliamentary Committee.<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/197678/BETTINA_VOLLATH/home Bettina Vollath] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Theresa Muigg

2023-01-13T07:47:13Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|Austrian politician}} {{Infobox officeholder | honorific-prefix = | name = | honorific-suffix = {{Post-nominals|size=100%|MEP}} | party = Social Democratic Party of Austria | image = 2019 Theresa Muigg (33535059218) (cropped).jpg | caption = Theresa Muigg during the 2019 European Parliament election. | constituency_MP = Austria (Eu..."

{{Short description|Austrian politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix =
| name =
| honorific-suffix = {{Post-nominals|size=100%|MEP}}
| party = [[Social Democratic Party of Austria]]
| image = 2019 Theresa Muigg (33535059218) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Theresa Muigg during the [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019 European Parliament election]].
| constituency_MP = [[Austria (European Parliament constituency)|Austria]]
| term_start = 10 October 2022
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| birth_date = {{birth-date and age|15 June 1984}}
| birth_place = [[Schwaz]], [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]], Austria
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Austrian
| spouse =
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater =
| occupation =
| profession =
| website =
| predecessor = [[Bettina Vollath]]
}}
'''Theresa Muigg''' (born 15 June 1984) is an Austrian politician of the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] (SPÖ) who has been serving as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] since 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Theresa MUIGG {{!}} Abgeordnete {{!}} Europäisches Parlament |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/de/238674/THERESA_MUIGG/home |access-date=2022-11-28 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=de}}</ref>

== References ==
<references group="" responsive="1"></references>

[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Hannes Heide

2023-01-13T07:44:58Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " '''Hannes Heide''' (born 17 October 1966) is an Austrian politician who was elected as a Member of the European Parliament in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref> ==Political career== In parl..."

'''Hannes Heide''' (born 17 October 1966) is an Austrian politician who was elected as a [[Member of the European Parliament]] in [[2019 European Parliament election in Austria|2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kleinezeitung.at/politik/aussenpolitik/5635851/|title=Die Neuen im EU-Parlament: EU-Wahl: Strache müsste bis 2. Juli auf Mandat verzichten|date=2019-05-28|website=www.kleinezeitung.at|language=de|access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref>

==Political career==
In parliament, Heide has been serving on the [[Committee on Culture and Education]] since 2019. In 2022, he joined the Committee of Inquiry to investigate the use of [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]] and equivalent surveillance [[spyware]].<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sedcms/documents/PRIORITY_INFO/558/Composition%20nominative%20des%20commissions%20PEGA%20COVI%20ING2_24.03.2022_EN.pdf Members of the Committee of Inquiry to investigate the use of Pegasus and equivalent surveillance spyware] [[European Parliament]].</ref><ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220321IPR25923/parliament-names-meps-to-sit-on-three-new-committees Parliament names MEPs to sit on three new committees] [[European Parliament]], press release of 24 March 2022.</ref>

In addition to his committee assignments, Heide has been part of the Parliament's delegation to the [[ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly]].<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/197682/HANNES_HEIDE/home Hannes Heide] [[European Parliament]].</ref>  He is also a member of the URBAN Intergroup<ref>[http://urban-intergroup.eu/members/ Members] URBAN Intergroup.</ref> and the European Parliament Intergroup on Western Sahara.<ref>[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/files/organisation-and-rules/organisation/intergroups/list-of-members-western-sahara.pdf Intergroup on Western Sahara] [[European Parliament]].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Living people]]

File:Deepak Balutia.jpeg

2023-01-13T06:45:37Z

Flying Bee: Spokesperson at Indian National Congress Uttarakhand, India

== Summary ==
Spokesperson at Indian National Congress Uttarakhand, India
== Licensing ==
{{self|cc-by-sa-4.0}}

User talk:WikiDwarf

2021-12-02T11:17:01Z

Flying Bee: /* Draft submission */

{{User talk}}

== Issue with Notice ==

Hi, I have joined wikipedia India just today. I noticed some buggy notice coming up in misaligned manner. Just wanted to let you know about this. I can appreciate the initiative and I found only you to be doing most of the administrative works as of now here, so thought to drop a message. --[[User:Guy|Guy]] ([[User talk:Guy|talk]]) 15:51, 22 September 2020 (IST)

:Hello and welcome to Bharatpedia, can you be more specific what buggy notice coming up so I can look up at? Thanks for notifying and happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 16:12, 22 September 2020 (IST)

== Spamming ==

I found a number of new users using their user space for link spamming. So I reverted those. Hope it was fine to do so. Please let me know if it is otherwise.

{| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #fdffe7;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | [[File:Admin Barnstar.png|100px]]
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Admin's Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | You are doing a great work. Keep going. [[User:Kannadaguy|Kannadaguy]] ([[User talk:Kannadaguy|talk]]) 17:34, 6 October 2020 (IST)
|}

== The Reviewer Barnstar ==

{| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #fdffe7;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | {{#ifeq:{{{2}}}|alt|[[File:Reviewer Barnstar Hires.png|100px]]|[[File:Barnstar-RTFM.png|100px]]}}
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Reviewer Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for review [[User:Kannadaguy|Kannadaguy]] ([[User talk:Kannadaguy|talk]]) 17:42, 6 October 2020 (IST)
|}

== How to submit the article ==

I have created the article help me in submitting the article — Preceding [[Bharatpedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Digitalpivot30|Digitalpivot30]] ([[User talk:Digitalpivot30#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Digitalpivot30|contribs]]) 

:{{re|Digitalpivot30}} Hello and welcome, please start a new page in the [[Bharatpedia:Drafts#Creating and editing drafts|draft namespace]] and once it's ready for the mainspace please submit it for a review by placing the {{tl|submit}} template at the top of the page. Thanks - [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 15:12, 27 November 2020 (IST)
Sure thanks — Preceding [[Bharatpedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Digitalpivot30|Digitalpivot30]] ([[User talk:Digitalpivot30#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Digitalpivot30|contribs]]) 
Have edited & summited the draft..

How to disclose the paid contribution?

== Review of article ==

Hello, can you please review my article [[Shalkal]] and delete the page [[Draft:Shalkal Carty]]. --[[User:Guy|Guy]] ([[User talk:Guy|talk]]) 22:07, 3 December 2020 (IST)

== Thanks for creating article of Mukesh Ambani bomb scare case ==

Thank you. [[User:Subhash Rama|Subhash Rama]] ([[User talk:Subhash Rama|talk]]) 11:15, 22 March 2021 (IST)

== Article creation ==

Hi, why can't I create new page about person? [[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:Rehan|talk]]) 16:24, 10 April 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{re|Rehan}} and welcome! As I can see your account hasn't reached the [[Bharatpedia:Autoconfirmed users|autoconfirmed]] level yet so you won't be able to create a page in the main namespace, but you can create an article in the draft namespace using the [[Bharatpedia:Article wizard|article wizard]] and submit it for a review by placing <code><nowiki>{{subst:submit}}</nowiki></code> at the top of the article once it's ready. Please see [[Bharatpedia:Articles for creation]] for more and let me know if you need any help. Happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 16:48, 10 April 2021 (IST)
::Thanks for your response. I have created the draft [[Draft:Syed_Falak]] now I need to add image. How can I add?
[[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 17:12, 10 April 2021 (UTC)

== Question ==

Hi, thank you so much for your help. I want to know are you an admin in this Wikipedia? [[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:Rehan|talk]]) 01:19, 13 April 2021 (IST)
:{{re|Rehan}} Hello Rehan, yes I'm an admin here. Please let me know if you need any help. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 08:35, 13 April 2021 (IST)

== Please approve my page ==

Hello sir, i created a page can you approve? thanks — Preceding [[Bharatpedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Ajay Kumar|Ajay Kumar]] ([[User talk:Ajay Kumar#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ajay Kumar|contribs]]) 18:47, 19 April 2021 (IST) (UTC)
:{{re|Ajay Kumar}} I have moved the page to main namespace after some improvements in sources and added some categories. The subject looks notable so please try to add some more sources. Happy editing, [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:23, 19 April 2021 (IST)
Thank you sir. I added more details with source. [[User:Ajay Kumar|Ajay Kumar]] ([[User talk:Ajay Kumar|talk]]) 19:29, 19 April 2021 (IST)
==A curious query==
Hello Wiki Dwarf! I am an old user in English Wikipedia. When I tried to log in here with the same account and password, it failed. Btw, my queries are: 1) Is this wikipedia a part of Wikimedia sister projects? 2) Sometimes, I found some articles, though not original of here (I mean they seems to be imported from the simple English wikipedia), does this mean that all the articles are imported? 3) Can I create my user account here and at the same time, can I create original articles here? Though articles with similar names exist in the en wikipedia?
[[Special:Contributions/47.29.19.238|47.29.19.238]] ([[User talk:47.29.19.238|talk]]) 00:04, 8 May 2021 (IST)
:{{re|47.29.19.238}} Hello there, Bharatpedia is an independent platform (please see [[Bharatpedia:General disclaimer]]) so you won't be able to login using your Wikipedia account details, but you may create a new account under the same username. Account creation is not required in order to read or edit this site, but if you wish to create new articles you can sign up with a new account and can create articles on notable topics, no matter if the particular article exists on Wikipedia under the same or similar name. Some articles here are imported from Wikipedia and you may notice a disclosure at the end of each page such as [[Achappam]] and if you can't find such disclosure, you can add one by placing <code><nowiki>{{en-Wikipedia}}</nowiki></code> at the end of the article. Thank you. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 00:36, 8 May 2021 (IST)
:::Finally, I read the article you cited. Next, 4) Is it mandatory for me to create my new user account here with the exactly same username from the wikipedia org? Next, 5) Do I need special permission to edit, create an article here? 6) Like wikipedia, can I perform edits here normally? 7) Can I import article from the wikipedia? For that, do I need special rights or powers here? I mean all these in good faith. And I have a strong desire to have my service here. [[Special:Contributions/47.29.19.238|47.29.19.238]] ([[User talk:47.29.19.238|talk]]) 00:59, 8 May 2021 (IST)
::::{{re|47.29.19.238}} No it's not mandatory to create a new account with exactly the same user name on Wikipedia, it's your choice if you wish to keep both accounts under the same username. You don't need special user rights to edit pages on this site, but several actions including article creation in the main namespace are restricted to user accounts that are at least 4 days old and have made at least 10 edits. The use of the tool to import pages is only limited to admins, patrollers and extended-confirmed users, but a user without these rights can still import pages manually. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 01:17, 8 May 2021 (IST)

== Talk back notice ==

Hello brother! I have a talk back for you in my talk page. Besides, I want to know something from you. Is this wikipedia still have connection with Wikimedia Commons and translate wiki? I saw this very wikipedia supports some Manipuri language technical version. Next, does this wikipedia also have multiple language wiki versions? SonOfZeus 10:48, 9 May 2021 (IST)

:{{re|SonOfZeus}} Hello and welcome! this is an independent platform unrelated to the Wikimedia Foundation and is currently only available in the English language. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 10:54, 9 May 2021 (IST)

::Brother! Can I create my sandbox here in this wiki too? And, where shall I see the number of articles of this wiki? And, about the list of active users, if I want to see! And lastly, does this wiki also follow the INDIC SCRIPT policy of English wikipedia? SonOfZeus 18:46, 9 May 2021 (IST)

::And, another thing, can I create a draft page and how should I start that? SonOfZeus 18:49, 9 May 2021 (IST)
:::Yes you can experience in your sandbox. The number of articles you can see on the main page and unfortunately the list of active users is only limited to sysops. To create a draft you can visit [[Bharatpedia:Article wizard]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 10:12, 10 May 2021 (IST)
::::And lastly, does Indic script policy also apply here? SonOfZeus 18:29, 10 May 2021 (IST)
:::::No, you can use the Indic script in the lead and infobox to address the name of the subject. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:30, 10 May 2021 (IST)
:::::: Thank you. SonOfZeus 20:55, 11 May 2021 (IST)
::{{Ping|WikiDwarf}} Hello WikiDwarf, I don't find any user with your name in English wikipedia. Are you there in English wikipedia? If yes, may I know what is your username there? If that affects your privacy, then I am sorry. Else, please tell me.
::And another thing, can I request you for importing articles from wikipedia? SonOfZeus 12:30, 12 May 2021 (IST)
:::Sure you can list the articles [[Bharatpedia:Requested articles|on this page]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:40, 12 May 2021 (IST)
::::But sir, I don't find any link to go to any particular page where I can write the name of the article which I want to request for import.(1) Could you please show me the link for the page where I could write the request? (2) At the same, if I could personally request you at your talk page, please import [[Meitei deities]] and [[List of figures in Meitei mythology]] from simple English Wikipedia. SonOfZeus 11:57, 13 May 2021 (IST)

::::::Thank you for pointing it out. I have created a button that will take you to the request page and also imported the two pages you requested above. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:50, 13 May 2021 (IST)
:: But sir, (1) [[Meitei deities]] is a redirect page of another page. The main page is not imported yet from Simple English Wikipedia. (2) How many articles can I request at a time? Is there any limitation of number of articles at a single request? (3) If something gets changed in the article at general wikipedia, will it's imported equivalent article in this wikipedia get affected? For example, an article "x" has been deleted in general wiki, what about its equivalent article "x" in this wiki? SonOfZeus 10:55, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::I have imported its corresponding article please see [[List of Meitei gods and goddesses]]. You can request as many articles as you wish as there is no limit. If an article is changed or deleted on Wikipedia it will not automatically affect its copy on Bharatpedia so one need to update the particular article manually. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 12:02, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::: Thank you sir. And, one thing is that can a page be created or imported by anonymous users? I saw [[Irai Leima]] being imported by an anonymous. Is that a vandalism? As you are a check user also, what do you see. Who's that? SonOfZeus 13:27, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::::No, that article was imported using the tool by an admin and the most recent revision was included so that's the reason [[Irai Leima]] looks like created/imported by anon. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 14:06, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::::I have imported all the articles as per your request at [[Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests]], please place <code><nowiki>{{simple-Wikipedia}}</nowiki></code> at the end of each article to avoid copyright issue. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 14:32, 14 May 2021 (IST)
::::::Sure, sir! I will do as soon as possible. Thanks! I have more request in the page. Please import those too. SonOfZeus 15:08, 14 May 2021 (IST)
::Thanks for those import! And one thing, (1) I am trying my best to put the "simple English wikipedia template " at the bottom of every imported article. But if I missed some, will there be assured chance of facing copyright issues? (2) In case of edits performed by myself in the general wikipedia, can I directly copy and paste those here? SonOfZeus 20:08, 14 May 2021 (IST)
::(3) The page [[Khamba Thoibi]] has a very important long infobox and some wiki tables in the [[:en:Khamba Thoibi]] (general English wikipedia). Can we import those partially here? SonOfZeus 20:10, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:::I don't see any issue if you wish to directly copy and paste your edits from Wikipedia, but it still needs a disclosure at the end of the page. I have imported the contents from [[:en:Khamba Thoibi]] into [[Khamba Thoibi]] please let me know if there is anything else I can do. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 23:35, 14 May 2021 (IST)
:: Hello brother! (1) In the main page of the Bharatpedia, some names of religions are given. Could you add [[Sanamahism]] also? SonOfZeus 22:37, 15 May 2021 (IST)
:::Done. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 01:47, 16 May 2021 (IST)
::(2) Please create infobox religion. (3) Please create Template:Lang-zh_TW (language template for traditional Chinese) and Template:Lang-zh_CN (language template for simplified Chinese). SonOfZeus 23:46, 15 May 2021 (IST)
:::Please use [[:Template:Infobox religious group]] instead of Infobox religion and for the traditional Chinese, please use <code><nowiki>{{Lang-zh|t=中國}}</nowiki></code> and <code><nowiki>{{Lang-zh|s=中国}}</nowiki></code> for simplified Chinese. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 01:47, 16 May 2021 (IST)
::::{{Ping|WikiDwarf}} Sir! (1) I have new import request. Please see. (2) I have more than 500 edits. So, I think I am extended confirmed user now. Could you please grant me the right of importer to me? What special steps are needed for importing? If possible, please teach me. SonOfZeus 20:16, 18 May 2021 (IST)
:::::Your account has not yet reached the extendedconfirmed level. A registered editor becomes extendedconfirmed automatically when the account is both at least 30 days old and has made at least 500 edits (including deleted edits) so, I will take a look at the list and import as much as possible. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 15:30, 21 May 2021 (IST)
::Sir, I have new requests in the request page for import. BTW, due to multiplicity of the articles, I can't put square brackets in every title of the requested article. Please don't mind. Hope you will adjust them easily. At the same time, I will try my best. SonOfZeus 21:50, 4 June 2021 (IST)
:::Hello Sir! As my user account is 1 month old, could you grant me the importer right? If possible, it will definitely help me and you. I might no longer disturb you by requesting exhaustive list of articles for import! SonOfZeus 14:22, 7 June 2021 (IST)
::::{{reply|SonOfZeus}} Please attach an email id to your account so I can grant you the importer right and share instructions. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 18:06, 8 June 2021 (IST)
:::::{{re|WikiDwarf}}(1) Brother! I have attached the email id. Now, please share me the instructions. SonOfZeus 16:36, 2 July 2021 (IST)
::::::(2) And why we're those list of requested articles removed? SonOfZeus 12:18, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:::::::{{reply|SonOfZeus}} Thank you for attaching your email address, I will soon send you the instructions. The page ([[Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests‎‎]]) was converted to an article by a couple of users but their edits have been reverted and the list is visible now. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 12:40, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:::::::: I received your email, but I think I am still not getting any instruction about how to import an article from the general wikipedia run by Wikimedia Foundation to this Bharatpedia. May I get that, bro! I am eager to learn that! And thank you for all those useful links you send me, those will also help me in future. SonOfZeus 13:23, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:::::::::That might be one of some other automatic emails. I have not yet sent you the instructions to use the import tool, once I do, I will notify you on your talk page. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 13:33, 3 July 2021 (IST)
----
Wow! I did it, bro! After properly following your instructions, I succeed in importing files to here! But as I am a birdie, I am importing only one at a time. SonOfZeus 19:49, 1 August 2021 (IST)
:{{re|SonOfZeus}} That's great, please let me know if you need any help. Also, please note that articles created using a tool such as "importer" will not be counted at the edit-a-thon so please only list those you have created manually. Thank you. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 21:31, 3 August 2021 (IST)
::But what about the expansion of already existing article? I mean there are some articles brought here through importer before the beginning of this contest. If I expand such article, are they able to be counted for the contest? SonOfZeus 22:28, 3 August 2021 (IST)
:::Yes, they will be counted as valid entries. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 08:06, 4 August 2021 (IST)
___
Hello brother! Please check if any of the articles I have added for the contest is ineligible or eligible! If found any problem, please tell me so that I may either fix the problem or create a substitute in time. Besides, you have a mail from me. Please check it too. Regards! SonOfZeus 22:26, 4 August 2021 (IST)

== Issue in Reviewing ==
([[User:Pixerark|Pixerark]]) Hello editor, I'm New user of Bharatpedia.My published two articles are still in review. will you please explain me review submission process please ? & when my articles will be reviewed ?

== Revert Rights ==
[[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] hello,i had requested you to tell me about how to submit article drafts in afc after 10+ edits but someone demotes my user right will you please revert it...because of this my direct page move option is not appearing please do promote me again so i can move page.Thank You.Waiting For Your Response(-[[User:Pixerark|Pixerark]] ([[User talk:Pixerark|talk]]) 22:16, 14 May 2021 (IST))
:Please see my reply on your talk page. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 23:36, 14 May 2021 (IST)

== Index ==

Hi, I created page many days ago and it is still not visible in Google search results. Please review [[Reza Abbaszadeh]] page and index it. Thank you! [[User:Rehan|Rehan]] ([[User talk:Rehan|talk]]) 22:49, 17 May 2021 (IST)

== Please approve my page ==

Hello sir, I created a page can you please approve? thanks

== Review Timeline ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}, I am planning to introduce a good amount of fashion and film people articles to this place. I have auto petrol rights in English Wikipedia so I know what I am doing. I just want to know, what are the indexing/review timelines here. This is just for a better understanding of the process. [[User:Kingfisher|Kingfisher]] ([[User talk:Kingfisher|talk]]) 14:50, 29 May 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{re|Kingfisher}} and thank you for your interest. First of all, there is no fixed timeline for the review process since we have very few reviewers at the moment. Secondly, I will be glad to grant you the same user right(s) that you have on Wikipedia if you can share the details for verification purpose. If you don't want to disclose it publicly for any reason you can mail me. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 15:35, 29 May 2021 (IST)
:: Here is my user rights screen in en.wikipedia.org. https://tinyurl . com/ykxumuxm. I can't reveal my username because Wiki people keep an eye on everywhere. I find it risky. You can give me the rights for a temporary period and see the work or you may wait. Whatever it is, I am feeling excited about this project. The opportunities are endless. [[User:Kingfisher|Kingfisher]] ([[User talk:Kingfisher|talk]]) 17:14, 30 May 2021 (IST)
:::That is totally fine if you don't want to disclose it publicly. Can you attach an email id to your account here so I can share some details? Thank you. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 18:06, 30 May 2021 (IST)
::::That sounds good. I did that. [[User:Kingfisher|Kingfisher]] ([[User talk:Kingfisher|talk]]) 01:03, 31 May 2021 (IST)

== User Rights ==
Hey there, I just saw you changed my user rights to confirmed and later again removed that. I would request you to kindly update my user rights to confirmed. Thank you -- [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 16:08, 30 May 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|Plts}}, you already have confirmed status. Please verify it by visiting [[Special:UserRights]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 18:12, 30 May 2021 (IST)
::{{reply to|WikiDwarf}} Thanks for the information. Happy editing. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 14:50, 31 May 2021 (IST)

== Will making a page here interrupt with Wikipedia English ? ==

I want to know if same article with same name gets made here and wiki English Will there be copyright or interruption cuz the two pages Under same name? [[User:Positivesoul|Positivesoul]] ([[User talk:Positivesoul|talk]]) 10:06, 1 June 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|Positivesoul}}, In order to reuse contents from one site to another, you need to provide attribution. This is done by either saying in your edit summary that the material was copied, and where you got it. There will be no interruption in creating two pages under the same name. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 13:49, 2 June 2021 (IST)

== can you approve this page ? let me know if it qualifies==
https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/Draft:Emma_Jonnz

Hi sir, I have no conflict of interest with this person. he is a famous youtube in west Bengal. And he got a gold play button from youtube

== Draft Request ==
Hey [[User:WikiDwarf]], I just saw my article was deleted by you under criteria A7. I just read what it means, I would request you to provide me a draft for article [[Piyush Monga]] so that I can improve it. Also, please suggest some improvements to my first article [[Youth Against Rape]]. Thank you soo much for your help. Happy editing -- [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 17:00, 8 June 2021 (IST)
:{{re|Plts}} {{done}}. I have restored the article in the draft namespace as per your request above. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 17:43, 8 June 2021 (IST)
::{{re|WikiDwarf}} Thank you. Happy editing. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 14:23, 9 June 2021 (IST)

== Draft: Bhupesh Bansal ==

Hello, I submitted a draft. Please check and approve it if it is well.

Thank you.

== Asking a Favour ==
Hello [[User:WikiDwarf]] I am a Wikipedia editor from the northern part of the country and I also create articles related to Nepal. is it legal to create articles about people from Nepal or any other country? I have created more than 25 articles on English [[Wikipedia]](directly on namespace) and more than 20 of them got reviewed and are live on the wiki but unfortunately, 5 of them got deleted. I will be happily contributing on [[Bharatpedia]] as well if provided the required access, also I agree to all your terms and conditions if found violating any of them you are free to take the required action. --[[User:Mailblog34|Mailblog34]] ([[User talk:Mailblog34|talk]]) 08:00, 17 June 2021 (IST)

:Hello {{u|Mailblog34}} and welcome to Bharatpedia. There are no restrictions on creating articles on any topic but the subject must be notable enough to have an independent article. Since your account has not yet reached the autoconfirmed status I would suggest you create new articles in the draft namespace and once your account is autoconfirmed (i.e. four days old and you've made ten edits) then you will be able to move/create articles directly in the main namespace. If you need any help please let me know. Happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 09:01, 17 June 2021 (IST)
* Hello [[User:WikiDwarf]] i am already four days old and made more than 30 edits but still did not get option of "create the pge" , and did not get option to move pages . Help me out on my limited access .--[[User:Mailblog34|Mailblog34]] ([[User talk:Mailblog34|talk]]) 23:19, 19 June 2021 (IST)
::{{re|Mailblog34}} Your account was registered on 16 June 2021 at 09:45 (IST) so please wait for one more day and your account will be autoconfirmed. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 23:26, 19 June 2021 (IST)

== Vandalism ==

Hello sir. Somebody is keep vandalizing [[Harish Pednekar]] please lock the page from spammers. [[Special:Contributions/206.84.238.118|206.84.238.118]] ([[User talk:206.84.238.118|talk]]) 17:40, 25 June 2021 (IST)

== Draft Request ==

Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]], Could you please review this article [[Draft:Fuad Al-Qrize]], link: https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/User:Alialfaisal/sandbox ,Thank You.--[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 17:56, 28 June 2021 (IST)

* My dear [[User:WikiDwarf]], Sources have been added to the article, I can supplement them with additional sources if you wish, [[Draft:Fuad Al-Qrize]] I hope to review. Thank you. --[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 18:26, 1 July 2021 (IST)

* My dear [[User:WikiDwarf]], I did not understand why the article was not approved, even though I added several news sources in it and can supplement it with additional sources?--[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 19:21, 3 July 2021 (IST)

== I requested that add me admin on Bharatpedia. ==

I will be work forever to wikipedia. Please add me admin group member in Bharat wikipedia.
[[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]]) 12:09, 29 June 2021 (IST)Hembram Bakhul

== Kindly clear the pending DRAFT ASAP. ==

Hi, kindly Clear the pending draft asap so that a contributor like me gets the motivation to contribute more too this open and neutral place. [[User:Marvel|Marvel]][[User talk:Marvel|(talk)]]

== How to upload image ==

Hi WikiDwarf. I am User:VF814324. I am new here. How can I upload an Image with CC-BY-SA license? Wher to upload ? When I click on 'Upload file' button, it brings me to Wikimedia commons. Can I publish file locally on Bharatpedia? [[User:VF814324|VF814324]] ([[User talk:VF814324|talk]]) 13:45, 3 July 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|VF814324}} and welcome to Bharatpedia! Unfortunately uploading images locally is only limited to sysops at the moment so you can send the image along with its copyright permission to permission@bharatmedia.org. Happy editing, [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 12:04, 4 July 2021 (IST)
:: Thanks, I've mailed as you said. [[User:VF814324|VF814324]] ([[User talk:VF814324|talk]]) 17:59, 7 July 2021 (IST)

== AFC Submission cleaned? ==
Hey there, I hope you're doing well. I'm writing to get your attention on an error I faced.
[[Draft:Sunil ydv SS]], a draft(stub) that I created and submitted around a month ago to AFC. Now, when I see, the AFC tag has disappeared and no reason is shown for this. I would request you to kindly check this issue as well as review this draft as I believe it qualifies [[Bharatpedia:Notability]]. Thank you & happy editing - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 13:56, 5 July 2021 (IST)
:The same error occurred on another draft that I created [[Draft:Piyush Monga]], the AFC tag has been removed and no reason is shown. I would request you to kindly review this draft too. Thank you & happy editing. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 18:50, 5 July 2021 (IST)
::{{re|Plts}} The tags were removed by user [[User:Hembram_Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] at the time they moved both pages to the main namespace, but I have restored the tags on both drafts. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:02, 5 July 2021 (IST)
:::{{re|WikiDwarf}} Thank you. - [[User:Plts|Plts]] ([[User talk:Plts|talk]]) 11:49, 27 July 2021 (IST)

== Copyright issue ==

hey [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] a user - [[User:Hembram_Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] is copying the articles and pasting them here from English Wikipedia without any edits, just informing you as it may violate copyright. Ignore if it doesn't violate copyright policy. --[[User:Mailblog34|Mailblog34]] ([[User talk:Mailblog34|talk]]) 21:51, 7 July 2021 (IST)
:{{reply|Mailblog34}} Hi, I think reusing Wikipedia content is generally allowed as per [[:en:Wikipedia:Reusing Wikipedia content]]. [[User:Pradip89|Pradip89]] ([[User talk:Pradip89|talk]]) 08:42, 9 July 2021 (IST)

== Photo upload ==

Hi i want to upload photo but when I click on upload it take me to wikimedia which is wikipedia portal will you please guide me on it. --[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 12:58, 8 July 2021 (IST)

== Protection Of Wikipedia Article ==

How to add protection to articles so as to stop dispute and vandalism. 
[[User:Wandererkanishk|Wandererkanishk]] ([[User talk:Wandererkanishk|talk]])

== article review ==

Hi [User:WikiDwarf] thanks for your suggestion on article [Sheikh Asif] will you please review it again thanks .

--[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 21:14, 8 July 2021 (IST)

== Grant Me as a auto confirmed user ==

Hi, i want to be an auto confirmed user. As I have experience on english wikipedia. So I am much experienced about it. So I please grant me permission. Thanks [[User:Villageboy|Villageboy]] ([[User talk:Villageboy|talk]]) 16:13, 9 July 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|Villageboy}} and welcome to Bharatpedia! I can see you made 10 edits already so, your account will be automatically flagged as autoconfirmed on or after July 13, 2020. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 08:43, 10 July 2021 (IST)

== Haters are editing the pages ==

Hey wiki, the pages I have created are of public figures, entrepreneurs and places. But some of the people are editing and using harsh language on the page I have created. I request you to kindly give me permission to lock the pages or do it from your end. It would be great.

I am not contributing since one day because of this issue only. As soon as solved will start adding more pages which should be here.

Thankyou [[User:Saumyasingh|Saumyasingh]] ([[User talk:Saumyasingh|talk]]) 03:15, 11 July 2021 (IST)

== Add me admin member group ==

I am hembram Bakhul saying that I five hundred articles edited. I hoped that I shall work the best on Bharatpedia.
[[User:Hembram Bakhul|Hembram Bakhul]] ([[User talk:Hembram Bakhul|talk]])Hembram Bakhul

== please publish this ==

hi [User:WikiDwarf] will you please review [https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/Draft:The_Press_Walla] and publish it .

--[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 13:58, 14 July 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{u|HamzhaSaleem}}, The draft lacks sources that establish notability so, please cite some third party sources that cover the subject and submit it for a review once the draft is ready. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 17:15, 14 July 2021 (IST)

-- [[User:WikiDwarf]] thanks for your revert actually its a new eMagazine and news website maybe they will get more sources in future.--[[User:HamzhaSaleem|HamzhaSaleem]] ([[User talk:HamzhaSaleem|talk]]) 19:08, 14 July 2021 (IST)

== Draft Request ==

Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]],Since June 28, 2021, I am requesting a review of the article. I have attached many news sources and authority control to the article, but so far it has not been approved. I hope you will review the article. Thanks. [[Draft:Fuad Al-Qrize]] --[[User:Alialfaisal|Alialfaisal]] ([[User talk:Alialfaisal|talk]]) 04:17, 29 July 2021 (IST)

== Premtosh Debnath - Real Name Premtosh Nath ==

Dear Bharatpedia Admin Please Change Name Of Premtosh Debnath to Premtosh Nath, I Have His I card, Media Articles Added His name Premtosh Debnath some issue.[[Special:Contributions/47.29.9.5|47.29.9.5]] ([[User talk:47.29.9.5|talk]]) 01:49, 1 August 2021 (IST)

==Requirements for New page Reviewer==
Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]] sir, Could you please help to know the minimum requirements for Bharatpedia New Page Reviewer? I can not find any article about the minimum requirements for Bharatpedia New Page Reviewer. [[User:WikiJoy|WikiJoy]] ([[User talk:WikiJoy|talk]]) 01:16, 14 August 2021 (IST)
== Request ==
Hi [[User:WikiDwarf]] sir, Could you please unprotected the user draft of Danish Maniyar he is Google notable entrepreneur of India guide me with it draft making I can make his name article page with him of urs please unprotected it . I'm help bharatpedia with my contribution I hope I can be patroller in bharatpedia please[[User: Lucasraven12|Lucasraven12]] ([[User talk:Lucasraven12|talk]])

== Sir, is BharatPedia a Paid, is that why he is not approving my page? ==

Dear
Bhartpedia Team,

I am Anshuman Tiwari, better known as Anshuman Tiwari Musician, from Dehradun, Uttarakhand. is an Indian Musician. And I am Verified On different music platforms like Spotify, Google Play Music, Apple Music, iTunes, Amazon Music, JioSaavn and many others international platforms like Deezer, Tidal and Napster. You get Anshuman Tiwari music on TikTok, Instagram or Facebook library also. and i am verified on facebook And Google.

Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/anshumantiwariofficials

Google: https://g.co/kgs/knU5xV

https://en.wikipedia.ind.in/wiki/Draft:Anshuman_Tiwari_(musician)

Sir i am verified in so many platforms and i have lot of news on google.
Sir why is my page being deleted from Bharatpedia?

Sir, is BharatPedia a Paid, is that why he is not approving my page?

Sir like this i got many complaints against in Bharatpedia,
Sir this time I am making last time making a page.
If it is deleted here then we will have to take further action
:{{re|Iamanshumantiwari}} No, Bharatpedia is not a paid platform it's a free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. Your article was deleted due to a lack of reliable sources that discuss the subject in detail, and cited sources are not reliable. Please see [[Bharatpedia:Reliable sources]] to understand what we consider reliable and also please see [[Bharatpedia:Notability (music)]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 20:56, 28 August 2021 (IST)

== Autoconfirmed... ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}. I see you've admin rights on this platform. Can you please grant me autoconfirmed rights so that I can easily create a few templates. I was going through Random articles and found that there are a few articles with templates in RED. Hence this. [[User:Anjuman|Anjuman]] ([[User talk:Anjuman|talk]]) 19:01, 31 August 2021 (IST)
:{{re|Anjuman}} You can apply for the user-right at [[Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions#Autopatrolled]]. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 19:14, 31 August 2021 (IST)
::{{re|WikiDwarf}} Well, both the rights are different. Autopatrolled marks articles as patrolled whilst [[Bharatpedia:User access levels#Autoconfirmed and confirmed users|autoconfirmed]] is a right lower than that of Extended confirmed. I'll have a look at RfP later as autoconfirmed would be autogranted five days later, perhaps. Thanks. [[User:Anjuman|Anjuman]] ([[User talk:Anjuman|talk]]) 19:26, 31 August 2021 (IST)

==Fix the problem==
Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}} sir I have created a page in the name of [[Deepthi Sunaina]] 1 month ago, the article is marked as an Autopatrolled.But it is not showing on google. please look into it and fix the problem. [[User:WikiJoy|WikiJoy]] ([[User talk:WikiJoy|talk]]) 20:16, 11 September 2021 (IST)
:{{re|WikiJoy}} I apologise for replying late. I have reviewed the most recent edit and it will be indexed soon. Also, please see [[Bharatpedia:New pages patrol/Reviewers]] to review the minimum requirements for NPR. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]])

== Autoconfirmed... ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}. I see you've admin rights on this platform. Can you please grant me #PATROLLERS, rights so that I can easily create a few templates. I was going through Random articles and found that there are a few articles with templates in RED. Hence this. [[User: Lucasraven12|Lucasraven12]] ([[User talk: Lucasraven12|talk]])

== Patroller ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}. I see you've admin rights on this platform. Can you please grant me #PATROLLERS, rights so that I can easily create a few templates. I was going through Random articles and found that there are a few articles with templates in RED. Hence this. [[User: Lucasraven12|Lucasraven12]] ([[User talk: Lucasraven12|talk]])
==A mail==
{{ygm}} [[User:SonOfZeus|SonOfZeus]] ([[User talk:SonOfZeus|talk]]) 18:49, 23 September 2021 (IST)

== Patroller ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}. I see you've admin rights on this platform. Can you please grant me #PATROLLERS, rights so that I can easily create a few templates. I was going through Random articles and found that there are a few articles with templates in RED. Hence this. [[User: Lucasraven12|Lucasraven12]] ([[User talk: Lucasraven12|talk]])

== Reply ==

Why are you deleted [[Bikram Malati]] Article [[User:Emboy|Emboy]] ([[User talk:Emboy|talk]]) 22:19, 24 October 2021 (IST)
:{{reply|Emboy}} I removed the article due to a lack of significant coverage in reliable sources. You can still recreate the article in the draft namespace by citing some reliable sources and then submit it for a review once ready. Also, please disclose if you have a conflict of interest. Thanks. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 22:27, 24 October 2021 (IST)
== Patroller ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}. I see you've admin rights on this platform. Can you please grant me #PATROLLERS, rights so that I can easily create a few templates. I was going through Random articles and found that there are a few articles with templates in RED. Hence this. [[User: Lucasraven12|Lucasraven12]] ([[User talk: Lucasraven12|talk]])

== A barnstar for you! ==

{| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Editors Barnstar Hires.png|100px]]
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" | '''The Editor's Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | Thank you for edit my user-page [[User:WhiteLion|WhiteLion]] ([[User talk:WhiteLion|talk]]) 17:40, 7 November 2021 (IST)
|}

== Strange yet.. ==

Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}}; I've been on constant journeys since last two months and couldn't contribute to the project. I'm curious to know why my articles such as [[Aaqib Anjum Aafi]], [[Faiz Qureshi]] and [[First Aid Council of India]] haven't yet appeared on the Google. I do not see any lint errors in these articles and I plan to improve them more in few upcoming days. Looking for your assistance. [[User:Anjuman|Anjuman]] ([[User talk:Anjuman|talk]]) 13:06, 9 November 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{re|Anjuman}}, I don't see any issue with these pages and to me it sounds like they were not crawled by Google bot which is normal so you may contact the support team at info@bharatmedia.org for more details and help. Please let me know if I can help you with anything else. Happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 22:44, 9 November 2021 (IST)
::{{re|Anjuman}} It seems like the problem has been resolved as I can now see these articles on Google. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 18:38, 14 November 2021 (IST)

== Confirmation Code ==

I have created a page and I am improving it [[Draft:Dakshina Kannada]] but when I tried to update info I got a text saying confirmation code,I did not get any confirmation .So could you please help me with this. [[User:AKudla|AKudla]] ([[User talk:AKudla|talk]]) 08:51, 11 November 2021 (IST)
:Hello {{reply|AKudla}} and welcome to Bharatpedia. Can you send the screenshot of the error you see to info@bharatmedia.org so it can be identified and solved? Happy editing. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 08:58, 11 November 2021 (IST)

Thanks for your reply. [[User:AKudla|AKudla]] ([[User talk:AKudla|talk]]) 21:46, 11 November 2021 (IST)

== Draft submission ==

Hello admin. I created a draft article but i am unable to submit it for review. when i click on submit the draft for review button i see a blank page. can you check and fix? Thanx

:Hello {{u|111.91.4.188}} and welcome to Bharatpedia. The problem has been fixed and you can now submit your draft for review. Thank you for bringing this issue to my attention. Happy editing, [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf#top|talk]]) 21:09, 18 November 2021 (IST)
==Fix the crawl issue==
Hi {{u|WikiDwarf}} sir I have started a page over 3 month before, which is not crawl in google. The page name is [[Swastik Interchem]]. The page is already marked as an Autopatrolled.But it is not showing on google. please look into it and fix the problem. [[User:Flying Bee|Flying Bee]] ([[User talk:Flying Bee|talk]]) 16:46, 2 December 2021 (IST)

Swastik Interchem

2021-12-02T11:03:27Z

Flying Bee: cleanup

{{Infobox company
| name = Swastik Interchem
| logo = SAVE 20210813 243916.jpg
| logo_size = 250px
| type =
| traded_as =
| foundation = 2012
| founder = Kamal Jain Sethia & Arihant Sethia
| location_city = [[New Delhi]]
| location_country = [[India]]
| area_served = Global
| key_people =
| industry = Chemicals
| products =
| services =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| owner =
| parent =
| divisions =
| subsid =
| homepage = {{URL|http://www.swastikinterchem.in}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Swastik Interchem''' is an Indian company with interests in manufacturing and trading of chemicals with headquarters in [[New Delhi]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Private Limited is a Non-govt company, incorporated on 03 Apr, 2012|work= The Economic Times |url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/company/swastik-interchem-private-limited/U24100DL2012PTC233950|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd to expand chemical manufacturing capacity|work= ANI News |url= https://www.aninews.in/news/business/business/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing-capacity20210803153904/ |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref> It manufactures as well as pigments and Resins.<ref>{{Cite web|title= New Delhi-based chemical manufacturer and importer Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd|work= Business-Standard |url= https://www.business-standard.com/content/press-releases-ani/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing-capacity-121080301320_1.html |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==History==
The company was founded by Kamal Jain Sethia & Arihant Sethia in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd to expand chemical|work= The Print |url= https://theprint.in/ani-press-releases/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing-capacity/708533/|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem began operations as an importer and trader of chemicals|work= Yahoo News |url= https://in.news.yahoo.com/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-expand-101331056.html |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Product Range and Laboratory ==
The company has state of an art laboratory for testing raw materials.<ref>{{Cite web|title= About SWASTIK INTERCHEM PRIVATE LIMITED
|work= Tradeindia.com |url= https://www.tradeindia.com/Seller-1253683-SWASTIK-INTERCHEM-PVT-LTD-/ |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>The company is stockist of Titanium Dioxide, Pigments, Resins, Industrial Chemicals, Petro Chemicals & Solvents, Water Base Pigments and Chemicals, Lead-Free Pigments, Ketonic Resin, Eva Resin, Polyamide Resin, Vinyl Resin, CPP Resin, Titanium Dioxide Imported, Titanium SIPL, Rubine Toner, Pigment Blue, Lake Red, Middle Chrome, Scarlet Chrome, Pigment Yellow, Pigment Red, High-performance Pigments, Pigment Green, Organic Pigment, Inorganic Pigment, Speciality Chemicals, Thinner, Printing Ink Chemicals, Polymers, Toluene, Mix Xylene, Acetone, Green Solvents, Paint Chemicals, Butanol, DAA, NPA, Ethyl Acetate, Butyl Acetate, IPA, Titanium Powder, Imported Chemicals and Pigments.<ref>{{Cite web|title= SIPL is also a stockist of titanium dioxide, pigments, resins, industrial chemicals|work= bignewsnetwork.com |url= https://www.bignewsnetwork.com/news/270561639/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem pvt ltd - delhi|work= textileinfomedia.com |url= https://www.textileinfomedia.com/Swastik-Interchem-pvt-ltd |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Catering Industries==
The company as well as supplies catering needs of the user and multinational companies on pan India, public sector units and reputed national companies in Footwears, Paints, Thinners, Lacquers, Sealers, Cosmetics, Printing Ink, Flex & Laminator, Packaging, PVC Board, PVC Pipes, Paper Mill, Pvc Leather Cloth, Master Batch, Soap, Leather, Plastic and Rubber Industries, and Polymer Industries.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Chemicals industry News Swastik Interchem |work= industry-report.net |url= https://chemicals.industry-report.net/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd/|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Private Limited,are well known in northern India for Organic & Inorganic Pigments,Resin, Dyes Additives, Pigment Chips, Pigment Paste, Paint Emulsion, Petro& Industrial Chemicals |work= getdistributors.com |url= https://www.getdistributors.com/distributors/swastik-interchem-private-limited-143874/ |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Imports and Exports==
The company is importing from China, Korea, France, USA, Dubai, Russia and Germany, Taiwan, and South Asia. The company is as well as supplies in Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh, Dubai, and Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Directors of Swastik Interchem Private Limited are Kamal Chand Sethia, Deepak Kumar Grover |work= zaubacorp.com |url= https://www.zaubacorp.com/company/SWASTIK-INTERCHEM-PRIVATE-LIMITED/U24100DL2012PTC233950 |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Research & Development
|work= indiamart.com |url= https://www.indiamart.com/swastik-interchem/infrastructure.html|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Awards and Honor==
The founder, Kamal Jain Sethia has been recognized by various government and non-government forums and conferred with several awards and honors including Doctor of Honors from ALMA ATA Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and Doctor of Letters from Kings University, Hawaii, USA, Business Leadership Award, Indira Gandhi Solitarily Award, Asia Pacific Achievers Award and International Business Excellence.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd to expand chemical manufacturing capacity |work= dailyhunt.in |url= https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/lokmat+english-epaper-lokmaten/swastik+interchem+pvt+ltd+to+expand+chemical+manufacturing+capacity-newsid-n304048162?s=a&uu=0x0ecc7d275cf26318&ss=pd |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem is MANUFACTURE, IMPORTER, EXPORTER, INDENTER, DISTRIBUTOR & STOCKIST OF TITANIUM DIOXIDE, INDUSTRIAL & PETRO CHEMICALS, PIGMENTS & RESIN |work= zaubacorp.com |url= https://www.msmemart.com/member/product/213018/81230/titanium-dioxide |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

City Attorney of San Francisco

2021-08-14T19:36:19Z

Flying Bee: Created page with " {{Infobox government agency |agency_name = San Francisco City Attorney's Office |type = office |logo = |logo_width = |logo_caption = |sea..."

{{Infobox government agency
|agency_name = San Francisco City Attorney's Office
|type = office
|logo =
|logo_width =
|logo_caption =
|seal = City Attorney of San Francisco.png
|seal_width = 160px
|seal_caption =
|picture =
|picture_width =
|picture_caption =
|formed = {{Start date|1899}}
|preceding1 = Court of Sessions
|jurisdiction = [[Government of San Francisco]]
|headquarters = San Francisco, California
|region_code = US
|coordinates ={{coord|37.77919|-122.41914|region:US-CA|display=inline,title}}
|motto =
|employees =
|budget =
|chief1_name = [[Dennis Herrera]]
|chief1_position = City Attorney
|child2_agency =

|keydocument1 =

|website = [https://www.sfcityattorney.org/ City Attorney website]
|footnotes =
|map =
|map_width =
|map_caption =
}}

The '''City Attorney of San Francisco''' is an elected position in the City and County of San Francisco, California. While [[city-county consolidation]] resulted in the unified government attaining both a city attorney and a [[San Francisco District Attorney's Office|district attorney]], the two positions are separate and serve different purposes.

Whereas District Attorney office is, as is the case throughout the United States, charged with prosecuting crime (i.e. has the equivalent function of a [[prosecutor|Prosecutor's Office]] in other legislations), City Attorney provides legal services to the Mayor, Board of Supervisors, and the rest of the city and county administration, examines surety bonds, contracts and ordinances and represents the city and county administration in civil claims, formally as a representative of People of the State of California.

The City Attorney is assisted by a number of Assistant City Attorneys.

==History==
The present City Attorney position was created in 1899, when the former offices of the City Attorney and County Attorney were unified; [[Franklin Knight Lane]] was the first City Attorney elected under this regime.

The first woman to hold the position was [[Louise Renne]] in 1986, appointed by then-mayor [[Dianne Feinstein]] following the death of previous City Attorney [[George Agnost]].

==List of City Attorneys==
* [[Dennis Herrera]] (2002–present)
* [[Louise Renne]] (1986–2001)
* Philip Ward (1986–1986)
* [[George Agnost]] (1977–1986)
* [[Thomas Martin O'Connor]] (1961–1977)
* [[Dion R. Holm]] (1949–1961)
* [[John J. O'Toole]] (1926–1949)
* [[George Lull]] (1916–1926)
* [[Percy V. Long]] (1908–1916)
* [[William J. Burke]] (1906–1908)
* [[Percy V. Long]] (1902–1906)
* [[Franklin Knight Lane]] (1899–1902)

===City Attorneys before 1899===
* [[Harry T. Creswell]] (1893–1898)
* [[Frederick Palmer Tracy]]

{{San Francisco}}
{{California-stub}}

[[Category:City and town attorneys in the United States|San Francisco]]
[[Category:Government of San Francisco]]
[[Category:Lawyers from San Francisco]]
[[Category:1899 establishments in California]]

San Francisco District Attorney's Office

2021-08-14T19:35:28Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Infobox official post | post = District Attorney | body = the City and County of San Francisco | native_name = | flag = Flag of San Francisco.svg | flagsize =..."

{{Infobox official post
| post = District Attorney
| body = the City and County of [[San Francisco]]
| native_name =
| flag = Flag of San Francisco.svg
| flagsize = 100px
| flagborder =
| flagcaption =
| insignia =
| insigniasize =
| insigniacaption =
| image = Chesa Boudin, San Francisco Elections candidate video (October 2019) (cropped).png
| imagesize =
| alt =
| incumbent = [[Chesa Boudin]]
| acting =
| incumbentsince = January 8, 2020
| type = [[District attorney]]
| status =
| department =
| style =
| member_of =
| residence =
| seat =
| nominator =
| appointer =
| appointer_qualified =
| termlength =
| termlength_qualified =
| constituting_instrument =
| precursor =
| formation = 1856
| first = [[Henry H. Byrne]]
| abbreviation =
| deputy =
| salary = 260,813 $ (2014)
| website = [http://www.sfdistrictattorney.org San Francisco District Attorney's Office]
}}

The '''San Francisco District Attorney's Office''' is the legal agency charged with prosecuting crimes in the City and County of [[San Francisco]], [[California]].

The current district attorney is [[Chesa Boudin]].<ref name="BoudinJan2020">{{cite web |last1=Sernoffsky |first1=Evan |title=New SF District Attorney Chesa Boudin fires several prosecutors |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/New-SF-District-Attorney-fires-multiple-14966620.php |website=sfchronicle.com |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=13 January 2020 |date=10 January 2020}}</ref>

==History==
After the [[Consolidation Act of 1856]] consolidated San Francisco as a city and a county, [[Henry H. Byrne]] was elected as the first District Attorney.<ref name="History">{{cite web |title=History of the San Francisco District Attorney's Office |publisher=City and County of San Francisco |url=http://www.sfdistrictattorney.org/history-san-francisco-district-attorneys-office |access-date=October 13, 2019 |archive-date=October 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013195114/http://www.sfdistrictattorney.org/history-san-francisco-district-attorneys-office |url-status=dead }}</ref> Twenty-seven people have held the title since Byrne, including Boudin.<ref name="History"/>

Former District Attorney [[Kamala Harris]] later became [[Attorney General of California]] in 2011, [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] in 2017, and was elected the first female [[Vice President of the United States]] in 2020.

===George Gascón (2011–2019)===
On January 9, 2011, [[Mayor of San Francisco|Mayor]] [[Gavin Newsom]] appointed [[San Francisco Police Department|SFPD]] Chief George Gascón as district attorney to succeed [[Kamala Harris]], who had been elected [[California attorney general]] in [[2010 California Attorney General election|November 2010]]. Gascón was subsequently elected in his own right in [[November 2011 San Francisco general election|November 2011]]. On October 2, 2018, Gascón announced that he would not seek re-election, citing his mother's health.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sernoffsky |first1=Evan |title=SF District Attorney George Gascón decides not to seek re-election |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/San-Francisco-District-Attorney-George-Gasc-n-13276393.php |website=sfchronicle.com |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=13 October 2019 |date=2 October 2019}}</ref> On October 3, 2019, Gascón announced that he would resign as district attorney on October 18 in order to explore a run for [[Los Angeles district attorney]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lagos |first1=Marisa |title=San Francisco District Attorney George Gascon Resigns |url=https://www.kqed.org/news/11778096/san-francisco-district-attorney-george-gascon-resigns |access-date=4 October 2019 |publisher=KQED |date=3 October 2019}}</ref>

===2019 district attorney election===
{{Main|2019 San Francisco District Attorney election}}
After Gascón announced in 2018 that he would not seek re-election, San Francisco anticipated its first open race for district attorney since 1909,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Redmond |first1=Tim |title=Gascon will step down — but who will step up? |url=https://48hills.org/2018/10/gascon-will-step-down-but-who-will-step-up/ |website=48hills.org |publisher=San Francisco Progressive Media Center |access-date=13 October 2019 |date=3 October 2018}}</ref> with candidates [[Chesa Boudin]], Leif Dautch, [[Suzy Loftus]], and Nancy Tung entering the race.<ref name="election2019">{{cite web |last1=Wolffe |first1=Kate |last2=Green |first2=Matthew |title=S.F. Mayor Breed Picks Suzy Loftus as Interim DA to Replace Gascón, One Month Before Election |url=https://www.kqed.org/news/11778248/s-f-mayor-breed-picks-suzy-loftus-as-interim-da-to-replace-gascon-one-month-before-election |website=kqed.org |publisher=KQED |access-date=13 October 2019 |date=4 October 2019}}</ref> After Gascón announced his resignation in October 2019 prior to the November 2019 election, [[Mayor of San Francisco|Mayor]] [[London Breed]] appointed candidate Suzy Loftus as interim district attorney, whom Breed had endorsed in the November 2019 election.<ref name="election2019"/> Loftus served as interim district attorney from October 19, 2019 until January 8, 2020, when winning candidate Boudin took office.<ref name="election2019"/><ref name="Loftus">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sfexaminer.com/news/loftus-sworn-in-as-interim-district-attorney/|title=Suzy Loftus sworn in as interim district attorney|date=October 19, 2019|website=The San Francisco Examiner}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Sernoffsky|first=Evan|url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/Chesa-Boudin-reformer-public-defender-wins-14823166.php|title=Chesa Boudin, reformer public defender, wins election as San Francisco’s new DA|work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|date=November 9, 2019|access-date=November 10, 2019}}</ref>

===Chesa Boudin (2020–present)===
[[Chesa Boudin]] was sworn in as district attorney on January 8, 2020.<ref name="BoudinJan2020"/>

== List of San Francisco district attorneys ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! District attorney
! Tenure
|-
|{{sortname|Henry H.|Byrne}} ||1856
|-
|{{sortname|William K.|Osborn}} ||1857
|-
|{{sortname|Harvey S.|Brown}} ||1858–1861
|-
|{{sortname|Nathan|Porter}} ||1861–1868
|-
|{{sortname|Herry H.|Byrne}} ||1868–1872
|-
|{{sortname|Daniel J.|Murphy|dab=district attorney}} ||1872–1874
|-
|{{sortname|Thomas P.|Ryan|dab=district attorney}} ||1874–1876
|-
|{{sortname|Daniel J.|Murphy|dab=district attorney}} ||1876–1880
|-
|{{sortname|David L.|Smoot}} ||1880–1882
|-
|{{sortname|Leonidas E.|Pratt}} ||1882
|-
|{{sortname|Jeremiah D.|Sullivan}} ||1883–1885
|-
|{{sortname|John N.|Wilson}} ||1885–1887
|-
|{{sortname|Edward B.|Stonehill}} ||1887–1889
|-
|{{sortname|James D.|Page}} ||1889–1891
|-
|{{sortname|William S.|Barnes}} ||1891–1898
|-
|{{sortname|Daniel J.|Murphy|dab=district attorney}} ||1899–1900
|-
|{{Anchor|Lewis Francis Byington}}{{sortname|Lewis Francis|Byington}} ||1900–1905
|-
|{{sortname|William H.|Langdon}} ||1906–1910
|-
|{{sortname|Charles|Fickert}} ||1910–1919
|-
|{{sortname|Matthew|Brady|dab=district attorney}} ||1920–1943
|-
|{{sortname|Pat|Brown}} ||1943–1951
|-
|{{sortname|Thomas C.|Lynch}} ||1951–1964
|-
|{{sortname|John J.|Ferdon}} ||1964–1976
|-
|{{sortname|Joseph|Freitas Jr.}} ||1976–1980
|-
|{{sortname|Arlo|Smith}} ||1980–1996
|-
|{{sortname|Terence|Hallinan}} ||1996–2004
|-
|{{sortname|Kamala|Harris}} ||2004–2011
|-
|{{sortname|George|Gascón}} ||2011–2019
|-
|''{{sortname|Suzy|Loftus}} (interim)'' ||2019–2020
|-
|{{sortname|Chesa|Boudin}} || 2020–present
|-
| colspan="2" style="font-size:8pt; text-align:center;"|'''Reference:'''<ref name="History"/>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|San Francisco Bay Area}}
*{{Official website}}
*{{Commons category-inline|District Attorneys of San Francisco}}

{{San Francisco}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:District attorneys in California| ]]
[[Category:Government of San Francisco|District Attorney]]
[[Category:Lawyers from San Francisco]]
[[Category:Crime in San Francisco]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in the San Francisco Bay Area]]

Alameda County

2021-08-14T19:34:46Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|County in California, United States}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}} {{Infobox settlement <!--See the table at Template:Infobox settlement for all fi..."

{{short description|County in California, United States}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2014}}
{{Infobox settlement

| name = Alameda County
| official_name = County of Alameda
| settlement_type = [[List of counties in California|County]]
| image_flag = Flag of Alameda County, California.svg
| image_seal = Seal of Alameda County, California.svg
| image_map = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-width=250|frame-align=center|type=line|fill=#ffffff|fill-opacity=0|stroke-width=3}}
| map_caption = Interactive map of Alameda County
| image_map1 = Map of California highlighting Alameda County.svg
| mapsize1 = 200px
| map_caption1 = Location in the state of California
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[California]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of regions of California|Region]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[San Francisco Bay Area]]
| established_title = [[Municipal corporation|Incorporated]]
| established_date = March 25, 1853<ref>{{Cite GNIS|1675839|Alameda County|access-date=January 22, 2015}}</ref>
| named_for = [[Rancho Arroyo de la Alameda]] (also see [[Alameda Creek]])
| seat_type = [[County seat]]
| seat = [[Oakland, California|Oakland]]
| parts_type = Largest city
| parts = Oakland
| governing_body = [[Alameda County Board of Supervisors]]
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = US
| area_total_sq_mi = 821
| area_land_sq_mi = 739
| area_water_sq_mi = 82

| elevation_min_ft = 
| elevation_max_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=1213|title=Discovery Peak|publisher=Peakbagger.com|access-date=March 15, 2015}}</ref>
| elevation_min_footnotes =
| population_total = 1510271
| population_as_of = [[2010 United States Census|April 1, 2010]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name=popest>{{Cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=PEP_2018_PEPANNRES&prodType=table|title=American Fact Finder – Results|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=April 19, 2019|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200214061229/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=PEP_2018_PEPANNRES&prodType=table|archive-date=February 14, 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| population_density_sq_mi = auto
| population_est = 1671329
| pop_est_as_of = 2019
| pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="USCensusEst2019">{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/tables/2010-2019/counties/totals/|title=Population and Housing Unit Estimates|access-date=March 26, 2020}}</ref>
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| area_code = [[Area codes 510 and 341|510, 341]], [[Area code 925|925]]
| area_code_type = [[North American Numbering Plan|Area codes]]
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] code
| blank_info_sec1 = 06-001
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
| website = {{URL|www.acgov.org|ACgov.org}}
| image_skyline = {{photomontage|photo1a=Lake Merritt Oakland California panorama.jpg|photo2a=CampanileMtTamalpiasSunset-original.jpg|photo2b=Hayward water tower, California.jpg|photo3a=Lake Elizabeth in Fremont Central Park.JPG|photo3b=MCB-pleasanton-ca.jpg|size=270|position=center|foot_montage=Images, from top down, left to right: Looking southwest across [[Lake Merritt]] in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Sather Tower]] on the [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] campus, a water tower in [[Hayward, California|Hayward]], Lake Elizabeth in [[Fremont, California|Fremont]], [[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]] sign
}}
| elevation_max_ft = 3843
| timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone]]
| utc_offset = -8
| timezone_DST = [[Pacific Daylight Time]]
| utc_offset_DST = -7
}}

'''Alameda County''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|l|ə|'|m|i:|d|ə}} {{respell|AL|ə|MEE|də}}) is located in the state of [[California]] in the [[United States]]. As of the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]], the population was 1,510,271,<ref name="QF">{{cite web|title=State & County QuickFacts|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/06001.html|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=April 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221110731/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/06001.html|archive-date=February 21, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> making it the 7th-most populous county in the state<ref>[http://www.alameda.courts.ca.gov/pages.aspx/about-alameda-county About Alameda County – County of Alameda – Superior Court of California] Alameda.courts.ca.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-15.</ref> and [[List of the most populous counties in the United States|20th]] most populous nationally. The [[county seat]] is [[Oakland, California|Oakland]].<ref name="GR6">{{cite web|url=http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |access-date=2011-06-07 |title=Find a County |publisher=National Association of Counties |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210815/http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx |archive-date=May 31, 2011 }}</ref> Alameda County is in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], occupying much of the [[East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area)|East Bay]] region.

The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''alameda'' means either "a grove of poplars...or a tree lined street." The name was originally used to describe the '''Arroyo de la Alameda'''. The [[willow]] and [[sycamore]] trees along the banks of the river reminded the early Spanish explorers of a road lined with trees.<ref>[http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/alameda definition of alameda in Oxford dictionary (American English) (US)]</ref><ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alameda Alameda – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary]</ref> Although a strict translation to English might be "Poplar Grove Creek," the name of the principal stream that flows through the county is now simply "[[Alameda Creek]]."

Alameda County is part of the San Francisco–Oakland–Berkeley, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area, and the San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, CA Combined Statistical Area.

== History ==
The county was formed on March 25, 1853, from a large portion of [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]] and a smaller portion of [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]].

The county seat at the time of the county's formation was located at [[Alvarado, California|Alvarado]], now part of [[Union City, California|Union City]]. In 1856, it was moved to [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]], where the county courthouse was destroyed by the devastating 1868 quake on the [[Hayward Fault]]. The county seat was then re-established in the town of [[Brooklyn, California|Brooklyn]] from 1872 to 1875. Brooklyn is now part of [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], which has been the county seat since 1873.

Much of what is now an intensively [[urban area|urban]] region was initially developed as a [[trolley car suburb]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The historical progression from Native American tribal lands to Spanish then Mexican ranches, then to farms, ranches, and orchards, then to multiple city centers and suburbs, is shared with the adjacent and closely associated [[Contra Costa County, California#History|Contra Costa County]].

== Events ==
The annual county fair is held at the [[Alameda County Fairgrounds]] in [[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]]. The fair runs for four weekends from June to July. Attractions include horse racing, carnival rides, [[4-H]] exhibits, and live bands.

==Geography and climate==
[[File:Oaklandatnight02192006.JPG|thumb|View of [[downtown Oakland]] looking west across [[Lake Merritt]]]]
[[File:BerkeleyAndBayAtNight.jpg|thumb|View of Berkeley and the San Francisco Bay at nightfall]]
[[File:Mission-SJ.jpg|thumb|175px|The reconstructed mission at [[Mission San José (California)|Mission San José]] (located in Fremont)]]

According to the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], the county has a total area of {{convert|821|sqmi}}, of which {{convert|739|sqmi}} is land and {{convert|82|sqmi}} (10%) is water.<ref name="GR1">{{cite web|url=http://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/counties_list_06.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=September 24, 2015|date=August 22, 2012|title=2010 Census Gazetteer Files}}</ref> The [[San Francisco Bay]] borders the county on the west.

The crest of the [[Berkeley Hills]] form part of the northeastern boundary and reach into the center of the county. A coastal plain several miles wide lines the bay; and is Oakland's most populous region. Livermore Valley lies in the eastern part of the county. Amador Valley abuts the western edge of Livermore Valley and continues west to the Pleasanton Ridge.

The [[Hayward Fault]], a major branch of the San Andreas Fault to the west, runs through the most populated parts of Alameda County, while the [[Calaveras Fault]] runs through the southeastern part of the county.

The area near the Bay itself have a maritime [[Mediterranean climate]] whereas behind the mountains, summers are a lot warmer. The climate charts below are for [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and inland [[Livermore, California|Livermore]].

{{Weather box
|location = Oakland Museum (1981–2010 normals, extremes 1970–present)
|single line = Y
|width = auto
| Jan record high F = 78
| Feb record high F = 82
| Mar record high F = 88
| Apr record high F = 97
| May record high F = 105
| Jun record high F = 106
| Jul record high F = 103
| Aug record high F = 99
| Sep record high F = 109
| Oct record high F = 103
| Nov record high F = 84
| Dec record high F = 75
| year record high F = 109
| Jan avg record high F = 67.0
| Feb avg record high F = 72.4
| Mar avg record high F = 75.9
| Apr avg record high F = 82.8
| May avg record high F = 85.5
| Jun avg record high F = 89.1
| Jul avg record high F = 87.3
| Aug avg record high F = 88.7
| Sep avg record high F = 89.7
| Oct avg record high F = 87.8
| Nov avg record high F = 75.8
| Dec avg record high F = 66.5
| year avg record high F = 94.7
| Jan high F = 58.0
| Feb high F = 61.8
| Mar high F = 63.6
| Apr high F = 66.0
| May high F = 68.8
| Jun high F = 71.2
| Jul high F = 71.7
| Aug high F = 73.0
| Sep high F = 74.1
| Oct high F = 71.7
| Nov high F = 64.6
| Dec high F = 58.1
| year high F = 66.6
| Jan mean F = 51.4
| Feb mean F = 54.7
| Mar mean F = 56.4
| Apr mean F = 58.3
| May mean F = 61.1
| Jun mean F = 63.5
| Jul mean F = 64.3
| Aug mean F = 65.6
| Sep mean F = 66.0
| Oct mean F = 63.3
| Nov mean F = 57.1
| Dec mean F = 51.8
| year mean F = 59.2
| Jan low F = 44.7
| Feb low F = 47.7
| Mar low F = 49.1
| Apr low F = 50.5
| May low F = 53.5
| Jun low F = 55.7
| Jul low F = 56.9
| Aug low F = 58.1
| Sep low F = 57.8
| Oct low F = 55.1
| Nov low F = 49.8
| Dec low F = 45.4
| year low F = 51.9
| Jan avg record low F = 38.0
| Feb avg record low F = 40.0
| Mar avg record low F = 42.2
| Apr avg record low F = 45.2
| May avg record low F = 49.1
| Jun avg record low F = 51.9
| Jul avg record low F = 54.0
| Aug avg record low F = 55.5
| Sep avg record low F = 53.8
| Oct avg record low F = 49.0
| Nov avg record low F = 41.6
| Dec avg record low F = 37.3
| year avg record low F = 36.0
| Jan record low F = 30
| Feb record low F = 29
| Mar record low F = 34
| Apr record low F = 37
| May record low F = 43
| Jun record low F = 48
| Jul record low F = 51
| Aug record low F = 50
| Sep record low F = 48
| Oct record low F = 43
| Nov record low F = 36
| Dec record low F = 26
| year record low F = 26
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation inch = 4.59
| Feb precipitation inch = 4.65
| Mar precipitation inch = 3.52
| Apr precipitation inch = 1.32
| May precipitation inch = 0.73
| Jun precipitation inch = 0.12
| Jul precipitation inch = 0.00
| Aug precipitation inch = 0.07
| Sep precipitation inch = 0.23
| Oct precipitation inch = 1.29
| Nov precipitation inch = 3.07
| Dec precipitation inch = 4.44
| year precipitation inch = 24.09
| unit precipitation days = 0.01 in.
| Jan precipitation days = 10.2
| Feb precipitation days = 10.5
| Mar precipitation days = 10.7
| Apr precipitation days = 5.9
| May precipitation days = 3.4
| Jun precipitation days = 1.0
| Jul precipitation days = 0.1
| Aug precipitation days = 0.4
| Sep precipitation days = 1.2
| Oct precipitation days = 3.5
| Nov precipitation days = 8.1
| Dec precipitation days = 10.4
| year precipitation days = 69.1
|source 1 = NOAA<ref name= NCDC >{{cite web|url = https://w2.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=mtr|title = NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data|publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date = September 29, 2015}}</ref><ref name=NOAAtxt>{{cite web|url = ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/1981-2010/products/station/USC00046336.normals.txt|title = CA Oakland Museum|publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date = September 29, 2015}}</ref>
}}

{{Weather box
|collapsed = Y
|location = Livermore, California (1903-2013)
|single line = Y
|width = auto
|Jan record high F = 77
|Feb record high F = 80
|Mar record high F = 88
|Apr record high F = 96
|May record high F = 108
|Jun record high F = 113
|Jul record high F = 113
|Aug record high F = 112
|Sep record high F = 115
|Oct record high F = 106
|Nov record high F = 93
|Dec record high F = 79
|year record high F= 113
|Jan high F = 56.8
|Feb high F = 61.2
|Mar high F = 65.2
|Apr high F = 70.5
|May high F = 76.4
|Jun high F = 83.1
|Jul high F = 89.0
|Aug high F = 88.2
|Sep high F = 86.0
|Oct high F = 77.7
|Nov high F = 66.3
|Dec high F = 57.5
|year high F = 73.2
|Jan low F = 36.7
|Feb low F = 39.4
|Mar low F = 41.3
|Apr low F = 43.6
|May low F = 47.6
|Jun low F = 51.7
|Jul low F = 54.2
|Aug low F = 54.0
|Sep low F = 52.5
|Oct low F = 47.7
|Nov low F = 41.1
|Dec low F = 37.0
|year low F = 45.6
|Jan avg record high F=66.9
|Feb avg record high F=71.4
|Mar avg record high F=77.9
|Apr avg record high F=85.8
|May avg record high F=94.3
|Jun avg record high F=102.0
|Jul avg record high F=104.3
|Aug avg record high F=102.8
|Sep avg record high F=101.2
|Oct avg record high F=92.6
|Nov avg record high F=79.0
|Dec avg record high F=67.8
|year avg record high F=106.3
|Jan avg record low F=26.4
|Feb avg record low F=29.5
|Mar avg record low F=32.1
|Apr avg record low F=34.9
|May avg record low F=39.3
|Jun avg record low F=44.4
|Jul avg record low F=47.7
|Aug avg record low F=47.8
|Sep avg record low F=44.5
|Oct avg record low F=38.3
|Nov avg record low F=30.5
|Dec avg record low F=26.7
|year avg record low F=24.5
|Jan record low F = 18
|Feb record low F = 21
|Mar record low F = 22
|Apr record low F = 29
|May record low F = 32
|Jun record low F = 38
|Jul record low F = 36
|Aug record low F = 36
|Sep record low F = 35
|Oct record low F = 29
|Nov record low F = 22
|Dec record low F = 18
|year record low F= 18
|Jan precipitation inch = 2.97
|Feb precipitation inch = 2.47
|Mar precipitation inch = 2.15
|Apr precipitation inch = 1.00
|May precipitation inch = .44
|Jun precipitation inch = .11
|Jul precipitation inch = .02
|Aug precipitation inch = .04
|Sep precipitation inch = .22
|Oct precipitation inch = .67
|Nov precipitation inch = 1.54
|Dec precipitation inch = 2.56
|unit precipitation days = .01 in
|Jan precipitation days = 10
|Feb precipitation days = 9
|Mar precipitation days = 9
|Apr precipitation days = 6
|May precipitation days = 3
|Jun precipitation days = 1
|Jul precipitation days = 0
|Aug precipitation days = 0
|Sep precipitation days = 1
|Oct precipitation days = 3
|Nov precipitation days = 7
|Dec precipitation days = 9
|year rain days = 58
| Jan snow days =trace
| Feb snow days =0.0
| Mar snow days =0.0
| Apr snow days =0.0
| May snow days =0.0
| Jun snow days =0.0
| Jul snow days =0.0
| Aug snow days =0.0
| Sep snow days =0.0
| Oct snow days =0.0
| Nov snow days =0.0
| Dec snow days =0.1

|precipitation colour = green
|source 1 = WRCC<ref name=WRCC>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?ca4997|title=LIVERMORE, CALIFORNIA - Climate Summary|website=www.wrcc.dri.edu|access-date=June 5, 2018}}</ref> and pogodaiklimat.ru<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate3/KLVK.htm|title=Климат Ливермора - Погода и климат|website=www.pogodaiklimat.ru|access-date=2019-06-20}}</ref>
}}

===Neighboring counties===
The City and County of [[San Francisco, California]], borders the county on the west, and has a small land border with the city of [[Alameda, California]] due to land filling.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.kqed.org/news/11702058/why-is-part-of-alameda-island-in-san-francisco|title=Why Is Part of Alameda Island in San Francisco?|publisher=KQED|date=November 1, 2018}}</ref>

[[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]] borders the county on the south.

[[San Joaquin County, California|San Joaquin County]] borders the county on the east.

[[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]] borders the county on the north.

[[Stanislaus County, California|Stanislaus County]] borders the county on the easternmost end of its southern boundary for {{convert|250|ft|m}}.

<ref>https://viewer.nationalmap.gov/advanced-viewer/</ref>

===National protected area===
* [[Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge]] (part)

==Demographics==
A 2014 analysis by ''[[The Atlantic]]'' found Alameda County to be the fourth most racially diverse county in the United States—behind [[Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska|Aleutians West Census Area]] and [[Aleutians East Borough, Alaska|Aleutians East Borough]] in Alaska, and [[Queens|Queens County]] in New York—as well as the most diverse county in California.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/04/mapping-racial-diversity-by-county/361388/|title=The 5 U.S. Counties Where Racial Diversity Is Highest—and Lowest|last=Narula|first=Svati Kirsten|date=April 29, 2014|work=The Atlantic|access-date=2017-05-08|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== 2011 ===

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan="6" | Population, race, and income
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Total population<ref name="US-CB-B02001">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B02001. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] . Retrieved 2013-10-26.</ref>
| colspan="2" | 1,494,876
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   White<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| 690,261
| 46.2%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Asian<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| 391,627
| 26.2%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |  Hispanic or Latino (of any race)<ref name="US-CB-B03003">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B03003. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] . Retrieved 2013-10-26.</ref>
| 332,103
| 22.2%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Black or African American<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| 186,326
| 12.5%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Some other race<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| 131,958
| 8.8%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Two or more races<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| 75,411
| 5.0%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| 12,191
| 0.8%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   American Indian or Alaska Native<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| 7,102
| 0.5%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Per capita income<ref name="US-CB-B19301">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19301. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] . Retrieved 2013-10-21.</ref>
| colspan="2" | $34,937
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Median household income<ref name="US-CB-B19013">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19013. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] . Retrieved 2013-10-21.</ref>
| colspan="2" | $70,821
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Median family income<ref name="US-CB-B19113">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B19113. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] . Retrieved 2013-10-21.</ref>
| colspan="2" | $87,012
|}

==== Places by population, race, and income ====

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed sortable" style="width: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="9" | Places by population and race
|-
! Place
! Type<ref name="US-CB">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] . Retrieved 2013-10-21.</ref>
! data-sort-type="number" | Population<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | White<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Other<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/> <ref name="other" group=note>Other = Some other race + Two or more races</ref>
! data-sort-type="number" | Asian<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Black or African American<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Native American<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/> <ref name="na" group=note>Native American = Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander + American Indian or Alaska Native</ref>
! data-sort-type="number" | Hispanic or Latino (of any race)<ref name="US-CB-B03003"/>
|-
| [[Alameda, California|Alameda]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 73,239 || 49.5% || 9.8% || 33.1% || 6.7% || 0.9% || 11.8%
|-
| [[Albany, California|Albany]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 18,217 || 60.7% || 7.0% || 29.1% || 3.0% || 0.1% || 9.7%
|-
| [[Ashland, California|Ashland]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 22,106 || 53.4% || 11.9% || 16.4% || 17.0% || 1.3% || 46.7%
|-
| [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 111,008 || 61.5% || 8.0% || 20.6% || 9.3% || 0.6% || 10.5%
|-
| [[Castro Valley, California|Castro Valley]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 60,882 || 62.9% || 7.9% || 21.7% || 6.8% || 0.8% || 17.4%
|-
| [[Cherryland, California|Cherryland]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 14,394 || 46.8% || 31.1% || 9.0% || 8.6% || 4.5% || 55.9%
|-
| [[Dublin, California|Dublin]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 44,171 || 57.5% || 8.7% || 26.2% || 6.9% || 0.7% || 12.9%
|-
| [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 9,698 || 44.1% || 5.7% || 36.3% || 13.8% || 0.2% || 8.8%
|-
| [[Fairview, California|Fairview]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 9,597 || 49.2% || 13.5% || 18.1% || 17.7% || 1.5% || 18.5%
|-
| [[Fremont, California|Fremont]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 211,748 || 33.9% || 12.8% || 49.0% || 3.3% || 1.1% || 15.4%
|-
| [[Hayward, California|Hayward]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 142,936 || 36.9% || 24.9% || 23.6% || 11.4% || 3.2% || 39.9%
|-
| [[Livermore, California|Livermore]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 79,710 || 78.9% || 8.4% || 10.3% || 1.8% || 0.5% || 19.0%
|-
| [[Newark, California|Newark]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 42,322 || 42.1% || 24.4% || 26.2% || 4.3% || 3.0% || 35.2%
|-
| [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 389,397 || 39.0% || 15.7% || 16.1% || 28.1% || 1.1% || 25.0%
|-
| [[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 10,640 || 76.1% || 3.4% || 19.5% || 0.9% || 0.1% || 3.9%
|-
| [[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 69,220 || 68.0% || 6.2% || 22.9% || 2.5% || 0.4% || 10.6%
|-
| [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 83,877 || 44.9% || 10.2% || 29.6% || 13.4% || 1.9% || 26.0%
|-
| [[San Lorenzo, California|San Lorenzo]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 24,096 || 54.1% || 17.2% || 20.8% || 6.5% || 1.4% || 35.9%
|-
| [[Sunol, California|Sunol]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 760 || 84.3% || 11.6% || 4.1% || 0.0% || 0.0% || 15.8%
|-
| [[Union City, California|Union City]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 68,830 || 21.5% || 17.8% || 53.3% || 6.2% || 1.2% || 21.5%
|}

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed sortable" style="width: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="6" | Places by population and income
|-
! Place
! Type<ref name="US-CB" />
! Population<ref name="US-CB-B01003">U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Survey, 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Table B01003. [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] . Retrieved 2013-10-21.</ref>
! data-sort-type="currency" | Per capita income<ref name="US-CB-B19301" />
! data-sort-type="currency" | Median household income<ref name="US-CB-B19013" />
! data-sort-type="currency" | Median family income<ref name="US-CB-B19113" />
|-
| [[Alameda, California|Alameda]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 73,239 || $39,160 || $75,832 || $93,349
|-
| [[Albany, California|Albany]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 18,217 || $37,552 || $72,479 || $87,500
|-
| [[Ashland, California|Ashland]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 22,106 || $20,357 || $48,026 || $53,038
|-
| [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 111,008 || $38,896 || $60,908 || $102,976
|-
| [[Castro Valley, California|Castro Valley]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 60,882 || $38,535 || $82,370 || $97,628
|-
| [[Cherryland, California|Cherryland]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 14,394 || $19,610 || $50,987 || $48,120
|-
| [[Dublin, California|Dublin]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 44,171 || $41,197 || $111,481 || $121,380
|-
| [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 9,698 || $52,258 || $69,274 || $99,954
|-
| [[Fairview, California|Fairview]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 9,597 || $38,267 || $85,288 || $97,969
|-
| [[Fremont, California|Fremont]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 211,748 || $38,752 || $98,513 || $109,853
|-
| [[Hayward, California|Hayward]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 142,936 || $24,987 || $62,115 || $69,044
|-
| [[Livermore, California|Livermore]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 79,710 || $41,741 || $96,322 || $108,406
|-
| [[Newark, California|Newark]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 42,322 || $29,375 || $81,777 || $84,244
|-
| [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 389,397 || $31,675 || $51,144 || $58,237
|-
| [[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 10,640 || $92,232 || $199,304 || $221,875
|-
| [[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 69,220 || $50,745 || $118,713 || $136,464
|-
| [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 83,877 || $27,878 || $61,857 || $72,080
|-
| [[San Lorenzo, California|San Lorenzo]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 24,096 || $25,553 || $73,053 || $76,365
|-
| [[Sunol, California|Sunol]] || [[Census-designated place|CDP]] || 760 || $62,651 || $72,656 || $86,250
|-
| [[Union City, California|Union City]] || [[List of cities and towns in California|City]] || 68,830 || $29,612 || $82,634 || $91,176
|}

===2010===
{{US Census population
|1860= 8927
|1870= 24237
|1880= 62976
|1890= 93864
|1900= 130197
|1910= 246131
|1920= 344177
|1930= 474883
|1940= 513011
|1950= 740315
|1960= 908209
|1970= 1073184
|1980= 1105379
|1990= 1279182
|2000= 1443741
|2010= 1510271
|estyear=2019
|estimate=1671329
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2019"/>
|align-fn=center
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html|title=U.S. Decennial Census|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=September 24, 2015|df=mdy }}</ref> 1790–1960<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu|title=Historical Census Browser|publisher=University of Virginia Library|access-date=September 24, 2015}}</ref> 1900–1990<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/ca190090.txt|title=Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990|publisher=United States Census Bureau|editor-last=Forstall|editor-first=Richard L.|date=March 27, 1995|access-date=September 24, 2015}}</ref> 1990–2000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc-t4/tables/tab02.pdf|title=Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000|publisher=United States Census Bureau|date=April 2, 2001|access-date=September 24, 2015}}</ref> 2010–2019<ref name="QF"/>
}}

The [[2010 United States Census]] reported that Alameda County had a population of 1,510,271. The [[population density]] was 2,047.6 people per square mile (790.6/km2). The racial makeup of Alameda County was 649,122 (43.0%) [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 190,451 (12.6%) [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 9,799 (0.6%) [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 394,560 (26.1%) [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]] (9.7% Chinese, 5.5% Filipino, 4.8% Indian, 2.0% Vietnamese, 1.2% Korean, 0.8% Japanese, 2.2% Other Asian), 12,802 (0.8%) [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 162,540 (10.8%) from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 90,997 (6.0%) from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 339,889 persons (22.5%): 16.4% Mexican, 0.8% Puerto Rican, 0.2% Cuban, 5.1% Other Hispanic.<ref>{{USCensus2010CA}}</ref>
{|
|-
|align="left" |
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align: right;font-size: 90%;"
! Demographic profile<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov|title=Demographic Profile Bay Area Census}}</ref>
! 2010
|-
|align="left" | Total Population || 1,510,271 – 100.0%
|-
|align="left" | One Race || 1,419,274 – 94.0%
|-
|align="left" | Not Hispanic or Latino || 1,170,382 – 77.5%
|-
|align="left" | White alone || 514,559 – 34.1%
|-
|align="left" | Black or African American alone || 184,126 – 12.2%
|-
|align="left" | American Indian and Alaska Native alone || 4,189 – 0.3%
|-
|align="left" | Asian alone || 390,524 – 25.9%
|-
|align="left" | Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone || 11,931 – 0.8%
|-
|align="left" | Some other race alone || 4,191 – 0.3%
|-
|align="left" | Two or more races alone || 60,862 – 4.0%
|-
|align="left" | Hispanic or Latino (of any race) || 339,889 – 22.5%
|}
|}

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
!colspan="10"|Population reported at [[2010 United States Census]]
|-
|<center>'''The County'''</center> ||'''<center>Total Population</center>'''||<center>'''[[White (U.S. Census)|White]]'''</center> ||<center>'''[[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Race (United States Census)|other races]]'''</center> || <center>'''two or more races'''</center> ||<center>'''[[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] (of any race)'''</center>
|-
|''' Alameda County'''
|align="right"|1,510,271||align="right"|649,122||align="right"|190,451||align="right"|9,799||align="right"|394,560||align="right"|12,802||align="right"|162,540||align="right"|90,997||align="right"|339,889
|-
|<center>'''[[Incorporated city|Incorporated cities]]'''</center> ||<center>'''Total Population'''</center>||<center>'''[[White (U.S. Census)|White]]'''</center> ||<center>'''[[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Race (United States Census)|other races]]'''</center> || <center>'''two or more races'''</center> ||<center>'''[[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] (of any race)'''</center>
|-
|''' [[Alameda, California|Alameda]]'''
|align="right"|73,812||align="right"|37,460||align="right"|4,759||align="right"|426||align="right"|23,058||align="right"|381||align="right"|2,463||align="right"|5,265||align="right"|8,092
|-
|''' [[Albany, California|Albany]]'''
|align="right"|18,539||align="right"|10,128||align="right"|645||align="right"|88||align="right"|5,790||align="right"|37||align="right"|607||align="right"|1,244||align="right"|1,891
|-
|'''[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]'''
|align="right"|112,580||align="right"|66,996||align="right"|11,241||align="right"|479||align="right"|21,690||align="right"|186||align="right"|4,994||align="right"|6,994||align="right"|12,209
|-
|'''[[Dublin, California|Dublin]]'''
|align="right"|46,036||align="right"|23,634||align="right"|4,347||align="right"|246||align="right"|12,321||align="right"|287||align="right"|2,458||align="right"|2,743||align="right"|6,663
|-
|'''[[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]]'''
|align="right"|10,080||align="right"|4,490||align="right"|1,764||align="right"|44||align="right"|2,775||align="right"|16||align="right"|348||align="right"|643||align="right"|927
|-
|'''[[Fremont, California|Fremont]]'''
|align="right"|214,089||align="right"|70,320||align="right"|7,103||align="right"|976||align="right"|108,332||align="right"|1,169||align="right"|13,605||align="right"|12,584||align="right"|31,698
|-
|'''[[Hayward, California|Hayward]]'''
|align="right"|144,186||align="right"|49,309||align="right"|17,099||align="right"|1,396||align="right"|31,666||align="right"|4,535||align="right"|30,004||align="right"|10,177||align="right"|58,730
|-
|'''[[Livermore, California|Livermore]]'''
|align="right"|80,968||align="right"|60,418||align="right"|1,702||align="right"|476||align="right"|6,802||align="right"|277||align="right"|6,960||align="right"|4,333||align="right"|16,920
|-
|'''[[Newark, California|Newark]]'''
|align="right"|42,573||align="right"|17,566||align="right"|2,002||align="right"|279||align="right"|11,571||align="right"|621||align="right"|7,735||align="right"|2,799||align="right"|14,994
|-
|'''[[Oakland, California|Oakland]]'''
|align="right"|390,724||align="right"|134,925||align="right"|109,471||align="right"|3,040||align="right"|65,811||align="right"|2,222||align="right"|53,378||align="right"|21,877||align="right"|99,068
|-
|'''[[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]]'''
|align="right"|10,667||align="right"|7,917||align="right"|144||align="right"|6||align="right"|1,939||align="right"|13||align="right"|94||align="right"|554||align="right"|421
|-
|'''[[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]]'''
|align="right"|70,285||align="right"|47,058||align="right"|1,190||align="right"|226||align="right"|16,322||align="right"|134||align="right"|2,002||align="right"|3,353||align="right"|7,264
|-
|'''[[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]]'''
|align="right"|84,950||align="right"|31,946||align="right"|10,437||align="right"|669||align="right"|25,206||align="right"|642||align="right"|11,295||align="right"|4,755||align="right"|23,237
|-
|'''[[Union City, California|Union City]]'''
|align="right"|69,516||align="right"|16,640||align="right"|4,402||align="right"|329||align="right"|35,363||align="right"|892||align="right"|7,253||align="right"|4,637||align="right"|15,895
|-
|<center>'''[[Census-designated place|Census-designated places]]'''</center> ||<center>'''Total Population'''</center>||<center>'''[[White (U.S. Census)|White]]'''</center> ||<center>'''[[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Race (United States Census)|other races]]'''</center> || <center>'''two or more races'''</center> ||<center>'''[[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] (of any race)'''</center>
|-
|'''[[Ashland, California|Ashland]]'''
|align="right"|21,925||align="right"|6,705||align="right"|4,269||align="right"|232||align="right"|4,031||align="right"|260||align="right"|5,124||align="right"|1,304||align="right"|9,394
|-
|'''[[Castro Valley, California|Castro Valley]]'''
|align="right"|61,388||align="right"|35,602||align="right"|4,260||align="right"|329||align="right"|13,140||align="right"|417||align="right"|3,757||align="right"|3,883||align="right"|10,689
|-
|'''[[Cherryland, California|Cherryland]]'''
|align="right"|14,728||align="right"|6,035||align="right"|1,698||align="right"|200||align="right"|1,404||align="right"|310||align="right"|4,016||align="right"|1,065||align="right"|7,955
|-
|'''[[Fairview, California|Fairview]]'''
|align="right"|10,003||align="right"|4,499||align="right"|2,105||align="right"|76||align="right"|1,525||align="right"|129||align="right"|913||align="right"|756||align="right"|2,171
|-
|'''[[San Lorenzo, California|San Lorenzo]]'''
|align="right"|23,452||align="right"|11,115||align="right"|1,136||align="right"|228||align="right"|5,054||align="right"|182||align="right"|4,207||align="right"|1,530||align="right"|8,843
|-
|'''[[Sunol, California|Sunol]]'''
|align="right"|913||align="right"|780||align="right"|1||align="right"|6||align="right"|48||align="right"|7||align="right"|19||align="right"|52||align="right"|91
|-
|<center>'''Other [[unincorporated area]]s'''</center> ||<center>'''Total Population'''</center>||<center>'''[[White (U.S. Census)|White]]'''</center> ||<center>'''[[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]]'''</center> || <center>'''[[Race (United States Census)|other races]]'''</center> || <center>'''two or more races'''</center> ||<center>'''[[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] (of any race)'''</center>
|-
|All others not CDPs (combined)
|align="right"|8,857||align="right"|5,579||align="right"|676||align="right"|48||align="right"|712||align="right"|85||align="right"|1,308||align="right"|449||align="right"|2,737
|}

===2000===
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR8">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=2011-05-14 |title=U.S. Census website |df=mdy }}</ref> of 2000, there were 1,443,741 people, 523,366 households, out of which 32.6% had children under the age of 18 living within them, 47.0% [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.2% were non-families. 26.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.31.

In the county, the population was spread out, with 24.6% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 33.9% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 96.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.00 males.

The median income for a household in the county was $55,946, and the median income for a family was $65,857 (these figures had risen to $66,430 and $81,341 respectively as of a 2007 estimate<ref>[https://archive.today/20200211175836/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=ChangeGeoContext&geo_id=05000US06001&_geoContext=&_street=&_county=alameda&_cityTown=alameda&_state=04000US06&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=010&_submenuId=factsheet_1&ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_SAFF&_ci_nbr=null&qr_name=null&reg=null:null&_keyword=&_industry= Alameda County, California – Fact Sheet – American FactFinder]</ref>). Males had a median income of $47,425 versus $36,921 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the county was $26,680. About 7.7% of families and 11.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 13.5% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.

In 2000, the largest denominational group was the [[Catholic]]s (with 306,437 adherents) .<ref name="thearda">{{cite web |url=http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/counties/06001_2000.asp|title=County Membership Reports |access-date=2011-08-22 |work= thearda.com | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110710230449/http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/counties/06001_2000.asp| archive-date= July 10, 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> The largest religious bodies were the [[Catholic Church]] (with 306,437 members) and [[Judaism]] (with 32,500 members).<ref name="thearda" />

===2019 United States Census Bureau American Community Survey estimates===
{| class="cx-linter-tag"
| valign="top" |
{{Pie chart
| thumb = left
| caption = '''Racial Makeup of Alameda County (2019)'''<ref name=CensusACS2019 />
| label1 = White alone
| value1 = 38.84| color2=#36A
| label2 = Black alone
| value2 = 10.66| color1=#6A5
| label3 = Native American alone
| value3 = 0.76| color3=#FF33AC
| label4 = Asian Alone
| value4 = 31.13| color4=#1A9
| label5 = Pacific Islander Alone
| value5 = 0.81| color5=#E17720
| label6 = Other race alone
| value6 = 11.45| color6=#F0FF00
| label7 = Two or more races
| value7 = 6.35| color7=#64ECDF
}}
| valign="top" |
{{Pie chart
| caption= '''Racial Makeup of Alameda County excluding Hispanics from racial categories (2019)'''<ref name=CensusACS2019 /> ''NH=Non-Hispanic''
| thumb = right
| label1 = White alone
| value1 = 30.43| color2=#36A
| label2 = Black alone
| value2 = 10.33| color1=#6A5
| label3 = Native American alone
| value3 = 0.33| color3=#FF33AC
| label4 = Asian Alone
| value4 = 30.93| color4=#1A9
| label5 = Pacific Islander Alone
| value5 = 0.77| color5=#E17720
| label6 = Other race alone
| value6 = 0.47| color6=#F0FF00
| label7 = Two or more races
| value7 = 4.41| color7=#64ECDF
| label8 = Hispanic Any Race
| value8 = 22.32| color8=#9400D3
}}
| valign="top" |
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = '''Racial Makeup of Hispanics in Alameda County''' (2019)<ref name=CensusACS2019 />
| label1 = White alone
| value1 = 37.69| color2=#36A
| label2 = Black alone
| value2 = 1.48| color1=#6A5
| label3 = Native American alone
| value3 = 1.91 | color3=#FF33AC
| label4 = Asian alone
| value4 = 0.89 | color4=#1A9
| label5 = Pacific Islander alone
| value5 = 0.17| color5=#E17720
| label6 = Other race alone
| value6 = 49.16 | color6=#F0FF00
| label7 = Two or more races
| value7 = 8.69 | color7=#64ECDF
}}
|}

According to 2019 US Census Bureau estimates, Alameda County's population was 38.8% [[White American|White]] (30.4% [[Non-Hispanic White]] and 8.4% [[Hispanic White]]), 10.7% Black or [[African American]], 31.1% [[Asian American|Asian]], 11.5% Some Other Race, 0.8% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] and [[Alaskan Native]], 0.8% [[Pacific Islander]] and 6.4% from [[Multiracial American|two or more races]].<ref name=CensusACS2019>{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=B03002&g=0500000US06001&tid=ACSDT1Y2019.B03002&hidePreview=true|title=B03002 HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY RACE - Alameda County, California - 2019 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates|date=July 1, 2019 |publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]] |access-date=January 30, 2021}}</ref>

The White population continues to remain the largest racial category in Alameda County and includes the 37.7% of Hispanics who self-identify as White. The remainder of Hispanics self-identify as Other Race (49.2%), Multiracial (8.7%), American Indian and Alaskan Native (1.9%), Black (1.5%), Asian (0.9%), and Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (0.2%).<ref name=CensusACS2019 />

The Black population continues to decline and at 10.7% (including [[Black Hispanics]])<ref name=CensusACS2019 /> is below the national average of 12.8% (including Black Hispanics).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=0100000US&tid=ACSDT1Y2019.B03002&hidePreview=true|title=B03002 HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY RACE - United States - 2019 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates|date=July 1, 2019 |publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]] |access-date=January 28, 2021}}</ref> The Black population peaked in the 1980 Census at 18.4%.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Alameda County Decennial Census data |website=Bay Area Census|url= http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/AlamedaCounty70.htm |access-date=January 28, 2020}}</ref> Alameda county has the 2nd highest percentage of Black residents in California after [[Solano County]] at 13.4%.

If Hispanics are treated as a separate category from race, Alameda County's population was 30.4% [[White American|White]], 30.9% [[Asian American|Asian]], 22.3% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic-Latino]], 10.3% Black or [[African American]], 0.5% Some Other Race, 0.3% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] and [[Alaskan Native]], 0.8% [[Pacific Islander]] and 4.4% from [[Multiracial American|two or more races]].<ref name=CensusACS2018>{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=&tid=ACSDT1Y2018.B03002&lastDisplayedRow=20&hidePreview=true&vintage=2018&layer=county&cid=B03002_001E&g=0500000US06001|title=B03002 HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY RACE - Alameda County, California - 2018 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates|date=July 1, 2018 |publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]] |access-date=January 28, 2020}}</ref>

Asian Americans are now the largest racial/ethnic group at 30.9% (excluding Asian Hispanics).<ref name=CensusACS2019 />

White Non-Hispanic Americans are the largest minority group at 30.4% of the population.<ref name=CensusACS2019 />

By ethnicity, 22.3% of the total population is [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic-Latino]] (of any race) and 77.7% is Non-Hispanic (of any race). If treated as a category separate from race, Hispanics are the third largest minority group in Alameda County.<ref name=CensusACS2019 />

The largest ancestry group of Hispanics in Alameda County (2018) are of [[Mexican American|Mexican]] descent (72.9% of Hispanics) followed by [[Salvadoran Americans|Salvadoran]] descent (5.5% of Hispanics), [[Guatemalan American|Guatemalan]] descent (3.9%), [[Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rican]] descent (3.4%), [[Spanish Americans|Spaniard]] descent (2.0%), [[Nicaraguan Americans|Nicaraguan]] descent (1.7%), [[Peruvian Americans|Peruvian]] descent (1.4%), [[Cuban Americans|Cuban]] descent (1.2%), [[Colombian Americans|Colombian]] descent (1.1%), and those of other Hispanic ethnicity or of mixed Hispanic ethnicity (6.9%).<ref name=CensusACS2018-B03001>{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=mexican&tid=ACSDT1Y2018.B03001&lastDisplayedRow=30&hidePreview=true&vintage=2018&layer=state%3DS0506_C01_001E&y=2018&table=B03001&mode=&t=&g=0500000US06001|title=B03001 HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN - Alameda County, California - 2018 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates|date=July 1, 2018 |publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]] |access-date=January 28, 2020}}</ref>

==Law, government and politics==
[[File:Oakland Court House California USA2.jpg|thumb|[[René C. Davidson Courthouse]], [[Alameda County Superior Court]], Oakland, in June 2009]]

===Government===
{{Main|Government of Alameda County, California}}

The [[Government of Alameda County, California|Government of Alameda County]] is defined and authorized under the [[California Constitution]], [[California law]], and the Charter of the County of Alameda.<ref>California Government Code § 23004</ref> Much of the [[Government of California]] is in practice the responsibility of county governments such as the Government of Alameda County, while municipalities such as the city of [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and the city of [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] provide additional, often non-essential services. The County government provides countywide services such as elections and voter registration, law enforcement, jails, vital records, property records, tax collection, and public health. In addition it is the local government for all unincorporated areas, and provides services such as law enforcement to some incorporated cities under a contract arrangement.

It is composed of the elected five-member [[Alameda County Board of Supervisors]] (BOS) as the county legislature, several other elected offices and officers including the [[Alameda County Sheriff's Department|Sheriff]], the [[Alameda County District Attorney|District Attorney]], [[Alameda County Assessor|Assessor]], [[Alameda County Auditor-Controller/County Clerk/Recorder|Auditor-Controller/County Clerk/Recorder]], [[Alameda County Treasurer/Tax Collector|Treasurer/Tax Collector]], and numerous county departments and entities under the supervision of the County Administrator. In addition, several entities of the [[government of California]] have jurisdiction conterminous with Alameda County, such as the [[Alameda County Superior Court]].

The current supervisors are:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.acgov.org/board/|title=Board of Supervisors|publisher=Alameda County|access-date=January 22, 2015}}</ref>
* Scott Haggerty, district 1,
* Richard Valle, district 2,
* [[Wilma Chan]], district 3,
* Nate Miley, district 4, and

The Board elects a president who presides at all meetings of the Board and appoints committees to handle work involving the major programs of the county. If the president is absent for a meeting, the vice president shall be responsible. A Board election occurs every two years for these positions. Supervisor Miley is serving currently as president; Supervisor Carson is vice president.

The county's law enforcement is overseen by an elected Sheriff/Coroner and an elected District Attorney. The Sheriff supervises the deputies of the [[Alameda County Sheriff's Office]], whose primary responsibilities include policing unincorporated areas of the county and cities within the county which contract with the Sheriff's Office for police services; providing security and law enforcement for county buildings including courthouses, the county jail and other county properties; providing support resources, such as a forensics laboratory and search and rescue capabilities, to other law enforcement agencies throughout the county; and serving the process of the county's Superior Court system. The District Attorney's office is responsible for prosecuting all criminal violations of the laws of the state of California, the county, or its constituent municipalities, in the Alameda County Superior Court. The current Sheriff is [[Gregory J. Ahern]], who was elected in 2006, succeeding [[Charles Plummer (sheriff)|Charles Plummer]], who had served in the post for 20 years. The Interim District Attorney is [[Nancy E. O'Malley]], who was appointed to fill the position of retiring District Attorney [[Tom Orloff]] in September 2009. The Sheriff's Office operates two jails: [[Santa Rita Jail]] in [[Dublin, CA|Dublin]], and [[Glenn E. Dyer Detention Facility]] in downtown [[Oakland, CA|Oakland]].

The Alameda County Fire Department (ACFD)<ref>[http://www.acgov.org/fire/ Alameda County Fire Department]</ref> was formed on July 1, 1993, as a dependent district, with the Board of Supervisors as its governing body. Municipal and specialized fire departments have been consolidated into the ACFD over the years. 1993 brought in the Castro Valley and Eden Consolidated FD, and the County Fire Patrol. San Leandro joined in 1995, Dublin in 1997, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] in 2002, [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] in 2007, The [[Alameda County Regional Emergency Communications Center]] in 2008, and Newark and Union City in 2010. Emeryville joined the ACFD in 2012.

The [[Alameda County Water District]] is a special district within Alameda County created to distribute water, but it is not operated by Alameda County administrators. It is operated by an elected board of directors.

[[Alameda County Superior Court]] operates in twelve separate locations throughout the county, with its central [[René C. Davidson Courthouse]] located in Oakland near [[Lake Merritt]]. Most major criminal trials and complex civil cases are heard at this location or in courtrooms within the County Administration Building across the street.

===State and federal representation===

In the [[California State Assembly]], Alameda County is split between five districts:
* {{Representative|caad|15|fmt=adistrict}},
* {{Representative|caad|16|fmt=adistrict}},
* {{Representative|caad|18|fmt=adistrict}},
* {{Representative|caad|20|fmt=adistrict}}, and
* {{Representative|caad|25|fmt=adistrict}}.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://assembly.ca.gov/assemblymembers
|title=Members Assembly
|access-date=March 18, 2013
|publisher=State of California}}</ref>

In the [[California State Senate]], the county is split between three districts:
* {{Representative|casd|7|fmt=sdistrict}},
* {{Representative|casd|9|fmt=sdistrict}}, and
* {{Representative|casd|10|fmt=sdistrict}}.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://senate.ca.gov/senators
|title=Senators
|access-date=March 18, 2013
|publisher=State of California}}</ref>

In the [[United States House of Representatives]], the county is split between three districts:
* {{Representative|cacd|13|fmt=district}},
* {{Representative|cacd|15|fmt=district}}, and
* {{Representative|cacd|17|fmt=district}}.<ref>{{Cite GovTrack|CA|15|access-date=March 9, 2013}}</ref>

===Politics===
Since 1932, Alameda County has been a stronghold of the Democratic Party, with [[Dwight Eisenhower]] being the only Republican presidential nominee to have carried the county since. Prior to 1932, the county had been a Republican stronghold. [[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]] resident [[William F. Knowland]] was the Republican U.S. Senate Leader from 1953 to 1959. Even when [[Ronald Reagan]] won the national popular vote by an 18.3% margin in [[1984 United States presidential election|1984]], [[Walter Mondale]] won Alameda County by a larger margin. In [[2004 United States presidential election|2004]] it voted for [[John Kerry]], who won over 75% of the vote. Every city and town voted Democratic.<ref>[http://www.ss.ca.gov/elections/sov/2004_general/ssov/pres_general_ssov_all.pdf pres_general_ssov_for_all.xls]</ref> George W Bush in 2004 was the last Republican to break 20% of the county's vote, his father (George H.W. Bush) in 1988 was the last to break 30% of the vote, and Ronald Reagan in 1984 was the last to break 40% of the vote (carrying 40.01%).<ref name="Leip">{{Cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/index.html|title=Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections|last=Leip|first=David|website=uselectionatlas.org|access-date=2018-08-30}}</ref>

{{PresHead|place=Alameda County, California|source=<ref name="Leip">{{Cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/index.html|title=Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections|last=Leip|first=David|website=uselectionatlas.org|access-date=2018-08-30}}</ref>}}

{{PresRow|2020|Democratic|136,309|617,659|19,991|California}}
{{PresRow|2016|Democratic|95,922|514,842|48,779|California}}
{{PresRow|2012|Democratic|108,182|469,684|19,027|California}}
{{PresRow|2008|Democratic|119,555|489,106|14,252|California}}
{{PresRow|2004|Democratic|130,911|422,585|8,594|California}}
{{PresRow|2000|Democratic|119,279|342,889|32,168|California}}
{{PresRow|1996|Democratic|106,581|303,903|51,560|California}}
{{PresRow|1992|Democratic|109,292|334,224|86,629|California}}
{{PresRow|1988|Democratic|162,815|310,283|5,899|California}}
{{PresRow|1984|Democratic|192,408|282,041|6,425|California}}
{{PresRow|1980|Democratic|158,531|201,720|57,366|California}}
{{PresRow|1976|Democratic|155,280|235,988|16,413|California}}
{{PresRow|1972|Democratic|201,862|259,254|10,079|California}}
{{PresRow|1968|Democratic|153,285|219,545|34,519|California}}
{{PresRow|1964|Democratic|142,998|283,833|509|California}}
{{PresRow|1960|Democratic|183,354|217,172|1,474|California}}
{{PresRow|1956|Republican|192,911|174,033|1,187|California}}
{{PresRow|1952|Republican|201,976|178,239|3,079|California}}
{{PresRow|1948|Democratic|150,588|154,549|18,194|California}}
{{PresRow|1944|Democratic|122,982|169,631|1,374|California}}
{{PresRow|1940|Democratic|116,961|148,224|3,311|California}}
{{PresRow|1936|Democratic|82,352|149,323|3,011|California}}
{{PresRow|1932|Democratic|89,303|106,388|8,761|California}}
{{PresRow|1928|Republican|118,539|60,875|1,780|California}}
{{PresRow|1924|Republican|81,454|8,020|43,016|California}}
{{PresRow|1920|Republican|73,177|21,468|11,244|California}}
{{PresRow|1916|Republican|51,417|43,748|6,966|California}}
{{PresRow|1912|Progressive|0|24,418|42,034|California}}
{{PresRow|1908|Republican|21,380|7,110|4,793|California}}
{{PresRow|1904|Republican|19,065|4,399|3,646|California}}
{{PresRow|1900|Republican|14,324|6,677|1,158|California}}
{{PresRow|1896|Republican|13,429|8,394|400|California}}
{{PresRow|1892|Republican|8,792|7,114|2,564|California}}
{{PresRow|1888|Republican|8,840|5,693|928|California}}
{{PresRow|1884|Republican|7,471|4,734|193|California}}
{{PresFoot|1880|Republican|5,899|3,894|96|California}}

The California Secretary of State, as of February 2019, reports that there are 883,942 registered voters in Alameda County. 489,759 (55.4%) are registered Democrats, 95,587 (10.8%) are registered Republicans, 36,649 (4.1%) are registered to minor political parties, and 261,947 (29.6%) declined to answer. Every city, town, and unincorporated area in Alameda County has more registered Democrats than Republicans.<ref>https://elections.cdn.sos.ca.gov/ror/ror-odd-year-2019/politicalsub.pdf</ref>

On November 4, 2008 Alameda County voted 61.92% against [[California Proposition 8 (2008)|Proposition 8]], which won statewide, and which amended the [[California Constitution]] to ban [[same-sex marriage]]. The county garnered the sixth highest "no" vote, by percentage, of all California counties, and was the second largest county, by total voter turnout, to vote against it.<ref>[http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/sov/2008_general/sov_complete.pdf ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018225250/http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/sov/2008_general/sov_complete.pdf |date=October 18, 2012 }}</ref>

==== Voter registration statistics ====

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan="3" | Population and registered voters
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Total population<ref name="US-CB-B02001" />
| colspan="2" | 1,494,876
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Registered voters<ref name="CA-SS">California Secretary of State. [http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/ror/ror-pages/ror-odd-year-2013/political-sub.pdf February 10, 2013 – Report of Registration] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727173649/http://www.sos.ca.gov/elections/ror/ror-pages/ror-odd-year-2013/political-sub.pdf |date=July 27, 2013 }}. Retrieved 2013-10-31.</ref><ref name="PCT-RV" group=note>Percentage of registered voters with respect to total population. Percentages of party members with respect to registered voters follow.</ref>
| 816,942
| 54.6%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Democratic<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 461,007
| 56.4%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Republican<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 114,802
| 14.1%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Democratic–Republican spread<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| '''+346,205'''
| '''+42.3%'''
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Independent<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 16,417
| 2.0%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Green<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 9,915
| 1.2%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Libertarian<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 3,825
| 0.5%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Peace and Freedom<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 2,876
| 0.4%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Americans Elect<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 66
| 0.0%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     Other<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 49,076
| 6.0%
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |     No party preference<ref name="CA-SS"/>
| 158,958
| 19.5%
|}

===== Cities by population and voter registration =====

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed sortable" style="width: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="8" | Cities by population and voter registration
|-
! City
! data-sort-type="number" | Population<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Registered voters<ref name="CA-SS"/> <ref name="PCT-RV" group=note/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Democratic<ref name="CA-SS"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Republican<ref name="CA-SS"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | D–R spread<ref name="CA-SS"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Other<ref name="CA-SS"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | No party preference<ref name="CA-SS"/>
|-
| [[Alameda, California|Alameda]] || 73,239 || 59.7% || 55.0% || 14.2% || '''+40.8%''' || 10.0% || 20.8%
|-
| [[Albany, California|Albany]] || 18,217 || 59.1% || 64.0% || 6.5% || '''+57.5%''' || 11.8% || 18.9%
|-
| [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] || 111,008 || 72.9% || 64.7% || 4.4% || '''+60.3%''' || 15.3% || 17.0%
|-
| [[Dublin, California|Dublin]] || 44,171 || 52.7% || 42.7% || 24.6% || '''+18.1%''' || 14.3% || 21.3%
|-
| [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]] || 9,698 || 64.7% || 59.6% || 7.6% || '''+52.0%''' || 15.3% || 19.5%
|-
| [[Fremont, California|Fremont]] || 211,748 || 47.9% || 46.4% || 17.5% || '''+28.9%''' || 12.2% || 26.0%
|-
| [[Hayward, California|Hayward]] || 142,936 || 43.7% || 60.1% || 12.7% || '''+47.4%''' || 11.0% || 18.4%
|-
| [[Livermore, California|Livermore]] || 79,710 || 61.5% || 39.4% || 33.1% || '''+6.3%''' || 12.4% || 18.2%
|-
| [[Newark, California|Newark]] || 42,322 || 48.6% || 53.9% || 16.6% || '''+37.3%''' || 10.7% || 21.1%
|-
| [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] || 389,397 || 55.4% || 66.7% || 5.9% || '''+60.8%''' || 12.1% || 16.9%
|-
| [[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]] || 10,640 || 79.7% || 56.0% || 19.6% || '''+36.4%''' || 8.4% || 17.9%
|-
| [[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]] || 69,220 || 61.5% || 38.2% || 31.8% || '''+6.4%''' || 12.0% || 20.5%
|-
| [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]] || 83,877 || 50.9% || 58.7% || 13.7% || '''+45.0%''' || 10.2% || 19.5%
|-
| [[Union City, California|Union City]] || 68,830 || 48.6% || 54.9% || 13.1% || '''+41.8%''' || 10.5% || 23.3%
|}

== Crime ==

The following table includes the number of incidents reported and the rate per 1,000 persons for each type of offense.

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan="3" | Population and crime rates in 2009
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Population<ref name="US-CB-B02001"/>
| colspan="2" | 1,494,876
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Violent crime<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11">Office of the Attorney General, Department of Justice, State of California. [http://stats.doj.ca.gov/cjsc_stats/prof09/00/11.pdf Table 11: Crimes – 2009] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222315/http://stats.doj.ca.gov/cjsc_stats/prof09/00/11.pdf |date=December 2, 2013 }}. Retrieved 2013-11-14.</ref>
| 11,189 || 7.48
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Homicide<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 138 || 0.09
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Forcible rape<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 553 || 0.37
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Robbery<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 5,215 || 3.49
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Aggravated assault<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 5,283 || 3.53
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Property crime<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 33,395 || 22.34
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Burglary<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 11,478 || 7.68
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Larceny-theft<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/><ref group=note name="LT-note">Only larceny-theft cases involving property over $400 in value are reported as property crimes.</ref>
| 32,102 || 21.47
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" |   Motor vehicle theft<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 12,768 || 8.54
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | Arson<ref name="CA-DOJ-T11"/>
| 457 || 0.31
|}

=== Cities by population and crime rates ===

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed sortable" style="width: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="9" | Cities by population and crime rates in 2012
|-
! City
! data-sort-type="number" | Population<ref name="FBI-UCR-T8">United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. [https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2012/crime-in-the-u.s.-2012/tables/8tabledatadecpdf/table-8-state-cuts/table_8_offenses_known_to_law_enforcement_by_california_by_city_2012.xls Crime in the United States, 2012, Table 8 (California)]. Retrieved 2013-11-14.</ref>
! data-sort-type="number" | Violent crimes<ref name="FBI-UCR-T8"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Violent crime rate per 1,000 persons
! data-sort-type="number" | Property crimes<ref name="FBI-UCR-T8"/>
! data-sort-type="number" | Property crime rate per 1,000 persons
|-
| [[Alameda, California|Alameda]] || 75,467 || 160 || 2.12 || 1,892 || 25.07
|-
| [[Albany, California|Albany]] || 18,960 || 35 || 1.85 || 537 || 28.32
|-
| [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] || 114,961 || 487 || 4.24 || 5,696 || 49.55
|-
| [[Dublin, California|Dublin]] || 49,890 || 84 || 1.79 || 731 || 15.55
|-
| [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]] || 10,309 || 175 || 16.98 || 1,735 || 168.30
|-
| [[Fremont, California|Fremont]] || 218,927 || 306 || 1.40 || 4,259 || 19.45
|-
| [[Hayward, California|Hayward]] || 147,424 || 613 || 4.16 || 4,792 || 32.50
|-
| [[Livermore, California|Livermore]] || 82,800 || 301 || 3.64 || 1,805 || 21.80
|-
| [[Newark, California|Newark]] || 43,539 || 169 || 3.88 || 1,349 || 30.98
|-
| [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] || 399,487 || 7,963 || 19.93 || 26,342 || 65.94
|-
| [[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]] || 10,909 || 13 || 1.19 || 333 || 30.53
|-
| [[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]] || 71,875 || 49 || 0.68 || 1,279 || 17.79
|-
| [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]] || 86,869 || 437 || 5.03 || 3,585 || 41.27
|-
| [[Union City, California|Union City]] || 71,089 || 235 || 3.31 || 1,808 || 25.43
|}

==Education==
The [http://www.acoe.org Alameda County Office of Education] oversees seventeen K–12 school districts and one K–8 district in Alameda County. In all, there are approximately 10,000 teachers serving 225,000 students. The ACOE also services three community college districts with a total enrollment of approximately 55,000 students.

The [[Alameda County Library]] operates libraries in the cities of [[Albany, California|Albany]], [[Dublin, California|Dublin]], [[Fremont, California|Fremont]], [[Newark, California|Newark]] and [[Union City, California|Union City]] and the unincorporated communities of [[Castro Valley, California|Castro Valley]] and [[San Lorenzo, California|San Lorenzo]]. The cities of Alameda, Berkeley, Hayward, Livermore, Oakland, San Leandro, and Pleasanton have their own library systems.

===Colleges and universities===
Alameda County is home to the [[University of California, Berkeley]], the flagship campus of the [[University of California]] system, and one of the largest and most prestigious research universities in the world.

Other colleges and universities located within Alameda county include:

*[[Berkeley City College]]
*[[California State University, East Bay]], one of the campuses of the [[California State University]] system
*[[Chabot College]], a two-year community college, part of the [[Chabot-Las Positas Community College District]]
*[[College of Alameda]], a two-year community college, part of the [[Peralta Community College District]] of northern Alameda County
*[[Ex'pression College for Digital Arts]]
*[[Graduate Theological Union]], a consortium of several Bay Area seminaries, affiliated with the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
*[[Holy Names University]]
*[[Laney College]], a two-year community college, part of the Peralta Community College system
*[[Las Positas College]]
*[[Merritt College]], a two-year community college, part of the Peralta Community College system
*[[Mills College]], a private 4 year women's college and coeducational graduate school
*[[Ohlone College]], part of the [[Ohlone Community College District]]
*[[Samuel Merritt University]]

===School districts (K–12) ===
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Alameda Unified School District]]
*[[Albany Unified School District]]
*[[Berkeley Unified School District]]
*[[Castro Valley Unified School District]]
*[[Dublin Unified School District]]
*[[Emery Unified School District]]
*[[Fremont Unified School District]]
*[[Hayward Unified School District]]
*[[Livermore Valley Joint Unified School District]]
*[[Lammersville Joint Unified School District]]
*[[New Haven Unified School District]]
*[[Newark Unified School District]]
*[[Oakland Unified School District]]
*[[Piedmont Unified School District]]
*[[Pleasanton Unified School District]]
*[[San Leandro Unified School District]]
*[[San Lorenzo Unified School District]]
*[[Sunol Glen Unified School District]]
{{div col end}}

==Arts==
The [[Alameda County Arts Commission]], a division of the county administration, under the [[California Arts Council]], was created in 1965. Its fifteen appointed members act in an advisory capacity to the board of supervisors, in promoting the arts. The [[Oakland Museum of California]] has a substantial collection of California art works and historical artifacts.

==Sports==
The following sports teams play in Alameda County:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Club
!Sport
!Founded
!League
!Venue
|-
|[[California Golden Bears]]
|[[NCAA]]
|1868
|[[NCAA]]: [[Pac-12 Conference|Pac-12]]
|[[California Memorial Stadium]] (Football), [[Haas Pavilion]] (Basketball), [[Evans Diamond]] (Baseball)
|-
|[[Oakland Athletics]]
|[[Baseball]]
|1901 (in Oakland since 1968)
|[[Major League Baseball]]: [[American League]]
|[[Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum]]
|-
|[[Oakland Panthers]]
|[[Indoor American football|Indoor football]]
|2019
|[[Indoor Football League]]
|[[Oakland Arena]]
|-
|[[East Bay FC Stompers]]
|[[Association football|Soccer]]
|2012 (in [[San Francisco]] from 2012 to 2015)
|[[National Premier Soccer League]]: Golden Gate Conference
|[[Pioneer Stadium]]
|}

== Parks and recreation ==
There are more than 350 parks located within the county.<ref>[http://california.hometownlocator.com/features/cultural,class,park,scfips,06001.cfm Alameda County California Parks]. California.hometownlocator.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-15.</ref> The [[East Bay Regional Park District]] operates within Alameda and neighboring Contra Costa County, with numerous parks within the county, including [[Tilden Regional Park]], [[Redwood Regional Park]], [[Anthony Chabot Regional Park]], [[Coyote Hills Regional Park]], [[Ardenwood Historic Farm]], [[Pleasanton Ridge Regional Park]] and [[Vargas Plateau Regional Park]]. [[Eastshore State Park]] is located partially along the bay shore of northern Alameda County. The [[San Francisco Bay Trail]], a project of the [[Association of Bay Area Governments]], will run along the bay shore of the county.<ref>[http://baytrail.abag.ca.gov/maps.html San Francisco Baytrail]. Baytrail.abag.ca.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-15.</ref> The [[Hayward Area Recreation and Park District]] is the largest special park district in California.

==Transportation==

===Major highways===
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Image:I-80 (CA).svg|20px]] [[Interstate 80 in California|Interstate 80]] (Eastshore Freeway)
*[[Image:I-238 (CA).svg|25px]] [[Interstate 238]]
*[[Image:I-580 (CA).svg|25px]] [[Interstate 580 (California)|Interstate 580]] (MacArthur Freeway/Arthur Breed Freeway)
*[[Image:I-680 (CA).svg|25px]] [[Interstate 680 (California)|Interstate 680]] (Sinclair Freeway)
*[[Image:I-880 (CA).svg|25px]] [[Interstate 880 (California)|Interstate 880]] (Nimitz Freeway/Cypress Freeway)
*[[Image:I-980 (CA).svg|25px]] [[Interstate 980]] (John B. Williams Freeway)
*[[Image:California 13.svg|20px]] [[California State Route 13|State Route 13]] (Warren Freeway/Tunnel Road/Ashby Avenue)
*[[Image:California 24.svg|20px]] [[California State Route 24|State Route 24]] ([[William Byron Rumford Freeway]])
*[[Image:California 61.svg|20px]] [[California State Route 61|State Route 61]]
*[[Image:California 84.svg|20px]] [[California State Route 84|State Route 84]]
*[[Image:California 92.svg|20px]] [[California State Route 92|State Route 92]] (Jackson Street/San Mateo Bridge)
*[[Image:California 123.svg|25px]] [[California State Route 123|State Route 123]] (San Pablo Avenue) – formerly [[Image:US 40 (CA).svg|20px]] [[U.S. Route 40 in California|U.S. Route 40]]
*[[Image:California 185.svg|25px]] [[California State Route 185|State Route 185]] ([[Mission Boulevard (East Bay, California)|Mission Boulevard]]/East 14th Street)
*[[Image:California 238.svg|25px]] [[California State Route 238|State Route 238]] (Mission Boulevard/Foothill Boulevard)
*[[Image:California 262.svg|25px]] [[California State Route 262|State Route 262]] (Mission Boulevard)
{{div col end}}

===Mass transit===
====Rail====
*[[Altamont Corridor Express|Altamont Corridor Express (ACE)]] – commuter rail using existing railroad tracks; primarily brings commuters from San Joaquin County to Santa Clara County
*[[Amtrak]]
**''[[California Zephyr]]'' – intercity train route running between Emeryville and [[Chicago]].
**''[[Capitol Corridor]]'' – commuter rail using existing railroad tracks, extending from San Jose to Sacramento, running through western Alameda County
**''[[Coast Starlight]]'' – intercity train route running between Los Angeles and Seattle via Oakland and Emeryville
**''[[San Joaquin (train)|San Joaquin]]'' – Amtrak route between Oakland and Bakersfield through Fresno and the Central Valley
*[[Bay Area Rapid Transit|Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART)]] – rapid transit commuter rail centered on northwest Oakland, primarily serving commuters to downtown San Francisco and downtown Oakland
*''[[Tri-Valley-San Joaquin Valley Regional Rail Authority|Valley Link]]'' – planned commuter rail running between the [[Tri-Valley]] and [[San Joaquin County, California|San Joaquin County]] (expected to commence in 2028)

====Bus====
*[[AC Transit]] – local [[bus]] system in western Alameda County and west Contra Costa County, with additional service across the three bridges from Alameda County to downtown San Francisco, San Mateo, and Palo Alto
*[[WHEELS (California)|WHEELS]] – bus system in the cities of southeastern Alameda County
*[[Union City Transit]] – local city bus service within [[Union City, California|Union City]] in addition to AC Transit
*[[Emery-Go-Round]] – free bus service in [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]]
*[[Dumbarton Express]] – additional service across the [[Dumbarton Bridge (California)|Dumbarton Bridge]] between Fremont and Palo Alto
*[[Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority|Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority (VTA)]] – commuter service between southern Alameda county and job centers in the Silicon Valley

====Ferry====
*[[Alameda / Oakland Ferry]] and [[Harbor Bay Ferry]] – connect Oakland, Alameda, and Bay Farm Island with downtown San Francisco

===Airports===
The main airport is the [[Oakland International Airport]], with two [[general aviation]] airports, the [[Hayward Executive Airport]] and [[Livermore Municipal Airport]].

==Services==
The county operates hospitals and primary care clinics, through the [[Alameda County Medical Center]]. The [[Alameda County Community Food Bank]] nonprofit provides [[food bank]] resources to residents. The Family Emergency Shelter Coalition coordinates services for homeless families.

== Landmarks ==
Alameda County has eight [[National Historic Landmarks]]: [[Joaquin Miller House|The Abbey, Joaquin Miller House]], [[First Church of Christ, Scientist (Berkeley, California)|First Church of Christ, Scientist]], [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|USS ''Hornet'' (CVS-12) (aircraft carrier)]], [[Lake Merritt|Lake Merritt Wild Duck Refuge]], [[Lightship WAL-605 Relief|Lightship WAL-605, ''Relief'']], [[Paramount Theater (Oakland, California)|Paramount Theatre]], [[USS Potomac (AG-25)|''Potomac'' (Presidential yacht)]], and [[Gilman Hall|Room 307, Gilman Hall, University of California]]. The county has a large [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Alameda County, California|number of National Historic Places]], as well as [[California Historical Landmarks in Alameda County, California|a number of California Historical Landmarks]].

==Sister county==
Alameda has a [[sister city|sister county]]: [[Taoyuan City|Taoyuan County, Taiwan]] (now Taoyuan City).<ref>[http://www.acgov.org/Sister_Site/ Alameda – Taoyuan Sister County Association – Homepage]. Acgov.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-15.</ref>

==Communities==
[[File:Alameda County California Incorporated and Unincorporated areas.svg|right|Cities and census designated places of Alameda County]]
===Cities===
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Alameda, California|Alameda]]
*[[Albany, California|Albany]]
*[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]
*[[Dublin, California|Dublin]]
*[[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]]
*[[Fremont, California|Fremont]]
*[[Hayward, California|Hayward]]
*[[Livermore, California|Livermore]]
*[[Newark, California|Newark]]
*[[Oakland, California|Oakland]] (county seat)
*[[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]]
*[[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]]
*[[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]]
*[[Union City, California|Union City]]
{{div col end}}

===Census-designated places===
*[[Ashland, California|Ashland]]
*[[Castro Valley, California|Castro Valley]]
*[[Cherryland, California|Cherryland]]
*[[Fairview, California|Fairview]]
*[[San Lorenzo, California|San Lorenzo]]
*[[Sunol, California|Sunol]]

===Unincorporated communities===
{{Div col|colwidth=12em}}
*[[Altamont, California|Altamont]]
*[[Brightside, California|Brightside]]
*Carpenter
*[[Dougherty, Alameda County, California|Dougherty]]
*[[Dresser, California|Dresser]]
*[[East Pleasanton, California|East Pleasanton]]
*[[Kilkare Woods, California|Kilkare Woods]]
*[[Komandorski Village, California|Komandorski Village]]
*[[Mendenhall Springs, California|Mendenhall Springs]]
*[[Midway, Alameda County, California|Midway]]
*[[Mountain House, Alameda County, California|Mountain House]]
*[[Mowry Landing, California|Mowry Landing]]
*[[San Ramon Village, California|San Ramon Village]]
*[[Scotts Corner, California|Scotts Corner]]
*[[Verona, California|Verona]]
{{div col end}}

=== Former townships ===
[[File:Map of Alameda County 1878 LARGE.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of Alameda County, 1878 (Six Townships)]]

*Oakland Township – the northern portion subsequently became the cities of Berkeley and Albany.
*Alameda Township – now essentially coterminous with the City of Alameda.
*Brooklyn Township – mostly contained within Oakland and Piedmont.
*[[Eden Township, Alameda County, California|Eden Township]] – partly incorporated into San Leandro and Hayward, the rest contains the communities of Castro Valley, San Lorenzo, and other unincorporated areas.
*[[Washington Township, Alameda County, California|Washington Township]] – contains Union City, Newark, [[Fremont, California|Fremont]], and small unincorporated areas nearby.
*[[Murray Township, Alameda County, California|Murray Township]] — Contains cities of Dublin, Pleasanton, and Livermore, and substantial unincorporated areas including Sunol.

===Population ranking===

The population ranking of the following table is based on the [[2010 United States census|2010 census]] of Alameda County.<ref>https://www.census.gov/2010census/</ref>

'''†''' ''county seat''

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Rank
!City/Town/etc.
!Municipal type
!Population (2010 Census)

|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 1
|'''†''' '''[[Oakland, California|Oakland]]'''
| City
| 390,724
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 2
|'''[[Fremont, California|Fremont]]'''
| City
| 214,089
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 3
|'''[[Hayward, California|Hayward]]'''
| City
| 144,186
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 4
|'''[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]'''
| City
| 112,580
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 5
|'''[[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]]'''
| City
| 84,950
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 6
|'''[[Livermore, California|Livermore]]'''
| City
| 80,968
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 7
|'''[[Alameda, California|Alameda]]'''
| City
| 73,812
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 8
|'''[[Pleasanton, California|Pleasanton]]'''
| City
| 70,285
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 9
|'''[[Union City, California|Union City]]'''
| City
| 69,516
|- style="background-color:#F0FFF0;"
| 10
|'''[[Castro Valley, California|Castro Valley]]'''
| CDP
| 61,388
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 11
|'''[[Dublin, California|Dublin]]'''
| City
| 46,036
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 12
|'''[[Newark, California|Newark]]'''
| City
| 42,573
|- style="background-color:#F0FFF0;"
| 13
|'''[[San Lorenzo, California|San Lorenzo]]'''
| CDP
| 23,452
|- style="background-color:#F0FFF0;"
| 14
|'''[[Ashland, California|Ashland]]'''
| CDP
| 21,925
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 15
|'''[[Albany, California|Albany]]'''
| City
| 18,539
|- style="background-color:#F0FFF0;"
| 16
|'''[[Cherryland, California|Cherryland]]'''
| CDP
| 14,728
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 17
|'''[[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]]'''
| City
| 10,667
|- style="background-color:#FFFACD;"
| 18
|'''[[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]]'''
| City
| 10,080
|- style="background-color:#F0FFF0;"
| 19
|'''[[Fairview, California|Fairview]]'''
| CDP
| 10,003
|- style="background-color:#F0FFF0;"
| 20
|'''[[Sunol, California|Sunol]]'''
| CDP
| 913
|}

==See also==
* [[USS Alameda County|USS ''Alameda County'' (LST-32)]], the only US Naval vessel named after the county
* [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Alameda County, California]]
* [[Solar power in Alameda County]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Alameda County}}
*{{Official website}}
*[http://www.acgov.org/board/map.pdf map of Alameda County with supervisorial district boundaries]
*[http://www.alamedacountyfair.com Alameda County Fairgrounds – Annual county fair June to July]
*[https://archive.org/details/Californ1958 A short film about Alameda County from 1958]
*Short radio episode '''''[https://web.archive.org/web/20100221022639/http://californialegacy.org/radio_anthology/scripts/mori.html Baseball]''''' from "Lil' Yokohama," by Oakland writer Toshio Mori, 1941. [[California Legacy Project]].
*[http://www.acgov.org/fire/ Alameda County Fire Department]
*[http://www.acfdtraining.com Alameda County Fire Department Training Division]
*[[wikispot:berkeley:Hiking|Hiking trails in Alameda County, at the Berkeley Wiki website]]

{{Geographic Location
|Centre = Alameda County, California
|North = [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]]
|Northeast =
|East = [[San Joaquin County, California|San Joaquin County]]
|Southeast = [[Stanislaus County, California|Stanislaus County]]
|South = [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]
|Southwest =
|West = [[San Francisco County, California|San Francisco County]] and [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]
|Northwest =
}}

{{Cities of Alameda County, California}}
{{Alameda County, California topics}}
{{East Bay}}
{{SF Bay Area}}
{{California}}
{{Western U.S. majority-minority counties}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|37.65|-121.91|display=title|type:adm2nd_region:US-CA_source:UScensus1990}}

[[Category:Alameda County, California| ]]
[[Category:California counties]]
[[Category:Counties in the San Francisco Bay Area]]
[[Category:1853 establishments in California]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1853]]

University of California, Hastings College of the Law

2021-08-14T19:34:02Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Distinguish|Hastings College}} {{short description|Law school in San Francisco}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}} {{Coord|37|46|50|N|122|24|55|W|region:US-CA_type:edu|di..."

{{Distinguish|Hastings College}}
{{short description|Law school in San Francisco}}

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Coord|37|46|50|N|122|24|55|W|region:US-CA_type:edu|display=title}}
{{Infobox Law School
|image = UC Hastings seal(2019).svg
|image_size = 250px
|name = University of California, Hastings College of the Law
|established = 1878
|type = [[Public university|Public]] [[law school]]
|endowment =
|head = David L. Faigman (Chancellor and Dean)
|city = [[San Francisco]]
|state = [[California]]
|country = United States
|students = 930 (approx.)<ref name=USNWR>{{cite magazine | magazine = U.S. News & World Report|title=Best Law Schools: University of California (Hastings) | url = https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-law-schools/university-of-california-hastings-college-of-law-03015 | access-date = January 15, 2019}}</ref>
|faculty = 172 (full- and part-time)<ref name=USNWR/>
|ranking = 50th (2022)<ref name=USNWR/>
|bar pass rate = 87% (October 2020 1st time takers)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rubino |first1=Kathryn |title=California Bar Exam Results: A Breakdown By Law School (July 2019) |url=https://abovethelaw.com/2019/12/california-bar-exam-results-a-breakdown-by-law-school-july-2019/ |website=Above the Law |access-date=5 February 2020}}</ref>
|annual tuition = $48,335 (In-state) $54,335 (Out-of-state)<ref name=USNWR/>
|homepage = [http://www.uchastings.edu www.uchastings.edu]
| motto = Fiat Justitia ("Let justice be done")
| aba profile = [http://www.uchastings.edu/about/consumer-info/docs/UC_Hastings_Std509_2015.pdf UC Hastings College of Law]
| logo = UC Hastings wordmark 2019.svg
}}

The '''University of California, Hastings College of the Law''' ('''UC Hastings Law''', '''UC Hastings''', or '''Hastings'''), is a [[Public university|public]] [[Law school in the United States|law school]] in [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. Founded in 1878 by [[Serranus Clinton Hastings]], UC Hastings was the first law school of the [[University of California]] as well as one of the first law schools established in [[California]] and the [[Western United States]]. Although part of the [[University of California]], UC Hastings is not directly governed by the [[Regents of the University of California]]. UC Hastings is also one of the few prominent university-affiliated law schools in the United States that does not share a campus with the university's [[Undergraduate education|undergraduates]] or other [[graduate school|postgraduate]] programs.

The law school has an extensive alumni network in [[California]], particularly the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], that includes general counsels, law firm partners, politicians, judges and corporate executives. Notable alumni include [[George R. Roberts]] a founding member of the private equity firm [[Kohlberg Kravis Roberts]], Alexander Francis Morrison the founding member of the international law firm [[Morrison & Foerster]], William H. Orrick the founding member of the international law firm [[Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe]], Todd Machtmes the General Counsel of [[Salesforce]], and the 49th [[Vice President of the United States]] [[Kamala Harris]].

==History==
In 1878, [[Serranus Clinton Hastings]], the first [[Chief Justice of California]], gave $100,000 to be used to create the law school that now bears his name. He arranged for the enactment of a legislative act on March 26, 1878 to create the Hastings College of the Law as a separate legal entity affiliated with the University of California.<ref name="BarnesPages447172">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=44, 71–72}}</ref><ref name="HastingsAct">See [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Statutes_of_California_Passed_at_the_Ses/gKk3AAAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA533&printsec=frontcover Cal. Stats., 22nd sess., 1877–1878, ch. 351, §§ 1-15].</ref> This was apparently intended for compatibility with Section 8 of the University's Organic Act, which authorized the Board of Regents to affiliate with independent self-sustaining professional colleges.<ref name="BarnesPages447172" /><ref>See [https://books.google.com/books?id=srpAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA250 Cal. Stats., 17th sess., 1867–1868, ch. 244, § 8].</ref> Another reason for making the gift in this fashion was that Hastings desired to impose certain conditions on his gift, while "policy and law dictated that a free-gift could not be hedged by power of reversion."<ref name="BarnesPages8182">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=81–82}}</ref>[[File:Serranus Hastings.jpg|thumb|[[Serranus Clinton Hastings]], founder of UC Hastings|left]]

According to UC Hastings's official centennial history, its founder, "whether from arrogance, oversight, ignorance, or a combination of all three, was the author of his own troubles."<ref name="BarnesPage69">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |page=69}}</ref> Although the founder had selected the original UC Hastings board of directors from among his professional acquaintances, he failed to adequately verify their concurrence with his beliefs that a proper legal education must include a course in [[legal ethics]] and must also be hybridized with elements of a [[liberal arts education]].<ref name="BarnesPage6266">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=62–66}}</ref> To his horror, it turned out they all believed that the only purpose of a law school was to provide [[vocational education]] in how to [[Practice of law|practice law]].<ref name="BarnesPage6768">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=67–68}}</ref> This latter belief was shared by the first professor hired, [[John Norton Pomeroy]], who personally taught the vast majority of courses during Hastings' early years.<ref name="BarnesPage6768" /> The founder hoped to educate cultured [[intellectual]]s who also happened to be lawyers; the board simply wanted to produce lawyers.<ref name="BarnesPage6768" /> It was impossible to reconcile these fundamentally different visions, and by September 1882, Serranus Clinton Hastings had become estranged from his own handpicked board.<ref name="BarnesPage7778">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=77–78}}</ref> By that point in time, he had come to see the Board of Regents as a superior vehicle for infusing liberal arts and legal ethics into his law school, and in March 1883 arranged for another legislative act that purported to transfer the Hastings College of the Law directly to the [[University of California]] and vested responsibility for its governance in the Regents.<ref name="BarnesPage7880">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=78–80}}</ref><ref>See [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Statutes_of_California_and_Digest_of_Mea/xwdLAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA26&printsec=frontcover Cal. Stats., 25th sess., 1883, ch. 20, § 1].</ref> This was in facial conflict with the "affiliate" language in Section 8 of the Organic Act, so in March 1885, another act was passed to create a ''pro forma'' board of trustees for the sole purpose of holding title to UC Hastings assets at arm’s length from the Regents (but under which the Regents would continue to have the right to manage such assets).<ref name="BarnesPages8182" /><ref>See [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Laws_and_resolutions_passed_by_Legislatu/IZ_hm0MRekIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=CLVII Cal. Stats., 26th extra sess., 1883-1884, ch. 157, § 1].</ref>

In deference to the 1883 act, the UC Hastings board of directors ceased to meet.<ref name="BarnesPage80">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |page=80}}</ref> But because the Regents chose to remain neutral in the long-simmering dispute between board and founder—and did not attempt to exercise any control under the 1883 or 1885 acts—the Hastings College of the Law went through a strange period from September 1882 to April 1885 where it operated with no actual supervision from any governing board.<ref name="BarnesPage80" />

On April 25, 1885, the UC Hastings board of directors convened to appoint Perrie Kewen as the new registrar, because the previous registrar had died.<ref name="BarnesPage8085">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=80–85}}</ref> At the request of Serranus Clinton Hastings, [[Attorney General of California|Attorney General]] [[Edward C. Marshall]] challenged Kewen's appointment by initiating a proceeding for a writ of ''[[quo warranto]]'' in [[San Francisco County Superior Court]].<ref name="BarnesPage8085" /> On March 30, 1886, in what became known as ''Kewen's Case'', the [[Supreme Court of California]] upheld Kewen’s appointment by declaring the 1883 and 1885 acts to be unconstitutional on the basis of a provision of the 1879 state constitution guaranteeing the legislative independence of the University of California.<ref name="BarnesPage8485">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Thomas Garden |title=Hastings College of the Law: The First Century |date=1978 |publisher=University of California Hastings College of the Law Press |location=San Francisco |pages=84–85}}</ref><ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3HwWAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA215 People v. Kewen]'', 69 Cal. 215, 10 P. 393 (1886).</ref> In other words, the 1879 ratification of the state's second constitution (which remains in effect today) effectively stripped the [[California State Legislature]] of the power to amend preexisting statutes governing the University of California, including the 1878 act.<ref name="BarnesPage8485" /> This was the last time that Serranus Clinton Hastings would try to shape the future of the law school that he had founded; UC Hastings has maintained its hard-fought independence from the Regents ever since.<ref name="BarnesPage8485" /> The irony of ''Kewen's Case'' is that a constitutional provision intended to protect the University of California was applied in such a way as to prevent the University from taking control of its first law school.<ref name="BarnesPage8485" />

In contrast, the "Affiliated Colleges"—the medical, dental, nursing, and pharmacy schools in San Francisco—were affiliated with UC through written agreements, and not statutes invested with constitutional importance by court decisions.<ref name="StadtmanPage125138">{{cite book |last1=Stadtman |first1=Verne A. |title=The University of California, 1868-1968 |url=https://archive.org/details/universityofcali00stad |url-access=registration |date=1970 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/universityofcali00stad/page/125 125–138]}}</ref> In the early 20th century, the Affiliated Colleges agreed to voluntarily submit to the Regents' governance during the term of UC President [[Benjamin Ide Wheeler]], as the Board of Regents had come to recognize the problems inherent in the existence of independent entities that shared the UC [[brand]] but over which UC had no real control.<ref name="StadtmanPage125138" /> While UC Hastings remained independent, the Affiliated Colleges began to increasingly coordinate with each other and the rest of the UC bureaucracy under the supervision of the UC President and the Regents, and evolved into the health sciences campus known today as the [[University of California, San Francisco]].<ref name="StadtmanPage125138" /> In 1900, UC Hastings became one of 27 charter members of the [[Association of American Law Schools]] (AALS).<ref>[http://www.aals.org/about_memberschools.php#e-j AALS Member Schools]. Retrieved April 30, 2015.</ref>

Hastings College of the Law was for many years considered the primary law school of the University of California with the purpose of preparing lawyers for the practice of law in the state, whereas the Department of Jurisprudence on the Berkeley campus, which later became Boalt Hall School of Law (now styled [[UC Berkeley School of Law|Berkeley Law]]), was intended for the study of law as an academic discipline.

The same statute that affiliated Hastings to UC also designated UC Hastings as UC's "law department."<ref>[https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=EDC&division=9.&title=3.&part=57.&chapter=3.&article=1. California Education Code Section 92201].</ref> According to UCLA political science professor J.A.C. Grant, it was believed there could only be one "law department" (i.e., only one official UC law school), which is why the Department of Jurisprudence at Berkeley retained its name even after it began to award law degrees. Berkeley did not rename its School of Jurisprudence to a School of Law until the state legislature passed a bill in 1947 authorizing UCLA to create a "school of law." [[William Lloyd Prosser]] got wind of this in 1948 while visiting UCLA to help plan [[UCLA School of Law|the new law school]] and decided that Berkeley could get away with the same thing.<ref name="Novak">{{cite journal |last1=Novak |first1=Steven J. |title=From the Oral History of J.A.C. Grant |journal=California Legal History |date=2016 |volume=11 |pages=63–96 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/calegh11&div=1&src=home}} Available through [[HeinOnline]].

In this source, Grant mistakenly refers to the will of the founder of Hastings; it is clear from the context that he and Prosser were unaware that the first UC law school was actually launched with an [[inter vivos]] gift.</ref>

In the 1960s, UC Hastings began the "65 Club," the practice of hiring faculty who had been forced into [[mandatory retirement]] at age 65 from [[Ivy League]] and other élite institutions.<ref>Charles Hillinger, "Hastings Faculty Is Anything But Retiring," ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', December 14, 1982, D12.</ref> After the passage of [[age discrimination]] laws, however, the "65 Club" slowly phased out, and Hastings hired its last "65 Club" professor in 1998. In the mid-1950s, ''[[Newsweek]]'' published a story where then [[Harvard Law School]] dean and [[jurist]] [[Roscoe Pound]] declared, referring to UC Hastings: "Indeed, on the whole, I am inclined to think you have the strongest law faculty in the nation."<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225312/http://www.uchastings.edu/?pid=2278 The Era of The Sixty-Five Club]."</ref>

In 2020, after studying the matter for three years, a commission established by the school confirmed that its founder had managed a forced labor camp, organized murderous "Indian hunts", and otherwise participated actively in the genocide that killed most of the Native American population of Mendocino County, California. The commission recommended against a proposal to rename the school.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=SFGate|title=Hastings Law balks at name change despite founder's role in genocide|author=Mike Moffitt|date=December 7, 2020|url=https://www.sfgate.com/sfhistory/article/Hastings-Law-Serranus-Hastings-name-change-15751216.php?IPID=SFGate-HP-CP-Spotlight}}</ref>

==Location==

UC Hastings campus spreads among four main buildings located near San Francisco's Civic Center: 200 McAllister Street houses academic space and administrative offices,<ref name="UCHastingsMasterPlan">Hastings College of the Law. [http://www.uchastings.edu/site_files/building/master_plan_51804.pdf Institutional Master Plan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226013521/http://www.uchastings.edu/site_files/building/master_plan_51804.pdf |date=February 26, 2009 }}. EIP Associates, March 2004.</ref> 333 Golden Gate Avenue contains mainly classrooms and faculty offices, 198 McAllister is a 14-story residence complex with 657 units of housing, and [[100 McAllister Street|100 McAllister]], known casually as "The Tower", contains university office and further student housing,<ref name="StudentGuidebook">[http://www.uchastings.edu/site_files/StudentServices/StudentGuidebook.pdf ''Student Guidebook''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226013522/http://www.uchastings.edu/site_files/StudentServices/StudentGuidebook.pdf |date=February 26, 2009 }}, UC Hastings, Student Services.</ref> as well as the [[Art Deco]] "Sky Room" on the 24th floor.

The campus is within walking distance of the [[Muni Metro]] and [[Bay Area Rapid Transit]] [[Civic Center/UN Plaza station]]. UC Hastings is commonly but affectionately derided by students and alumni as being located in the ugliest corner of the most beautiful city in the world. Indeed, the school has been referred to in jest as "UC [[Tenderloin, San Francisco|Tenderloin]]."<ref>{{cite AV media |year=1983 |title=Robin Williams at UC Hastings Commencement 1983 |medium=Video |time=2 mins 35 secs |language=en |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NwO6VaK3eXA |access-date=December 9, 2015 |location=San Francisco |publisher=University of California, Hastings College of the Law}}</ref>

[[File:Looking West from UC Hastings, City Hall and CA State Courts, San Francisco.jpg|thumb|300px|View west from the 24th floor James Edgar Hervey Skyroom at [[100 McAllister Street]]. Visible buildings include [[San Francisco City Hall]] with its prominent dome, the city's [[Asian Art Museum of San Francisco]] at the left foreground and the [[Supreme Court of California]] on the right.]]

Located within a two-block radius of the campus is the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]], the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of California]], the [[California Supreme Court]], the [[California Courts of Appeal#First District|California Court of Appeal for the First District]], San Francisco Superior Court, [[San Francisco City Hall]], [[United Nations Plaza (San Francisco)|United Nations Plaza]] (and Federal Building Annex), the [[Asian Art Museum of San Francisco]], and the Main Library of the [[San Francisco Public Library]] system. The heavy concentration of public buildings within the Civic Center, as well as the high crime rate, result in heavy police presence, and high security, around UC Hastings.

==Organization and structure==
UC Hastings is managed by a nine-member Board of Directors. The UC Hastings Board of Directors exists independently of, and is not controlled by, the [[Regents of the University of California]]. Pursuant to California law, eight of the directors are appointed by the Governor of California. Pursuant to the UC Hastings constitutive documents, the ninth director must be a direct lineal descendant of UC Hastings founder Serranus Clinton Hastings. The Hastings family member now serving on the board is Claes H. Lewenhaupt.

UC Hastings' detachment from the UC Regents gives it a broad degree of independence in shaping educational and fiscal policies; however, due to a shrinking California education budget, UC Hastings must also compete for limited educational funds against its fellow UC campuses. Despite the apparent competition among the UC law schools, UC Hastings was able to maintain its traditionally high standards without having to decrease class size or raise tuition to higher levels than fellow UC law schools, until the California budget crisis in June 2009, first raised the possibility of slashing $10 million in state funding.

A few days later, however, lawmakers rejected the harsh budget cut, agreeing to cut only $1 million and apparently preventing dramatic tuition hikes.<ref>"Hastings Beats Back Budget Axe," The Recorder, June 5, 2009</ref>

Under California law, if the government ever cuts funding to UC Hastings to below the 19th-century figure of $7,000 a year, the state must return the $100,000, plus interest, to the Hastings family.<ref>California Education Code, 92212, http://law.justia.com/california/codes/edc/92200-92215.html</ref> State Sen. Mark Leno (D-San Francisco) has argued that the rejected $10 million budget cut, in abandoning state financial support for the school, would have allowed the Hastings family to launch an expensive court fight to reclaim the $100,000 plus hefty interest.<ref>{{Cite news |title=California legislators reject cuts to Cal Grants, Hastings law school |newspaper=Sacramento Bee |date=June 6, 2009 |url=http://sd11.senate.ca.gov/news/2009-06-06-california-legislators-reject-cuts-cal-grants-hastings-law-school |access-date=May 20, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521031334/http://sd11.senate.ca.gov/news/2009-06-06-california-legislators-reject-cuts-cal-grants-hastings-law-school |archive-date=May 21, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Academics==
[[File:UCHastings-BattleHastings1066.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Hastings]] (1066) as depicted on a stained glass window over the main entrance of [[100 McAllister Street]].]]
UC Hastings offers a three-year [[Juris Doctor]] program with concentrated studies available in seven areas: civil litigation, criminal law, international law, public interest law, taxation, family law, and recently, a new concentration in intellectual property law. Most J.D. students follow a traditional three-year plan. During the first year, students take required courses as well as one elective course. In the second and third years, students may take any course or substitute or supplement their courses with judicial externships or internships, judicial clinics, or study abroad. The college also offers a one-year [[LL.M.]] degree in U.S. legal studies for students holding [[law degree]]s from foreign law programs. It is an [[American Bar Association#Accreditation of law schools|American Bar Association]] (ABA) approved law school since 1939.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americanbar.org/groups/legal_education/resources/aba_approved_law_schools/by_year_approved.html |title=ABA-Approved Law Schools by Year |work=ABA website |access-date=April 20, 2011}}</ref>

UC Hastings participates in the Concurrent Degree Program with [[UC Santa Cruz]]'s Masters of Science in Applied Economics and Finance. In this 3+3 program, students may concurrently earn a JD from UC Hastings and a masters degree in applied economics and finance from Santa Cruz, by pursuing the two degrees concurrently, eligible students can earn both degrees in less time than it would take to earn them serially.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Francisco|first=UC Hastings Law {{!}} San|title=JD/Masters in Applied Economics and Finance|url=https://www.uchastings.edu/academics/multiple-degrees/jd-masters-applied-econ-and-finance/|access-date=2020-08-12|website=UC Hastings Law {{!}} San Francisco|language=en-US}}</ref> UC Hastings also participates in the Concurrent Degree Program with U.C. Berkeley's Haas Graduate School of Business. Upon completion of a four-year program, the student earns a Berkeley M.B.A. degree and a J.D. degree from UC Hastings College of the Law.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://mba.haas.berkeley.edu/academics/concurrentdegrees.html | title=Concurrent Degree Programs | website=Haas School of Business | publisher=University of California, Berkeley | access-date=December 9, 2014}}</ref>

UC Hastings College of the Law and the [[UCSF School of Medicine]] of the [[University of California, San Francisco]] have commenced a joint degree program, and in 2011 began enrolling their first class of graduate students in the [[Master of Studies in Law]] (MSL) and LL.M. in Law, Science and Health Policy programs. Students have coursework available at each institution for fulfillment of the degrees.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ucconsortium.org/ | title=UCSF/UC Hastings Consortium on Law, Science and Health Policy | publisher=University of California, San Francisco and University of California, Hastings College of the Law | access-date=December 9, 2014}}</ref> This program is a component of the UCSF/UC Hastings Consortium on Law, Science and Health Policy.

UC Hastings has a chapter of the [[Order of the Coif]], a national law school honorary society founded for the purposes of encouraging legal scholarship and advancing the ethical standards of the legal profession.<ref>[http://www.orderofthecoif.org/COIF-members.htm Order of the Coif member schools]</ref> It joined the [[Association of American Law Schools]] (AALS) as a charter member in 1900; it renewed its membership in 1949.<ref>[http://www.aals.org/about_memberschools.php#c-d AALS Member Schools]</ref>

==Costs==
The total cost of attendance (indicating the cost of tuition, fees, and living expenses) at UC Hastings for the 2018–2019 academic year is $49,538 for California residents and $55,538 for non-residents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uchastings.edu/admissions/jd-cost-of-attendance/ |title=Tuition and Expenses |access-date=July 9, 2014 }}</ref> The Law School Transparency estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years is $296,028.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lstscorereports.com/schools/hastings/costs/2013 |title=UC Hastings Profile}}</ref> UC Hastings does not offer full-tuition scholarships.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uchastings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018Std509InfoReport.pdf |title=UC Hastings 509 Report, 2018}}</ref>

==Employment outcomes and rankings==

===Post-graduation employment===
According to UC Hastings official 2019 ABA-required disclosures, 70.6% of the Class of 2019 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation, excluding solo-practitioners.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uchastings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2019Std509InfoReport.pdf |title=ABA Disclosures}}</ref> UC Hastings [[Law School Transparency]] 2019 under-employment score is 19.7%, indicating the percentage of the Class of 2019 unemployed, pursuing an additional degree, or working in a non-professional, short-term, or part-time job nine months after graduation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lstreports.com/schools/hastings/ |title=UC Hastings Profile}}</ref>
{{bar box
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|title= ABA Employment Summary for 2019 Graduates<ref>{{cite web|title=Employment Summary for 2019 Graduates|url=https://www.uchastings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/PlacementEmployment-16-726-05-10-2020-16-09-11.pdf}}</ref>
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{{bar percent|Employed – Bar Passage Required (Part-Time and/or Short-Term)|lime|1.3}}
{{bar percent|Employed – J.D. Advantage|blue|11.9}}
{{bar percent|Employed – Professional Position|orange|1.3}}
{{bar percent|Employed – Non-Professional Position|teal|0.6}}
{{bar percent|Employed – Undeterminable|brown|0.0}}
{{bar percent|Pursuing Graduate Degree Full Time|purple|1.9}}
{{bar percent|Unemployed – Start Date Deferred|blue|0.6}}
{{bar percent|Unemployed – Not Seeking|sienna|1.3}}
{{bar percent|Unemployed – Seeking|red|5.5}}
{{bar percent|Employment Status Unknown|silver|1.6}}
}}

===Rank===

{{see also|Law school rankings in the United States}}
''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' ranks UC Hastings 50th among top law schools in the US and as the most [[Diversity (politics)|diverse]] of the five law schools in the UC system.<ref name=USNWR/><ref>{{cite web | title=America's Best Graduate Schools 2015, Law School Diversity Index | url= http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-law-schools/law-school-diversity-rankings | work= U.S. News & World Report | access-date= April 9, 2015}}</ref> It was listed with a "B+" in the March 2011 "Diversity Honor Roll" by ''The National Jurist: The Magazine for Law Students''.<ref name=NationalJurist>{{Citation
| last1 = Larsen | first1 = Rebecca
| title = Most Diverse Law Schools (Diversity Honor Roll)
| journal = The National Jurist
| volume = 20
| issue = 6
| pages = 30–37
| publisher = Cypress Magazines
| location = San Diego, California
| date = March 2011
| url = http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/cypress/nationaljurist0311/#/32
}}</ref> UC Hastings also has the largest student body and highest student/faculty ratio of the UC law schools.<ref>{{cite web | title=America's Best Graduate Schools 2008, What are the largest and smallest law schools? | url= http://grad-schools.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/grad/webextras/brief/sb_law_size_brief.php | work=U.S. News & World Report | access-date= October 20, 2007}}</ref>

In January 2011, UC Hastings was given a "B" in the "Best Public Interest Law Schools" listing by ''The National Jurist: The Magazine for Law Students''.<ref name=NJPubInterest>{{Citation
| last1 = Weyenberg | first1 = Michelle
| title = Best Law Schools for Public Interest
| journal = The National Jurist
| volume = 20
| issue = 4
| pages = 24–28
| publisher = Cypress Magazines
| location = San Diego, California
| date = January 2011
| url = http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/cypress/nationaljurist0111/index.php#/24
}}</ref>[[File:UCH Roof View.jpg|thumb|311x311px|View from 333 Golden Gate Avenue roof-deck]]In 2021, ''Super Lawyers'' magazine ranked UC Hastings 7th in terms of law schools that produced the most "Super Lawyers" in Southern California.<ref>Super Lawyers, U.S. Law School Rankings, https://lawschools.superlawyers.com/law-school/top-10/california-southern/</ref>

According to [[Brian Leiter]]'s 2007 law school rankings, UC Hastings ranked 27th in the nation in terms of scholarly impact as measured by academic citations of tenure-stream faculty, on par with [[University of Southern California Law School|USC]].<ref>{{cite web | title= Top 35 Law Faculties Based on Scholarly Impact, 2007 | url= http://www.leiterrankings.com/faculty/2007faculty_impact.shtml |publisher= Brian Leiter's Law School Rankings | access-date=October 21, 2007}}</ref> In terms of student quality, UC Hastings ranked 33rd in 2008 in the nation by average [[LSAT]] score.<ref>{{cite web | title= Brian Leiter's Law Schools Ranked by Student (Numerical) Quality, 2008 | url= http://www.leiterrankings.com/students/2008student_quality.shtml |publisher= Brian Leiter's Law School Rankings | access-date=July 30, 2009}}</ref>

According to the Web site "Law School Advocacy," UC Hastings had the No. 1 [[Moot Court]] program in the country in 2011, with Top 5 rankings in each of the previous five years.<ref>{{cite web | title= Law School Advocacy | url= http://lawschooladvocacy.com| access-date=May 11, 2011}}</ref>

A 2013 article in [[Forbes]] Magazine ranks UC Hastings 20th among 'The 25 Law Schools Whose Grads Earn The Most'.<ref>{{cite news | title=The Law Schools Whose Grads Earn The Biggest Paychecks | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacquelynsmith/2013/03/14/the-law-schools-whose-grads-earn-the-biggest-paychecks/ | last=Smith | first=Jacquelyn | work=Forbes | date=March 14, 2013 | access-date=December 9, 2015}}</ref>

===Bar passage rates===
For the [[State_Bar_of_California#Controversy_of_2019_State_Bar_Examination_release_of_test_subjects|July 2019 California Bar Examination]], 80% of UC Hastings Law graduates taking the exam for the first time passed.<ref>[http://www.calbar.ca.gov/Portals/0/documents/July2019-CBX-Statistics.pdf?]</ref>

==Publications==

===Journals===
The oldest law journal at UC Hastings is the ''Hastings Law Journal,'' which was founded in 1949.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hastingslawjournal.org/members/ | title=About Hastings Law Journal | website=Hastings Law Journal | access-date=December 9, 2015}}</ref> The second oldest journal is the ''[[Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly]]'', which was founded in 1973. Inaugurated in 1997 to oversee the growing number of publications at UC Hastings, the O'Brien Center for Scholarly Publications now manages the publication of the ten UC Hastings journals.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://journals.uchastings.edu/journals/ | title=Journals | website=O'Brien Center for Scholarly Publications | publisher=University of California, Hastings College of the Law | access-date=December 9, 2015}}</ref>
* ''[[Hastings Law Journal]]''
* ''Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly''
* ''Hastings Communications and Entertainment Law Journal''
* ''Hastings Women's Law Journal''
* ''Hastings International and Comparative Law Review''
* ''Hastings Race and Poverty Law Journal''
* ''[[Hastings West-Northwest Journal of Environmental Law and Policy|West-Northwest Journal of Environmental Law and Policy]]''
* ''Hastings Science & Technology Law Journal''
* ''Hastings Business Law Journal''
*''Hastings Journal of Crime and Punishment''

===Books===
The O'Brien Center at UC Hastings has published several books:<ref>{{cite web | url=http://journals.uchastings.edu/books/ | title=Hastings Books | website=O'Brien Center for Scholarly Publications | publisher=University of California, Hastings College of the Law | access-date=December 9, 2015}}</ref>
* ''Forgive Us Our Press Passes'', by [[Daniel Schorr]]
* ''The Traynor Reader: Essays'', by the Honorable [[Roger Traynor]].
* ''Hastings College of the Law – The First Century'', a centennial history of the UC Hastings commissioned by the UC Hastings Board in 1973

==Notable people==
{{Main|List of University of California, Hastings College of the Law people}}
Some of the notable graduates of UC Hastings include: <ref name="hastingsmag">UC Hastings Law, Hastings Magazine - 2019, Gamechangers: A Special Issue Honoring Prominent Alumni Who Have Made Extraordinary Contributions to Their Fields, https://repository.uchastings.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=hastings_magazine</ref>

* [[List of vice presidents of the United States|49th]] [[Vice President of the United States]] [[Kamala Harris]]
* [[California Supreme Court]] Associate Justice [[Marvin Baxter]]
* [[California Supreme Court]] Associate Justice [[Carol Corrigan]]
* [[California Supreme Court]] Associate Justice [[Wiley Manuel]] (and first African American Justice to serve on that Court)
*Kristin Sverchek the General Counsel of [[Lyft]]
*Julie Gruber the Chief Legal Officer of [[Gap Inc.]]
* U.S. District Judge of the [[U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California]] [[Edward Davila]]
* [[Chief District Judge|Chief U.S. District Judge]] of the [[U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California]] [[Lawrence J. O'Neill]]
* [[Governor of Nevada]] [[Richard Bryan]]
* Fox News anchor [[Gregg Jarrett]]
* U.S. Congressman [[Chip Pashayan]]
* U.S. Congresswoman [[Jackie Speier]]
* [[San Francisco Public Defender]] [[Jeff Adachi]]
* [[The Sharper Image]] founder [[Richard Thalheimer]]
* [[Willie Brown (politician)|Willie Brown]], the first African American Mayor of San Francisco
* [[George R. Roberts]] a founding member of the private equity firm [[Kohlberg Kravis Roberts]]
* Alexander Francis Morrison the founding member of the international law firm [[Morrison & Foerster]]
* Todd Machtmes the General Counsel of [[Salesforce]]
* Richard Zamboldi the General Counsel of Accel
* Santiago “Sam” Fernandez the EVP, & General Counsel of the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
* John Zecca the Senior Vice President, General Counsel North America, and Chief Regulatory Officer of the [[Nasdaq]]
* William H. Orrick the founding member of the international law firm [[Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe]]
* [[Andrew Downey Orrick]] Partner of the international law firm [[Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe]], and chairman of the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]]
*Mark Vorsatz the Chief Executive Officer of [[Andersen Tax]]
* Stephan Eberle the General Counsel of [[Scale Venture Partners]]

==See also==
*{{Portal-inline|San Francisco Bay Area}}
* ''[[Christian Legal Society v. Martinez]]'', a 2010 [[U.S. Supreme Court]] case, arose from events at UC Hastings in 2003.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Barnes, Thomas Garden (1978). ''[https://repository.uchastings.edu/faculty_books/1/ Hastings College of the Law: The First Century]''. San Francisco: University of California Hastings College of the Law Press.

==External links==
{{Commons category|University of California, Hastings College of the Law}}
* {{Official website|http://www.uchastings.edu//index.php}}

{{University of California}}
{{San Francisco Colleges}}
{{California law schools accredited by the American Bar Association}}
{{Civic Center, San Francisco}}
{{Law Schools of the Southwest}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hastings College Of The Law}}
[[Category:University of California, Hastings College of the Law| ]]
[[Category:University of California]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in San Francisco]]
[[Category:Civic Center, San Francisco]]
[[Category:Law in the San Francisco Bay Area]]
[[Category:ABA-accredited law schools in California|California, Hastings]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1878]]
[[Category:1878 establishments in California]]

Howard University

2021-08-14T19:33:51Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|Historically black university in Washington, D.C., US}} {{Distinguish|Howard College}} {{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}} {{Infobox university | name..."

{{short description|Historically black university in Washington, D.C., US}}
{{Distinguish|Howard College}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Howard University
| image_name = Howard University seal.svg
| image_upright = .7
| motto = Veritas et Utilitas
| mottoeng = Truth and Service
| established = {{Start date and age|1867|03|02}}
| type = [[Private university|Private]] [[Historically black colleges and universities|historically black]] [[research university]]
| academic_affiliations = [[Thurgood Marshall College Fund|TMCF]] [[National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities|NAICU]] [[Oak Ridge Associated Universities|ORAU]] [[Consortium of Universities of the Washington Metropolitan Area|CUWMA]]
| endowment = $712.4 million (2020)<ref>As of June 30, 2020. {{cite report |url=https://www.nacubo.org/-/media/Documents/Research/2020-NTSE-Public-Tables--Endowment-Market-Values--FINAL-FEBRUARY-19-2021.ashx |title=U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20 |publisher=National Association of College and University Business Officers and [[TIAA]] |date=February 19, 2021 |access-date=February 20, 2021}}</ref>
| president = [[Wayne A. I. Frederick]]
| provost = Anthony Wutoh<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theafricandream.net/howard-university-partners-google/|title=Howard University Partners with Google to raise percentage of black computer scientist and engineers|first=Oral|last=Ofori|date=July 11, 2017}}</ref>
| students = 9,399 (Fall 2019)<ref name=Enrollment>{{cite web |url=https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiMmZmZWNlOTItOGI2Yi00NTBiLWJmNGMtYzgzYjI1NTg0MTZhIiwidCI6IjAyYWMwYzA3LWI3NWYtNDZiZi05YjEzLTM2MzBiYTk0YmI2OSIsImMiOjF9 |title=Fall 2014-Fall 2019 Students Enrollment Trends |publisher=Howard University}}</ref>
| undergrad = 6,526 (Fall 2019)<ref name=Enrollment/>
| postgrad = 2,873 (Fall 2019)<ref name=Enrollment/>
| city = [[Washington, D.C.]]
| country = United States
| coordinates = {{Coord|38|55|20|N|77|01|10|W|type:edu_region:US-DC|display=inline,title}}
| campus = [[Urban area|Urban]]; {{convert|300|acre|km2}}
| free_label = Newspaper
| free = ''[[The Hilltop (newspaper)|The Hilltop]]''
| colors = Blue, White, and Red<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.howard.edu/secretary/documents/HU_IDENTITY2016.pdf|title=Howard University Identity Guidelines |date=May 22, 2015 |access-date=July 22, 2016}}</ref> {{color box|#003A63}} {{color box|#FFFFFF}} {{color box|#E51937}}
| athletics_nickname = [[Howard Bison and Lady Bison|Bison and Lady Bison]]
| sporting_affiliations = [[NCAA Division I]] – [[Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference|MEAC]]
| website = {{URL|howard.edu}}
| logo = Howard University logo.svg
| logo_upright = .8
}}

'''Howard University''' ('''Howard''' or simply '''HU''') is a [[private university|private]], federally chartered [[historically black colleges and universities|historically black]] [[research university]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] It is [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education|classified]] among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity" and accredited by the [[Middle States Commission on Higher Education]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Carnegie Classifications Institution Lookup |url=https://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup/view_institution.php?unit_id=131520 |publisher=Center for Postsecondary Education |website=carnegieclassifications.iu.edu |access-date=12 September 2020}}</ref>

Tracing its history to 1867, from its outset Howard has been nonsectarian and open to people of all sexes and races. It offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional degrees in more than 120 programs, more than any other [[HBCU]] in the nation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theundefeated.com/features/college-choice-says-spelman-is-the-top-hbcu/|title=College Choice says Spelman is the top HBCU …|first=Gregory|last=Clay|date=May 23, 2016}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:MainandMiner Hall.GIF|250px|frame|right|Main Hall (right) and Miner Hall in 1868.]]

===19th century===
Shortly after the end of the [[American Civil War]], members of The First Congregational Society of Washington considered establishing a theological seminary for the education of black clergymen. Within a few weeks, the project expanded to include a provision for establishing a university. Within two years, the University consisted of the Colleges of Liberal Arts and Medicine. The new institution was named for General [[Oliver Otis Howard]], a Civil War hero, who was both the founder of the University and, at the time, Commissioner of the [[Freedman bureau|Freedmen's Bureau]]. Howard later served as President of the University from 1869 to 1874.<ref name="official_history">{{cite web |url=http://www.howard.edu/explore/history.htm |title=Brief History of Howard University |publisher=Howard.edu |access-date=October 19, 2009|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150117120246/http://www.howard.edu/explore/history.htm|archive-date=2015-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Semi-Centennial of Howard University |journal=Howard University Record |date=March 1916 |volume=10 |issue=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/howardunivers16howa/mode/2up}}</ref>

The U.S. Congress chartered Howard on March 2, 1867, and much of its early funding came from endowment, private benefaction, and tuition. (In the 20th and 21st centuries an annual congressional appropriation, administered by the [[United States Department of Education|U.S. Department of Education]], funds Howard University and Howard University Hospital).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www2.ed.gov/programs/howard/index.html |title=U.S. Department of Education funding of Howard University|date=2014-04-22}}</ref> In its first five years of operation, Howard University educated over 150,000 freed slaves.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://blackamericaweb.com/2013/12/18/little-known-black-history-fact-howard-university/ |title=Little Known Black History Fact: Howard University |date=2013-12-18 |website=Black America Web |language=en |access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref>

Many improvements were made on campus. Howard Hall was renovated and made a dormitory for women.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/94/9403/woodson.html|title=February 7, 1994 - Library of Congress Information Bulletin|website=www.loc.gov}}</ref>

===20th century===
From 1926 to 1960, Dr. [[Mordecai Wyatt Johnson]], Sr., was Howard University's first African-American president.<ref name=":1"/>

The Great Depression years of the 1930s brought hardship to campus. Despite appeals from [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], Howard saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels during the [[Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt]].<ref>{{cite journal |jstor= 2717406|title= Howard University and the Federal Government During the Presidential Administrations of Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1928-1945|journal= The Journal of Negro History|volume= 76|issue= 1/4|pages= 1–20|last1= Muse|first1= Clifford L.|authorlink=Clifford Muse|year= 1991|doi= 10.1086/JNHv76n1-4p1|s2cid= 149933299}}</ref>

In the 1930s, Howard University still had segregated student housing.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=Wini |date=1999 |title=Black Women Scientists in the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75bnncOVqEIC&pg=PA35 |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=35 |isbn=9780253336033}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://acampusdivided.umn.edu/index.php/essay/segregated-student-housing/ |title=Segregated Student Housing and the Activists Who Defeated It |author= |date=2017 |website=umn.edu |publisher=University of Minnesota |access-date=2020-07-11}}</ref>

Howard University played an important role in the [[Civil Rights Movement]] on a number of occasions. [[Alain Locke]], Chair of the Department of Philosophy and first [[African American]] [[Rhodes Scholar]], authored ''[[The New Negro]]'', which helped to usher in the [[Harlem Renaissance]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.africawithin.com/bios/alain_locke.htm|title=Loading...|website=www.africawithin.com}}</ref> [[Ralph Bunche]], the first [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner of African descent, served as chair of the Department of [[Political Science]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1950/bunche/biographical/|title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1950|website=NobelPrize.org}}</ref> Beginning in 1942, Howard University students pioneered the "stool-sitting" technique of occupying stools at a local cafeteria which denied service to African Americans blocking other customers waiting for service.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://snccdigital.org/events/pauli-murray-organizes-howard-student-sit-ins/|title=April 1943 Pauli Murray organizes Howard student sit-ins|website=SNCC Digital Gateway}}</ref> This tactic was to play a prominent role in the later [[Civil Rights Movement]]. By January 1943, students had begun to organize regular sit-ins and pickets at cigar stores and cafeterias around Washington, D.C. which refused to serve them because of their race. These protests continued until the fall of 1944.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=[[The Crisis]] |date= November 1944 |last= Murray |first= Pauli |author-link= Pauli Murray |title= A Blueprint for First Class Citizenship}} reprinted in {{cite book |last1=Carson |first1=Clayborne |author-link1=Clayborne Carson |last2=Garrow |first2=David J. |author-link2=David J. Garrow |last3=Kovach |first3=Bill |author-link3=Bill Kovach |title=Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9j8OAQAAMAAJ |access-date=September 13, 2011 |year=2003 |publisher=Library of America |pages=62–67|isbn=9781931082280 }}</ref>

[[Stokely Carmichael]], also known as [[Kwame Toure]], a student in the Department of [[Philosophy]] and the Howard University [[School of Divinity]], coined the term "[[Black Power]]" and worked in [[Lowndes County, Alabama|Lowndes County]], [[Alabama]] as a [[voting rights]] activist.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trinicenter.com/historicalviews/kwame.htm|title=TriniView.com - Stokely Carmichael or Kwame Ture|website=www.trinicenter.com}}</ref> Historian [[Rayford Logan]] served as chair of the Department of [[History]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/logan-rayford-1897-1982/|title=Rayford W. Logan (1897–1982)|website=blackpast.org|access-date=February 11, 2017|date=2007-01-21}}</ref> [[E. Franklin Frazier]] served as chair of the Department of [[Sociology]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.naswdc.org/diversity/black_history/2005/frazier.asp |title=Information on Edward Franklin Frazier |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928185833/http://www.naswdc.org/diversity/black_history/2005/frazier.asp |archive-date=September 28, 2007}}</ref> [[Sterling Allen Brown]] served as chair of the Department of [[English studies|English]].

{| class="infobox" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" style="font-size: 90%;"
|+ style="font-size: 1.25em;" |'''Presidents of Howard University'''
|-
|1867
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Charles B. Boynton]]
|-
|1867–1869
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Byron Sunderland]]
|-
|1869–1874
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Oliver Otis Howard]]
|-
|1875–1876
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Edward Parmelee Smith|Edward P. Smith]]
|-
|1877–1889
| style="width:175pt;"|[[William W. Patton]]
|-
|1890–1903
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Jeremiah Rankin]]
|-
|1903–1906
| style="width:175pt;"|John Gordon
|-
|1906–1912
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Wilbur P. Thirkield]]
|-
|1912–1918
| style="width:175pt;"|Stephen M. Newman
|-
|1918–1926
| style="width:175pt;"|J. Stanley Durkee
|-
|1926–1960
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Mordecai Wyatt Johnson]]
|-
|1960–1969
| style="width:175pt;"|[[James Nabrit Jr.]]
|-
|1969–1989
| style="width:175pt;"|[[James E. Cheek]]
|-
|1990–1994
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Franklyn Jenifer]]
|-
|1995–2008
| style="width:175pt;"|[[H. Patrick Swygert]]
|-
|2008–2013
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Sidney A. Ribeau]]
|-
|2013–present
| style="width:175pt;"|[[Wayne A. I. Frederick]]
|}
The first sitting president to speak at Howard was [[Calvin Coolidge]] in 1924. His graduation speech was entitled, "The Progress of a People", and highlighted the accomplishments to date of African-Americans since the Civil War. His concluding thought was, "We can not go out from this place and occasion without refreshment of faith and renewal of confidence that in every exigency our Negro fellow citizens will render the best and fullest measure of service whereof they are capable."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=24186|title=Calvin Coolidge: Address at Howard University: "The Progress of a People" |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu|access-date=November 27, 2017}}</ref>
[[File:The Lower Quadrangle behind Founders Library; also known as "The Valley.".jpg|thumb|The Lower Quadrangle behind Founders Library; also known as "The Valley."]]
In 1965, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] delivered a speech to the graduating class at Howard, where he outlined his plans for civil rights legislation and endorsed aggressive [[affirmative action]] to combat the effects of years of segregation of blacks from the nation's economic opportunities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lbjlibrary.net/collections/selected-speeches/1965/06-04-1965.html |title=Commencement Address at Howard University: "To Fulfill These Rights", June 4, 1965 |website=LBJ Presidential Library |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026172236/http://www.lbjlibrary.net/collections/selected-speeches/1965/06-04-1965.html |archive-date=2019-10-26}}</ref> At the time, the voting rights bill was still pending in the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite web |last=Johnson|first=Lyndon B.|title=To Fulfill These Rights|url=https://www.whatsoproudlywehail.org/curriculum/the-american-calendar/to-fulfill-these-rights|publisher=What So Proudly We Hail|access-date=February 12, 2013 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108074133/https://www.whatsoproudlywehail.org/curriculum/the-american-calendar/to-fulfill-these-rights|archive-date=2018-11-08}}</ref>

In 1975 the historic [[Freedman's Hospital]] closed after 112 years of use as [[Howard University College of Medicine|Howard University College of Medicine's]] primary teaching hospital. Howard University Hospital opened that same year and continues to be used as HUCM's primary teaching hospital, with service to the surrounding community.

Also in 1975, [[Jeanne Sinkford]] became the first female dean of any American dental school when she was appointed as the dean of Howard University's school of dentistry.<ref name="womendentists">{{cite web |url=http://www.cda.org/page/Library/cda_member/pubs/journal/jour0602/hyson.html |title=June 2002 CDA Journal - Feature Article, Copyright 2002 Journal of the California Dental Association |publisher=Cda.org |access-date=2012-08-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928181315/http://www.cda.org/page/Library/cda_member/pubs/journal/jour0602/hyson.html |archive-date=2011-09-28}}</ref>

In 1989, Howard gained national attention when students rose up in protest against the appointment of then-Republican National Committee Chairman [[Lee Atwater]] as a new member of the university's board of trustees. Student activists disrupted Howard's 122nd-anniversary celebrations, and eventually occupied the university's administration building.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957283,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106011634/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957283,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 6, 2007 |title=Saying No to Lee Atwater |publisher=Time Warner |work=Time.com |first=Alessandra |last=Stanley |author2=Jacob V. Lamar |date=March 20, 1989}}</ref> Within days, both Atwater and Howard's President, [[James E. Cheek]], resigned.

===21st century===
In April 2007, the head of the faculty senate called for the ouster of Howard University President [[H. Patrick Swygert]], saying the school was in a state of crisis, and it was time to end "an intolerable condition of incompetence and dysfunction at the highest level."<ref name="Wapo31007">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/09/AR2007030902184.html |title=Ouster Sought of Howard President |author1=Susan Kinzie |author2=Keith L. Alexander |date=March 10, 2007 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=February 13, 2010}}</ref> This came on the heels of several criticisms of Howard University and its management. The following month, Swygert announced he would retire in June 2008.<ref name="wapo52107">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/20/AR2007052001567.html |title=Howard University |date=May 21, 2007 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=February 13, 2010}}</ref> The university announced in May 2008 that [[Sidney Ribeau]] of [[Bowling Green State University]] would succeed Swygert as president.<ref name="WapoRibeau">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/07/AR2008050701676.html |title=Bowling Green President Named to Top Position |last=Strauss |first=Valerie |date=May 8, 2008 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=February 13, 2010}}</ref> Ribeau appointed a Presidential Commission on Academic Renewal to conduct a year-long self-evaluation that resulted in reducing or closing 20 out of 171 academic programs.<ref name=test>{{cite news |title=Howard prepares for test of its future |work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=December 14, 2010 |first=Daniel |last=de Vise |page=B1}}</ref> For example, they proposed closing the undergraduate philosophy major and African studies major.<ref name=test/>

Six years later, in 2013, university insiders again alleged the university was in crisis. In April, the vice chairwoman of the university's board of trustees wrote a letter to her colleagues harshly criticizing the university's president and calling for a vote of no confidence; her letter was subsequently obtained by the media where it drew national headline.<ref name=CHE_2013_BOT_letter>{{cite journal |url=http://chronicle.com/article/In-Ominous-Letter-a-Trustee/139689/ |title=In Ominous Letter, a Trustee Blasts Howard U.'s President and Board Chair |author=Jack Stripling |journal=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]] |date=June 7, 2013 |access-date=July 2, 2013}}</ref><ref name=WP_2013_BOT_letter>{{cite news |url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-06-07/local/39811315_1_howard-s-colleges-board-chairman |title=Howard trustee says university in 'trouble' |author=Nick Anderson |work=The Washington Post |date=June 7, 2013 |access-date=July 2, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020075627/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-06-07/local/39811315_1_howard-s-colleges-board-chairman |archive-date=October 20, 2013}}</ref> Two months later, the university's Council of Deans alleged "fiscal mismanagement is doing irreparable harm," blaming the university's senior vice president for administration, chief financial officer and treasurer and asking for his dismissal.<ref name=WP_2013_Council_of_Dean>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/howard-academic-deans-allege-fiscal-mismanagement/2013/07/01/ecd78f90-e0d8-11e2-8ae9-5db15d3c0fca_story.html |title=Howard academic deans allege 'fiscal mismanagement' |author=Nick Anderson |work=The Washington Post |date=July 1, 2013 |access-date=July 2, 2013}}</ref> In October, the faculty voted no confidence in the university's board of trustees executive committee, two weeks after university president Sidney A. Ribeau announced he would retire at the end of the year.<ref name=WP_2013_no_confidence>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/howard-faculty-group-votes-no-confidence-in-key-board-of-trustees-committee/2013/10/16/f94f6dc0-3686-11e3-80c6-7e6dd8d22d8f_story.html |title=Howard faculty group votes no confidence in key Board of Trustees committee |author=Nick Anderson |work=The Washington Post |date=October 16, 2013 |access-date=October 18, 2013}}</ref> On October 1, the Board of Trustees named [[Wayne A. I. Frederick]] Interim President.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.howard.edu/newsroom/releases/2013/2013101LetterFromChairmanBarryRand.html |title=Howard University Press Release |publisher=Howard University |date=October 1, 2013 |access-date=November 15, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115005433/http://www.howard.edu/newsroom/releases/2013/2013101LetterFromChairmanBarryRand.html |archive-date=November 15, 2013}}</ref> In July 2014 Howard's Board of Trustees named Frederick as the school's 17th president.<ref name=WP_2014_frederick_hired>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/wayne-frederick-named-president-of-howard-university/2014/07/22/8d399570-11a0-11e4-8936-26932bcfd6ed_story.html |title=Wayne A.I. Frederick named 17th president of Howard University |author1=Emma Brown |author2=Wesley Robinson |work=The Washington Post |date=July 22, 2014 |access-date=July 23, 2013}}</ref>

In May 2016, President [[Barack Obama]] delivered a commencement address at Howard University encouraging the graduates to become advocates for racial change and to prepare for future challenges.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rhodan|first=Maya|url=http://time.com/4322109/president-obama-howard-university-graduation-speech/|title=President Obama Strikes Hopeful Tone in Howard University Commencement Speech|date=2016-05-07|access-date=2019-03-12|language=en|website=Time}}</ref>

In 2018, nearly 1,000 students held a [[Howard University sit-ins|sit-in]] demanding injunction over the administration's use of funding. After the student protest ended, faculty voted "no confidence" in the university president, chief operating officer, provost, and board of trustees.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2018/04/12/no-confidence-howard-faculty-members-say-in-vote-they-have-lost-faith-in-schools-leaders/ |title= No confidence: Howard faculty members say in vote they have lost faith in school's leaders |first=Sarah |last=Larimer |work=The Washington Post |date=April 12, 2018 |access-date=May 27, 2018}}</ref> The nine-day protest ended with university officials promising to meet most of their demands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/04/06/600401378/9-day-student-protest-at-howard-university-ends-with-a-deal|title=9-Day Student Protest At Howard University Ends With A Deal|first=Vanessa|last=Romo|work=The Two-Way|publisher=NPR|date=April 6, 2018}}</ref>

In July 2020, philanthropist [[MacKenzie Scott]] donated $40 million to Howard. Her single donation is the largest in Howard's history and one of the largest ever to an HBCU.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/howard-university-announces-largest-single-donor-gift-from-philanthropist-mackenzie-scott/2020/07/28/e354fc92-d116-11ea-8c55-61e7fa5e82ab_story.html+&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us|title=Howard University announces largest single-donor gift, from philanthropist MacKenzie Scott|newspaper=The Washington Post|first=Lauren |last=Lumpkin|date=July 28, 2020}}</ref>

In April 2021, the Department of Veterans Affairs reported that they would be suspending the school from receiving new GI Bill benefits due to problems with managing its student veterans. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Beynon |first1=Steve |title=Errors Cost Student Vets GI Bill Benefits. Now, Howard University Is Scrambling to Save VA Funding |url=https://www.military.com/daily-news/2021/08/11/errors-cost-student-vets-gi-bill-benefits-now-howard-university-scrambling-save-va-funding.html |website=www.military.com |publisher=Military.com |access-date=11 August 2021}}</ref>

In May 2021, the university announced that the newly re-established college of fine arts, led by Dean [[Phylicia Rashad]], will be named the Chadwick A. Boseman College of Fine Arts for the late actor and distinguished alum.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/chadwick-boseman-howard-university-college-fine-arts-1234982110/|title=Howard University Names Newly Re-Established College of Fine Arts for Chadwick Boseman|first=Angelique |last=Jackson|date=May 26, 2021}}</ref>

==Campus==
[[File:WHUT-TV, Howard University.jpg|thumb|WHUT-TV station in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
The {{convert|256|acre|km2 sqmi|adj=on}} campus, often referred to as "The Mecca", is in northwest Washington, D. C.<ref name=fb>{{cite web |url=http://www.howard.edu/facts/facts.pdf |title=Howard Facts 2009 (PDF) |access-date=September 10, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325165727/http://www.howard.edu/facts/facts.pdf |archive-date=March 25, 2009}}</ref>
Major improvements, additions and changes occurred at the school in the aftermath of [[World War I]]. New buildings were built under the direction of architect [[Albert Cassell]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Howard University and The Federal Government During The Presidential Administrations of Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1928–1945 |author=Clifford L. Muse, Jr. |journal=The Journal of Negro History |year=1991 |pages=1–20 |publisher=Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc. |jstor=2717406 |volume=76 |issue=1/4|doi=10.1086/JNHv76n1-4p1|s2cid=149933299 }}</ref><ref name=fb/>

Howard University has several historic landmarks on campus, such as [[Andrew Rankin Memorial Chapel, Frederick Douglas Memorial Hall, Founders Library|Andrew Rankin Memorial Chapel]], Frederick Douglass Memorial Hall, and the Founders Library.
[[File:Rankin Chapel.jpg|thumb|Andrew Rankin Memorial Chapel]]

The Howard University Gallery of Art was established by Howard's Board of Trustees in 1928. The gallery's permanent collection has grown to over 4,000 works of art and continues to serve as an academic resource for the Howard community.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www2.howard.edu/howards-gallery-art-among-top-50-united-states|title=Howard's Gallery of Art Among Top 50 in the United States - Howard University|access-date=June 29, 2016}}</ref>

Howard University has nine residence halls for students: Drew Hall (male freshmen), College Hall North (female freshmen), The Harriet Tubman Quadrangle - "Quad" (female freshmen), Cook Hall (male freshmen), Bethune Annex (co-ed, undergraduates), Plaza Towers West (co-ed, undergraduates), College Hall South (co-ed) and Plaza Towers East (co-ed, undergraduates).

Howard University Hospital, opened in 1975 on the eastern end of campus, was built on the site of [[Griffith Stadium]], in use from the 1890s to 1965 as home of the [[Washington Senators (1891–1899)|first]], [[Minnesota Twins|second]] and [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|third]] incarnations of the [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] Senators, as well as the [[National Football League|NFL's]] [[Washington Redskins]], several college football teams (including [[Georgetown Hoyas|Georgetown]], [[George Washington Colonials|GWU]] and [[Maryland Terrapins|Maryland]]) and part-time home of the [[Homestead Grays]] of the [[Negro National League (1933–1948)|Negro National League]].

[[File:WHUR (Howard University Radio).jpg|thumb|right|[[WHUR-FM]] (Howard University Radio)]]

Howard University is home to the commercial radio station [[WHUR-FM]] 96.3, also known as Howard University Radio. A student-run station, WHBC, operates on an [[HD Radio]] subcarrier for WHUR-FM. Howard is also home to the public television station [[WHUT-TV]], which is on campus next to WHUR-FM.

==Organization==
The university is led by a Board of Trustees that includes a faculty trustee from the undergraduate colleges, a faculty trustee from the graduate and professional colleges serving three-year terms, two student trustees, each serving one-year terms, and three alumni-elected trustees, each serving three-year terms.<ref name=fb/>

==Academics==
{{Infobox US university ranking
| ARWU_NU = 191–206
| ARWU_W = 901–1000
| THE_WSJ = 127
| QS_W = 581–590
| USNWR_NU = 80
| USNWR_W = 761
| THES_W = 201–250
| Wamo_NU = 141
| Forbes = 388
}}

===Schools and colleges===
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* College of Engineering and Architecture
* College of Nursing & Allied Health Sciences
* College of Pharmacy
* Howard University College of Arts and Sciences
* [[Howard University College of Dentistry]]
* Howard University School of Business
* [[Howard University School of Communications]]
* [[Howard University College of Medicine]]
* [[Howard University School of Law]]
* Middle School of Mathematics and Science
* School of Divinity
* School of Education
* School of Social Work
{{Div col end}}

===Faculty===
Howard faculty include: member of Congress from Maryland [[Roscoe Bartlett]], blood shipment pioneer [[Charles R. Drew|Charles Drew]],<ref name="plasma">{{cite book |last=Starr |first=Douglas P. |title=Blood: An Epic History of Medicine and Commerce |location=New York |publisher=Quill |year=2000 |pages= 111–117 |isbn=978-0-7515-3000-1}}</ref> Emmy-winning actor [[Al Freeman Jr.]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.howard.edu/newsroom/releases/2012/20120912ActingLegendAlFreemanJrRememberedatHowardUniversity.html |title=Acting Legend Al Freeman Jr. Remembered at Howard University – Howard University News Room |publisher=Howard.edu |date=March 16, 2000 |access-date=July 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119031802/http://www.howard.edu/newsroom/releases/2012/20120912ActingLegendAlFreemanJrRememberedatHowardUniversity.html |archive-date=November 19, 2015}}</ref> suffragist [[Elizabeth Piper Ensley]],<ref name="riverside">{{cite web |url=http://www.denverpost.com/lifestyles/ci_3336111?source=infinite-up |title=Denver cemetery's data "very valuable" to state |publisher=The Denver Post |date=December 23, 2005 |access-date=October 24, 2015}}</ref> civil rights lawyer [[Charles Hamilton Houston]], media entrepreneur [[Cathy Hughes]], marine biologist [[Ernest Everett Just]], professor of surgery [[LaSalle D. Leffall Jr.]], journalist [[Nikole Hannah-Jones]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.syracuse.com/us-news/2021/07/1619-project-creator-nikole-hannah-jones-chooses-howard-university-after-unc-tenure-fight.html|title=1619 Project creator Nikole Hannah-Jones chooses Howard University after UNC tenure fight|date=July 6, 2021}}</ref> political consultant [[Ron Walters]], novelist and diplomat [[E. R. Braithwaite]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/13/books/e-r-braithwaite-author-of-to-sir-with-love-dies-at-104.html|title=E. R. Braithwaite, Author of 'To Sir, With Love', Dies at 104|date=December 13, 2016|work=The New York Times}}</ref> filmmaker [[Haile Gerima]], and psychiatrist [[Frances Cress Welsing]].

===Honors programs===
Howard offers four selective [[Honors College|honors programs]] for its most high-achieving undergraduate students: the College of Arts & Sciences Honors Program, the School of Education Honors Program, the Executive Leadership Honors Program in the School of Business, and the Annenberg Honors Program in the School of Communications.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ous.howard.edu/honors-scholar-development/honors-programs|title=Honors Programs | Howard University - Undergraduate Studies|website=ous.howard.edu}}</ref>

===Martha and Bruce Karsh STEM Scholars Program===
In 2017, Howard established the Bison [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] Scholars Program to increase the number of [[underrepresented group|underrepresented minorities]] with high-level research careers in science, engineering, technology, and mathematics. Bison STEM Scholars are given full scholarships and committed to earning a [[PhD]] or a combined [[MD–PhD]] in a STEM discipline. The highly competitive program annually accepts approximately 30 undergraduate students for each new cohort.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://karshstemscholars.howard.edu/about|title=About {{!}} Karsh STEM Scholars|website=karshstemscholars.howard.edu|access-date=2020-01-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://magazine.howard.edu/categories/features-homecoming/new-heights-stem|title=New Heights in STEM {{!}} Howard Magazine|website=magazine.howard.edu|access-date=2020-01-30}}</ref> As of 2020, the Bison STEM Scholars Program was renamed the Martha and Bruce Karsh Stem Scholars Program (KSSP) following the $10 million donation from the family's foundation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thehilltoponline.com/2020/01/30/howard-receives-10-million-donation-largest-in-school-history/|title=Howard Receives $10 Million Donation, Largest in School History|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-08}}</ref>

===Google's Tech Exchange===
In 2017, [[Google Inc.]] announced it established a pilot residency program named "Howard University West" on its campus in [[Mountain View, California]], to help increase [[Underrepresented group|underrepresented minorities]] in the tech industry. In 2018, the program expanded from a three-month summer program to a full academic year program and the name changed to "Tech Exchange" to be inclusive of other [[minority-serving institution]]s added to the program.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newsroom.howard.edu/newsroom/static/8771/howard-university-and-google-expand-successful-computer-science-residency|title=Howard University and Google Expand Successful Computer Science Residency To Include Additional HBCUs|date=2018-09-19|website=Howard Newsroom|language=en|access-date=2019-09-03}}</ref> Howard students in the program will learn from senior Google engineers, practice the latest coding techniques, and experience tech culture in Mountain View for course credits towards their degrees.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2017/03/23/howard-university-google/99518020/|title=Google opens Howard University West to train black coders|access-date=December 31, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://newsroom.howard.edu/newsroom/article/7931/howard-university-and-google-expand-howard-west-computer-science-residency|title=Newsroom|access-date=February 4, 2018}}</ref>

===Research===
[[File:The Interdisciplinary Research Building.jpg|thumb|left|The Interdisciplinary Research Building]]

====Interdisciplinary Research Building====
Howard's most prominent research building is the Interdisciplinary Research Building (IRB). Opened in 2016, the multi-story, 81,670 square foot, state-of-the-art research facility was completed for $70 million. The IRB was designed to promote more collaborative and innovative research on campus.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/04/15/howard-u-opens-70-million-laboratory-building-with-hopes-for-more-to-come/|title=Howard University opens $70 million laboratory building, with hopes for more to come|access-date=June 29, 2016}}</ref>

====Moorland-Spingarn Research Center====
{{Main|Moorland-Spingarn Research Center}}

"The Moorland-Spingarn Research Center (MSRC) is recognized as one of the world's largest and most comprehensive repositories for the documentation of the history and culture of people of African descent in [[Africa]], the [[Americas]], and other parts of the world. The [[Research library|MSRC]] collects, preserves, and makes available for research a wide range of resources chronicling black experiences."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.howard.edu/library/moorland-spingarn/HIST.HTM |title=Howard History |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106005157/http://www.howard.edu/library/moorland-spingarn/HIST.HTM |archive-date=November 6, 2007}}</ref>

====NASA University Research Center (BCCSO)====
The Beltsville Center for Climate System Observation (BCCSO) is a NASA University Research Center at the [[Beltsville, Maryland]] campus of Howard University. BCCSO consists of a multidisciplinary group of Howard faculty in partnership with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Earth Sciences Division, other academic institutions, and government. This group is led by three Principal Investigators, Everette Joseph, also the director of BCCSO, Demetrius Venable and Belay Demoz. BCCSO trains science and academic leaders to understand atmospheric processes through atmospheric observing systems and analytical methods.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |url=http://bccso.howard.edu/about |publisher=Howard University Beltsville Center for Climate System Observation |access-date=August 2, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328105835/http://bccso.howard.edu/about |archive-date=March 28, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bccso.org/education |title=Beltsville Center for Climate System Observation (BCCSO) |access-date=August 10, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725060936/http://bccso.org/education |archive-date=July 25, 2011}}</ref>

===Publications===
Howard University is home to ''[[The Hilltop (newspaper)|The Hilltop]]'', the university's student newspaper. Founded in 1924 by [[Zora Neale Hurston]], ''The Hilltop'' enjoys a long legacy at the university.

Howard University is the publisher of ''[[The Journal of Negro Education]]'', which began publication in 1932. The Howard University Bison Yearbook is created, edited and published during the school year to provide students a year-in-review. Howard University also publishes the ''Capstone'', the official e-newsletter for the university; and the ''Howard Magazine'', the official magazine for the university, which is published three times a year.

===Howard University Libraries===
[[File:Howard University Washington DC - Founders Library.jpg|thumb|right|Founders Library is an iconic building on the Howard University campus that has been declared a [[National Historic Landmark]].]]
[[Howard University Libraries]] (HUL) is the [[library system]] of Howard University and is composed by eight [[Library branch|branches]] and centers:
* The [[Founders Library]], the main library, founded in January 1939.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/howard-universitys-founders-library-named-a-national-treasure/2016/02/29/75fd4f4e-df28-11e5-8d98-4b3d9215ade1_story.html|title=Howard University's Founders Library named a national treasure}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afro.com/howard-university-library-named-national-treasure/|title=Howard University Library Named National Treasure - Afro|first=Stephanie|last=Cornish|date=March 2, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlantablackstar.com/2016/04/01/howard-university-library-named-national-treasure-to-be-modernized-with-new-technology/ |title=Howard University Library Named National Treasure, to Be Modernized with New Technology|first=Kiersten|last=Willis|date=April 1, 2016}}</ref>
* The School of Business Library
* The School of Divinity Library
* The School of Social Work Library
* The Moorland-Spingarn Research Center
* The Channing Pollock Theatre Collection
* The Patent and Trademark Resource Center
* The Undergraduate Library (UGL).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.howard.edu/friendly.php?s=library/contactuss-lib-ctab-8716879-3|title=LibGuides V2: Welcome to the Howard University Libraries: Contact Us|first=Lopez|last=Matthews|access-date=September 11, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606131848/http://library.howard.edu/friendly.php?s=library%2Fcontactus#s-lib-ctab-8716879-3|archive-date=June 6, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
* Afro-American Studies Center<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.howard.edu/friendly.php?s=library/contactus#s-lg-box-wrapper-10279377|title=LibGuides V2: Welcome to the Howard University Libraries: Contact Us|first=Lopez|last=Matthews|access-date=September 11, 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606131848/http://library.howard.edu/friendly.php?s=library%2Fcontactus#s-lg-box-wrapper-10279377|archive-date=June 6, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

==Student life==

===Athletics===
{{Main|Howard Bison}}
[[File:Greene Stadium at Howard University.jpg|thumb|Greene Stadium. (Howard's School of Business is in the top-right).]]
Most of Howard's 21 [[NCAA Division I]] varsity teams compete primarily in the [[Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference|Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC)]].

===Students===
[[File:Caribbean Students Association Tree.jpg|thumb|left|The Caribbean Students Association Tree at Howard University.]]
[[File:"The Quad".jpg|thumb|left|The Harriet Tubman Quadrangle – "The Quad" – consists of five halls housing approximately 640 freshman females only. The resident halls are Wheatley, Baldwin, Frazier, Truth and Crandall Halls.]]
[[File:Howard University Towers East (Graduate Housing).jpg|thumb|right|Howard University Towers East is one of the graduate student dormitories on-campus.]]
The U.S. students come from the following regions: New England 2%, Mid-West 8%, South 22%, Mid-Atlantic 55%, and West 12%.<ref name=fb/> Nearly 4% of the student body are [[international student]]s. Howard University is 86% African-American/Black.<ref name=demographics>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stateuniversity.com/universities/DC/Howard_University.html|title=Howard University (HU, HU) Introduction and Academics - Washington, DC|website=www.stateuniversity.com}}</ref>

Howard is one of the five largest HBCUs in the nation with around 10,000 students.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hbculifestyle.com/largest-hbcu-by-enrollment/|title=Largest HBCU in the Nation: Top 10 Black Colleges by Enrollment|date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> The [[student–teacher ratio|student-to-faculty ratio]] is 7:1.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/howard-university-1448</ref>

Howard is a selective institution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/howard-university-1448|title=Howard University|publisher=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|access-date=February 11, 2017}}</ref> The incoming freshman class of fall 2019 had 21,009 applicants and 7,561 (36%) were accepted into Howard.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www2.howard.edu/admission/undergraduate/counselors|title=Admission Profile |publisher=Howard University|website=www2.howard.edu}}</ref>

There are over 200 student organizations and special interest groups established on campus.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.howard.edu/ |title=Home | Howard University |publisher=.howard.edu |access-date=April 2, 2016}}</ref>

Howard produced four [[Rhodes Scholar]]s between 1986 and 2017.<ref name="newsroom.howard.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://newsroom.howard.edu/newsroom/article/6756/howard-university-announces-senior-named-2017-rhodes-scholar|title=Newsroom|website=Howard Newsroom}}</ref> Between 1998 and 2009, Howard University produced a [[Marshall Scholar]], two [[Truman Scholar]]s, twenty-two [[Fulbright Scholar]]s and ten [[Pickering Fellows]].<ref name=":0"/>

In 2006, Howard's six-year graduation rate was 68%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/2009plan/g3howarduniversity.doc |title=Howard University 2009 Performance Plan |work=US Dept. of Education |date=February 14, 2008 |access-date=January 19, 2010}}</ref> In 2009, 1,270 of the 1,476 full-time freshmen enrolled were found to have financial need (86%). Of these, Howard could meet the full financial aid needs of 316 freshmen.<ref name=fa>{{cite web |url=http://collegesearch.collegeboard.com/search/CollegeDetail.jsp?collegeId=789&profileId=2 |title=College Search – Howard University |work=College Board |access-date=January 19, 2010}}</ref> Howard's average undergraduate student's indebtedness at graduation is $16,798.<ref name=fa/>

===Greek letter organizations===
[[File:The Zeta Phi Beta Monument..jpg|thumb|upright|The Zeta Phi Beta Monument in Howard University's lower quadrangle (The Valley).]]
[[File:"Symbiosis".jpg|thumb|upright|"Symbiosis" by [[Richard Hunt (sculptor)|Richard Hunt]] was a gift to the university by former school trustee Hobart Taylor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.howard.edu/library/imagesofthecapstone/Bison.htm|title=Howard University Libraries|website=www.howard.edu}}</ref> ]]

Howard University is the founding site of the [[National Pan-Hellenic Council|National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)]] and five of the nine NPHC organizations. The Alpha (founding) Chapters of [[Alpha Kappa Alpha]] (1908), [[Omega Psi Phi]] (1911), [[Delta Sigma Theta]] (1913), [[Phi Beta Sigma]] (1914), and [[Zeta Phi Beta]] (1920) were established on Howard's campus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.howard.edu/campustour/life/students/greeks/sororities/Default.htm|title=Campus Virtual Tour: Greek Organizations at Howard University|website=www.howard.edu}}</ref> However, the Beta Chapter of [[Alpha Phi Alpha]] was the first to appear in 1907.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wesley |first=Charles H. |author-link=Charles H. Wesley |title=The History of Alpha Phi Alpha, A Development in College Life |edition=14th |page=43 |publisher=Foundation |location=Chicago, IL |year=1981 |asin= B000ESQ14W}}</ref> Also in 1920, the Xi Chapter of [[Kappa Alpha Psi]] appeared on campus, followed by the Alpha Phi Chapter of [[Sigma Gamma Rho]] in 1939, and the Alpha Tau Chapter of [[Iota Phi Theta]] in 1983. Three percent of undergraduate men and five percent of undergraduate women are active in Howard's NPHC.<ref>https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/howard-university-1448/student-life</ref>
[[File:The AKA Tree.jpg|thumb|upright=.75|The Alpha Kappa Alpha Tree on Howard's main yard.]]

Other notable [[Greek letter organization]]s registered at Howard include [[Phi Beta Kappa]], [[Iota Phi Lambda]], [[Tau Beta Pi]], [[Delta Sigma Pi]], [[Phi Sigma Pi]], [[Alpha Phi Omega]], [[Alpha Nu Omega]], [[Alpha Kappa Psi]], [[Phi Sigma Rho]], [[Gamma Iota Sigma]], [[Phi Mu Alpha]], [[Sigma Alpha Iota]], [[Gamma Sigma Sigma]], [[Kappa Kappa Psi]], [[Tau Beta Sigma]], [[Chi Eta Phi]], and [[Phi Alpha Delta]].

===Howard Homecoming===
Howard Homecoming week is the most prominent and richest cultural tradition of the institution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/15/arts/howard-university-homecoming.html|title=At Howard University, Homecoming Is a Pilgrimage|first1=Bianca|last1=Ladipo|first2=Andre|last2=Wagner|date=November 15, 2019|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theundefeated.com/features/best-hbcu-homecoming-spelhouse-vs-howard/|title=For the best HBCU homecoming, it's Spelhouse vs. Howard|first=C. Isaiah Smalls|last=II|date=October 22, 2017}}</ref> Over 100,000 of alumni, students, celebrity guests, and visitors are in attendance to patronize the many events and attractions affiliated with the festive week on and near campus. While the specific calendar of events changes from year to year, the traditional homecoming events include the Homecoming Football Game and Tailgate, Pep Rally, Coronation Ball, Greek Step-Show (Howard NPHC Greeks), and Fashion Show. After a two-year hiatus, the Yardfest returned in 2016 as one of the cherished traditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/therootdc/howards-homecoming-a-brand-and-a-business/2011/10/20/gIQArxwx3L_story.html|title=Howard's homecoming: a brand and a business|access-date=June 29, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://kysdc.com/3397562/howard-university-homecoming-event-lineup/|title=Howard University Homecoming Event Lineup|access-date=May 20, 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926041834/https://kysdc.com/3397562/howard-university-homecoming-event-lineup/|archive-date=September 26, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.essence.com/2010/11/03/first-annual-howard-wood-panel-2010|title=Hollywood Goes to Howard University Homecoming|date=November 3, 2010|access-date=June 29, 2016}}</ref>

Howard's first official homecoming was held in 1924 and it takes place every fall semester with a new theme developed by the homecoming committee.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wchbnewsdetroit.com/2357572/howard-homecoming-2011-the-people-history-and-events/|title=Howard Homecoming 2011: The People, History, And Events|access-date=May 20, 2017}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thehilltoponline.com/2016/07/13/howard-homecoming-committee-introduces-2016-theme-blueprint/|title=Howard Homecoming Committee Introduces 2016 Theme: Blueprint|access-date=May 20, 2017}}</ref>

===Springfest===
Springfest is an annual tradition created by the Undergraduate Student Association (UGSA) to celebrate the arrival of spring. Springfest is similar to homecoming week in the fall but on a smaller scale and with more emphasis on the student body. Springfest events traditionally include the Fashion Show, Talent Show, Vendor Fair, Poetry Showcase, Beauty Conference, Charity Basketball Game, and a major community service event. The schedule of events changes slightly each year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://issuu.com/thehilltoponline.com/docs/for_online_the_hilltop_23mar2017_is|title=The Hilltop, March 23, 2017, Volume 101, Issue 23|access-date=December 31, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://therapfest.com/rapper-fabolous-hosts-howard-university-high-end-fashion-show-no-limits-for-springfest/|title=Rapper Fabolous Hosts Howard University High End Fashion Show "No Limits" For Springfest - The Rapfest Presents|date=April 3, 2017|access-date=December 31, 2017}}</ref>

===Bison Ball===
The Bison Ball and Excellence Awards is an annual [[black tie]] gala hosted by the Howard University Student Association (HUSA). A select number of students, faculty, organizations, and administrators from the Howard community are honored for their exceptional accomplishments. This event takes place near the end of every spring semester.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whut.org/whut/event/bison-ball-excellence-2016-awards/|title=Upcoming Events – Bison Ball & Excellence 2016 Awards |publisher=WHUT Howard University Television|access-date=June 29, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605090908/http://www.whut.org/whut/event/bison-ball-excellence-2016-awards/|archive-date=June 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://alexanderjulian.info/blog/2015/5/1/bison-ball-2015-the-concrete-rose|title=Bison Ball + Excellence Awards – The Concrete Rose|access-date=June 29, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601223237/http://alexanderjulian.info/blog/2015/5/1/bison-ball-2015-the-concrete-rose|archive-date=June 1, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Resfest===
Resfest week is a Howard tradition that involves freshmen living in [[dormitory|residence halls]] on campus competing in several organized competitions (field day, academic debate, stroll, step-show etc) for campus bragging rights. This event takes place on campus near the end of every spring semester.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.howard.edu/campustour/life/reslife/resfest/Default.htm |title=Campus Virtual Tour: Residence Life at Howard University |publisher=Howard.edu |access-date=April 2, 2016}}</ref>

==Notable alumni==
{{Main list|List of Howard University people}}

Distinguished alumni of Howard University include a [[Vice President of the United States]], several United States diplomats and United States governors, a [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations]], foreign royals, seven foreign heads of state, 11 members of [[United States Congress]], a [[Supreme Court Justice]], directors and executives of [[Fortune 500]] companies, [[Academy Award]]– and [[Emmy Award]]–winning actors, [[Grammy Award]]—winning songwriters and producers, two [[US Army]] generals, a [[US Air Force]] general and [[Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force]], and Nobel laureates including Nobel Prize for Literature winner [[Toni Morrison]]. Additional alumni include civil rights activists and pioneers in the [[Civil Rights Movement]], a [[Secretary of Health and Human Services|United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]], a [[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development]], a [[United States Secretary of Agriculture]], 12 Mayors of American cities, and three State Attorneys General. Howard University has also produced many firsts, including [[Roger Arliner Young]] who became the first African-American woman to receive a doctorate in zoology, [[Benjamin O. Davis Sr.]] the first African-American US Army general, , [[Johnson O. Akinleye]], 12th Chancellor of [[North Carolina Central University]],
[[Thurgood Marshall]], the first African-American Supreme Court justice, and [[Edward W. Brooke III]] who became the first African-American elected to the [[US Senate]], among others. Howard University also counts four [[Rhodes Scholarship]] winners,<ref name="newsroom.howard.edu"/> 22 [[Pickering Fellowship|Pickering Fellows]], 11 [[Truman Scholars]], over 70 [[Fulbright Scholars]], a [[Schwarzman Scholars|Schwarzman Scholar]], a [[Goldwater Scholarship|Goldwater Scholar]], and two [[Pulitzer Prize]] winners and numerous other Pulitzer Prize nominees among its alumni. To date Howard University has granted over 120,000 degrees<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.howard.edu/about/about-howard|title=About Howard | Howard University|website=www2.howard.edu}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://newsroom.howard.edu/newsroom/article/8821/howard-university-senior-named-2018-hbcu-competitiveness-scholar-white-house |title=Newsroom |website=Howard Newsroom |language=en |access-date=2019-03-13}}</ref> and produces the most black [[doctorate degree|doctorate]] recipients of any university.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hbcu-levers.blogspot.com/p/this-note-provides-closer-look-at-some.html |title=TECH-Levers: HBCUs Produce the Most Black Alums Who Receive Doctorates in Science and Engineering |publisher=Hbcu-levers.blogspot.com |access-date=April 2, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www2.howard.edu/about/history |title=History – Howard University |publisher=.howard.edu |access-date=April 2, 2016}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" caption="Notable Howard University alumni include:">
File:Kamala Harris Vice Presidential Portrait (cropped).jpg|[[Kamala Harris]], 49th [[Vice President of the United States]]
File:Thurgood-marshall-2.jpg|[[Thurgood Marshall]], [[United States Supreme Court Justice]]
File:Mike Espy (cropped).jpg|[[Mike Espy]], 25th [[United States Secretary of Agriculture]]
File:Douglas Wilder 2003 NIH.jpg|[[Douglas Wilder]], 66th [[Governor of Virginia]]
File:Andrew Young, bw head-and-shoulders photo, June 6, 1977.jpg|[[Andrew Young]], [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the UN]]. and [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Congressman]] from Georgia
File:Edward brooke senator.jpg|[[Edward Brooke]], [[United States Senate|United States Senator]]
File:David dinkins (cropped).jpg|[[David Dinkins]], 106th [[Mayor of New York City]]
File:Elijah E. Cummings official photo (cropped).jpg|[[Elijah Cummings]], [[United States Representative]]
File:Ras J. Baraka.jpg|[[Ras Baraka]], mayor of [[Newark, New Jersey]]
File:Toni Morrison 2008-2.jpg|[[Toni Morrison]], [[Pulitzer Prize]]– and [[Nobel Prize]]–winning novelist
File:Hurston-Zora-Neale-LOC.jpg|[[Zora Neale Hurston]], author and anthropologist
File:Paul Laurence Dunbar portrait.jpg|[[Paul Laurence Dunbar]], novelist and poet
File:Ta-Nehisi Coates.jpg|[[Ta-Nehisi Coates]], writer and journalist
File:Chadwick Boseman by Gage Skidmore.jpg|[[Chadwick Boseman]], actor
File:Phylicia Rashad 1998.jpg|[[Phylicia Rashad]], actress
File:Anthony Anderson 2010.jpg|[[Anthony Anderson]]
File:Roxie Roker 1976.JPG|[[Roxie Roker]], actress
File:Taraji P. Henson 2010.jpg|[[Taraji P. Henson]], actress
File:Nick Cannon by David Shankbone.jpg|[[Nick Cannon]], comedian, rapper and television host
</gallery>

==See also==
* ''[[A Bridge Across and Beyond]]'' by artist [[Richard Hunt (sculptor)|Richard Hunt]] (a sculpture at the Blackburn Fountain)
* [[Howard Theatre]]
* [[List of presidents of Howard University]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{NIE poster}}
{{commons category|Howard University}}
* {{Official website}}
* [http://www.hubison.com/ Howard Athletics website]
* {{cite AmCyc|wstitle=Howard University |short=x}}

{{Howard University}}
{{Navboxes
|titlestyle = {{CollegePrimaryStyle|Howard Bison|color=white}}
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[[Category:Howard University| ]]
[[Category:1867 establishments in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:African-American history of Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:American Missionary Association]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1867]]
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[[Category:Private universities and colleges in Washington, D.C.]]

Swastik Interchem

2021-08-14T19:32:34Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Infobox company | name = Swastik Interchem | logo = SAVE 20210813 243916.jpg | logo_size = 250px | type = | traded_as = | foundation..."

{{Infobox company
| name = Swastik Interchem
| logo = SAVE 20210813 243916.jpg
| logo_size = 250px
| type =
| traded_as =
| foundation = 2012
| founder = Kamal Jain Sethia & Arihant Sethia
| location_city = [[New Delhi]]
| location_country = [[India]]
| area_served = Global
| key_people =
| industry = Chemicals
| products =
| services =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| owner =
| parent =
| divisions =
| subsid =
| homepage = {{URL|http://www.swastikinterchem.net}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Swastik Interchem''' is an Indian company with interests in manufacturing and trading of chemicals with headquarters in [[New Delhi]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Private Limited is a Non-govt company, incorporated on 03 Apr, 2012|work= The Economic Times |url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/company/swastik-interchem-private-limited/U24100DL2012PTC233950|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd to expand chemical manufacturing capacity|work= ANI News |url= https://www.aninews.in/news/business/business/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing-capacity20210803153904/ |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref> It manufactures as well as pigments and Resins.<ref>{{Cite web|title= New Delhi-based chemical manufacturer and importer Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd|work= Business-Standard |url= https://www.business-standard.com/content/press-releases-ani/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing-capacity-121080301320_1.html |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==History==
The company was founded by Kamal Jain Sethia & Arihant Sethia in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd to expand chemical|work= The Print |url= https://theprint.in/ani-press-releases/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing-capacity/708533/|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem began operations as an importer and trader of chemicals|work= Yahoo News |url= https://in.news.yahoo.com/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-expand-101331056.html |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Product Range and Laboratory ==
The company has state of an art laboratory for testing raw materials.<ref>{{Cite web|title= About SWASTIK INTERCHEM PRIVATE LIMITED
|work= Tradeindia.com |url= https://www.tradeindia.com/Seller-1253683-SWASTIK-INTERCHEM-PVT-LTD-/ |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>The company is stockist of Titanium Dioxide, Pigments, Resins, Industrial Chemicals, Petro Chemicals & Solvents, Water Base Pigments and Chemicals, Lead-Free Pigments, Ketonic Resin, Eva Resin, Polyamide Resin, Vinyl Resin, CPP Resin, Titanium Dioxide Imported, Titanium SIPL, Rubine Toner, Pigment Blue, Lake Red, Middle Chrome, Scarlet Chrome, Pigment Yellow, Pigment Red, High-performance Pigments, Pigment Green, Organic Pigment, Inorganic Pigment, Speciality Chemicals, Thinner, Printing Ink Chemicals, Polymers, Toluene, Mix Xylene, Acetone, Green Solvents, Paint Chemicals, Butanol, DAA, NPA, Ethyl Acetate, Butyl Acetate, IPA, Titanium Powder, Imported Chemicals and Pigments.<ref>{{Cite web|title= SIPL is also a stockist of titanium dioxide, pigments, resins, industrial chemicals|work= bignewsnetwork.com |url= https://www.bignewsnetwork.com/news/270561639/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd-to-expand-chemical-manufacturing |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem pvt ltd - delhi|work= textileinfomedia.com |url= https://www.textileinfomedia.com/Swastik-Interchem-pvt-ltd |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Catering Industries==
The company as well as supplies catering needs of the user and multinational companies on pan India, public sector units and reputed national companies in Footwears, Paints, Thinners, Lacquers, Sealers, Cosmetics, Printing Ink, Flex & Laminator, Packaging, PVC Board, PVC Pipes, Paper Mill, Pvc Leather Cloth, Master Batch, Soap, Leather, Plastic and Rubber Industries, and Polymer Industries.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Chemicals industry News Swastik Interchem |work= industry-report.net |url= https://chemicals.industry-report.net/swastik-interchem-pvt-ltd/|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Private Limited,are well known in northern India for Organic & Inorganic Pigments,Resin, Dyes Additives, Pigment Chips, Pigment Paste, Paint Emulsion, Petro& Industrial Chemicals |work= getdistributors.com |url= https://www.getdistributors.com/distributors/swastik-interchem-private-limited-143874/ |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Imports and Exports==
The company is importing from China, Korea, France, USA, Dubai, Russia and Germany, Taiwan, and South Asia. The company is as well as supplies in Nepal, Srilanka, Bangladesh, Dubai, and Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Directors of Swastik Interchem Private Limited are Kamal Chand Sethia, Deepak Kumar Grover |work= zaubacorp.com |url= https://www.zaubacorp.com/company/SWASTIK-INTERCHEM-PRIVATE-LIMITED/U24100DL2012PTC233950 |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Research & Development
|work= indiamart.com |url= https://www.indiamart.com/swastik-interchem/infrastructure.html|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
==Awards and Honor==
The founder, Kamal Jain Sethia has been recognized by various government and non-government forums and conferred with several awards and honors including Doctor of Honors from ALMA ATA Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and Doctor of Letters from Kings University, Hawaii, USA, Business Leadership Award, Indira Gandhi Solitarily Award, Asia Pacific Achievers Award and International Business Excellence.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem Pvt Ltd to expand chemical manufacturing capacity |work= dailyhunt.in |url= https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/lokmat+english-epaper-lokmaten/swastik+interchem+pvt+ltd+to+expand+chemical+manufacturing+capacity-newsid-n304048162?s=a&uu=0x0ecc7d275cf26318&ss=pd |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Swastik Interchem is MANUFACTURE, IMPORTER, EXPORTER, INDENTER, DISTRIBUTOR & STOCKIST OF TITANIUM DIOXIDE, INDUSTRIAL & PETRO CHEMICALS, PIGMENTS & RESIN |work= zaubacorp.com |url= https://www.msmemart.com/member/product/213018/81230/titanium-dioxide |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Companies based in Delhi]]
[[Category:Chemical companies of India]]
[[Category:Chemical companies established in 2012]]

United States senator

2021-08-14T19:26:07Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|Upper house of the United States Congress}} {{For|current members of the Senate|List of current United States senators}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{pp-vandalism|s..."

{{short description|Upper house of the United States Congress}}
{{For|current members of the Senate|List of current United States senators}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{coord|38|53|26|N|77|0|32|W|region:US_type:landmark | display=title}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2016}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox legislature
| background_color = {{Democratic Party (US)/meta/color}}
| name = United States Senate
| legislature = [[117th United States Congress]]
| coa_pic = Seal of the United States Senate.svg
| coa_caption = [[Seal of the United States Senate|Seal of the U.S. Senate]]
| logo_pic = Flag of the United States Senate.svg{{!}}border
| logo_caption = Flag of the U.S. Senate
| logo_alt = Flag of the United States Senate
| house_type = Upper house
| body = United States Congress
| term_limits = None
| new_session = {{start date|2021|1|3}}
| leader2_type = [[Vice President of the United States|President of the Senate]]
| leader2 = [[Kamala Harris]]
| party2 = ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
| election2 = [[Inauguration of Joe Biden|January 20, 2021]]
| leader3_type = [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President pro tempore]]
| leader3 = [[Patrick Leahy]]
| party3 = ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
| election3 = January 20, 2021
| leader4_type = [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Majority Leader]]
| leader4 = [[Chuck Schumer]]
| party4 = ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
| election4 = January 20, 2021
| leader5_type = [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Minority Leader]]
| leader5 = [[Mitch McConnell]]
| party5 = ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])
| election5 = January 20, 2021
| leader6_type = [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Majority Whip]]
| leader6 = [[Dick Durbin]]
| party6 = ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
| election6 = January 20, 2021
| leader7_type = [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Minority Whip]]
| leader7 = [[John Thune]]
| party7 = ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])
| election7 = January 20, 2021
| members = 100 51 (or 50 plus the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]) for a majority
| structure1 = 117th United States Senate.svg
| structure1_res = 250px
| political_groups1 =
'''Majority (50)'''{{efn|name=tie|Democrats are in the majority due to the tiebreaking power of Democratic [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Kamala Harris]], who serves [[Ex officio member|''ex officio'']] as the president of the Senate.}}
* {{nowrap|{{Color box|{{Democratic Party (US)/meta/color}}|border=darkgray}} [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (48)}}
* {{nowrap|{{Color box|#9999ff|border=darkgray}} [[Independent politician|Independent]] (2)}}{{efn|name=King|The independent senators, [[Angus King]] of Maine and [[Bernie Sanders]] of Vermont, [[Senate Democratic Caucus|caucus]] with the Democrats.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/itsallpolitics/2012/11/14/165149633/maine-independent-angus-king-to-caucus-with-senate-democrats|title=Maine Independent Angus King To Caucus With Senate Democrats|website=[[Politico]]|date=November 14, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2020|quote=Angus King of Maine, who cruised to victory last week running as an independent, said Wednesday that he will caucus with Senate Democrats. [...] The Senate's other independent, Bernie Sanders of Vermont, also caucuses with the Democrats.}}</ref>}}
'''Minority (50)'''
* {{nowrap|{{Color box|{{Republican Party (US)/meta/color}}|border=darkgray}} [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] (50)}}


| term_length = 6 years
| voting_system1 = {{nowrap|[[Plurality voting]] in 46 states{{efn|[[Alaska]] (for its primary elections only), [[California]], and [[Washington (state)|Washington]] additionally utilize a [[nonpartisan blanket primary]], and [[Louisiana]] uses a [[Louisiana primary]], for their respective [[primary elections]].}}}} {{collapsible list
|titlestyle=font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
|title= Varies in 4 states
|bullets = yes
||[[Elections in Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]] and [[Elections in Mississippi|MS]]: [[Two-round system]]
|[[Elections in Alaska|AK]] (general elections only) and [[Elections in Maine|ME]]: [[Instant-runoff voting|Instant-runoff]]
}}
| last_election1 = [[2020 United States Senate elections|November 3, 2020]]{{efn|name=GA|Also the [[2020–21 United States Senate election in Georgia|Georgia runoff election]] and the [[2020–21 United States Senate special election in Georgia|Georgia special runoff election]] held on January 5, 2021.}} {{small|(35 seats)}}
| next_election1 = [[2022 United States Senate elections|November 8, 2022]] {{small|(34 seats)}}
| session_room = Senatefloor.jpg
| meeting_place = {{br separated entries|[[United States Senate Chamber|Senate Chamber]]|[[United States Capitol]]|[[Washington, D.C.]]|United States}}
|constitution=[[United States Constitution]]
| website = {{URL|https://www.senate.gov|senate.gov}}
| rules = [[Standing Rules of the United States Senate]]
}}

The '''United States Senate''' is the [[Upper house|upper chamber]] of the [[United States Congress]], with the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] being the [[Lower house|lower chamber]]. Together they compose the national [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]] of the [[United States]].

The composition and powers of the Senate are established by [[Article One of the United States Constitution]].<ref name="senate_a1_sec3">{{cite web | url=https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm#a1_sec3 | title=Constitution of the United States | publisher=Senate.gov | date=March 26, 2009 | access-date=October 4, 2010}}</ref> The Senate is composed of [[#Membership|senators]], each of whom represents a single [[U.S. state|state]] in its entirety. Each state is equally represented by two senators who serve [[Classes of United States senators|staggered terms of six years]]. There are currently 100 senators representing the 50 states. The [[Vice President of the United States|vice president of the United States]] serves as presiding officer and president of the Senate by [[Ex officio member|virtue of that office]], and has a vote only if the senators are equally divided. In the vice president's absence, the [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|president pro tempore]], who is traditionally the senior member of the party holding a majority of seats, presides over the Senate.

As the upper chamber of Congress, the Senate has several powers of [[advice and consent]] which are unique to it. These include the approval of [[Treaty|treaties]], and the confirmation of [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet secretaries]], [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court justices]], [[United States federal judge|federal judges]], [[Flag officer#United States|flag officers]], regulatory officials, [[Ambassadors of the United States|ambassadors]], [[United States federal executive departments|other federal executive officials]] and [[Uniformed services of the United States|federal uniformed officers]]. If no candidate receives a majority of [[Electoral College (United States)|electors]] for [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]], the duty falls to the Senate to elect one of the top two recipients of electors for that office. The Senate conducts trials of those [[Impeachment in the United States|impeached]] by the House.

The Senate is widely considered both a more deliberative<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Amar|first=Vik D.|date=1988-01-01|title=The Senate and the Constitution|jstor=796343|journal=The Yale Law Journal|volume=97|issue=6|pages=1111–1130|doi=10.2307/796343|s2cid=53702587|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/aea4cf2dbfdfb1457ec0d9ff1860232ea02afbc9}}</ref> and more prestigious<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Charles|last2=Reynolds|first2=Mark|date=1990-01-01|title=Television Markets and U.S. Senate Elections|jstor=439894|journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly|volume=15|issue=4|pages=495–523|doi=10.2307/439894}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/12/us/in-fight-for-control-of-congress-tough-skirmishes-within-parties.html?pagewanted=all | title=In Fight for Control of Congress, Tough Skirmishes Within Parties | author=Richard L. Berke | date=September 12, 1999 | work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | url=http://repository.upenn.edu/curej/93/ | title=The Rapid Sequence of Events Forcing the Senate's Hand: A Reappraisal of the Seventeenth Amendment, 1890–1913 | journal=Curej – College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal | author=Joseph S. Friedman | date=March 30, 2009 }}</ref> body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less [[Partisan (political)|partisan]] atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Agreeing to Disagree: Agenda Content and Senate Partisanship, 198 | journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly | volume=33 | issue=2 | pages=199–222 | doi=10.3162/036298008784311000 | date=June 16, 2006 | last1=Lee | first1=Frances E. }}</ref>

From 1789 to 1913, senators were appointed by legislatures of the states they represented. They are now elected by popular vote following the ratification of the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth Amendment]] in 1913. In the early 1920s, the practice of majority and minority parties electing [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|their floor leaders]] began. The Senate's legislative and executive business is managed and scheduled by the Senate majority leader.

The [[United States Senate chamber|Senate chamber]] is located in the north wing of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]

==History==
{{Main|History of the United States Senate}}
The drafters of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should be equally represented, and those who felt the legislature must directly represent the people, as the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] did in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the [[Connecticut Compromise]]. There was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a "People's House" directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.<ref name = art1sec1/>

First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient [[Roman Senate]]. The name is derived from the ''senatus'', [[Latin]] for ''council of elders'' (from ''senex'' meaning ''old man'' in Latin).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/senate | title=Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: ''senate'' | access-date=March 22, 2012}}</ref>

[[James Madison]] made the following comment about the Senate:
{{quote|sign=|source=Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787|In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations remain just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability.<ref>{{cite book | url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/yates.asp | title=Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787 | author=Robert Yates | access-date=2017-03-17}}</ref>}}

[[Article Five of the United States Constitution|Article Five of the Constitution]] stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its [[equal suffrage]] in the Senate without that state's consent. The [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] and all other [[Territories of the United States|territories]] are not entitled to representation or allowed to vote in either house of Congress. They have official [[Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives|non-voting delegates]] in the House of Representatives, but none in the Senate. The District of Columbia and Puerto Rico each additionally elect two "[[Shadow congressperson|shadow senators]]", but they are officials of their respective local governments and not members of the U.S. Senate.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.opencongress.org/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_Congress | title=Non-voting members of Congress | access-date=March 22, 2011 |url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123015800/http://www.opencongress.org/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_Congress | archive-date=November 23, 2010 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> The United States has had 50 states since 1959,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hawaii-becomes-50th-state | title=Hawaii becomes 50th state | access-date=March 22, 2011|website = History.com}}</ref> thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.<ref name="art1sec1">{{cite web | url=http://www.usconstitution.net/const.html#A1Sec1 | title=U.S. Constitution: ''Article 1, Section 1'' | access-date=March 22, 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Combined--Control of the U.S. House of Representatives - Control of the U.S. Senate.png|thumb|right|400px|Graph showing historical party control of the U.S. Senate, House and Presidency since 1855<ref name="uspolitics.about">{{cite web |url=http://uspolitics.about.com/od/usgovernment/l/bl_party_division_2.htm |title=Party In Power – Congress and Presidency – A Visual Guide To The Balance of Power In Congress, 1945–2008 |publisher=Uspolitics.about.com |access-date=September 17, 2012 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101145605/http://uspolitics.about.com/od/usgovernment/l/bl_party_division_2.htm |archive-date=November 1, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>]]
The disparity between the most and least populous states has grown since the [[Connecticut Compromise]], which granted each state two members of the Senate and at least one member of the House of Representatives, for a total minimum of three [[Electoral College (United States)|presidential electors]], regardless of population. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming, based on the [[1790 United States Census|1790]] and [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|2000 censuses]]. Before the adoption of the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth Amendment]] in 1913, senators were elected by the individual [[State legislature (United States)|state legislatures]].<ref>Article I, Section 3: "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; each Senator shall have one vote."</ref> Problems with repeated vacant seats due to the inability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, bribery and intimidation gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators.<ref name=direct/>

==Current composition and election results==
[[File:Us senate 117th congress.svg|thumb|400x400px|Members of the United States Senate for the 117th Congress]]

===Current party standings===
{{Main|Current members of the United States Senate}}
The party composition of the Senate during the 117th Congress:
{|
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
{| class=wikitable
|- valign=bottom
! colspan=2 | Affiliation
! Members
|-
{{party color|Republican Party (United States)}}
| [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| align=center | 50
|-
{{party color|Democratic Party (United States)}}
| {{nowrap|[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]}}
| align=center | 48
|-
{{party color|Independents}}
| [[Independent politician|Independents]]
| align=center | 2{{efn|name=King}} 
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| Total
! align=center | 100
|}
|}

==Membership==
===Qualifications===
{{United States Senate}}
[[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article I, Section 3, of the Constitution]], sets three qualifications for senators: (1) they must be at least 30 years old; (2) they must have been citizens of the United States for at least nine years; and (3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the time of their election. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In [[Federalist No. 62]], [[James Madison]] justified this arrangement by arguing that the "senatorial trust" called for a "greater extent of information and stability of character".

The Senate (not the judiciary) is the sole judge of a senator's qualifications. During its early years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. As a result, four senators who failed to meet the age requirement were nevertheless admitted to the Senate: [[Henry Clay]] (aged 29 in 1806), [[John Jordan Crittenden]] (aged 29 in 1817), [[Armistead Thomson Mason]] (aged 28 in 1816), and [[John Eaton (politician)|John Eaton]] (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, however, has not been repeated since.<ref>[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Youngest_Senator.htm 1801–1850, November 16, 1818: Youngest Senator.] United States Senate. Retrieved November 17, 2007.</ref> In 1934, [[Rush D. Holt Sr.]] was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the next June 19) to take the oath of office. In November 1972, [[Joe Biden]] was elected to the Senate at the age of 29, but he reached his 30th birthday before the swearing-in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973.

The [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] disqualifies as senators any federal or state officers who had taken the requisite oath to support the Constitution but who later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the United States. This provision, which came into force soon after the end of the Civil War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] from serving. That Amendment, however, also provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two-thirds vote of both chambers of Congress.

===Elections and term===
Originally, senators were selected by the [[State legislature (United States)|state legislatures]], not by [[Universal suffrage|popular elections]]. By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many as 29 states had provided for popular election of senators by referendums.<ref name="direct">{{cite web | url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Direct_Election_Senators.htm | title=Direct Election of Senators | publisher=U.S. Senate official website|access-date=23 April 2019}}</ref> Popular election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth Amendment]].

====Term====
Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one-third of the seats are up for election every two years. This was achieved by dividing the senators of the [[1st United States Congress|1st Congress]] into thirds (called [[Classes of United States senators|classes]]), where the terms of one-third expired after two years, the terms of another third expired after four, and the terms of the last third expired after six years. This arrangement was also followed after the admission of new states into the union. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given state are not contested in the same general election, except when a vacancy is being filled. Current senators whose six-year terms are set to expire on January 3, 2023, belong to [[Class III Senator|Class III]]. There is no constitutional [[Term limits in the United States|limit to the number of terms]] a senator may serve.

The Constitution set the date for Congress to convene — Article 1, Section 4, Clause 2, originally set that date for the third day of December. The [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twentieth Amendment]], however, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Amendment also states that the Congress shall assemble at least once every year, and allows the Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules as it desires. Article 1, Section 3, provides that the president has the power to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion.<ref>[https://www.senate.gov/reference/Sessions/sessionDates.htm Dates of Sessions of the Congress.] ''United States Senate''. Retrieved June 17, 2020.</ref>

A member who has been elected, but not yet seated, is called a ''senator-elect''; a member who has been appointed to a seat, but not yet seated, is called a ''senator-designate''.

====Elections====
{{further|List of United States Senate elections}}
Elections to the Senate are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years, [[Election Day (United States)|Election Day]], and coincide with elections for the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].<ref>{{USC|2|1}}</ref> Senators are elected by their state as a whole. The [[Elections clause|Elections Clause]] of the [[United States Constitution]] grants each state (and Congress, if it so desires to implement a uniform law) the power to legislate a method by which senators are elected. [[Ballot access]] rules for independent and minor party candidates also vary from state to state.

In 45 states, a [[primary election]] is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties (and a select few [[Third party (United States)|third parties]], depending on the state) with the general election following a few months later. In most of these states, the nominee may receive only a plurality, while in some states, a runoff is required if no majority was achieved. In the general election, the winner is the candidate who receives a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] of the popular vote.

However, in five states, different methods are used. In [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], a runoff between the top two candidates occurs if the plurality winner in the general election does not also win a majority. In [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[California]], and [[Louisiana]], a [[nonpartisan blanket primary]] (also known as a "jungle primary" or "top-two primary") is held in which all candidates participate in a single primary regardless of party affiliation and the top two candidates in terms of votes received at the primary election advance to the general election, where the winner is the candidate with the greater number of votes. In Louisiana, the [[Louisiana primary|blanket primary is considered the general election]] and the winner of the blanket primary can win the overall election if he or she received a majority of the vote, skipping the run-off. In [[Maine]], following two ballot initiatives in [[Maine Question 5, 2016|2016]] and [[Maine Question 1, June 2018|2018]], [[Instant-runoff voting|ranked-choice voting]] is used to nominate and elect candidates for federal offices, including the Senate. Alaska voted in November 2020 to adopt a system with a nonpartisan blanket primary from which four candidates would advance to a general election in which ranked-choice voting would be used.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brooks |first1=James |title=Election audit confirms win for Ballot Measure 2 and Alaska's new ranked-choice voting system |url=https://www.adn.com/politics/2020/12/14/election-audit-confirms-win-for-ballot-measure-2-and-alaskas-new-ranked-choice-voting-system/ |website=Anchorage Daily News |access-date=10 January 2021 |date=December 14, 2020}}</ref>

====Vacancies====
The [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth Amendment]] requires that vacancies in the Senate be filled by special election. Whenever a senator must be appointed or elected, the [[secretary of the Senate]] mails one of three forms to the state's governor to inform them of the proper wording to certify the appointment of a new senator.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Term of A Senator – When Does It Begin and End? – Senate 98-29 |url= https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/termofasenator.pdf |website=United States Senate|publisher=United States Printing Office|access-date= November 13, 2015|pages=14–15}}</ref> If a special election for one seat happens to coincide with a general election for the state's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes office as soon as possible after the election and serves until the original six-year term expires (i.e. not for a full-term).

The Seventeenth Amendment permits state legislatures to empower their governors to make temporary appointments until the required special election takes place.

The manner by which the Seventeenth Amendment is enacted varies among the states. A 2018 report breaks this down into the following three broad categories (specific procedures vary among the states):<ref name="CRS_R44781">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44781.pdf |title=U.S. Senate Vacancies: Contemporary Developments and Perspectives |last1=Neale |first1=Thomas H. |date=April 12, 2018 |website=fas.org |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=October 13, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180605230617/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44781.pdf |archive-date=June 5, 2018 |url-status = live}} '''NOTE:''' wherever present, references to page numbers in superscripts refer to the electronic (.pdf) pagination, not as found printed on the bottom margin of displayed pages.</ref>

* Five states – North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin – do not empower their governors to make temporary appointments, relying exclusively on the required special election provision in the Seventeenth Amendment.<ref name="CRS_R44781" />{{rp|7–8}}
*
* Nine states – Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Texas, Vermont, and Washington – provide for gubernatorial appointments, but also require a special election on an accelerated schedule.<ref name="CRS_R44781" />{{rp|10–11}}
*
* The remaining thirty-six states provide for gubernatorial appointments, "with the appointed senator serving the balance of the term or until the next statewide general election".<ref name="CRS_R44781" />{{rp|8–9}}

In six states within the final category above – Arizona, Hawaii, Maryland, North Carolina, Utah, and Wyoming – the governor must appoint someone of the same political party as the previous incumbent.<ref name="CRS_R44781" />{{rp|9}}

In September 2009, [[Massachusetts]] changed its law to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the late senator Edward Kennedy until the special election in January 2010.<ref name="MA Law 54-140">{{cite web | url = http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/54-140.htm | publisher = Massachusetts Great and General Court | title = Temporary Appointment of US Senator | first = Robert A. | last = DeLeo | date = September 17, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Temporary Appointment Not a Candidate">{{cite web | url = https://malegislature.gov/Document/Download?entityTypeName=Journal&generalCourtNumber=186&branchName=2&entityNumber=09-22-09 | publisher = Massachusetts Great and General Court | title = Temporary Appointment of US Senator Shall not be a candidate in special election | first = Robert A. | last = DeLeo | date = September 17, 2009 }}</ref>

In 2004, [[Alaska]] enacted legislation and a separate ballot referendum that took effect on the same day, but that conflicted with each other. The effect of the ballot-approved law is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator.<ref name="Alaska appointments">{{cite web | url=http://www.adn.com/politics/story/569836.html | title=Stevens could keep seat in Senate | date=October 28, 2009 | work=Anchorage Daily News |url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528015846/http://www.adn.com/politics/story/569836.html | archive-date=May 28, 2009 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Because the 17th Amendment vests the power to grant that authority to the legislature – not the people or the state generally – it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature's statute granting that authority.<ref name="Alaska appointments" /> As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an interim senator to serve until a special election is held to fill the vacancy.

===Oath===
{{Politics of the United States}}
The Constitution requires that senators take an oath or [[Affirmation in law|affirmation]] to support the Constitution.<ref>[[Article Six of the United States Constitution|United States Constitution, Article VI]]</ref> Congress has prescribed the following oath for all federal officials (except the President), including senators: {{quote|I, ___ ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.<ref>See: {{USC|5|3331}}; see also: [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Oath_Office.htm U.S. Senate Oath of Office]</ref>}}

===Salary and benefits===
The annual [[Salaries of United States senators|salary]] of each senator, since 2009, is $174,000;<ref name="salaries">[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/senate_salaries.htm Salaries.] United States Senate. Retrieved October 2, 2013.</ref> the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $193,400.<ref name="salaries"/><ref name="usgovinfo"/> In June 2003, at least 40 senators were millionaires;<ref>{{cite news | author=Sean Loughlin and Robert Yoon | url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/06/13/senators.finances | title=Millionaires populate U.S. Senate | publisher= CNN | date= June 13, 2003| access-date=June 19, 2006}}</ref> in 2018, over 50 senators were millionaires.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wealth of Congress |url=https://www.rollcall.com/wealth-of-congress |website=Roll Call |access-date=8 November 2018}}</ref>

Along with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully [[vesting|vested]] after five years of service.<ref name="usgovinfo">{{cite web | url=http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa031200a.htm | title=US Congress Salaries and Benefits | publisher=Usgovinfo.about.com | access-date=October 2, 2013}}</ref> Senators are covered by the [[Federal Employees Retirement System]] (FERS) or [[Civil Service Retirement System]] (CSRS). FERS has been the Senate's retirement system since January 1, 1987, while CSRS applies only for those senators who were in the Senate from December 31, 1986, and prior. As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. The amount of a senator's pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. The starting amount of a senator's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.<ref name="usgovinfo"/>

===Seniority===
{{Main|Seniority in the United States Senate}}
According to the convention of Senate seniority, the senator with the longer tenure in each state is known as the "senior senator"; the other is the "junior senator". This convention does not have official significance, though seniority generally is a factor in the selection of physical offices and in party caucuses' assignment of committees.<ref>{{cite web | last=Baker | first=Richard A. | title=Traditions of the United States Senate | url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/Traditions.pdf | work=Page 4}}</ref> In the [[117th United States Congress|117th Congress]], the most-senior "junior senator" is [[Maria Cantwell]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], who was sworn in on January 3, 2001, and is currently 16th in [[Seniority in the United States Senate|seniority]], behind [[Patty Murray]] who was sworn in on January 3, 1993, and is currently 6th in seniority. The most-junior "senior senator" is [[Jon Ossoff]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], who was sworn in on January 20, 2021, and is 99th in seniority, ahead of [[Raphael Warnock]], who was sworn in on the same day.

===Expulsion and other disciplinary actions===
The Senate may [[List of United States senators expelled or censured|expel]] a senator by a two-thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the Senate's history: [[William Blount]], for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[secession]]. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many [[Resignation from the United States Senate|senators have chosen to resign]] when faced with expulsion proceedings – for example, [[Bob Packwood]] in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; [[Censure in the United States|censure]] requires only a simple majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-election races rather than face certain censure or expulsion, such as [[Robert Torricelli]] in 2002.

==Majority and minority parties==
The "majority party" is the [[political party]] that either has a majority of seats or can form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if two or more parties are tied, the vice president's affiliation determines which party is the majority party. The next-largest party is known as the minority party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (so long as they do not [[Party caucuses and conferences in the United States Congress|caucus]] support either of the larger parties) are not considered in determining which is the majority party.

===Seating===
[[File:senatedesk.jpg|thumb|A typical Senate desk]]
At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a [[dais]] from which the [[Presiding Officer of the United States Senate|presiding officer]] presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. One hundred desks are arranged in the chamber in a [[semicircle|semicircular]] pattern and are divided by a wide central aisle. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] traditionally sits to the presiding officer's right, and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] traditionally sits to the presiding officer's left, regardless of which party has a majority of seats.<ref>{{cite web | title=Seating Arrangement | url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/art/special/Desks/hdetail.cfm?id=11 | publisher=Senate Chamber Desks | access-date=July 11, 2012}}</ref> In this respect, the Senate differs from the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom]] and other parliamentary bodies in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and elsewhere.

Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority within the party. By custom, the leader of each party sits in the front row along the center aisle. Forty-eight of the desks date back to 1819, when the Senate chamber was reconstructed after the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 [[Burning of Washington]]. Further desks of similar design were added as new states entered the Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/art/special/Desks/overview.cfm |title=Senate Chamber Desks – Overview |website=United States Senate}}</ref> It is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their name on the inside of the desk's drawer.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/art/special/Desks/hdetail.cfm?id=2 |title=Senate Chamber Desks – Names Listed inside the Desk Drawer |website=United States Senate}}</ref>

==Officers==
[[File:Capitol-Senate.JPG|thumb|The Senate side of the [[United States Capitol]] in Washington, D.C.]]
Except for the president of the Senate (who is the vice president), the Senate elects its own officers,<ref name="senate_a1_sec3" /> who maintain order and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate, and interpret the Senate's rules, practices and precedents. Many non-member officers are also hired to run various day-to-day functions of the Senate.

===Presiding officer===
{{main|Presiding Officer of the United States Senate}}
Under the Constitution, the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]] serves as president of the Senate. They may vote in the Senate (''[[ex officio]]'', for they are not an elected member of the Senate) in the case of a tie, but are not required to.<ref>{{cite web|title=Glossary Term: vice president|url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/glossary_term/vice_president.htm|website=senate.gov|publisher=United States Senate|access-date=November 10, 2016}}</ref> For much of the nation's history the task of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the vice president's principal duties (the other being to receive from the states the tally of electoral ballots cast for president and vice president and to open the certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives", so that the total votes could be counted). Since the 1950s, vice presidents have presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, joint sessions, or at times to announce the result of significant legislation or nomination, or when a tie vote on an important issue is anticipated.

The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|president pro tempore]] ([[Latin]] for "president for a time"), who presides over the chamber in the vice president's absence and is, by custom, the senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service.<ref>{{cite web|title=Glossary Term: president pro tempore|url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/glossary_term/president_pro_tempore.htm|website=senate.gov|publisher=United States Senate|access-date=November 10, 2016}}</ref> Like the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, but typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to a majority-party senator who presides over the Senate, usually in blocks of one hour on a rotating basis. Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. It is said that, "in practice they are usually mere mouthpieces for [[Parliamentarian of the United States Senate|the Senate’s parliamentarian]], who whispers what they should do".<ref>{{Cite news|title=Presiding Loses Its Prestige in Senate|url=http://www.rollcall.com/news/presiding-loses-its-prestige-in-senate-207942-1.html|publisher=rollcall.com|access-date=February 8, 2017|newspaper=Roll Call|date=August 2011|last1=Mershon|first1=Erin}}</ref>

The [[Presiding Officer of the United States Senate|presiding officer]] sits in a chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|speaker of the House]]. The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the first senator who rises is recognized); ruling on [[point of order|points of order]] (objections by senators that a rule has been breached, subject to appeal to the whole chamber); and announcing the results of votes.

===Party leaders===
{{main|Party leaders of the United States Senate}}
Each party elects [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate party leaders]]. Floor leaders act as the party chief spokesmen. The Senate majority leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an [[Assistant party leaders of the United States Senate|assistant leader (whip)]], who works to ensure that his party's senators vote as the party leadership desires.

===Non-member officers===
In addition to the vice president, the Senate has several officers who are not members. The Senate's chief administrative officer is the [[Secretary of the United States Senate|secretary of the Senate]], who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of stationery and supplies, and oversees clerks. The assistant secretary of the Senate aids the secretary's work. Another official is the [[Sergeant at Arms of the United States Senate|sergeant at arms]] who, as the Senate's chief law enforcement officer, maintains order and security on the Senate premises. The [[United States Capitol Police|Capitol Police]] handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for general oversight. Other employees include the [[Chaplain of the United States Senate|chaplain]], who is elected by the Senate, and [[United States Senate Page|pages]], who are appointed.

==Procedure==

===Daily sessions===
The Senate uses [[Standing Rules of the United States Senate|Standing Rules]] for operation. Like the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a [[dais]] from which the [[Presiding Officer of the United States Senate|presiding officer]] presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television, usually by [[C-SPAN|C-SPAN 2]].

Senate procedure depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs and traditions. The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by [[unanimous consent]]. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by party leaders. A senator may block such an agreement, but in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer sometimes uses the [[gavel]] of the Senate to maintain order.

{{Anchor|holds}}A "[[Senate hold|hold]]" is placed when the leader's office is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or pass a measure. A hold may be placed for any reason and can be lifted by a senator at any time. A senator may place a hold simply to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the bill, or to kill the bill. A bill can be held for as long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to block its consideration.

Holds can be overcome, but require time-consuming procedures such as filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications between a senator and the leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds". A senator may disclose that he or she has placed a hold.

The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a [[quorum]] to do business. Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed present unless a [[quorum call]] explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present. In practice, senators rarely request quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are generally used to temporarily delay proceedings; usually, such delays are used while waiting for a senator to reach the floor to speak or to give leaders time to negotiate. Once the need for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call.

====Debate====
Debate, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed by internal rules adopted by the Senate. During a debate, senators may only speak if called upon by the presiding officer, but the presiding officer is required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officer has little control over the course of the debate. Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates even if another senator rises first. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed as "Mr. President" or "Madam President", and not to another member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, senators do not refer to each other by name, but by state or position, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia", "the gentleman from California", or "my distinguished friend the chairman of the Judiciary Committee". Senators address the Senate standing next to their desks.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=juX5w6oLgcwC&dq=%22senators+address+each+other%22&q=%22address+the+chair#v=snippet&q=%22address%20the%20chair&f=false Martin B. Gold, ''Senate Procedure and Practice'', p.39]: ''Every member, when he speaks, shall address the chair, standing in his place, and when he has finished, shall sit down.''</ref>

Apart from rules governing civility, there are few restrictions on the content of speeches; there is no requirement that speeches pertain to the matter before the Senate.

The [[Standing Rules of the United States Senate|rules of the Senate]] provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day. A legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends with adjournment; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please. Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute. However, the right to unlimited debate is generally preserved.

Within the United States, the Senate is sometimes referred to as "world's greatest deliberative body".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,978823,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090811051312/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,978823,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=August 11, 2009 | work=Time | title=The World's Greatest Deliberative Body | date=July 5, 1993}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/ezra-klein/2009/11/worlds_greatest_deliberative_b.html | work=The Washington Post | title=World's greatest deliberative body watch}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2010/08/senate_reform |title=Senate reform: Lazing on a Senate afternoon |work=The Economist |access-date=October 4, 2010}}</ref>

====Filibuster and cloture====
{{Main|Filibuster in the United States Senate|Reconciliation (United States Congress)}}
{{see also|Clay pigeon floor procedure}}
The [[filibuster]] is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments. The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking [[cloture]]. In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate; however, if the matter before the Senate involves changing the rules of the body – this includes amending provisions regarding the filibuster – a two-thirds majority is required. In current practice, the threat of filibuster is more important than its use; almost any motion that does not have the support of three-fifths of the Senate effectively fails. This means that 41 senators can make a filibuster happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required [[supermajority]], so a bill that already has bipartisan support is rarely subject to threats of filibuster. However, motions for cloture have increased significantly in recent years.

If the Senate invokes cloture, the debate does not necessarily end immediately; instead, it is limited to up to 30 additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote. The longest filibuster speech in the Senate's history was delivered by [[Strom Thurmond]] (D-SC), who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]].<ref>Quinton, Jeff. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060614024620/http://www.jquinton.com/archives/000171.html Thurmond's Filibuster]". ''Backcountry Conservative''. July 27, 2003. Retrieved June 19, 2006.</ref>

Under certain circumstances, the [[Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974|Congressional Budget Act of 1974]] provides for a process called "[[reconciliation (United States Congress)|reconciliation]]" by which Congress can pass bills related to the budget without those bills being subject to a filibuster. This is accomplished by limiting all Senate floor debate to 20 hours.<ref>Reconciliation, {{USCSub|2|641|e}} (Procedure in the Senate).</ref>

====Voting====
When the debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes by voice vote. The presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "Yea/Aye" (in favor of the motion) or "Nay" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present. In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators respond when their name is called. Senators who were not in the chamber when their name was called may still cast a vote so long as the voting remains open. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, but must remain open for a minimum of 15 minutes. A majority of those voting determines whether the motion carries.<ref name = Majority/> If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to cast a [[United States Vice Presidents' tie-breaking votes|tie-breaking vote]]. If the vice president is not present, the motion fails.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.senate.gov/general/Features/votes.htm | title=Yea or Nay? Voting in the Senate | publisher=Senate.gov | access-date=April 11, 2011}}</ref>

Filibustered bills require a three-fifths majority to overcome the cloture vote (which usually means 60 votes) and get to the normal vote where a simple majority (usually 51 votes) approves the bill. This has caused some news media to confuse the 60 votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to approve a bill, with for example ''[[USA Today]]'' erroneously stating "''The vote was 58–39 in favor of the provision establishing concealed carry permit reciprocity in the 48 states that have concealed weapons laws. That fell two votes short of the 60 needed to approve the measure''".<ref name="Majority">{{cite web | url=http://www.niemanwatchdog.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=background.view&backgroundid=381 | title=How majority rule works in the U.S. Senate | publisher=Nieman Watchdog | date=July 31, 2009}}</ref>

====Closed session====
{{Main|Closed sessions of the United States Senate}}
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session. During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session. Closed sessions are rare and usually held only when the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment]] trials. A senator may call for and force a closed session if the motion is seconded by at least one other member, but an agreement usually occurs beforehand.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RS20145.pdf|title=Secret Sessions of Congress: A Brief Historical Overview|last=Amer|first=Mildred|date=March 27, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806041728/https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RS20145.pdf|archive-date=August 6, 2009}}</ref> If the Senate does not approve the release of a secret transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national archives. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/98-718.pdf|title=Secret Sessions of the House and Senate|last=Amer|first=Mildred|date=March 27, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806041723/https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/98-718.pdf|archive-date=August 6, 2009}}</ref> In 1973, the House adopted a rule that all committee sessions should be open unless a majority on the committee voted for a closed session.

===Calendars===
The Senate maintains a Senate Calendar and an Executive Calendar.<ref>"[https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/legislative/d_three_sections_with_teasers/calendars.htm Calendars & Schedules]" via Senate.gov</ref> The former identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate floor actions. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out by Senate committee(s) and awaiting Senate floor action. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session.

===Committees===
{{Main|United States congressional committee}}
[[File:Dirksen226.jpg|thumb|Committee Room 226 in the [[Dirksen Senate Office Building]] is used for hearings by the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]].]]
The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In practice, however, the choice of members is made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall strength.

Most committee work is performed by 16 standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such as [[finance]] or [[International relations|foreign relations]]. Each standing committee may consider, amend, and report bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Judiciary Committee]] considers nominees for judgeships, and the [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Foreign Relations Committee]] considers nominees for positions in the [[United States Department of State|Department of State]].) Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Standing committees also oversee the departments and [[Government agency#Government agencies in the United States|agencies]] of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to [[subpoena]] witnesses and evidence.

The Senate also has several committees that are not considered standing committees. Such bodies are generally known as [[Select or special committee (United States Congress)|select or special committees]]; examples include the [[United States Senate Select Committee on Ethics|Select Committee on Ethics]] and the [[United States Senate Special Committee on Aging|Special Committee on Aging]]. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, although the bulk of legislative work is performed by the standing committees. Committees may be established on an ''ad hoc'' basis for specific purposes; for instance, the [[United States Senate Watergate Committee|Senate Watergate Committee]] was a special committee created to investigate the [[Watergate scandal]]. Such temporary committees cease to exist after fulfilling their tasks.

The Congress includes joint committees, which include members from both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the [[United States Congress Joint Committee on the Library|Joint Committee on the Library]] oversees the [[Library of Congress]]. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.

Each Senate committee and subcommittee is led by a chair (usually a member of the majority party). Formerly, committee chairs were determined purely by seniority; as a result, several elderly senators continued to serve as chair despite severe physical infirmity or even [[Dementia|senility]].<ref>See, for examples, ''American Dictionary of National Biography'' on [[John Sherman (politician)|John Sherman]] and [[Carter Glass]]; in general, Ritchie, ''Congress'', p. 209</ref> Committee chairs are elected, but, in practice, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: they control the committee's agenda, and so decide how much, if any, time to devote to the consideration of a bill; they act with the power of the committee in disapproving or delaying a bill or a nomination by the president; they manage on the floor of the full Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. This last role was particularly important in mid-century, when floor amendments were thought not to be collegial. They also have considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their committee chairs are likely to accomplish more good for their states than those who do not. The Senate rules and customs were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen have less power and are generally more moderate and collegial in exercising it, than they were before reform.<ref>Ritchie, ''Congress'', p. 44. Zelizer, ''On Capitol Hill'' describes this process; one of the reforms is that seniority within the majority party ''can'' now be bypassed, so that chairs do run the risk of being deposed by their colleagues. See in particular p. 17, for the unreformed Congress, and pp.188–9, for the Stevenson reforms of 1977.</ref> The second-highest member, the spokesperson on the committee for the minority party, is known in most cases as the ranking member.<ref>Ritchie, ''Congress'', pp .44, 175, 209</ref> In the [[United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence|Select Committee on Intelligence]] and the Select Committee on Ethics, however, the senior minority member is known as the vice-chair.

==Criticism==
Recent criticisms of the Senate's operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence as a result of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of arcane rules.<ref>{{cite web | author=Mark Murray | url=http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2010/08/02/4801404-the-inefficient-senate | title=The inefficient Senate | publisher=Firstread.msnbc.msn.com | date=August 2, 2010 | access-date=October 4, 2010 |url-status = dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810010230/http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2010/08/02/4801404-the-inefficient-senate | archive-date=August 10, 2010 | df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Packer | first=George | url=https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/08/09/100809fa_fact_packer?currentPage=all#ixzz0vY0UxHu9 | title=Filibusters and arcane obstructions in the Senate | work=The New Yorker | date=January 7, 2009 | access-date=October 4, 2010}}</ref>

The [[Filibuster in the United States Senate|Senate filibuster]] is frequently debated. The Constitution specifies a simple majority threshold to pass legislation, and some critics feel the de facto three-fifths threshold for general legislation prevents beneficial laws from passing. (The [[nuclear option]] was exercised by both parties in the 2010s to eliminate the filibuster for confirmations.) Supporters generally consider the filibuster to be an important protection for the minority views and a check against the unfettered single-party rule when the same party holds the Presidency and a majority in both the House and Senate.

Though this was an intentional part of the [[Connecticut Compromise]], critics have described the fact that representation in the Senate is not proportional to the population as "anti-democratic" and "minority rule".<ref>[[How Democratic Is the American Constitution?]]</ref><ref>[[Sizing Up the Senate]]</ref> ''New York Times'' opinion columnist David Leonhardt points out<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/14/opinion/dc-puerto-rico-statehood-senate.html The Senate: Affirmative Action for White People]</ref> that because small states are disproportionately non-Hispanic European American, African Americans have 75% of their proportionate voting power in the Senate, and Hispanic Americans have just 55%. The approximately four million Americans that have no representation in the Senate (in the [[District of Columbia]] and [[U.S. territories]]) are heavily African and Hispanic American. Leonhardt and others advocate for admitting [[Statehood movement in the District of Columbia|Washington, D.C.]] and [[Statehood movement in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico as states]] (both have more residents than the smallest existing states) to reduce this inequity.

==Senate office buildings==
{{externalvideo|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PtTeOwH2YOU Senate Building, Washington DC, HD from 35mm]}}
There are presently three Senate office buildings located along Constitution Avenue, north of the Capitol. They are the [[Russell Senate Office Building]], the [[Dirksen Senate Office Building]], and the [[Hart Senate Office Building]].
{{clear}}

==Functions==

===Legislation===
{{Further|Act of Congress}}
Bills may be introduced in either chamber of Congress. However, the Constitution's [[Origination Clause]] provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm#a1_sec7 | title=Constitution of the United States | publisher=Senate.gov | access-date=January 1, 2012}}</ref> As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate [[appropriation bill]]s, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds.<ref name=Saturno>Saturno, James. "[https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL31399.pdf The Origination Clause of the U.S. Constitution: Interpretation and Enforcement]", CRS Report for Congress (Mar-15-2011).</ref><ref name=Wirls>Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ifzWY2ZrNBAC&pg=PA188 The Invention of the United States Senate]'', p. 188 (Taylor & Francis 2004).</ref><ref>[[Woodrow Wilson]] wrote that the Senate has extremely broad amendment authority with regard to appropriations bills, as distinguished from bills that levy taxes. See Wilson, Woodrow. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eWBJfdV_jv8C&lpg=PP1&dq=editions%3AXH62sjkuTc4C&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q=originate&f=false Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics]'', pp. 155–156 (Transaction Publishers 2002).</ref><ref>According to the [[Library of Congress]], the Constitution provides the origination requirement for revenue bills, whereas tradition provides the origination requirement for appropriation bills. See Sullivan, John. "[http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/congress.html How Our Laws Are Made] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016045756/http://thomas.loc.gov/home/lawsmade.bysec/congress.html |date=October 16, 2015 }}", Library of Congress (accessed August 26, 2013).</ref> Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]], in which only the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] may originate such measures.<ref name=Sargent>Sargent, Noel. "[http://www.tifis.org/oclause/Sargent.pdf Bills for Raising Revenue Under the Federal and State Constitutions]", ''[[Minnesota Law Review]]'', Vol. 4, p. 330 (1919).</ref>

Although the Constitution gave the House the power to initiate revenue bills, in practice the Senate is equal to the House in the respect of spending. As [[Woodrow Wilson]] wrote:

{{quote|The Senate's right to amend general appropriation bills has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.<ref>Wilson ''Congressional Government'', Chapter III: "Revenue and Supply". Text common to all printings or "editions"; in ''Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' it is Vol.4 (1968), p.91; for unchanged text, see p. 13, ''ibid.''</ref>}}

The approval of both houses is required for any bill, including a revenue bill, to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by sending amendments back and forth or by a [[United States congressional conference committee|conference committee]], which includes members of both bodies.

===Checks and balances===
The Constitution provides several unique functions for the Senate that form its ability to "check and balance" the powers of other elements of the federal government. These include the requirement that the Senate may advise and must consent to some of the president's government appointments; also the Senate must consent to all treaties with foreign governments; it tries all impeachments, and it elects the vice president in the event no person gets a majority of the electoral votes.
[[File:Andrew Johnson impeachment trial.jpg|thumb|The Senate has the power to try impeachments; shown above is [[Theodore R. Davis]]'s drawing of the impeachment trial of President [[Andrew Johnson]], 1868]]

The president can make [[List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation|certain appointments]] only with the [[advice and consent]] of the Senate. Officials whose appointments require the Senate's approval include members of the Cabinet, heads of most federal executive agencies, [[ambassador]]s, justices of the Supreme Court, and other federal judges. Under Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution, a large number of government appointments are subject to potential confirmation; however, Congress has passed legislation to authorize the appointment of many officials without the Senate's consent (usually, confirmation requirements are reserved for those officials with the most significant final decision-making authority). Typically, a nominee is the first subject to a hearing before a Senate committee. Thereafter, the nomination is considered by the full Senate. The majority of nominees are confirmed, but in a small number of cases each year, Senate committees purposely fail to act on a nomination to block it. In addition, the president sometimes withdraws nominations when they appear unlikely to be confirmed. Because of this, outright rejections of nominees on the Senate floor are infrequent (there have been only nine Cabinet nominees rejected outright in United States history).<ref>{{cite web |last1=King |first1=Elizabeth |title=This Is What Happened Last Time a Cabinet Nomination Was Rejected |url=https://time.com/4653593/cabinet-rejection-john-tower/ |website=time.com |publisher=Time USA, LLC |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

The powers of the Senate concerning nominations are, however, subject to some constraints. For instance, the Constitution provides that the president may make an appointment during a [[Recess (motion)|congressional recess]] without the Senate's advice and consent. The [[recess appointment]] remains valid only temporarily; the office becomes vacant again at the end of the next congressional session. Nevertheless, presidents have frequently used recess appointments to circumvent the possibility that the Senate may reject the nominee. Furthermore, as the Supreme Court held in ''[[Myers v. United States]]'', although the Senate's advice and consent are required for the appointment of certain executive branch officials, it is not necessary for their removal.<ref>[https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RS21308.pdf Recess Appointments FAQ] (PDF). US Senate, Congressional Research Service. Retrieved November 20, 2007</ref><ref>Ritchie, ''Congress'' p. 178.</ref> [[Recess appointment]]s have faced a significant amount of resistance and in 1960, the U.S. Senate passed a legally non-binding resolution against recess appointments.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

[[File:US Senate Chamber c1873.jpg|thumb|right|[[U.S. Senate chamber]] c. 1873: two or three [[spittoon]]s are visible by desks]]
The Senate also has a role in ratifying treaties. The Constitution provides that the president may only "make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur" in order to benefit from the Senate's advice and consent and give each state an equal vote in the process. However, not all international agreements are considered treaties under U.S. domestic law, even if they are considered treaties under international law. Congress has passed laws authorizing the president to conclude [[executive agreement]]s without action by the Senate. Similarly, the president may make [[congressional-executive agreement]]s with the approval of a simple majority in each House of Congress, rather than a two-thirds majority in the Senate. Neither executive agreements nor congressional-executive agreements are mentioned in the Constitution, leading some scholars such as [[Laurence Tribe]] and [[John Yoo]]<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/05/opinion/05bolton.html | work=The New York Times | title=Restore the Senate's Treaty Power | first1=John R. | last1=Bolton | date=January 5, 2009}}</ref> to suggest that they unconstitutionally circumvent the treaty-ratification process. However, courts have upheld the validity of such agreements.<ref>For an example, and a discussion of the literature, see [[Laurence Tribe]], "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1341856 Taking Text and Structure Seriously: Reflections on Free-Form Method in Constitutional Interpretation]", ''Harvard Law Review'', Vol. 108, No. 6. (April 1995), pp. 1221–1303.</ref>

The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to [[impeachment|impeach]] federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors" and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. If the sitting president of the United States is being tried, the [[Chief Justice of the United States|chief justice of the United States]] presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit on oath or affirmation. Conviction requires a two-thirds majority of the senators present. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.

The House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted (one resigned before the Senate could complete the trial).<ref>[https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Senate_Impeachment_Role.htm#4 Complete list of impeachment trials.] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/5uplUoEZt?url=http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Senate_Impeachment_Role.htm |date=December 8, 2010 }} United States Senate. Retrieved November 20, 2007</ref> Only three presidents have been impeached: [[Andrew Johnson]] in 1868, [[Bill Clinton]] in 1998, and [[Donald Trump]] in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton and both Trump trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction.

Under the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]], the Senate has the power to elect the vice president if no vice-presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]]. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. Electoral College deadlocks are rare. The Senate has only broken a deadlock once; in 1837, it elected [[Richard Mentor Johnson]]. The House elects the president if the Electoral College deadlocks on that choice.

==See also==
* [[Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate]]
* [[Elections in the United States]]
* [[List of African-American United States senators]]
* [[United States presidents and control of Congress]]
* [[Women in the United States Senate]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{further|U.S. senator bibliography (congressional memoirs)}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Richard A. Baker (historian)|Baker, Richard A.]] ''The Senate of the United States: A Bicentennial History'' Krieger, 1988.
* Baker, Richard A., ed., ''First Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century'' Congressional Quarterly, 1991.
* Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, ''The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts'' (1975); new edition every 2 years
* David W. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins. ''Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress'' (2002)
* [[Robert Caro|Caro, Robert A.]] ''[[The Years of Lyndon Johnson. Vol. 3: Master of the Senate]].'' Knopf, 2002.
* Comiskey, Michael. ''Seeking Justices: The Judging of Supreme Court Nominees'' U. Press of Kansas, 2004.
* Congressional Quarterly ''Congress and the Nation XII: 2005–2008: Politics and Policy in the 109th and 110th Congresses'' (2010); massive, highly detailed summary of Congressional activity, as well as major executive and judicial decisions; based on ''Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report'' and the annual CQ almanac. The ''Congress and the Nation 2009–2012'' vol XIII has been announced for September 2014 publication.
** Congressional Quarterly '' Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004'' (2005);
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001'' (2002)
** Congressional Quarterly. ''Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996'' (1998)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992'' (1993)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988'' (1989)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984'' (1985)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980'' (1981)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976'' (1977)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972'' (1973)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968'' (1969)
** Congressional Quarterly, ''Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964'' (1965), the first of the series
* Cooper, John Milton, Jr. ''Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations.'' Cambridge U. Press, 2001.
* Davidson, Roger H., and Walter J. Oleszek, eds. (1998). ''Congress and Its Members'', 6th ed. Washington DC: ''Congressional Quarterly.'' (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and member information)
* Gould, Lewis L. ''The Most Exclusive Club: A History Of The Modern United States Senate'' (2005)
* Hernon, Joseph Martin. ''Profiles in Character: Hubris and Heroism in the U.S. Senate, 1789–1990'' Sharpe, 1997.
* Hoebeke, C. H. ''The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Amendment''. Transaction Books, 1995. (Popular elections of senators)
* Lee, Frances E. and Oppenheimer, Bruce I. ''Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation''. U. of Chicago Press 1999. 304 pp.
* MacNeil, Neil and Richard A. Baker. ''The American Senate: An Insider's History.'' Oxford University Press, 2013. 455 pp.
* McFarland, Ernest W. ''The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952''. Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995 (Democratic majority leader 1950–52)
* Malsberger, John W. ''From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952''. Susquehanna U. Press 2000
* Mann, Robert. ''The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights''. Harcourt Brace, 1996
* {{cite book | last=Ritchie | first= Donald A. | author-link= Donald A. Ritchie | title= Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents | publisher= Harvard University Press | year=1991}}
* {{cite book | last=Ritchie | first= Donald A. | author-link= Donald A. Ritchie | title= The Congress of the United States: A Student Companion | publisher= Oxford University Press | year= 2001 | edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book | last=Ritchie | first= Donald A. | author-link= Donald A. Ritchie | title= The U.S. Congress: A Very Short Introduction | publisher=Oxford University Press | year= 2010}}
* Rothman, David. ''Politics and Power the United States Senate 1869–1901'' (1966)
* Swift, Elaine K. ''The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Change in Congress, 1787–1841''. U. of Michigan Press, 1996
* Valeo, Frank. ''Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Different Kind of Senate, 1961–1976'' Sharpe, 1999 (Senate Democratic leader)
* VanBeek, Stephen D. ''Post-Passage Politics: Bicameral Resolution in Congress''. U. of Pittsburgh Press 1995
* Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. ''Joe T. Robinson: Always a Loyal Democrat.'' U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. (Arkansas Democrat who was Majority leader in 1930s)
* [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilson, Woodrow]]. ''Congressional Government''. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1885; also 15th ed. 1900, repr. by photoreprint, Transaction books, 2002.
* Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. ''The Invention of the United States Senate'' Johns Hopkins U. Press, 2004. (Early history)
* Zelizer, Julian E. ''On Capitol Hill : The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000'' (2006)
* Zelizer, Julian E., ed. ''The American Congress: The Building of Democracy'' (2004) (overview)
{{refend}}

===Official Senate histories===
* ''[[Biographical Directory of the United States Congress]], 1774–1989''
The following are published by the [[Historian of the United States Senate|Senate Historical Office]].
* [[Robert Byrd]]. ''The Senate, 1789–1989''. Four volumes.
** Vol. I, a chronological series of addresses on the history of the Senate
** Vol. II, a topical series of addresses on various aspects of the Senate's operation and powers
** Vol. III, Classic Speeches, 1830–1993
** Vol. IV, Historical Statistics, 1789–1992
* [[Bob Dole|Dole, Bob]]. ''Historical Almanac of the United States Senate''
* [[Mark Hatfield|Hatfield, Mark O.]], with the Senate Historical Office. ''Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789–1993'' ([https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Vice_President.htm essays reprinted online])
* Frumin, Alan S. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080606033250/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/riddick/index.html Riddick's Senate Procedure]''. Washington, D.C.: [[United States Government Printing Office|Government Printing Office]], 1992.

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|United States Senate.ogg|date=August 4, 2006}}
{{commons}}
* [http://www.senate.gov The United States Senate Official Website]
** [https://www.senate.gov/general/contact_information/senators_cfm.cfm Sortable contact data]
** [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/art/special/Desks/chambermap.cfm Senate Chamber Map]
** [{{US Senate Rule URL}} Standing Rules of the Senate]
** ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20100423082228/http://bioguide.congress.gov/biosearch/biosearch.asp Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774 to Present]''
* [http://politicalgraveyard.com/offices/pdio5.html List of Senators who died in office], via PoliticalGraveyard.com
* [http://www.webpages.ttu.edu/areifman/senatedata.htm Chart of all U.S. Senate seat-holders, by state, 1978–present], via Texas Tech University
* [http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725105911/http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas |date=July 25, 2008 }}, via Tufts University
* [http://www.wrhammons.com/us-senators-representatives.htm Bill Hammons' American Politics Guide – Members of Congress by Committee and State with Partisan Voting Index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230085952/http://www.wrhammons.com/us-senators-representatives.htm |date=December 30, 2014 }}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=( ("Senate" AND "United States") OR ("Senate" AND "U. S.") )}}
* [http://www.c-span.org/video/?45919-1/28th-anniversary-tv-cameras-senate First U.S. Senate session aired by C-SPAN] via C-SPAN
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/app/browse/#browse/collection?collectionCode=SMAN&browsePath= Senate Manual] via govinfo.gov (U.S. Government Publishing Office)
* [https://www.senate.gov/reference/Index/Calendars_schedules.htm United States Senate Calendars and Schedules]
* [http://www.usbills.info Information about U.S. Bills and Resolutions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102103627/http://www.usbills.info/ |date=January 2, 2020 }}
* {{Librivox author |id=14561}}

{{United States Congress}}
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{{United States legislatures}}
{{United States topics}}
{{National upper houses}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:United States Senate| ]]
[[Category:National upper houses]]
[[Category:1789 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Legislative branch of the United States government]]

Asian Americans

2021-08-14T19:25:13Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|Americans of Asian ancestry}} {{For|the documentary series|Asian Americans (documentary series)}} {{About|the U.S. population of Americans of Asian ancestr..."

{{short description|Americans of Asian ancestry}}
{{For|the documentary series|Asian Americans (documentary series)}}
{{About|the U.S. population of Americans of Asian ancestry|populations of Asians across the Americas|Asians in the Americas (disambiguation){{!}}Asians in the Americas}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2016}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Asian Americans
| population = '''20,916,028''' 5.9% of the population (2018)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2020/demo/aian-population.html |title=Asian and Paciﬁc Islander Population in the United States census.gov |website=United States Census Bureau |access-date=February 14, 2021 |archive-date=March 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321072211/https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2020/demo/aian-population.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Chinese Americans]]:'' 5,143,982 ''[[Indian Americans]]:'' 4,506,308 ''[[Filipino Americans]]:'' 4,089,570 ''[[Vietnamese Americans]]:'' 2,162,610 ''[[Korean Americans]]:'' 1,894,131 ''[[Japanese Americans]]:'' 1,542,195 
''[[Bangladeshi Americans]]:'' 800,000 ''[[Pakistani Americans]]:'' 526,956 ''[[Thai Americans]]:'' 329,343 ''[[Hmong Americans]]:'' 320,164 ''[[Cambodian Americans]]:'' 300,360 ''[[Laotian Americans]]:'' 262,229 ''[[Taiwanese Americans]]:'' 306,076 ''[[Burmese Americans]]:'' 189,250 ''[[Nepalese Americans]]:'' 175,005 ''[[Indonesian Americans]]:'' 116,869 ''[[Sri Lankan Americans]]:'' 61,416 
| poptime =
| popplace =
| region1 = [[California]]
| pop1 = 5,556,592
| ref1 =
| region2 = [[New York (state)|New York]]
| pop2 = 1,579,494
| ref2 =
| region3 = [[Texas]]
| pop3 = 1,110,666
| ref3 =
| region4 = [[New Jersey]]
| pop4 = 795,163
| ref4 =
| region5 = [[Hawaii]]
| pop5 = 780,968
| ref5 =
| region6 = [[Illinois]]
| pop6 = 668,694
| ref6 =
| region7 = [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
| pop7 = 604,251
| ref7 =
| region8 = [[Florida]]
| pop8 = 573,083
| ref8 =
| region9 = [[Virginia]]
| pop9 = 522,199
| ref9 =
| region10 = [[Pennsylvania]]
| pop10 = 402,587
| ref10 =
| langs = {{hlist | [[American English]] | [[Languages of Asia|Asian languages]] | [[Spanish language|Spanish]]}}
| rels = [[Christianity in the United States|Christian]] (42%) [[Irreligion in the United States|Unaffiliated]] (26%) [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhist]] (14%) [[Hinduism in the United States|Hindu]] (10%) [[Islam in the United States|Muslim]] (4%) [[Sikhism in the United States|Sikh]] (1%) Other (2%) including [[Jain]], [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]], [[Tengrism]], [[Shinto]], and [[Chinese folk religion]] ([[Taoism|Taoist]] and [[Confucianism|Confucian]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Asian-Americans-A-Mosaic-of-Faiths-overview.aspx |title=Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths |date=July 19, 2012 |work=The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=February 15, 2013 |quote=Christian 42%, Buddhist 14%, Hindu 10%, Muslim 4%, Sikh 1%, Jain *% Unaffiliated 26%, Don't know/Refused 1% |archive-date=July 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130716064702/http://www.pewforum.org/Asian-Americans-A-Mosaic-of-Faiths-overview.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = % Asian by state.svg
}}

'''Asian Americans''' are [[Americans]] of [[Asian people|Asian]] ancestry (including [[Naturalization|naturalized]] Americans who are [[Immigration to the United States|immigrants]] from specific regions in [[Asia]] and descendants of such immigrants).<ref name="c2010">{{cite web |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C2010br-02.pdf |title=Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010 |author=Karen R. Humes |author2=Nicholas A. Jones |author3=Roberto R. Ramirez |date=March 2011 |work=United States Census Bureau |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce |access-date=January 5, 2012 |archive-date=September 3, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903025040/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C2010br-02.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Although this term had historically been used for all the indigenous peoples of the continent of [[Asia]], the usage of the term "Asian" by the [[United States Census Bureau]] excludes people with ethnic origins in certain parts of Asia, including [[West Asia]] who are now categorized as [[Middle Eastern Americans]];<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref name="Middle East"/> and those from [[Central Asia]] and [[Afghanistan]] who are categorized as [[Central Asian Americans]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Zeweri|first=Helena|editor=Jonathan H. X. Lee|title=Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9BrfLWdeISoC|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35066-5|pages=117–120|chapter=Afghan American: Identity|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9BrfLWdeISoC&pg=PA117}}</ref> The "Asian" census category includes people who indicate their race(s) on the census as "Asian" or reported entries such as "[[Chinese Americans|Chinese]], [[Indian Americans|Indian]], [[Filipino Americans|Filipino]], [[Vietnamese Americans|Vietnamese]], [[Indonesian Americans| Indonesian]], [[Korean Americans|Korean]], [[Japanese Americans|Japanese]], [[Malaysian Americans|Malaysian]], and Other Asian".<ref name="centech" /> In 2018, Asian Americans comprised 5.4% of the U.S. population; including [[Multiracial Americans|multiracial]] Asian Americans, that percentage increases to 6.5%.<ref name=acs18>{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=united%20states&g=0100000US&hidePreview=false&tid=ACSDP5Y2018.DP05&vintage=2018&cid=DP05_0001E|title=ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates|date=December 2019|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|access-date=20 March 2020|archive-date=July 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713150220/https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=united%20states&g=0100000US&hidePreview=false&tid=ACSDP5Y2018.DP05&vintage=2018&cid=DP05_0001E|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, the estimated number of Asian Americans was 22.9 million.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month: May 2021 |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2021/asian-american-pacific-islander.html |website=United States Census Bureau |access-date=18 May 2021 |date=April 19, 2021}}</ref> 
Chinese, Indian, and Filipino Americans make up the largest share of the Asian American population with 5 million, 4.3 million, and 4 million people respectively. These numbers equal 23%, 20%, and 18% of the total Asian American population, or 1.5% and 1.2% of the total US population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://asiamattersforamerica.org/articles/asian-american-population-in-the-united-states-continues-to-grow |title=Asian American Population in the United States Continues to Grow Origin: 2020 |author=Caitlin Brophy}}</ref> 
Although migrants from Asia have been in parts of the contemporary United States since the 17th century (including South Asian slaves<ref>{{cite book | title = Colonial Chesapeake: New Perspectives | year = 2006 | first1 = Debra | last1 = Meyers | first2 = Melanie | last2 = Perreault | publisher = Lexington Books | page = 83}}</ref>), large-scale immigration did not begin until the mid-19th century. Nativist immigration laws during the 1880s–1920s excluded various Asian groups, eventually [[Asian Exclusion Act|prohibiting almost all Asian immigration]] to the continental United States. After immigration laws were reformed during the 1940s–60s, [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965|abolishing national origins quotas]], Asian immigration increased rapidly. Analyses of the 2010 census have shown that Asian Americans are the fastest-growing racial group in the United States.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2012/03/23/149244806/u-s-census-show-asians-are-fastest-growing-racial-group|title=U.S. Census Show Asians Are Fastest Growing Racial Group|newspaper=NPR.org|access-date=2016-10-26|archive-date=December 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224074819/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2012/03/23/149244806/u-s-census-show-asians-are-fastest-growing-racial-group|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Terminology==

As with other [[race (classification of human beings)|racial]] and [[ethnic group|ethnicity]]-based [[ethnonym|terms]], formal and common usage have changed markedly through the short history of this term. Prior to the late 1960s, people of Asian ancestry were usually referred to as ''Yellow'', ''[[Oriental]]'', ''Asiatic'', or ''[[Mongoloid]]''.<ref name="K. Connie Kang">{{cite news |title=Yuji Ichioka, 66; Led Way in Studying Lives of Asian Americans |author=K. Connie Kang |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/07/local/me-yuji7 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=September 7, 2002 |access-date=May 4, 2013 |quote=Yet Ichioka created the first inter-ethnic pan-Asian American political group. And he coined the term "Asian American" to frame a new self-defining political lexicon. Before that, people of Asian ancestry were generally called Oriental or Asiatic. |archive-date=March 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314211804/http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/07/local/me-yuji7 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Mio |editor1-first=Jeffrey Scott |date=1999 |title=Key Words in Multicultural Interventions: A Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQnUTLMeds0C&pg=PA20 |series=ABC-Clio ebook |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=20 |isbn=9780313295478 |access-date=August 19, 2014 |quote=The use of the term Asian American began in the late 1960s alongside the civil rights movement (Uba, 1994) and replaced disparaging labels of Oriental, Asiatic, and Mongoloid. |archive-date=January 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103004328/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQnUTLMeds0C&pg=PA20 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref >{{cite web|last1=Lee|first1=Jennifer|last2=Ramakrishnan|first2=Karthick|title=Who counts as Asian|url=https://www.russellsage.org/sites/default/files/Who%20counts%20as%20Asian.pdf|website=Russellsage.org|page=4|date=October 14, 2019|access-date=July 7, 2021}}</ref> Additionally, the American definition of 'Asian' originally included [[Western Asia|West Asian]] ethnic groups, particularly [[Turkish Americans]], [[Armenian Americans]], [[Assyrian Americans]], [[Iranian Americans]], [[Kurdish Americans]], and certain [[Arab Americans]], although in modern times, these groups are now considered [[Middle Eastern American]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/asiaticexclusion00asia "Proceedings of the Asiatic Exclusion League"] Asiatic Exclusion League. San Francisco: April 1910. Pg. 7. "To amend section twenty-one hundred and sixty-nine of the Revised Statutes of the United States. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, that section twenty-one hundred and sixty-nine of the Revised Statutes of the United States be, and the same is hereby, amended by adding thereto the following: And Mongolians, Malays, and other Asiatics, except Armenians, Assyrians, and Jews, shall not be naturalized in the United States." </ref><ref name="Middle East">{{cite news |last=Cortellessa |first=Eric |date=23 October 2016 |title=Israeli, Palestinian Americans could share new 'Middle Eastern' census category |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-palestinian-americans-could-share-new-middle-eastern-census-category/ |work=Times of Israel |access-date=22 April 2018 |archive-date=June 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144106/https://www.timesofisrael.com/israeli-palestinian-americans-could-share-new-middle-eastern-census-category/ |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Nussbaum Cohen |first=Debra |date=18 June 2015 |title=New U.S. Census Category to Include 'Israeli' Option |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-new-u-s-census-category-to-include-israeli-1.5372299 |work=Haaretz |access-date=22 April 2018 |archive-date=July 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710200538/http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/features/.premium-1.661491 |url-status=live }} </ref><ref>[http://www.modelminority.com/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=284:how-the-us-courts-established-the-white-race-&catid=42:law&Itemid=56 How the U.S. Courts Established the White Race] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811164418/http://www.modelminority.com/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=284%3Ahow-the-us-courts-established-the-white-race-&catid=42%3Alaw&Itemid=56 |date=August 11, 2014 }}</ref> The term ''Asian American'' was coined by historian [[Yuji Ichioka]] in 1968 during the founding of the [[Asian American Political Alliance]],<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/DocumentToolsPortletWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&jsid=123ae70a556aedc627fbc1898048eb44&action=2&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CEJ2131700002&u=rock77357&zid=5575894ae31f198767c933cfae1911eb|title=U.S. History in Context – Document|website=ic.galegroup.com|access-date=2016-11-30}}</ref><ref>Daryl (2012). Rethinking the Asian American Movement. New York: Routledge. pp. 9–13, 18, 26, 29, 32–35, 42–48, 80, 108, 116–117, 139. {{ISBN|978-0-415-80081-5}}</ref> and he is also credited with popularizing the term, which he meant to be used to frame a new "inter-ethnic-pan-Asian American self-defining political group".<ref name="K. Connie Kang" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Yen Espiritu|title=Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1nBBxVTCjYC&pg=PA34|date=19 January 2011|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-1-4399-0556-2|page=34|access-date=April 19, 2019|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530115534/https://books.google.com/books?id=_1nBBxVTCjYC&pg=PA34|url-status=live}}</ref> Prior to being included in the "Asian" category in the 1980s, many Americans of South Asian descent usually classified themselves as ''Caucasian'' or ''other''.<ref>Chandy, Sunu P. [http://way.net/sawa/desiaspora/02conf.html What is a Valid South Asian Struggle?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061205220353/http://way.net/sawa/desiaspora/02conf.html |date=December 5, 2006 }} Report on the Annual SASA Conference. Retrieved July 13, 2021.</ref> Changing [[Asian immigration to the United States|patterns of immigration]] and an [[Asian immigration to the United States|extensive period of exclusion of Asian immigrants]] have resulted in demographic changes that have in turn affected the formal and common understandings of what defines Asian American. For example, since the removal of restrictive "national origins" quotas [[Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965|in 1965]], the Asian-American population has diversified greatly to include more of the peoples with ancestry from various parts of Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chin|first=Gabriel J.|date=April 18, 2008|title=The Civil Rights Revolution Comes to Immigration Law: A New Look at the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965|ssrn=1121504}}</ref>

Today, "Asian American" is the accepted term for most formal purposes, such as government and academic research, although it is often shortened to ''Asian'' in common usage.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert M. Jiobu|title=Ethnicity and Assimilation: Blacks, Chinese, Filipinos, Koreans, Japanese, Mexicans, Vietnamese, and Whites|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5uOexz2DMYC&pg=PA13|year=1988|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-647-4|page=13|access-date=March 28, 2018|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601001838/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5uOexz2DMYC&pg=PA13|url-status=live}} {{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Benjamin |date=February 2017 |title=Asian Americans and Education |url=http://education.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-102 |journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.102 |access-date=27 March 2018 |isbn=9780190264093 |archive-date=March 28, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328103916/http://education.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-102 |url-status=live }}</ref> The most commonly used definition of Asian American is the U.S. Census Bureau definition, which includes all people with origins in the [[Far East]], [[Southeast Asia]], and the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="centech">U.S. Census Bureau, ''[https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/doc/sf1.pdf Census 2000 Summary File 1 Technical Documentation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722023641/https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/doc/sf1.pdf |date=July 22, 2017 }}'', 2001, at Appendix B-14. "A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. It includes ''Asian Indian'', ''Chinese'', ''Filipino'', ''Korean'', ''Japanese'', ''Vietnamese'', and ''Other Asian''."</ref> This is chiefly because the census definitions determine many governmental classifications, notably for equal opportunity programs and measurements.<ref name="whoisasianam">{{cite news |last=Sailer |first=Steve |date=11 July 2002 |title=Feature: Who exactly is Asian American? |url=https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |work=UPI |location=Los Angeles |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=September 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905065158/https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], "Asian person" in the United States is most often thought of as a person of [[East Asia]]n descent.<ref name="Oxford1">{{cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_us1223255?rskey=D9mRoS&result=2#m_en_us1223255 |title=Asian American |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=March 29, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122533/https://languages.oup.com/#m_en_us1223255 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/asian?view=get |title=Asian |publisher=AskOxford.com |access-date=September 29, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415110425/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/asian?view=get |archive-date=April 15, 2008 |url-status=live |df=mdy }}{{full citation needed|date=July 2010}}</ref> In vernacular usage, "Asian" is usually used to refer to those of East Asian descent or anyone else of Asian descent with [[Epicanthic fold|epicanthic eyefolds]].<ref>[https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003030.htm Epicanthal folds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512223415/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003030.htm |date=May 12, 2016 }}: MedicinePlus Medical Encyclopedia states that ''"The presence of an epicanthal fold is normal in people of Asiatic descent"'' assuming it the norm for all Asians {{Cite book | title = Body Image: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice | editor = Thomas F. Cash | editor2 = Thomas Pruzinsky | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qZN7w2kXxtoC | chapter = Chapter 28. Asian American Body Images | first = Kathleen | last = Kawamura | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qZN7w2kXxtoC&pg=PA243 | pages = 243–249 | publisher = Guilford Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-1-59385-015-9 | access-date = October 16, 2015 | archive-date = May 30, 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200530202534/https://books.google.com/books?id=qZN7w2kXxtoC | url-status = live }}</ref> This differs from the U.S. Census definition<ref name="centech" /><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/2007/usedata/Subject_Definitions.pdf |title=American Community Survey; Puerto Rico Community Survey; 2007 Subject Definitions |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |page=31 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} {{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/data_documentation/SubjectDefinitions/2007_ACSSubjectDefinitions.pdf |title=American Community Survey; Puerto Rico Community Survey; 2007 Subject Definitions |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=April 11, 2011 }}{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{cite web |url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/tech_docs/code_lists/2017_ACS_Code_Lists.pdf?# |title=American Community Survey and Puerto Rico Community Survey: 2017 Code List |author= |date=2017 |website=Code Lists, Definitions, and Accuracy |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=June 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601024007/https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/tech_docs/code_lists/2017_ACS_Code_Lists.pdf |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/tech_docs/subject_definitions/2017_ACSSubjectDefinitions.pdf?# |title=American Community Survey and Puerto Rico Community Survey: 2017 Subject Definitions |author= |date=2017 |website=Code Lists, Definitions, and Accuracy |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce |access-date=4 May 2019 |pages=114–116 |quote=Asian. A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. It includes people who indicate their race as "Asian Indian," "Chinese," "Filipino," "Korean," "Japanese," "Vietnamese," and "Other Asian" or provide other detailed Asian responses. |archive-date=June 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605075859/https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/tech_docs/subject_definitions/2017_ACSSubjectDefinitions.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and the Asian American Studies departments in many universities consider all those of East, South or Southeast Asian descent to be "Asian".<ref>[http://www.aasp.cornell.edu/courses.php Cornell Asian American Studies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509122745/http://www.aasp.cornell.edu/courses.php |date=May 9, 2008 }}; contains mentions to South Asians [http://sis.berkeley.edu/catalog/gcc_list_crse_req?p_dept_name=Asian+American+Studies&p_dept_cd=ASAMST UC Berkeley – General Catalog – Asian American Studies Courses] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221023715/http://sis.berkeley.edu/catalog/gcc_list_crse_req?p_dept_name=Asian%20American%20Studies&p_dept_cd=ASAMST |date=December 21, 2008 }}; South and Southeast Asian courses are present {{cite web |url=http://www.uic.edu/ucat/catalog/LAASAM.htm |title=Asian American Studies |year=2009 |work=2009–2011 Undergraduate Catalog |publisher=University of Illinois at Chicago |access-date=April 11, 2011 |archive-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607085718/http://www.uic.edu/ucat/catalog/LAASAM.htm |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://hss.fullerton.edu/asian-american/program.asp |title=Welcome to Asian American Studies |year=2003 |work=Asian American Studies |publisher=California State University, Fullerton |access-date=April 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120711072924/http://hss.fullerton.edu/asian-american/program.asp |archive-date=July 11, 2012 |df=mdy-all }} {{cite web |url=http://aas.stanford.edu/program.htm |title=Program |work=Asian American Studies |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |access-date=April 11, 2011 |archive-date=January 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110165001/http://aas.stanford.edu/program.htm |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://asianamericanstudies.osu.edu/aboutus |title=About Us |year=2007 |work=Asian American Studies |publisher=Ohio State University |access-date=April 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811221323/http://asianamericanstudies.osu.edu/aboutus |archive-date=August 11, 2011 |df=mdy }} {{cite web |url=http://www.umass.edu/asianasianamstudies/index.html |title=Welcome |year=2011 |work=Asian and Asian American Studies Certificate Program |publisher=University of Massachusetts Amherst |access-date=April 11, 2011 |archive-date=December 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223001218/http://www.umass.edu/asianasianamstudies/index.html |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://www.aasp.cornell.edu/overview.php |title=Overview |year=2007 |work=Cornell University Asian American Studies Program |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=April 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615023227/http://www.aasp.cornell.edu/courses.php |archive-date=June 15, 2012 |df=mdy }}</ref>

===Census definition===
In the [[US Census]], people with origins or ancestry in the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent are classified as part of the [[Ethnic groups in the United States#Asian Americans|Asian race]];<ref name="usacensus1">{{cite web| url = http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_RHI425206.htm| title = State & County QuickFacts: Race| publisher = U.S. Census Bureau| access-date = August 31, 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091130012436/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_RHI425206.htm| archive-date = November 30, 2009| url-status = dead}}</ref> while those with origins or ancestry in [[Western Asia]] ([[Israeli Americans|Israelis]], [[Turkish Americans|Turks]], [[Iranian Americans|Persians]], [[Kurdish Americans|Kurds]], [[Assyrian Americans|Assyrians]], [[Arab Americans|Arabs]], etc.), and the [[Caucasus]] ([[Georgian Americans|Georgians]], [[Armenian Americans|Armenians]], [[Azerbaijani American|Azeris]], etc.) are classified as "white" or "Middle Eastern",<ref name="autogenerated1">U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of Population, Public Law 94-171 Redistricting Data File.{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011103175823/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68178.htm |date=November 3, 2001 |title=Race }}. (archived from [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68178.htm the original] on November 3, 2001).</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ferris.edu/diversity/measurements/ferris%20state%20university%20enrollment%201999%20to%202006.pdf |title=COMPARATIVE ENROLLMENT BY RACE/ETHNIC ORIGIN |author= |website=Diversity and Inclusion Office |publisher=Ferris State University |access-date=August 9, 2014 |quote=original peoples of Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East. |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924011925/http://www.ferris.edu/diversity/measurements/ferris%20state%20university%20enrollment%201999%20to%202006.pdf |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://www.aaiusa.org/pages/not-quite-white-race-classification-and-the-arab-american-experience |title=Not Quite White: Race Classification and the Arab American Experience |author= |date=April 4, 1997 |website=Arab American Institute |publisher=Arab Americans by the Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University |access-date=August 9, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826035428/http://www.aaiusa.org/pages/not-quite-white-race-classification-and-the-arab-american-experience |archive-date=August 26, 2014 |df=mdy }} {{cite web |url=http://www.modelminority.com/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=284:how-the-us-courts-established-the-white-race-&catid=42:law&Itemid=56 |title=How the U.S. Courts Established the White Race |author=Ian Haney Lopez |date=1996 |website=Model Minority |publisher=New York University Press |access-date=August 9, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811164418/http://www.modelminority.com/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=284%3Ahow-the-us-courts-established-the-white-race-&catid=42%3Alaw&Itemid=56 |archive-date=August 11, 2014 |df=mdy-all }} {{cite web |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_RHI125213.htm |title=Race |author= |date=2010 |website=United States Census Bureau |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce |access-date=August 9, 2014 |quote=White. A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "White" or report entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese, Arab, Moroccan, or Caucasian. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716122857/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_RHI125213.htm |archive-date=July 16, 2014 |url-status=dead }} {{cite web |last=Kleinyesterday |first=Uri |url=http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/features/.premium-1.661491?v=58948502ECBEAD6D447FB207FE19031C |title=New U.S. census category to include 'Israeli' option - Jewish World Features - Haaretz - Israel News |website=Haaretz.com |date=2015-06-18 |access-date=2017-02-27 |archive-date=September 11, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911155847/http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/features/.premium-1.661491?v=58948502ECBEAD6D447FB207FE19031C |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/programs-surveys/decennial/2020-census/2015_census_tests/nct/2015-nct-frn.pdf |title=Public Comments Received on Federal Register notice 79 FR 71377 : Proposed Information Collection; Comment Request; 2015 National Content Test : U.S. Census Bureau; Department of Commerce : December 2, 2014 – February 2, 2015 |website=Census.gov |access-date=2017-02-27 |archive-date=July 26, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170726045556/https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/programs-surveys/decennial/2020-census/2015_census_tests/nct/2015-nct-frn.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and those with origins from [[Central Asians in the United States|Central Asia]] ([[Kazakh Americans|Kazakhs]], [[Uzbek Americans|Uzbeks]], [[Turkmens]], [[Tajikistani Americans|Tajiks]], [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]], [[Afghan Americans|Afghans]], etc.) are classified as "white". As such, "Asian" and "African" ancestry are seen as racial categories only for the purpose of the Census, with the definition referring to ancestry from parts of the Asian and African continents outside of [[Middle East and North Africa|West Asia, North Africa]], and [[Central Asia]]. The definition also overlaps other interpretations: for example the country of [[Afghanistan]] has long been listed under the category of [[South Asia]], but is racially categorized as Central Asian American.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daniel Perez |first1=Anthony |last2=Hirschman |first2=Charles |date=March 2008 |title=The Changing Racial and Ethnic Composition of the US Population: Emerging American Identities |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–51 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2009.00260.x |pmid=20539823 |quote=The racial codes used in Census 2000 (as well as current American Community Surveys) include 'Afghanistani' are white, while the ancestry codes in the same document list 'Afghan' under South Asia. |pmc=2882688 }}</ref>

In 1980 and before, Census forms listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups, along with ''white'' and ''black or negro''.<ref>[http://usa.ipums.org/usa/voliii/items1980.shtml 1980 Census: Instructions to Respondents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130102446/http://usa.ipums.org/usa/voliii/items1980.shtml |date=November 30, 2006 }}, republished by [[IPUMS|Integrated Public Use Microdata Series]], [[Minnesota Population Center]], [[University of Minnesota]] at http://www.ipums.org {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711234118/http://www.ipums.org/ |date=July 11, 2013 }} Accessed November 19, 2006.</ref> Asian Americans had also been classified as "other".<ref name="GordonLee">Lee, Gordon. ''Hyphen'' magazine. {{cite web |url= http://www.hyphenmagazine.com/features/issues/summer03/theforgottenrevolution.php |title= The Forgotten Revolution |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20030707160800/http://www.hyphenmagazine.com/features/issues/summer03/theforgottenrevolution.php |archive-date= July 7, 2003 |url-status=dead |access-date= June 1, 2016 }}. 2003. January 28, 2007 (archived from [http://www.hyphenmagazine.com/features/issues/summer03/theforgottenrevolution.php the original] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071002114541/http://hyphenmagazine.com/features/issues/summer03/theforgottenrevolution.php |date=October 2, 2007 }} on March 17, 2008).</ref> In 1977, the federal [[Office of Management and Budget]] issued a directive requiring government agencies to maintain statistics on racial groups, including on "Asian or Pacific Islander".<ref>{{cite book |title=Yellow: race in America beyond black and white |last=Wu |first=Frank H. Wu |year=2003 |publisher=Basic Books|location=New York |isbn=9780465006403 |page=310 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkPvf5Cs-DgC&pg=PA310 |access-date=April 15, 2011}}</ref> By the 1990 census, "Asian or Pacific Islander (API)" was included as an explicit category, although respondents had to select one particular ancestry as a subcategory.<ref>[http://usa.ipums.org/usa/voliii/items1990.shtml 1990 Census: Instructions to Respondents] {{Webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/66BwRtKHz?url=http://usa.ipums.org/usa/voliii/items1990.shtml |date=March 15, 2012 }}, republished by [[IPUMS|Integrated Public Use Microdata Series]], Minnesota Population Center, University of Minnesota at http://www.ipums.org {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711234118/http://www.ipums.org/ |date=July 11, 2013 }} Accessed November 19, 2006. Reeves, Terrance Claudett, Bennett. United States Census Bureau. ''[https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-540.pdf Asian and Pacific Islander Population: March 2002] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110075208/https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-540.pdf |date=January 10, 2021 }}. 2003. September 30, 2006.''</ref> Beginning with the 2000 census, two separate categories were used: "Asian American" and "Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.api-gbv.org/resources/census-data-api-identities.php|title=Census Data / API Identities {{!}} Research & Statistics {{!}} Resources Publications Research Statistics {{!}} Asian Pacific Institute on Gender-Based Violence|website=www.api-gbv.org|access-date=May 27, 2016|archive-date=June 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609135048/http://www.api-gbv.org/resources/census-data-api-identities.php|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Debates and criticism===
{{see also|Racial classification of Indian Americans}}

The definition of ''Asian American'' has variations that derive from the [[use of the word American|use of the word ''American'']] in different contexts. Immigration status, citizenship (by birthright and by naturalization), acculturation, and language ability are some variables that are used to define ''American'' for various purposes and may vary in formal and everyday usage.<ref>Wood, Daniel B. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0425/p03s03-ussc.html "Common Ground on who's an American."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208183807/http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0425/p03s03-ussc.html |date=February 8, 2007 }} ''Christian Science Monitor''. January 19, 2006. Retrieved February 16, 2007.</ref> For example, restricting ''American'' to include only U.S. citizens conflicts with discussions of Asian American businesses, which generally refer both to citizen and non-citizen owners.<ref name="Asian Owned Businesses 2018">{{cite news|url=https://census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2016/07/asian-owned-businesses-nearing-two-million.html|title=Asian-Owned Businesses Nearing Two Million|author=Mary Frauenfelder|newspaper=census.gov|access-date=May 15, 2018|archive-date=July 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719121341/https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2016/07/asian-owned-businesses-nearing-two-million.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a PBS interview from 2004, a panel of Asian American writers discussed how some groups include people of Middle Eastern descent in the Asian American category.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/searching/aafr_erq1_1.html|title=Searching For Asian America. Community Chats - PBS|website=pbs.org|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151104122128/http://www.pbs.org/searching/aafr_erq1_1.html|archive-date=November 4, 2015|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Asian American author Stewart Ikeda has noted, "The definition of 'Asian American' also frequently depends on who's asking, who's defining, in what context, and why... the possible definitions of 'Asian-Pacific American' are many, complex, and shifting... some scholars in Asian American Studies conferences suggest that Russians, Iranians, and Israelis all might fit the field's subject of study."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imdiversity.com/Villages/Asian/dialogue_opinion_letters/archives/ikeda_apa_definition.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610050512/http://www.imdiversity.com/Villages/Asian/dialogue_opinion_letters/archives/ikeda_apa_definition.asp |archive-date=June 10, 2011 |title=What's an "Asian American" Now, Anyway? |author=S. D. Ikeda |url-status=live |df=mdy }}</ref> [[Jeff Yang]], of ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', writes that the panethnic definition of Asian American is a unique American construct, and as an identity is "in [[Beta test|beta]]".<ref>{{cite news |title=Easy Tiger (Nation) |first=Jeff |last=Yang |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2012/10/27/easy-tiger-nation/ |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=October 27, 2012 |access-date=February 19, 2013 |archive-date=March 16, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130316154525/http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2012/10/27/easy-tiger-nation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The majority of Asian Americans feel ambivalence about the term "Asian American" as a term by which to [[Identity (social science)|identify themselves]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Jerry Z. |date=1 August 2008 |title=Second-Generation Asian American Pan-Ethnic Identity: Pluralized Meanings of a Racial Label |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241278559 |journal=Sociological Perspectives |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=541–561 |doi=10.1525/sop.2008.51.3.541 |s2cid=146327919 |access-date=14 August 2019 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122521/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241278559_Second-Generation_Asian_American_Pan-Ethnic_Identity_Pluralized_Meanings_of_a_Racial_Label |url-status=live }} </ref> [[Pyong Gap Min]], a sociologist and Professor of Sociology at [[Queens College]], has stated the term is merely political, used by Asian-American activists and further reinforced by the government. Beyond that, he feels that South Asians and East Asians do not have commonalities in "culture, physical characteristics, or pre-migrant historical experiences".<ref>{{cite news |last=Sailer |first=Steve |date=11 July 2002 |title=Feature: Who exactly is Asian American? |url=https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |work=UPI |location=Los Angeles |access-date=20 September 2020 |quote=It is a political term used by Asian-American activists and enhanced by governmental treatment. In terms of culture, physical characteristics, and pre-migrant historical experiences, I have argued, South and East Asians do not have commonalities and as a result, they do not maintain close ties in terms friendship, intermarriage or sharing neighborhoods |archive-date=September 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905065158/https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Scholars have grappled with the accuracy, correctness, and usefulness of the term Asian American. The term "Asian" in Asian American most often comes under fire for only encompassing some of the diverse peoples of Asia, and for being considered a racial category instead of a non-racial "ethnic" category. This is namely due to the categorization of the racially different South Asians and East Asians as part of the same "race".<ref name="whoisasianam"/> Furthermore, some South Asian Americans find more cultural similarities with West Asians then East Asians, the former of whom are not considered "Asian" under the U.S census.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sailer |first=Steve |date=July 11, 2002 |title=Feature: Who exactly is Asian American? |url=https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |work=UPI |location=Los Angeles |access-date=July 8, 2021 |archive-date=September 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905065158/https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |url-status=live|quote=Dinesh D'Souza ... told United Press International, "Middle Eastern culture has some similarities (religion, cuisine, taste in music and movies) with Asian Indian culture, but very few with Oriental (Far Eastern) culture."}}</ref> Scholars have also found it difficult to determine why Asian Americans are considered a "race" while Americans of Hispanic and Latino heritage are a non-racial "ethnic group", given how similarly, the category of Asian American comprises of people with diverse origins.<ref name="LeeMountainKoenig2001">Lee, S.S., Mountain, J. & Koenig, B.A. (2001). The Meanings of Race in the New Genomics: Implications for Health Disparities Research. ''[[Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics]] 1,'' (1). Pages 43, 44, & 45. [https://web.archive.org/web/20061101012859/http://www.yale.edu/yjhple/volume_1/pdf/033%20%28koenig%29.pdf Wayback Machine link].</ref> Though it has been argued that South Asians and East Asians can be "justifiably" grouped together because of Buddhism's origins in South Asia.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sailer |first=Steve |date=July 11, 2002 |title=Feature: Who exactly is Asian American? |url=https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |work=UPI |location=Los Angeles |access-date=July 8, 2021 |archive-date=September 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905065158/https://www.upi.com/Feature-Who-exactly-is-Asian-American/34451026436660/ |url-status=live|quote=The most common justification advanced for federal government's clustering together South Asians and East Asians is that Buddhism originated in India.}}</ref>

In contrast, leading [[social science]]s and [[humanities]] scholars of race and Asian American identity point out that because of the racial constructions in the United States, including the social attitudes toward race and those of Asian ancestry, Asian Americans have a "shared racial experience."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Geisha of a Different Kind: Race and Sexuality in Gaysian America|last=Han|first=Chong-Suk Winter|publisher=New York University Press|year=2015|location=New York|page=4}}</ref> Because of this shared experience, the term Asian American is argued as still being a useful [[Panethnicity|panethnic]] category because of the similarity of some experiences among Asian Americans, including stereotypes specific to people in this category.<ref name=":0" /> Despite this, others have stated that many Americans do not treat all Asian Americans equally, highlighting the fact that "Asian American" is generally synonymous with people of East Asian descent, thereby excluding people of Southeast Asian and South Asian origin.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kambhampaty|first=Anna Purna|title=At Census Time, Asian Americans Again Confront the Question of Who 'Counts' as Asian. Here's How the Answer Got So Complicated|url=https://time.com/5800209/asian-american-census/|date=March 12, 2020|access-date=July 9, 2021|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|quote=But American culture tends not to think of all regions in Asia as equally Asian. A quick Google search of “Asian food nearby” is likely to call up Chinese or Japanese restaurants, but not Indian or Filipino. Years after someone posted a thread on College Confidential, a popular college admissions forum, titled “Do Indians count as Asians?” the SAT in 2016 tweaked its race categories, explaining to test-takers that “Asian” did include “Indian subcontinent and Philippines origin."}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Asian Americans}}
[[File:Asian American population percentage by state in 2010.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Asian American population percentage by state in 2010]]
[[File:Asian-as-a-Percentage-of-County-Population-2010 2200x1440.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Percentage of Asian American by county, 2010 Census]]

The demographics of Asian Americans describe a heterogeneous group of people in the United States who can trace their ancestry to one or more countries in East, South or Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asian Population in U.S. Grew by 70% in the 80's |first=Felicity |last=Barringer |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/02/us/asian-population-in-us-grew-by-70-in-the-80-s.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=March 2, 1990 |access-date=January 10, 2013 |archive-date=September 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061919/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/02/us/asian-population-in-us-grew-by-70-in-the-80-s.html |url-status=live }} {{cite book |last=Lowe |first=Lisa |chapter=Heterogeneity, Hybridity, Multiplicity: Marking Asian American Differences |chapter-url=http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:e7XvI7TduOsJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 |title=A Companion to Asian American Studies |series=Blackwell Companions in Cultural Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb-jKArjedIC |editor1-first=Kent A. |editor1-last=Ono |access-date=January 10, 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-1595-7 |page=272 |archive-date=January 16, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116005502/https://books.google.com/books?id=hb-jKArjedIC |url-status=live }} [http://www4.ncsu.edu/~mseth2/com417s12/readings/LoweHybrid.PDF Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055144/http://www4.ncsu.edu/~mseth2/com417s12/readings/LoweHybrid.PDF |date=September 21, 2013 }}</ref> Because they compose 6% of the entire U.S. population, the diversity of the group is often disregarded in media and news discussions of "Asians" or of "Asian Americans."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Skop|first1=Emily|last2=Li|first2=Wei|year=2005|title=Asians In America's Suburbs: Patterns And Consequences of Settlement|journal=The Geographical Review|volume=95|issue=2|page=168|doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.2005.tb00361.x|s2cid=162228375}}</ref> While there are some commonalities across ethnic subgroups, there are significant differences among different Asian ethnicities that are related to each group's history.<ref>{{cite book |title=Teach boldly!: letters to teachers about contemporary issues in education |last1=Fehr |first1=Dennis Earl |first2=Mary Cain |last2=Fehr |year=2009 |publisher=[[Peter Lang (publishing company)|Peter Lang]] |isbn=978-1-4331-0491-6 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WFQpcDhkCm4C&q=diversity%20asian%20americans%20disregarded%20media&pg=PA164 |access-date=March 6, 2012 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122520/https://books.google.com/books?id=WFQpcDhkCm4C&q=diversity+asian+americans+disregarded+media&pg=PA164 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124511/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_anon_9.pdf |title=Issue Brief #160: Asian American Protest Politics: "The Politics of Identity" |author=Raymond Arthur Smith |year=2009 |work=Majority Rule and Minority Rights Issue Briefs |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |access-date=March 6, 2012 |archive-date=September 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054503/http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124511/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_anon_9.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Asian American population is greatly [[Urbanization|urbanized]], with nearly three-quarters of them living in metropolitan areas with population greater than 2.5 million.<ref>{{cite report |last=Lott |first=Juanita Tamayo |date=9 January 2004 |title=Asian-American Children Are Members of a Diverse and Urban Population |url=https://www.prb.org/asianamericanchildrenaremembersofadiverseandurbanpopulation/ |publisher=Population Reference Bureau |access-date=6 April 2018 |archive-date=April 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407120013/https://www.prb.org/asianamericanchildrenaremembersofadiverseandurbanpopulation/ |url-status=live }} {{cite journal |last1=Hune |first1=Shirley |date=16 April 2002 |title=Demographics and Diversity of Asian American College Students |journal=New Directions for Student Services |volume=2002 |issue=97 |pages=11–20 |doi=10.1002/ss.35 }} {{cite book|author=Franklin Ng|title=The History and Immigration of Asian Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGa42b0VqMEC&pg=PA211|year=1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8153-2690-8|page=211|access-date=April 7, 2018|archive-date=June 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604014327/https://books.google.com/books?id=bGa42b0VqMEC&pg=PA211|url-status=live}} {{cite book|author1=Xue Lan Rong|author2=Judith Preissle|title=Educating Immigrant Students in the 21st Century: What Educators Need to Know|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUhOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA133|date=26 September 2008|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-9405-6|page=133|access-date=April 7, 2018|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601073302/https://books.google.com/books?id=KUhOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA133|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|July 2015}}, California had the largest population of Asian Americans of any state, and Hawaii was the only state where Asian Americans were the majority of the population.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wile |first=Rob |date=26 June 2016 |title=Latinos are no longer the fastest-growing racial group in America |url=http://fusion.net/latinos-are-no-longer-the-fastest-growing-racial-group-1793857822 |work=Fusion |location=Doral, Florida |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-date=April 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170407223622/http://fusion.net/latinos-are-no-longer-the-fastest-growing-racial-group-1793857822 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The demographics of Asian Americans can further be subdivided into, as listed in alphabetical order:
* '''[[East Asian Americans]]''', including [[Chinese Americans]], [[Hong Kong Americans]], [[Japanese Americans]], [[Korean Americans]], [[Mongolian Americans]], [[Ryukyuan Americans]], [[Taiwanese Americans]] and [[Tibetan Americans]].
* '''[[South Asian Americans]]''', including [[Bangladeshi Americans]], [[Bhutanese Americans]], [[Indian Americans]] (including [[Indo-Caribbean Americans]] and [[Fijian Indian diaspora|Indo-Fijian Americans]]), [[Maldivian Americans]], [[Nepalese Americans]], [[Pakistani Americans]], and [[Sri Lankan Americans]].
* '''[[Southeast Asian Americans]]''', including [[Burmese Americans]], [[Cambodian Americans]], [[Filipino Americans]], [[Hmong Americans]], [[Indonesian Americans]], [[Iu Mien Americans]], [[Laotian Americans]], [[Malaysian Americans]], [[Singaporean Americans]], [[Thai Americans]] and [[Vietnamese Americans]].

This grouping is by country of origin before immigration to the United States, and not necessarily by ethnicity, as for example (nonexclusive), [[Singaporean Americans]] may be of [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Indian people|Indian]], or [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] descent.

Asian Americans include '''[[Multiracial Americans|multiracial or mixed race]]''' persons with origins or ancestry in both the above groups and another race, or multiple of the above groups.

===Language===
In 2010, there were 2.8 million people (5 and older) who spoke one of the [[Chinese language]]s at home;<ref name="AHM2012" /> after the [[Spanish language]], it is the third most common language in the United States.<ref name="AHM2012">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb12-ff09.html |title=Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2012 |author= |date=March 21, 2012 |work=United States Census Bureau |publisher=United States Department of Commerce |access-date=January 12, 2013 |archive-date=January 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106171909/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb12-ff09.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Other sizeable [[Languages of Asia|Asian languages]] are [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], and [[Korean language|Korean]], with all three having more than 1 million speakers in the United States.<ref name="AHM2012" />

In 2012, [[Alaska]], California, Hawaii, [[Illinois]], Massachusetts, [[Michigan]], [[Nevada]], New Jersey, New York, Texas and Washington were publishing election material in Asian languages in accordance with the [[Voting Rights Act]];<ref name="TPratt18OCT12NYT" /> these languages include Tagalog, [[Mandarin Chinese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], Spanish,<ref name="SpanishChinese">{{cite book|author1=Jonathan H. X. Lee|author2=Kathleen M. Nadeau|title=Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9BrfLWdeISoC&pg=PA334|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35066-5|pages=333–334|quote=Since the Philippines was colonized by Spain, Filipino Americans in general can speak and understand Spanish too.|access-date=September 28, 2017|archive-date=April 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425120133/https://books.google.com/books?id=9BrfLWdeISoC&pg=PA334|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Standard Hindi|Hindi]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]].<ref name="TPratt18OCT12NYT">{{cite news |title=More Asian Immigrants Are Finding Ballots in Their Native Tongue |author=Timothy Pratt |location=Las Vegas |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/19/us/politics/more-asian-immigrants-are-finding-ballots-in-their-native-tongue.html?_r=0 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=October 18, 2012 |access-date=January 12, 2013 |archive-date=December 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225194150/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/19/us/politics/more-asian-immigrants-are-finding-ballots-in-their-native-tongue.html?_r=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> Election materials were also available in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and [[Thai language|Thai]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Five new Asian languages make their debut at the polls |author=Leslie Berestein Rojas |url=http://www.scpr.org/blogs/multiamerican/2012/11/06/10917/five-new-asian-languages-make-their-debut-polls/ |newspaper=KPCC |date=November 6, 2012 |access-date=January 12, 2013 |archive-date=June 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610202415/http://www.scpr.org/blogs/multiamerican/2012/11/06/10917/five-new-asian-languages-make-their-debut-polls/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2013 poll found that 48 percent of Asian Americans considered [[Ethnic media|media in their native language]] as their primary news source.<ref>{{cite news |title=Half of Asian Americans rely on ethnic media: poll |author=Shaun Tandon |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j9a2fd2pl5VdCcAJ4QPD4ou3HsuQ?docId=CNG.bef0de9c35071a6327f04b90055f047a.71 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=January 17, 2013 |access-date=January 25, 2013}}</ref>

The [[2000 United States Census|2000 Census]] found the more prominent languages of the Asian American community to include the Chinese languages ([[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[Taishanese]], and [[Hokkien]]), Tagalog, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], Japanese, Hindi, [[Urdu]], Telugu and Gujarati.<ref name="CensusLang">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf|title=Language Use and English-Speaking Ability: 2000: Census 2000 Brief|website=census.gov|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=February 18, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218000958/http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2008, the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Tagalog, and Vietnamese languages are all used in elections in Alaska, California, Hawaii, Illinois, New York, Texas, and Washington state.<ref name="AsianLang">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080731133121/http://www.eac.gov/News/press/eac-issues-glossaries-of-election-terms-in-five-asian-languages/ EAC Issues Glossaries of Election Terms in Five Asian Languages Translations to Make Voting More Accessible to a Majority of Asian American Citizens]. Election Assistance Commission. June 20, 2008. (archived from [http://www.eac.gov/News/press/eac-issues-glossaries-of-election-terms-in-five-asian-languages/ the original] on July 31, 2008)</ref>

===Religion===
A 2012 [[Pew Research Center]] study found the following breakdown of religious identity among Asian Americans:<ref>"[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/07/19/asian-americans-a-mosaic-of-faiths-overview/ Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths]" (overview) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20140428175458/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/07/19/asian-americans-a-mosaic-of-faiths-overview/ Archive]). [[Pew Research]]. July 19, 2020. Retrieved on May 3, 2020.</ref>
* 42% [[Christianity in the United States|Christian]]
* 26% [[Irreligion in the United States|Unaffiliated]] with any religion
* 14% [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhist]]
* 10% [[Hinduism in the United States|Hindu]]
* 4% [[Islam in the United States|Muslim]]
* 2% other religion
* 1% [[Sikhism in the United States|Sikh]]

====Religious trends====
The percentage of Christians among Asian Americans has sharply declined since the 1990s, chiefly as a result of large-scale immigration from countries in which Christianity is a minority religion (China and India in particular). In 1990, 63% of the Asian Americans identified as Christians, while in 2001 only 43% did.<ref>Leffel, Gregory P. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1SxtAAAAQBAJ Faith Seeking Action: Mission, Social Movements, and the Church in Motion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529204157/https://books.google.com/books?id=1SxtAAAAQBAJ |date=May 29, 2020 }}''. Scarecrow Press, 2007. {{ISBN|1461658578}}. p. 39</ref> This development has been accompanied by a rise in [[Eastern religions|traditional Asian religions]], with the people identifying with them doubling during the same decade.<ref>Sawyer, Mary R. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=W8sRg3KLL14C The Church on the Margins: Living Christian Community] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531072546/https://books.google.com/books?id=W8sRg3KLL14C |date=May 31, 2020 }}''. A&C Black, 2003. {{ISBN|1563383667}}. p. 156</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Asian Americans}}{{See also|Asian immigration to the United States}}

===Early immigration===
[[File:5ViewsOfStMaloLouisiana1883.jpg|thumb|Five images of the [[Filipino people|Filipino]] settlement at [[Saint Malo, Louisiana]]]]
Because Asian Americans or their ancestors immigrated to the United States from many different countries, each Asian American population has its own unique immigration history.<ref name="RoAAPEW2012" />

[[Filipinos]] have been in the territories that would become the United States since the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Joaquin |last=Gonzalez |title=Filipino American Faith in Action: Immigration, Religion, and Civic Engagement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vxdJXdqPuuEC&q=filipino%20landing%20morro%20bay&pg=PA20 |access-date=May 11, 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=9780814732977 |pages=21–22 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122530/https://books.google.com/books?id=vxdJXdqPuuEC&q=filipino+landing+morro+bay&pg=PA20 |url-status=live }} {{cite book |first=E. San |last=Juan Jr. |chapter=Emergency Signals from the Shipwreck |series=SUNY series in global modernity |title=Toward Filipino Self-Determination |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Cprm26URewC&q=filipino%20morro%20bay&pg=PA101 |access-date=May 11, 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9781438427379 |pages=101–102 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122540/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Cprm26URewC&q=filipino+morro+bay&pg=PA101 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1635, an "East Indian" is listed in [[Jamestown, Virginia]];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/jame/historyculture/upload/African%20Americans%20on%20Jamestown%20Island.pdf |title=A Study of the Africans and African Americans on Jamestown Island and at Green Spring, 1619–1803 |author=Martha W. McCartney |author2=Lorena S. Walsh |author3=Ywone Edwards-Ingram |author4=Andrew J. Butts |author5=Beresford Callum |year=2003 |work=Historic Jamestowne |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |access-date=May 11, 2013 |archive-date=November 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104205831/http://www.nps.gov/jame/historyculture/upload/African%20Americans%20on%20Jamestown%20Island.pdf |url-status=live }} {{cite news |url=http://www.indiacurrents.com/articles/2007/05/16/indian-slaves-in-colonial-america |title=Indian Slaves in Colonial America |author=Francis C. Assisi |date=May 16, 2007 |newspaper=India Currents |access-date=May 11, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127200048/http://www.indiacurrents.com/articles/2007/05/16/indian-slaves-in-colonial-america |archive-date=November 27, 2012 }}</ref> preceding wider settlement of [[Indian people|Indian]] immigrants on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] in the 1790s and the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] in the 1800s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Okihiro |first=Gary Y. |title=The Columbia Guide To Asian American History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZDkwy7CURgC&q=south%20asian%20slaves%20jamestown&pg=PA178 |access-date=May 10, 2013 |year=2005 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=9780231115117 |page=178 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122535/https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZDkwy7CURgC&q=south+asian+slaves+jamestown&pg=PA178 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1763, [[Filipinos]] established the small settlement of [[Saint Malo, Louisiana]], after fleeing mistreatment aboard [[New Spain|Spanish]] [[Manila galleon|ships]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/time_06.html |title=Filipinos in Louisiana |access-date=January 5, 2011 |archive-date=March 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321101112/http://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/time_06.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since there were no Filipino women with them, these 'Manilamen', as they were known, married [[Cajun]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] women.<ref>{{cite book |title=Southeast Asian Americans |last=Wachtel |first=Alan |year=2009 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-4312-4 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_SzmVM1lCAC&q=louisiana+manilamen+marriage&pg=PR4 |access-date=December 5, 2010 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122534/https://books.google.com/books?id=i_SzmVM1lCAC&q=louisiana+manilamen+marriage&pg=PR4 |url-status=live }}</ref> The first Japanese person to come to the United States, and stay any significant period of time was [[Nakahama Manjirō]] who reached the East Coast in 1841, and [[Joseph Heco]] became the first Japanese American [[Naturalized citizen of the United States|naturalized US citizen]] in 1858.<ref>{{cite book|author=John E. Van Sant|title=Pacific Pioneers: Japanese Journeys to America and Hawaii, 1850-80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1LIkmYaLWsC&pg=PA22|year=2000|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-02560-0|page=22|access-date=October 16, 2015|archive-date=January 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103004328/https://books.google.com/books?id=w1LIkmYaLWsC&pg=PA22|url-status=live}} {{cite book|author1=Sang Chi|author2=Emily Moberg Robinson|title=Voices of the Asian American and Pacific Islander Experience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55GHYJlvf7YC&pg=PA377|date=January 2012|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-354-5|page=377|access-date=October 16, 2015|archive-date=January 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103004328/https://books.google.com/books?id=55GHYJlvf7YC&pg=PA377|url-status=live}} {{cite book|author=Joseph Nathan Kane|title=Famous first facts: a record of first happenings, discoveries and inventions in the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaYEAAAAYAAJ|year=1964|publisher=H. W. Wilson|page=161|access-date=October 16, 2015|archive-date=May 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510190257/https://books.google.com/books?id=PaYEAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

Chinese sailors first came to [[Hawaii]] in 1789,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/132/1/JL08005.pdf |title=Chinese Merchant-Adventurers and Sugar Masters in Hawaii: 1802–1852 |author=Wai-Jane Cha |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa |access-date=January 14, 2011 |archive-date=September 18, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918192450/http://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/132/1/JL08005.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> a few years after Captain [[James Cook]] came upon the island. Many settled and married [[Native Hawaiians|Hawaiian]] women. Most Chinese, [[Koreans|Korean]] and Japanese immigrants in Hawaii or San Francisco arrived in the 19th century as laborers to work on sugar plantations or construction place.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Xiaojian Zhao|author2=Edward J.W. Park Ph.D.|title=Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA357|date=November 26, 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-240-1|pages=357–358|access-date=October 16, 2015|archive-date=January 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103004328/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA357|url-status=live}}</ref> There were thousands of Asians in Hawaii when it was annexed to the United States in 1898.<ref>Ronald Takaki, ''Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans'' (2nd ed. 1998) pp 133–78</ref> Later, Filipinos also came to work as laborers, attracted by the job opportunities, although they were limited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/cali.html |title=Filipino Migrant Workers in California |author=The Office of Multicultural Student Services |year=1999 |publisher=University of Hawaii |access-date=January 12, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204034225/http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/Filipino/cali.html |archive-date=December 4, 2014 }} {{cite journal |last1=Castillo |first1=Adelaida |year=1976 |title=Filipino Migrants in San Diego 1900–1946 |journal=The Journal of San Diego History |volume=22 |issue=3 |publisher=San Diego Historical Society |url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/76summer/migrants.htm |access-date=January 12, 2011 |archive-date=June 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604203743/http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/76summer/migrants.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Okinawan people|Okinawans]] would start migrating to Hawaii in 1900.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://manoa.hawaii.edu/okinawa/wordpress/?page_id=78|title=Center for Okinawan Studies|access-date=2020-01-11|archive-date=January 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101095035/http://manoa.hawaii.edu/okinawa/wordpress/?page_id=78|url-status=live}}</ref>

Large-scale migration from Asia to the United States began when Chinese immigrants arrived on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=L. Scott Miller|title=An American Imperative: Accelerating Minority Educational Advancement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCekZUesEjIC&pg=PA19|year=1995|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-07279-2|page=19|access-date=October 16, 2015|archive-date=January 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103004328/https://books.google.com/books?id=dCekZUesEjIC&pg=PA19|url-status=live}}</ref> Forming part of the [[Gold Rush of 1849|California gold rush]], these early Chinese immigrants participated intensively in the mining business and later in the construction of the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|transcontinental railroad]]. By 1852, the number of Chinese immigrants in San Francisco had jumped to more than 20,000. A wave of Japanese immigration to the United States began after the [[Meiji Restoration]] in 1868.<ref>{{cite book |author=Richard T. Schaefer |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STR1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT872 |date=March 20, 2008 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6586-5 |page=872 |access-date=October 16, 2015 |archive-date=January 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103004328/https://books.google.com/books?id=STR1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT872 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1898, all Filipinos in the Philippine Islands became American nationals when the United States took over colonial rule of the islands from Spain following the latter's defeat in the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=38974 |title=The Legal Entanglements of Empire, Race, and Filipino Migration to the United States |author=Stephanie Hinnershitz-Hutchinson |date=May 2013 |website=Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online |access-date=August 7, 2014 |archive-date=August 8, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808171836/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=38974 |url-status=live }} {{cite book |last=Baldoz |first=Rick |date=2011 |title=The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898–1946 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtn31sdI4j8C&q=Filipinos%20american%20nationals%201898&pg=PA204 |publisher=NYU Press |page=204 |isbn=9780814709214 |access-date=August 7, 2014 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122531/https://books.google.com/books?id=qtn31sdI4j8C&q=Filipinos+american+nationals+1898&pg=PA204 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Exclusion era===
Under United States law during this period, particularly the [[Naturalization Act of 1790]], only "free white persons" were eligible to naturalize as American citizens. Ineligibility for citizenship prevented Asian immigrants from accessing a variety of rights, such as voting.<ref>{{cite web |title=Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Politics and Society in Twentieth-Century America) eBook: Mae M. Ngai: Books |url=https://www.amazon.com/Impossible-Subjects-Illegal-Politics-Twentieth-Century-ebook/dp/B00HKMUY5C/ref=la_B001HMRHUG_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1456071808&sr=1-1 |website=www.amazon.com |access-date=February 21, 2016 |archive-date=March 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311182826/https://www.amazon.com/Impossible-Subjects-Illegal-Politics-Twentieth-Century-ebook/dp/B00HKMUY5C/ref=la_B001HMRHUG_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1456071808&sr=1-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bhicaji Balsara]] became the first known Indian-born person to gain naturalized U.S. citizenship.<ref>{{cite book |author=Elliott Robert Barkan |title=Immigrants in American History: Arrival, Adaptation, and Integration [4 volumes]: Arrival, Adaptation, and Integration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOvskj0HNt8C&pg=PT301 |date=17 January 2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-220-3 |page=301 |access-date=March 17, 2018 |archive-date=May 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528103822/https://books.google.com/books?id=SOvskj0HNt8C&pg=PT301 |url-status=live }}</ref> Balsara's naturalization was not the norm but an exception; in a pair of cases, ''[[Ozawa v. United States]]'' (1922) and ''[[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind]]'' (1923), the Supreme Court upheld the racial qualification for citizenship and ruled that Asians were not "white persons". Second-generation Asian Americans, however, could become U.S. citizens due to the [[Birthright citizenship in the United States|birthright citizenship]] clause of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]]; this guarantee was confirmed as applying regardless of race or ancestry by the Supreme Court in ''[[United States v. Wong Kim Ark]]'' (1898).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Soodalter |first=Ron |year=2016 |title=By Soil Or By Blood |journal=American History |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=56–63 }} Not including children of diplomats.</ref>

From the 1880s to the 1920s, the United States passed laws inaugurating an era of exclusion of Asian immigrants. Although the exact number of Asian immigrants was small compared to that of immigrants from other regions, much of it was concentrated in the [[Western United States|West]], and the increase caused some nativist sentiment which was known as the "[[yellow peril]]". Congress passed [[Chinese Exclusion Act|restrictive legislation]] which prohibited nearly all Chinese immigration to the United States in the 1880s.<ref>Takaki, ''Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans'' (1998) pp 370–78</ref> Japanese immigration was sharply curtailed by a [[Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907|diplomatic agreement]] in 1907. The [[Asiatic Barred Zone Act]] in 1917 further barred immigration from nearly all of Asia, the "Asiatic Zone".<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Rothman |first1=Lily |last2=Ronk |first2=Liz |date=2 February 2017 |title=Congress Tightened Immigration Laws 100 Years Ago. Here's Who They Turned Away |url=http://time.com/4645728/1917-immigration-law-photos/ |magazine=Time |access-date=14 March 2019 |quote=Excluded from entry in 1917 were not only convicted criminals, chronic alcoholics and people with contagious diseases, but also people with epilepsy, anarchists, most people who couldn't read and almost everyone from Asia, as well as laborers who were "induced, assisted, encouraged, or solicited to migrate to this country by offers or promises of employment, whether such offers or promises are true or false" and "persons likely to become a public charge." |archive-date=June 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630192013/https://time.com/4645728/1917-immigration-law-photos/ |url-status=live }} {{cite magazine |last=Boissoneault |first=Lorraine |date=6 February 2017 |title=Literacy Tests and Asian Exclusion Were the Hallmarks of the 1917 Immigration Act |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-america-grappled-immigration-100-years-ago-180962058/ |magazine=Smithsonian |access-date=14 March 2019 |quote=The act also levied an $8 tax on every adult immigrant (about $160 today) and barred all immigrants from the "Asiatic zone." |archive-date=March 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319064156/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-america-grappled-immigration-100-years-ago-180962058/ |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=https://www.history.com/news/the-birth-of-illegal-immigration |title=The Birth of 'Illegal' Immigration |last=Little |first=Becky |date=7 September 2017 |website=History |access-date=14 March 2019 |quote=A decade later, the Asiatic Barred Zone Act banned most immigration from Asia, as well as immigration by prostitutes, polygamists, anarchists, and people with contagious diseases. |archive-date=March 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314192930/https://www.history.com/news/the-birth-of-illegal-immigration |url-status=live }} {{USCongRec|1917|876|date=5 February 1917}} {{cite book |author=Uma A. Segal |title=A Framework for Immigration: Asians in the United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVViCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 |date=14 August 2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50633-5 |page=134 |quote=Less than ten years later, Congress passed the Immigration Act of February 5, 1917 (commonly known as the Barred Zone Act), which enumerated the classes of people who were ineligible to enter the United States. Among them were those who were natives of a zone defined by latitude and longitude the geographic area identified became known as the Asiatic Barred Zone, and the act clearly became the Asiatic Barred Zone Act. Under the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, the only Asians allowed entry into the United States were Japanese and Filipinos. |access-date=March 15, 2019 |archive-date=June 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604014326/https://books.google.com/books?id=KVViCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/64th-congress/session-2/c64s2ch29.pdf |title=CHAP. 29. - An Act To regulate the immigration of aliens to, and the residence of aliens in, the United States. |author=Sixty-Fourth Congress |date=5 February 1917 |website=Library of Congress |access-date=14 March 2019 |quote=unless otherwise provided for by existing treaties, persons who are natives of islands not possessed by the United States adjacent to the Content of Asia, situate south of the twentieth parallel latitude north, west of the one hundred and sixtieth meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, and north of the tenth parallel of latitude south, or who are natives of any country, province, or dependency situate on the Continent of Asia west of the one hundred and tenth meridian of longitude east from Greenwich and east of the fiftieth meridian of longitude east from Greenwhich and south of the fiftieth parallel of latitude north, except that portion of said territory situate between the fiftieth and the sixty-fourth meridians of longitude east from Greenwhich and the twenty-fourth and thirty-eighth parallels of latitude north, and no alien now in any way excluded from, or prevented from entering, the United States shall be admitted to the United States. |author-link=64th United States Congress |archive-date=April 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412011546/https://www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/64th-congress/session-2/c64s2ch29.pdf |url-status=live }} [http://library.uwb.edu/Static/USimmigration/39%20stat%20874.pdf Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508163451/http://library.uwb.edu/Static/USimmigration/39%20stat%20874.pdf |date=May 8, 2019 }}</ref> The [[Immigration Act of 1924]] provided that no "alien ineligible for citizenship" could be admitted as an immigrant to the United States, consolidating the prohibition of Asian immigration.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Franks |first=Joel |year=2015 |title=Anti-Asian Exclusion In The United States During The Nineteenth And Twentieth Centuries: The History Leading To The Immigration Act Of 1924 |journal=Journal of American Ethnic History |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=121–122 |doi=10.5406/jamerethnhist.34.3.0121}} Takaki, ''Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans'' (1998) pp 197–211</ref>

===World War II===
President Roosevelt issued [[Executive Order 9066]] on February 19, 1942, resulting in the [[internment of Japanese Americans]], among others. Over 100,000 people of Japanese descent, mostly on the West Coast, were forcibly removed, in an action later considered ineffective and racist.

===Postwar immigration===
World War II-era legislation and judicial rulings{{which|date=March 2021}} gradually increased the ability of Asian Americans to immigrate and become [[United States nationality law|naturalized]] citizens. Immigration rapidly increased following the enactment of the [[Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965]] as well as the influx of [[refugees#Southeast Asia (Vietnam War)|refugees]] from conflicts occurring in Southeast Asia such as the [[Vietnam War]]. Asian American immigrants have a significant percentage of individuals who have already achieved professional status, a first among immigration groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php?id=19089 |title=Asian American Community Participation and Religion: Civic "Model Minorities?" |author=Elaine Howard Ecklund |author2=Jerry Z. Park |work=Project MUSE |publisher=[[Baylor University]] |access-date=March 7, 2012 |archive-date=March 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314210712/http://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php?id=19089 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The number of Asian immigrants to the United States "grew from 491,000 in 1960 to about 12.8 million in 2014, representing a 2,597 percent increase."<ref name="ZongBatalova">Jie Zong & Jeanne Batalova, [http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/asian-immigrants-united-states Asian Immigrants in the United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430234951/http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/asian-immigrants-united-states |date=April 30, 2017 }}, Migration Policy Institute (January 6, 2016).</ref> Asian Americans were the fastest-growing racial group between 2000 and 2010.<ref name="RoAAPEW2012" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Asian-Americans Gain Influence in Philanthropy |first=Kirk |last=Semple |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/09/nyregion/as-asian-americans-numbers-grow-so-does-their-philanthropy.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=January 8, 2013 |access-date=March 3, 2013 |quote=From 2000-2010, according to the Census Bureau, the number of people who identified themselves as partly or wholly Asian grew by nearly 46%, more than four times the growth rate of the overall population, making Asian-Americans the fastest-growing racial group in the nation. |archive-date=January 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115131258/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/09/nyregion/as-asian-americans-numbers-grow-so-does-their-philanthropy.html |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2012, more immigrants came from Asia than from Latin America.<ref>{{cite news |last=Semple |first=Ken |date=18 June 2012 |title=In a Shift, Biggest Wave of Migrants Is Now Asian |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/19/us/asians-surpass-hispanics-as-biggest-immigrant-wave.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122530/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/19/us/asians-surpass-hispanics-as-biggest-immigrant-wave.html |url-status=live }} {{cite news |author= |title=New Asian 'American Dream': Asians Surpass Hispanics in Immigration |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AofKyizzAko |work=ABC News |location=United States News |date=19 June 2012 |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-date=April 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423151332/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AofKyizzAko |url-status=live }} {{cite book|author=Jonathan H. X. Lee|title=History of Asian Americans: Exploring Diverse Roots: Exploring Diverse Roots|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxoUBgAAQBAJ&pg=PR53|date=16 January 2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38459-2|page=53|access-date=May 3, 2017|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530044826/https://books.google.com/books?id=hxoUBgAAQBAJ&pg=PR53|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, Pew Research Center found that from 2010 to 2015 more immigrants came from Asia than from Latin America, and that since 1965; Asians have made up a quarter of all immigrants to the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rivitz |first=Jessica |title=Asians on pace to overtake Hispanics among U.S. immigrants, study shows |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/28/us/pew-study-immigration-asians-hispanics/ |work=CNN |location=Atlanta |date=28 September 2015 |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-date=June 7, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607120550/http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/28/us/pew-study-immigration-asians-hispanics/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Asians have made up an increasing proportion of the foreign-born Americans: "In 1960, Asians represented 5 percent of the U.S. foreign-born population; by 2014, their share grew to 30 percent of the nation's 42.4 million immigrants."<ref name="ZongBatalova"/> As of 2016, "Asia is the second-largest region of birth (after Latin America) of U.S. immigrants."<ref name="ZongBatalova"/> In 2013, China surpassed Mexico as the top single country of origin for immigrants to the U.S.<ref>Erika Lee, [https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2015/07/07/chinese-immigrants-largest-column/29784905/ Chinese immigrants now largest group of new arrivals to the U.S.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419090924/https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2015/07/07/chinese-immigrants-largest-column/29784905/ |date=April 19, 2017 }}, ''USA Today'' (July 7, 2015).</ref> Asian immigrants "are more likely than the overall foreign-born population to be naturalized citizens"; in 2014, 59% of Asian immigrants had U.S. citizenship, compared to 47% of all immigrants.<ref name="ZongBatalova"/> Postwar Asian immigration to the U.S. has been diverse: in 2014, 31% of Asian immigrants to the U.S. were from [[East Asia]] (predominately China and Korea); 27.7% were from [[South Asia]] (predominately India); 32.6% were from [[Southeastern Asia]] (predominately the Philippines and Vietnam) and 8.3% were from [[Western Asia]].<ref name="ZongBatalova"/>

===Asian American movement===
{{main|Asian American movement}}
[[File:Ken Jeong & Awkwafina.png|thumb|right|[[Awkwafina]] (right) with [[Ken Jeong]]]]

Prior to the 1960s, Asian immigrants and their descendants had organized and agitated for social or political purposes according to their particular ethnicity: Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Korean, or Asian Indian. The Asian American movement (a term coined by historian and activist [[Yuji Ichioka]]) gathered all those groups into a coalition, recognizing that they shared common problems with racial discrimination and common opposition to [[American imperialism]], particularly in Asia. The movement developed during the 1960s, inspired in part by the [[Civil Rights Movement]] and the [[protests against the Vietnam War]]. "Drawing influences from the [[Black Power]] and antiwar movements, the Asian American movement forged a coalitional politics that united Asians of varying ethnicities and declared solidarity with other Third World people in the United States and abroad. Segments of the movement struggled for community control of education, provided social services and defended affordable housing in Asian ghettoes, organized exploited workers, protested against U.S. imperialism, and built new multiethnic cultural institutions."<ref name="oxford">{{cite web|url=http://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-21|title=The Asian American Movement|last=Maeda|first=Daryl Joji|work=Oxford Research Dictionaries|access-date=23 February 2019|archive-date=March 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122548/https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-21|url-status=live}}</ref> William Wei described the movement as "rooted in a past history of oppression and a present struggle for liberation."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nlue11bhyb4C|title=Race Pride and the American Identity|last=Rhea|first=Joseph Tilden|date=May 1, 2001|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674005761|page=43|language=en|access-date=June 16, 2016|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530132053/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nlue11bhyb4C|url-status=live}}</ref> The movement as such was most active during the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name = "oxford"/>

Increasingly Asian American students demanded university-level research and teaching into Asian history and the interaction with the United States. They supported [[multiculturalism]] but opposed [[affirmative action]] that amounted to an [[Asian quota]] on their admission.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Daniels | first1 = Roger | year = 1993 | title = The Asian-American Experience: The View from the 1990s | journal = Multiculturalism and the Canon of American Culture | volume = 23 | pages = 131–45 }}</ref><ref>Don T. Nakanishi, "A quota on excellence?: The Asian American admissions debate." ''Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 21.6'' (1989): 39-47.</ref><ref>"Making a meritocracy" ''Economist'' (Oct 5, 2019) Vol. 433 Issue 9163, p24-25. [https://www.economist.com/united-states/2019/10/05/a-judge-finds-there-is-nothing-wrong-with-harvard-admissions online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207063401/https://www.economist.com/united-states/2019/10/05/a-judge-finds-there-is-nothing-wrong-with-harvard-admissions |date=December 7, 2019 }}</ref>

==Notable contributions==
{{main list|List of Asian Americans}}

===Arts and entertainment===
{{Main|Asian Americans in arts and entertainment}}
{{See also|Asian American literature}}
{{See also|American television series with Asian leads}}
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| caption2 = [[Patsy Mink]] entered the U.S. House of Representatives in 1965 as the first non-white woman in either chamber of Congress.
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| caption3 = [[Kamala Harris]], the daughter of an Indian immigrant, became the first Asian American Vice President of the United States.
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| caption1 = [[Constance Wu]] in August 2015
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| caption4 = [[Sundar Pichai]], the chief executive officer (CEO) of Alphabet Inc. and its subsidiary Google.
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| caption5 = [[Satya Nadella]], current chief executive officer (CEO) and Chairman of Microsoft
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}}

Asian Americans have been involved in the [[entertainment industry]] since the first half of the 19th century, when [[Chang and Eng Bunker]] (the original "Siamese Twins") became naturalized citizens.<ref>[http://faizhao.blogdriver.com/faizhao/521445.html We Are Siamese Twins-Fai的分裂生活] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222182830/http://faizhao.blogdriver.com/faizhao/521445.html |date=December 22, 2007 }}</ref> Throughout the 20th century, acting roles in television, film, and theater were relatively few, and many available roles were for narrow, stereotypical characters. More recently, young Asian American comedians and film-makers have found an outlet on [[YouTube]] allowing them to gain a strong and loyal fanbase among their fellow Asian Americans.<ref>{{cite news|title=YouTube Spawns Asian-American Celebrities |first=Elizabeth |last=Lee |url=http://m.voanews.com/rss.jsp;jsessionid=185B5BBA953982AB4D008141A1942BF7.aldo2?id=3132&rssid=25273271&item=http%3a%2f%2fwww.voanews.com%2frss%2fmobiletech.aspx%3farticleid%3d1612459&cid=25228001&show=full |newspaper=VAO News |date=February 28, 2013 |access-date=March 4, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218124215/http://m.voanews.com/rss.jsp |archive-date=February 18, 2013 |df=mdy }}</ref> There have been several Asian American-centric television shows in American media, beginning with ''[[Mr. T and Tina]]'' in 1976, and as recent as ''[[Fresh Off the Boat]]'' in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chow |first=Kat |date=February 5, 2015 |title=A Brief, Weird History Of Squashed Asian-American TV Shows |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2015/02/05/383520596/a-brief-weird-history-of-squashed-asian-american-tv-shows |newspaper=NPR |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208031301/http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2015/02/05/383520596/a-brief-weird-history-of-squashed-asian-american-tv-shows |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Cruz |first=Lenika |date=February 4, 2015 |title=Why There's So Much Riding on Fresh Off the Boat |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/02/fresh-off-the-boats-sophomore-anxiety/385152/ |newspaper=The Atlantic |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-date=February 7, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207063558/http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/02/fresh-off-the-boats-sophomore-anxiety/385152/ |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Gamboa |first=Glenn |date=January 30, 2015 |title=Eddie Huang a fresh voice in 'Fresh Off the Boat' |url=http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/tv/eddie-huang-a-fresh-voice-in-fresh-off-the-boat-1.9847928 |newspaper=Newsday |location=Long Island, New York |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-date=February 7, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207081103/http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/tv/eddie-huang-a-fresh-voice-in-fresh-off-the-boat-1.9847928 |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Lee |first=Adrian |date=February 5, 2015 |title=Will Fresh Off The Boat wind up being a noble failure? |url=http://www.macleans.ca/culture/television/why-fresh-off-the-boat-may-wind-up-to-be-a-noble-failure/ |newspaper=MacLeans |location=Canada |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208124725/http://www.macleans.ca/culture/television/why-fresh-off-the-boat-may-wind-up-to-be-a-noble-failure/ |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Oriel |first=Christina |date=December 20, 2014 |title=Asian American sitcom to air on ABC in 2015 |url=http://asianjournal.com/entertainment/asian-american-sitcom-to-air-on-abc-in-2015/ |newspaper=Asian Journal |location=Los Angeles |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207054010/http://asianjournal.com/entertainment/asian-american-sitcom-to-air-on-abc-in-2015/ |archive-date=February 7, 2015 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }} {{cite news |last=Beale |first=Lewis |date=February 3, 2015 |title=The Overdue Asian TV Movement |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/02/03/the-overdue-asian-tv-movement.html |newspaper=The Daily Beast |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-date=February 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211052612/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/02/03/the-overdue-asian-tv-movement.html |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Yang |first=Jeff |date=May 2, 2014 |title=Why the 'Fresh Off the Boat' TV Series Could Change the Game |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2014/05/02/why-fresh-off-the-boat-tv-series-could-change-the-game/ |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-date=May 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512225355/http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2014/05/02/why-fresh-off-the-boat-tv-series-could-change-the-game/ |url-status=live }} {{cite book|author=Joann Faung Jean Lee|title=Asian American Actors: Oral Histories from Stage, Screen, and Television|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT34Zr2F7EIC&pg=PA98|date=August 1, 2000|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-0730-9|page=98|access-date=October 16, 2015|archive-date=April 27, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427233412/https://books.google.com/books?id=FT34Zr2F7EIC&pg=PA98|url-status=live}} {{cite news |last=Branch |first=Chris |date=February 5, 2015 |title='Fresh Off The Boat' Brings Asian-Americans To The Table On Network TV |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/05/fresh-off-the-boat-network-tv_n_6623930.html |newspaper=Huffington Post |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-date=February 7, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207112413/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/05/fresh-off-the-boat-network-tv_n_6623930.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the Pacific, American beatboxer of [[Chinese immigration to Hawaii|Hawaii Chinese]] descent Jason Tom co-founded the Human Beatbox Academy to perpetuate the art of beatboxing through outreach performances, speaking engagements and workshops in [[Honolulu]], the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city of the 50th U.S. state of [[Hawaii]].<ref name="University of Hawaiʻi Alumni">{{cite web|title=Hawai'i's Human Beatbox|url=https://uhalumni.org/kapiolani/story/hawaiis-human-beatbox|access-date=January 23, 2021|work=University of Hawaiʻi Foundation Office of Alumni Relations|date=19 October 2018|archive-date=January 31, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131051242/https://uhalumni.org/kapiolani/story/hawaiis-human-beatbox|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UH News">{{cite web | title = Kapiʻolani CC alum stays on beat spreading message of perseverance | url = https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/12/13/kapiolani-cc-human-beatbox/ | access-date = January 23, 2021 | work = University of Hawaiʻi News | date = December 13, 2018 | archive-date = December 15, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191215212233/https://www.hawaii.edu/news/2018/12/13/kapiolani-cc-human-beatbox/ | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Kapiʻo News">{{cite news|last1=Yamashiro|first1=Lexus|title=KCC Alumnus Inspires Community Through Beatboxing, Motivational Speaking|url=https://www.kapionews.com/index.php/2017/07/19/kcc-alumnus-inspires-community-through-beatboxing-motivational-speaking/|access-date=January 23, 2021|work=Kapiʻo News|date=15 July 2017|archive-date=January 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129121521/https://www.kapionews.com/index.php/2017/07/19/kcc-alumnus-inspires-community-through-beatboxing-motivational-speaking/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="University of Hawaiʻi at Kapiʻolani Alumni">{{cite web|title=Hawaiʻi's Human Beatbox|url=https://uhalumni.org/news/story/hawaiis-human-beatbox|last=Ching|first=Kapiʻolani|date=December 13, 2018|work=University of Hawaiʻi at Kapiʻolani Alumni|access-date=January 23, 2021|archive-date=January 30, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130222016/https://uhalumni.org/news/story/hawaiis-human-beatbox|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The International Wave">{{cite web|last=Lim|first=Woojin|title=Jason Tom: Hawaii's Human Beatbox|url=https://medium.com/the-international-wave/jason-tom-hawaiis-human-beatbox-bb55c49e551|access-date=January 23, 2021|work=The International Wave: A Collection of In-Depth Conversations With Artists of Asian Descent|date=January 21, 2021|archive-date=January 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123050520/https://medium.com/the-international-wave/jason-tom-hawaiis-human-beatbox-bb55c49e551|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Melliennial Magazine">{{cite web|last1=Hulme|first1=Julia|title=Jason Tom: The Human BeatBox|url=http://millennialmagazine.com/jason-tom-the-human-beatbox/|work=Millennial Magazine|access-date=January 23, 2021|date=January 25, 2016|archive-date=October 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003105256/http://millennialmagazine.com/jason-tom-the-human-beatbox/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Business===
{{Missing information|section|the history of the subject|date=August 2009}}
When Asian Americans were largely excluded from labor markets in the 19th century, they started their own businesses. They have started convenience and grocery stores, professional offices such as medical and law practices, laundries, restaurants, beauty-related ventures, hi-tech companies, and many other kinds of enterprises, becoming very successful and influential in American society. They have dramatically expanded their involvement across the American economy. Asian Americans have been disproportionately successful in the hi-tech sectors of California's Silicon Valley, as evidenced by the [[Goldsea]] 100 Compilation of America's Most Successful Asian Entrepreneurs.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://goldsea.com/Profiles/100/100.html | title=100 Most Successful Asian American Entrepreneurs | access-date=November 3, 2010 | archive-date=November 24, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124044834/http://goldsea.com/Profiles/100/100.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

Compared to their population base, Asian Americans today are well represented in the professional sector and tend to earn higher wages.<ref name="Broad racial disparities persist">{{cite web |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15704759 |title=Broad racial disparities persist |access-date=December 18, 2006 |df=mdy |archive-date=March 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305120336/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15704759/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Goldsea]] compilation of Notable Asian American Professionals show that many have come to occupy high positions at leading U.S. corporations, including a disproportionately large number as Chief Marketing Officers.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://goldsea.com/Text/index.php?id=2457 | title=Notable Asian American Professionals | access-date=November 3, 2010 | archive-date=October 20, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101020205700/http://goldsea.com/Text/index.php?id=2457 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Asian Americans have made major contributions to the American economy. In 2012, there were just under 486,000 Asian American-owned businesses in the U.S., which together employed more than 3.6 million workers, generating $707.6 billion in total receipts and sales, with annual payrolls of $112 billion. In 2015, Asian American and Pacific Islander households had $455.6 billion in spending power (comparable to the annual revenue of [[Walmart]]) and made tax contributions of $184.0 billion.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://research.newamericaneconomy.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/NAE-AAPI-v14.pdf|date=October 2017|title=How Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Contribute to the U.S. Economy|publisher=Partnership for a New American Economy Research Fund|pages=4, 12, 19|access-date=February 15, 2020|archive-date=February 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215203744/http://research.newamericaneconomy.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/NAE-AAPI-v14.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Fashion designer and mogul [[Vera Wang]], who is famous for designing dresses for high-profile celebrities, started a clothing company, named after herself, which now offers a broad range of luxury fashion products. [[An Wang]] founded [[Wang Laboratories]] in June 1951. [[Amar Bose]] founded the [[Bose Corporation]] in 1964. [[Charles Wang]] founded [[CA, Inc.|Computer Associates]], later became its CEO and chairman. Two brothers, David Khym and Kenny Khym founded [[hip hop fashion]] giant [[Southpole (clothing)]] in 1991. [[Jen-Hsun Huang]] co-founded the [[NVIDIA]] corporation in 1993. [[Jerry Yang (entrepreneur)|Jerry Yang]] co-founded [[Yahoo]]! Inc. in 1994 and became its CEO later. [[Andrea Jung]] serves as Chairman and CEO of [[Avon Products]]. [[Vinod Khosla]] was a founding CEO of [[Sun Microsystems]] and is a general partner of the prominent venture capital firm [[Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers]]. [[Steve Chen (YouTube)|Steve Chen]] and [[Jawed Karim]] were co-creators of YouTube, and were beneficiaries of [[Google]]'s $1.65 billion acquisition of that company in 2006. In addition to contributing greatly to other fields, Asian Americans have made considerable contributions in science and technology in the United States, in such prominent innovative [[R&D]] regions as [[Silicon Valley]] and [[Research Triangle|The Triangle]].

===Government and politics===
{{Main|Asian Americans in government and politics}}
{{See also|Foreign relations of the United States#East Asia|Foreign relations of the United States#South Asia|Foreign relations of the United States#Southeast Asia}}Asian Americans have a high level of political incorporation in terms of their actual voting population. Since 1907, Asian Americans have been active at the national level and have had multiple officeholders at local, state, and national levels. As more Asian Americans have been elected to public office, they have had a growing impact on foreign relations of the United States, immigration, international trade, and other topics.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zhao|first1=Xiaojian|last2=Ph.D.|first2=Edward J.W. Park|title=Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR28|date=26 November 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-240-1|page=1|chapter=Conclusion|access-date=December 11, 2019|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601011602/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PR28|url-status=live}} {{cite book|last1=Collet|first1=Christian|last2=Lien|first2=Pei-Te|title=The Transnational Politics of Asian Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhasTFXN3v8C&pg=PR11|date=28 July 2009|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-1-59213-862-3|page=11|access-date=December 11, 2019|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601061836/https://books.google.com/books?id=uhasTFXN3v8C&pg=PR11|url-status=live}}</ref> The first Asian American to be elected to the [[United States Congress]] was [[Dalip Singh Saund]] in 1957.

The highest ranked Asian American to serve in the United States Congress was Senator and [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'']] [[Daniel Inouye]], who died in office in 2012. There are several active [[List of Asian Americans in the United States Congress|Asian Americans in the United States Congress]]. With higher proportions and densities of Asian American populations, Hawaii has most consistently sent Asian Americans to the Senate, and [[Hawaii]] and [[California]] have most consistently sent Asian Americans to the House of Representatives.

The first Asian American member of the U.S. cabinet was [[Norman Mineta]], who served as [[Secretary of Commerce]] and then [[Secretary of Transportation]] in the George W. Bush administration. As of 2021, the highest ranked Asian American by [[United States order of precedence|order of precedence]] is [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Kamala Harris]]. Previously, the highest ranked Asian American was Secretary of Transportation [[Elaine Chao]] (2017-2021), who had also been in the order of precedence as [[U.S. Secretary of Labor]] (2001-2009).

There have been roughly "about a half-dozen viable Asian-American candidates" to ever run for [[president of the United States]].<ref name=YangDrops>{{cite news|author=Matt Stevens|title=Andrew Yang Drops Out: 'It Is Clear Tonight From the Numbers That We Are Not Going to Win'|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/11/us/politics/andrew-yang-drops-out.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 11, 2020|access-date=February 15, 2020|archive-date=September 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924050541/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/11/us/politics/andrew-yang-drops-out.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Senator [[Hiram Fong]] of Hawaii, the child of Chinese immigrants, was a "[[favorite son]]" candidate at the [[1964 Republican National Convention|Republican National Conventions of 1964]] and [[1968 Republican National Convention|1968]].<ref name=Wang2015>{{cite news |last=Kai-Hwa Wang |first=Francis |date=25 June 2015 |title=Indian Americans React to Bobby Jindal Presidential Announcement |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/indian-americans-react-bobby-jindal-presidential-announcement-n381596 |work=NBC News |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=August 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828124727/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/indian-americans-react-bobby-jindal-presidential-announcement-n381596 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |agency=The Associated Press |date=19 August 2004 |title=Hiram L. Fong, 97, Senator From Hawaii in 60's and 70's |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/19/us/hiram-l-fong-97-senator-from-hawaii-in-60-s-and-70-s.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=July 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718172104/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/19/us/hiram-l-fong-97-senator-from-hawaii-in-60-s-and-70-s.html |url-status=live }} {{cite book|last1=Zhao|first1=Xiaojian|last2=Park|first2=Edward J.W.|title=Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA435|date=26 November 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-240-1|page=435|access-date=August 21, 2019|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530044827/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA435|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1972, Representative [[Patsy T. Mink]] of Hawaii, a [[Japanese American]], unsuccessfully sought the [[1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic nomination for president]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Wallace Turner|title=Mrs. Mink, Vying With McGovern, Offers Oregon a Choice|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/10/archives/mrs-mink-vying-with-mcgovern-offers-oregon-a-choice.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=May 10, 1972|access-date=February 15, 2020|archive-date=March 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122538/https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/10/archives/mrs-mink-vying-with-mcgovern-offers-oregon-a-choice.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Louisiana Governor [[Bobby Jindal 2016 presidential campaign|Bobby Jindal]], the son of Indian immigrants, unsuccessfully sought the [[2016 Republican Party presidential primaries|Republican nomination for president]] in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jonathan Martin|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/18/us/politics/bobby-jindal-presidential-race.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 18, 2015|title=Bobby Jindal Quits Republican Presidential Race|access-date=February 15, 2020|archive-date=March 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122537/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/18/us/politics/bobby-jindal-presidential-race.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Entrepreneur and nonprofit founder [[Andrew Yang 2020 presidential campaign|Andrew Yang]], the son of Taiwanese immigrants, unsuccessfully sought the [[2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic nomination for president in 2020]].<ref name=YangDrops/> In January 2021, [[Kamala Harris]], the daughter of an Indian immigrant, became the first Asian American [[Vice President of the United States]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Purna Kamphampaty|first1=Anna|last2=Lang|first2=Cady|date=November 7, 2020|title=The Historic Barriers Kamala Harris Overcame to Reach the Vice-Presidency|url=https://time.com/5908579/kamala-harris-historic-vice-president/|access-date=2020-11-09|website=Time|archive-date=March 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122539/https://time.com/5908579/kamala-harris-historic-vice-president/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Journalism===
[[Connie Chung]] was one of the first Asian American national correspondents for a major TV [[news network]], reporting for CBS in 1971. She later co-anchored the ''CBS Evening News'' from 1993 to 1995, becoming the first Asian American national news anchor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wc.pdx.edu/conniechung/ConnieChung.html |title=CONNIE CHUNG |work=World Changers |publisher=[[Portland State University]] |access-date=February 21, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309050434/http://www.wc.pdx.edu/conniechung/ConnieChung.html |archive-date=March 9, 2012 }}</ref> At ABC, Ken Kashiwahara began reporting nationally in 1974. In 1989, [[Emil Guillermo]], a Filipino American born reporter from San Francisco, became the first Asian American male to co-host a national news show when he was senior host at National Public Radio's ''[[All Things Considered]]''. In 1990, [[Sheryl WuDunn]], a foreign correspondent in the Beijing Bureau of ''[[The New York Times]]'', became the first Asian American to win a Pulitzer Prize. [[Ann Curry]] joined NBC News as a reporter in 1990, later becoming prominently associated with ''The Today Show'' in 1997. [[Carol Lin]] is perhaps best known for being the first to break the news of [[9-11]] on CNN. [[Sanjay Gupta|Dr. Sanjay Gupta]] is currently CNN's chief health correspondent. [[Lisa Ling]], a former co-host on ''The View'', now provides special reports for CNN and ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'', as well as hosting National Geographic Channel's ''Explorer.'' [[Fareed Zakaria]], a naturalized Indian-born immigrant, is a prominent journalist and author specializing in international affairs. He is the editor-at-large of [[Time magazine]], and the host of [[Fareed Zakaria GPS]] on [[CNN]]. [[Juju Chang]], James Hatori, [[John Yang (journalist)|John Yang]], [[Veronica De La Cruz]], [[Michelle Malkin]], [[Betty Nguyen]], and [[Julie Chen]] have become familiar faces on television news. John Yang won a Peabody Award. [[Alex Tizon]], a [[Seattle Times]] staff writer, won a Pulitzer Prize in 1997.

===Military===
{{Main|Military history of Asian Americans}}
{{See also|List of Asian Americans#Military|l1=Notable Asian Americans in the military}}
Since the [[War of 1812]], Asian Americans have [[United States armed forces|served]] and [[Military history of the United States|fought]] on behalf of the United States. Serving in both segregated and non-segregated units until the [[Executive Order 9981|desegregation of the US Military in 1948]], [[List of Asian American Medal of Honor recipients|31]] have been awarded the nation's highest award for combat valor, the [[Medal of Honor]]. Twenty-one of these were conferred upon members of the mostly Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion of the [[442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|442nd Regimental Combat Team]] of World War II, the most highly decorated unit of its size in the history of the United States Armed Forces.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McNaughton|first1=James C.|last2=Edwards|first2=Kristen E.|last3=Price|first3=Jay M.|date=2002-11-01|title="Incontestable Proof Will Be Exacted": Historians, Asian Americans, and the Medal of Honor|journal=The Public Historian|language=en|volume=24|issue=4|pages=11–33|doi=10.1525/tph.2002.24.4.11|issn=0272-3433}}</ref><ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/100-442in.htm 100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911011150/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/100-442in.htm |date=September 11, 2008 }}, [http://www.globalsecurity.org globalsecurity.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612173512/https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/syria/nuke.htm |date=June 12, 2018 }}.</ref> The highest ranked Asian American military official was [[United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs|Secretary of Veteran Affairs]], four-star general and Army Chief of Staff [[Eric Shinseki]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harper |first1=Jon |last2=Tritten |first2=Travis J. |date=30 May 2014 |title=VA Secretary Eric Shinseki resigns |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/us/va-secretary-eric-shinseki-resigns-1.286217 |newspaper=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |access-date=25 June 2014 |archive-date=June 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616103244/https://www.stripes.com/news/us/va-secretary-eric-shinseki-resigns-1.286217 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Science and technology===
{{Main|Asian Americans in science and technology}}
Asian Americans have made many notable contributions to Science and Technology.

===Sports===
{{Main|Asian Americans in sports}}
Asian Americans have contributed to sports in the United States through much of the 20th Century. Some of the most notable contributions include Olympic sports, but also in professional sports, particularly in the post-World War II years. As the Asian American population grew in the late 20th century, Asian American contributions expanded to more sports. Examples of female Asian American athletes include [[Michelle Kwan]], [[Chloe Kim]], [[Miki Gorman]], [[Mirai Nagasu]] and [[Maia Shibutani]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wenjen |first1=Mia |title=Asian Pacific American female Athletes Changing the Game |url=https://www.mamasmiles.com/asian-pacific-american-female-athletes/ |website=Mama Smiles |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> Examples of male Asian American athletes include [[Jeremy Lin]], [[Tiger Woods]], [[Hines Ward]], [[Richard Park]] and [[Nathan Adrian]].

==Cultural influence==
In recognition of the unique culture, traditions, and history of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, the [[United States government]] has permanently designated the month of May to be [[Asian Pacific American Heritage Month]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asianpacificheritage.gov/about.html |title=About Asian-Pacific American Heritage Month |author= |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=August 18, 2014 |archive-date=August 15, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815013003/http://asianpacificheritage.gov/about.html |url-status=live }} George Bush: "Statement on Signing Legislation Establishing Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month", October 23, 1992. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=21645 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005213637/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=21645 |date=October 5, 2008 }}</ref> Asian American parenting as seen through relationships between Chinese parents and adolescence, which is described as being more authoritarian and less warm than relations between European parents and adolescence, has become a topic of study and discussion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Russell|first1=Stepehn|date=2010|title=Asian American Parenting and Parent-Adolescent Relationships|url=https://archive.org/details/asianamericanpar00russ_696|url-access=limited|pages=[https://archive.org/details/asianamericanpar00russ_696/page/n15 1]–15|publisher=Springer|location=New York, NY|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-5728-3_1|chapter=Introduction: Asian American Parenting and Parent-Adolescent Relationships|isbn=978-1-4419-5727-6}} {{cite book|author1=Karen Kurasaki|author2=Sumie Okazaki|author3=Stanley Sue|title=Asian American Mental Health: Assessment Theories and Methods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inxHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT260|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4615-0735-2|page=260|access-date=February 16, 2019|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601123530/https://books.google.com/books?id=inxHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT260|url-status=live}}</ref> These influences affect how parents regulate and monitor their children, and has been described as [[Tiger parenting]], and has received interest and curiosity from non Chinese parents.<ref>{{cite book|author=Amy Chua|title=Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsEaN-leF7QC|date=6 December 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4088-2509-9|access-date=February 16, 2019|archive-date=March 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122532/https://books.google.com/books?id=QsEaN-leF7QC|url-status=live}} {{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Scarlett |date=Spring 2013 |title=The "Tiger Mom": Stereotypes of Chinese Parenting in the United States |url=https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/appsych/opus/issues/2013/spring/wang |journal=Opus |access-date=15 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220195121/https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/appsych/opus/issues/2013/spring/wang |archive-date=December 20, 2018 |url-status=dead }} {{cite web |url=https://psmag.com/education/tiger-mom-asian-americans-achievement-education-the-problem-with-a-culture-of-excellence-83744 |title=The Problem With A Culture of Excellence |last=Chang |first=Bettina |date=18 June 2014 |website=Pacific Standard |publisher=The Social Justice Foundation |access-date=15 February 2019 |archive-date=February 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216153229/https://psmag.com/education/tiger-mom-asian-americans-achievement-education-the-problem-with-a-culture-of-excellence-83744 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Health and medicine===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:15px;"
|+ Origins of foreign professions in the US
|-
! rowspan=2 | Country of origin
! colspan=3 | Proportion of total in U.S.
|-
! {{abbr|IMGs|International medical graduates}}<ref name="Foreigndoctors">
{{cite web
| title=International Medical Graduates by Country
| publisher=American Medical Association
| url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/1550.html
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705152927/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/1550.html
| archive-date=July 5, 2008
}}</ref>
! {{abbr|IDGs|International dental graduates}}<ref name="Foreigndentists">
{{cite journal
| last1 = Sweis | first1 = L
| last2 = Guay | first2 = A
| year = 2007
| title = Foreign-trained dentists licensed in the United States: Exploring their origins
| journal = J Am Dent Assoc
| volume = 138 | issue = 2| pages = 219–224
| doi = 10.14219/jada.archive.2007.0140
| pmid = 17272378
}}</ref>
! {{abbr|INGs|International nursing graduates}}<ref name="ana1">
{{cite web
| url=http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ThePracticeofProfessionalNursing/workplace/Work-Environment/InfoforNurses/ANAPolicyPapersandBrochures/February2006SurveyInfo/ForeignNurses.aspx
| title=Foreign Educated Nurses |publisher=ANA: American Nurses Association
| access-date=August 31, 2009
| url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727200519/http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ThePracticeofProfessionalNursing/workplace/Work-Environment/InfoforNurses/ANAPolicyPapersandBrochures/February2006SurveyInfo/ForeignNurses.aspx
| archive-date=July 27, 2011
}}</ref>
|-
| India
| 19.9% (47,581)
| 25.8%
| 1.3%
|-
| [[Philippines]]
| 8.8% (20,861)
| 11.0%
| 50.2%
|-
| Pakistan
| 4.8% (11,330)
| 2.9%
|
|-
| [[South Korea]]
| 2.1% (4,982)
| 3.2%
| 1.0%
|-
| China
| 2.0% (4,834)
| 3.2%
|
|-
| Hong Kong
|
|
| 1.2%
|-
| Israel
|
|
| 1.0%
|}

{{See also|Health status of Asian Americans}}
Asian immigrants are also changing the American medical landscape through increasing number of Asian [[health care|medical practitioners]] in the United States. Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, the US government invited a number of foreign physicians particularly from India and the Philippines to address the shortage of physicians in rural and medically underserved urban areas. The trend in importing foreign medical practitioners, however, became a long-term solution as US schools failed to produce enough health care providers to match the increasing population. Amid decreasing interest in medicine among American college students due to high educational costs and high rates of job dissatisfaction, loss of morale, stress, and lawsuits, Asian American immigrants maintained a supply of healthcare practitioners for millions of Americans. It is documented that Asian American international medical graduates including highly skilled guest workers using the J1 Visa program for medical workers, tend to serve in health professions shortage areas (HPSA) and specialties that are not filled by US medical graduates especially primary care and rural medicine.<ref name="IMGPrimaryCare">{{cite journal | last1 = Koehn | first1 = NN | last2 = Fryer | first2 = GE | title = Jr, Phillips RL, Miller JB, Green LA. (2007) The increase in international medical graduates in family practice residency programs | journal = Journal of Family Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 6| pages = 468–9 }}</ref><ref name="IMGGeoDistribution">{{cite journal | last1 = Mick | first1 = SS | last2 = Lee | first2 = SY | year = 1999 | title = Are there need-based geographical differences between international medical graduates and U.S. medical graduates in rural U.S. counties? | journal = J Rural Health | volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 26–43 | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-0361.1999.tb00596.x | pmid = 10437329 }}</ref> In 2020, of all the medical personnel in the United States, 17% of doctors were Asian Americans, 9% of physician assistants were Asian American, and more than 9% of nurses were Asian Americans.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gerstmann |first=Evan |date=4 April 2020 |title=Irony: Hate Crimes Surge Against Asian Americans While They Are On The Front Lines Fighting COVID-19 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/evangerstmann/2020/04/04/irony-hate-crimes-surge-against-asian-americans-while-they-are-on-the-front-lines-fighting-covid-19/#467ab7f13b70 |work=Forbes |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530182612/https://www.forbes.com/sites/evangerstmann/2020/04/04/irony-hate-crimes-surge-against-asian-americans-while-they-are-on-the-front-lines-fighting-covid-19/#467ab7f13b70 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Nearly one in four Asian Americans are likely to use common [[alternative medicine]].<ref name="Gurung2014">{{cite book|author=Regan A. R. Gurung|title=Multicultural Approaches to Health and Wellness in America [2 volumes]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OY6dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156|date=21 April 2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-0350-5|page=156|access-date=February 28, 2019|archive-date=May 31, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531192339/https://books.google.com/books?id=OY6dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156|url-status=live}}</ref> This includes [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]] and [[Ayurveda]].<ref name="Gurung2014" /><ref>{{cite book|author1=Caroline Young|author2=Cyndie Koopsen|title=Spirituality, Health, and Healing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZW7snWf_JwC&pg=PA87|year=2005|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-7637-4024-5|page=87|access-date=February 28, 2019|archive-date=May 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529203642/https://books.google.com/books?id=wZW7snWf_JwC&pg=PA87|url-status=live}} {{cite report |last=Montenegro |first=Xenia P. |date=January 2015 |title=The Health and Healthcare of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Age 50+ |url=https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/research/surveys_statistics/health/2015/health-healthcare-asian-americans-pacific-islanders-age-50-plus.doi.10.26419%252Fres.00098.001.pdf |publisher=[[AARP]] |access-date=27 February 2019 |archive-date=February 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228191912/https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/research/surveys_statistics/health/2015/health-healthcare-asian-americans-pacific-islanders-age-50-plus.doi.10.26419%252Fres.00098.001.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to the prevalence of usage, engaging with Asian American populations, through the practitioners of these common alternative medicines, can lead to an increase of usage of underused medical procedures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jun |last2=Burke |first2=Adam |last3=Ysoh |first3=Janice Y. |last4=Le |first4=Gem M. |last5=Stewart |first5=Susan |last6=Gildengorin |first6=Ginny |last7=Wong |first7=Ching |last8=Chow |first8=Elaine |last9=Woo |first9=Kent |date=2014 |title=Engaging Traditional Medicine Providers in Colorectal Cancer Screening Education in a Chinese American Community: A Pilot Study |url=https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2014/14_0341.htm |journal=Preventing Chronic Disease |volume=11 |pages=E217 |doi=10.5888/pcd11.140341 |pmid=25496557 |access-date=27 February 2019 |pmc=4264464 |archive-date=February 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228191937/https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2014/14_0341.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Education===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:88%"
|+ Educational attainment, 25 and older
|-
! style="text-align:CENTER;"| Ethnicity
! style="text-align:CENTER;"| [[High school (North America)|High school]] graduation rate, 2004
! style="text-align:CENTER;"| [[Bachelor's degree]] or higher, 2010
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Chinese
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 80.8%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 51.8%
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Filipinos
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 90.8%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 48.1%
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Indian
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 90.2%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 70.7%
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Japanese
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 93.4%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 47.3%
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Koreans
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 90.2%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 52.9%
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Pakistanis
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 87.4%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 55.1%
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Vietnamese
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 70.0%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 26.3%
|-
| style="text-align:LEFT;"| Total U.S. population
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 83.9%
| style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 27.9%
|- style="border-top: 2px solid #CCC;"
| colspan=3 | Sources: 2004<ref name="Pakistan American estimates">[http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-reg=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201:045;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR:045;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T:045;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:045&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format= Pakistan American Educational Attainment] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20200210211212/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-reg=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201:045;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR:045;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T:045;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:045&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format= |date=February 10, 2020 }} United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 2, 2010.</ref><ref name="ACS-05">{{Cite journal
|date = February 2007
|title = The American Community-Asians: 2004
|publisher = U.S. Census Bureau
|url = https://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/acs-05.pdf
|access-date = September 5, 2007
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926002242/http://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/acs-05.pdf
|archive-date = September 26, 2007
|url-status = dead
|df = mdy-all
}} (Figure 11, p.15)</ref><ref name="Pakistani Migration to the United States: An economic perspective">[http://ir.ide.go.jp/dspace/bitstream/2344/839/1/196_oda.pdf Pakistani Migration to the United States: An economic perspective] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122011015/http://ir.ide.go.jp/dspace/bitstream/2344/839/1/196_oda.pdf |date=January 22, 2013 }}. Retrieved October 1, 2010.</ref> and 2010<ref name="ACSB2010Bachelor"/>
|}
Among America's major racial categories, Asian Americans have the highest educational qualifications. This varies, however, for individual ethnic groups. For example, a 2010 study of all Asian American adults found 42% have at least a college degree, but only 16% of Vietnamese Americans and only 5% for Laotians and Cambodians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/strategies/topics/multicultural-education/A%20closer%20look%20at%20asian%20americans%20and%20education/index.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150630114518/http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/strategies/topics/multicultural-education/A%20closer%20look%20at%20asian%20americans%20and%20education/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 30, 2015 |title=School of Education at Johns Hopkins University-A Closer Look at Asian Americans and Education |author=C.N. Le |year=2010 |work=New Horizons for Learning |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University]] |access-date=February 18, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> It has been noted, however, that 2008 US Census statistics put the bachelor's degree attainment rate of Vietnamese Americans at 26%, which is not very different from the rate of 27% for all Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb08-ff05.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523231137/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb08-ff05.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 23, 2010 |title=Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2008 |author=U.S. Census Bureau |date=March 3, 2008 |work=Facts for Features |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=March 6, 2013 }}</ref> Census data from 2010 show 50% of Asian adults have earned at least a bachelor's degree, compared to 28% for all Americans,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb12-ff09.html |title=Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2012 |author= |date=March 21, 2012 |work=Profile America Facts for Features |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=February 18, 2013 |archive-date=February 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209055634/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb12-ff09.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and 34% for non-Hispanic whites.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Bachelor Degree Rate Passes Milestone |author=Richard Perez-Pena |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/24/education/census-finds-bachelors-degrees-at-record-level.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=February 23, 2012 |access-date=February 18, 2013 |archive-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225135646/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/24/education/census-finds-bachelors-degrees-at-record-level.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Indian Americans have some of the highest education rates, with nearly 71% having attained at least a bachelor's degree in 2010.<ref name="ACSB2010Bachelor">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acsbr10-19.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20131019165942/http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acsbr10-19.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-10-19 |title=The Population With a Bachelor's Degree or Higher by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2006–2010 |author=Stella U. Ogunwole |author2=Malcolm P. Drewery Jr |author3=Merarys Rios-Vargas |date=May 2012 |work=American Community Survey Briefs |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=February 18, 2013 }}</ref> {{as of|2012|12|lc=on}} Asian Americans made up twelve to eighteen percent of the student population at [[Ivy League]] schools, larger than their share of the population.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asians: Too Smart for Their Own Good? |first=Carolyn |last=Chen |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/20/opinion/asians-too-smart-for-their-own-good.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 19, 2012 |access-date=March 3, 2013 |archive-date=March 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328020132/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/20/opinion/asians-too-smart-for-their-own-good.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|It has been alleged that Asian Americans have been discriminated against during the admission process to certain universities.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jaschik |first=Scott |date=7 August 2017 |title=The Numbers and the Arguments on Asian Admissions |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2017/08/07/look-data-and-arguments-about-asian-americans-and-admissions-elite |work=Inside Higher Ed |location=Washington, DC |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=June 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618175648/https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2017/08/07/look-data-and-arguments-about-asian-americans-and-admissions-elite |url-status=live }}</ref> These include, Harvard University,<ref>{{cite news |last=Fuchs |first=Chris |date=30 October 2019 |title=ASIAN AMERICA After Harvard affirmative action decision, Asian American students rethink college applications |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/after-harvard-affirmative-action-decision-asian-american-students-rethink-college-n1073376 |work=NBC News |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807052443/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/after-harvard-affirmative-action-decision-asian-american-students-rethink-college-n1073376 |url-status=live }} {{cite magazine |last=Suk Gersen |first=Jeannie |date=7 October 2019 |title=The Many Sins of College Admissions |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-many-sins-of-college-admissions |location=New Yorker |publisher=7 October 2019 |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=May 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513134400/https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-many-sins-of-college-admissions |url-status=live }} {{cite report |first1=Peter |last1=Arcidiacono |first2=Josh |last2=Kisnler |first3=Tyler |last3=Ransom |date=21 April 2020 |title=Asian American Discrimination in Harvard Admissions* |url=http://public.econ.duke.edu/~psarcidi/realpenalty.pdf |publisher=Duke University |page=Peter Arcidiacono |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702140243/http://public.econ.duke.edu/%7Epsarcidi/realpenalty.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> University of California,<ref>{{cite news |last=Jaschik |first=Scott |date=19 November 2018 |title=New Front in Fight Over Affirmative Action |url=https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2018/11/19/new-lawsuit-suggests-u-california-has-been-considering-race-admissions |work=Inside Higher Ed |location=Washington, DC |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=June 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603065515/https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2018/11/19/new-lawsuit-suggests-u-california-has-been-considering-race-admissions |url-status=live }}</ref> and University of Texas.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gluckman |first=Nell |date=16 May 2019 |title=U. of Texas Is Sued Over Affirmative Action in Admissions. Yes, Again. |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/U-of-Texas-Is-Sued-Over/246317 |work=The Chronicle of Higher Education |location=Washington, DC |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607063829/https://www.chronicle.com/article/U-of-Texas-Is-Sued-Over/246317 |url-status=live }}</ref> }} For example, the [[Harvard College]] Class of 2023 admitted students were 25% Asian American.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/03/harvard-college-admits-1950-to-class-of-23/ |title=Harvard College admits 1,950 to Class of '23 |author=FAS Communications |date=28 March 2019 |website=The Harvard Gazette |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=April 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419005726/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/03/harvard-college-admits-1950-to-class-of-23/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the years immediately preceding 2012, 61% of Asian American adult immigrants have a bachelor or higher level college education.<ref name="RoAAPEW2012" />

In August 2020, the US [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] argued that [[Yale University]] discriminated against Asian candidates on the basis of their race, a charge the university denied.<ref>{{Cite web|author=David Shortell and Taylor Romine|title=Justice Department accuses Yale of discriminating against Asian American and White applicants|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/13/politics/justice-department-yale-discrimination/index.html|access-date=2020-08-14|website=CNN|archive-date=August 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814000151/https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/13/politics/justice-department-yale-discrimination/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last =Xu
| first =Kenny
| title =An Inconvenient Minority: The Attack on Asian American Excellence and the Fight for Meritocracy
| publisher =Diversion Books
| date =2021
| pages =288
| url =http://inconvenientminority.com
| isbn =978-1635767568}}</ref>

==Social and political issues==

===Media portrayal===
[[File:Kung Fu Panda Red Carpet Premiere (5828919262).jpg|right|thumb|[[Lucy Liu]] at ''[[Kung Fu Panda (film)|Kung Fu Panda]]'' premiere|300x300px]]

Because [[Asian American]]s total about 6.9% of the entire US population, diversity within the group is often overlooked in media treatment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Teach boldly!: letters to teachers about contemporary issues in education |last1=Fehr |first1=Dennis Earl |first2=Mary Cain |last2=Fehr |year=2009 |publisher=[[Peter Lang (publishing company)|Peter Lang]] |isbn=978-1-4331-0491-6 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WFQpcDhkCm4C&q=diversity%20asian%20americans%20disregarded%20media&pg=PA164 |access-date=March 6, 2012 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122539/https://books.google.com/books?id=WFQpcDhkCm4C&q=diversity+asian+americans+disregarded+media&pg=PA164 |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124511/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_anon_9.pdf |title=Issue Brief #160: Asian American Protest Politics: "The Politics of Identity" |author=Raymond Arthur Smith |year=2009 |work=Majority Rule and Minority Rights Issue Briefs |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |access-date=March 6, 2012 |archive-date=September 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054503/http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124511/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_anon_9.pdf |url-status=live }} Min, Pyong G. Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends andIssues. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2006. Google Books.Web. July 28, 2013.</ref><ref name="Lee, Robert G 1999">Lee, Robert G. Orientals: Asian Americans in PopularCulture. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1999. Google Books. Web. 28 July 2013.</ref>

===Bamboo ceiling===
{{Main|Bamboo ceiling}}

This concept appears to elevate Asian Americans by portraying them as an elite group of successful, highly educated, intelligent, and wealthy individuals, but it can also be considered an overly narrow and overly one-dimensional portrayal of Asian Americans, leaving out other human qualities such as vocal leadership, negative emotions, risk taking, ability to learn from mistakes, and desire for creative expression.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sitemaker.umich.edu/psy457_tizzle/the_model_minority |title=Asian Americans and the Media: Perpetuating the Model Minority |first=Joy |last=Cheng |author2=Charles Hsieh |author3=Scott Lu |author4=Sarah Talog |work=Psychology 457.002 |publisher=University of Michigan |access-date=February 19, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517073256/http://sitemaker.umich.edu/psy457_tizzle/the_model_minority |archive-date=May 17, 2013 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Furthermore, Asian Americans who do not fit into the model minority mold can face challenges when people's expectations based on the model minority myth do not match with reality. Traits outside of the model minority mold can be seen as negative character flaws for Asian Americans despite those very same traits being positive for the general American majority (e.g., risk taking, confidence, empowered). For this reason, Asian Americans encounter a "bamboo ceiling", the Asian American equivalent of the [[glass ceiling]] in the workplace, with only 1.5% of [[Fortune 500]] [[Chief Executive Officer|CEOs]] being Asians, a percentage smaller than their percentage of the total United States population.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asians in America: What's Holding Back the "Model Minority?" |author=Sylvia Ann Hewlett |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/sylviaannhewlett/2011/07/28/asians-in-america-whats-holding-back-the-model-minority/ |newspaper=Forbes |date=July 28, 2011 |access-date=February 19, 2013 |archive-date=June 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617112934/http://www.forbes.com/sites/sylviaannhewlett/2011/07/28/asians-in-america-whats-holding-back-the-model-minority/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The bamboo ceiling is defined as a combination of individual, cultural, and organisational factors that impede Asian Americans' career progress inside organizations. Since then, a variety of sectors (including nonprofits, universities, the government) have discussed the impact of the ceiling as it relates to Asians and the challenges they face. As described by Anne Fisher, the "bamboo ceiling" refers to the processes and barriers that serve to exclude Asians and American people of Asian descent from executive positions on the basis of subjective factors such as "lack of leadership potential" and "lack of communication skills" that cannot actually be explained by job performance or qualifications.<ref>{{cite news |title=Piercing the 'Bamboo Ceiling' |author=Anne Fisher |url=https://money.cnn.com/2005/08/08/news/economy/annie/fortune_annie080805/index.htm |newspaper=[[CNN]] |date=August 8, 2005 |access-date=June 14, 2012 |archive-date=April 22, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422134327/http://money.cnn.com/2005/08/08/news/economy/annie/fortune_annie080805/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Articles regarding the subject have been published in ''[[Crains]]'', ''[[Fortune magazine]]'', and ''[[The Atlantic]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Training executives to think globally |author=Anne Fisher |url=http://mycrains.crainsnewyork.com/blogs/executive-inbox/2011/11/training-executives-to-think-globally/ |newspaper=Crain's New York Business |date=November 18, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2012 |archive-date=April 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412160022/http://mycrains.crainsnewyork.com/blogs/executive-inbox/2011/11/training-executives-to-think-globally/ |url-status=live }} {{cite news |title=Is there a 'bamboo ceiling' at U.S. companies? |author=Anne Fisher |url=http://management.fortune.cnn.com/2011/10/07/asian-americans-promotion-us-companies/ |newspaper=Fortune Magazine |date=October 7, 2011 |access-date=June 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212000635/http://management.fortune.cnn.com/2011/10/07/asian-americans-promotion-us-companies/ |archive-date=February 12, 2012 |df=mdy }} {{cite news |title=Study of the Day: There's a 'Bamboo Ceiling' for Would-Be Asian Leaders |author=Hans Villarica |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/05/theres-a-bamboo-ceiling-for-would-be-asian-leaders/257135/ |newspaper=[[The Atlantic]] |date=May 15, 2012 |access-date=June 14, 2012 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122541/https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/05/study-of-the-day-theres-a-bamboo-ceiling-for-would-be-asian-leaders/257135/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Illegal immigration===
{{See also|Deportation of Cambodians from the United States|Illegal immigration to the United States}}
In 2012, there were 1.3 million Asian Americans; and for those awaiting visas, there were lengthy backlogs with over 450 thousand Filipinos, over 325 thousand Indians, over 250 thousand Vietnamese, and over 225 thousand Chinese awaiting visas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/WaitingListItem.pdf |title=Annual Report of Immigration Visa Applicants in the Family-sponsored and Employment-based preferences Registered at the National Visa Center as of November 1, 2012 |date=November 1, 2012 |work=Bureau of Consular Affairs |publisher=United States Secretary of State |access-date=February 5, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217034041/http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/WaitingListItem.pdf |archive-date=February 17, 2013 }} {{cite news |title=For Asian-Americans, Immigration Backlogs Are A Major Hurdle |first=Gene |last=Demby |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2013/01/31/170744897/for-asian-americans-immigration-backlogs-are-becoming-a-major-hurdle |newspaper=National Public Radio |date=January 31, 2013 |access-date=February 5, 2013 |archive-date=February 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205160452/http://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2013/01/31/170744897/for-asian-americans-immigration-backlogs-are-becoming-a-major-hurdle |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2009, Filipinos and Indians accounted for the highest number of alien immigrants for "Asian Americans" with an estimated illegal population of 270,000 and 200,000 respectively. [[Indian American]]s are also the fastest-growing alien immigrant group in the United States, an increase in illegal immigration of 125% since 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/Indians_fastestgrowing_illegal_immigrants_in_US-nid-60255.html/1/2|title=Indians fastest-growing illegal immigrants in U.S.|last=IANS|website=siliconindia.com|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=May 18, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518200414/http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/Indians_fastestgrowing_illegal_immigrants_in_US-nid-60255.html/1/2|url-status=live}} [http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/services/travel/visa-power/Indians-fastest-growing-illegal-immigrant-group-in-US/articleshow/4880276.cms Illegal Indians in US] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815205910/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/services/travel/visa-power/Indians-fastest-growing-illegal-immigrant-group-in-US/articleshow/4880276.cms |date=August 15, 2009 }}</ref> This is followed by [[Koreans]] (200,000) and [[Chinese people|Chinese]] (120,000).<ref name="illegalimmigration">{{cite web|url=https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2009.pdf |title=Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2009 |last1=Hoeffer |first1=Michael |last2=Rytina |first2=Nancy |last3=Campbell |first3=Christopher |publisher=Department of Homeland Security |access-date=April 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407165222/https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2009.pdf |archive-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=live |df=mdy }}</ref> Nonetheless, Asian Americans have the highest naturalization rates in the United States. In 2015, out of a total of 730,259 applicants, 261,374 became new Americans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-citizenship-important-asian-immigrants/3767840.html|title=US Citizenship Important to Asian Immigrants|website=VOA|language=en|access-date=2019-03-04|archive-date=March 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043533/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-citizenship-important-asian-immigrants/3767840.html|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|U.S. Department of Homeland Security]], legal permanent residents or green card holders from India, Philippines and China were among the top nationals applying for U.S. naturalization in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/visualization/2015|title=Infographics 2015|date=2017-01-31|website=Department of Homeland Security|language=en|access-date=2019-03-04|archive-date=March 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304173630/https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics/visualization/2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Due to the stereotype of Asian Americans being successful as a group and having the lowest crime rates in the United States, public attention to illegal immigration is mostly focused on those from Mexico and Latin America while leaving out Asians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124622/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_weingarten.pdf |title=Asian American Immigration Status |first=Liza |last=Weingarten |author2=Raymond Arthur Smith |year=2009 |work=Majority Rule and Minority Rights Issue Briefs |publisher=Columbia University |access-date=March 4, 2012 |quote=Deemed successful as a complete group, the national immigration debate often leaves out Asians focusing instead on South America primarily. Furthermore, a failed attempt to naturalize can actually result in deportation. Because fluency in English is one of the criteria for naturalization, certain ethnicities within the panethnic Asian American immigrant identity are more strongly affected than others. But Asians are noticeably absent from the immigration debate, according to public radio reports. |archive-date=September 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928075559/http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124622/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_weingarten.pdf |url-status=live }} {{cite book|last=Ngai|first=Mae M.|title=Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America - Updated Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1dzAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|date=27 April 2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5023-5|page=2|access-date=March 14, 2020|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601053859/https://books.google.com/books?id=X1dzAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|url-status=live}} {{cite news |last=Yen |first=Hope |agency=Associated Press |date=6 December 2012 |title=Hispanic immigration to US has peaked, Asian immigration is rising |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Latest-News-Wires/2012/1206/Hispanic-immigration-to-US-has-peaked-Asian-immigration-is-rising |work=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-date=June 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601021334/https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Latest-News-Wires/2012/1206/Hispanic-immigration-to-US-has-peaked-Asian-immigration-is-rising |url-status=live }}</ref> Asians are the second largest racial/ethnic alien immigrant group in the U.S. behind Hispanics and Latinos.<ref name="Estimates from PHC">{{cite news| first = Jeffrey| last = Passel| url = http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/44.pdf| title = Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population| publisher = Pew Hispanic Center| date = March 21, 2005| access-date = April 11, 2012| archive-date = August 29, 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180829051549/http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports/44.pdf| url-status = live}} {{cite web |url=http://www.wnyc.org/articles/its-free-country/2011/nov/14/asian-immigration-and-myth-model-minority/ |title=Asian Immigration and the Myth of the "Model Minority" |author=Erwin De Leon |year=2011 |publisher=WNYC |access-date=June 12, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608034024/http://www.wnyc.org/articles/its-free-country/2011/nov/14/asian-immigration-and-myth-model-minority/ |archive-date=June 8, 2012 |df=mdy }}</ref> While the majority of Asian immigrants immigrate legally to the United States,<ref>{{cite news |title=New Asian Immigrants To US Now Surpass Hispanics |url=http://washington.cbslocal.com/2012/06/19/new-asian-immigrants-to-us-now-surpass-hispanics/ |newspaper=CBSDC |date=June 19, 2012 |access-date=June 19, 2012 |quote=While immigrants from Asia often obtain visas and arrive legally, many also sneak across the U.S. border or become undocumented residents after overstaying their visas. |archive-date=June 22, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622012033/http://washington.cbslocal.com/2012/06/19/new-asian-immigrants-to-us-now-surpass-hispanics/ |url-status=live }}</ref> up to 15% of Asian immigrants immigrate without legal documents.<ref>{{cite news |title=How Asians displaced Hispanics as biggest group of new US immigrants |first=Mark |last=Guarino |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2012/0619/How-Asians-displaced-Hispanics-as-biggest-group-of-new-US-immigrants |newspaper=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |date=June 19, 2012 |access-date=June 21, 2012 |quote=For example, 45 percent of Hispanic immigrants are undocumented compared with about 13 percent of Asian immigrants, according to the survey. |archive-date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621055457/http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2012/0619/How-Asians-displaced-Hispanics-as-biggest-group-of-new-US-immigrants |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Race-based violence===
{{See also|Yellow Peril|Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States|Anti-Filipino sentiment#United States|Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States|Anti-Indian sentiment#United States|Anti-Pakistan sentiment#United States}}
[[File:Olivia Munn 2013.jpg|thumb|right|[[Olivia Munn]] at the 2013 ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'' Women of the Year Awards|298x298px]]

Asian Americans have been the targets of violence based on their race and or ethnicity. This violence includes, but is not limited to, such events as the [[Rock Springs massacre]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Rock Springs |last=Tanner |first=Russel |author2=Margie Fletcher Shanks |year=2008 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=9780738556420 |page=31 28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KACOt5b4UxwC&q=Rock%20Springs%20Massacre&pg=PA31 |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122543/https://books.google.com/books?id=KACOt5b4UxwC&q=Rock+Springs+Massacre&pg=PA31 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Watsonville, California|Watsonville]] [[Watsonville Anti-Filipino Riots|Riots]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/riots.html |title=Racial Riots |work=Office of Multicultural Student Services |publisher=[[University of Hawaii]] |access-date=March 22, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106122739/http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/riots.html |archive-date=January 6, 2012 }} {{cite news |title=Racial hate once flared on Central Coast |url=http://www.pinnaclenews.com/life/contentview.asp?c=198024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719151157/http://www.pinnaclenews.com/life/contentview.asp?c=198024 |archive-date=July 19, 2011 |newspaper=The Weekend Pinnacle Online |date=October 27, 2006 |access-date=March 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |df=mdy }} {{cite book|author=Kevin L. Nadal|title=Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC&pg=PT144|date=23 March 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-01977-1|page=144|access-date=April 12, 2018|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530012238/https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC&pg=PT144|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bellingham Riots]] in 1916 against South Asians,<ref>{{cite book|author=Scott Ingram|title=South Asian Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wIacLMqslyMC&pg=PA23|date=July 2006|publisher=World Almanac Library|isbn=978-0-8368-7318-4|page=23|access-date=April 12, 2018|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530170811/https://books.google.com/books?id=wIacLMqslyMC&pg=PA23|url-status=live}} {{cite book|author=Seema Sohi|title=Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCnnAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-937625-4|page=25|access-date=April 12, 2018|archive-date=May 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529172548/https://books.google.com/books?id=fCnnAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Anti-Japanese sentiment#During World War II|attacks upon Japanese Americans]] following the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Prejudice, war, and the Constitution |last=Tenbroek |first=Jacobus |author2=Edward Norton Barnhart |author3=Floyd W. Matson |year=1975 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520012622 |page=352 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6il2D3OdrMC&q=anti%20japanese%20attacks%20california%201942&pg=PA352 |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122545/https://books.google.com/books?id=q6il2D3OdrMC&q=anti+japanese+attacks+california+1942&pg=PA352 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Korean armed resistance in the Los Angeles riots|Korean American businesses]] targeted during the [[1992 Los Angeles riots]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Koreans in the hood: conflict with African Americans |last=Chung Kim |first=Kwang |year=1999 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=9780801861048 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jA034iKl_EgC&q=Koreans%20attacked%20los%20angeles%20riots&pg=PA146 |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122546/https://books.google.com/books?id=jA034iKl_EgC&q=Koreans+attacked+los+angeles+riots&pg=PA146 |url-status=live }}</ref> Attacks on Chinese in the [[American frontier]] were common, this included the slaughter of forty to sixty Chinese miners by [[Northern Paiute|Paiute Indians]] in 1866, during the [[Snake War]], and an attack on Chinese miners at the [[Chinese Massacre Cove]] by [[Cowboy#Regional traditions within the United States|cowboys]] in 1887 which resulted in 31 deaths.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bruce Cumings|title=Dominion from Sea to Sea: Pacific Ascendancy and American Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0sMXoMB-4CEC&pg=PT222|date=17 November 2009|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-15497-9|page=222|access-date=April 12, 2018|archive-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601053857/https://books.google.com/books?id=0sMXoMB-4CEC&pg=PT222|url-status=live}} {{cite book|author=Gregory Michno|title=The Deadliest Indian War in the West: The Snake Conflict, 1864–1868|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZExU-tGSz8C&pg=PA152|year=2007|publisher=Caxton Press|isbn=978-0-87004-487-8|pages=152–153|access-date=April 12, 2018|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530082313/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZExU-tGSz8C&pg=PA152|url-status=live}}</ref> In the late 1980s, [[assault]]s and other hate crimes were committed against South Asians in New Jersey by a group of [[Hispanics and Latinos in New Jersey|Latinos]] who were known as the [[Dotbusters]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Sang Chi |author2=Emily Moberg Robinson |title=Voices of the Asian American and Pacific Islander Experience [2 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=brQrYsWp1gUC&pg=PA297 |date=13 February 2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-355-2 |page=297 |access-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530115536/https://books.google.com/books?id=brQrYsWp1gUC&pg=PA297 |url-status=live }} {{cite book |author=Franklin Odo |title=The Columbia Documentary History of the Asian American Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=okFtdjfp9FgC&pg=PA411 |year=2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11030-3 |page=411 |access-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530202519/https://books.google.com/books?id=okFtdjfp9FgC&pg=PA411 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the late 1990s, the lone death that occurred during the [[Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting]] by a [[White supremacy#United States|white supremacist]] was a Filipino postal worker.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thomas Streissguth |title=Hate Crimes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=odc7v42VwrEC&pg=PA32 |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1904-5 |page=32 |access-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530043616/https://books.google.com/books?id=odc7v42VwrEC&pg=PA32 |url-status=live }} {{cite news |agency=Los Angeles Times |date=27 March 2001 |title=Racist Gets Life Term for L.A. Rampage / Filipino postal worker killed in hate attack |url=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Racist-Gets-Life-Term-for-L-A-Rampage-Filipino-2938048.php |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=11 April 2018 |archive-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145355/https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Racist-Gets-Life-Term-for-L-A-Rampage-Filipino-2938048.php |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Wong |first=Grace |date=9 August 2014 |title=Ileto family remembers Joseph Ileto, slain 15 years ago |url=https://www.dailybulletin.com/2014/08/09/ileto-family-remembers-joseph-ileto-slain-15-years-ago/ |work=Los Angeles Daily Bulletin |access-date=11 April 2018 |archive-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145530/https://www.dailybulletin.com/2014/08/09/ileto-family-remembers-joseph-ileto-slain-15-years-ago/ |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Sanchez |first=Rene |date=13 August 1999 |title=L.A. Shooting Suspect Faces State, U.S. Charges |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/hatecrimes/stories/furrow081399.htm |work=The Washington Post |access-date=11 April 2018 |archive-date=April 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406183909/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/hatecrimes/stories/furrow081399.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Even when it did not manifest as violence, contempt against Asian Americans was reflected in aspects of popular culture such as the playground chant "[[Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lee|first=Gregory B.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51722034|title=Chinas unlimited: making the imaginaries of China and Chineseness|date=2003|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=0-8248-2680-9|location=Honolulu|pages=45|oclc=51722034|access-date=December 5, 2020|archive-date=March 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122543/https://www.worldcat.org/title/chinas-unlimited-making-the-imaginaries-of-china-and-chineseness/oclc/51722034|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the [[September 11 attacks]], [[Sikhism in the United States|Sikh Americans]] were targeted, becoming the victims of numerous [[hate crimes]], including [[murder]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sikhtimes.com/news_093002a.html |title=Turbans and Terror: Racism After Sep. 11 |author=Valarie Kuar Brar |date=September 30, 2002 |publisher=The Sikh Times |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-date=September 28, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928230637/http://www.sikhtimes.com/news_093002a.html |url-status=live }} {{cite news |title=Sikh killed, others are targeted; Arizona man held |first=Foster |last=Klug |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/attack/39155_backlash17.shtml |newspaper=Seattle Post-Intelligencer |date=September 17, 2001 |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122536/https://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Sikh-killed-others-are-targeted-Arizona-man-held-1065966.php |url-status=live }} {{cite book |title=Handbook of Multicultural Counseling |last=Ponterotto |first=Joseph G. |author2=Lisa A. Suzuki |author3=J. Manuel Casas |author4=Charlene M. Alexander |year=2009 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=9781412964326 |page=472 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puj6Nx42imcC&q=sikhs%20targeted%202001&pg=PA472 |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122542/https://books.google.com/books?id=puj6Nx42imcC&q=sikhs+targeted+2001&pg=PA472 |url-status=live }} {{cite book |title=Asian Americans: contemporary trends and issues |last=Min |first=Pyong Gap |year=2006 |publisher=Pine Forge Press |isbn=9781412905565 |page=216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PSYZMs8TzEC&q=asian%20student%20attacked%20san%20francisco&pg=PA216 |access-date=March 22, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122546/https://books.google.com/books?id=5PSYZMs8TzEC&q=asian+student+attacked+san+francisco&pg=PA216 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other Asian Americans have also been the victims of race-based violence in Brooklyn,<ref name="2005USATODAY">{{cite news |title=Asian youth persistently harassed by U.S. peers |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-11-13-asian-teens-bullied_x.htm |newspaper=USA Today |date=November 13, 2005 |access-date=March 22, 2011 |archive-date=October 2, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002114202/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-11-13-asian-teens-bullied_x.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Philadelphia,<ref>{{cite news |title=Racial violence spurred Asian students to take a stand |first=Sarah |last=Hoye |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-22/living/philly.school.asian.american.attacks_1_asian-students-chinese-student-association-south-philadelphia-high-school?_s=PM:LIVING |newspaper=CNN |date=October 22, 2010 |access-date=March 22, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129095727/http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-22/living/philly.school.asian.american.attacks_1_asian-students-chinese-student-association-south-philadelphia-high-school?_s=PM%3ALIVING |archive-date=January 29, 2011 }} {{cite news |title=Attacked Asian Students Afraid To Go to School |first=Danielle |last=Johnson |url=http://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/Attacked-Asian-Students-Fear-Returning-to-Class-78652997.html |newspaper=[[WCAU]] |date=December 7, 2009 |access-date=March 22, 2011 |archive-date=April 3, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403043856/http://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/Attacked-Asian-Students-Fear-Returning-to-Class-78652997.html |url-status=live }}</ref> San Francisco,<ref>{{cite news |title=Asian American attacks focus at City Hall |author=C.W. Nevius |url=http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-04-29/bay-area/20878116_1_city-hall-african-americans-asian-americans |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |date=April 29, 2010 |access-date=March 22, 2011 |archive-date=July 6, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706141900/http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-04-29/bay-area/20878116_1_city-hall-african-americans-asian-americans |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Bloomington, Indiana]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Asian Students Attacked At Indiana University |author=Danielle Wiener-Bronner |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/11/01/asian-students-attacked-a_n_776988.html |work=Huffington Post |date=November 1, 2010 |access-date=March 22, 2011 |archive-date=November 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105144534/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/11/01/asian-students-attacked-a_n_776988.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Furthermore, it has been reported that young Asian Americans are more likely to be the targets of violence than their peers.<ref name="2005USATODAY" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Asian Parents and Students Face Challenge of Diversity |first=Hubert |last=Lu |author2=Peter Schurmann |url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=8a49ccad0897d1e28fe15b417c0b4152 |newspaper=Douwei Times |date=July 1, 2007 |access-date=March 22, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320041747/http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=8a49ccad0897d1e28fe15b417c0b4152 |archive-date=March 20, 2012 |df=mdy }} {{cite web |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/hyvpc/files/2004BYSfullreport.pdf |title=Report of the 2004 Boston Youth Survey |author=Thomas M. Menino |author-link=Thomas Menino |date=August 2005 |work=Harvard Youth Violence Prevention Center |publisher=Harvard School of Public Health |access-date=March 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412190551/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/hyvpc/files/2004BYSfullreport.pdf |archive-date=April 12, 2011 |url-status=dead |df=mdy }}</ref> In 2017, racist graffiti and other property damage was done to a community center in [[Little Manila, Stockton, California|Stockton's Little Manila]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Garces |first=Audrey |date=12 October 2017 |title=Little Manila Center Vandalized During Filipino American History Month |url=https://www.kqed.org/news/11623045 |work=The California Report |publisher=KQED |location=San Francisco |access-date=11 April 2018 |archive-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145556/https://www.kqed.org/news/11623045 |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Layug |first=Margaret Claire |date=12 October 2017 |title=US-based Filipino foundation sees vandalism on property as hate crime |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/pinoyabroad/news/629199/us-based-filipino-foundation-sees-vandalism-on-property-as-hate-crime/story/ |work=GMA News |location=Philippines |access-date=11 April 2018 |archive-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145950/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/pinoyabroad/news/629199/us-based-filipino-foundation-sees-vandalism-on-property-as-hate-crime/story/ |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Guillermo |first=Emil |date=13 October 2017 |title=Not-so-little act of hate at Stockton's Little Manila |url=http://usa.inquirer.net/7265/not-little-act-hate-stocktons-little-manila |work=Philippine Daily Inquirer |location=Makati City |access-date=11 April 2018 |archive-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412150900/http://usa.inquirer.net/7265/not-little-act-hate-stocktons-little-manila |url-status=live }}</ref> Racism and discrimination still persist against Asian Americans, occurring not only against recent immigrants but also against well-educated and highly trained professionals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Working with Asian Americans: A Guide for Clinicians |last=Lee |first=Evelyn |year=2000 |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |isbn=9781572305700 |page=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLXmf749kmAC&q=Religions%20%22Asian%20Americans%22&pg=PA22 |access-date=March 6, 2012 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122547/https://books.google.com/books?id=PLXmf749kmAC&q=Religions+%22Asian+Americans%22&pg=PA22 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Recent waves of immigration of Asian Americans to largely African American neighborhoods have led to cases of severe racial tension.<ref>[http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-07-23/news/1998204099_1_korean-tension-city-meetings Baltimore Sun: "Black, Korean tension is focus U.S. civil rights panel to meet in Baltimore" By Erin Texeira] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927183440/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-07-23/news/1998204099_1_korean-tension-city-meetings |date=September 27, 2015 }} July 23, 1998</ref> Acts of large-scale violence against Asian American students by their black classmates have been reported in multiple cities.<ref>[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/2010-01-22-asian-bullying-philadelphia_N.htm USA Today: "Bullying against Asian students roils Philadelphia high school"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150917055147/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/2010-01-22-asian-bullying-philadelphia_n.htm |date=September 17, 2015 }} January 22, 2010 [http://www.cnn.com/2010/LIVING/10/22/philly.school.asian.american.attacks/index.html CNN: "Racial violence spurred Asian students to take a stand" By Sarah Hoye] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708064850/http://www.cnn.com/2010/LIVING/10/22/philly.school.asian.american.attacks/index.html |date=July 8, 2015 }} October 22, 2010 {{cite web |url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2010/05/09/race_and_resentment_105419.html |title=Race and Resentment |first=Thomas |last=Sowell |date=May 9, 2010 |publisher=Real Clear Politics |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214052558/http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2010/05/09/race_and_resentment_105419.html |archive-date=February 14, 2011 |url-status=live |df=mdy }}</ref> In October 2008, 30 black students chased and attacked 5 Asian students at [[South Philadelphia High School]],<ref name=Teague4>Teague, Matthew. "Heroes: South Philly High's Protesters." ''[[Philadelphia (magazine)|Philadelphia]]'' (magazine). August 2010. [http://www.phillymag.com/articles/heroes-south-philly-high-s-protesters/4/ 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801064913/http://www.phillymag.com/articles/heroes-south-philly-high-s-protesters/4/ |date=August 1, 2015 }}. Retrieved on May 4, 2016,</ref> and a similar attack on Asian students occurred at the same school one year later, prompting a protest by Asian students in response.<ref name=Teague8>Teague, Matthew. "Heroes: South Philly High's Protesters." ''[[Philadelphia (magazine)|Philadelphia]]'' (magazine). August 2010. [http://www.phillymag.com/articles/heroes-south-philly-high-s-protesters/8/ 8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525120200/http://www.phillymag.com/articles/heroes-south-philly-high-s-protesters/8/ |date=May 25, 2017 }}. Retrieved on January 31, 2013.</ref>

Asian-owned businesses have been a frequent target of tensions between black and Asian Americans. During the 1992 Los Angeles riots, more than 2000 Korean-owned businesses were looted or burned by groups of African Americans.<ref>{{cite book |title=Koreans in the Hood: Conflict With African Americans |last=Kim |first=Kwang Chung |year=1999 |publisher=JHU Press |location=Baltimore, Maryland |isbn=9780801861048 |page=250 |access-date=July 29, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jA034iKl_EgC |archive-date=May 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529204155/https://books.google.com/books?id=jA034iKl_EgC |url-status=live }} {{cite book |title=Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots |last1=Abelmann |first1=Nancy |last2=Lie |first2=John |year=1995 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674077058 |page=288 |access-date=July 29, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BawoT007lesC |archive-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530112930/https://books.google.com/books?id=BawoT007lesC |url-status=live }} {{cite journal |last=Kim |first=Rose M. |title=3. "Violence and Trauma as Constitutive Elements in Korean American Racial Identity Formation: The 1992 L.A. Riots/Insurrection/Saigu." |journal=Ethnic & Racial Studies |year=2012 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=1999–2018 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2011.602090|s2cid=144670407 }}</ref> From 1990 to 1991, a high-profile, racially motivated [[Family Red Apple Boycott|boycott]] of an Asian-owned shop in Brooklyn was organized by a local [[black nationalist]] activist, eventually resulting in the owner being forced to sell his business.<ref name="Goodman">Goodman, Walter. [https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/12/movies/review-television-the-boycotting-of-a-korean-grocery-in-brooklyn.html "Review/Television; The Boycotting of a Korean Grocery in Brooklyn"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809054356/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/12/movies/review-television-the-boycotting-of-a-korean-grocery-in-brooklyn.html |date=August 9, 2016 }}. ''The New York Times''. July 12, 1990</ref> Another racially motivated boycott against an Asian-owned business occurred in Dallas in 2012, after an Asian American clerk fatally shot an African American who had robbed his store.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2012/01/31/2012013100895.html |title=Racial Tension Rising in Dallas Against Korean Community |work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |date=January 31, 2012 |access-date=July 28, 2012 |archive-date=February 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210152622/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2012/01/31/2012013100895.html |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=http://www.dallasnews.com/news/community-news/dallas/headlines/20120205-tensions-flare-in-protest-of-south-dallas-gas-station.ece |title=Racial tensions flare in protest of South Dallas gas station |work=[[The Dallas Morning News]] |date=February 5, 2012 |access-date=July 28, 2012 |archive-date=February 7, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207060536/http://www.dallasnews.com/news/community-news/dallas/headlines/20120205-tensions-flare-in-protest-of-south-dallas-gas-station.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Ferguson unrest]] in 2014, Asian-owned businesses were looted,<ref>{{cite news|last=Mak|first=Tim|date=August 20, 2014|title=Ferguson's Other Race Problem: Riots Damaged Asian-Owned Stores|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/08/20/ferguson-s-other-race-problem-riots-damaged-asian-owned-stores.html|newspaper=The Daily Beast|publisher=[[The Daily Beast Company LLC]]|access-date=August 21, 2014|archive-date=August 21, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821053809/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/08/20/ferguson-s-other-race-problem-riots-damaged-asian-owned-stores.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and Asian-owned stores were looted during the [[2015 Baltimore protests]] while African-American owned stores were bypassed.<ref>{{cite news |first=Nurith |last=Aizenmen |title=Baltimore Unrest Reveals Tensions Between African-Americans And Asians |url=https://www.npr.org/2015/04/30/403231749/baltimore-unrest-reveals-tensions-between-african-americans-and-asian-owned-busi |newspaper=NPR |date=April 30, 2015 |access-date=June 16, 2015 |archive-date=June 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621210551/http://www.npr.org/2015/04/30/403231749/baltimore-unrest-reveals-tensions-between-african-americans-and-asian-owned-busi |url-status=live }}</ref> Violence against Asian Americans continue to occur based on their race,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2010/05/09/race_and_resentment_105419.html |title=Race and Resentment |author=Thomas Sowell |date=May 9, 2010 |publisher=Real Clear Politics |access-date=March 21, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110214052558/http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2010/05/09/race_and_resentment_105419.html |archive-date=February 14, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> with one source asserting that Asian Americans are the fastest-growing targets of [[hate crime]]s and [[violence]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asian-nation.org/racism.shtml |title=Anti-Asian Racism & Violence |author=C.N. Le |date=March 21, 2011 |publisher=asian-nation.org |access-date=March 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430174336/http://www.asian-nation.org/racism.shtml |archive-date=April 30, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States]], concern has grown due to an increase in anti-Asian sentiment in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sumagaysay |first=Levi |date=24 May 2020 |title=Asian Americans bear brunt of blame for COVID-19 |agency=Bay City News Service |url=https://danvillesanramon.com/news/2020/05/24/asian-americans-bear-brunt-of-blame-for-covid-19 |work=DanvilleSanRamon.com |publisher=Embarcadero Media |location=Pleasanton, California |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=June 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603172501/https://danvillesanramon.com/news/2020/05/24/asian-americans-bear-brunt-of-blame-for-covid-19 |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Yam |first=Kimmy |date=13 May 2020 |title=NBC News hosts town hall on rise of anti-Asian sentiment amid coronavirus pandemic |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/nbc-news-hosts-town-hall-rise-anti-asian-sentiment-amid-n1206256 |work=NBC News |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=May 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525175119/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/nbc-news-hosts-town-hall-rise-anti-asian-sentiment-amid-n1206256 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=ChenTrinhYang2020>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=H. Alexander |last2=Trinh |first2=Jessica |date=16 May 2020 |title=Anti-Asian sentiment in the United States – COVID-19 and history |journal=American Journal of Surgery |volume= 220|issue= 3|pages= 556–557|doi=10.1016/j.amjsurg.2020.05.020 |pmid=32425201 |pmc=7229717 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In March 2020, President Donald Trump called the disease "China Virus", and "Kung-Flu", based on its origin; in response organizations such as Asian Americans Advancing Justice and Western States Center, stated that doing so will increase anti-Asian sentiment and violence.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |last1=Reichmann |first1=Deb |first2=Terry |last2=Tang |date=18 March 2020 |title=Donald Trump dubs COVID-19 'Chinese virus' despite hate crime risks for Asian Americans |url=https://abc7news.com/chinese-flu-wuhan-kung-flu-coronavirus-news/6025822/ |work=KGO |location=San Francisco |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=April 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420185435/https://abc7news.com/chinese-flu-wuhan-kung-flu-coronavirus-news/6025822/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Vox wrote that the Trump Administration's use of the terms "China Virus", "kung-Flu", and "Wuhan virus" would lead to an increase in [[xenophobia]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Scott |first=Dylan |date=18 March 2020 |title=Trump's new fixation on using a racist name for the coronavirus is dangerous |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/3/18/21185478/coronavirus-usa-trump-chinese-virus |work=Vox |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=March 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200318212026/https://www.vox.com/2020/3/18/21185478/coronavirus-usa-trump-chinese-virus |url-status=live }}</ref> The disease naming controversy occurred at a time when the Chinese Foreign Ministry was claiming that the disease originated in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fsi.stanford.edu/news/china-covid19-origin-narrative |title=Coronavirus Conspiracy Claims: What's Behind a Chinese Diplomat's COVID-19 Misdirection |last1=Molter |first1=Vanessa |date=31 March 2020 |last2=Webster |first2=Graham |website=Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies |publisher=Stanford University |access-date=24 May 2002 |archive-date=January 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110160854/https://fsi.stanford.edu/news/china-covid19-origin-narrative |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last1=Sardarizdeh |first1=Shayan |last2=Robinson |first2=Olga |date=26 April 2020 |title=Coronavirus: US and China trade conspiracy theories |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-52224331 |work=BBC News |location=United Kingdom |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=May 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524135817/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-52224331 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic#United States|Violent acts, relating to the disease]], against Asian Americans have been documented mostly in New York, California, and elsewhere.<ref name=ChenTrinhYang2020 /><ref>{{cite news |last=Rao |first=Maya |date=28 March 2020 |title=Asian-Americans in Minnesota face insults, hostility during virus outbreak |url=https://www.startribune.com/local-asian-americans-face-insults-hostility/569178982/?refresh=true |work=Star Tribune |location=Minnesota |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=May 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530004637/https://www.startribune.com/local-asian-americans-face-insults-hostility/569178982/?refresh=true |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Phillips |first=Kristine |date=21 May 2020 |title='We just want to be safe': Hate crimes, harassment of Asian Americans rise amid coronavirus pandemic |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/05/20/coronavirus-hate-crimes-against-asian-americans-continue-rise/5212123002/ |work=USA Today |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=May 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522134754/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/05/20/coronavirus-hate-crimes-against-asian-americans-continue-rise/5212123002/ |url-status=live }} {{cite web |url=https://www.adl.org/blog/reports-of-anti-asian-assaults-harassment-and-hate-crimes-rise-as-coronavirus-spreads |title=Reports of Anti-Asian Assaults, Harassment and Hate Crimes Rise as Coronavirus Spreads |author= |date=19 May 2020 |website=adl.org |publisher=Anti-Defamation League |location=New York |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=May 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526014402/https://www.adl.org/blog/reports-of-anti-asian-assaults-harassment-and-hate-crimes-rise-as-coronavirus-spreads |url-status=live }}</ref> As of December 31, 2020, there were 259 reports of anti-Asian incidents in New York reported to [[Stop AAPI Hate]].<ref name="NBC Boston">{{cite web |title=Race Discrimination Not Black and White as Asians Face Surging Attacks During Pandemic |url=https://www.nbcboston.com/lx/remember-racism-isnt-just-black-and-white-anti-asian-racism-is-on-the-rise-in-the-pandemic-era/2300776/ |website=NBC Boston |access-date=15 February 2021 |archive-date=February 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212141233/https://www.nbcboston.com/lx/remember-racism-isnt-just-black-and-white-anti-asian-racism-is-on-the-rise-in-the-pandemic-era/2300776/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As of March 2021, there have been more than 3800 anti-Asian racist incidents.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yam |first1=Kimmy |title=There were 3,800 anti-Asian racist incidents, mostly against women, in past year |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/there-were-3-800-anti-asian-racist-incidents-mostly-against-n1261257 |access-date=19 May 2021 |agency=NBC News |date=March 16, 2021}}</ref> A notable incident was the [[2021 Atlanta spa shootings]], a fatal attack in which six of the eight casualties were of Asian descent.

===Racial stereotypes===
{{Main|Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States|Stereotypes of South Asians}}
{{See also|Ching chong}}
Until the late 20th century, the term "Asian American" was mostly adopted by activists, while the average person who was of Asian ancestry identified with his or her specific ethnicity.<ref name="yip">{{cite web|url=http://www.asianweek.com/061397/feature.html |first=Alethea |last=Yip |publisher=Asian Week |title=Remembering Vincent Chin |access-date=March 14, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318184237/http://www.asianweek.com/061397/feature.html |archive-date=March 18, 2007 |url-status=dead |df=mdy }}</ref> The [[murder of Vincent Chin]] in 1982 was a pivotal civil rights case, and it marked the emergence of Asian Americans as a distinct group in United States.<ref name=yip/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.michigan.gov/documents/ACAPAA_policy_recommendation_159211_7.pdf |author=ACAPAA |publisher=State of Michigan |title=Pilicy Recommendation Document. |access-date=March 14, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308150132/http://www.michigan.gov/documents/ACAPAA_policy_recommendation_159211_7.pdf |archive-date=March 8, 2007 |url-status=live |df=mdy }}</ref>

Stereotypes of Asians have largely been collectively internalized by society and most of the repercussions of these stereotypes are negative for Asian Americans and Asian immigrants in daily interactions, [[current events]], and governmental [[legislation]]. In many instances, media portrayals of East Asians often reflect a dominant [[Americentric]] perception rather than realistic and authentic depictions of true cultures, customs and behaviors.<ref name="vanishing">{{Citation |last=Kashiwabara |first=Amy |url=http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/Amydoc.html |title=Vanishing Son: The Appearance, Disappearance, and Assimilation of the Asian-American Man in American Mainstream Media |publisher=UC Berkeley Media Resources Center |access-date=December 28, 2012 |archive-date=September 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922132828/http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/Amydoc.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Asians have experienced [[discrimination]] and have been victims of [[hate crime]]s related to their ethnic stereotypes.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pearl Harbor and Asian-Americans |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/26/opinion/pearl-harbor-and-asian-americans.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=October 26, 1991 |access-date=December 31, 2012 |archive-date=May 11, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511013313/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/26/opinion/pearl-harbor-and-asian-americans.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

A study has indicated that most non-Asian Americans generally do not differentiate between Asian Americans who are of different ethnicities.<ref>{{cite book |title=Asian American panethnicity: bridging institutions and identities |last=Espiritu |first=Yen le |year=1993 |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=9781566390965 |page=139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q2BqIYxOghsC |access-date=March 18, 2011 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122540/https://books.google.com/books?id=q2BqIYxOghsC |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Stereotype]]s of Chinese Americans and Asian Americans are nearly identical.<ref name="c100">{{cite web |url=http://www.committee100.org/media/media_eng/042501.html |author=Committee of 100 |title=Committee of 100 Announces Results of Landmark National Survey on American Attitudes towards Chinese Americans and Asian Americans |date=April 25, 2001 |access-date=June 14, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929153746/http://www.committee100.org/media/media_eng/042501.html |archive-date=September 29, 2007 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> A 2002 survey of Americans' attitudes toward Asian Americans and Chinese Americans indicated that 24% of the respondents disapprove of [[Interracial marriage|intermarriage]] with an Asian American, second only to African Americans; 23% would be uncomfortable supporting an Asian American presidential candidate, compared to 15% for an African American, 14% for a woman and 11% for a Jew; 17% would be upset if a substantial number of Asian Americans moved into their neighborhood; 25% had somewhat or very negative attitude toward Chinese Americans in general.<ref name="sfgate">{{cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2001/04/27/MN199998.DTL |first=Matthew |last=Yi |title=Asian Americans seen negatively |access-date=June 14, 2007 |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |date=April 27, 2001 |display-authors=etal |archive-date=September 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914111528/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2001%2F04%2F27%2FMN199998.DTL |url-status=live }}</ref> The study did find several positive perceptions of Chinese Americans: strong family values (91%); honesty as business people (77%); high value on education (67%).<ref name=c100/>

There is a widespread perception that Asian Americans are not "American" but are instead "[[perpetual foreigner]]s".<ref name=sfgate/><ref name="wu">{{cite web|url=http://www.modelminority.com/article676.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928140811/http://www.modelminority.com/article676.html |archive-date=September 28, 2007 |author=Frank H. Wu |title=Asian Americans and the Perpetual Foreigner Syndrome |access-date=June 14, 2007 |url-status=dead |df=mdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The politics of Asian Americans: diversity and community |last=Lien |first=Pei-te |author2=Mary Margaret Conway |author3=Janelle Wong |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780415934657 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o7ucGq1RZ-EC&q=%22asian%20americans%22%20perpetual%20foreigners&pg=PA7 |access-date=February 9, 2012 |quote=In addition, because of their perceived racial difference, rapid and continuous immigration from Asia, and on going detente with communist regimes in Asia, Asian Americans are construed as "perpetual foreigners" who cannot or will not adapt to the language, customs, religions, and politics of the American mainstream. |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122542/https://books.google.com/books?id=o7ucGq1RZ-EC&q=%22asian+americans%22+perpetual+foreigners&pg=PA7 |url-status=live }}</ref> Asian Americans often report being asked the question, "Where are you really from?" by other Americans, regardless of how long they or their ancestors have lived in United States and been a part of its society.<ref>{{cite book |title=Yellow: race in America beyond black and white |last=Wu |first=Frank H. |author-link=Frank H. Wu |year=2003 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=9780465006403 |page=79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkPvf5Cs-DgC&q=%22asian%20americans%22%20perpetual%20foreigners&pg=PA79 |access-date=February 9, 2012}}</ref> Many Asian Americans are themselves not immigrants but rather born in the United States. Many East Asian Americans are asked if they are Chinese or Japanese, an assumption based on major groups of past immigrants.<ref name=wu/><ref name="unlv">{{cite web|url=http://magazine.unlv.edu/Issues/Spring07/16image.html |author=K. Bergquist |title=Image Conscious |access-date=June 14, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709081932/http://magazine.unlv.edu/Issues/Spring07/16image.html |archive-date=July 9, 2007 |url-status=live |df=mdy }}</ref>

Discrimination against Asians and Asian Americans increased with the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States]], according to a study done at [[Washington State University]] (WSU) and published in ''Stigma and Health''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Discrimination increases against Asian and Asian American population, affecting health |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/11/201102155412.htm |access-date=March 6, 2021 |work=ScienceDaily |date=November 2, 2020 |language=en |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127192836/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/11/201102155412.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[New York City Police Department|NYPD]] reported a 1,900% increase in hate crimes motivated by anti-Asian sentiment in 2020, largely because President [[Donald Trump]] repeatedly referred to COVID-19 as “the China virus” and "Kung Flu". President [[Joe Biden]] signed an executive order [[List of executive actions by Joe Biden|denouncing anti-Asian discrimination]] shortly after taking office.<ref>{{cite news |title=Why More Policing Isn't the Answer to a Rise in Anti-Asian Hate Crimes |url=https://time.com/5938482/asian-american-attacks/ |access-date=March 6, 2021 |work=Time |date=February 18, 2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305190633/https://time.com/5938482/asian-american-attacks/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Vaughan |first1=Ashley |title=Attacks against Asian Americans are on the rise. Here's what you can do |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/03/05/us/how-to-support-the-aapi-community-iyw-trnd/index.html |access-date=March 6, 2021 |work=CNN |date=March 5, 2021 |archive-date=March 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305221907/https://edition.cnn.com/2021/03/05/us/how-to-support-the-aapi-community-iyw-trnd/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Model minority===
{{Main|Model minority}}
Asian Americans are sometimes characterized as a [[model minority]] in the United States because many of their cultures encourage a strong work ethic, a respect for elders, a high degree of professional and academic success, a high valuation of family, education and religion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asian-nation.org/model-minority.shtml |title=The Model Minority Image |last1=Le |first1=C.N. |year=2001 |work=Asian-Nation: The Landscape of Asian America |publisher=C.N. Le |access-date=February 18, 2013 |archive-date=February 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215190459/http://www.asian-nation.org/model-minority.shtml |url-status=live }} {{cite book |last=Wu |first=Frank H. |title=Yellow: Race in America Beyond Black and White |chapter=The Model Minority: Asian American 'Success' as a Race Relations Failure |chapter-url=http://www.faculty.umb.edu/lawrence_blum/courses/318_11/readings/wu_model_minority.pdf |access-date=February 18, 2013 |year=2002 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=9780465006403 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yellow00fran/page/39 39–77] |url=https://archive.org/details/yellow00fran/page/39 }}</ref> Statistics such as high household income and low incarceration rate,<ref>{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080716060754/http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/crimoff.htm#jail |date=July 16, 2008 |title=''Bureau of Justice Statistics: Criminal Offenders Statistics'' }}, November 13, 2005. (archived from [http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/crimoff.htm#jail the original] on July 16, 2008)</ref> low rates of many diseases, and higher than average life expectancy are also discussed as positive aspects of Asian Americans.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2114957/ |magazine=Slate |title=The Soft Bigotry of Life Expectancy |author=William Saletan |author-link=William Saletan |date=March 16, 2005 |quote=Asian-Americans were beating white life expectancy by six years among men and 6.5 years among women. |access-date=February 12, 2008 |archive-date=March 7, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307043920/http://www.slate.com/id/2114957 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The implicit advice is that the other minorities should stop protesting and emulate the Asian American work ethic and devotion to higher education. Some critics say the depiction replaces biological racism with cultural racism, and should be dropped.<ref>Chih-Chieh Chou, "Critique on the notion of model minority: an alternative racism to Asian American?", ''Asian Ethnicity'', October 2008, Vol. 9#3 Issue 3, pp 219–229</ref> According to ''[[The Washington Post]]'', "the idea that Asian Americans are distinct among minority groups and immune to the challenges faced by other people of color is a particularly sensitive issue for the community, which has recently fought to reclaim its place in social justice conversations with movements like #ModelMinorityMutiny."<ref name=YananWang>{{cite news|last1=Wang|first1=Yanan|title=Asian Americans speak out against a decades-old 'model minority' myth|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/10/20/asian-americans-speak-out-against-a-decades-old-model-minority-myth/|access-date=January 12, 2016|agency=[[The Washington Post]]|date=October 20, 2015|archive-date=January 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105121219/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/10/20/asian-americans-speak-out-against-a-decades-old-model-minority-myth/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The model minority concept can also affect Asians' public education.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Revathy |last2=Maehr |first2=Martin L. |editor1-first=Judith L. |editor1-last=Meece |editor2-first=Jacquelynne S. |editor2-last=Eccles |chapter=Schooling, Cultural Diversity, and Student Motivation |title=Handbook of Research on Schools, Schooling and Human Development |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnrxPTyhCRMC&q=%22Asian%20American%22%20%22risk%20taking%22%20confidence%20empowered%20%22model%20minority%22&pg=PA314 |access-date=February 19, 2013 |year=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780203874844 |page=314 |archive-date=March 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122542/https://books.google.com/books?id=FnrxPTyhCRMC&q=%22Asian+American%22+%22risk+taking%22+confidence+empowered+%22model+minority%22&pg=PA314 |url-status=live }}</ref> By comparison with other minorities, Asians often achieve higher test scores and grades compared to other Americans.<ref>"Asian Americans outperform whites in terms of their overall or average grades (GPA), grades in math, and test scores in math", [http://www.mfas.ucr.edu/publications/Handbook_of_Asian_American_Psychology_Chapter-Ruth_6-27-05.doc School Performance] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120221225215/http://www.mfas.ucr.edu/publications/Handbook_of_Asian_American_Psychology_Chapter-Ruth_6-27-05.doc |date=February 21, 2012 }}, Tseng, V., Chao, R. K., & Padmawidjaja, I. (2007). Asian Americans educational experiences. In F. Leong, A. Inman, A. Ebreo, L. Yang, L. Kinoshita, & M. Fu (Eds.), Handbook of Asian American Psychology, (2nd Edition) Racial and Ethnic Minority Psychology (REMP) Series (pp. 102–123). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications (MS Word format, via [http://www.mfas.ucr.edu Multicultural Families and Adolescents Study] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228153329/http://www.mfas.ucr.edu/ |date=February 28, 2008 }}, [http://www.mfas.ucr.edu/publications/ Publications] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920064027/http://www.mfas.ucr.edu/publications/ |date=September 20, 2006 }}).</ref> Stereotyping Asian American as over-achievers can lead to harm if school officials or peers expect all to perform higher than average.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Yang |first=Wesley |date=8 May 2011 |title=Paper Tigers |url=http://nymag.com/news/features/asian-americans-2011-5/ |magazine=New York Magazine |access-date=31 May 2018 |archive-date=May 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507032651/http://nymag.com/news/features/asian-americans-2011-5/ |url-status=live }} {{cite magazine |last=Shankar |first=Shalini |date=6 April 2015 |title=Fifty years on, the overachiever stereotype is still hurting Asian Americans |url=https://qz.com/376677/watch-new-documentary-proves-model-minority-stereotype-hurts-more-than-it-helps/ |magazine=Quartz |publisher=Atlantic Media Inc. |access-date=31 May 2018 |archive-date=June 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627202600/https://qz.com/376677/watch-new-documentary-proves-model-minority-stereotype-hurts-more-than-it-helps/ |url-status=live }} {{cite book|author=Nicholas Daniel Hartlep|title=The Model Minority Stereotype: Demystifying Asian American Success|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OH-2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|date=1 June 2013|publisher=IAP|isbn=978-1-62396-360-6|page=96|access-date=June 1, 2018|archive-date=May 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530112935/https://books.google.com/books?id=OH-2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|url-status=live}}</ref> The very high educational attainments of Asian Americans has often been noted; in 1980, for example, 74% of Chinese Americans, 62% of Japanese Americans, and 55% of Korean Americans aged 20–21 were in college, compared to only a third of the whites. The disparity at postgraduate levels is even greater, and the differential is especially notable in fields making heavy use of mathematics. By 2000, a plurality of undergraduates at such elite public California schools as [[UC Berkeley]] and [[UCLA]], which are obligated by law to not consider race as a factor in admission, were Asian American. The pattern is rooted in the pre-World War II era. Native-born Chinese and Japanese Americans reached educational parity with majority whites in the early decades of the 20th century.<ref>Charles Hirschman and Morrison G. Wong, "The Extraordinary Educational Attainment of Asian-Americans: A Search for Historical Evidence and Explanations", ''Social Forces'', September 1986, Vol. 65#1 pp 1–27</ref> One group of writers who discuss the "model minority" stereotype, have taken to attaching the term "myth" after "model minority," thus encouraging discourse regarding how the concept and stereotype is harmful to Asian American communities and ethnic groups.<ref>Museus, Samuel D.; Kiang, Peter N. (2009-03). "Deconstructing the model minority myth and how it contributes to the invisible minority reality in higher education research". ''New Directions for Institutional Research''. '''2009'''(142): 5–15. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:10.1002/ir.292. [[International Standard Serial Number|ISSN]] 0271-0579.</ref>

The model minority concept can be emotionally damaging to some Asian Americans, particularly since they are expected to live up to those peers who fit the stereotype.<ref>{{cite news|title=Asians Often Burdened as Model Minority |first=Doris |last=Nhan |url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/thenextamerica/education/asians-often-burdened-as-model-minority-20120511 |newspaper=National Journal |date=May 15, 2012 |access-date=February 19, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130109055547/http://nationaljournal.com/thenextamerica/education/asians-often-burdened-as-model-minority-20120511 |archive-date=January 9, 2013 |df=mdy }}</ref> Studies have shown that some Asian Americans suffer from higher rates of stress, depression, mental illnesses, and suicides in comparison to other races,<ref>[http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Mental_Health_and_Depression_in_Asian_Americans.pdf "Mental Health and Depression in Asian Americans"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121220201/http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Mental_Health_and_Depression_in_Asian_Americans.pdf |date=January 21, 2015 }}</ref> indicating that the pressures to achieve and live up to the model minority image may take a mental and psychological toll on some Asian Americans.<ref>{{cite news |title=Push to achieve tied to suicide in Asian-American women |first=Elizabeth |last=Cohen |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/05/16/asian.suicides/ |newspaper=CNN |date=May 16, 2007 |access-date=February 19, 2013 |archive-date=January 31, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131102128/http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/05/16/asian.suicides/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The "model minority" stereotype fails to distinguish between different ethnic groups with different histories.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fuchs |first=Chris |date=22 August 2017 |title=Behind the 'Model Minority' Myth: Why the 'Studious Asian' Stereotype Hurts |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/behind-model-minority-myth-why-studious-asian-stereotype-hurts-n792926 |work=NBC News |access-date=27 March 2019 |archive-date=March 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327150405/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/behind-model-minority-myth-why-studious-asian-stereotype-hurts-n792926 |url-status=live }}</ref> When divided up by ethnicity, it can be seen that the economic and academic successes supposedly enjoyed by Asian Americans are concentrated into a few ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mohan |first=Pavithra |date=12 July 2018 |title=Here's another reason why the "model minority" myth is so damaging |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90201530/heres-another-reason-why-the-model-minority-myth-is-so-damaging |magazine=Fast Company |publisher=Mansueto Ventures |access-date=27 March 2019 |archive-date=March 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328065400/https://www.fastcompany.com/90201530/heres-another-reason-why-the-model-minority-myth-is-so-damaging |url-status=live }}</ref> Cambodians, Hmong, and Laotians (and to a lesser extent, Vietnamese) all have relatively low achievement rates, possibly due to their [[refugee]] status, and the fact that they are non-voluntary immigrants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asian-nation.org/demographics.shtml |title=Socioeconomic Statistics & Demographics : Asian-Nation :: Asian American History, Demographics, & Issues |publisher=Asian-Nation |access-date=November 11, 2012 |archive-date=October 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008013054/http://www.asian-nation.org/demographics.shtml |url-status=live }} {{cite news |title=Asian Americans to Pew Study: We're Not Your 'Model Minority' |first=Julianne |last=Hing |url=http://www.thehartfordguardian.com/2012/06/22/asian-americans-to-pew-study-were-not-your-model-minority/ |newspaper=The Hartford Guardian |date=June 22, 2012 |access-date=June 22, 2012 |archive-date=December 9, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209115813/http://www.thehartfordguardian.com/2012/06/22/asian-americans-to-pew-study-were-not-your-model-minority/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Social and economic disparities among Asian Americans===
[[File:Chloe_Bennet_by_Gage_Skidmore_2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chloe Bennet]]]]

In 2015, Asian American earnings were found to exceed all other racial groups when all Asian ethnic groups are grouped as a whole.<ref name="Pew Research Center">{{cite web|last1=Patten|first1=Eileen|title=Racial, gender wage gaps persist in U.S. despite some progress|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/01/racial-gender-wage-gaps-persist-in-u-s-despite-some-progress/|website=Pew Research Center|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=July 2, 2016|archive-date=July 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703004236/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/01/racial-gender-wage-gaps-persist-in-u-s-despite-some-progress/|url-status=live}}</ref> Yet, a 2014 report from the Census Bureau reported that 12% of Asian Americans were living below the poverty line, while 10.1% of [[Non-Hispanic whites|non-Hispanic White Americans]] live below the poverty line.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdf |title=Income and Poverty in the United States : 2014 |website=Census.gov |access-date=2017-02-27 |archive-date=July 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713104556/http://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NPRAsianPoor" >{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=185534666|title=Asian-Americans: Smart, High-Incomes And ... Poor?|website=npr.org|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=November 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120091214/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=185534666|url-status=live}} https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2017/cb17-ff07.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603193312/https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2017/cb17-ff07.html |date=June 3, 2018 }}</ref> A 2017 study of [[Wealth inequality in the United States|wealth inequality]] within Asian Americans found a greater gap between wealthy and non-wealthy Asian Americans compared to non-Hispanic white Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/race/reports/2016/12/20/295359/wealth-inequality-among-asian-americans-greater-than-among-whites/|title=Wealth Inequality Among Asian Americans Greater Than Among Whites - Center for American Progress|website=americanprogress.org|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=January 13, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113035904/https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/race/reports/2016/12/20/295359/wealth-inequality-among-asian-americans-greater-than-among-whites/|url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/press/release/2016/12/20/295448/release-wealth-inequality-among-asian-americans-greater-than-among-whites-finds-new-cap-report-based-on-analysis-of-exclusive-data/|title=RELEASE: Wealth Inequality Among Asian Americans Greater Than Among Whites, Finds New CAP Report Based on Analysis of Exclusive Data - Center for American Progress|website=americanprogress.org|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=November 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121121512/https://www.americanprogress.org/press/release/2016/12/20/295448/release-wealth-inequality-among-asian-americans-greater-than-among-whites-finds-new-cap-report-based-on-analysis-of-exclusive-data/|url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/12/20/why-asian-americans-arent-as-rich-as-they-seem/|title=The staggering difference between rich Asian Americans and poor Asian Americans|first=Jeff|last=Guo|date=December 20, 2016|access-date=November 22, 2017|via=www.washingtonpost.com|archive-date=December 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042249/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/12/20/why-asian-americans-arent-as-rich-as-they-seem/|url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/cap-asian-americans-wealth-gap_us_586bd460e4b0d9a5945c91a7|title=Huge Asian-American Wealth Gap Pretty Much Invalidates 'Model Minority' Concept|first=Kimberly|last=Yam|date=January 4, 2017|access-date=November 22, 2017|via=Huff Post|archive-date=November 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121234639/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/cap-asian-americans-wealth-gap_us_586bd460e4b0d9a5945c91a7|url-status=live}}</ref> Once country of birth and other demographic factors are taken into account, a portion of the sub-groups that make up Asian Americans are much more likely than non-Hispanic White Americans to live in poverty.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Takei|first1=Isao|last2=Sakamoto|first2=Arthur|date=2011-01-01|title=Poverty among Asian Americans in the 21st Century|jstor=10.1525/sop.2011.54.2.251|journal=Sociological Perspectives|volume=54|issue=2|pages=251–276|doi=10.1525/sop.2011.54.2.251|s2cid=147015408}} {{cite web|url=http://mashable.com/2015/12/14/asian-american-poverty/#8KjUKbbDOgqj|title=The 'model minority' myth: Why Asian-American poverty goes unseen|first=Huizhong|last=Wu|website=mashable.com|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=December 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208055256/http://mashable.com/2015/12/14/asian-american-poverty/#8KjUKbbDOgqj|url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/asian-american-poverty-nyc_us_58ff7f40e4b0c46f0782a5b6|title=Asian-Americans Have Highest Poverty Rate In NYC, But Stereotypes Make The Issue Invisible|first=Kimberly|last=Yam|date=May 8, 2017|access-date=November 22, 2017|via=Huff Post|archive-date=November 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121234530/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/asian-american-poverty-nyc_us_58ff7f40e4b0c46f0782a5b6|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="CambodiaTown" >{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/america-by-the-numbers/episodes/episode-106/|title=Pass or Fail in Cambodia Town - Episodes - America By The Numbers|website=Pass or Fail in Cambodia Town - Episodes - America By The Numbers|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=November 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108224057/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/america-by-the-numbers/episodes/episode-106/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=PewData2017/><ref name="archive.org">{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/aapi/data/critical-issues|title=Critical Issues Facing Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders - The White House|date=March 21, 2016|access-date=November 22, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122005421/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/eop/aapi/data/critical-issues|archive-date=January 22, 2017|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

There are major disparities that exist among Asian Americans when specific ethnic groups are examined. For example, in 2012, Asian Americans had the highest educational attainment level of any racial demographic in the country.<ref name="RoAAPEW2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2013/01/SDT_Rise_of_Asian_Americans.pdf |title=The Rise of Asian Americans |first=Paul |last=Taylor |author2=D'Vera Cohn |author3=Wendy Wang |author4=Jeffrey S. Passel |author5=Rakesh Kochhar |author6=Richard Fry |author7=Kim Parker |author8=Cary Funk |author9=Gretchen M. Livingston |author10=Eileen Patten |author11=Seth Motel |author12=Ana Gonzalez-Barrera |date=July 12, 2012 |work=Pew Research Social & Demographic Trends |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=January 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305005915/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2013/01/SDT_Rise_of_Asian_Americans.pdf |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Yet, there are many sub groups of Asian Americans who suffer in terms of education with some sub groups showing a high rate of dropping out of school or lacking a college education.<ref name="PewData2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/08/key-facts-about-asian-americans/|title=Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population|date=September 8, 2017|website=pewresearch.org|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=November 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120131324/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/08/key-facts-about-asian-americans/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="archive.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OwJt_TLYYpw|title=AMERICA BY THE NUMBERS - Model Minority Myth - PBS|last=PBS|date=October 2, 2014|access-date=November 22, 2017|via=YouTube|archive-date=June 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620211835/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OwJt_TLYYpw|url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/education/these-groups-of-asian-americans-rarely-attend-college-but-california-is-trying-to-change-that|title=These groups of Asian-Americans rarely attend college, but California is trying to change that|website=PBS NewsHour|access-date=November 22, 2017|archive-date=December 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201035420/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/education/these-groups-of-asian-americans-rarely-attend-college-but-california-is-trying-to-change-that|url-status=live}} {{cite journal|title=Complicating the Image of Model Minority Success: A Review of Southeast Asian American Education|first1=Bic|last1=Ngo|first2=Stacey J.|last2=Lee|date=December 1, 2007|journal=Review of Educational Research|volume=77|issue=4|pages=415–453|doi=10.3102/0034654307309918|s2cid=145367905}} http://www.searac.org/sites/default/files/SEARAC_Fact_Sheets_OVERVIEW_FINAL.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219151307/http://www.searac.org/sites/default/files/SEARAC_Fact_Sheets_OVERVIEW_FINAL.pdf |date=February 19, 2018 }}</ref> This occurs in terms of household income as well – in 2008 Asian Americans had the highest median household income overall of any racial demographic,<ref name="Education2007">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p20-560.pdf|title=Educational Attainment in the United States: 2007|year=2009|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|access-date=December 9, 2017|archive-date=July 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724024659/https://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p20-560.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Income2008">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p60-236.pdf|title=Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2008|year=2009|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|page=9|access-date=December 9, 2017|archive-date=September 20, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920120057/https://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p60-236.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> while there were Asian sub-groups who had average median incomes lower than both the U.S. average and non-Hispanic Whites.<ref name=PewData2017/> In 2014, data released by the [[United States Census Bureau]] revealed that 5 Asian American ethnic groups are in the top 10 lowest earning ethnicities in terms of per capita income in all of the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/14_1YR/S0201//popgroup~-04 |title=Median houseland income in the past 12 months (in 2014 inflation-adjusted dollars) |author= |year=2014 |work=American Community Survey |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=5 December 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200213025358/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/14_1YR/S0201//popgroup~-04 |archive-date=February 13, 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Asian American groups that have low educational attainment and high rates of poverty both in average individual and median income are [[Bhutanese Americans]],<ref name="EPIAsianpoverty">{{cite web|url=http://www.epi.org/publication/poverty-measure-highlights-dire-circumstances|title=New poverty measure highlights positive effect of government assistance|website=Epi.org|access-date=9 January 2018|archive-date=June 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628045633/https://www.epi.org/publication/poverty-measure-highlights-dire-circumstances/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pewresearch.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/08/key-facts-about-asian-americans/|title=Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population|date=8 September 2017|website=Pewresearch.org|access-date=9 January 2018|archive-date=November 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120131324/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/08/key-facts-about-asian-americans/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bangladeshi Americans]],<ref name=NPRAsianPoor/><ref name=EPIAsianpoverty/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mashable.com/2015/12/14/asian-american-poverty/#8KjUKbbDOgqj|title=The 'model minority' myth: Why Asian-American poverty goes unseen|first=Huizhong|last=Wu|website=Mashable.com|access-date=9 January 2018|archive-date=December 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208055256/http://mashable.com/2015/12/14/asian-american-poverty/#8KjUKbbDOgqj|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cambodian Americans]],<ref name=CambodiaTown/><ref name="archive.org" /> [[Burmese Americans]],<ref name=PewData2017/> [[Nepalese Americans|Nepali Americans]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/fact-sheet/asian-americans-nepalese-in-the-u-s/|title=Nepalese in the U.S. Fact Sheet|date=8 September 2017|website=Pewsocialtrends.org|access-date=9 January 2018|archive-date=March 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320100116/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/fact-sheet/asian-americans-nepalese-in-the-u-s/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Hmong Americans]],<ref name=NPRAsianPoor/><ref name="archive.org" /><ref name=EPIAsianpoverty/> and [[Laotian Americans]].<ref name="archive.org" /> This affects [[Vietnamese Americans]] as well, albeit to a lesser degree, as early 21st century immigration from Vietnam are almost entirely not from [[Vietnamese boat people|refugee backgrounds]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ngo|first1=Bic|last2=Lee|first2=Stacey|date=December 2007|title=Complicating the Image of Model Minority Success: A Review of Southeast Asian American Education|journal=Review of Educational Research|volume=77|issue=4|pages=415–453|doi=10.3102/0034654307309918|s2cid=145367905}} http://www.thehartfordguardian.com/2012/06/22/asian-americans-to-pew-study-were-not-your-model-minority/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209115813/http://www.thehartfordguardian.com/2012/06/22/asian-americans-to-pew-study-were-not-your-model-minority/ |date=December 9, 2012 }} http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/fact-sheet/asian-americans-vietnamese-in-the-u-s-fact-sheet/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323072645/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/fact-sheet/asian-americans-vietnamese-in-the-u-s-fact-sheet/ |date=March 23, 2018 }} {{cite web |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_asian_american_studies/v002/2.1br_zhou.html |title=Project MUSE - Journal of Asian American Studies - Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States |publisher=Muse.jhu.edu |access-date=2009-04-13 }}</ref> These individual ethnicities experience social issues within their communities, some specific to their individual communities themselves. Issues such as suicide, crime, and mental illness.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Mental_Health_and_Depression_in_Asian_Americans.pdf |author=NAWHO |title=Mental Health and Depression in Asian Americans |publisher=[[National Asian Women's Health Organization]] |access-date=2015-03-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121220201/http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Mental_Health_and_Depression_in_Asian_Americans.pdf |archive-date=2015-01-21 }} Lee, S., & Chang, J. (2012a). "Mental health status of the Hmong Americans in 2011: Three decades revisited." ''Journal of Social Work in Disability and Rehabilitation'', 11(1), 55–70. Lee, S., & Chang, J. (2012b). "Revisiting 37 years later: A brief summary of existing sources related to Hmong and their mental health status." ''Hmong Studies Journal'', 13.2, 1–13. {{cite journal|last1=Chung|first1=R. C|last2=Bemak|first2=F.|last3=Wong|first3=S.|title=Vietnamese refugees' level of distress, social support, and acculturation: Implications for mental health counseling|journal=Journal of Mental Health & Counseling|date=2000|issue=22|pages=150–161}}</ref> Other issues experienced include deportation, and poor physical health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Friis|first1=Robert H.|last2=Garrido-Ortega|first2=Claire|last3=Safer|first3=Alan M.|last4=Wankie|first4=Che|last5=Griego|first5=Paula A.|last6=Forouzesh|first6=Mohammed|last7=Trefflich|first7=Kirsten|last8=Kuoch|first8=Kimthai|date=2011-05-18|title=Socioepidemiology of Cigarette Smoking Among Cambodian Americans in Long Beach, California|journal=[[Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health]]|language=en|volume=14|issue=2|pages=272–280|doi=10.1007/s10903-011-9478-1|pmid=21590336|s2cid=19850949|issn=1557-1912}}</ref> Within the Bhutanese American community, it has been documented that there are issues of suicide greater than the world's average.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/watch/shows/america-tonight/articles/2014/6/19/bhutanese-refugeessuicide.html|title=New to America, Bhutanese refugees face suicide crisis|website=America.aljazeera.com|access-date=9 January 2018|archive-date=March 18, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318141818/http://america.aljazeera.com/watch/shows/america-tonight/articles/2014/6/19/bhutanese-refugeessuicide.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Cambodian Americans, some of whom immigrated as [[Asylum in the United States|refugees]], are subject to [[Deportation and removal from the United States|deportation]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Mintier |first=Tom |title=One-way ticket for convicted Cambodians |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=2002-11-19 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/11/19/cambodia.returnees/ |access-date=2006-10-03 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025041/http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/11/19/cambodia.returnees/ |url-status=live }} {{cite news |last=Schwartzapfel |first=Beth |title=Fighting to Stay |publisher=[[AlterNet]] |date=2005-05-14 |url=http://www.alternet.org/wiretap/21744/ |access-date=2006-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224222227/http://www.alternet.org/wiretap/21744/ |archive-date=February 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }} {{cite news |title=Cambodian-Americans confronting deportation |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=2013-01-27 |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2013/01/27/cambodian-americans-confronting-deportation/MK3TQy80UJyG2HjfKKtEIO/story.html |access-date=2014-05-10 |archive-date=March 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325050334/http://www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2013/01/27/cambodian-americans-confronting-deportation/MK3TQy80UJyG2HjfKKtEIO/story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Crime and gang violence are common social issues among Southeast Asian Americans of refugee backgrounds such as Cambodian, Laotian, Hmong, and Vietnamese Americans.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Pirro | first = John | title = Police tie 2005 Bethel home invasion, rape to violent NYC gang | url = http://www.newstimes.com/local/article/Police-tie-2005-Bethel-home-invasion-rape-to-319305.php | newspaper = [[The News-Times]] | location = Danbury, CT | date = 2010-01-12 | access-date = March 22, 2018 | archive-date = December 11, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131211215627/http://www.newstimes.com/local/article/Police-tie-2005-Bethel-home-invasion-rape-to-319305.php | url-status = live }} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GdFLfTt9bTA Minnesota - Gangland Documentary - Menace Of Destruction Gang (MOD)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223051431/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GdFLfTt9bTA |date=December 23, 2019 }}, [[Gangland (TV series)|Gangland]] [http://www.criminaljusticedegreeschools.com/criminal-justice-resources/gang-directory/ Gang Criminal Justice Directory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195423/https://www.criminaljusticedegreeschools.com/criminal-justice-resources/gang-directory/ |date=June 14, 2018 }} {{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,155910,00.html|title=From Killing Fields to Mean Streets|last=WILLWERTH|first=JAMES|date=2001-06-24|work=Time|access-date=2017-10-25|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X|archive-date=June 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601111447/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,155910,00.html|url-status=live}} Hanna, Maddie. [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/07/20/10_arrested_during_series_of_lowell_gang_raids/ 10 arrested during series of Lowell gang raids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407085201/http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2008/07/20/10_arrested_during_series_of_lowell_gang_raids/ |date=April 7, 2014 }}, ''[[Boston.com]]'', July 20, 2008.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Amerasian]]
* [[Asian American and Pacific Islander Policy Research Consortium]]
* [[Asian American studies]]
* [[Asian Americans in New York City]]
* [[Asian Pacific American]]
* [[Asian pride]]
* [[:Category:Racially motivated violence against Asian-Americans]]
* [[Hyphenated American]]
* [[Jade Ribbon Campaign]]
* [[List of Asian-American firsts]]
* [[Index of articles related to Asian Americans]]
{{-}}

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* Chang, Kornel S. "Asian Americans, Impact of the Great Depression on." in ''Encyclopedia of the Great Depression'', edited by Robert S. McElvaine, (vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2004), pp. 75–80. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3404500051/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=bd388085 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122546/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=wikipedia&id=GALE%7B%7B%21%7D%7DCX3404500051&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=bd388085 |date=March 26, 2021 }}.
* Chau Trinh-Shevrin, Nadia Shilpi Islam, Mariano Jose Rey. ''Asian American Communities and Health: Context, Research, Policy, and Action'' (Public Health/Vulnerable Populations), 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-7879-9829-5}}
* Cheng, Cindy I-Fen. ''Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War'' (2013)
* Chin, Gabriel J., Ed., [https://ssrn.com/abstract=589431 ''U.S. Commission on Civil Rights: Reports on Asian Pacific Americans''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326122546/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=589431 |date=March 26, 2021 }} (2005) {{ISBN|978-0-8377-3105-6}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Choi | first1 = Yoonsun | year = 2006 | title = Academic Achievement and Problem Behaviors among Asian Pacific Islander American Adolescents | url = http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/07/pdf/070118.achievement.pdf | journal = [[Journal of Youth and Adolescence]] | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 403–415 | doi = 10.1007/s10964-006-9152-4 | pmid = 25170181 | pmc = 4144194 | access-date = December 20, 2012 | archive-date = December 20, 2012 | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/6D3b9xaoO?url=http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/07/pdf/070118.achievement.pdf | url-status = live }}
* Lee, Jonathan H. X. and Fumitaka Matsuoka, eds. ''Asian American Religious Cultures'' (2 vol. 2015)
* Lee, Jonathan H. X. and Kathleen M. Nadeau, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife'' (3 vol. 2010)
* Ling, Huping, and Allan W. Austin, eds. ''Asian American History and Culture: An Encyclopedia'' (Routledge, 2015)
* [[Lisa Lowe|Lowe, Lisa]] ''Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics'' Durham: Duke University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-1864-4}}
* Matsumoto, Jon. "[http://articles.latimes.com/1998/sep/04/entertainment/ca-19285 Asian Americans Anchor Their Influence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222195136/http://articles.latimes.com/1998/sep/04/entertainment/ca-19285 |date=February 22, 2013 }}." ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''. September 4, 1998.
* Okamoto, Dina G. ''Redefining Race: Asian American Panethnicity and Shifting Ethnic Boundaries'' (Russell Sage Foundation, 2014)
* Pyong Gap Min ''Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues'' Thousand Oaks, Ca.: Pine Science Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-1-4129-0556-5}}
* [[Frank H. Wu|Wu, Frank H.]] ''Yellow: Race in American Beyond Black and White'' New York: Basic Books, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-465-00639-7}}
* [[Helen Zia|Zia, Helen]] ''Asian American Dreams: The Emergence of an American People'' New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-374-52736-5}}.
* "[http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/07/Asian-Americans-religion-full-report.pdf Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths]" (full report) (). [[Pew Research Center]]. July 19, 2012.
* {{cite AV media |first=Jeff |last=Bieber |first2=Dalton |last2=Delan |first3=Stephen |last3=Gong |first4=Donald |last4=Young |first5=Sally Jo |last5=Fifer |first6=Jean |last6=Tsien |first7=Renee |last7=Tajima-Pena |first8=Eurie |last8=Chung |first9=S. Leo |last9=Chiang |first10=Geeta |last10=Gandbhir |first11=Grace |last11=Lee |others=WETA, Center for Asian American Media, Independent Television Service, Flash Cuts, Tajima-Pena Productions |date=2020 |title=Asian Americans |medium=Documentary |url=https://www.pbs.org/show/asian-americans/ |format=Multiple episodes |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service }}
'''Journals'''
* ''[[Journal of Asian American Studies]]''
* ''[[Kartika Review]]''
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Asian Americans}}
* [https://www.census.gov/about/partners/cic/resources/data-links/asian.html Asian American Data Links] — demographic information and reports from the [[U.S. Census Bureau]]
* [http://www.aasc.ucla.edu/ UCLA Asian American Studies Center]

{{Asian Americans}}
{{Demographics of the United States}}
{{Overseas Asians}}

[[Category:Asian-American society| ]]
[[Category:Asian-American issues]]
[[Category:Asian-American culture]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the United States]]

African Americans

2021-08-14T19:24:16Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|Americans of ancestry from Black ethnic groups of Africa}} {{See also|African diaspora in the Americas|African immigration to the United States}} {{pp-semi..."

{{Short description|Americans of ancestry from Black ethnic groups of Africa}}
{{See also|African diaspora in the Americas|African immigration to the United States}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = African Americans
| image = African-Americans by state.svg
| image_caption = Percentage of African Americans in each U.S. state in 2019
| pop = '''46,713,850''' (2019)<ref name="auto2">[https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=population&g=0100000US&tid=ACSDP1Y2019.DP05&hidePreview=true ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES] U.S. Census Bureau.</ref> 14.2% of the total U.S. population (2019)<ref name="auto2"/> '''41,989,671''' (2019) (one race)<ref name="auto2"/> 12.8% of the total U.S. population (2019)<ref name="auto2"/> '''40,596,040''' (2019) (non-Hispanic)<ref name="auto2"/> 12.4% of the total U.S. population (2019)<ref name="auto2"/>
| popplace = Across the United States, especially in the [[Southern United States|South]] and [[List of United States urban areas|urban areas]]
| languages = English {{small|([[American English|American English dialects]], [[African-American English]])}} [[Louisiana Creole French]] [[Gullah language|Gullah Creole English]] [[African languages]]
| religions = Predominantly [[Protestant]] (71%) {{longlink|Minorities: [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] (5%), [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] (2%), [[Islam in the United States|Muslim]] (2%); [[Irreligion|Irreligious]] or unaffiliated (18%)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/compare/religious-tradition/by/racial-and-ethnic-composition/ |title=Religious tradition by race/ethnicity (2014) |publisher=[[Pew Research Center|The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life]] |access-date=April 5, 2019}}</ref>}}
}}
{{African American topics sidebar}}
'''African Americans''' (also referred to as '''Black Americans''' or '''Afro-Americans''')<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Cornel West|last=West|first=Cornel|chapter=The Paradox of Afro-American Rebellion|pages=[https://archive.org/details/60swithoutapolog0000unse/page/44 44–58]|title=The 60s Without Apology|year=1985|editor1-first=Sohnya|editor1-last=Sayres|editor2-first=Anders|editor2-last=Stephanson|editor3-first=Stanley|editor3-last=Aronowitz|editor4-first=Fredric|display-editors=3|editor4-last=Jameson|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-1337-3|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/60swithoutapolog0000unse/page/44}}</ref> are an [[ethnic group]] of [[Americans]] with total or partial ancestry from any of the [[Black people|Black]] racial groups of [[Africa]].<ref>[https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-06.pdf "The Black Population: 2010" (PDF)], Census.gov, September 2011. "Black or African Americans" refers to a person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The Black racial category includes people who marked the "Black, African Am., or Negro" checkbox. It also includes respondents who reported entries such as African American; Sub-Saharan African entries, such as Kenyan and Nigerian; and Afro-Caribbean entries, such as Haitian and Jamaican."</ref><ref>[https://definitions.uslegal.com/a/african-americans/ African Americans Law & Legal Definition]: "African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa. In the United States, the terms are generally used for Americans with at least partial Sub-Saharan African ancestry."</ref> The term ''African American'' generally denotes descendants of [[Slavery in the United States|enslaved Africans]] who are from the United States,<ref name="Cldcd">{{cite book|last1=Carol Lynn Martin|first1=Richard Fabes|title=Discovering Child Development|date=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1111808112|page=19|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=3V88AAAAQBAJ|access-date=October 25, 2014|quote= most (but not all) Americans of African descent are grouped racially as Black; however, the term ''African American'' refers to an ethnic group, most often to people whose ancestors experienced slavery in the United States (Soberon, 1996). Thus, not all Blacks in the United States are African-American (for example, some are from Haiti and others are from the Caribbean).}}</ref><ref name="Locke">{{cite book|last1=Don C. Locke|first1=Deryl F. Bailey|title=Increasing Multicultural Understanding|year=2013|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1483314211|page=106|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=7nJFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106|access-date=March 7, 2018|quote=African American refers to descendants of enslaved Black people who are from the United States. The reason we use an entire continent (Africa) instead of a country (e.g., Irish American) is because slave masters purposefully obliterated tribal ancestry, language, and family units in order to destroy the spirit of the people they enslaved, thereby making it impossible for their descendants to trace their history prior to being born into slavery.}}</ref><ref name="LewisM"/> while some Black immigrants or their children may also come to identify as African-American.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Forson |first=Tracy Scott |date=2018-02-21 |title=Who is an 'African American'? Definition evolves as USA does |language=en-US |work=USA Today |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2018/02/21/black-history-african-american-definition/1002344001/ |access-date=2020-08-30}}</ref>

African Americans constitute the third largest ethnic group and the second largest racial group in the US, after [[White Americans]] and [[Hispanic and Latino Americans]].<ref name="tthqvu">{{cite web|author=American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_QTP4&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-redoLog=false|title=United States – QT-P4. Race, Combinations of Two Races, and Not Hispanic or Latino: 2000|publisher=Factfinder.census.gov|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606042749/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_QTP4&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-redoLog=false|archive-date=June 6, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Most African Americans are descendants of enslaved people within the boundaries of the present United States.<ref>Gomez, Michael A: ''Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South'', p. 29. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1998.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The River Flows On: Black resistance, culture, and identity formation in early America|first=Walter C.|last=Rucker|publisher=LSU Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8071-3109-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2XlG4rRK4QC&pg=PA126|page=126}}</ref> On average, African Americans are of [[West Africa|West]]/[[Central Africa|Central]] African and European descent, and some also have [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ancestry.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|title=''In Search of Our Roots: How 19 Extraordinary African Americans Reclaimed Their Past''|author=Gates, Henry Louis Jr |author-link=Henry Louis Gates Jr.|publisher=New York: Crown Publishing|date= 2009|pages=20–21}}</ref> According to U.S. Census Bureau data, [[African immigration to the United States|African immigrants]] generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (≈95%).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kusow|first1=AM|title=African Immigrants in the United States: Implications for Affirmative Action|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=soc_las_pubs|publisher=Iowa State University|access-date=May 16, 2016}}</ref> Immigrants from some [[Afro-Caribbean|Caribbean]], [[Afro-Latin Americans|Central American]], and [[Afro-Latin American|South American]] nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.<ref name="LewisM">{{cite web|url=https://mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/BlackWhite/BlackDiversityReport/black-diversity03.htm|title=The size and regional distribution of the black population|access-date=October 1, 2007|publisher=Lewis Mumford Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012170004/https://mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/BlackWhite/BlackDiversityReport/black-diversity03.htm|archive-date=October 12, 2007}}</ref>

[[African-American history]] began in the 16th century, with Africans from [[West Africa]] being sold to [[Atlantic slave trade|European slave traders]] and [[Middle Passage|transported across the Atlantic]] to the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. After arriving in the Americas, they were [[Slavery in the colonial United States|sold as slaves]] to European colonists and put to work on [[plantation]]s, particularly [[Plantation complexes in the Southern United States|in the southern colonies]]. A few were able to achieve freedom through manumission or escape and founded independent communities before and during the [[American Revolution]]. After the United States was founded in 1783, most [[Slavery in the United States|Black people continued to be enslaved]], being most concentrated in the [[Southern United States|American South]], with four million enslaved only [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|liberated]] during and at the end of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] in 1865.<ref>{{cite news|title=How the end of slavery led to starvation and death for millions of black Americans|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/16/slavery-starvation-civil-war|newspaper=The Guardian|date=October 8, 2015}}</ref> During [[Reconstruction Era|Reconstruction]], they gained [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|citizenship]] and the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|right to vote]], but due to [[White supremacy]], they were largely treated as [[second-class citizens]] and found themselves soon [[Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era|disenfranchised in the South]]. These circumstances changed due to further development of the Black community, participation in the [[Military history of African Americans|military conflicts of the United States]], substantial [[Great Migration (African American)|migration out of the South]], the elimination of legal [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]], and the [[civil rights movement]] which sought political and social freedom. In 2008, [[Barack Obama]] became the first African American to be elected President of the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=Barack Obama to be America's first black president|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/05/uselections20084|newspaper=The Guardian|date=November 5, 2008|access-date=February 19, 2016|issn=0261-3077|first1=Ewen|last1=MacAskill|first2=Suzanne|last2=Goldenberg|first3=Elana|last3=Schor}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|African-American history}}

===Colonial era===
{{Main|Slavery in the colonial United States|Atlantic slave trade}}
The vast majority of those who were enslaved and transported in the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]] were people from [[Middle Africa|Central]] and [[West Africa]], who had been captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zy7fr82/revision/3|title=The transatlantic slave trade|publisher=BBC|access-date=2021-05-06}}</ref> or sold by other West Africans, or by half-European "merchant princes"<ref>{{cite web|title=Implications of the slave trade for African societies|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxt3gk7/revision/7|publisher=[[BBC]]|access-date=12 June 2020|location=[[London]]}}</ref> to European slave traders, who brought them to the Americas.<ref>{{cite web|title=The capture and sale of slaves|url=http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/slavery/africa/capture_sale.aspx|publisher=[[International Slavery Museum]]|access-date=14 October 2015|location=[[Liverpool]]}}</ref>

The first African slaves arrived via [[Captaincy General of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]] to the [[San Miguel de Gualdape]] colony (most likely located in the [[Winyah Bay]] area of present-day [[South Carolina]]), founded by Spanish explorer [[Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón]] in 1526.<ref name=wright>{{cite journal|last=Robert Wright|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Robert Wright|year=1941|title=Negro Companions of the Spanish Explorers|journal=Phylon|volume=2|issue=4}}</ref> The ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterward of an epidemic and the colony was abandoned. The settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to [[Haiti]], whence they had come.<ref name=wright/>

The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free Black domestic servant from [[Seville]], and Miguel Rodríguez, a White [[Segovia]]n conquistador in 1565 in [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] (Spanish Florida), is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in what is now the continental United States.<ref>{{citation|url=https://laflorida.org/florida-stories/|title=Luisa de Abrego: Marriage, Bigamy, and the Spanish Inquisition|publisher=University of Southern Florida|author=J. Michael Francis, PhD}}</ref>

The first recorded Africans in [[British America|English America]] (including most of the future United States) were [[First Africans in Virginia|"20 and odd negroes"]] who came to [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]], [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]] via [[Old Point Comfort|Cape Comfort]] in August 1619 as [[indentured servant]]s.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Frank E.|last1=Grizzard Jr.|author-link1=Frank E. Grizzard Jr.|first2=D. Boyd|last2=Smith |title=Jamestown Colony: A Political, Social, and Cultural History|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=978-1-85109-637-4|page=198}}</ref> As many Virginian settlers began to die from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers.<ref>{{cite book|first=Betty|last=Wood|title=The Origins of American Slavery: Freedom and Bondage in the English Colonies|year=1997|publisher=Hill and Wang|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8090-1608-2|chapter=Tobacco Slaves: The Chesapeake Colonies|pages=68–93}}</ref>

[[File:1670 virginia tobacco slaves.jpg|thumb|Slaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia, illustration from 1670]]
An indentured servant (who could be White or Black) would work for several years (usually four to seven) without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery. Servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Unlike slaves, they were freed after their term of service expired or was bought out, their children did not inherit their status, and on their release from contract they received "a year's provision of corn, double apparel, tools necessary", and a small cash payment called "freedom dues".<ref>{{cite magazine|first=Tim |last=Hashaw |title=The First Black Americans |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070121/29african.htm |magazine=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |date=January 21, 2007 |access-date=February 13, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202205901/https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070121/29african.htm |archive-date=February 2, 2011 }}</ref>

Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-147667728.html?Q=Jamestown|title=The shaping of Black America: forthcoming 400th celebration|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com|date=June 26, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305014338/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-147667728.html?Q=Jamestown|archive-date=March 5, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> They raised families, married other Africans and sometimes [[Interracial marriage|intermarried]] with Native Americans or European [[settler]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070121/29african.htm |title=The First Black Americans – U.S. News & World Report |publisher=Usnews.com |date=January 29, 2007 |access-date=January 20, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202205901/https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/070121/29african.htm |archive-date=February 2, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:First Slave Auction 1655 Howard Pyle.jpg|thumb|upright|The first slave auction at [[New Amsterdam]] in 1655, illustration from 1895 by [[Howard Pyle]]<ref>{{cite web |title=New Netherland Institute :: Slave Trade |url=https://www.newnetherlandinstitute.org/history-and-heritage/digital-exhibitions/slavery-exhibit/slave-trade/ |website=newnetherlandinstitute.org |publisher=[[New Netherland Institute]] |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref>]]

By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of lifetime slavery when they sentenced [[John Punch (slave)|John Punch]], a Negro, to lifetime servitude under his master Hugh Gwyn for running away.<ref>{{Cite book|title=White Over Black: American attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812|first=Winthrop|last=Jordan|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=1968|isbn=978-0807871416}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period|first=A. Leon|last=Higginbotham|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1975|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ErPg7VegkcMC&pg=PR7|isbn=9780195027457}}</ref>

In the [[Spanish Florida]] some [[Spaniards|Spanish]] married or had [[Placage|unions with]] [[Pensacola people|Pensacola]], [[Muscogee|Creek]] or [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|African]] women, both slave and free, and their descendants created a mixed-race population of [[mestizo]]s and [[mulatto]]s. The Spanish encouraged slaves from the [[Province of Georgia|colony of Georgia]] to come to Florida as a refuge, promising freedom in exchange for conversion to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]. [[Charles II of Spain|King Charles II]] issued a royal proclamation freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted conversion and baptism. Most went to the area around [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], but escaped slaves also reached Pensacola. St. Augustine had mustered an all-Black [[militia]] unit defending Spanish Florida as early as 1683.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/sanctuary-in-the-spanish-empire.htm|title=Sanctuary in the Spanish Empire: An African American officer earns freedom in Florida|author=Gene Allen Smith, Texas Christian University|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>

One of the Dutch African arrivals, [[Anthony Johnson (American Colonial)|Anthony Johnson]], would later own one of the first Black "slaves", [[John Casor]], resulting from the court ruling of a civil case.<ref name="russell">[https://archive.org/stream/freenegro00russrich#page/28/mode/2up/search/page+29 John Henderson Russell, ''The Free Negro In Virginia, 1619–1865''], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1913, pp. 29–30, scanned text online.</ref><ref name="Sweet2005">{{Cite book|author=Frank W. Sweet|title=Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kezflCVnongC&pg=PA117|date=July 2005|publisher=Backintyme|isbn=978-0-939479-23-8|page=117}}</ref>

The popular conception of a race-based slave system did not fully develop until the 18th century. The [[Dutch West India Company]] introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of eleven Black slaves into [[New Amsterdam]] (present-day [[New York City]]). All the colony's slaves, however, were freed upon its surrender to the English.<ref name="branchandroot">{{Citation|last=Hodges|first=Russel Graham|title=Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613–1863|place=Chapel Hill, North Carolina |publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=1999}}</ref>

[[File:Slave Auction Ad.jpg|thumb|upright|Reproduction of a handbill advertising a slave auction in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], South Carolina, in 1769]]
[[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]] was the first English colony to legally recognize slavery in 1641. In 1662, Virginia passed a law that children of enslaved women took the status of the mother, rather than that of the father, as under [[common law]]. This legal principle was called ''[[partus sequitur ventrum]]''.<ref name="Banks">[https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/fac_pubs/52/ Taunya Lovell Banks, "Dangerous Woman: Elizabeth Key's Freedom Suit – Subjecthood and Racialized Identity in Seventeenth Century Colonial Virginia"], 41 ''Akron Law Review'' 799 (2008), Digital Commons Law, University of Maryland Law School. Retrieved April 21, 2009</ref><ref>PBS. ''Africans in America: the Terrible Transformation.'' "[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1narr3.html From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery]." Accessed September 13, 2011.</ref>

By an act of 1699, the colony ordered all free Blacks deported, virtually defining as slaves all people of African descent who remained in the colony.<ref name="Wood">[https://books.google.com/books?id=BEd85InqqAIC&pg=PA48 William J. Wood, "The Illegal Beginning of American Slavery"], ''ABA Journal'', 1970, American Bar Association</ref> In 1670, the colonial assembly passed a law prohibiting free and baptized Blacks (and Indians) from purchasing Christians (in this act meaning White Europeans) but allowing them to buy people "of their owne nation".<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Colored Freemen as Slave Owners in Virginia|first=John H.|last=Russell|journal=Journal of Negro History|date=June 1916|volume=1|issue=3|pages=233–242|doi=10.2307/3035621|jstor=3035621|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Spanish Louisiana]] although there was no movement toward abolition of the African slave trade, Spanish rule introduced a new law called [[Coartación (slavery)|''coartación'']], which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/693820/Early_Anti-Slavery_Sentiment_in_the_Spanish_Atlantic_World_1765_1817]{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Berquist, Emily. ''Early Anti-Slavery Sentiment in the Spanish Atlantic World, 1765–1817''</ref> Although some did not have the money to buy their freedom, government measures on slavery allowed many free Blacks. That brought problems to the Spaniards with the French Creoles who also populated Spanish Louisiana, French creoles cited that measure as one of the system's worst elements.<ref name="louisiana">{{citation|url=https://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/slavery-in-spanish-colonial-louisiana|publisher=knowlouisiana.org|title=Slavery in Spanish Colonial Louisiana|access-date=July 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721134124/https://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/slavery-in-spanish-colonial-louisiana|archive-date=July 21, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

First established in South Carolina in 1704, groups of armed White men—[[slave patrol]]s—were formed to monitor enslaved Black people.<ref name="Patrols"/> Their function was to police slaves, especially fugitives. Slave owners feared that slaves might organize revolts or [[slave rebellion]]s, so state militias were formed in order to provide a military command structure and discipline within the slave patrols so they could be used to detect, encounter, and crush any organized slave meetings which might lead to revolts or rebellions.<ref name="Patrols">{{Cite web|date=2019-07-10|title=Slave Patrols: An Early Form of American Policing |url=https://lawenforcementmuseum.org/2019/07/10/slave-patrols-an-early-form-of-american-policing/ |access-date=2020-06-16|website=National Law Enforcement Museum |language=en-US}}</ref>

The earliest African-American congregations and churches were organized before 1800 in both northern and southern cities following the [[First Great Awakening|Great Awakening]]. By 1775, Africans made up 20% of the population in the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]], which made them the second largest ethnic group after [[English Americans]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dalhousielodge.org/Thesis/scotstonc.htm|title=Scots to Colonial North Carolina Before 1775|publisher=Dalhousielodge.org|date=n.d.|access-date=April 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219045151/http://www.dalhousielodge.org/Thesis/scotstonc.htm|archive-date=February 19, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===From the American Revolution to the Civil War===
{{Main|Slavery in the United States}}
[[File:Crispus Attucks.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Crispus Attucks]], the first "[[Martyr (politics)|martyr]]" of the [[American Revolution]]. He was of [[Black Indians in the United States|Native American and African-American]] descent.]]
During the 1770s, Africans, both enslaved and free, helped rebellious American colonists secure their independence by defeating the British in the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/DIASPORA/REV.HTM |title=African Americans in the American Revolution |publisher=Wsu.edu:8080 |date=June 6, 1999 |access-date=January 20, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514085114/https://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/DIASPORA/REV.HTM |archive-date=May 14, 2011 }}</ref> African Americans and European Americans fought side by side and were fully integrated.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.africanamericans.com/MilitaryTimeline.htm|title=AfricanAmericans.com|publisher=AfricanAmericans.com|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927130556/http://www.africanamericans.com/MilitaryTimeline.htm|archive-date=September 27, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Blacks played a role in both sides in the American Revolution. Activists in the Patriot cause included [[James Armistead]], [[Prince Whipple]] and [[Oliver Cromwell (American soldier)|Oliver Cromwell]].<ref>Benjamin Quarles, ''The Negro in the American revolution'' (1961).</ref><ref>Gary B. Nash, "The African Americans’ Revolution" in ''The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution'' ed. by Jane Kamensky and Edward G. Gray (2012) online at {{DOI|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199746705.013.0015}}</ref>

In the [[Spanish Louisiana]], Governor [[Bernardo de Gálvez]] organized Spanish free Black men into two militia companies to defend [[New Orleans]] during the American Revolution. They fought in the 1779 battle in which Spain captured [[Baton Rouge]] from the British. Gálvez also commanded them in campaigns against the British outposts in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], [[Alabama]], and [[Pensacola]], Florida, he recruited slaves for the militia by pledging to free anyone who was seriously wounded and promised to secure a low price for ''coartación'' (buy their freedom and that of others) for those who received lesser wounds. During the 1790s, Governor [[Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet|Francisco Luis Héctor, baron of Carondelet]] reinforced local fortifications and recruit even more free Black men for the militia. Carondelet doubled the number of free Black men who served, creating two more militia companies—one made up of Black members and the other of [[pardo]] (mixed race). Serving in the militia brought free Black men one step closer to equality with Whites, allowing them, for example, the right to carry arms and boosting their earning power. However, actually these privileges distanced free Black men from enslaved Blacks and encouraged them to identify with Whites.<ref name="louisiana"/>

Slavery had been tacitly enshrined in the [[U.S. Constitution]] through provisions such as Article I, Section 2, Clause 3, commonly known as the [[3/5 compromise]]. Slavery, which by then meant almost exclusively Black people, was the most important political issue in the [[antebellum United States]], leading to one crisis after another. Among these were the [[Missouri Compromise]], the [[Compromise of 1850]], the [[Fugitive Slave Act]], and the [[Dred Scott decision]].

[[File:Frederick Douglass by Samuel J Miller, 1847-52.png|thumb|upright|left|[[Frederick Douglass]], ca 1850]]
Prior to the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], eight serving presidents owned slaves, a practice protected by the U.S. Constitution.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Calore|first1=Paul|title=The Causes of the Civil War: The Political, Cultural, Economic and Territorial Disputes between North and South|date=2008|publisher=McFarland|page=10}}</ref> By 1860, there were 3.5 to 4.4 million enslaved Black people in the U.S. due to the [[Atlantic slave trade]], and another 488,000–500,000 Blacks lived free (with legislated limits)<ref name="ACS">[https://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 "Background on conflict in Liberia"], Friends Committee on National Legislation, July 30, 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214051143/https://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 |date=February 14, 2007 }}</ref> across the country.<ref name="GomezPremdas">{{cite book|author1=Edmund Terence Gomez|author2=Ralph Premdas|title=Affirmative Action, Ethnicity and Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XU_XDHfO3jsC&pg=PA48|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-64506-5|page=48}}</ref> With legislated limits imposed upon them in addition to "unconquerable prejudice" from Whites according to [[Henry Clay]],<ref>Maggie Montesinos Sale (1997). ''The Slumbering Volcano: American Slave Ship Revolts and the Production of Rebellious Masculinity'', Duke University Press, 1997, p. 264. {{ISBN|0-8223-1992-6}}</ref> some Black people who were not enslaved left the U.S. for [[Liberia]] in West Africa.<ref name="ACS"/> Liberia began as a settlement of the [[American Colonization Society]] (ACS) in 1821, with the abolitionist members of the ACS believing Blacks would face better chances for freedom and equality in Africa.<ref name="ACS"/>

The slaves not only constituted a large investment, they produced America's most valuable product and export: [[King Cotton|cotton]]. They not only helped build the [[U.S. Capitol]], they built the [[White House]] and other [[District of Columbia]] buildings. ([[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] was a slave trading center.)<ref>"[https://emancipation.dc.gov/page/ending-slavery-district-columbia Ending slavery in the District of Columbia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119044541/https://emancipation.dc.gov/page/ending-slavery-district-columbia |date=November 19, 2018 }}", consulted June 20, 2015.</ref> Similar building projects existed in slaveholding states.

Emigration of free Blacks to their continent of origin had been proposed since the Revolutionary war. After [[Haiti]] became independent, it tried to recruit African Americans to migrate there after it re-established trade relations with the United States. The Haitian Union was a group formed to promote relations between the countries.<ref name="Nikki">Taylor, Nikki M. ''Frontiers of Freedom: Cincinnati's Black Community, 1802–1868.'' Ohio University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|0-8214-1579-4}}, pp. 50–79.</ref> After riots against Blacks in [[Cincinnati]], its Black community sponsored founding of the [[Wilberforce Colony]], an initially successful settlement of African-American immigrants to Canada. The colony was one of the first such independent political entities. It lasted for a number of decades and provided a destination for about 200 Black families emigrating from a number of locations in the United States.<ref name="Nikki"/>

In 1863, during the [[American Civil War]], President [[Abraham Lincoln]] signed the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. The proclamation declared that all slaves in Confederate-held territory were free.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Emancipation Proclamation|website=Featured Documents|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|access-date=June 7, 2007|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured_documents/emancipation_proclamation/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607051115/https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured_documents/emancipation_proclamation/|archive-date=June 7, 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> Advancing Union troops enforced the proclamation, with Texas being the last state to be emancipated, in 1865.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.juneteenth.com/history.htm|title=History of Juneteenth|publisher=Juneteenth.com|year=2005|access-date=June 7, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070527081441/https://www.juneteenth.com/history.htm|archive-date=May 27, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Harriet Tubman c1868-69 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Harriet Tubman]], around 1869]]
Slavery in Union-held Confederate territory continued, at least on paper, until the passage of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] in 1865.<ref>[https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=013/llsl013.db&recNum=803 Seward certificate] proclaiming the Thirteenth Amendment to have been adopted as part of the Constitution as of December 6, 1865.</ref> While the [[Naturalization Act of 1790]] limited U.S. citizenship to Whites only,<ref name="Schultz">{{cite book|last=Schultz|first=Jeffrey D.|title=Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDV40aK1T-sC&pg=PA284|page=284|year=2002|access-date=October 8, 2015|isbn=9781573561488}}</ref><ref name="Sato">Leland T. Saito (1998). "Race and Politics: Asian Americans, Latinos, and Whites in a Los Angeles Suburb". p. 154. University of Illinois Press</ref> the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th Amendment]] (1868) gave Black people citizenship, and the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|15th Amendment]] (1870) gave Black males the right to vote (which would still be denied to all women until [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|1920]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=Black voting rights, 15th Amendment still challenged after 150 years |url=https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/02/03/black-voting-rights-15th-amendment-still-challenged-after-150-years/4587160002/ |access-date=November 19, 2020 |work=USA Today}}</ref>

===Reconstruction era and Jim Crow===
{{Main|Reconstruction era|Jim Crow laws}}
African Americans quickly set up congregations for themselves, as well as schools and community/civic associations, to have space away from White control or oversight. While the post-war Reconstruction era was initially a time of progress for African Americans, that period ended in 1876. By the late 1890s, Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws to enforce [[racial segregation]] and [[disfranchisement after the American Civil War|disenfranchisement]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Creating Jim Crow: In-Depth Essay |last=Davis |first=Ronald L.F., PhD |website=The History of Jim Crow |publisher=[[New York Life Insurance Company]] |access-date=June 7, 2007 |url=https://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020614223755/https://jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 14, 2002 }}</ref> Segregation, which began with slavery, continued with Jim Crow laws, with signs used to show Blacks where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat.<ref name="Leon Litwack 2004">Leon Litwack, ''Jim Crow Blues'', Magazine of History (OAH Publications, 2004)</ref> For those places that were racially mixed, non-Whites had to wait until all White customers were dealt with.<ref name="Leon Litwack 2004"/> Most African Americans obeyed the Jim Crow laws, to avoid [[ethnic violence|racially motivated violence]]. To maintain self-esteem and dignity, African Americans such as [[Anthony Overton]] and [[Mary McLeod Bethune]] continued to build their own [[Historically Black colleges and universities|schools]], [[Black church|churches]], banks, social clubs, and other businesses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/surviving.htm|title=Surviving Jim Crow|last=Davis|first=Ronald, PhD|website=The History of Jim Crow|publisher=[[New York Life Insurance Company]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526204619/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/surviving.htm|archive-date=May 26, 2012}}</ref>

In the last decade of the 19th century, racially discriminatory laws and racial violence aimed at African Americans began to mushroom in the United States, a period often referred to as the "[[nadir of American race relations]]". These discriminatory acts included racial segregation—upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' in 1896—which was legally mandated by southern states and nationwide at the local level of government, [[voter suppression in the United States|voter suppression]] or disenfranchisement in the southern states, denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide, and private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans unhindered or encouraged by government authorities.<ref>''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' {{Ussc|163|537|1896}}</ref>

===Great migration and civil rights movement===
{{Main|Great Migration (African American)|l1=Great Migration|civil rights movement}}
[[File:Omaha courthouse lynching.jpg|thumb|right|A group of White men pose for a 1919 photograph as they stand over the Black victim Will Brown who had been [[lynched]] and had his body mutilated and burned during the [[Omaha race riot of 1919]] in [[Omaha, Nebraska]]. Postcards and photographs of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the U.S.<ref>Moyers, Bill. [https://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal/11232007/profile2.html "Legacy of Lynching"]. PBS. Retrieved July 28, 2016.</ref>]]
The desperate conditions of African Americans in the South sparked the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] during the first half of the 20th century which led to a growing African-American community in [[Northern United States|Northern]] and Western United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/articles/great_migration.html|title=The Great Migration|access-date=October 22, 2007|website=African American World|publisher=[[PBS]]|year=2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012201420/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/articles/great_migration.html|archive-date=October 12, 2007}}</ref> The rapid influx of Blacks disturbed the racial balance within Northern and Western cities, exacerbating hostility between both Blacks and Whites in the two regions.<ref>Michael O. Emerson, Christian Smith (2001). "Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America". p. 42. Oxford University Press</ref> The [[Red Summer]] of 1919 was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the U.S. as a result of race riots that occurred in more than three dozen cities, such as the [[Chicago race riot of 1919]] and the [[Omaha race riot of 1919]]. Overall, Blacks in Northern and Western cities experienced [[Racism in the United States|systemic discrimination]] in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for Blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. At the 1900 [[Hampton Negro Conference]], Reverend Matthew Anderson said: "...the lines along most of the avenues of wage earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South."<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Hampton Negro Conference|chapter=The Economic Aspect of the Negro Problem|first=Anderson|last=Matthew|editor1-last=Browne |editor1-first=Hugh |editor2-last=Kruse |editor2-first=Edwina |editor4-last=Moton |editor3-last=Walker |editor3-first=Thomas C. |editor4-first=Robert Russa |editor4-link=Robert Russa Moton |editor5-last=Wheelock |editor5-first=Frederick D. |publisher=Hampton Institute Press|location=[[Hampton, Virginia]]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkQ9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA39|hdl=2027/chi.14025588?urlappend=%3Bseq=43|volume=4|year=1900|page=39}}</ref> Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of "targeted violence, [[Covenant (law)#Exclusionary covenants|restrictive covenants]], [[redlining]] and [[racial steering]]".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tolnay|first=Stewart|title=The African American 'Great Migration' and Beyond|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|year=2003|volume=29|pages=218–221|doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100009|jstor=30036966}}</ref> While many Whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, many other Whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as [[White flight]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Seligman|first=Amanda|title=Block by block : neighborhoods and public policy on Chicago's West Side|year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-74663-0|pages=213–14}}</ref>

[[File:Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger on a segregated municipal bus in Montgomery, Alabama.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rosa Parks]] being fingerprinted after being arrested for not giving up her seat on a bus to a White person]]
Despite discrimination, drawing cards for leaving the hopelessness in the South were the growth of African-American institutions and communities in Northern cities. Institutions included Black oriented organizations (e.g., [[Urban League]], [[NAACP]]), churches, businesses, and newspapers, as well as successes in the development in African-American intellectual culture, music, and popular culture (e.g., [[Harlem Renaissance]], [[Chicago Black Renaissance]]). The [[Cotton Club]] in Harlem was a Whites-only establishment, with Blacks (such as [[Duke Ellington]]) allowed to perform, but to a White audience.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ella Fitzgerald |date=1989 |publisher=Holloway House Publishing |page=27}}</ref> Black Americans also found a new ground for political power in Northern cities, without the enforced disabilities of [[Jim Crow]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tolnay|first=Stewart|title=The African American 'Great Migration' and Beyond|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|year=2003|volume=29|pages=217 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100009|jstor=30036966}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Wilkerson |first=Isabel |date=September 2016 |title=The Long-Lasting Legacy of the Great Migration |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/long-lasting-legacy-great-migration-180960118/ |magazine=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref>

By the 1950s, the [[civil rights movement]] was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of [[Emmett Till]], a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in [[Money, Mississippi]], Till was killed for allegedly having [[wolf-whistle]]d at a White woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the Black community throughout the U.S.<ref name="Atlantic">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2017/02/how-the-blood-of-emmett-till-still-stains-america-today/516891/|title=How 'The Blood of Emmett Till' Still Stains America Today|last=II|first=Vann R. Newkirk|work=The Atlantic|access-date=July 29, 2017}}</ref> Vann R. Newkirk| wrote "the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of [[White supremacy]]".<ref name="Atlantic"/> The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an [[all-White jury]].<ref>Whitfield, Stephen (1991). A Death in the Delta: The story of Emmett Till. pp 41–42. JHU Press.</ref> One hundred days after Emmett Till's murder, [[Rosa Parks]] refused to give up her seat on the bus in Alabama—indeed, Parks told Emmett's mother [[Mamie Till]] that "the photograph of Emmett's disfigured face in the casket was set in her mind when she refused to give up her seat on the Montgomery bus."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Assassination of Fred Hampton|last=Haas|first=Jeffrey|publisher=Chicago Review Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1569767092|location=Chicago|page=17}}</ref>

[[File:March on washington Aug 28 1963.jpg|thumb|[[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]], August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders]]
The [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]] and the conditions which brought it into being are credited with putting pressure on presidents [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. Johnson put his support behind passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and [[Trade union|labor unions]], and the [[Voting Rights Act]] of 1965, which expanded federal authority over states to ensure Black political participation through protection of voter registration and elections.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.justice.gov/crt/about/vot/intro/intro_b.php|title=History of Federal Voting Rights Laws: The Voting Rights Act of 1965|publisher=United States Department of Justice|access-date=August 12, 2017|date=August 6, 2015}}</ref> By 1966, the emergence of the [[Black Power]] movement, which lasted from 1966 to 1975, expanded upon the aims of the civil rights movement to include economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from White authority.<ref name="abbeville">{{cite web|url=https://www.abbeville.com/civilrights/washington.asp |title=The March On Washington, 1963 |access-date=October 22, 2007 |publisher=Abbeville Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012121716/https://abbeville.com/civilrights/washington.asp |archive-date=October 12, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

During the post-war period, many African Americans continued to be economically disadvantaged relative to other Americans. Average Black income stood at 54 percent of that of White workers in 1947, and 55 percent in 1962. In 1959, median family income for Whites was $5,600, compared with $2,900 for non-White families. In 1965, 43 percent of all Black families fell into the poverty bracket, earning under $3,000 a year. The Sixties saw improvements in the social and economic conditions of many Black Americans.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II by William H. Chafe</ref>

From 1965 to 1969, Black family income rose from 54 to 60 percent of White family income. In 1968, 23 percent of Black families earned under $3,000 a year, compared with 41 percent in 1960. In 1965, 19 percent of Black Americans had incomes equal to the national median, a proportion that rose to 27 percent by 1967. In 1960, the median level of education for Blacks had been 10.8 years, and by the late Sixties the figure rose to 12.2 years, half a year behind the median for Whites.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Post–civil rights era===
{{Main|Post–civil rights era in African-American history}}
[[File:Crowd at JJ Hill - Philando Castile (27547111053).jpg|thumb|[[Black Lives Matter]] protest in response to the [[shooting of Philando Castile|Philando Castile shooting]] in July 2016]]
Politically and economically, African Americans have made substantial strides during the post–civil rights era. In 1968, [[Shirley Chisholm]] became the first Black woman elected to the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]]. In 1989, [[Douglas Wilder]] became the first African American elected governor in U.S. history. [[Clarence Thomas]] became the second African-American Supreme Court Justice. In 1992, [[Carol Moseley-Braun]] of [[Illinois]] became the first African-American woman elected to the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]]. There were 8,936 Black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001, there were 484 Black mayors.<ref>{{citation|last=Jordan|first=John H.|title=Black Americans 17th Century to 21st Century: Black Struggles and Successes|publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]]|page=3|year=2013}}</ref>

In 2005, the number of Africans immigrating to the United States, in a single year, surpassed the peak number who were involuntarily brought to the United States during the [[Atlantic Slave Trade]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Roberts|first=Sam|date=February 21, 2005|title=More Africans Enter U.S. Than in Days of Slavery|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/21/nyregion/21africa.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=October 26, 2014}}</ref> On November 4, 2008, [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[United States Senator|Senator]] [[Barack Obama]] [[2008 United States presidential election|defeated]] [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Senator [[John McCain]] to become the first African American to be elected president. At least 95 percent of African-American voters voted for Obama.<ref name=CNN-Obama>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/04/exit.polls/|title=Exit polls: Obama wins big among young, minority voters|date=November 4, 2008|publisher=CNN|access-date=June 22, 2010}}</ref><ref name=Politico-Obama>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/stories/1108/15297.html|title=Exit polls: How Obama won|last=Kuhn|first=David Paul|date=November 5, 2008|website=[[Politico (newspaper)|Politico]]|access-date=June 22, 2010}}</ref> He also received overwhelming support from young and educated Whites, a majority of [[Asian Americans|Asians]],<ref name=exitpoll>{{cite news|url=https://elections.nytimes.com/2008/results/president/exit-polls.html|title=Exit polls|year=2008|work=The New York Times|access-date=September 6, 2012}}</ref> and [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanics]],<ref name=exitpoll/> picking up a number of new states in the Democratic electoral column.<ref name=CNN-Obama/><ref name=Politico-Obama/> Obama lost the overall White vote, although he won a larger proportion of White votes than any previous nonincumbent Democratic presidential candidate since [[Jimmy Carter]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Noah|first=Timothy|url=https://www.slate.com/id/2204251/|title=What We Didn't Overcome|work=Slate|date=November 10, 2008|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124183415/https://www.slate.com/id/2204251/|archive-date=January 24, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Obama was [[2012 United States presidential election|reelected]] for a second and [[term limit|final term]], by a similar margin on November 6, 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last=Barnes |first=Robert |title=Obama wins a second term as U.S. president |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/decision2012/after-grueling-campaign-polls-open-for-election-day-2012/2012/11/06/d1c24c98-2802-11e2-b4e0-346287b7e56c_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=November 6, 2012 |access-date=August 12, 2017 }}</ref> In 2021, [[Kamala Harris]] became the first woman, the first African American (and the first [[Asian American]]) to serve as [[Vice President of the United States]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Blood|first1=Michael R.|last2=Riccardi|first2=Nicholas|date=2020-12-05|title=Biden officially secures enough electors to become president|url=https://apnews.com/article/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-elections-electoral-college-3e0b852c3cfadf853b08aecbfc3569fa|access-date=2021-03-02|work=[[Associated Press|AP News]]}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Further|Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States#Black population as a percentage of the total population by U.S. region and state (1790–2010)|List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations|List of U.S. counties with African-American majority populations|List of U.S. states by African-American population}}
[[File:New 2000 black percent.gif|thumb|The proportional geographic distribution of African Americans in the United States, 2000]]
[[File:Absenceblacks.png|thumb|U.S. Census map indicating U.S. counties with fewer than 25 Black or African-American inhabitants]]
[[File:Percentage of African American population living in the American South.png|thumb|Graph showing the percentage of the African-American population living in the American South, 1790–2010. Note [[Great Migration (African American)|the major declines between 1910 and 1940]] and [[Second Great Migration (African American)|1940–1970]], and [[New Great Migration|the reverse trend post-1970]]. Nonetheless, the absolute majority of the African-American population has always lived in the American South.]]

In 1790, when the first [[United States Census|U.S. Census]] was taken, Africans (including slaves and free people) numbered about 760,000—about 19.3% of the population. In 1860, at the start of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the African-American population had increased to 4.4 million, but the percentage rate dropped to 14% of the overall population of the country. The vast majority were slaves, with only 488,000 counted as "[[Freedman|freemen]]". By 1900, the Black population had doubled and reached 8.8 million.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen1990/wepeople/we-1.pdf|title= We the Americans: Blacks|website= US Bureau of Census|access-date= May 3, 2019}}</ref>

In 1910, about 90% of African Americans lived in the South. Large numbers began migrating north looking for better job opportunities and living conditions, and to escape [[Jim Crow laws]] and racial violence. The [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]], as it was called, spanned the 1890s to the 1970s. From 1916 through the 1960s, more than 6 million [[Black people]] moved north. But in the 1970s and 1980s, [[New Great Migration|that trend reversed]], with more African Americans moving south to the [[Sun Belt]] than leaving it.<ref>{{cite book|title=Time: Almanac 2005|publisher=Time Incorporated Home Entertainment|page=[https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2006w00brun/page/377 377]|url=https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2006w00brun|url-access=registration|date=December 7, 2004}}</ref>

The following table of the African-American population in the United States over time shows that the African-American population, as a percentage of the total population, declined until 1930 and has been rising since then.
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:85%;"
|+ African Americans in the United States<ref>This table gives the African-American population in the United States over time, based on U.S. Census figures. (Numbers from years 1920 to 2000 are based on U.S. Census figures as given by the ''Time Almanac'' of 2005, p. 377.)</ref>
! Year||Number||% of total population||% Change (10 yr)||Slaves||% in slavery
|-
|1790||757,208||19.3% (highest)|| –||697,681||92%
|-
|1800||1,002,037||18.9%||32.3%||893,602||89%
|-
|1810||1,377,808||19.0%||37.5%||1,191,362||86%
|-
|1820||1,771,656||18.4%||28.6%||1,538,022||87%
|-
|1830||2,328,642||18.1%||31.4%||2,009,043||86%
|-
|1840||2,873,648||16.8%||23.4%||2,487,355||87%
|-
|1850||3,638,808||15.7%||26.6%||3,204,287||88%
|-
|1860||4,441,830||14.1%||22.1%||3,953,731||89%
|-
|1870||4,880,009||12.7%||9.9%|| –|| –
|-
|1880||6,580,793||13.1%||34.9%|| –|| –
|-
|1890||7,488,788||11.9%||13.8%|| –|| –
|-
|1900||8,833,994||11.6%||18.0%|| –|| –
|-
|1910||9,827,763||10.7%||11.2%|| –|| –
|-
|1920||10.5 million||9.9%||6.8%|| –|| –
|-
|1930||11.9 million||9.7% (lowest)||13%|| –|| –
|-
|1940||12.9 million||9.8%||8.4%|| –|| –
|-
|1950||15.0 million||10.0%||16%|| –|| –
|-
|1960||18.9 million||10.5%||26%|| –|| –
|-
|1970||22.6 million||11.1%||20%|| –|| –
|-
|1980||26.5 million||11.7%||17%|| –|| –
|-
|1990||30.0 million||12.1%||13%|| –|| –
|-
|2000||34.6 million||12.3%||15%|| –|| –
|-
|2010||38.9 million||12.6%||12%|| –|| –
|}

By 1990, the African-American population reached about 30 million and represented 12% of the U.S. population, roughly the same proportion as in 1900.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/aap/timelin2.html|title=Time Line of African American History, 1881–1900|publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov|date=n.d.|access-date=April 20, 2012}}</ref>

At the time of the [[United States Census 2000|2000 Census]], 54.8% of African Americans lived in the [[Southern United States|South]]. In that year, 17.6% of African Americans lived in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] and 18.7% in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], while only 8.9% lived in the [[Western United States|western]] states. The west does have a sizable Black population in certain areas, however. California, the nation's most populous state, has the fifth largest African-American population, only behind New York, Texas, Georgia, and Florida. According to the 2000 Census, approximately 2.05% of [[Black Hispanic and Latino Americans|African Americans identified as Hispanic or Latino in origin]],<ref name="tthqvu"/> many of whom may be of [[Afro-Brazilian|Brazilian]], [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]], [[Dominican American|Dominican]], [[Afro-Cuban|Cuban]], [[Haitian Americans|Haitian]], or other [[Afro-Latin American|Latin American]] descent. The only self-reported ''ancestral'' groups larger than African Americans are the [[Irish American|Irish]] and [[German Americans|Germans]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|title=c2kbr01-2.qxd|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040920132346/https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|archive-date=September 20, 2004}}</ref>

According to the [[2010 United States Census|2010 U.S. Census]], nearly 3% of people who self-identified as Black had recent ancestors who immigrated from another country. Self-reported [[West Indian American|non-Hispanic Black immigrants from the Caribbean]], mostly from Jamaica and Haiti, represented 0.9% of the U.S. population, at 2.6 million.<ref name="factfinder2.census.gov">[https://archive.today/20150118121537/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B04003&prodType=table "Total Ancestry Reported"], American FactFinder.</ref> Self-reported Black immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa also represented 0.9%, at about 2.8 million.<ref name="factfinder2.census.gov"/> Additionally, self-identified [[Black Hispanic and Latino Americans|Black Hispanics]] represented 0.4% of the United States population, at about 1.2 million people, largely found within the Puerto Rican and Dominican communities.<ref>[https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf "The Hispanic Population: 2010"], 2010 Census Briefs. US Census Bureau, May 2011.</ref> Self-reported Black immigrants hailing from other countries in the Americas, such as Brazil and Canada, as well as several European countries, represented less than 0.1% of the population. Mixed-Race Hispanic and non-Hispanic Americans who identified as being part Black, represented 0.9% of the population. Of the 12.6% of United States residents who identified as Black, around 10.3% were "native Black American" or ethnic African Americans, who are direct descendants of West/Central Africans brought to the U.S. as slaves. These individuals make up well over 80% of all Blacks in the country. When including [[Multiracial American|people of mixed-race origin]], about 13.5% of the U.S. population self-identified as Black or "mixed with Black".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_DP05&prodType=table|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212055927/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_DP05&prodType=table|url-status=dead|archive-date=2020-02-12|title=American FactFinder – Results|first=U.S. Census|last=Bureau|website=factfinder2.census.gov}}</ref> However, according to the U.S. census bureau, evidence from the 2000 Census indicates that many African and Caribbean immigrant ethnic groups do not identify as "Black, African Am., or Negro". Instead, they wrote in their own respective ethnic groups in the "Some Other Race" write-in entry. As a result, the census bureau devised a new, separate "African American" ethnic group category in 2010 for ethnic African Americans.<ref name="Tcpms">{{cite web|title=2010 CENSUS PLANNING MEMORANDA SERIES|url=https://www.census.gov/2010census/pdf/2010_Census_Race_HO_AQE.pdf|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=November 3, 2014}}</ref>

===U.S. cities===
{{Further|List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations|List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations}}
After 100 years of African Americans leaving the south in large numbers seeking better opportunities and treatment in the west and north, a movement known as the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]], there is now a reverse trend, called the [[New Great Migration]]. As with the earlier Great Migration, the New Great Migration is primarily directed toward cities and large urban areas, such as [[Atlanta]], [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], [[Houston]], [[Dallas]], [[Raleigh, North Carolina|Raleigh]], [[Tampa]], [[San Antonio]], [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Nashville]], [[Jacksonville]], and so forth.<ref name="auto1">Greg Toppo and Paul Overberg, [https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/02/02/census-great-migration-reversal/21818127/ "After nearly 100 years, Great Migration begins reversal"], ''USA Today'', 2014.</ref> A growing percentage of African-Americans from the west and north are migrating to the southern region of the U.S. for economic and cultural reasons. [[New York City]], [[Chicago]], and [[Los Angeles]] have the highest decline in African Americans, while [[Atlanta]], [[Dallas]], and [[Houston]] have the highest increase respectively.<ref name="auto1"/>

Among cities of 100,000 or more, [[Detroit|Detroit, Michigan]] had the highest percentage of Black residents of any U.S. city in 2010, with 82%. Other large cities with African-American majorities include [[Jackson, Mississippi]] (79.4%), [[Miami Gardens, Florida]] (76.3%), [[Baltimore|Baltimore, Maryland]] (63%), [[Birmingham, Alabama]] (62.5%), [[Memphis, Tennessee]] (61%), [[New Orleans|New Orleans, Louisiana]] (60%), [[Montgomery, Alabama]] (56.6%), [[Flint, Michigan]] (56.6%), [[Savannah, Georgia]] (55.0%), [[Augusta, Georgia]] (54.7%), [[Atlanta|Atlanta, Georgia]] (54%, see [[African Americans in Atlanta]]), [[Cleveland]], Ohio (53.3%), [[Newark, New Jersey]] (52.35%), Washington, D.C. (50.7%), [[Richmond, Virginia]] (50.6%), [[Mobile, Alabama]] (50.6%), [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]] (50.4%), and [[Shreveport, Louisiana]] (50.4%).

The nation's most affluent community with an African-American majority resides in [[View Park–Windsor Hills, California]] with an annual median household income of $159,618.<ref>[https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/01/03/10-richest-black-communities-america/5/ "10 of the Richest Black Communities in America"], ''Atlanta Black Star'', January 3, 2014.</ref> Other largely affluent and African-American communities include [[Prince George's County, Maryland|Prince George's County]] in Maryland (namely [[Mitchellville, Maryland|Mitchellville]], [[Woodmore, Maryland|Woodmore]], and [[Upper Marlboro, Maryland|Upper Marlboro]]), [[DeKalb County, Georgia|Dekalb County]] and [[South Fulton, Georgia|South Fulton]] in Georgia, [[Charles City County, Virginia|Charles City County]] in Virginia, [[Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles|Baldwin Hills]] in California, [[Hillcrest, Rockland County, New York|Hillcrest]] and [[Uniondale, New York|Uniondale]] in New York, and [[Cedar Hill, Texas|Cedar Hill]], [[DeSoto, Texas|DeSoto]], and [[Missouri City, Texas|Missouri City]] in Texas. [[Queens|Queens County, New York]] is the only county with a population of 65,000 or more where African Americans have a higher median household income than White Americans.<ref name=Queens/>

[[Seatack, Virginia]] is currently the oldest African-American community in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rigell.house.gov/videos/?VideoID=Nkfj0D-Qw78|title=Video Gallery – U.S. Representative Scott Rigell|access-date=July 18, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821175636/https://rigell.house.gov/videos/?VideoID=Nkfj0D-Qw78|archive-date=August 21, 2016}}</ref> It survives today with a vibrant and active civic community.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archives.thenewjournalandguide.com/community/item/3764-seatack-community-celebrates-200%20-years-with-banquet|title=Seatack Community Celebrates 200+ Years With Banquet}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Education===
[[File:Neil deGrasse Tyson - NAC Nov 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|Astrophysicist [[Neil deGrasse Tyson]] is director of New York City's [[Hayden Planetarium]].]]
In 1863, enslaved Americans became free citizens during a time when public educational systems were expanding across the country. By 1870, around seventy-four institutions in the south provided a form of advanced education for African American students, and by 1800, over a hundred programs at these schools provided training for Black professionals, including teachers. Many of the students at Fisk University, including W. E. B. Du Bois when he was a student there, taught school during the summers to support their studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fultz |first1=Michael |title=Determination and Persistence: Building the African American Teacher Corps through Summer and Intermittent Teaching, 1860s-1890s |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=February 2021 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=4–34 |doi=10.1017/heq.2020.65|doi-access=free }}</ref>

African Americans were very concerned to provide quality education for their children, but White supremacy limited their ability to participate in educational policymaking on the political level. State governments soon moved to undermine their citizenship by restricting their right to vote. By the late 1870s, Blacks were disenfranchised and segregated across the American South.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=James D. |title=The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 |date=1988 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, NC |isbn=0-8078-1793-7}}</ref> White politicians in Mississippi and other states withheld financial resources and supplies from Black schools. Nevertheless, the presence of Black teachers, and their engagement with their communities both inside and outside the classroom, ensured that Black students had access to education despite these external constraints.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Span |first1=Christopher M. |title=From Cotton Field to Schoolhouse: African American Education in Mississippi, 1862-1875 |date=2009 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, NC}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ladson-Billings |first1=Gloria |last2=Anderson |first2=James D. |title=Policy Dialogue: Black Teachers of the Past, Present, and Future |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=February 3, 2021 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=94–102 |doi=10.1017/heq.2020.68|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Predominantly Black schools for kindergarten through twelfth grade students were common throughout the U.S. before the 1970s. By 1972, however, desegregation efforts meant that only 25% of Black students were in schools with more than 90% non-White students. However, since then, a trend towards re-segregation affected communities across the country: by 2011, 2.9 million African-American students were in such overwhelmingly minority schools, including 53% of Black students in school districts that were formerly under desegregation orders.<ref>Kozol, J. [https://www.thenation.com/doc/20051219/kozol "Overcoming Apartheid", ''The Nation''. December 19, 2005. p. 26].</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.propublica.org/article/segregation-now-full-text|title = Segregation Now|last = Hannah-Jones|first = Nikole|date = April 16, 2014|work = ProPublica|access-date = December 14, 2015}}</ref>

[[Historically Black colleges and universities|Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs)]], which were originally set up when segregated colleges did not admit African Americans, continue to thrive and educate students of all races today. The majority of HBCUs were established in the [[southeastern United States]], [[List of colleges and universities in Alabama|Alabama]] has the most HBCUs of any state.<ref>[https://www.tnj.com/lists-resources/hbcu "Lists of Historical Black Colleges and Universities"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702201350/http://www.tnj.com/lists-resources/hbcu |date=July 2, 2017 }}, ''The Network Journal''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hbcu-levers.blogspot.com/p/frequently-asked-questions-faqs-about.html#BestHBCU|title=TECH-Levers: FAQs About HBCUs|access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref>

As late as 1947, about one third of African Americans over 65 were considered to lack the literacy to read and write their own names. By 1969, [[illiteracy]] as it had been traditionally defined, had been largely eradicated among younger African Americans.<ref>Public Information Office, [[U.S. Census Bureau]]. [https://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2000/cb00-151.html High School Completions at All-Time High, Census Bureau Reports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327134138/http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2000/cb00-151.html |date=March 27, 2010 }}. September 15, 2000.</ref>

U.S. Census surveys showed that by 1998, 89 percent of African Americans aged 25 to 29 had completed a high-school education, less than Whites or Asians, but more than Hispanics. On many college entrance, standardized tests and grades, African Americans have historically lagged behind Whites, but some studies suggest that the [[Achievement gap in the United States|achievement gap]] has been closing. Many policy makers have proposed that this gap can and will be eliminated through policies such as [[affirmative action]], desegregation, and multiculturalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.closingtheachievementgap.org/cs/ctag/print/htdocs/home.htm|title=California|publisher=Closing the Achievement Gap|date=January 22, 2008|access-date=April 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428123215/http://www.closingtheachievementgap.org/cs/ctag/print/htdocs/home.htm|archive-date=April 28, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Between 1995 and 2009, freshmen college enrollment for African Americans increased by 73 percent and only 15 percent for Whites.<ref>Michael A. Fletcher, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/minorities-and-whites-follow-unequal-college-paths-report-says/2013/07/31/61c18f08-f9f3-11e2-8752-b41d7ed1f685_story.html "Minorities and whites follow unequal college paths, report says"], ''The Washington Post'', July 31, 2013.</ref> Black women are enrolled in college more than any other race and gender group, leading all with 9.7% enrolled according to the 2011 U.S. Census Bureau.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/black-women-become-most-educated-group-in-us-a7063361.html|title=Black women become most educated group in US|date=June 3, 2016|access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/school/data/cps/2011/tables.html |title=CPS October 2011 – Detailed Tables |access-date=December 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118080151/http://www.census.gov/hhes/school/data/cps/2011/tables.html |archive-date=January 18, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The average high school graduation rate of Blacks in the United States has steadily increased to 71% in 2013.<ref>Allie Bidwell, [https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/data-mine/2015/03/16/federal-data-show-racial-gap-in-high-school-graduation-rates-is-closing "Racial Gaps in High School Graduation Rates Are Closing"], ''U.S. News'', March 16, 2015.</ref> Separating this statistic into component parts shows it varies greatly depending upon the state and the school district examined. 38% of Black males graduated in the state of New York but in Maine 97% graduated and exceeded the White male graduation rate by 11 percentage points.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Alonso|first1=Andres A.|title=Black Male Graduation Rates|url=https://blackboysreport.org/national-summary/black-male-graduation-rates|website=blackboysreport.org|publisher=The Schott Foundation for Public Education|access-date=September 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016154552/http://blackboysreport.org/national-summary/black-male-graduation-rates|archive-date=October 16, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> In much of the southeastern United States and some parts of the southwestern United States the graduation rate of White males was in fact below 70% such as in Florida where 62% of White males graduated from high school. Examining specific school districts paints an even more complex picture. In the Detroit school district the graduation rate of Black males was 20% but 7% for White males. In the New York City school district 28% of Black males graduate from high school compared to 57% of White males. In Newark County{{Where|date=September 2014}} 76% of Black males graduated compared to 67% for White males. Further academic improvement has occurred in 2015. Roughly 23% of all Blacks have bachelor's degrees. In 1988, 21% of Whites had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 11% of Blacks. In 2015, 23% of Blacks had obtained a bachelor's degree versus 36% of Whites.<ref name="Census Report">{{cite web|last1=Ryan|first1=Camille L.|title=Educational Attainment in the United States|url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf|website=census.gov|publisher=The United States Bureau Of Statistics|access-date=July 22, 2017}}</ref> Foreign born Blacks, 9% of the Black population, made even greater strides. They exceed native born Blacks by 10 percentage points.<ref name="Census Report"/>

===Economic status===
{{citations broken|date=July 2021}}
[[File:US Homeownership by Race 2009.png|thumb|The [[Homeownership in the United States|US homeownership rate]] according to race<ref name="US Census Bureau, homeownership by race">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/hvs/annual09/ann09t22.xls|title=US Census Bureau, homeownership by race|access-date=October 6, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327060251/http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/hvs/annual09/ann09t22.xls|archive-date=March 27, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Economically, African Americans have benefited from the advances made during the [[civil rights era]], particularly among the educated, but not without the lingering effects of historical marginalisation when considered as a whole. The [[Racial inequality in the United States|racial disparity in poverty rates]] has narrowed. The Black middle class has grown substantially. In the first quarter of 2021, 45.1% of African Americans owned their homes, compared to 65.3% of all Americans.<ref>{{cite web |title=RESIDENTIAL VACANCIES AND HOMEOWNERSHIP |url=https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/files/currenthvspress.pdf |website=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=13 July 2021}}</ref> The [[African-American poverty|poverty rate among African Americans]] has decreased from 24.7% in 2004 to 18.8% in 2020, compared to 10.5% for all Americans.<ref name="DeNavas-Walt"/><ref>{{Cite web|last=CREAMER|first=JOHN|date=September 15, 2020|title=Inequalities Persist Despite Decline in Poverty For All Major Race and Hispanic Origin Groups|url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2020/09/poverty-rates-for-blacks-and-hispanics-reached-historic-lows-in-2019.html|url-status=live|website=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>

[[File:US real median household income 1967 - 2011.PNG|thumb|This graph shows the real median [[Household income in the United States|US household income]] by race: 1967 to 2011, in 2011 dollars.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Carmen|last1=DeNavas-Walt|first2=Bernadette D.|last2=Proctor|first3=Jessica C.|last3=Smith|date=September 2012|chapter=Real Median Household Income by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1967 to 2010|page=8|title=Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2011|chapter-url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60-243.pdf|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref>]]

African Americans have a combined buying power of over $892 billion currently and likely over $1.1 trillion by 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bizreport.com/2008/02/report_affluent_africanamericans_have_45_of_buying_power.html|title=Report: Affluent African-Americans have 45% of buying power|publisher=Bizreport.com|date=February 22, 2008|access-date=April 20, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS218860+06-Feb-2008+PRN20080206|title=Buying Power Among African Americans to Reach $1.1 Trillion by 2012|work=Reuters|date=February 6, 2008|access-date=April 20, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912003237/https://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS218860+06-Feb-2008+PRN20080206|archive-date=September 12, 2009}}</ref> In 2002, African American-owned businesses accounted for 1.2 million of the US's 23 million businesses.<ref>[https://www.webcitation.org/6AUOAL4XD?url=http://web.archive.org/web/20051030110726/http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/business_ownership/005477.html Minority Groups Increasing Business Ownership at Higher Rate than National Average, Census Bureau Reports] U.S. Census Press Release</ref> {{as of|2011}} African American-owned businesses account for approximately 2 million [[US businesses]].<ref name=Tozzi>{{cite web|last=Tozzi|first=John|url=https://www.businessweek.com/smallbiz/content/jul2010/sb20100715_469797.htm|title=Minority Businesses Multiply But Still Lag Whites|work=Bloomberg BusinessWeek|date=July 16, 2010|access-date=April 20, 2012}}</ref> Black-owned businesses experienced the largest growth in number of businesses among minorities from 2002 to 2011.<ref name=Tozzi/>

Twenty-five percent of Blacks had [[White-collar worker|white-collar]] occupations (management, professional, and related fields) in 2000, compared with 33.6% of Americans overall.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-25.pdf|title=Occupations: 2000|author1=Peter Fronczek |author2=Patricia Johnson |publisher=United States Census Bureau|date=August 2003|access-date=October 24, 2006}}</ref><ref name="Black Pop-March 2002">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-541.pdf|title=The Black Population in the United States: March 2002|author=Jesse McKinnon|publisher=United States Census Bureau|date=April 2003|access-date=October 24, 2006}}</ref> In 2001, over half of African-American households of married couples earned $50,000 or more.<ref name="Black Pop-March 2002"/> Although in the same year African Americans were over-represented among the nation's poor, this was directly related to the disproportionate percentage of African-American families headed by single women; such families are collectively poorer, regardless of ethnicity.<ref name="Black Pop-March 2002"/>

In 2006, the median earnings of African-American men was more than Black and non-Black American women overall, and in all educational levels.<ref name="census.gov-PINC03">{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_131.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 131|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515100925/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_131.htm|archive-date=May 15, 2011}}</ref><ref name="census.gov-254">{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_254.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 254|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509101748/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_254.htm|archive-date=May 9, 2011}}</ref><ref name="census.gov-259">{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_259.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 259|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511022845/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_259.htm|archive-date=May 11, 2011}}</ref><ref name="census.gov-135">{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_135.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 135|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509101502/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_135.htm|archive-date=May 9, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_253.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 253|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509101729/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_253.htm|archive-date=May 9, 2011}}</ref> At the same time, among American men, income disparities were significant; the median income of African-American men was approximately 76 cents for every dollar of their European American counterparts, although the gap narrowed somewhat with a rise in educational level.<ref name="census.gov-PINC03"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_128.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 128|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509102045/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_128.htm|archive-date=May 9, 2011}}</ref>

Overall, the median earnings of African-American men were 72 cents for every dollar earned of their Asian American counterparts, and $1.17 for every dollar earned by Hispanic men.<ref name="census.gov-PINC03"/><ref name="census.gov-135"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_133.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 133|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511022120/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_133.htm|archive-date=May 11, 2011}}</ref> On the other hand, by 2006, among American women with post-secondary education, African-American women have made significant advances; the median income of African-American women was more than those of their Asian-, European- and Hispanic American counterparts with at least some college education.<ref name="census.gov-254"/><ref name="census.gov-259"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_005.htm|title=PINC-03-Part 5|publisher=Pubdb3.census.gov|date=August 29, 2006|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509102039/https://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new03_005.htm|archive-date=May 9, 2011}}</ref>

The U.S. [[public sector]] is the single most important source of employment for African Americans.<ref name="laborcenter.berkeley.edu">{{cite web|url=https://laborcenter.berkeley.edu/blackworkers/blacks_public_sector11.pdf|title="Black Workers and the Public Sector", Dr Steven Pitts, University of California, Berkeley, Center for Labor Research and Education, April 4, 2011|access-date=July 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713001456/http://laborcenter.berkeley.edu/blackworkers/blacks_public_sector11.pdf|archive-date=July 13, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> During 2008–2010, 21.2% of all Black workers were public employees, compared with 16.3% of non-Black workers.<ref name="laborcenter.berkeley.edu"/> Both before and after the onset of the [[Great Recession]], African Americans were 30% more likely than other workers to be employed in the public sector.<ref name="laborcenter.berkeley.edu"/>

The public sector is also a critical source of decent-paying jobs for Black Americans. For both men and women, the median wage earned by Black employees is significantly higher in the public sector than in other industries.<ref name="laborcenter.berkeley.edu"/>

In 1999, the median income of African-American families was $33,255 compared to $53,356 of European Americans. In times of economic hardship for the nation, African Americans suffer disproportionately from job loss and [[underemployment]], with the Black underclass being hardest hit. The phrase "last hired and first fired" is reflected in the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] unemployment figures. Nationwide, the October 2008 unemployment rate for African Americans was 11.1%,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm|title=BLS.gov|publisher=BLS.gov|date=January 7, 2011|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213004820/https://bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm|archive-date=December 13, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> while the nationwide rate was 6.5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS14000000|title=BLS.gov|publisher=Data.bls.gov|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120154929/https://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=latest_numbers&series_id=LNS14000000|archive-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The income gap between Black and White families is also significant. In 2005, employed Blacks earned 65% of the wages of Whites, down from 82% in 1975.<ref name="DeNavas-Walt">{{cite web|author1=Carmen DeNavas-Walt |author2=Bernadette D. Proctor |author3=Cheryl Hill Lee |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p60-229.pdf|title=Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2004|date=August 2005|publisher=United States Census Bureau|pages=60–229}}</ref> ''The New York Times'' reported in 2006 that in [[Queens]], New York, the median income among African-American families exceeded that of White families, which the newspaper attributed to the growth in the number of two-parent Black families. It noted that Queens was the only county with more than 65,000 residents where that was true.<ref name=Queens>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/nyregion/01census.html|title=Black Incomes Surpass Whites in Queens|date=October 1, 2006|website=The New York Times|access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref> In 2011, it was reported that [[African-American family structure|72% of Black babies were born to unwed mothers]].<ref name="Washington">WASHINGTON, J. (2010). Blacks struggle with 72 percent unwed mothers rate.</ref> The poverty rate among single-parent Black families was 39.5% in 2005, according to [[Walter E. Williams]], while it was 9.9% among married-couple Black families. Among White families, the respective rates were 26.4% and 6% in poverty.<ref>[https://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/williams102705.asp Ammunition for poverty pimps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525114424/http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/williams102705.asp |date=May 25, 2017 }} Walter E. Williams, October 27, 2005.</ref>

Collectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups in the United States, indicated by the highest level of voter registration and participation in elections among these groups in 2004.<ref name="vote-nov2007">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p20-556.pdf|title=Voting and Registration in the Election of November 2007|date=March 2006|access-date=May 30, 2007}}</ref> African Americans also have the highest level of [[United States Congress|Congressional representation]] of any minority group in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jonathan D. Mott|url=https://www.thisnation.com/congress-facts.html|title=The United States Congress Quick Facts|publisher=ThisNation.com|date=February 4, 2010|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305031403/https://www.thisnation.com/congress-facts.html|archive-date=March 5, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Politics===
Since the mid 20th century, a large majority of African Americans support the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. In the [[2004 United States presidential election|2004 Presidential Election]], Democrat [[John Kerry]] received 88% of the African-American vote compared to 11% for [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html|title=2004 Election Results|publisher=CNN|year=2004}}</ref> Although there is an African-American lobby in foreign policy, it has not had the impact that African-American organizations have had in domestic policy.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=American Society and the African American Foreign Policy Lobby: Constraints and Opportunities|first=David A.|last=Dickson|journal=Journal of Black Studies|year=1996|pages=139–151|volume=27|doi=10.1177/002193479602700201|issue=2|s2cid=143314945}}</ref>

Many African Americans were excluded from electoral politics in the decades following the end of Reconstruction. For those that could participate, until the [[New Deal]], African Americans were supporters of the Republican Party because it was Republican President Abraham Lincoln who helped in granting freedom to American slaves; at the time, the Republicans and Democrats represented the [[Sectionalism|sectional]] interests of the [[Northern United States|North]] and [[Southern United States|South]], respectively, rather than any specific ideology, and both [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] and [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberal]] were represented equally in both parties.

The African-American trend of voting for Democrats can be traced back to the 1930s during the [[Great Depression]], when [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]] program provided economic relief to African Americans. Roosevelt's [[New Deal coalition]] turned the Democratic Party into an organization of the working class and their liberal allies, regardless of region. The African-American vote became even more solidly Democratic when Democratic presidents [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] pushed for civil rights legislation during the 1960s. In 1960, nearly a third of African Americans voted for Republican [[Richard Nixon]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=John Clifford Green|author2=Daniel J. Coffey|title=The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIPRBXgzSYEC&pg=PA29|year=2007|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-5322-4|page=29}}</ref>

===Sexuality===
{{See also|African-American LGBT community}}
According to a [[Gallup survey]], 4.6% of Black or African-Americans self-identified as [[LGBT rights in the United States|LGBT]] in 2016,<ref name="More Adults" /> while the total portion of American adults in all ethnic groups identifying as LGBT was 4.1% in 2016.<ref name="More Adults">{{cite news|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/201731/lgbt-identification-rises.aspx|title=In US, More Adults Identifying as LGBT|publisher=[[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] |date=January 11, 2017}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Further|Race and health in the United States#African Americans}}

====General====
The life expectancy for Black men in 2008 was 70.8 years.<ref name="articles.latimes.com">{{cite web |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2012/jun/05/science/la-sci-life-expectancy-gap-20120606 |title="Life expectancy gap narrows between blacks, whites", Rosie Mestel, ''The Los Angeles Times'', June 5, 2012. |access-date=July 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826131902/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jun/05/science/la-sci-life-expectancy-gap-20120606 |archive-date=August 26, 2017 |url-status=dead |date=June 5, 2012 }}</ref> Life expectancy for Black women was 77.5 years in 2008.<ref name="articles.latimes.com"/> In 1900, when information on Black life expectancy started being collated, a Black man could expect to live to 32.5 years and a Black woman 33.5 years.<ref name="articles.latimes.com"/> In 1900, White men lived an average of 46.3 years and White women lived an average of 48.3 years.<ref name="articles.latimes.com"/> African-American life expectancy at birth is persistently five to seven years lower than [[European Americans]].<ref name="lavest">{{Cite journal|author=LaVeist TA|title=Racial segregation and longevity among African Americans: an individual-level analysis|journal=Health Services Research|volume=38|issue=6 Pt 2|pages=1719–33|date=December 2003|pmid=14727794|pmc=1360970|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6773.2003.00199.x}}</ref> Black men have shorter lifespans than any other group in the US besides Native American men.<ref name="Gilbert">{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032315-021556|doi-access=free|title=Visible and Invisible Trends in Black Men's Health: Pitfalls and Promises for Addressing Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Inequities in Health|year=2016|last1=Gilbert|first1=Keon L.|last2=Ray|first2=Rashawn|last3=Siddiqi|first3=Arjumand|last4=Shetty|first4=Shivan|last5=Baker|first5=Elizabeth A.|last6=Elder|first6=Keith|last7=Griffith|first7=Derek M.|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|volume=37|pages=295–311|pmid=26989830|pmc=6531286}}</ref>

Black people have higher rates of [[obesity]], [[diabetes]], and [[hypertension]] than the U.S. average.<ref name="articles.latimes.com"/> For adult Black men, the rate of obesity was 31.6% in 2010.<ref name="cdc.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_10/sr10_252.pdf|title=CDC 2012. Summary Health Statistics for U.S. Adults: 2010, p. 107}}</ref> For adult Black women, the rate of obesity was 41.2% in 2010.<ref name="cdc.gov"/> African Americans have higher rates of mortality than any other racial or ethnic group for 8 of the top 10 causes of death.<ref name=hummer2004>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Hummer RA, Ellison CG, Rogers RG, Moulton BE, Romero RR |s2cid=6053725|title=Religious involvement and adult mortality in the United States: review and perspective|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=97|issue=12|pages=1223–30|date=December 2004|pmid=15646761|doi=10.1097/01.SMJ.0000146547.03382.94}}</ref> In 2013, among men, Black men had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by White, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander (A/PI), and American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) men. Among women, White women had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native women.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/dcpc/data/race.htm|title=Cancer Rates by Race/Ethnicity and Sex|website= Cancer Prevention and Control|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|date=June 21, 2016|access-date=February 24, 2017}}</ref>

Violence has an impact upon African-American life expectancy. A report from the [[U.S. Department of Justice]] states "In 2005, homicide victimization rates for blacks were 6 times higher than the rates for whites".<ref name="Homicide trends in the U.S">[https://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/race.htm Homicide trends in the U.S.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061212100248/https://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/homicide/race.htm |date=December 12, 2006 }}, U.S. Department of Justice</ref> The report also found that "94% of black victims were killed by blacks."<ref name="Homicide trends in the U.S"/> Black boys and men age 15–44 are the only race/sex category for which homicide is a top-five cause of death.<ref name="Gilbert"/>

====Sexual health====
According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], African Americans have higher rates of [[sexually transmitted infections]] (STIs) compared to Whites, with 5 times the rates of [[syphilis]] and [[Chlamydia infection|chlamydia]], and 7.5 times the rate of [[gonorrhea]].<ref>{{cite web |title=STDs in Racial and Ethnic Minorities |url=https://www.cdc.gov/std/stats17/minorities.htm |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2017 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=June 22, 2019|date=June 17, 2019 }}</ref>

The disproportionately high incidence of [[HIV/AIDS in the United States|HIV/AIDS among African-Americans]] has been attributed to [[Homophobia in the African American community|homophobic]] influences and lack of access to proper healthcare.<ref>{{cite news|title= Homophobia in Black Communities Means More Young Men Get AIDS|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=November 22, 2013|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/events/archive/2013/11/homophobia-in-black-communities-means-more-young-men-get-aids/281741/|access-date=January 21, 2014}}</ref> The prevalence of [[HIV/AIDS]] among Black men is seven times higher than the prevalence for White men, and Black men are more than nine times as likely to die from HIV/AIDS-related illness than White men.<ref name="Gilbert"/>

==== Mental health ====
African Americans have several [[Obstacles to receiving mental health services among African American youth|barriers]] for accessing [[mental health]] services. [[Mental health counselor|Counseling]] has been frowned upon and distant in utility and proximity to many people in the African American community. In 2004, a qualitative research study explored the disconnect with African Americans and mental health. The study was conducted as a semi-structured discussion which allowed the focus group to express their opinions and life experiences. The results revealed a couple key variables that create barriers for many African American communities to seek mental health services such as the stigma, lack of four important necessities; trust, affordability, cultural understanding and impersonal services.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Thompson|first1=Vetta L. Sanders|last2=Bazile|first2=Anita|last3=Akbar|first3=Maysa|year=2004|title=African Americans' Perceptions of Psychotherapy and Psychotherapists.|journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=19–26|doi=10.1037/0735-7028.35.1.19|issn=1939-1323|citeseerx=10.1.1.515.2135}}</ref>

Historically, many African American communities did not seek counseling because religion was a part of the family values.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Turner|first=Natalie|title=Mental Health Care Treatment Seeking Among African Americans and Caribbean Blacks: What is The Role of Religiosity/Spirituality?|journal=Aging and Mental Health|volume=23|issue=7|pages=905–911|doi=10.1080/13607863.2018.1453484|pmid=29608328|year=2018|pmc=6168439|url=https://scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=honorscollege_sw}}</ref> African American who have a faith background are more likely to seek prayer as a coping mechanism for mental issues rather than seeking professional mental health services.<ref name=":0" /> In 2015 a study concluded, African Americans with high value in religion are less likely to utilize mental health services compared to those who have low value in religion.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lukachko|first1=Alicia|last2=Myer|first2=Ilan|last3=Hankerson|first3=Sidney|date=August 1, 2015|title=Religiosity and Mental Health Service Use Among African-americans|journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease|volume=203|issue=8|pages=578–582|doi=10.1097/NMD.0000000000000334|issn=0022-3018|pmc=4535188|pmid=26172387}}</ref>

Most counseling approaches are [[Westernization|westernized]] and do not fit within the African American culture. African American families tend to resolve concerns within the family, and it is viewed by the family as a strength. On the other hand, when African Americans seek counseling, they face a social backlash and are criticized. They may be labeled "crazy", viewed as weak, and their pride is diminished.<ref name=":0" /> Because of this, many African Americans instead seek mentorship within communities they trust.

Terminology is another barrier in relation to African Americans and mental health. There is more stigma on the term ''[[psychotherapy]]'' versus counseling. In one study, psychotherapy is associated with mental illness whereas counseling approaches problem-solving, guidance and help.<ref name=":0" /> More African Americans seek assistance when it is called counseling and not psychotherapy because it is more welcoming within the cultural and community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A19573641/AONE|title='Don't Show Weakness:' Black Americans Still Shy Away from Psychotherapy|last=Leland|first=John|date=December 8, 2018|magazine=Newsweek}}</ref> Counselors are encouraged to be aware of such barriers for the well-being of African American clients. Without [[Cultural competence in healthcare|cultural competency]] training in health care, many African Americans go unheard and misunderstood.<ref name=":0" />

Although [[suicide]] is a top-10 cause of death for men overall in the US, it is not a top-10 cause of death for Black men.<ref name="Gilbert"/>

==Genetics==

===Genome-wide studies===
[[File:PCA and individual ancestry estimates for African Americans.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Genetic clustering of 128 African Americans, by Zakharaia et al. (2009). Each vertical bar represents an individual. The color scheme of the bar plot matches that in the PCA plot.<ref name="Zakharia2009"/>]]
Recent surveys of African Americans using a genetic testing service have found varied ancestries which show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–82.1% [[West African people|West African]], 16.7%–24% European, and 0.8–1.2% Native American genetic ancestry, with large variation between individuals.<ref name="Bryc2009"/><ref name="Bryc 2015">{{cite journal|author1=Katarzyna Bryc |author2=Eric Y. Durand |author3=J. Michael Macpherson |author4=David Reich |author5=Joanna L. Mountain |title=The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|date=January 8, 2015|volume=96|issue=1|pages=37–53|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010|pmc=4289685 |pmid=25529636}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Soheil Baharian |author2=Maxime Barakatt |author3=Christopher R. Gignoux |author4=Suyash Shringarpure |author5=Jacob Errington |author6=William J. Blot |author7=Carlos D. Bustamante |author8=Eimear E. Kenny |author9=Scott M. Williams |author10=Melinda C. Aldrich |author11=Simon Gravel|title=The Great Migration and African-American Genomic Diversity|journal=PLOS Genetics|date=May 27, 2015|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006059|volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=e1006059 |pmid=27232753 |pmc=4883799}}</ref> Genetics websites themselves have reported similar ranges, with some finding 1 or 2 percent Native American ancestry and [[Ancestry.com]] reporting an outlying percentage of European ancestry among African Americans, 29%.<ref>[[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]], "[https://www.theroot.com/exactly-how-black-is-black-america-1790895185 Exactly How 'Black' Is Black America?]", ''The Root'', February 11, 2013.</ref>

According to a genome-wide study by Bryc et al. (2009), the mixed ancestry of African Americans in varying ratios came about as the result of sexual contact between West/Central Africans (more frequently females) and Europeans (more frequently males). Consequently, the 365 African Americans in their sample have a genome-wide average of 78.1% West African ancestry and 18.5% European ancestry, with large variation among individuals (ranging from 99% to 1% West African ancestry). The West African ancestral component in African Americans is most similar to that in present-day speakers from the non-[[Bantu languages|Bantu]] branches of the [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] (Niger-Kordofanian) family.<ref name="Bryc2009">{{cite journal|author1=Katarzyna Bryc |author2=Adam Auton |author3=Matthew R. Nelson |author4=Jorge R. Oksenberg |author5=Stephen L. Hauser |author6=Scott Williams |author7=Alain Froment |author8=Jean-Marie Bodo |author9=Charles Wambebe |author10=Sarah A. Tishkoff |author11=Carlos D. Bustamante |title=Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=January 12, 2010|volume=107|issue=2|pages=786–791|doi=10.1073/pnas.0909559107|pmid=20080753|pmc=2818934|bibcode=2010PNAS..107..786B }}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|DNA studies of African-Americans have determined that they primarily descend from various [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]]-speaking West/Central African ethnic groups: [[Akan people|Akan]] (including the [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] and [[Fante people|Fante]] subgroups), [[Balanta people|Balanta]], [[Bamileke]], [[Bamum people|Bamun]], [[Bariba people|Bariba]], [[Biafada people|Biafara]], [[Abron tribe|Bran]], [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]], [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]], [[Edo people|Edo]], [[Ewe people|Ewe]], [[Fon people|Fon]], [[Fula people|Fula]], [[Ga people|Ga]], [[Gurma]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]], [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]] (including the [[Efik people|Efik]] subgroup), [[Igbo people|Igbo]], [[Igala people|Igala]], [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] (including the [[Kalabari tribe|Kalabari]] subgroup), [[Itsekiri]], [[Jola people|Jola]], [[Luchazes|Luchaze]], [[Lunda people|Lunda]], [[Kpelle people|Kpele]], [[Kru people|Kru]], [[Mahi people|Mahi]], [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] (including the [[Mende people|Mende]] subgroup), [[Nalu people|Naulu]], [[Serer people|Serer]], [[Susu people|Susu]], [[Temne people|Temne]], [[Tikar]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Yaka people|Yaka]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], and [[Bantu peoples]]; specifically the [[Duala people|Duala]], [[Kongo people|Kongo]], [[Luba people|Luba]], [[Ambundu|Mbundu]] (including the [[Ovimbundu]] subgroup) and [[Teke people|Teke]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theroot.com/articles/culture/2011/10/african_ethnicities_and_their_origins/|title=African Ethnicities and Their Origins|first1=John|last1=Thornton|author-link1=John Thornton (historian)|first2=Linda|last2=Heywood|date=October 1, 2011|website=[[The Root (magazine)|The Root]]|access-date=January 2, 2017}}</ref>}}

Correspondingly, Montinaro et al. (2014) observed that around 50% of the overall ancestry of African Americans traces back to the Niger-Congo-speaking [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] of southwestern [[Nigeria]] and southern [[Benin]], reflecting the centrality of this West African region in the Atlantic Slave Trade. The next most frequent ancestral component found among African Americans was derived from Great Britain, in keeping with historical records. It constitutes a little over 10% of their overall ancestry, and is most similar to the Northwest European ancestral component also carried by [[Barbadians]].<ref name="Montinaro2014">{{cite journal|author1=Francesco Montinaro |author2=George B.J. Busby |author3=Vincenzo L. Pascali |author4=Simon Myers |author5=Garrett Hellenthal |author6=Cristian Capelli |title=Unravelling the hidden ancestry of American admixed populations|journal=Nature Communications|date=March 24, 2015|doi=10.1038/ncomms7596|volume=6|page=6596 |pmid=25803618 |pmc=4374169|bibcode=2015NatCo...6.6596M }}</ref> Zakharaia et al. (2009) found a similar proportion of Yoruba associated ancestry in their African-American samples, with a minority also drawn from [[Mandenka people|Mandenka]] and [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] populations. Additionally, the researchers observed an average European ancestry of 21.9%, again with significant variation between individuals.<ref name="Zakharia2009">{{cite journal |author1=Fouad Zakharia |author2=Analabha Basu |author3=Devin Absher |author4=Themistocles L Assimes |author5=Alan S Go |author6=Mark A Hlatky |author7=Carlos Iribarren |author8=Joshua W Knowles |author9=Jun Li |author10=Balasubramanian Narasimhan |author11=Steven Sidney |author12=Audrey Southwick |author13=Richard M Myers |author14=Thomas Quertermous |author15=Neil Risch |author16=Hua Tang |title=Characterizing the admixed African ancestry of African Americans |journal=Genome Biology |year=2009 |volume=10 |issue=R141 |pages=R141 |doi=10.1186/gb-2009-10-12-r141 |pmid=20025784 |pmc=2812948 |url=https://genomebiology.com/2009/10/12/R141 |access-date=April 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322074036/http://genomebiology.com/2009/10/12/R141/ |archive-date=March 22, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bryc et al. (2009) note that populations from other parts of the continent may also constitute adequate proxies for the ancestors of some African-American individuals; namely, ancestral populations from [[Guinea Bissau]], [[Senegal]] and [[Sierra Leone]] in West Africa and [[Angola]] in Southern Africa.<ref name="Bryc2009" />

Altogether, genetic studies suggest that African Americans are a genetically diverse people. According to DNA analysis led in 2006 by [[Pennsylvania State University|Penn State]] geneticist [[Mark D. Shriver]], around 58 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5% European ancestry (equivalent to one European great-grandparent and his/her forebears), 19.6 percent of African Americans have at least 25% European ancestry (equivalent to one European grandparent and his/her forebears), and 1 percent of African Americans have at least 50% European ancestry (equivalent to one European parent and his/her forebears).<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Henry Louis Gates Jr.: Michelle's Great-Great-Great-Granddaddy—and Yours|url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/118292|author=Henry Louis Gates Jr.|date=November 8, 2009|access-date=April 11, 2015}}</ref> According to Shriver, around 5 percent of African Americans also have at least 12.5% Native American ancestry (equivalent to one Native American great-grandparent and his/her forebears).<ref>{{cite book|title=The Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Reader|author=Henry Louis Gates Jr.|publisher=Basci Civitas Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=5 Things to Know About Blacks and Native Americans|url=https://www.ebony.com/life/5-things-to-know-about-blacks-and-native-americans-119|date=November 20, 2012|access-date=April 11, 2015}}</ref> Research suggests that Native American ancestry among people who identify as African American is a result of relationships that occurred soon after slave ships arrived in the American colonies, and European ancestry is of more recent origin, often from the decades before the Civil War.<ref name="dnana1">{{cite web |last1=Zimmer |first1=Carl |title=Tales of African-American History Found in DNA |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/28/science/african-american-dna.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=May 10, 2019 |date=May 27, 2016}}</ref>

===Y-DNA===
Africans bearing the [[Haplogroup E-V38|E-V38]] (E1b1a) likely traversed across the [[Sahara]], from [[East Africa|east]] to [[West Africa|west]], approximately 19,000 years ago.<ref name="Shrine">{{cite journal |last1=Shrine |first1=Daniel |last2=Rotimi |first2=Charles |title=Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=547–556 |publisher=Am J Hum Genet|pmc=5985360 |year=2018 |pmid=29526279 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003 }}</ref> [[Haplogroup E-M2|E-M2]] (E1b1a1) likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa.<ref name="Trombetta">{{cite journal |last1=Trombetta |first1=Beniamino |title=Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=1940–1950 |publisher=Genome Biol Evol|pmc=4524485 |year=2015 |pmid=26108492 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evv118 }}</ref> According to a [[Y chromosome|Y-DNA]] study by Sims et al. (2007), the majority (≈60%) of African Americans belong to various subclades of the [[Haplogroup E-M2|E-M2]] (E1b1a1, formerly E3a) paternal haplogroup. This is the most common genetic paternal lineage found today among West/Central African males, and is also a signature of the historical [[Bantu migration]]s. The next most frequent Y-DNA haplogroup observed among African Americans is the [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|R1b]] clade, which around 15% of African Americans carry. This lineage is most common today among Northwestern European males. The remaining African Americans mainly belong to the paternal [[Haplogroup I-M170|haplogroup I]] (≈7%), which is also frequent in Northwestern Europe.<ref name="Sims2007">{{cite journal|author1=Lynn M. Sims |author2=Dennis Garvey |author3=Jack Ballantyne |title=Sub-populations within the major European and African derived haplogroups R1b3 and E3a are differentiated by previously phylogenetically undefined Y-SNPs|journal=Human Mutation|date=January 2007|volume=28|issue=1|page=97|doi=10.1002/humu.9469|pmid=17154278|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===mtDNA===
According to an [[Mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]] study by Salas et al. (2005), the maternal lineages of African Americans are most similar to haplogroups that are today especially common in West Africa (>55%), followed closely by West-Central Africa and Southwestern Africa (<41%). The characteristic West African haplogroups [[Haplogroup L1 (mtDNA)|L1b]], [[Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)|L2b,c,d]], and [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|L3b,d]] and West-Central African haplogroups [[Haplogroup L1 (mtDNA)|L1c]] and [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|L3e]] in particular occur at high frequencies among African Americans. As with the paternal DNA of African Americans, contributions from other parts of the continent to their maternal gene pool are insignificant.<ref name="Salas2005">{{cite journal|author1=Antonio Salas |author2=Ángel Carracedo |author3=Martin Richards |author4=Vincent Macaulay |title=Charting the Ancestry of African Americans|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|date=October 2005|volume=77|issue=4|pages=676–680|doi=10.1086/491675|pmc=1275617|pmid=16175514}}</ref>

==Social status==
{{See also|Income inequality in the United States}}
Formal political, economic and social discrimination against minorities has been present throughout American history. Leland T. Saito, Associate Professor of Sociology and American Studies & Ethnicity at the [[University of Southern California]], writes, "Political rights have been circumscribed by race, class and gender since the founding of the United States, when the right to vote was restricted to White men of property. Throughout the history of the United States race has been used by Whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion."<ref name="Sato"/>

African Americans have improved their social and economic standing significantly since the civil rights movement and recent decades have witnessed the expansion of a robust, African-American middle class across the United States. Unprecedented access to higher education and employment in addition to representation in the highest levels of American government has been gained by African Americans in the post–civil rights era.<ref name="Brookings">{{cite news|last1=Thernstrom|first1=Abigail|author1-link=Abigail Thernstrom|last2=Thernstrom|first2=Stephan|author2-link=Stephan Thernstrom|title=Black Progress: How far we've come, and how far we have to go|url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/black-progress-how-far-weve-come-and-how-far-we-have-to-go/|access-date=March 17, 2018|date= March 1, 1998|publisher=Brookings Institution}}</ref> Nonetheless, widespread [[racism against African Americans]] remains an issue that undermines the development of their social status in the United States.<ref name="Brookings"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/06/27/3-discrimination-and-racial-inequality/ |title=3. Discrimination and racial inequality|access-date=November 4, 2020 |agency=Pew Research Center}}</ref>

===Economic issues===
{{See also|Poverty in the United States|Income inequality in the United States}}
One of the most serious and long-standing issues within African-American communities is poverty. Poverty is associated with higher rates of marital stress and dissolution, [[physical disorder|physical]] and [[mental disorder|mental health]] problems, [[disability and poverty|disability]], [[cognitive deficit]]s, [[Achievement gap in the United States|low educational attainment]], and crime.<ref name="CharacOfFam">{{cite web|url=https://ssw.unc.edu/RTI/presentation/PDFs/aa_families.pdf|title=Characteristics of African American Families|author=Oscar Barbarin|publisher=University of North Carolina|access-date=September 23, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060920225226/https://ssw.unc.edu/RTI/presentation/PDFs/aa_families.pdf|archive-date=September 20, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2004, almost 25% of African-American families lived below the poverty level.<ref name="DeNavas-Walt"/> In 2007, the average income for African Americans was approximately $34,000, compared to $55,000 for Whites.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.omhrc.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2&lvlID=51|title=OMHRC.gov|publisher=OMHRC.gov|date=October 21, 2009|access-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813055043/https://omhrc.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2&lvlID=51|archive-date=August 13, 2009}}</ref> African Americans experience a higher rate of unemployment than the general population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/12/black-white-unemployment-gap/421497/|title=Education Gaps Don't Fully Explain Why Black Unemployment Is So High|first=Gillian B.|last=White|date=December 21, 2015|website=[[The Atlantic]]|access-date=July 3, 2016}}</ref>

African Americans have a long and diverse history of [[African-American Businesses|business ownership]]. Although the first [[African-American Businesses|African-American business]] is unknown, slaves captured from West Africa are believed to have established commercial enterprises as peddlers and skilled craftspeople as far back as the 17th century. Around 1900, Booker T. Washington became the most famous proponent of African-American businesses. His critic and rival W. E. B. DuBois also commended business as a vehicle for African-American advancement.<ref>Juliet E.K. Walker, The History of Black Business in America: Capitalism, Race, Entrepreneurship (New York: Macmillan Library Reference, 1998)</ref>

===Policing and criminal justice===
{{See also|Race and crime in the United States}}
[[File:DSC 0008 (50283939071).jpg|thumb|[[Al Sharpton]] led the [[Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks]] protest on August 28, 2020.]]
Forty percent of prison inmates are African American.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.stanford.edu/news/2014/august/prison-black-laws-080614.html|title=Stanford research suggests support for incarceration mirrors whites' perception of Black prison population|first=Shara|last=Tonn|date=August 6, 2014|website=Stanford Report|publisher=Stanford University|access-date=July 3, 2016}}</ref> African American males are more likely to be [[police use of deadly force in the United States|killed by police]] when compared to other races.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/dec/31/the-counted-police-killings-2015-young-black-men|title=Young black men killed by US police at highest rate in year of 1,134 deaths|first1=Jon|last1=Swaine|first2=Oliver|last2=Laughland|first3=Jamiles|last3=Lartey|first4=Ciara|last4=McCarthy|date=December 31, 2015|access-date=July 18, 2016|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> This is one of the factors that led to the creation of the [[Black Lives Matter]] movement in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/28/us/black-lives-matter-evolution/index.html|title=The rise of Black Lives Matter|author1=Sara Sidner |author2=Mallory Simon|access-date=July 18, 2016}}</ref> A historical issue in the U.S. where women have weaponized their White privilege in the country by reporting on Black people, often instigating racial violence,<ref>{{cite news |last=M. Blow|first=Charlea|date=May 27, 2020 |title=How White Women Use Themselves as Instruments of Terror |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/27/opinion/racism-white-women.html |access-date=November 8, 2020 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Lang|first=Cady|date=6 July 2020|title=How the Karen Meme Confronts History of White Womanhood|url=https://time.com/5857023/karen-meme-history-meaning/|access-date=2021-02-01|website=Time}}</ref> White women calling the police on Black people became widely publicized in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |title=From 'BBQ Becky' to 'Golfcart Gail,' list of unnecessary 911 calls made on blacks continues to grow|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/bbq-becky-golfcart-gail-list-unnecessary-911-calls/story?id=58584961 |access-date=November 8, 2020 |agency=ABC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=California woman threatens to call police on eight-year-old black girl for selling water |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/jun/25/permit-patty-eight-year-old-selling-water-san-francisco-video |access-date=November 8, 2020 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

Although in the last decade Black youth have had lower rates of [[cannabis]] (marijuana) consumption than Whites of the same age, they have disproportionately higher arrest rates than Whites: in 2010, for example, Blacks were 3.73 times as likely to get arrested for using cannabis than Whites, despite not significantly more frequently being users.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Matthews |first1=Dylan |title=The black/white marijuana arrest gap, in nine charts |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2013/06/04/the-blackwhite-marijuana-arrest-gap-in-nine-charts/ |website=The Washington Post }}</ref><ref>ACLU. [https://www.aclu.org/files/assets/aclu-thewaronmarijuana-rel2.pdf ''The War on Marijuana in Black and White'']. June 2013. 2010 rates on page 47.</ref>

===Social issues===
After over 50 years, marriage rates for all Americans began to decline while divorce rates and out-of-wedlock births have climbed.<ref name="media.hoover.org">{{cite web|url=https://media.hoover.org/documents/0817998721_95.pdf|author1=Douglas J. Besharov|author2=Andrew West|title=African American Marriage Patterns|publisher=Hoover Press|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516005550/http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817998721_95.pdf|archive-date=May 16, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> These changes have been greatest among African Americans. After more than 70 years of racial parity Black marriage rates began to fall behind Whites.<ref name="media.hoover.org"/> Single-parent households have become common, and according to U.S. census figures released in January 2010, only 38 percent of Black children live with both their parents.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/families_households/cb10-08.html|title=Census Bureau Reports Families With Children Increasingly Face Unemployment, US Census Bureau, January 15, 2010|publisher=Census.gov|date=n.d.|access-date=April 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515005733/http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/families_households/cb10-08.html|archive-date=May 15, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Mr & Mrs Sammy Davis Jnr 2 Allan Warren.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Although the [[Anti-miscegenation laws|ban on interracial marriage]] ended in California in 1948, entertainer [[Sammy Davis Jr.]] faced a backlash for his involvement with a White woman in 1957 ]]

The first ever [[anti-miscegenation law]] was passed by the [[Maryland General Assembly]] in 1691, criminalizing interracial marriage.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> In a speech in [[Charleston, Illinois]] in 1858, [[Abraham Lincoln]] stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people".<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen A. |last=Douglas|title=The Complete Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858 |date=1991 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=235}}</ref> By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> By 1924, the ban on interracial marriage was still in force in 29 states.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> While interracial marriage had been legal in California since 1948, in 1957 actor [[Sammy Davis Jr.]] faced a backlash for his involvement with White actress [[Kim Novak]].<ref name="Smithsonian" /> [[Harry Cohn]], the president of Columbia Pictures (with whom Novak was under contract) gave in to his concerns that a racist backlash against the relationship could hurt the studio.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Davis briefly married Black dancer Loray White in 1958 to protect himself from mob violence.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Inebriated at the wedding ceremony, Davis despairingly said to his best friend, Arthur Silber Jr., "Why won't they let me live my life?" The couple never lived together, and commenced divorce proceedings in September 1958.<ref name="Smithsonian">Lanzendorfer, Joy (August 9, 2017) [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/hollywood-loved-sammy-davis-jr-until-he-dated-white-movie-star-180964395/ "Hollywood Loved Sammy Davis Jr. Until He Dated a White Movie Star"], ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]'' Retrieved February 23, 2021.</ref> In 1958, officers in [[Virginia]] entered the home of Richard and Mildred Loving and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that “any white person intermarry with a colored person”— or vice versa—each party “shall be guilty of a felony” and face prison terms of five years.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation">{{cite news |title=Eugenics, Race, and Marriage |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/eugenics-race-and-marriage |access-date=February 23, 2021 |website=Facing History.org}}</ref> The law was ruled unconstitutional in 1967 by the U.S. Supreme Court in ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]''.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/>

In 2008, Democrats overwhelmingly voted 70% against [[California Proposition 8]], African Americans voted 58% in favor of it while 42% voted against Proposition 8.<ref>Patrick J. Egan, Kenneth Sherrill. [https://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/issues/egan_sherrill_prop8_1_6_09.pdf "California's Proposition 8: What Happened, and What Does the Future Hold?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611085654/http://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/issues/egan_sherrill_prop8_1_6_09.pdf |date=June 11, 2014 }}. Taskforce.org. Retrieved October 8, 2015</ref> On May 9, 2012, Barack Obama, the first Black president, became the first U.S. president to support same-sex marriage. Since Obama's endorsement there has been a rapid growth in support for same-sex marriage among African Americans. As of 2012, 59% of African Americans support same-sex marriage, which is higher than support among the national average (53%) and White Americans (50%).<ref>{{cite news|author1=Scott Clement |author2=Sandhya Somashekhar |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/after-president-obamas-announcement-opposition-to-gay-marriage-hits-record-low/2012/05/22/gIQAlAYRjU_story.html|title=After President Obama's announcement, opposition to gay marriage hits record low|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=May 23, 2012|access-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref>

Polls in [[North Carolina]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.publicpolicypolling.com/main/2012/05/movement-among-black-north-carolinians-on-gay-marriage.html|title=Movement among black North Carolinians on gay marriage|publisher=Public Policy Polling|date=May 17, 2012|access-date=September 15, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908153828/http://www.publicpolicypolling.com/main/2012/05/movement-among-black-north-carolinians-on-gay-marriage.html|archive-date=September 8, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Pennsylvania]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.publicpolicypolling.com/main/2012/05/pa-blacks-shift-quickly-in-favor-of-gay-marriage.html|title=PA blacks shift quickly in favor of gay marriage|publisher=Public Policy Polling|date=May 23, 2012|access-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> [[Missouri]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Missouri will be a swing state this year, voters say|url=https://www.publicpolicypolling.com/pdf/2011/PPP_Release_MO_060112.pdf|publisher=Public Policy Polling|access-date=January 3, 2015}}</ref> [[Maryland]],<ref>[https://www.publicpolicypolling.com/pdf/2011/MarylandPollingMemo.pdf Public Policy Polling] Memo.</ref> [[Ohio]],<ref>{{cite news|first=Sabrina|last=Siddiqui|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/03/ohio-black-voters-same-sex-marriage-obama_n_1646189.html|title=Ohio's Black Voters Support Same-Sex Marriage After Obama's Endorsement, Poll Finds|work=HuffPost|date=July 3, 2012|access-date=October 9, 2012}}</ref> Florida,<ref>{{cite web|title=LeBron more popular than Gov. Scott in Florida|url=https://www.publicpolicypolling.com/pdf/2011/PPP_Release_MiscellaneousFL_060812.pdf|publisher=Public Policy Polling|access-date=January 3, 2015}}</ref> and [[Nevada]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ontopmag.com/article.aspx?id=12824&MediaType=1&Category=26|title=Black Nevadans Support For Gay Marriage Surges After Obama Nod|publisher=Ontopmag.com|date=August 29, 2012|access-date=September 15, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030070051/http://www.ontopmag.com/article.aspx?id=12824&MediaType=1&Category=26|archive-date=October 30, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> have also shown an increase in support for same sex marriage among African Americans. On November 6, 2012, [[Maryland Question 6|Maryland]], [[Maine Question 1, 2012|Maine]], and [[Washington Referendum 74|Washington]] all voted for approve of same-sex marriage, along with Minnesota rejecting a [[Minnesota Amendment 1|constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage]]. Exit polls in Maryland show about 50% of African Americans voted for same-sex marriage, showing a vast evolution among African Americans on the issue and was crucial in helping pass same-sex marriage in Maryland.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204755404578102953841743658|title=Gay Marriage Gets First Ballot Wins|publisher=Ontopmag.com|date=November 7, 2012|access-date=November 11, 2012|first=Geoffrey A.|last=Fowler}}</ref>

Black Americans hold far more conservative opinions on abortion, [[Affair|extramarital sex]], and raising children out of wedlock than Democrats as a whole.<ref name=social>{{cite web|url=https://www.gallup.com/poll/112807/Blacks-Conservative-Republicans-Some-Moral-Issues.aspx|title=Blacks as Conservative as Republicans on Some Moral Issues|publisher=Gallup.com|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121132114/https://www.gallup.com/poll/112807/Blacks-Conservative-Republicans-Some-Moral-Issues.aspx|archive-date=January 21, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> On financial issues, however, African Americans are in line with Democrats, generally supporting a more [[progressive tax]] structure to provide more government spending on social services.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://people-press.org/commentary/?analysisid=121|title=PeoplePress.org|publisher=People-Press.org|date=October 31, 2005|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110201635/https://people-press.org/commentary/?analysisid=121|archive-date=January 10, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Political legacy===
[[File:Martin-Luther-King-1964-leaning-on-a-lectern.jpg|upright|thumb|Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] remains the most prominent political leader in the American civil rights movement and perhaps the most influential African-American political figure in general.]]
[[Military history of African Americans|African Americans have fought in every war]] in the [[Military history of the United States|history of the United States]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=48936|title=Defenselink.mil|publisher=Defenselink.mil|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130124013/http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=48936|archive-date=November 30, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The gains made by African Americans in the [[civil rights movement]] and in the [[Black Power movement]] not only obtained certain rights for African Americans, but changed American society in far-reaching and fundamentally important ways. Prior to the 1950s, Black Americans in the South were subject to de jure discrimination, or [[Jim Crow laws]]. They were often the victims of extreme cruelty and violence, sometimes resulting in deaths: by the post World War II era, African Americans became increasingly discontented with their long-standing inequality. In the words of [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], African Americans and their supporters challenged the nation to "rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed that all men are created equal{{nbsp}}..."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm|title=Martin Luther King, Jr|access-date=May 30, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613010952/https://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm|archive-date=June 13, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The civil rights movement marked an enormous change in American social, political, economic and civic life. It brought with it [[boycott]]s, [[sit-in]]s, [[nonviolent]] demonstrations and marches, court battles, bombings and other violence; prompted worldwide media coverage and intense public debate; forged enduring civic, economic and religious alliances; and disrupted and realigned the nation's two major political parties.

Over time, it has changed in fundamental ways the manner in which Blacks and Whites interact with and relate to one another. The movement resulted in the removal of codified, ''de jure'' racial segregation and discrimination from American life and law, and heavily influenced other groups and movements in struggles for civil rights and social equality within American society, including the [[Free Speech Movement]], the [[Disability|disabled]], the [[Feminist movement|women's movement]], and [[migrant workers]]. It also inspired the [[Native American rights movement]], and in King's 1964 book ''[[Why We Can't Wait]]'' he wrote the U.S. "was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bender |first1=Albert |title=Dr. King spoke out against the genocide of Native Americans |url=http://www.peoplesworld.org/article/dr-king-spoke-out-against-the-genocide-of-native-americans/ |publisher=People's World |access-date=March 5, 2021 |date=February 13, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rickert |first1=Levi |title=Dr. Martin Luther King Jr: Our Nation was Born in Genocide |url=https://nativenewsonline.net/currents/dr-martin-luther-king-jr-nation-born-genocide/ |website=Native News Online |publisher=Native News Online |access-date=March 5, 2021 |date=January 16, 2017 |archive-date=November 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126092832/https://nativenewsonline.net/currents/dr-martin-luther-king-jr-nation-born-genocide/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Media and coverage==
{{See also|Representation of African Americans in media|African-American newspapers}}
[[File:President George W. Bush is welcomed by Bob Johnson, founder and chairman of the RLJ Companies.jpg|thumb|upright|BET founder [[Robert L. Johnson]] with former U.S. President [[George W. Bush]]]]
Some activists and academics contend that American news media coverage of African-American news, concerns, or dilemmas is inadequate,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blackandbrownnews.com|title=BBN|publisher=blackandbrownnews.com|access-date=October 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4608039|title=Examining the Future of Black News Media|date=April 20, 2005|publisher=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4608042|title=How Will African Americans Get the News?|date=April 20, 2005|publisher=NPR}}</ref> or that the news media present distorted images of African Americans.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mikal Muharrar|title=Media Blackface|publisher=FAIR|date=September–October 1998|url=https://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1431}}</ref>

To combat this, [[Robert L. Johnson]] founded [[Black Entertainment Television]] (BET), a network that targets young African Americans and urban audiences in the United States. Over the years, the network has aired such programming as [[Hip hop music|rap]] and [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]] music videos, urban-oriented movies and television series, and some public affairs programs. On Sunday mornings, BET would broadcast Christian programming; the network would also broadcast non-affiliated Christian programs during the early morning hours daily. BET is now a global network that reaches households in the United States, Caribbean, Canada, and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|title=BET Networks|url=https://www.viacom.com/ourbrands/medianetworks/betnetworks/pages/default.aspx|access-date=September 6, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828171159/https://www.viacom.com/ourbrands/medianetworks/betnetworks/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date=August 28, 2012}}</ref>{{dubious|date=July 2019}} The network has gone on to spawn several spin-off channels, including [[BET Her]] (originally launched as ''BET on Jazz''), which originally showcased [[jazz]] music-related programming, and later expanded to include general-interest urban programs as well as some R&B, [[soul music|soul]], and [[world music]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bet.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829101056/https://bet.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=18|archive-date=August 29, 2007 |title=BET J}}</ref>{{dubious|date=July 2019}}

Another network targeting African-Americans is [[TV One (Radio One)|TV One]]. TV One's original programming was formally focused on lifestyle and entertainment-oriented shows, movies, fashion, and music programming. The network also reruns classic series from as far back as the 1970s to current series such as ''[[Empire (2015 TV series)|Empire]]'' and ''Sister Circle''. TV One is owned by [[Urban One]], founded and controlled by [[Cathy Hughes|Catherine Hughes]]. Urban One is one of the nation's largest radio broadcasting companies and the largest African-American-owned radio broadcasting company in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.blackamericastudy.com/|title=BlackAmericaStudy.com|publisher=BlackAmericaStudy.com|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207200823/https://blackamericastudy.com/|archive-date=February 7, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

African-American networks that were scheduled to launch in 2009 include the Black Television News Channel founded by former Congressman [[J. C. Watts]] and [[Better Black Television]] founded by [[Master P|Percy Miller]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Kaplan|first=Don|url=https://www.nypost.com/seven/05272008/tv/black_news_net_112648.htm|title=Black News Net|work=New York Post|date=May 27, 2008|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401171134/http://www.nypost.com/seven/05272008/tv/black_news_net_112648.htm|archive-date=April 1, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[https://www.prweb.com/releases/betterblacktv/20080815/prweb1214764.htm Better Black Television (BBTV) Set to Launch Worldwide in 2009] Press Release</ref> In June 2009, [[NBC News]] launched a new website named [[The Grio]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thegrio.com/|title=TheGrio.com|date=January 16, 2011|access-date=January 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120223126/https://www.thegrio.com/|archive-date=January 20, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> in partnership with the production team that created the Black documentary film ''[[Meeting David Wilson]]''. It is the first African-American video [[news site]] that focuses on underrepresented stories in existing national news. [[The Grio]] consists of a broad spectrum of original video packages, news articles, and contributor blogs on topics including breaking news, politics, health, business, entertainment and Black History.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thegrio.com/about/|title=NBC News & TheGrio|publisher=Thegrio.com|access-date=January 20, 2011}}</ref>

Other Black-owned and oriented media outlets include:
* [[The Africa Channel]] – Dedicated to programming representing the best in African culture.
* [[ASPiRE (TV network)|aspireTV]] – a digital cable and satellite channel owned by businessman and former basketball player [[Magic Johnson]].
* [[ATTV]] – an independent public affairs and educational channel.
* [[Bounce TV]] – a digital multicast network owned by [[E. W. Scripps Company]].
* [[Cleo TV]] – a sister network to [[TV One (U.S. TV network)|TV One]] targeting African-American women.
* [[Fox Television Stations#Fox Soul|Fox Soul]] – a digital streaming channel primarily airing original talk shows and syndicated programming
* [[Oprah Winfrey Network]] – a cable and satellite network founded by [[Oprah Winfrey]] and jointly owned by [[Discovery, Inc.]] and [[Harpo Studios]]. While not exclusively targeting African Americans, much of its original programming is geared towards a similar demographic.
* [[Revolt (TV network)|Revolt]] – a music channel owned by [[Sean Combs|Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs]].
* [[Soul of the South Network]] – a regional broadcast network.
* [[VH1]] – A female-oriented general entertainment channel owned by [[Viacom (2005–present)|Viacom]]. Originally focused on light genres of music, the network's programming became slanted towards African American culture in recent years.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why VH1 Gets to Be Black Without the Burden|url=https://www.theroot.com/why-vh1-gets-to-be-black-without-the-burden-1790877558|work=[[The Root (magazine)|The Root]]|date=October 29, 2014}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Further|African-American culture}}
[[File:Soul Food at Powell's Place.jpg|thumb|A traditional [[soul food]] dinner consisting of [[fried chicken]] with [[macaroni and cheese]], [[collard greens]], breaded fried [[okra]] and [[cornbread]]]]
From their earliest presence in North America, African Americans have significantly contributed literature, art, agricultural skills, cuisine, clothing styles, music, language, and social and technological innovation to American culture. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as [[Sweet potato|yams]], peanuts, rice, [[okra]], [[sorghum]], [[grits]], [[watermelon]], [[indigo dye]]s, and cotton, can be traced to West African and African-American influences. Notable examples include [[George Washington Carver]], who created 300 products from peanuts, 118 products from sweet potatoes, and 75 products from pecans; and [[George Crum]], a local legend incorrectly associates him with the creation of the potato chip in 1853.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Steve |last1=Berry |first2=Phil |last2=Norman |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/10965628/Crisps-buoyed-Britain-in-its-darkest-hour.html |title=Crisps buoyed Britain in its darkest hour |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=July 14, 2014 |access-date=November 14, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.enchantedlearning.com/inventors/black.shtml|title=African-American Inventors|access-date=May 30, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613230925/https://www.enchantedlearning.com/inventors/black.shtml|archive-date=June 13, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Soul food]] is a variety of cuisine popular among African Americans. It is closely related to the [[cuisine of the Southern United States]]. The descriptive terminology may have originated in the mid-1960s, when ''[[wikt:soul|soul]]'' was a common definer used to describe African-American culture (for example, [[soul music]]). African Americans were the first peoples in the United States to make fried chicken, along with [[Scottish people|Scottish]] immigrants to the South. Although the Scottish had been frying chicken before they emigrated, they lacked the spices and flavor that African Americans had used when preparing the meal. The Scottish American settlers therefore adopted the African-American method of seasoning chicken.<ref>{{cite book|title=Advances in Deep Fat Frying of Foods|author1=Servet Gulum Sumnu |author2=Serpil Sahin |pages=1–2}}</ref> However, fried chicken was generally a rare meal in the African-American community, and was usually reserved for special events or celebrations.<ref>{{cite book|title=World of a Slave: Encyclopedia of the Material Life of Slaves in the United States|author1=Martha B. Katz-Hyman |author2=Kym S. Rice |page=110}}</ref>

===Language===
{{Main|African-American English}}
[[African-American English]] is a [[Variety (linguistics)|variety]] ([[dialect]], [[ethnolect]], and [[sociolect]]) of [[American English]], commonly spoken by urban [[working class|working-class]] and largely [[wikt:bidialectal|bi-dialectal]] [[middle class|middle-class]] African Americans.<ref>{{cite book|last=Edwards|first=Walter|chapter=African American Vernacular English: phonology|editor-last=Kortmann|editor-first=Bernd|work=A Handbook of Varieties of English|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2004|volume=2|page=383|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dptsvykgk3IC|title=A Handbook of Varieties of English: CD-ROM|isbn=9783110175325}}</ref>

African-American English evolved during the antebellum period through interaction between speakers of 16th- and 17th-century English of Great Britain and Ireland and various West African languages. As a result, the variety shares parts of its [[grammar]] and [[phonology]] with the [[Southern American English]] dialect. African-American English differs from Standard American English (SAE) in certain pronunciation characteristics, tense usage, and grammatical structures, which were derived from West African languages (particularly those belonging to the [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] family).<ref name="Aave">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0387717982|page=405|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=PaO3jsaGkeYC|access-date=October 21, 2014|date=February 18, 2010}}</ref>

Virtually all habitual speakers of African-American English can understand and communicate in Standard American English. As with all linguistic forms, AAVE's usage is influenced by various factors, including geographical, educational and socioeconomic background, as well as formality of setting.<ref name="Aave"/> Additionally, there are many literary uses of this variety of English, particularly in [[African-American literature]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Green|first1=Lisa J.|title=African American English : a linguistic introduction|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521891387|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387/page/164 164]–199|edition=1. publ., 4. print.|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387|url-access=registration}}</ref>

====Traditional names====
{{Main|African-American names}}
[[African-American names]] are part of the cultural traditions of African Americans. Prior to the 1950s, and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European American culture.<ref name="Norman">{{cite book|last1=Norman|first1=Teresa|title=The African-American Baby Name Book|date=1998|publisher=Berkley Books|isbn=978-0425159392|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=XPkLGtzsKv0C|access-date=May 1, 2016}}</ref> Babies of that era were generally given a few common names, with children using nicknames to distinguish the various people with the same name. With the rise of 1960s civil rights movement, there was a dramatic increase in names of various origins.<ref name="Moskowitz">{{cite news|last=Moskowitz|first=Clara|title=Baby Names Reveal More About Parents Than Ever Before|url=https://www.livescience.com/9027-baby-names-reveal-parents.html|newspaper=Live Science|date=November 30, 2010}}</ref>

By the 1970s, and 1980s, it had become common among African Americans to invent new names for themselves, although many of these invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le, Da/De, Ra/Re and Ja/Je, and suffixes like -ique/iqua, -isha and -aun/-awn are common, as are inventive spellings for common names. The book ''Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool—The Very Last Word on First Names'' places the origins of "La" names in African-American culture in [[New Orleans]].<ref name="Rosenkrantz">{{cite book|last=Rosenkrantz|first=Linda|title=Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool—The Very Last Word on First Names|date=August 16, 2001|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|isbn=978-0312267575|url=https://archive.org/details/babynamesnow00rose|author2=Satran, Paula Redmond}}</ref>

Even with the rise of inventive names, it is still common for African Americans to use biblical, historical, or traditional European names. Daniel, Christopher, Michael, David, James, Joseph, and Matthew were thus among the most frequent names for African-American boys in 2013.<ref name="Norman"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Lack|first=Evonne|title=Popular African American Names|url=https://www.babycenter.com/0_popular-african-american-names_10329236.bc|website=babycenter.com|access-date=February 12, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Conley">{{cite journal|last=Conley|first=Dalton|title=Raising E and Yo...|journal=Psychology Today|date=March 10, 2010|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201003/raising-e-and-yo}}</ref>

The name LaKeisha is typically considered American in origin, but has elements that were drawn from both French and West/Central African roots. Names such as LaTanisha, JaMarcus, DeAndre, and Shaniqua were created in the same way. Punctuation marks are seen more often within African-American names than other American names, such as the names Mo'nique and D'Andre.<ref name="Norman"/>

===Religion===
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religious affiliation of African Americans<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2009/01/30/a-religious-portrait-of-african-americans/|title=A Religious Portrait of African-Americans|date=January 30, 2009|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=November 2, 2019}}</ref>
| label1=[[Black Protestant]]
| value1=59
| color1=DodgerBlue
| label2=[[Evangelical Protestant]]
| value2=15
| color2=Blue
| label3=[[Mainline Protestant]]
| value3=4
| color3=DeepSkyBlue
| label4=[[Roman Catholic]]
| value4=5
| color4=Indigo
| label5=[[Jehovah's Witness]]
| value5=1
| color5=DarkBlue
| label6=Other Christian
| value6=1
| color6=LightBlue
| label7=Muslim
| value7=1
| color7=Green
| label8=Other religion
| value8=1|color8=Black
| label9=Unaffiliated| value9=11|color9=Honeydew
| label10=Atheist or agnostic| value10=2|color10=gray
}}
{{Main|Religion of Black Americans}}
{{Further|African-American Jews|African-American Muslims|Black church|Hoodoo (folk magic)|Louisiana Voodoo}}
[[File:Mount Zion United Methodist Church - facade.JPG|thumb|[[Mount Zion United Methodist Church (Washington, D.C.)|Mount Zion United Methodist Church]] is the oldest African-American congregation in Washington, D.C.]]
[[File:Malcolm Shabazz Mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Masjid Malcolm Shabazz]] in Harlem, New York City]]
The majority of African Americans are [[Protestant]], many of whom follow the historically Black churches.<ref name=PewForum>[https://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf U.S.Religious Landscape Survey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423044142/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |date=April 23, 2015 }} The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life (February 2008). Retrieved July 20, 2009.</ref> The term [[Black church]] refers to churches which minister to predominantly African-American congregations. Black congregations were first established by freed slaves at the end of the 17th century, and later when slavery was abolished more African Americans were allowed to create a unique form of Christianity that was culturally influenced by African spiritual traditions.<ref>Charyn D. Sutton, [https://www.energizeinc.com/art/apas.html "The Black Church"]. Energize Inc. Retrieved November 18, 2009.</ref>

According to a 2007 survey, more than half of the African-American population are part of the historically Black churches.<ref name=religions/> The largest Protestant denomination among African Americans are the [[Baptists]],<ref>[[Bill J. Leonard]] (2007), ''Baptists in America'', Columbia University Press, p. 34. {{ISBN|0-231-12703-0}}.</ref> distributed mainly in four denominations, the largest being the [[National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.|National Baptist Convention, USA]] and the [[National Baptist Convention of America, Inc.|National Baptist Convention of America]].<ref name=church/> The second largest are the [[Methodist]]s,<ref name=doindrugs>William Henry James, Stephen Lloyd Johnson (1997). ''Doin' drugs: patterns of African American addiction''. University of Texas Press. p. 135. {{ISBN|0-292-74041-7}}.</ref> the largest denominations are the [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]] and the [[African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church]].<ref name=church>[https://www.ncccusa.org/news/080215yearbook1.html The NCC's 2008 Yearbook of Churches reports a wide range of health care ministries] National Council of Churches USA. February 14, 2008. Retrieved June 22, 2009.</ref><ref>Roger Finke, Rodney Stark (2005). ''The Churching of America, 1776–2005: Winners and Losers in our Religious Economy''. Rutgers University Press, p. 235.</ref>

[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]] are distributed among several different religious bodies, with the [[Church of God in Christ]] as the largest among them by far.<ref name=church/> About 16% of African-American Christians are members of White Protestant communions,<ref name=doindrugs/> these denominations (which include the [[United Church of Christ]]) mostly have a 2 to 3% African-American membership.<ref>Alfred Abioseh Jarrett (2000). ''The Impact of Macro Social Systems on Ethnic Minorities in the United States'', Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 235. {{ISBN|0-275-93880-8}}.</ref> There are also large numbers of [[Catholic Church|Catholics]], constituting 5% of the African-American population.<ref name=religions>{{cite web|url=https://pewforum.org/A-Religious-Portrait-of-African-Americans.aspx|title=A Religious Portrait of African-Americans|publisher=Pewforum.org|date=January 30, 2009|access-date=April 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425171741/http://www.pewforum.org/A-Religious-Portrait-of-African-Americans.aspx|archive-date=April 25, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Of the total number of [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], 22% are Black.<ref name=PewForum/>

Some African Americans follow [[Islam]]. Historically, between 15 and 30% of enslaved Africans brought to the Americas were [[Muslim]]s, but most of these Africans were converted to Christianity during the era of American slavery.<ref>Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson. ''Encyclopedia of religion in the South''. Mercer University Press (2005), p. 394. {{ISBN|978-0-86554-758-2}}.</ref> During the twentieth century, some African Americans converted to Islam, mainly through the influence of [[Black nationalism|Black nationalist]] groups that preached with distinctive Islamic practices; including the [[Moorish Science Temple of America]], and the largest organization, the [[Nation of Islam]], founded in the 1930s, which attracted at least 20,000 people by 1963.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lomax|title=When the Word Is Given|pages=15–16|quote=Estimates of Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people.|isbn=978-0-313-21002-0|year=1979}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad|first=Claude Andrew|last=Clegg|page=115|quote=The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers—'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'—was typical of the attitude of the leadership.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nva1ULVYh3QC|isbn=9780312181536|year=1998|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> Prominent members included activist [[Malcolm X]] and boxer [[Muhammad Ali]].<ref>Jacob Neusner, ''World Religions in America: An Introduction'', Westminster John Knox Press (2003), pp. 180–181. {{ISBN|978-0-664-22475-2}}.</ref>

Malcolm X is considered the first person to start the movement among African Americans towards mainstream Islam, after he left the Nation and made the [[Hajj|pilgrimage to Mecca]].<ref>William W. Sales (1994). ''From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity''. South End Press, p. 37. {{ISBN|978-0-89608-480-3}}.</ref> In 1975, [[Warith Deen Mohammed]], the son of [[Elijah Muhammad]] took control of the Nation after his father's death and guided the majority of its members to [[Sunni Islam|orthodox Islam]].<ref>Uzra Zeya (1990–01) [https://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0190/9001042.htm Islam in America: The Growing Presence of American Converts to Islam] Washington Report on Middle East Reports. Retrieved November 16, 2009.</ref>

[[African-American Muslims]] constitute 20% of the total [[Islam in the United States|U.S. Muslim population]],<ref name=PewMuslim>{{cite techreport|date=May 22, 2007|title=Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream|url=https://pewresearch.org/pubs/483/muslim-americans|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=November 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125081805/http://pewresearch.org/pubs/483/muslim-americans|archive-date=November 25, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> the majority are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] or orthodox Muslims, some of these identify under the community of [[W. Deen Mohammed]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Sacirbey|first=Omar|url=https://www.beliefnet.com/Faiths/Islam/2006/05/When-Unity-Is-Long-Overdue.aspx|title=When Unity is Long Overdue|publisher=Beliefnet.com|date=September 11, 2001|access-date=April 20, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/05/03/us/black-muslims-enter-islamic-mainstream.html|title=Black Muslims Enter Islamic Mainstream|work=The New York Times|date=May 3, 1993|access-date=April 20, 2012|first=Don|last=Terry}}</ref> The Nation of Islam led by Louis Farrakhan has a membership ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 members.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,254507,00.html|title=Farrakhan Set to Give Final Address at Nation of Islam's Birthplace|publisher=Fox News Channel|date=December 6, 2011|access-date=April 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120411224021/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,254507,00.html|archive-date=April 11, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

There are relatively few African-American Jews; estimates of their number range from 20,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://philanthropy.com/jobs/2003/05/15/20030515-359473.htm|title=A Fledgling Grant Maker Nurtures Young Jewish 'Social Entrepreneurs'|access-date=December 17, 2007|author=David Whelan|date=May 8, 2003|website=[[The Chronicle of Philanthropy]]}}</ref> to 200,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jweekly.com/article/full/8029/organization-for-black-jews-claims-200-000-in-u-s/|title=Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S|access-date=August 2, 2010|author=Michael Gelbwasser|date=April 10, 1998|website=[[j.]]}}</ref> Most of these Jews are part of mainstream groups such as the [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], or [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] branches of Judaism; although there are significant numbers of people who are part of non-mainstream Jewish groups, largely the [[Black Hebrew Israelites]], whose beliefs include the claim that African Americans are descended from the Biblical [[Israelites]].<ref name="northstar">{{cite journal|url=https://northstar.vassar.edu/volume4/chireau_deutsch.html |first=Stephen W. |last=Angell |date=May 2001 |title=Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism |journal=The North Star |volume=4 |issue=2 |issn=1094-902X |access-date=October 19, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020040655/https://northstar.vassar.edu/volume4/chireau_deutsch.html |archive-date=October 20, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Confirmed [[Atheism|atheists]] are less than one half of one-percent, similar to numbers for [[Hispanic]]s.<ref>[https://www.pewforum.org/2009/01/30/a-religious-portrait-of-african-americans/ ''A Reglious Portrait of African Americans''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721132557/https://www.pewforum.org/2009/01/30/a-religious-portrait-of-african-americans/ |date=July 21, 2018 }} Pew Research 2009</ref><ref>Sikivu Hutchinson, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2014/06/16/blacks-are-even-discriminated-against-by-atheists/ "Atheism has a race problem"], ''The Washington Post'', June 16, 2014.</ref><ref>Emily Brennan, [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/27/fashion/african-american-atheists.html "The Unbelievers"], ''The New York Times'', November 27, 2011.</ref>

===Music===
{{multiple image
|total_width=350
|width1=780|height1=529|image1=Jazzing orchestra 1921.png|caption1=The King & Carter [[Jazz]]ing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921
|width2=542|height2=600|image2=Chuck-berry-2007-07-18.jpg|thumb|left|upright|caption2=[[Chuck Berry]] was considered a pioneer of [[rock and roll]].
}}
[[African-American music]] is one of the most pervasive African-American cultural influences in the United States today and is among the most dominant in mainstream popular music. [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]], [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]], [[funk]], [[rock and roll]], [[soul music|soul]], [[blues]], and other contemporary American musical forms originated in Black communities and evolved from other Black forms of music, including [[blues]], [[doo-wop]], [[Barbershop music|barbershop]], [[ragtime]], [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[jazz]], and [[gospel music]].

African-American-derived musical forms have also influenced and been incorporated into virtually every other [[popular music]] genre in the world, including [[Country music|country]] and [[techno]]. African-American genres are the most important ethnic vernacular tradition in America, as they have developed independent of African traditions from which they arise more so than any other immigrant groups, including Europeans; make up the broadest and longest lasting range of styles in America; and have, historically, been more influential, interculturally, geographically, and economically, than other American vernacular traditions.<ref name="stewart">{{cite book|last=Stewart|first=Earl L.|year=1998|title=African American Music: An Introduction|isbn=978-0-02-860294-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780028602943/page/3 3]|publisher=Schirmer Books|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780028602943/page/3}}</ref>

===Dance===
African Americans have also had an important role in American dance. [[Bill T. Jones]], a prominent modern choreographer and dancer, has included historical African-American themes in his work, particularly in the piece "Last Supper at Uncle Tom's Cabin/The Promised Land". Likewise, [[Alvin Ailey]]'s artistic work, including his "Revelations" based on his experience growing up as an African American in the South during the 1930s, has had a significant influence on modern dance. Another form of dance, [[Stepping (African-American)|Stepping]], is an African-American tradition whose performance and competition has been formalized through the traditionally Black fraternities and sororities at universities.<ref name="Anderson">{{Cite news|last=Harris|first=Samantha|title=Stepping into controversy: Some fraternity members fear film 'Stomp the Yard' portrays them as glamorized dance group, trivializes traditions|newspaper=[[The Anderson Independent-Mail]]|location=Anderson, South Carolina|date=January 25, 2007|url=https://www.independentmail.com/news/2007/jan/25/stepping-controversy-some-fraternity-members-fear-/|access-date=January 11, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629142134/http://www.independentmail.com/news/2007/jan/25/stepping-controversy-some-fraternity-members-fear-/|archive-date=June 29, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Literature and academics===
Many African-American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans. [[African-American literature]] is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include [[Langston Hughes]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Zora Neale Hurston]], [[Ralph Ellison]], Nobel Prize winner [[Toni Morrison]], and [[Maya Angelou]].

African-American inventors have created many widely used devices in the world and have contributed to international [[innovation]]. [[Norbert Rillieux]] created the technique for converting sugar cane juice into white sugar crystals. Moreover, Rillieux left [[Louisiana]] in 1854 and went to France, where he spent ten years working with the Champollions deciphering [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian hieroglyphics]] from the [[Rosetta Stone]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inventions.org/culture/african/rillieux.html|title=Norbert Rillieux|publisher=Inventors Assistance League|access-date=January 29, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204165759/https://inventions.org/culture/african/rillieux.html|archive-date=December 4, 2010}}</ref> Most slave inventors were nameless, such as the slave owned by the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] President Jefferson Davis who designed the ship propeller used by the Confederate navy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sluby|first=Patricia Carter|title=The Inventive Spirit of African Americans: Patented Ingenuity|year=2004|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=978-0-275-96674-4|pages=30–33|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wz-DTSXeLRYC&pg=PA30}}</ref>

By 1913, over 1,000 inventions were patented by Black Americans. Among the most notable inventors were [[Jan Matzeliger]], who developed the first machine to mass-produce shoes,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/matzeliger.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030302053043/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/matzeliger.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-03-02|title=Jan Matzeliger|date=August 2002|publisher=[[Lemelson-MIT Program]]|access-date=January 29, 2011}}</ref> and [[Elijah McCoy]], who invented automatic lubrication devices for steam engines.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/mccoy.html|title=Elijah McCoy (1844–1929)|date=May 1996|publisher=[[Lemelson-MIT Program]]|access-date=January 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227194310/https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/mccoy.html|archive-date=December 27, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Granville Woods]] had 35 patents to improve electric railway systems, including the first system to allow moving trains to communicate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/woods.html|title=Granville T. Woods|date=August 1996|publisher=[[Lemelson-MIT Program]]|access-date=January 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227190714/https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/woods.html|archive-date=December 27, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Garrett A. Morgan]] developed the first automatic traffic signal and gas mask.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/morgan.html|title=Garrett A. Morgan (1877–1963)|date=February 1997|publisher=[[Lemelson-MIT Program]]|access-date=January 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227190804/https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/morgan.html|archive-date=December 27, 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Lewis Howard Latimer]] invented an improvement for the incandescent light bulb.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.todaysengineer.org/2004/Feb/history.asp|title=African American Heritage in Engineering|author=Michael N. Geselowitz|date=February 2004|publisher=todaysengineer.org|access-date=October 7, 2010}}</ref> More recent inventors include [[Frederick McKinley Jones]], who invented the movable refrigeration unit for food transport in trucks and trains.<ref name=FMJones>{{cite web|url=https://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/jones.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030217213948/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/jones.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 17, 2003|title=Frederick M. Jones (1893–1961)|publisher=[[Lemelson-MIT Program]]|access-date=January 29, 2011}}</ref> [[Lloyd Quarterman]] worked with six other Black scientists on the creation of the atomic bomb (code named the [[Manhattan Project]].)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csupomona.edu/~nova/scientists/articles/quart.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924200300/https://www.csupomona.edu/~nova/scientists/articles/quart.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2006|title=Lloyd Albert Quarterman|last=McConnell|first=Wendy|publisher=Project Nova, [[California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]]|access-date=January 29, 2011}}</ref> Quarterman also helped develop the first nuclear reactor, which was used in the atomically powered [[submarine]] called the Nautilus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blackhistorypages.net/pages/lquarterman.php|title=Dr. Lloyd Quarterman|publisher=Black History Pages|access-date=January 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723025705/http://blackhistorypages.net/pages/lquarterman.php|archive-date=July 23, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A few other notable examples include the first successful [[Cardiac surgery|open heart surgery]], performed by Dr. [[Daniel Hale Williams]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.blackinventor.com/pages/danielwilliams.html|title=Daniel Hale Williams|publisher=The Black Inventor Online Museum|access-date=January 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105085253/http://www.blackinventor.com/pages/danielwilliams.html|archive-date=November 5, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the air conditioner, patented by Frederick McKinley Jones.<ref name=FMJones/> Dr. [[Mark Dean (computer scientist)|Mark Dean]] holds three of the original nine patents on the computer on which all PCs are based.<ref name=BlackInventorMarkDean>{{cite web|title=Mark Dean|url=https://blackinventor.com/mark-dean/|website=The Black Inventor Online Museum|publisher=Adscape International|access-date=March 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311003924/http://blackinventor.com/mark-dean|archive-date=March 11, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=pcworldMarkDean>{{cite web|last1=Ung|first1=Gordon|title='The tablet is my device of choice': Why PC creator Mark Dean has largely abandoned his electronic child|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/2859478/the-tablet-is-my-device-of-choice-why-pc-creator-mark-dean-has-largely-abandoned-his-electronic-chi.html|website=[[PC World]]|date=December 16, 2014|publisher=[[International Data Group|IDG]]|access-date=March 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/computer-science/dean_mark.html|title=Mark E. Dean|last=Williams|first=Scott|publisher=Computer Scientists of the African Diaspora, [[University at Buffalo, The State University of New York|State University of New York at Buffalo]]|access-date=January 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629081040/http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/computer-science/dean_mark.html|archive-date=June 29, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> More current contributors include [[Otis Boykin]], whose inventions included several novel methods for manufacturing electrical components that found use in applications such as guided missile systems and computers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.blackinventor.com/pages/otisboykin.html|title=Otis Boykin|publisher=The Black Inventor Online Museum|access-date=January 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105085412/http://www.blackinventor.com/pages/otisboykin.html|archive-date=November 5, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Colonel [[Frederick D. Gregory|Frederick Gregory]], who was not only the first Black [[astronaut]] pilot but the person who redesigned the cockpits for the last three space shuttles. Gregory was also on the team that pioneered the microwave instrumentation landing system.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spangenburg|first1=Ray|last2=Moser|first2=Diane|title=African Americans in Science, Math, and Invention|year=2003|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8160-4806-9|pages=99–101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSOZ8kF5ynEC&pg=PA99}}</ref>

==Terminology==
===General===
[[File:"Afro-Americans" float in Golden Potlatch parade, Seattle, July 1911 (MOHAI 5590).jpg|thumb|left|This parade float displayed the word "Afro-Americans" in 1911.]]
The term ''African American'', coined by [[Jesse Jackson]] in the 1980s,<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Wilkerson|first1=Isabel|date=1989-01-31|title='African-American' Favored By Many of America's Blacks|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/31/us/african-american-favored-by-many-of-america-s-blacks.html|access-date=2020-12-28|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> carries important political overtones. Earlier terms used to describe Americans of African ancestry referred more to skin color than to ancestry, and were conferred upon the group by colonists and Americans of European ancestry; people with dark skins were considered inferior in fact and in law. Other terms (such as ''[[colored]]'', ''[[person of color]]'', or ''[[negro]]'') were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which some thought were being used as tools of [[White supremacy]] and [[oppression]].<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/outofmouthsofsla00john|url-access=registration|title=Out of the Mouths of Slaves: African American Language and Educational Malpractice|author=Baugh, John|page=[https://archive.org/details/outofmouthsofsla00john/page/86 86]|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|isbn=978-0-292-70873-0|year=1999}}</ref>

[[File:Michelle Obama official portrait crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Michelle Obama]] was the [[First Lady]] of the United States; she and her husband, President Barack Obama, are the first African Americans to hold these positions.]]

A 16-page pamphlet entitled "A Sermon on the Capture of Lord Cornwallis" is notable for the attribution of its [[authorship]] to "An ''African American''". Published in 1782, the book's use of this phrase predates any other yet identified by more than 50 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/houghton/2015/04/23/exploring-the-origins-of-african-american/|title=Exploring the origins of 'African American' Houghton Library Blog|website=blogs.harvard.edu|access-date=May 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507153324/https://blogs.harvard.edu/houghton/2015/04/23/exploring-the-origins-of-african-american/|archive-date=May 7, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the 1980s, the term ''African American'' was advanced on the model of, for example, [[German Americans|German American]] or [[Irish Americans|Irish American]], to give descendants of [[Slavery in the United States|American slaves]], and other American Blacks who lived through the slavery era, a [[Cultural heritage|heritage]] and a cultural base.<ref name="books.google.com"/> The term was popularized in Black communities around the country via [[word of mouth]] and ultimately received mainstream use after [[Jesse Jackson]] publicly used the term in front of a national audience in 1988. Subsequently, major media outlets adopted its use.<ref name="books.google.com"/>

Surveys show that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for ''African American'' versus ''Black American'',<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.gallup.com/poll/28816/black-african-american.aspx|title=Black or African American?|first=Frank|last=Newport|publisher=Gallup|date=September 28, 2007|access-date=September 26, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906124630/https://www.gallup.com/poll/28816/Black-African-American.aspx|archive-date=September 6, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> although they have a slight preference for the latter in personal settings and the former in more formal settings.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Pepper|last2=Kemp|first2=Herb|title=What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1OzZr_U2x_wC&pg=PA8|publisher=Paramount Market Publishing, Inc|year=2006|isbn=978-0-9725290-9-9|oclc=61694280}}</ref> Many African Americans have expressed a preference for the term ''African American'' because it was formed in the same way as the terms for the many other ethnic groups currently living in the United States. Some argued further that, because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement, and systematic attempts to de-Africanize Blacks in the United States under [[Slavery#Chattel slavery|chattel slavery]], most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to any specific [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa|African nation]]; hence, the [[Africa|entire continent]] serves as a geographic marker.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

The term ''African American'' embraces [[pan-Africanism]] as earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as [[Marcus Garvey]], [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], and [[George Padmore]]. The term ''Afro-[[Usonia]]n'', and variations of such, are more rarely used.<ref>Brennan, Timothy. 2008. ''Secular Devotion: Afro-Latin Music and Imperial Jazz'', p. 249.</ref><ref>[https://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2010/12/what_call_americans "Yankees, gringos and USAnians"], ''[[The Economist]]'', December 9, 2010. Retrieved March 26, 2014.</ref>

===Official identity===
[[File:US Census Bureau keypunch operators, Negro section.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Racially segregated]] Negro section of keypunch operators at the [[US Census Bureau]]]]
Since 1977, in an attempt to keep up with changing social opinion, the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]] has officially classified Black people (revised to ''Black'' or ''African American'' in 1997) as "having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa."<ref name="censusblack">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-5.pdf|first=Jesse|last=McKinnon|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=October 22, 2007|title=The Black Population: 2000 United States Census Bureau}}</ref> Other federal offices, such as the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]], adhere to the [[Office of Management and Budget]] standards on race in their data collection and tabulation efforts.<ref name="OMB">{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/1997standards.html |title=Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity |year=1997 |publisher=Office of Management and Budget |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090315191301/https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/1997standards.html |archive-date=March 15, 2009 }}</ref> In preparation for the [[2010 United States Census|2010 U.S. Census]], a marketing and outreach plan called ''2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan'' (ICC) recognized and defined African Americans as Black people born in the United States. From the ICC perspective, African Americans are one of three groups of Black people in the United States.<ref name="US2010ICCBlkAud">{{cite web|title=2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan|url=https://www.census.gov/2010census/partners/pdf/2010_ICC_Plan_Final_Edited.pdf|website=2010 Census|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|page=225|date=August 2008|access-date=September 6, 2012|quote=The Black audience includes all individuals of Black African descent. There are three major groups that represent the Black Audience in the United States. These groups are African Americans (Blacks born in the United States), Black Africans (Black Immigrants from Africa) and Afro-Caribbeans, which includes Haitians.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310013605/http://www.census.gov/2010census/partners/pdf/2010_ICC_Plan_Final_Edited.pdf|archive-date=March 10, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The ICC plan was to reach the three groups by acknowledging that each group has its own sense of community that is based on geography and ethnicity.<ref name="US2010ICCBstRch">{{cite web|title=2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan|url=https://www.census.gov/2010census/partners/pdf/2010_ICC_Plan_Final_Edited.pdf|website=2010 Census|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|page=230|date=August 2008|access-date=September 6, 2012|quote=Community, both geographic and ethnic, creates a sense of belonging and pride that is unique to the Black audience (African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, and Black Africans).|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310013605/http://www.census.gov/2010census/partners/pdf/2010_ICC_Plan_Final_Edited.pdf|archive-date=March 10, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The best way to market the census process toward any of the three groups is to reach them through their own unique communication channels and not treat the entire Black population of the U.S. as though they are all African Americans with a single ethnic and geographical background. The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] of the [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]] categorizes Black or African American people as "[a] person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa" through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, [[United States Department of Commerce|U.S. Department of Commerce]], derived from the 1977 [[Office of Management and Budget]] classification.<ref name="FBIpop">{{cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/additional-ucr-publications/ucr_handbook.pdf/view|title=Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation|page=97|year=2004|format=PDF}}</ref>

===Admixture===
{{See also|Miscegenation#United States|Multiracial American|One-drop rule|hypodescent}}
Historically, "[[Miscegenation|race mixing]]" between Black and White people was [[taboo]] in the United States. So-called [[anti-miscegenation laws]], barring Blacks and Whites from [[Interracial marriage in the United States|marrying]] or having sex, were established in [[colonial America]] as early as 1691,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.backintyme.com/essay050101.htm|title=The Invention of the Color Line: 1691—Essays on the Color Line and the One-Drop Rule |author=Frank W Sweet |publisher=Backentyme Essays|date=January 1, 2005|access-date=January 4, 2008|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070409160923/https://backintyme.com/essay050101.htm|archive-date=April 9, 2007}}</ref> and endured in many [[Southern United States|Southern states]] until the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled them unconstitutional in ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]'' (1967). The taboo among American Whites surrounding White-Black relations is a historical consequence of the oppression and [[racial segregation]] of African Americans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yancey|first=George|date=March 22, 2007|title=Experiencing Racism: Differences in the Experiences of Whites Married to Blacks and Non-Black Racial Minorities|journal=Journal of Comparative Family Studies|volume=38|issue=2|pages=197–213|doi=10.3138/jcfs.38.2.197}}</ref> Historian [[David Brion Davis]] notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the [[Plantations in the American South|planter class]] to the "lower-class White males" but Davis concludes that "there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners, sons of slaveowners, and overseers took black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families."<ref>[[David Brion Davis|Davis, David Brion]]. ''[[Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World]].''(2006) {{ISBN|978-0-19-514073-6}} p. 201</ref> A famous example was [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s mistress, [[Sally Hemings]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Memoirs of Madison Hemings|publisher=PBS Frontline|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/cron/1873march.html}}</ref>

[[Harvard University]] historian [[Henry Louis Gates Jr.]] wrote in 2009 that "African Americans…are a racially mixed or [[mulatto]] people—deeply and overwhelmingly so" (see [[#Genetics|genetics]]). After the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], [[Chinese Americans|Chinese American]] men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States.<ref name="The United States">{{cite web|url=https://www.colorq.org/MeltingPot/article.aspx?d=America&x=ChineseBlacks|title=The United States|website=Chinese blacks in the Americas|publisher=Color Q World|access-date=March 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615185501/http://www.colorq.org/MeltingPot/article.aspx?d=America&x=ChineseBlacks|archive-date=June 15, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> African slaves and their descendants have also had a history of cultural exchange and [[Miscegenation|intermarriage]] with Native Americans,<ref name="gen2">{{cite web|url=https://www.african-nativeAmerican.com/1IntroPage.htm|title=Researching Black Native American Genealogy of the Five Civilized Tribes|author=Angela Y. Walton-Raji|access-date=March 20, 2018|year=2008|publisher=Oklahoma's Black Native Americans}}</ref> although they did not necessarily retain social, cultural or linguistic ties to Native peoples.<ref name="sad">{{cite book|author=G. Reginald Daniel|title=More Than Black?: Multiracial|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tP7_3j3WrkC&pg=PA129year|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=9781439904831|date=June 25, 2010}}</ref> There are also increasing intermarriages and offspring between non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics of any race, especially between Puerto Ricans and African Americans (American-born Blacks).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|title=U.S. Census website|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=July 9, 2012}}</ref> According to author M.M. Drymon, many African Americans identify as having [[Scotch-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite book|title=Scotch Irish Foodways in America: Recipes from History|author=M.M. Drymon|page=41}}</ref>

Racially mixed marriages have become increasingly accepted in the United States since the civil rights movement and up to the present day.<ref name="Swanbrow">{{cite news|url=https://www.ns.umich.edu/new/releases/3396-intimate-relationships-between-races-more-common-than-thought|title=Intimate Relationships Between Races More Common Than Thought|last=Swanbrow|first=Diane|date=March 23, 2000|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=March 20, 2018}}</ref> Approval in national opinion polls has risen from 36% in 1978, to 48% in 1991, 65% in 2002, 77% in 2007.<ref>[[Paul Krugman|Krugman, Paul]], ''[[The Conscience of a Liberal]]'', W W Norton & Company, 2007, p. 210.</ref> A Gallup poll conducted in 2013 found that 84% of Whites and 96% of Blacks approved of interracial marriage, and 87% overall.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gallup.com/poll/163697/approve-marriage-blacks-whites.aspx|title=In U.S., 87% Approve of Black-White Marriage, vs. 4% in 1958|author=Newport, Frank|publisher=Gallup|date=July 25, 2013|access-date=December 21, 2015}}</ref>

At the end of [[World War II]], African American men married [[Women in Japan|Japanese women]] in Japan and immigrated to the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dornsifelive.usc.edu/events/site/192/579045/|title=Rising Sun, "Rising Soul": Mixed Race Japanese of African Descent > Event Details > USC Center for Japanese Religions and Culture|website=dornsifelive.usc.edu}}</ref>

===Terminology dispute===
In her book ''The End of Blackness'', as well as in an essay on the liberal website ''[[Salon.com|Salon]]'',<ref name="colorblind-salon">{{cite web|url=https://www.salon.com/news/opinion/feature/2007/01/22/obama/|title=Colorblind – Barack Obama would be the great black hope in the next presidential race – if he were actually black|work=[[Salon (website)]]|author=Debra J. Dickerson|date=January 22, 2007|access-date=October 7, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924194645/https://www.salon.com/news/opinion/feature/2007/01/22/obama/|archive-date=September 24, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> author [[Debra Dickerson]] has argued that the term ''[[Black people|Black]]'' should refer strictly to the descendants of Africans who were brought to America as slaves, and not to the sons and daughters of Black immigrants who lack that ancestry. Thus, under her definition, President [[Barack Obama]], who is the son of a [[Kenyan Americans|Kenyan immigrant]], is not Black.<ref name="colorblind-salon"/><ref name="colbertnation.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.colbertnation.com/the-colbert-report-videos/81955/february-08-2007/debra-dickerson?videoId=81955|title=The Colbert Report|author=Debra Dickerson|date=February 8, 2007|publisher=colbertnation.com|access-date=October 7, 2010}}</ref> She makes the argument that grouping all people of African descent together regardless of their unique ancestral circumstances would inevitably deny the lingering effects of slavery within the American community of slave descendants, in addition to denying Black immigrants recognition of their own unique ancestral backgrounds. "Lumping us all together," Dickerson wrote, "erases the significance of slavery and continuing racism while giving the appearance of progress."<ref name="colorblind-salon"/>

Similar viewpoints have been expressed by [[Stanley Crouch]] in a ''[[New York Daily News]]'' piece, [[Charles Steele Jr.]] of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ajc.com/politics/politics-blog/sclc-head-michelle-obama-treated-more-roughly-than-her-husband-because-of-her-slave-heritage/XG74EGDUSZG23LDBKZOBX7WRI4/|title=SCLC head: Michelle Obama treated more roughly than her husband, because of her slave heritage|work=[[Atlanta Journal Constitution]]|date=June 21, 2008|access-date=June 4, 2021}}</ref> and African-American columnist [[David Ehrenstein]] of the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', who accused White liberals of flocking to Blacks who were ''[[Magic Negro]]s'', a term that refers to a Black person with no past who simply appears to assist the mainstream White (as cultural protagonists/drivers) agenda.<ref name="Obama the 'Magic Negro'">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-ehrenstein19mar19,0,5335087.story?coll=la-opinion-center |work=Los Angeles Times|title=Obama the 'Magic Negro'|date=March 19, 2007|first=David|last=Ehrenstein}}</ref> Ehrenstein went on to say "He's there to assuage white 'guilt' they feel over the role of slavery and racial segregation in American history."<ref name="Obama the 'Magic Negro'"/>

Former Secretary of State [[Condoleezza Rice]] (who was famously mistaken for a "recent American immigrant" by [[President of France|French President]] [[Nicolas Sarkozy]]),<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,309218,00.html|publisher=[[Fox News Channel]]|title=Nicolas Sarkozy Mistakes Condoleezza Rice for Recent Immigrant|date=November 7, 2007|access-date=July 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521160714/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,309218,00.html|archive-date=May 21, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> said "descendants of slaves did not get much of a head start, and I think you continue to see some of the effects of that." She has also rejected an immigrant designation for African Americans and instead prefers the term ''Black'' or ''White'' to denote the African and European U.S. founding populations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bbaaghs.org/news/?p=10|title=Book Excerpt: Condoleezza Rice: An American Life|author=Elisabeth Bumiller|date=December 22, 2007|access-date=October 7, 2010|author-link=Elisabeth Bumiller|archive-date=July 25, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725043206/http://bbaaghs.org/news/?p=10|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Terms no longer in common use===
Before the independence of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] until the abolition of slavery in 1865, an African-American slave was commonly known as a ''[[negro]]''. ''[[Free negro]]'' was the legal status in the territory of an African-American person who was not a slave.<ref>{{cite book|last=Frazier|first=Edward Franklin|title=The Free Negro Family|year=1968|page=1}}</ref> The term ''[[colored]]'' later also began to be used until the second quarter of the 20th century, when it was considered outmoded and generally gave way again to the exclusive use of ''negro''. By the 1940s, the term was commonly capitalized (''Negro''); but by the mid-1960s, it was considered disparaging. By the end of the 20th century, ''negro'' had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a [[pejorative]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Tottie|first=Gunnel|title=An Introduction to American English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWDUtK-f1tQC&pg=PA200|year=2002|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-19792-8|page=200}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Talmadge|author2=James Stewart|title=Introduction to African American Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49tXR1Ok6poC&pg=PA3|year=2007|publisher=Black Classics Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-1-58073-039-6|page=3}}</ref> The term is rarely used by younger Black people, but remained in use by many older African Americans who had grown up with the term, particularly in the southern U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/03/they-put-negro-on-there/38094/|title=They Put 'Negro' on There?|author=Chris Good|date=March 26, 2010|website=[[The Atlantic]]|access-date=October 7, 2010}}</ref> The term remains in use in some contexts, such as the [[United Negro College Fund]], an American philanthropic organization that funds scholarships for Black students and general scholarship funds for 39 private historically Black colleges and universities.

There are many other deliberately insulting terms, many of which were in common use (e.g., ''[[nigger]]''), but had become unacceptable in normal discourse before the end of the 20th century. One exception is the use, among the Black community, of the slur ''nigger'' rendered as ''[[nigga]]'', representing the pronunciation of the word in [[African-American English]]. This usage has been popularized by American [[rap]] and [[Hip hop|hip-hop]] [[Music of the United States|music cultures]] and is used as part of an [[In-group and out-group|in-group]] [[lexicon]] and speech. It is not necessarily [[Pejorative|derogatory]] and, when used among Black people, the word is often used to mean "homie" or "friend."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rahman|first=Jacquelyn|date=June 2012|title=The N Word: Its History and Use in the African American Community|journal=Journal of English Linguistics|volume=40|issue=2|pages=137–171|doi=10.1177/0075424211414807|s2cid=144164210|issn=0075-4242}}</ref>

Acceptance of intra-group usage of the word ''nigga'' is still debated, although it has established a foothold among younger generations. The [[NAACP]] denounces the use of both ''nigga'' and ''nigger''.<ref name="BaltSun">{{Cite news|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2007-07-10-0707100124-story.html|title=NAACP aims to bury the 'N-word'|last=Brewington|first=Kelly|date=July 10, 2007|work=The Baltimore Sun|access-date=June 15, 2019|publisher=Baltimore Sun Media Group|archive-date=October 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024221608/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-2007-07-10-0707100124-story.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mixed-race usage of ''nigga'' is still considered taboo, particularly if the speaker is White. However, trends indicate that usage of the term in intragroup settings is increasing even among White youth due to the popularity of rap and hip hop culture.<ref name="ENQ">Kevin Aldridge, Richelle Thompson and Earnest Winston, [https://archive.today/20130110202405/http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2001/08/05/loc_1the_n-word.html "The evolving N-word"], ''The Cincinnati Enquirer'', August 5, 2001.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|United States}}
{{Div col|colwidth=23em}}
* [[African-American art]]
* [[African-American middle class]]
* [[African-American neighborhood]]
* [[African-American upper class]]
* [[Afrophobia]]
* [[Black Belt in the American South]]
* [[Civil rights movement (1865–1896)]]
* [[Civil rights movement (1896–1954)]]
* [[Juneteenth]]
* [[North Africans in the United States]]
* [[National Museum of African American History and Culture]]
* [[Criollo people#Spanish colonial caste system|Society and Black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas]]
* [[South African Americans]]
* [[Timeline of the civil rights movement]]
{{Div col end}}

===Diaspora===
* [[African Americans in Africa]]
* [[African Americans in France]]
* [[African Americans in Ghana]]
* [[Americo-Liberian people]]
* [[Black Nova Scotians]]
* [[Sierra Leone Creole people]]

===Lists===
{{Div col}}
* [[Index of articles related to African Americans]]
* [[List of African-American neighborhoods]]
* [[List of African-American newspapers and media outlets]]
* [[List of historically Black colleges and universities]]
* [[List of monuments to African Americans]]
* [[List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations]]
* [[List of topics related to the African diaspora]]
* [[Lists of African Americans]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|last=Altman|first=Susan|title=The Encyclopedia of African-American Heritage|isbn=978-0-8160-4125-1|year=2000}}
* Finkelman, Paul, ed. ''Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass'' (3 vol Oxford University Press, 2006).
* Finkelman, Paul, ed. ''Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century'' (5 vol. Oxford University Press, USA, 2009).
* [[John Hope Franklin]], Alfred Moss, ''From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans'', McGraw-Hill Education 2001, standard work, first edition in 1947.
* Gates, Henry L. and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham (eds), ''African American Lives'', Oxford University Press, 2004 – more than 600 biographies.
* [[Darlene Clark Hine]], [[Rosalyn Terborg-Penn]], Elsa Barkley Brown (eds), ''Black Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia'', Paperback Edition, Indiana University Press 2005.
* Kranz, Rachel. ''African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs'' (Infobase Publishing, 2004).
* Salzman, Jack, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Afro-American culture and history'', New York City : Macmillan Library Reference USA, 1996.
* {{cite book|last=Stewart|first=Earl L.|year=1998|title=African American Music: An Introduction|isbn=978-0-02-860294-3|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780028602943}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Music of Black Americans: A History|author-link=Eileen Southern|first=Eileen|last=Southern|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]|edition=3rd|year=1997|isbn=978-0-393-97141-5}}

{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|d=Q49085|wikt=African American|c=Category:African Americans|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|species=no}}
* Richard Thompson Ford [https://www.slate.com/id/2106753/ Name Games], ''Slate'', September 16, 2004. Article discussing the problems of defining ''African American''
* [https://armsandthelaw.com/archives/2006/04/don_kates_on_af.php "Of Arms & the Law: Don Kates on Afro-American Homicide Rates"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071015191820/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=000C97BA-94E0-146C-944583414B7FFE9F ''Scientific American'' Magazine (June 2006) Trace Elements] Reconnecting African Americans to an ancestral past
* [https://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/03/02/EDGT1ODJHH1.DTL&hw=slaves+african+american+obama&sn=002&sc=736 "The Definition of Political Absurdity"], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', March 2, 2007
* [https://www.sonoma.edu/asc/publications/weweretheretoo/cooktoc.htm African American archaeology in Sacramento, California] pdf
* [https://www.sonoma.edu/asc/cypress/finalreport/index.htm African American archaeology in Oakland, California] – see Part III, Chap 10
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110815220254/http://go.footnote.com/blackhistory/ Black History related original documents and photos]
* [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/22425001 President Obama's Speech to the NAACP on July 16, 2009] – full video by MSNBC
* Frank Newport, [https://www.gallup.com/poll/28816/black-african-american.aspx "Black or African American?"], Gallup, September 28, 2007
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110901161306/http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/45800,news-comment,news-politics,in-pictures-the-long-journey-of-black-americans "The Long Journey of Black Americans"] – slideshow by ''[[The First Post]]''

{{African American topics|state=expanded}}
{{Demographics of the United States}}
{{African diaspora}}
{{Gullah topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:African-American society| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the United States]]
[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:People of African descent|American]]
[[Category:African-American culture| ]]

Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Autopatrolled

2021-08-12T13:49:17Z

Flying Bee:

===Autopatrolled===
{{Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Subpage|shortcut=A|subpage=Autopatrolled|notice=<noinclude>
Please read '''[[Bharatpedia:Autopatrolled]]''' before requesting or nominating another user for this right. Applicants are unlikely to be granted this right if they have created fewer than '''{{Bharatpedia:Autopatrolled/Article count}} new articles''', excluding [[Bharatpedia:Redirect|redirects]] and [[Bharatpedia:Disambiguation|disambiguation pages]]. Note that this right '''will not help you create or patrol articles'''.</noinclude>}}


====[[User:WikiJoy]]====
* {{rfplinks|1=WikiJoy}}
:I have made around 670 edits and created over 100 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my articles has been tagged with anything thus far. Due to that, I want autopatrolled to help decrease the backlog for NPP reviewers by getting the user right. Thanks [[User:WikiJoy|WikiJoy]] ([[User talk:WikiJoy|talk]]) 14:00, 3 August 2021 (IST)
::{{done}}. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf|talk]]) 09:15, 5 August 2021 (IST)

====[[User:Flying Bee]]====
* {{rfplinks|1=Flying Bee}}
:I have created over 700 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my articles has been tagged with anything thus far. Due to that, I want autopatrolled to help decrease the backlog for NPP reviewers by getting the user right. Thanks Flying Bee 19:19, 12 August 2021 (IST)

Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Autopatrolled

2021-08-12T13:47:21Z

Flying Bee: Undo revision 137939 by Flying Bee (talk)

Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Autopatrolled

2021-08-12T13:45:51Z

Flying Bee:

===Autopatrolled===
{{Bharatpedia:Requests for permissions/Subpage|shortcut=A|subpage=Autopatrolled|notice=<noinclude>
Please read '''[[Bharatpedia:Autopatrolled]]''' before requesting or nominating another user for this right. Applicants are unlikely to be granted this right if they have created fewer than '''{{Bharatpedia:Autopatrolled/Article count}} new articles''', excluding [[Bharatpedia:Redirect|redirects]] and [[Bharatpedia:Disambiguation|disambiguation pages]]. Note that this right '''will not help you create or patrol articles'''.</noinclude>}}


====[[User:WikiJoy]]====
* {{rfplinks|1=WikiJoy}}
:I have made around 670 edits and created over 100 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my articles has been tagged with anything thus far. Due to that, I want autopatrolled to help decrease the backlog for NPP reviewers by getting the user right. Thanks [[User:WikiJoy|WikiJoy]] ([[User talk:WikiJoy|talk]]) 14:00, 3 August 2021 (IST)
::{{done}}. [[User:WikiDwarf|WikiDwarf]] ([[User talk:WikiDwarf|talk]]) 09:15, 5 August 2021 (IST)

====[[User:Flying Bee]]====
* {{rfplinks|1=Flying Bee}}
:I have made over created over 700 articles and planning to create more articles related to Indian politicians, YouTubers, and famous people. None of my articles has been tagged with anything thus far. Due to that, I want autopatrolled to help decrease the backlog for NPP reviewers by getting the user right. Thanks Flying Bee 19:15, 12 August 2021 (IST)

Howard Krein

2021-08-12T12:54:31Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|American surgeon}} {{Infobox person |name = Howard Krein |birth_name = Howard David Krein |birth_date = {{birth based on age as of date|45|2012|6|..."

{{short description|American surgeon}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Howard Krein
|birth_name = Howard David Krein
|birth_date = {{birth based on age as of date|45|2012|6|3}}<ref name= newyorktimes/>
|birth_place = [[Cherry Hill, New Jersey]], U.S.
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|spouse = {{marriage|[[Ashley Biden]]|2012}}
|education = [[Rutgers University]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]], [[Master of Science|MS]]) [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]]) [[Thomas Jefferson University]] ([[Doctor of Medicine|MD]])
}}
'''Howard David Krein''' (born 1966/1967) is an American [[Otorhinolaryngology|otolaryngologist]], plastic surgeon, and business executive. He is the husband of [[Ashley Biden]], the daughter of [[United States President]] [[Joe Biden]]. He is an assistant professor of otolaryngology at [[Thomas Jefferson University]] and is a founding partner and co-director of [[Thomas Jefferson University Hospital]]'s Facial Aesthetic and Reconstructive Center. Krein is the [[chief medical officer]] at StartUp Health, a venture capital and health technology firm. He served on the Biden Cancer Initiative's board of directors from 2017 to 2019. Krein has advised the [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]] on its [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]] response in an unofficial role.

== Early life and education ==
Krein was born and raised in [[Cherry Hill, New Jersey]].<ref name= newyorktimes>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/fashion/weddings/ashley-biden-howard-krein-wedding.html|title=Ashley Biden and Howard Krein |date=June 3, 2012|work=The New York Times|access-date=November 13, 2020}}</ref><ref name= abc/> He is the son of Stanley Krein, an insurance executive and former director of marketing at [[Aetna]], and Brenda Ferne "Bunny" Lipner Krein, a physician assistant in [[cardiology]] at [[Cooper University Hospital]].<ref name= newyorktimes/><ref name= people>{{Cite web|url=https://people.com/celebrity/joe-biden-daughter-ashley-biden-howard-krein-wed/|title=Joe Biden Daughter, Ashley Biden, Howard Krein Wed|website=people.com}}</ref><ref name= list/> His family is [[Jewish]].<ref name= abc/>

As a teenager Krein competed in CowTown, a weekly summertime rodeo competition in [[Pilesgrove, New Jersey]].<ref name= abc/><ref name= observer>{{Cite web|url=https://observer.com/2012/05/meet-joe-bidens-new-son-in-law/|title=Meet Joe Biden's New Son In Law|date=May 29, 2012}}</ref> He became a volunteer [[fire fighter]] at the age of sixteen.<ref name= abc/><ref name= observer/>

Krein graduated from [[Rutgers University]] with a bachelor's degree in biology and a master's degree in [[neuroscience]].<ref name= newyorktimes/><ref name= medcity/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jefferson.edu/university/jmc/departments/otolaryngology/faculty/krein.html|title=Krein, Howard - Thomas Jefferson University - Thomas Jefferson University|website=www.jefferson.edu}}</ref> He obtained a doctoral degree in cell and development biology from the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]]'s [[Robert Wood Johnson Medical School]] in 1996.<ref name= newyorktimes/><ref name= list/><ref name= elle>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elle.com/culture/career-politics/a33645978/who-is-ashley-biden-joe-biden-daughter/|title=All About Ashley Biden, Joe's Youngest Daughter With a Civically-Minded Fashion Label|first=Savannah|last=Walsh|date=August 19, 2020|website=Elle}}</ref> He graduated from medical school at [[Thomas Jefferson University]] in 2000.<ref name= newyorktimes/><ref name= list/> He completed an internship in emergency medicine and general surgery and a residency in otolaryngology at Jefferson.<ref name= medcity/> He completed a fellowship in facial plastic and reconstructive surgery at the [[Medical College of Virginia]].<ref name= medcity/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.startuphealth.com/team/howard-krein-md-phd|title=Howard Krein, MD, PhD|website=StartUp Health}}</ref>

== Career ==
[[File:Joe Biden sworn in as Vice President in 2013.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Krein and members of the Biden family at Joe Biden's swearing in ceremony in 2013.]]
Krein is a board-certified [[otolaryngologist]] who also specializes in [[reconstructive surgery|facial and reconstructive surgery]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ashley-biden-engaged-howard-krein_n_1068290|title=VP Joe Biden's Daughter Is Engaged!|date=October 31, 2011|website=HuffPost}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/ashley-biden-marries-jewish-doctor-1.5169138|title=Ashley Biden, daughter of U.S. Vice President, marries Jewish doctor|website=Haaretz.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=American Board of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery|url=https://www.aboto.org/ABOInternet/VerifyPhysicianCertification|access-date=November 13, 2020}}</ref> He has volunteered at the [[International Hospital for Children]], operating on children with facial deformities in [[Belize]].<ref name= abc/><ref name= list/><ref name= Israel/> Krein also volunteers with Faces of Honor, where he performs reconstructive surgery for victims of domestic violence and veterans of the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]] and the [[Iraqi conflict (2003–present)|Iraqi conflict]].<ref name= list/>

He works at [[Thomas Jefferson University Hospital]] in [[Philadelphia]].<ref name= newyorktimes/><ref name= elle/><ref name= Israel/> Since 2007 he has been an assistant professor of otolaryngology at Thomas Jefferson University.<ref name= newyorktimes/><ref name= abc>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/OTUS/meet-joe-bidens-future-son-law/story?id=16475464|title=Meet Joe Biden's Future Son-in-Law|website=ABC News}}</ref> Since 2016 he has served as the Senior Director of Health Policy and Innovation at the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.healio.com/news/hematology-oncology/20170626/biden-cancer-initiative-seeks-to-inject-urgency-into-cancer-research-foster-hope-for-patients|title=Biden Cancer Initiative seeks to inject urgency into cancer research, foster hope for patients|website=www.healio.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/launching-the-biden-cancer-initiative-300479447.html|title=Launching the Biden Cancer Initiative|first=Biden Cancer|last=Initiative|website=www.prnewswire.com}}</ref> Krein is a founding partner and co-director of the hospital's Herbert Kean Center for Facial Aesthetics.<ref name= medcity>{{Cite web|url=https://events.medcitynews.com/invest-precision-medicine/speakers/%e2%80%8bhoward-krein/|title=Howard Krein, M.D., Ph.D.|first=MedCity|last=News}}</ref>

Since 2011 Krein has served as a Chief Medical Officer at StartUp Health, previously Organized Wisdom, a venture capital and health technology firm.<ref name= abc/><ref name= married>{{cite web|url=https://marriedceleb.com/howard-krein|title=Howard Krein Is Famous As The Husband of Ashley Biden, The Daughter Of Howard Krein and Jill Biden|website=Married Celeb|access-date=2020-10-14}}</ref><ref name= ap>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/b38b45df035246cb9d2272a7ebb22752|title=Biden anti-cancer groups could pose influence concerns|date=June 19, 2019|website=AP NEWS}}</ref><ref name="healthtransformer">{{cite web|url=https://healthtransformer.co/joe-bidens-swan-song-kill-cancer-5ddc3133425d|title=5 Giant Problems the Biden Cancer Initiative Can Fix | by Troy Bannister | StartUp Health|website=healthtransformer.co|access-date=2020-10-14}}</ref> The firm, whose chief executive officer is Krein's brother, lobbied the government on health industry technology regulations in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/biden-anti-cancer-groups-pose-influence-concerns-63813513|title=Biden anti-cancer groups could pose influence concerns|website=ABC News}}</ref> At StartUp Health, Krein works as a strategic clinical advisor to international digital health companies.<ref name= medcity/>

From 2017 to 2019 he was on the Board of Directors of the Biden Cancer Initiative.<ref name= ap/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.columbian.com/news/2019/jun/19/bidens-cancer-initiative-could-pose-influence-concerns/|title=Biden's cancer initiative could pose influence concerns|website=The Columbian}}</ref> He attended the official kickoff at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] and promoted the Initiative at the [[World Economic Forum]] in [[Davos]].<ref name= politico/> He was also an investor in the initiative.<ref name= politico/>

In 2018 Krein was an invited speaker at the [[Pontifical Council for Culture]] and [[Roman Curia|Roman Curia Foundation]]'s Fourth International Conference In An Effort To Unite To Cure at the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], hosting the panel ''10 Health Moonshots: How a Global Army of Health Transformers is Accomplishing One Impossible Dream''.<ref name= politico/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/the-vatican-and-the-cura-foundation-host-the-fourth-international-conference-in-an-effort-to-unite-to-cure-300635264.html|title=The Vatican And The Cura Foundation Host The Fourth International Conference In An Effort To Unite To Cure|first=Cura|last=Foundation|website=www.prnewswire.com}}</ref>

Krein has been an advisor to the [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]] on its [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]] response.<ref name= politico>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/10/13/howard-krein-covid-startups-biden-429123|title=Biden's son-in-law advises campaign on pandemic while investing in Covid-19 startups|website=POLITICO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-05/biden-convenes-shadow-war-room-to-devise-anti-virus-policy|title=Biden Convenes Shadow War Room to Devise Anti-Virus Policy|date=April 5, 2020|via=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/25/us/politics/joe-biden-coronavirus-quarantine.html|title=A Candidate in Isolation: Inside Joe Biden's Cloistered Campaign|first1=Alexander|last1=Burns|first2=Shane|last2=Goldmacher|first3=Katie|last3=Glueck|work=The New York Times|date=April 28, 2020|access-date=November 13, 2020}}</ref> StartUp Health has been running an initiative to invest in health care startups offering solutions to the global pandemic since March 2020.<ref name= politico/> Krein's role with the Biden campaign while working as an executive of a health technology firm has led to speculation about a conflict of interest.<ref name= politico/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/biden-son-law-advises-campaign-174920237.html|title=Biden Son-In-Law Advises Campaign on Pandemic Response while Investing in COVID Startups|website=news.yahoo.com}}</ref><ref name= thehill>{{Cite web|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/520788-questions-raised-about-conflicts-of-interest-around-biden-son-in-law|title=Questions raised about conflicts of interest around Biden son-in-law|first=Celine|last=Castronuovo|date=October 13, 2020|website=TheHill}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thefederalist.com/2020/10/13/biden-familys-conflicts-of-interest-stretch-to-son-in-law-involved-in-covid-start-ups/|title=Biden In-Law Advising Campaign While He Could Profit Off Covid Policies|date=October 13, 2020|website=The Federalist}}</ref> In 2011 StartUp Health had described Krein as an advisor to the [[Obama Administration]].<ref name= politico/> Krein has stated that he does not have a formal role in the Biden campaign but has participated in briefings on the coronavirus based on his experience treating patients and coordinating Thomas Jefferson University Hospital's response to the outbreak.<ref name= politico/><ref name= thehill/>

== Personal life ==
Krein is [[Jewish]] and is a registered [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]].<ref name= abc/><ref name= Israel>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/daughter-of-us-vice-president-marries/|title=Biden's daughter marries into the tribe|website=www.timesofisrael.com}}</ref>

He began dating [[Ashley Biden]], a social worker and daughter of U.S. President [[Joe Biden]] and First Lady [[Jill Biden]], in 2010 after being introduced by her half brother, [[Beau Biden]].<ref name= people/><ref name= list>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelist.com/237917/the-truth-about-ashley-bidens-husband/|title=The truth about Ashley Biden's husband|first=Erin|last=Fenton|date=August 18, 2020|website=TheList.com}}</ref> They married in a Catholic-Jewish interfaith ceremony at [[St. Joseph's on the Brandywine]] in [[Greenville, Delaware]].<ref name= people/> The Catholic mass was celebrated by Father David F. Murphy, who was assisted by Rabbi Joseph Forman.<ref name= newyorktimes/> Krein and his wife live in Philadelphia.<ref name= medcity/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{commons category}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Joe Biden}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Krein, Howard}}
[[Category:American chief operating officers]]
[[Category:American Jews]]
[[Category:American otolaryngologists]]
[[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American plastic surgeons]]
[[Category:Biden family]]
[[Category:Jefferson Medical College alumni]]
[[Category:Jefferson Medical College faculty]]
[[Category:Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:New Jersey Democrats]]
[[Category:People from Cherry Hill, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Rutgers University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Ashley Biden

2021-08-12T12:53:05Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|American social worker and fashion designer}} {{Use American English|date=January 2021}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2021}} {{Infobox person |name..."

{{short description|American social worker and fashion designer}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Ashley Biden
|image = Ashley Biden in 2016.png
|caption = Biden in February 2016
|birth_name = Ashley Blazer Biden
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|6|8}}
|birth_place = [[Wilmington, Delaware]], U.S.
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|spouse = {{marriage|[[Howard Krein]]|2012}}
|parents = [[Joe Biden]] [[Jill Biden]]
|family = [[Family of Joe Biden|Biden]]
|education = [[Tulane University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) [[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Master of Social Work|MSW]])
|occupation = {{hlist|Social worker|fashion designer}}
}}
'''Ashley Blazer Biden''' (born June 8, 1981) is an American social worker, activist, philanthropist, and fashion designer. She is the daughter of U.S. [[President of the United States|President]] [[Joe Biden]] and the only child with his second wife, [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Jill Biden]]. She served as the executive director of the Delaware Center for Justice from 2014 to 2019. Prior to her administrative role at the center, she worked in the [[Delaware Department of Services for Children, Youth, and Their Families]]. Biden founded the fashion company Livelihood, which partners with the online retailer [[Gilt Groupe]] to raise money for community programs focused on eliminating income inequality in the United States, launching it at [[New York Fashion Week]] in 2017. She is married to physician [[Howard Krein]].

== Early life and education ==
Ashley Blazer Biden was born on June 8, 1981, in [[Wilmington, Delaware]].<ref name="ap-timeline">{{cite news | url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2008/08/22/politics/p222636D16.DTL | title=Timeline of Biden's Life And Career | publisher=Associated Press | date=August 23, 2008 | access-date=September 6, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.popsugar.com/node/47463956|title=Get to Know All of Joe Biden's Kids and Grandkids!|first=Hedy|last=Phillips|date=May 14, 2020|website=POPSUGAR Family}}</ref> Her father, [[Joe Biden]], is the [[president of the United States]] and previously served as [[vice president of the United States|vice president]]. Her mother is educator [[Jill Biden]].<ref name= wedding>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/fashion/weddings/ashley-biden-howard-krein-wedding.html|title=Ashley Biden and Howard Krein (Published 2012)|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 3, 2012}}</ref> She has two half-brothers, [[Hunter Biden]] and the late [[Beau Biden]] and a half-sister, the late [[Naomi Biden]], her father's children with his first wife, [[Neilia Hunter Biden]].<ref name= heavy>{{Cite web|url=https://heavy.com/news/2020/08/ashley-biden/|title=Ashley Biden, Joe's Daughter: 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know|first=Jessica|last=McBride|date=August 21, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marieclaire.com/politics/a32389157/ashley-biden-joe-biden-daughter/|title=Joe Biden's Youngest Daughter, Ashley, Lives the Most Low-Key Life of His Kids|first=Katherine J.|last=Igoe|date=September 28, 2020|website=Marie Claire}}</ref> Biden is a great-great-granddaughter of [[Edward Francis Blewitt]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.lafayette.edu/2012/05/03/vice-president-joe-biden-discusses-american-innovation/ |title=Vice President Joe Biden Discusses American Innovation |last=Gehman |first=Geoff |publisher=[[Lafayette College]] |date=May 3, 2012 |access-date=April 15, 2020 }}</ref> She is of English, French, and Irish descent on her father's side and English, Scottish, and [[Sicilians|Sicilian]] descent on her mother's side.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishamerica.com/2013/03/joey-from-scranton-vice-president-bidens-irish-roots/|title=Joey From Scranton: VP Biden's Irish Roots|date=March 20, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/isbn_9780061791987|title=Joe Biden : a life of trial and redemption|first=Jules|last=Witcover|date=October 11, 2010|publisher=New York : William Morrow/HarperCollins|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/31/AR2009053102568.html|title=Obamas' Chow: Politically Palatable|first=Amy Argetsinger and Roxanne|last=Roberts|date=June 1, 2009|work=The Washington Post}}</ref>

Biden was raised in the Catholic faith and was baptized at [[St. Joseph's on the Brandywine]] in [[Greenville, Delaware]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/daughter-of-us-vice-president-marries/|title=Biden's daughter marries into the tribe|website=timesofisrael.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://people.com/celebrity/joe-biden-daughter-ashley-biden-howard-krein-wed/|title=Joe Biden Daughter, Ashley Biden, Howard Krein Wed|website=PEOPLE.com}}</ref> During her childhood, her father served as a United States senator from Delaware and her mother worked as an educator.<ref name= today/><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Politico|date=December 18, 2014|title=Women Rule Keynote: Vice President Joe Biden|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0rCpsC1onE&feature=youtu.be&t=302|access-date=October 11, 2020}}</ref>

[[File:Enda Kenny, Ashley Biden, Joe Biden, and Fionnuala O'Kelly.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Irish Taoiseach [[Enda Kenny]], Biden, Joe Biden, and [[Fionnuala Kenny]] at [[Farmleigh]] in 2016.]]

Biden attended [[Wilmington Friends School]], a private school run by the [[Religious Society of Friends]] in Wilmington.<ref name=cpb>{{cite interview|url=https://cpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/sites.udel.edu/dist/4/10696/files/2018/01/advocating-for-justice-and-equality-an-interview-with-ashley-biden-2al8eyv.pdf|title=Advocating for Justice and Equality: An Interview with Ashley Biden|first=Ashley|last=Biden|interviewer=M. Kristen Hefner|work=New Visions for Public Affairs|publisher=School of Public Policy and Administration, University of Delaware|date=Spring 2014|volume=6|pages=5–11|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name= rutgers/> Biden graduated from [[Archmere Academy]], a private Catholic school, in 1999.<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 12, 2020|title=Joseph R. Biden '61 Becomes First Auk Elected as President of the United States|url=https://www.archmereacademy.com/News-Detail?pk=1241181|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119044520/https://www.archmereacademy.com/News-Detail?pk=1241181|archive-date=November 19, 2020|access-date=November 19, 2020|website=Archmere Academy|language=en}}</ref> While at Archmere, her father's alma mater, she was a member of the [[lacrosse]] and [[field hockey]] teams.<ref name= thelist/> When Biden was in elementary school, she discovered that the cosmetics company [[Bonne Bell]] tested its products on animals. She wrote a letter to the company asking them to change their policy on animal testing.<ref name= elle/> She later got involved in dolphin conservation, inspiring her father to work with Congresswoman [[Barbara Boxer]] to write and pass the 1990 Dolphin Protection Consumer Information Act.<ref name= today>{{Cite web|url=https://delawaretoday.com/life-style/ashley-biden-takes-on-the-world/|title=Ashley Biden Takes On The World|date=August 22, 2018}}</ref> Biden made an appearance before members of the [[United States Congress]] to lobby for the legislation.<ref name= elle/>

Biden earned her Bachelor of Arts degree in [[cultural anthropology]] from [[Tulane University]].<ref name= wedding/> During her freshman year of college, she worked at Girls Incorporated, now Kingswood Academy, as a camp counselor.<ref name= cpb/> She also interned at a summer program at [[Georgetown University]], working with youth from [[Anacostia]].<ref name= cpb/>

== Career ==
After college, Biden worked as a waitress at a pizza shop in Wilmington for a few months before starting her career in social work.<ref name=":0" /> She moved to [[Kensington, Philadelphia]], and started a job as a clinical support specialist at the Northwestern Human Services Children's Reach Clinic, assisting youth and their families with accessing resources and working directly with psychiatrists and therapists.<ref name="cpb" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name="newsbreak">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsbreak.com/people/ashley-biden|title=Ashley Biden - Biography & News|website=News Break}}</ref>{{Deprecated inline|certain=yes|date=May 2021}} She obtained a master's of social work degree from the [[University of Pennsylvania]]'s [[University of Pennsylvania School of Social Policy and Practice|School of Social Policy and Practice]] in 2010. She served as the commencement speaker at [[Rutgers University]] for the [[Rutgers School of Social Work]] in 2015.<ref name="rutgers">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rutgers.edu/news/ashley-biden-daughter-vice-president-speak-rutgers-school-social-work-convocation|title=Ashley Biden, Daughter of the Vice President, to Speak at Rutgers' School of Social Work Convocation|website=rutgers.edu}}</ref><ref name="elle">{{Cite web|url=https://www.elle.com/culture/career-politics/a33645978/who-is-ashley-biden-joe-biden-daughter/|title=All About Ashley Biden, Joe's Youngest Daughter With a Civically-Minded Fashion Label|first=Savannah|last=Walsh|date=August 19, 2020|website=Elle}}</ref> She was one of twelve graduates who received the [[John Hope Franklin]] Combating American Racism Award.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inquirer.com/philly/news/local/20100518_At_Penn__Biden_speaks_at_daughter_s_graduation.html|title=At Penn, Biden speaks at daughter's graduation|first=By Claudia Vargas, Inquirer Staff|last=Writer|website=inquirer.com}}</ref>

=== Social work and activism ===
Biden works as a social justice activist and social worker.<ref name= thelist>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelist.com/176589/ashley-bidens-transformation-is-seriously-turning-heads/|title=Ashley Biden's transformation is seriously turning heads|first=Kelsie|last=Calderon|date=November 26, 2019|website=TheList.com}}</ref> After finishing graduate school, she gained a job at West End Neighborhood House, a non-profit organization, as their Employment and Education Liaison for adjudicating youth developing various employment and job skills training programs.<ref name= cpb/><ref name=":0" /><ref name= newsbreak/>{{Deprecated inline|certain=yes|date=May 2021}} She worked as a social worker in the [[Delaware Department of Services for Children, Youth, and Their Families]] for fifteen years.<ref name= elle/><ref name= wedding/> While working for the department, Biden created programs for youth focusing on juvenile justice, foster care, and mental health.<ref name= elle/> In 2008, she was listed in ''Delaware Today''{{'}}s "40 People to Watch" for her work in the department.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://delawaretoday.com/uncategorized/40-people-to-watch/|first=Matt|last=Amis|title=40 People to Watch|work=Delaware Today|date=May 23, 2008|access-date=October 14, 2020}}</ref> In 2012, she joined the Delaware Center for Justice as an associate director, focusing on criminal justice reform in the state.<ref name= elle/><ref name= today/><ref name= heavy/> She helped establish and run programs and services at the center focused on public education, adult victim services, gun violence, incarcerated women, and community reentry.<ref name=cpb/> Overseeing all direct servicing programs at the center, Biden worked with victims of crime, adjudicated youth, elderly prisoners, adults on probation and parole, truant youth, and [[Pennsylvania courts of common pleas]] clients who were eligible for mediation.<ref name= cpb/> In 2014, she was promoted to Executive Director of the center, and served in that capacity until 2019.<ref name= elle/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oprahmag.com/life/a33656664/joe-biden-children/|title=How Joe Biden's Children Have Inspired and Carried on His Political Legacy|first=Grant|last=Rindner|date=August 20, 2020|website=Oprah Magazine}}</ref> She implemented a program called SWAGG: Student Warriors Against Guns and Gangs, endorsed by the [[Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention]], which provides educational resources and community-based support groups aimed at eliminating violent crimes and gang activity among youth in [[New Castle County]].<ref name= cpb/>
[[File:Ashley Biden Plays Games With South African Children (4690981899).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Biden playing with children at the Mapetla Day Care Centre in [[Soweto]], South Africa during an official visit in June 2010.]]
In 2014, Biden criticized the [[death penalty in the United States|death penalty]], stating that it is not cost effective and wastes resources that could go towards victim services and crime prevention.<ref name= cpb/>

She founded the Young@Art program that provides resources and outlets for students to create artwork while they are detained in detention facilities, and then sells the art in the community.<ref name= cpb/> Half of the proceeds of the art go directly to the artists, and the other half goes into funding the program to buy art supplies and to pay the wages of youth who work at the community art shows.<ref name= cpb/> Through the program, Biden also teaches the students business and financial literacy skills.<ref name= cpb/>

=== Fashion ===
In 2017, Biden launched the Livelihood Collection, an ethical fashion clothing brand, at Spring Place in [[TriBeCa]] during [[New York Fashion Week]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/08/fashion/joe-biden-gilt-fashion-week.html|title=Joe Biden Drops by a Fashion Party. The Reason? His Daughter. (Published 2017)|first=Valeriya|last=Safronova|date=February 8, 2017|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref name= elle/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.glamour.com/story/ashley-biden-sweatshirt-line-livelihood-is-style-with-social-conscience|title=Ashley Biden's New Sweatshirt Line Is Style With a Powerful Social Conscience|first=Leah|last=Bourne|website=Glamour}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.womenshealthmag.com/life/a32389803/joe-biden-children/|title=Everything You Need To Know About Joe Biden's Four Children Before Tonight's Debate|first=Emily|last=Shiffer|date=September 29, 2020|website=Women's Health}}</ref> The launch event was attended by Biden's parents and celebrities including [[Olivia Palermo]] and [[Christian Siriano]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://graziadaily.co.uk/celebrity/news/joe-bidens-fashion-designer-ashley-daughter-livelihood-collection/|title=Joe Biden's Fashion Designer Daughter Just Raised The Normcore Bar|website=Grazia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guestofaguest.com/new-york/events/joe-biden-takes-over-new-york-fashion-week-with-gilt|title=Joe Biden Takes Over New York Fashion Week With Gilt|website=Guest of a Guest}}</ref> The brand collaborated with [[Gilt Groupe]] and [[Aubrey Plaza]] to raise $30,000 for the [[Delaware Community Foundation]].<ref name= elle/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usmagazine.com/stylish/news/former-vp-joe-biden-supports-daughter-ashley-at-fashion-week-w465793/|title=Joe Biden Supports Daughter Ashley at Her NYFW Debut!|date=February 8, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wusa9.com/article/entertainment/entertainment-tonight/joe-biden-supports-daughter-ashleys-debut-at-new-york-fashion-week-see-the-adorable-pics/65-404666224|title=Joe Biden Supports Daughter Ashley's Debut at New York Fashion Week -- See the Adorable Pics!|website=wusa9.com}}</ref> Livelihood's logo, an arrow piercing through the letters "LH", was inspired by Biden's half-brother Beau, who died of brain cancer in 2015.<ref name= lily/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://technical.ly/delaware/2017/02/09/ashley-biden-livelihood-launch/|title=Here's what went down at the NYC launch of Ashley Biden's charitable clothing line|first=Tony Abraham /|last=contributor|date=February 9, 2017|website=Technical.ly Delaware}}</ref> Biden stated that "[Beau] was my bow. His cancer brought me to my knees. I had no choice but to shoot forward, keep going, keep aiming at my own dreams."<ref name= lily/>

Biden created the brand to help combat income inequality and racial inequality in the United States.<ref name= elle/><ref name= today/> All the proceeds from the brand launch at New York Fashion Week were allocated to programs for communities in need.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/national-international/joe-biden-supports-daughter-ashley-new-york-fashion-week-event/2055406/|title=Former Vice President Joe Biden Supports Daughter Ashley's New York Fashion Week Event}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Nguyen | first=Diana | title=Ashley Biden Makes Her Fashion Designer Debut in a Hoodie | website=E! Online | date=February 8, 2017 | url=https://www.eonline.com/news/827521/joe-biden-s-daughter-ashley-biden-makes-her-fashion-designer-debut-in-an-awesome-hoodie | access-date=November 11, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcchicago.com/news/national-international/joe-biden-supports-daughter-ashley-new-york-fashion-week-event/2031274/|title=Former Vice President Joe Biden Supports Daughter Ashley's New York Fashion Week Event}}</ref> Ten percent of the brand's continued sales are donated to community organizations in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C. and the Riverside in Wilmington.<ref name= lily/> Livelihood's products are made with American-sourced organic cotton and are manufactured in the United States.<ref name= eco>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecowatch.com/ashley-biden-livelihood-2259220668.html|title=Ashley Biden Shows Ivanka Trump How to Make American Fashion Great Again|date=February 13, 2017|website=EcoWatch}}</ref><ref name= teenvogue>{{Cite web|url=https://www.teenvogue.com/story/ashley-biden-partners-with-gilt-on-livelihood-clothing-line|title=Joe Biden's Daughter Launched Clothing That's ACTUALLY Made in the U.S.|first=Melanie|last=Mignucci|website=Teen Vogue}}</ref> She decided to design hoodies due to their connection to the [[Labor Movement]], and their symbolic significance toward social justice movements.<ref name= eco/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.today.com/style/ashley-biden-joe-biden-s-daughter-launches-new-hoodie-line-t108034|title=How Joe Biden's daughter is giving back with her new hoodie line|website=TODAY.com}}</ref> The brand's website provides information about civic engagement and economic justice.<ref name= eco/><ref name= teenvogue/>

Along with [[Colleen Atwood]], [[Barbara Tfank]], [[Rachel Zoe]], [[Bibhu Mohapatra]], [[Betsey Johnson]], [[Calvin Klein]], [[Oscar de la Renta]], [[Anna Sui]], [[Paul Tazewell]], and other designers and fashion houses, Biden designed outfits for 12-inch vinyl dolls of the ''[[Peanuts]]'' characters [[Snoopy]] and Belle for the 2017 ''Snoopy and Belle in Fashion'' exhibition.<ref name= apparel>{{Cite web|url=http://www.apparelnews.net/news/2017/sep/14/snoopys-fashion-tour/|title=Snoopy's Fashion Tour|website=apparelnews.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.snoopyandbelleinfashion.com/|title=Snoopy and Belle In Fashion|website=Snoopy and Belle In Fashion}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.artsbrookfield.com/event/snoopy/|title=Snoopy & Belle in Fashion|website=Arts Brookfield}}</ref> The exhibition kicked off on September 7, 2017, at [[Brookfield Place (New York City)|Brookfield Place]] in [[Manhattan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wwd.com/fashion-news/fashion-scoops/will-joe-biden-run-in-2020-his-designer-daughter-ashley-sure-hopes-so-10973384/|title=Will Joe Biden Run in 2020? His Designer Daughter Ashley Sure Hopes So|first1=Rosemary|last1=Feitelberg|date=September 7, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://therecessionista.com/new-snoopy-belle-exhibit-at-ny-fashion-week-features-hamilton/|title=New Snoopy and Belle Exhibit features Hamilton Costumes|date=September 7, 2017|website=The Recessionista®}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vogue.com/article/snoopy-belle-brookfield-place-exhibition-new-york-fashion-week-party|title=Snoopy and Belle's Fashion Exhibition Party at Brookfield Place|first=Condé|last=Nast|website=Vogue}}</ref> It toured in San Diego, Los Angeles, and several other cities throughout the United States before closing on October 1, 2017.<ref name= apparel/>

In June 2020, Biden designed the uniforms for the staff at the Hamilton Hotel in Washington, D.C. as an offshoot of her Livelihood Collection<ref name= lily>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelily.com/she-may-join-her-fathers-campaign-closer-to-2020-but-for-now-ashley-bidens-focused-on-economic-equality-and-hoodies/|title=She may join her father's campaign closer to 2020, but for now, Ashley Biden's focused on economic equality and hoodies|first=The Lily|last=News|website=thelily.com}}</ref><ref name= Washington>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonian.com/2019/08/12/what-will-her-dads-campaign-mean-for-ashley-bidens-fashion-line/|title=What Will Her Dad's Campaign Mean for Ashley Biden's Fashion Line?|date=August 12, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/2019/06/12/ashley-biden-knows-presidential-campaign-is-coming-now-shes-talking-hoodies-economic-inequality/|title=Ashley Biden knows a presidential campaign is coming. For now, she's talking hoodies and economic inequality.|first=Robin|last=Givhan|work=The Washington Post|date=June 12, 2019}}</ref> The uniforms were unveiled at a private launch party.<ref name= Washington/> The hotel donated $15,000 to Livelihood.<ref name= lily/><ref name= Washington/>

== Personal life ==
[[File:Joe Biden dances the hora with his daughter.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Biden and her father dancing the [[Hora (dance)|hora]] at her wedding reception with her husband [[Howard Krein]] looking on.]]
In 2002, Biden was arrested in [[Chicago]] and charged with obstructing a police officer.<ref name= chicago>{{Cite web|last=services|first=Items compiled from Tribune news|title=Senator's daughter arrested in Chicago|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2002-08-04-0208040276-story.html|access-date=October 17, 2020|website=Chicago Tribune|date=August 4, 2002}}</ref> She was leaving a club on [[Division Street]] when a friend, John Kaulentis, threw a soft-drink can at a police officer who had told him to stay behind a barricade set up to keep club patrons off of the street.<ref name= chicago/> The situation escalated and resulted in another friend, Kelly Donohoe, hitting an officer.<ref name= chicago/> As Kaulentis and Donohoe were being taken in to custody, Biden allegedly "verbally intimidated" an officer and was arrested.<ref name= chicago/> All three were released on their own [[recognizance]].<ref name= chicago/>

In 2009, a friend of Biden attempted to sell a video, reportedly of Biden using [[cocaine]] at a party, to the ''[[New York Post]]'' for $2 million.<ref name= hindu>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world/joe-biden-s-daughter-caught-on-camera-snorting-cocaine/story-qozubVpTVctLgmIaWXrgZJ.html|title='Joe Biden's daughter caught on camera snorting Cocaine'|date=March 30, 2009|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-aug-04-na-briefs4.1-story.html|title=Sen. Biden's Daughter Arrested in Altercation|date=August 4, 2002|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Negotiations brought the price down to $400,000 but the newspaper declined the offer, choosing instead to publish a story about the alleged video.<ref name= hindu/><ref name= vanity>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2009/03/ashley-biden-drugs-and-the-real-cause-for-outrage|title=Ashley Biden, Drugs, and the Real Cause for Outrage|first=Mike|last=Hogan|website=Vanity Fair}}</ref> After the ''New York Post'' published the story, it was revealed that Biden had previously been arrested in 1999 in [[New Orleans]] for possession of [[marijuana]], but the charges were dropped and she was released.<ref name= vanity/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lawenforcementtoday.com/bidens-family-members-have-prior-arrests-yet-have-seen-no-jail-time/|title=Report: Joe Biden's family members have prior arrests for drugs and drunk driving. So why no jail time?|date=July 12, 2020|website=Law Enforcement Today}}</ref>

In 2010, she began dating [[Howard Krein]], a plastic surgeon and [[otolaryngologist]], after being introduced by her brother, Beau.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thelist.com/237917/the-truth-about-ashley-bidens-husband/|title=The truth about Ashley Biden's husband|first=Erin|last=Fenton|date=August 18, 2020|website=TheList.com}}</ref> They married in a Catholic-Jewish [[interfaith marriage|interfaith]] ceremony at St. Joseph's on the Brandywine in 2012.<ref name= elle/><ref name= wedding/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/ashley-biden-marries-jewish-doctor-1.5169138|title=Ashley Biden, daughter of U.S. Vice President, marries Jewish doctor|website=Haaretz.com}}</ref> Her husband, who is Jewish, works at [[Thomas Jefferson University Hospital]] in Philadelphia and is an assistant professor of facial, plastic, and reconstructive surgery.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/OTUS/meet-joe-bidens-future-son-law/story?id=16475464|title=Meet Joe Biden's Future Son-in-Law|website=ABC News}}</ref>

Biden is a practicing Catholic.<ref>{{cite news | title=Parishioners not surprised to see Biden at usual Mass | author=Gibson, Ginger | publisher=[[The News Journal]] | date= August 25, 2008}}</ref> She joined her husband, father, and brother in a private audience with [[Pope Francis]] in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kpel965.com/vice-president-joe-biden-meets-with-pope-francis/|title=Vice President Joe Biden Meets With Pope Francis|website=KPEL 96.5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vvdailypress.com/article/ZZ/20160429/NEWS/304299966|title=The Latest: Biden meets with Vatican secretary of state|agency=Associated Press|website=vvdailypress.com}}</ref>

In August 2020, Biden spoke at the [[2020 Democratic National Convention]] before her father accepted the 2020 Democratic Presidential Nomination.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.demconvention.com/press-releases/democrats-announce-highlights-for-final-night-of-the-2020-democratic-national-convention/|title=Democrats Announce Highlights for Final Night of the 2020 Democratic National Convention|date=August 20, 2020|website=2020 Democratic National Convention|access-date=October 11, 2020|archive-date=November 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115172245/https://www.demconvention.com/press-releases/democrats-announce-highlights-for-final-night-of-the-2020-democratic-national-convention/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/hunter-biden-ashley-biden-show-032135232.html|title=Hunter Biden, Ashley Biden show support for dad Joe at DNC|website=news.yahoo.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=August 20, 2020|title=Hunter and Ashley Biden speak on behalf of their father|url=https://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/national/article245129355.html|access-date=October 11, 2020|website=McClatchydc}}</ref> On August 6, Biden hosted an organizing event for Wisconsin Women for Biden to discuss the Women's Agenda, released by her [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign|father's campaign]], and bring awareness to women's issues in the [[2020 United States presidential election]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stcroixcountydemocrats.org/events/wisconsin-women-for-biden-organizing-event-with-ashley-biden|title=Wisconsin Women for Biden Organizing Event with Ashley Biden|website=St. Croix County Democratic Party}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons inline}}
* {{IMDb name}}

{{Joe Biden}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Biden, Ashley}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:21st-century Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Activists from Delaware]]
[[Category:American fashion businesspeople]]
[[Category:American fashion designers]]
[[Category:American social workers]]
[[Category:American social justice activists]]
[[Category:American women activists]]
[[Category:American women philanthropists]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:American people of French descent]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:Biden family]]
[[Category:Catholics from Delaware]]
[[Category:Children of vice presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Daughters of national leaders]]
[[Category:Delaware Democrats]]
[[Category:Philanthropists from Delaware]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni]]
[[Category:Tulane University alumni]]
[[Category:American women fashion designers]]
[[Category:Social workers]]
[[Category:Children of presidents of the United States]]

Iron Curtain

2021-08-12T12:52:35Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=May 2021}} {{Other uses}} {{short description|Term symbolizing the ideological-political conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe during the Col..."

{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=May 2021}}
{{Other uses}}
{{short description|Term symbolizing the ideological-political conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe during the Cold War}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}
[[File:Iron Curtain map.svg|thumb|The Iron Curtain, in black
{{legend|#FF8282|[[Warsaw Pact]] countries}}
{{legend|#2B82FF|[[NATO]] members}}
{{legend|#C0C0C0|Militarily neutral countries}}
{{legend|#57D557|[[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]}}<hr />
The black dot represents [[West Berlin]], an exclave of [[West Germany]]. [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]] withheld its support to the Warsaw Pact in 1961 due to the [[Soviet–Albanian split]] and formally withdrew in 1968.]]

The '''Iron Curtain''' was a political boundary dividing [[Europe]] into two separate areas from the end of [[World War II]] in 1945 until the end of the [[Cold War]] in 1991. The term symbolizes the efforts by the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) to block itself and its [[satellite state]]s from open contact with [[Western Bloc|the West]] and its allied states. On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union, while on the west side were the countries that were [[NATO]] members or nominally neutral. Separate international economic and military alliances were developed on each side of the Iron Curtain. It later became a term for the {{convert|7000|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} physical barrier of fences, walls, minefields, and watchtowers that divided the "east" and "west". The [[Berlin Wall]] was also part of this physical barrier.

The nations to the east of the Iron Curtain were [[People's Republic of Poland|Poland]], [[East Germany]], [[Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakia]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[People's Republic of Albania|Albania]], and the [[USSR]]; however, [[Reunification of Germany|East Germany]], [[Breakup of Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakia]], and the [[Dissolution of the USSR|USSR]] have since ceased to exist. Countries that [[Republics of the USSR|made up the USSR]] were [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]], [[Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarus]], [[Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic|Latvia]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]], [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonia]], [[Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic|Moldova]], [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan]], [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Georgia]], [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic|Uzbekistan]], [[Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic|Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|Tajikistan]], [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Lithuania]], [[Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic|Turkmenistan]], and [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakhstan]]. The events that demolished the Iron Curtain [[Revolutions of 1989|started]] with peaceful [[Fall of communism in Poland|opposition in Poland]],<ref>[[Sorin Antohi]] and [[Vladimir Tismăneanu]], "Independence Reborn and the Demons of the Velvet Revolution" in ''Between Past and Future: The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath'', Central European University Press. {{ISBN|963-9116-71-8}}. [https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN9639116718&id=1pl5T45FwIwC&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=%22Autumn+of+Nations%22&sig=DCpWFx3kS95ahhNIf3omlu5E7sk p.85].</ref><ref name="lead">{{cite news | author = Boyes, Roger | url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/world_agenda/article6430833.ece | title = World Agenda: 20 years later, Poland can lead eastern Europe once again | date = 4 June 2009 | work = [[The Times]] | access-date = 4 June 2009}}</ref> and continued into [[End of Communism in Hungary (1989)|Hungary]], [[Peaceful Revolution|East Germany]], [[Fall of communism in Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], and [[Velvet Revolution|Czechoslovakia]]. Romania became the only [[socialist state]] in Europe to [[Romanian Revolution|overthrow its government with violence]].<ref>http://www.umk.ro/images/documente/publicatii/Buletin20/the_end.pdf
</ref><ref>[[Piotr Sztompka]], preface to ''Society in Action: the Theory of Social Becoming'', University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-78815-6}}. [https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0226788156&id=sdSw3FgVOS4C&pg=PP16&lpg=PP16&dq=%22Autumn+of+Nations%22&sig=NZAz9ZZ4N0J7wsnpqqrHtL2iG8g p. x].</ref>

The use of the term ''Iron Curtain'' as a [[metaphor]] for strict separation goes back at least as far as the early 19th century. It originally referred to fireproof curtains in theaters.<ref name="Feuerlicht"/> Although its popularity as a Cold War symbol is attributed to its use in a speech [[Winston Churchill]] gave on March 5, 1946, in [[Fulton, Missouri|Fulton]], [[Missouri]],<ref name="Feuerlicht"/> Nazi German Minister of Propaganda [[Joseph Goebbels]] had first used the metaphor in reference to the Soviet Union.<ref name=":0" />

On the one hand, the Iron Curtain was a separating barrier between the power blocs and, on the other hand, natural biotopes were formed here, as the [[European Green Belt]] shows today, or original cultural, ethnic or linguistic areas such as the area around [[Trieste]] were preserved.

==Pre-Cold War usage==
[[File:Bakom Rysslands jarnrid.jpg|thumb|Swedish book "''Behind Russia's iron curtain''" from 1923]]

Various usages of the term "iron curtain" ({{lang-ru |link=no|Железный занавес|translit=Zheleznyj zanaves}}; {{lang-de |link=no|Eiserner Vorhang}}; {{lang-ka|2=tr|link=no|რკინის ფარდა}}; [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Železná opona''; {{lang-hu |Vasfüggöny}}; {{lang-ro|Cortina de fier}}; {{lang-pl|Żelazna kurtyna}}; {{lang-it |Cortina di ferro}}; {{lang-sr|Гвоздена завеса|translit=Gvozdena zavesa}}; {{lang-et |Raudne eesriie}}; {{lang-bg|Желязна завеса|translit=Zhelyazna zavesä}}) pre-date Churchill's use of the phrase. The concept goes back to the [[Babylonian Talmud]] of the 3rd to 5th centuries CE, where {{Cite Talmud|b|Tractate Sota|4=38b|5=yes}} refers to a "mechitza shel barzel", an iron barrier or divider: "{{Lang|he|אפילו מחיצה של ברזל אינה מפסקת בין ישראל לאביהם שבשמים|rtl=yes}}" ({{Transliteration|he|Even an iron barrier cannot separate [the people of] Israel from their heavenly father}}).

The term "iron curtain" has since been used metaphorically in two rather different senses – firstly to denote the end of an era and secondly to denote a closed geopolitical border. The source of these metaphors can refer to either the [[safety curtain]] deployed in theatres (the first one was installed by the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] in 1794<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theatrestrust.org.uk/resources/exploring-theatres/history-of-theatres/eighteenth-century-theatre |title=Eighteenth-century theatre | work = History of theatres - Exploring Theatres |publisher= The Theatres Trust |access-date=16 September 2015}}</ref>) or to [[roller shutter]]s used to secure commercial premises.<ref>{{citation|last= Proust|first= Marcel|title= The Captive |translator-last= Scott Moncrieff|translator-first=C.K. |year= 1929}}</ref>

The first metaphorical usage of "iron curtain", in the sense of an end of an era, perhaps should be attributed to British author [[Arthur Machen]] (1863–1947), who used the term in his 1895 novel ''The Three Impostors'': "...the door clanged behind me with the noise of thunder, and I felt that an iron curtain had fallen on the brief passage of my life".<ref>{{citation |last= Machen |first= Arthur |title=The Three Impostors |publisher= Aegypan Press |location=Los Angeles(?) |year=2005 |page= 60 |isbn=1-59818-437-7}}</ref> The English translation of a Russian text shown immediately below repeats the use of "clang" with reference to an "iron curtain", suggesting that the Russian writer, publishing 23 years after Machen, may have been familiar with the popular British author.

[[Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians]] used the term "Iron Curtain" in the context of World War I to describe the political situation between [[Belgium]] and [[Imperial Germany|Germany]] in 1914.<ref>Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians to Pierre Loti in 1915 ({{citation |first= Pierre |last= Loti |title= L'Album de la Guerre |edition=L'Illustration |location= Paris |year=1923 |page= 33}}).</ref>

The first recorded application of the term to [[Soviet Russia]], again in the sense of the end of an era, comes in [[Vasily Rozanov]]'s 1918 polemic The Apocalypse of Our Time, and it is possible that Churchill read it there following the publication of the book's English translation in 1920. The passage runs:
{{Quote |With clanging, creaking, and squeaking, an iron curtain is lowering over Russian History. "The performance is over." The audience got up. "Time to put on your fur coats and go home." We looked around, but the fur coats and homes were missing.<ref>{{Citation |last =Rozanov | first =Vasily| title = The Apocalypse of our Time ("Апокалипсис нашего времени") | year =1918 | location =103| page =212}}</ref>}}

(Incidentally, this same passage provides a definition of [[nihilism]] adopted by [[Raoul Vaneigem]],<ref>{{Citation|last = Vaneigem | first = Raoul| title =The Revolution of Everyday Life ("Traité de savoir-vivre à l'usage des jeunes générations") | publisher = Red and Black | year =1967 | location = 176 | page = 279 }}</ref> [[Guy Debord]] and other [[Situationist International|Situationists]] as the intention of situationist intervention.)

The first English-language use of the term ''[[Iron (metaphor)|iron]] [[curtain]]'' applied to the border of Soviet Russia in the sense of "an impenetrable barrier" was used in 1920 by [[Ethel Snowden]], in her book ''Through Bolshevik Russia''.<ref>{{Citation |last1 = Cohen |first1 = J. M. |first2 = M. J. |last2 = Cohen |year = 1996 |title = New Penguin Dictionary of Quotations |publisher = Penguin Books |page = [https://archive.org/details/newpenguindictio00cohe/page/726 726] |isbn = 0-14-051244-6 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/newpenguindictio00cohe/page/726 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last= Snowden |first=Philip (Ethel) |title=Through Bolshevik Russia |location= London |publisher=Cassell |year=1920 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JRJLAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMAAJ | page = 32}}</ref>

[[G.K. Chesterton]] used the phrase in a 1924 essay in ''[[The Illustrated London News]]''. Chesterton, while defending [[Distributism]], refers to "that iron curtain of [[industrialism]] that has cut us off not only from our neighbours' condition, but even from our own past".<ref>{{Citation |last= Chesterton |first=G.K. |title= The Collected Works of G.K. Chesterton: The Illustrated London News 1923 – 1925 |publisher= Ignatius Press |year= 1990 |page=452 |isbn= 0-89870-274-7}}</ref>

The term also appears in ''[[England, Their England]]'', a 1933 satirical novel by the Scottish writer A. G. Macdonell; it was used there to describe the way an artillery barrage protected the infantry from an enemy assault: "...the western sky was a blaze of yellow flame. The iron curtain was down". [[Sebastian Haffner]] used the metaphor in his book ''Germany: Jekyll & Hyde'', published in London in 1940, in introducing his discussion of the Nazi rise to power in Germany in 1933: "Back then to March 1933. How, a moment before the iron curtain was wrung down on it, did the German political stage appear?"<ref>{{citation |last=Haffner |first= Sebastian |year=2008 |title=Germany: Jekyll & Hyde: A contemporary account of Nazi Germany |isbn=978-0-349-11889-5 |location=London |publisher= Abacus |page= 177}}</ref>

All German theatres{{when|date=August 2014}} had to install an iron curtain (''eiserner Vorhang'') as an obligatory precaution to prevent the possibility of fire spreading from the stage to the rest of the theatre. Such fires were rather common because the decor often was flammable. In case of fire, a metal wall would separate the stage from the theatre, secluding the flames to be extinguished by firefighters. [[Douglas Reed]] used this metaphor in his book ''Disgrace Abounding'': "The bitter strife [in Yugoslavia between Serb unionists and Croat federalists] had only been hidden by the iron safety-curtain of the King's dictatorship".<ref>{{citation |last= Reed |first=Douglas |author-link=Douglas Reed |title= Disgrace Abounding |publisher=Jonathan Cape |year=1939 |page= 129}}</ref>

A May 1943 article in ''[[Signal (magazine)|Signal]]'', a Nazi illustrated propaganda periodical published in many languages, bore the title "Behind the Iron Curtain". It discussed "the iron curtain that more than ever before separates the world from the Soviet Union".<ref name=":0">{{citation |title= Hinter dem eisernen Vorhang |newspaper= Signal |number= 9 |date= May 1943 |language= de |page= 2}}</ref> The German [[Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Minister of Propaganda]] [[Joseph Goebbels]] wrote in his weekly newspaper ''[[Das Reich (newspaper)|Das Reich]]'' that if the Nazis should lose the war a Soviet-formed "iron curtain" would arise. This was because of agreements made by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and Winston Churchill at the [[Yalta Conference]]: "An iron curtain would fall over this enormous territory controlled by the Soviet Union, behind which nations would be slaughtered".<ref name= Feuerlicht>{{citation |title=A New Look at the Iron Curtain |first= Ignace |last=Feuerlicht |journal= American Speech |volume= 30 |issue= 3 |date=October 1955 |pages=186–189 |doi=10.2307/453937 |jstor= 453937}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Goebbels |first= Joseph |url= http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goeb49.htm |title= Das Jahr 2000 |newspaper=Das Reich |language=de |date= 25 February 1945 |pages=1–2 }}</ref> The first recorded oral intentional mention of an Iron Curtain in the Soviet context occurred in a broadcast by [[Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk|Lutz von Krosigk]] to the German people on 2 May 1945: "In the East the iron curtain behind which, unseen by the eyes of the world, the work of destruction goes on, is moving steadily forward".<ref>{{citation|title=Krosigk's Cry of Woe |newspaper= The Times |date=3 May 1945 |page= 4}}</ref>

Churchill's first recorded use of the term "iron curtain" came in a 12 May 1945 telegram he sent to U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman]] regarding his concern about Soviet actions, stating "[a]n iron curtain is drawn down upon their front. We do not know what is going on behind".<ref name="maychurchill"/> He was further concerned about "another immense flight of the German population westward as this enormous Muscovite advance towards the centre of Europe".<ref name= "maychurchill"/> Churchill concluded "then the curtain will descend again to a very large extent, if not entirely. Thus, a broad land of many hundreds of miles of Russian-occupied territory will isolate us from Poland".<ref name="maychurchill">{{Citation |last= Churchill |first= Winston S. |title= The Second World War, Triumph and Tragedy |publisher=Bantam |year=1962 |volume= 2 |chapter= 15 |pages= 489, 514}}</ref><ref>{{citation | publisher =US Dept of State |title= Foreign Relations of the US, The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam) |year=1945 |volume=1 |page= 9}}</ref>

Churchill repeated the words in a further telegram to President Truman on 4 June 1945, in which he protested against such a U.S. retreat to what was earlier designated as, and ultimately became, the U.S. occupation zone, saying the military withdrawal would bring "Soviet power into the heart of Western Europe and the descent of an iron curtain between us and everything to the eastward".{{sfn|Churchill |1962|p=92}} At the [[Potsdam Conference]], Churchill complained to Stalin about an "iron fence" coming down upon the British Mission in Bucharest.

The first American print reference to the "Iron Curtain" occurred when [[C. L. Sulzberger]] of ''The New York Times'' first used it in a dispatch published on 23 July 1945. He had heard the term used by [[Vladko Maček]], a [[Croatia]]n politician, a Yugoslav opposition leader who had fled his homeland for Paris in May 1945. Maček told Sulzberger, "During the four years while I was interned by the Germans in Croatia I saw how the Partisans were lowering an iron curtain over Jugoslavia [Yugoslavia] so that nobody could know what went on behind it".<ref>{{citation |last=Weintraub |first=Stanley |title= The Last Great Victory |publisher=Truman Talley Books |location= New York |year=1995 |page= 184}}</ref>

The term was first used in the British House of Commons by Churchill on 16 August 1945 when he stated "it is not impossible that tragedy on a prodigious scale is unfolding itself behind the iron curtain which at the moment divides Europe in twain".<ref>{{Citation |title= Debate on the address |publisher= Hansard, House of Commons |url= http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1945/aug/16/debate-on-the-address#column_84 |at= column 84 |date= 16 August 1945 |volume= 413}}</ref>

[[Allen Dulles]] used the term in a speech on 3 December 1945, referring to only Germany, following his conclusion that "in general the Russians are acting little better than thugs", had "wiped out all the liquid assets", and refused to issue food cards to emigrating Germans, leaving them "often more dead than alive". Dulles concluded that "[a]n iron curtain has descended over the fate of these people and very likely conditions are truly terrible. The promises at Yalta to the contrary, probably 8 to 10 million people are being enslaved".{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

==During the Cold War==
===Building antagonism===
{{Further|Origins of the Cold War|Cold War (1947–1953)}}
[[File:DNV opona.jpg|thumb|right|Remains of the "iron curtain" in [[Devínska Nová Ves]], [[Bratislava]] (Slovakia)]]
[[File:Čížov (Zaisa) - preserved part of Iron curtain.JPG|thumb|Preserved part of "iron curtain" in the Czech Republic. A [[watchtower]], [[Dragon's teeth (fortification)|dragon's teeth]] and electric security fence are visible.]]
The antagonism between the Soviet Union and the West that came to be described as the "iron curtain" had various origins.

During the summer of 1939, after conducting negotiations both with a British-French group and with [[Nazi Germany]] regarding potential military and political agreements,<ref>{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|pp=515–40}}</ref> the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the [[German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1939)|German–Soviet Commercial Agreement]] (which provided for the trade of certain German military and civilian equipment in exchange for Soviet raw materials)<ref name="shirer668">{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=668}}</ref><ref name = "ericson57">{{Harvnb|Ericson|1999|p=57}}</ref> and the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] (signed in late August 1939), named after the foreign secretaries of the two countries ([[Vyacheslav Molotov]] and [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]]), which included a secret agreement to split Poland and Eastern Europe between the two states.<ref>Day, Alan J.; East, Roger; Thomas, Richard. ''A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe'', p. 405.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080069304 |publisher=NDTV |title=Stalin offered troops to stop Hitler |location=London |agency=Press Trust of India |access-date=4 March 2009 |date=19 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090317090544/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080069304 |archive-date=17 March 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The Soviets thereafter occupied Eastern [[Poland]] (September 1939), [[Latvia]] (June 1940), [[Lithuania]] (1940), northern [[Romania]] ([[Bessarabia]] and [[Northern Bukovina]], late June 1940), [[Estonia]] (1940) and eastern [[Finland]] (March 1940). From August 1939, relations between the West and the Soviets deteriorated further when the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany engaged in an extensive [[Nazi–Soviet economic relations|economic relationship]] by which the Soviet Union sent Germany vital oil, rubber, manganese and other materials in exchange for German weapons, manufacturing machinery and technology.<ref>{{citation|last=Ericson|first=Edward E.|title=Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933 – 1941 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1999 |isbn=0-275-96337-3|pages=1–210}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Shirer|first=William L.|title=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1990 |isbn=0-671-72868-7|pages=598–610}}</ref> Nazi–Soviet trade ended in June 1941 when Germany broke the Pact and invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]].

In the course of World War II, Stalin determined to acquire a buffer area against Germany, with pro-Soviet states on its border in an [[Eastern bloc]]. Stalin's aims led to strained relations at the [[Yalta Conference]] (February 1945) and the subsequent [[Potsdam Conference]] (July–August 1945).<ref>
{{Citation |first=Gar |last=Alperovitz |title=Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam: The Use of the Atomic Bomb and the American Confrontation with Soviet Power|orig-year=1965 |year=1985|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-008337-8}}</ref> People in the West expressed opposition to Soviet domination over the buffer states, and the fear grew that the Soviets were building an empire that might be a threat to them and their interests.

Nonetheless, at the [[Potsdam Conference]], the Allies assigned parts of Poland, Finland, Romania, Germany, and the Balkans to Soviet control or influence. In return, Stalin promised the Western Allies that he would allow those territories the right to [[Self-determination|national self-determination]]. Despite Soviet cooperation during the war, these concessions left many in the West uneasy. In particular, Churchill feared that the United States might return to its pre-war [[United States isolationism|isolationism]], leaving the exhausted European states unable to resist Soviet demands. (President Franklin D. Roosevelt had announced at Yalta that after the defeat of Germany, U.S. forces would withdraw from Europe within two years.)<ref>[[Antony Beevor]] ''Berlin: The building of the Berlin Wall'', p. 80</ref>

===Iron Curtain speech===
{{Wikisource|Iron Curtain Speech}}

Winston Churchill's [[:s:Sinews of Peace|"Sinews of Peace" address]] of 5 March 1946, at [[Westminster College, Missouri|Westminster College]] in [[Fulton, Missouri]], used the term "iron curtain" in the context of Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe:

[[File:Iron Curtain as described by Churchill.PNG|thumb|The Iron Curtain as described by Churchill at Westminster College. Note that Vienna (''centre red regions, 3rd down'') is indeed behind the Curtain, as it was in the Austrian [[Allied-occupied Austria|Soviet-occupied zone]].]]

{{blockquote|From [[Szczecin|Stettin]] in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] to [[Trieste]] in the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]], an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Churchill|first1=Winston|title=The Sinews of Peace ('Iron Curtain Speech')|url=https://www.winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1946-1963-elder-statesman/the-sinews-of-peace/|website=Winstonchurchill.org|publisher=[[International Churchill Society]]|access-date=2 December 2017|date=5 March 1946}}</ref>}}

Much of the Western public still regarded the [[Soviet Union]] as a close ally in the context of the recent defeat of [[Nazi Germany]] and of [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]]. Although not well received at the time, the phrase ''iron curtain'' gained popularity as a shorthand reference to the division of Europe as the Cold War strengthened. The Iron Curtain served to keep people in, and information out. People throughout the West eventually came to accept and use the metaphor.

Churchill's "Sinews of Peace" address strongly criticised the Soviet Union's exclusive and secretive tension policies along with the Eastern Europe's state form, [[Police State]] (''Polizeistaat''). He expressed the Allied Nations' distrust of the Soviet Union after the World War II. In September 1946, US-Soviet cooperation collapsed due to the US disavowal of the Soviet Union's opinion on the German problem in the [[Stuttgart Council]], and then followed the announcement by US President [[Harry S. Truman]] of a hard line anti-Soviet, anticommunist policy. After that the phrase became more widely used as an anti-Soviet term in the West.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1146410&cid=40942&categoryId=31656 |title=철의 장막 : 지식백과 |language=ko |publisher=Terms.naver.com |access-date=2015-09-16}}</ref>

Additionally, Churchill mentioned in his speech that regions under the Soviet Union's control were expanding their leverage and power without any restriction. He asserted that in order to put a brake on this ongoing phenomenon, the commanding force and strong unity between the UK and the US was necessary.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=72578&cid=504&categoryId=504 |title=철의 장막 : 지식백과 |language=ko |publisher=Terms.naver.com |access-date=2015-09-16}}</ref>

Stalin took note of Churchill's speech and responded in ''[[Pravda]]'' soon afterward. He accused Churchill of warmongering, and defended Soviet "friendship" with eastern European states as a necessary safeguard against another invasion. Stalin further accused Churchill of hoping to install right-wing governments in eastern Europe with the goal of agitating those states against the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stalin |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/03/x01.htm |title=Interview to "Pravda" Correspondent Concerning Mr. Winston Churchill's Speech |publisher=Marxists.org |access-date=2015-09-16}}</ref> [[Andrei Zhdanov]], Stalin's chief propagandist, used the term against the West in an August 1946 speech:<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.revolutionarydemocracy.org/archive/zhdanovlit.htm
|title=Zhdanov: On Literature, Music and Philosophy|website=revolutionarydemocracy.org
}}</ref>

{{Block quote|Hard as bourgeois politicians and writers may strive to conceal the truth of the achievements of the Soviet order and Soviet culture, hard as they may strive to erect an iron curtain to keep the truth about the Soviet Union from penetrating abroad, hard as they may strive to belittle the genuine growth and scope of Soviet culture, all their efforts are foredoomed to failure.}}

===Political, economic, and military realities===

====Eastern Bloc====
[[File:EasternBloc BasicMembersOnly.svg|thumb|A map of the [[Eastern Bloc]]]]
{{Main|Eastern Bloc}}

While the Iron Curtain remained in place, much of Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe (except [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Austria]]) found themselves under the hegemony of the [[Soviet Union]]. The Soviet Union annexed:

* [[Estonia]],<ref name="wettig20" /><ref name="senn" />
* [[Latvia]]<ref name="wettig20">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=21}}</ref><ref name="senn">Senn, Alfred Erich, ''Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above'', Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 {{ISBN|978-90-420-2225-6}}</ref>
* [[Lithuania]]<ref name="wettig20" /><ref name="senn" />
as [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] within the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]].

Germany effectively gave Moscow a free hand in much of these territories in the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] of 1939, signed before Germany [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] in 1941.

Other Soviet-annexed territories included:

* [[Kresy|Eastern Poland]] (incorporated into the [[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|Ukrainian and Byelorussian SSRs]]),<ref name="stalinswars43">{{Harvnb| Roberts| 2006| p=43}}</ref>
* Part of eastern [[Finland]] (became part of the [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]])<ref name="ckpipe">Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, ''Stalin's Cold War'', New York: Manchester University Press, 1995, {{ISBN|0-7190-4201-1}}</ref>
* Northern [[Romania]] (part of which became the [[Moldavian SSR]]).<ref name="stalinswars55">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=55}}</ref><ref name="shirer794">{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=794}}</ref>
*[[Kaliningrad Oblast]], the northern half of [[East Prussia]], taken in 1945.
*Part of eastern [[Czechoslovakia]] ([[Carpathian Ruthenia]], incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR).

Between 1945 and 1949 the Soviets converted the following areas into [[Satellite state|satellite]] states:

* The [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]<ref name="wettig96">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|pp=96–100}}</ref>
* The [[People's Republic of Bulgaria]]
* The [[People's Republic of Poland]]
* The [[Hungarian People's Republic]]<ref name="granville">Granville, Johanna, ''The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956'', Texas A&M University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-58544-298-4}}</ref>
* The [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Grenville|2005|pp=370–71}}</ref>
* The [[People's Republic of Romania]]
* The [[People's Republic of Albania]]<ref name="cook17">{{Harvnb|Cook|2001|p=17}}</ref> (which re-aligned itself in the 1950s and early 1960s [[Soviet-Albanian split|away from the Soviet Union]] towards the [[People's Republic of China]] and split from the PRC [[Sino-Albanian Split|towards a strongly isolationist worldview]] in the late 1970s)

Soviet-installed governments ruled the Eastern Bloc countries, with the exception of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], which changed its orientation [[Tito-Stalin split|away from the Soviet Union]] in the late 1940s to a progressively [[Non-aligned Movement|independent worldview]].

The majority of European states to the east of the Iron Curtain developed their own international economic and military alliances, such as [[COMECON]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]].

====West of the Iron Curtain====
[[File:Curtain germany.jpg|thumb|Fence along the east–west border in Germany (near [[Witzenhausen]]-[[Heilbad Heiligenstadt|Heiligenstadt]])]]
[[File:1 K zone.png|thumb|Sign warning of approach to within one kilometer of the inter-zonal German border, 1986]]

To the west of the Iron Curtain, the countries of Western Europe, Northern Europe, and Southern Europe – along with [[Austria]], [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Switzerland]] – operated [[market economy|market economies]]. With the exception of a period of [[Francoist Spain|fascism in Spain]] (until [[Spanish transition to democracy|1975]]) and [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Portugal]] (until [[Carnation Revolution|1974]]) and a [[Greek military junta of 1967–1974|military dictatorship in Greece (1967–1974)]], [[Democracy|democratic governments]] ruled these countries.

Most of the states of Europe to the west of the Iron Curtain – with the exception of [[Neutral country|neutral]] [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Austria]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Malta]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]] – allied themselves with [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] within [[NATO]]. Economically, the [[European Community]] (EC) and the [[European Free Trade Association]] represented Western counterparts to [[COMECON]]. Most of the nominally neutral states were economically closer to the United States than they were to the [[Warsaw Pact]].{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

====Further division in the late 1940s====
{{Further|Marshall Plan|Falsifiers of History|Berlin Airlift|Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948}}

In January 1947 [[Harry Truman]] appointed General [[George Marshall]] as Secretary of State, scrapped Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) directive 1067 (which embodied the [[Morgenthau Plan]]), and supplanted it with JCS 1779, which decreed that an orderly and prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."<ref name="beschloss277">{{Harvnb|Beschloss|2003|p=277}}</ref> Officials met with Soviet Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] and others to press for an economically self-sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets.<ref name="miller16">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=16}}</ref>

After five and a half weeks of negotiations, Molotov refused the demands and the talks were adjourned.<ref name="miller16"/> Marshall was particularly discouraged after personally meeting with Stalin, who expressed little interest in a solution to German economic problems.<ref name="miller16"/> The United States concluded that a solution could not wait any longer.<ref name="miller16"/> In a 5 June 1947 speech,<ref name="marshallspeech">Marshall, George C, [[s:The Marshall Plan Speech|''The Marshal Plan Speech'']], 5 June 1947</ref> Marshall announced a comprehensive program of American assistance to all European countries wanting to participate, including the Soviet Union and those of Eastern Europe, called the [[Marshall Plan]].<ref name="miller16"/>

Stalin opposed the Marshall Plan. He had built up the [[Eastern Bloc]] protective belt of Soviet-controlled nations on his Western border,<ref name="miller10">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=10}}</ref> and wanted to maintain this buffer zone of states combined with a weakened Germany under Soviet control.<ref name="miller11">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=11}}</ref> Fearing American political, cultural and economic penetration, Stalin eventually forbade Soviet [[Eastern bloc]] countries of the newly formed [[Cominform]] from accepting [[Marshall Plan]] aid.<ref name="miller16"/> In [[Czechoslovakia]], that required a Soviet-backed [[Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948]],<ref name=trueye>''Airbridge to Berlin'', "Eye of the Storm" chapter</ref> the brutality of which shocked Western powers more than any event so far and set in a motion a brief scare that war would occur and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the United States Congress.<ref name="miller19">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=19}}</ref>

Relations further deteriorated when, in January 1948, the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] also published a collection of documents titled ''Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939 – 1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office'', which contained documents recovered from the Foreign Office of [[Nazi Germany]]<ref name="henig67"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Department of State|1948|p=preface}}</ref> revealing Soviet conversations with Germany regarding the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact negotiations|Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], including its secret protocol dividing eastern Europe,<ref name="roberts97">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2002|p=97}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Department of State|1948|p=78}}</ref> the [[German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1939)|1939 German-Soviet Commercial Agreement]],<ref name="roberts97"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Department of State|1948|pp=32–77}}</ref> and [[German–Soviet Axis talks|discussions of the Soviet Union potentially becoming the fourth Axis Power]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Churchill|1953|pp=512–524}}</ref> In response, one month later, the Soviet Union published ''[[Falsifiers of History]]'', a Stalin-edited and partially re-written book attacking the West.<ref name="henig67">{{Harvnb|Henig|2005|p=67}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Roberts|2002|p=96}}</ref>

After the Marshall Plan, the introduction of a new currency to Western Germany to replace the debased [[Reichsmark]] and massive electoral losses for communist parties, in June 1948, the Soviet Union cut off surface road access to [[Berlin]], initiating the [[Berlin Blockade]], which cut off all non-Soviet food, water and other supplies for the citizens of the non-Soviet sectors of Berlin.<ref name="miller25">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|pp=25–31}}</ref> Because Berlin was located within the Soviet-occupied zone of Germany, the only available methods of supplying the city were three limited air corridors.<ref name="miller6">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|pp=6–7}}</ref> A massive aerial supply campaign was initiated by the United States, Britain, France, and other countries, the success of which caused the Soviets to lift their blockade in May 1949.

===Emigration restrictions===
{{Main|Eastern Bloc emigration and defection}}
[[File:Iron curtain in Czech Republic 2007.jpg|thumb|Remains of Iron Curtain in former Czechoslovakia at the Czech-German border]]

One of the conclusions of the [[Yalta Conference]] was that the western Allies would [[Operation Keelhaul|return all Soviet citizens]] who found themselves in their zones to the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jacob |last=Hornberger |title=Repatriation – The Dark Side of World War II |publisher=The Future of Freedom Foundation |year=1995 |url=http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014115546/http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp |archive-date=14 October 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> This affected the liberated Soviet prisoners of war (branded as traitors), forced laborers, anti-Soviet collaborators with the Germans, and anti-communist refugees.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nikolai Tolstoy| title=The Secret Betrayal | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons | year = 1977 | isbn = 0-684-15635-0 | page = 360 | author-link=Nikolai Tolstoy | title-link=The Secret Betrayal }}</ref>

Migration from east to west of the Iron Curtain, except under limited circumstances, was effectively halted after 1950. Before 1950, over 15 million people (mainly ethnic Germans) emigrated from Soviet-occupied eastern European countries to the west in the five years immediately following [[World War II]].<ref name="bocker207">{{Harvnb|Böcker|1998|p=207}}</ref> However, restrictions implemented during the Cold War stopped most east–west migration, with only 13.3 million migrations westward between 1950 and 1990.<ref name="bocker209">{{Harvnb|Böcker|1998|p=209}}</ref> More than 75% of those emigrating from Eastern Bloc countries between 1950 and 1990 did so under bilateral agreements for "ethnic migration."<ref name="bocker209"/>

About 10% were refugees permitted to emigrate under the [[Geneva Convention]] of 1951.<ref name="bocker209"/> Most Soviets allowed to leave during this time period were ethnic Jews permitted to emigrate to Israel after a series of embarrassing defections in 1970 caused the Soviets to open very limited ethnic emigrations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Krasnov|1985|pp=1&126}}</ref> The fall of the Iron Curtain was accompanied by a massive rise in European East-West migration.<ref name="bocker209"/>

===As a physical entity===
{{more citations needed section|date=March 2014}}
{{Further|Inner German border|Czechoslovakian border fortifications during the Cold War}}
[[File:Moedlareuth Museum 2002b.jpg|thumb|Preserved section of the border between [[East Germany]] and West Germany called the "Little Berlin Wall" at [[Mödlareuth]]]]

The Iron Curtain took physical shape in the form of border defences between the countries of western and eastern Europe. There were some of the most heavily militarised areas in the world, particularly the so-called "[[inner German border]]" – commonly known as ''die Grenze'' in German – between East and West Germany. The inner German border was marked in rural areas by double fences made of steel mesh (expanded metal) with sharp edges, while near urban areas a high concrete barrier similar to the [[Berlin Wall]] was built. The installation of the Wall in 1961 brought an end to a decade during which the divided capital of divided Germany was one of the easiest places to move west across the Iron Curtain.<ref>Keeling, Drew (2014), business-of-migration.com [http://www.business-of-migration.com/migration-processes/other-regions/berlin-wall-and-migration/ "Berlin Wall and Migration," ''Migration as a travel business'']</ref>

The barrier was always a short distance inside East German territory to avoid any intrusion into Western territory. The actual borderline was marked by posts and signs and was overlooked by numerous watchtowers set behind the barrier. The strip of land on the West German side of the barrier – between the actual borderline and the barrier – was readily accessible but only at considerable personal risk, because it was patrolled by both East and West German border guards.

[[File:Point Alpha Ostseite.jpg|thumb|Fence along the former east–west border in Germany]]
Several villages, many historic, were destroyed as they lay too close to the border, for example [[Erlebach]]. Shooting incidents were not uncommon, and several hundred civilians and 28 East German border guards were killed between 1948 and 1981 (some may have been victims of "[[friendly fire]]" by their own side).

Elsewhere along the border between West and East, the defence works resembled those on the intra-German border. During the Cold War, the border zone in Hungary started {{convert|15|km}} from the border. Citizens could only enter the area if they lived in the zone or had a passport valid for traveling out. Traffic control points and patrols enforced this regulation.

Those who lived within the {{convert|15|km}} border-zone needed special permission to enter the area within {{convert|5|km}} of the border. The area was very difficult to approach and heavily fortified. In the 1950s and 1960s, a double barbed-wire fence was installed {{convert|50|m}} from the border. The space between the two fences was laden with [[land mine]]s. The minefield was later replaced with an electric signal fence (about {{convert|1|km}} from the border) and a barbed wire fence, along with guard towers and a sand strip to track border violations.

Regular patrols sought to prevent escape attempts. They included cars and mounted units. Guards and dog patrol units watched the border 24/7 and were authorised to use their weapons to stop escapees. The wire fence nearest the actual border was irregularly displaced from the actual border, which was marked only by stones. Anyone attempting to escape would have to cross up to {{convert|400|m}} before they could cross the actual border. Several escape attempts failed when the escapees were stopped after crossing the outer fence.

In parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], the border strip became hundreds of meters wide, and an area of increasing restrictions was defined as the border was approached. Only people with the appropriate government permissions were allowed to get close to the border.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cold river : the cold truth of freedom|last=Imrich, Jozef.|date=2005|publisher=Double Dragon|isbn=9781554043118|location=East Markham, Ontario|oclc=225346736}}</ref>

The Soviet Union built a fence along the entire border between [[Norway]] and [[Finland]]. It is located one or a few kilometres from the border, and has automatic alarms detecting if someone climbs over it.

In [[Greece]], a highly militarised area called the "Επιτηρούμενη Ζώνη" ("Surveillance Area") was created by the Greek Army along the Greek-Bulgarian border, subject to significant security-related regulations and restrictions. Inhabitants within this {{convert|25|km}} wide strip of land were forbidden to drive cars, own land bigger than {{convert|60|m2}}, and had to travel within the area with a special passport issued by Greek military authorities. Additionally, the Greek state used this area to encapsulate and monitor a non-Greek ethnic minority, the [[Pomaks]], a Muslim and Bulgarian-speaking minority which was regarded as hostile to the interests of the Greek state during the Cold War because of its familiarity with their fellow Pomaks living on the other side of the Iron Curtain.<ref>[https://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/ibru/publications/full/bsb7-2_labrianidis.pdf Lois Labrianidis, The impact of the Greek military surveillance zone on the Greek side of the Bulgarian-Greek borderlands], 1999</ref>

The Hungarian outer fence became the first part of the Iron Curtain to be dismantled. After the border fortifications were dismantled, a section was rebuilt for a formal ceremony. On 27 June 1989, the [[foreign minister]]s of Austria and Hungary, [[Alois Mock]] and [[Gyula Horn]], ceremonially cut through the border defences separating their countries.

The creation of these highly militarised no-man's lands led to ''de facto'' nature reserves and created a [[wildlife corridor]] across Europe; this helped the spread of several species to new territories. Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, several initiatives are pursuing the creation of a [[European Green Belt]] nature preserve area along the Iron Curtain's former route. In fact, a [[long-distance cycling route]] along the length of the former border called the [[Iron Curtain Trail]] (ICT) exists as a project of the European Union and other associated nations. The trail is {{Convert|6,800|km|abbr=on}} long and spans from [[Finland]] to [[Greece]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ironcurtaintrail.eu/en/der_iron_curtain_trail/index.html |title=The Iron Curtain Trail |publisher=Ironcurtaintrail.eu |access-date=2013-11-16}}</ref>

The term "Iron Curtain" was only used for the fortified borders in Europe; it was not used for similar borders in Asia between socialist and capitalist states (these were, for a time, dubbed the [[Bamboo Curtain]]). The [[Korean Demilitarized Zone|border between North Korea and South Korea]] is very comparable to the former inner German border, particularly in its degree of militarisation, but it has never conventionally been considered part of any Iron Curtain.

====Helmstedt-Marienborn crossing====
{{Main|Helmstedt-Marienborn border crossing}}

The '''Border checkpoint Helmstedt–Marienborn''' ({{lang-de|'''Grenzübergang Helmstedt-Marienborn'''}}), named ''Grenzübergangsstelle Marienborn'' (GÜSt) (''border crossing Marienborn'') by the [[German Democratic Republic]] (GDR), was the largest and most important border crossing on the [[Inner German border]] during the [[History of Germany since 1945|division of Germany]]. Due to its geographical location, allowing for the shortest land route between [[West Germany]] and [[West Berlin]], most transit traffic to and from West Berlin used the Helmstedt-Marienborn crossing. Most travel routes from West Germany to [[German Democratic Republic|East Germany]] and [[Poland]] also used this crossing. The border crossing existed from 1945 to 1990 and was situated near the East German village of [[Marienborn]] at the edge of the [[Lappwald]]. The crossing interrupted the [[Bundesautobahn 2]] (A 2) between the junctions ''[[Helmstedt]]-Ost'' and ''[[Ostingersleben]]''.

<gallery>
File:Grensovergang-helmstedt-marienborn-paspoortcontrole-personenautos-04.JPG
File:Grensovergang-helmstedt-marienborn-paspoortcontrole-vrachtautos.JPG
File:Grensovergang-helmstedt-marienborn-lichtmast-commandotoren-brug.JPG
File:Grensovergang-helmstedt-marienborn-lichtmast-02.JPG
</gallery>

==Fall of the Iron Curtain==
{{Further|Eastern Bloc|Revolutions of 1989|Dissolution of the Soviet Union|European integration}}
[[File:EasternBloc PostDissolution2008.svg|thumb|The dissolution of the Eastern Bloc]]

Following a period of [[Brezhnev stagnation|economic and political stagnation]] under Brezhnev and his immediate successors, the Soviet Union decreased its intervention in [[Eastern Bloc politics]]. [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] (General Secretary from 1985) decreased adherence to the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]],<ref name="crampton338">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=338}}</ref> which held that if socialism were threatened in any state then other socialist governments had an obligation to intervene to preserve it, in favor of the "[[Sinatra Doctrine]]". He also initiated the policies of ''[[glasnost]]'' (openness) and ''[[perestroika]]'' (economic restructuring). A wave of [[Revolutions of 1989|Revolutions occurred throughout the Eastern Bloc]] in 1989.<ref name="Szafarz-221">E. Szafarz, "The Legal Framework for Political Cooperation in Europe" in ''The Changing Political Structure of Europe: Aspects of International Law'', Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. {{ISBN|0-7923-1379-8}}. [https://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0792313798&id=oGGSGhFbCDEC&pg=PA221&lpg=PA221&dq=%22Autumn+of+Nations%22&sig=MNi06rhiCjmU4axaQFavL9u_4Dk p.221].</ref>

Speaking at the Berlin Wall on June 12, 1987, Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further, saying "General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!"

In February 1989, the Hungarian [[politburo]] recommended to the government led by [[Miklós Németh]] to dismantle the iron curtain. Nemeth first informed [[Austria]]n chancellor Franz Vranitzky. He then received an informal clearance from [[Gorbachev]] (who said "there will not be a new [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956#Soviet intervention of 4 November|1956]]") on 3 March 1989, on 2 May of the same year the Hungarian government announced and started in [[Rajka]] (in the locality known as the "city of three borders", on the border with Austria and Czechoslovakia) the destruction of the Iron Curtain. For public relation Hungary reconstructed 200m of the iron curtain so it could be cut during an official ceremony by Hungarian foreign minister Gyula Horn, and Austrian foreign minister Alois Mock, on 27 June 1989, which had the function of calling all European peoples still under the yoke of the national-communist regimes to freedom.<ref>[https://orf.at/stories/3127918/ Ungarn als Vorreiter beim Grenzabbau], orf.at, 2019-06-27.</ref> However, the dismantling of the old Hungarian border facilities did not open the borders, nor did the previous strict controls be removed, and the isolation by the Iron Curtain was still intact over its entire length. Despite dismantling the already technically obsolete fence, the Hungarians wanted to prevent the formation of a green border by increasing the security of the border or to technically solve the security of their western border in a different way. After the demolition of the border facilities, the stripes of the heavily armed Hungarian border guards were tightened and there was still a firing order.<ref>Andreas Rödder: ''Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung'' (2009), p 72.</ref><ref>Miklós Németh in Interview with Peter Bognar, ''Grenzöffnung 1989: „Es gab keinen Protest aus Moskau“'' (German - Border opening in 1989: There was no protest from Moscow), in: Die Presse 18 August 2014.</ref>

In April 1989, the [[People's Republic of Poland]] legalised the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] organisation, which captured 99% of available parliamentary seats in June.<ref name="crampton392">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=392}}</ref> These elections, in which anti-communist candidates won a striking victory, inaugurated a series of [[Revolutions of 1989|peaceful anti-communist revolutions]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and Eastern Europe<ref name="O'K">{{Citation |last=Cavanaugh-O'Keefe |first=John |title=Emmanuel, Solidarity: God's Act, Our Response |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_P9owylILP4C&pg=PA68 |format=ebook |access-date=6 July 2006 |date=January 2001 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=0-7388-3864-0 |page=68 }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref name="Steger">{{Citation |last=Steger |first=Manfred B. |title=Judging Nonviolence: The Dispute Between Realists and Idealists |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEcHo6QcIUwC&pg=PA114 |format=ebook |access-date=6 July 2006 |date=January 2004 |publisher=Routledge (UK) |isbn=0-415-93397-8 |page=114 }}</ref><ref name="Kenney-Carnival-15">{{Citation |last=Kenney |first=Padraic |author-link=Padraic Kenney |title=A Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe 1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hELsX6c3hcYC&pg=PA15 |access-date=17 January 2007 |year=2002 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=15 |isbn=978-0-691-11627-3 }}</ref> that eventually culminated in the [[fall of communism]].<ref name="Kenney2">[[Padraic Kenney]], ''Rebuilding Poland: Workers and Communists, 1945 – 1950'', Cornell University Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0-8014-3287-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0801432871&id=z_Z_nJnzTp4C&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=Solidarity+fall+of+communism&sig=hg5y_J4IcP9QZkQyfCawhnKT3g8 Google Print, p.4]</ref><ref name="Kenney-Carnival-2">{{Citation|author=Padraic Kenney|title=A Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe 1989|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-691-05028-7|pages= [https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0691050287&id=hELsX6c3hcYC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=Solidarity+fall+of+communism&sig=2xGIVdsEhgOut91T–45A9DnTxQ8 p.2]}}</ref>

The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the [[Pan-European Picnic]] on August 19, 1989 then set in motion a chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. The idea of opening the border at a ceremony came from [[Otto von Habsburg]] and was brought up by him to [[Miklós Németh]], the then Hungarian Prime Minister, who promoted the idea.<ref>Miklós Németh in Interview, Austrian TV - ORF "Report", 25 June 2019.</ref> The Paneuropa Picnic itself developed from a meeting between Ferenc Mészáros of the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF) and the President of the [[Paneuropean Union]] Otto von Habsburg in June 1989. The local organization in Sopron took over the Hungarian Democratic Forum, the other contacts were made via Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State [[Imre Pozsgay]]. Extensive advertising for the planned picnic was made by posters and flyers among the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary. The Austrian branch of the [[Paneuropean Union]], which was then headed by [[Karl von Habsburg]], distributed thousands of brochures inviting them to a picnic near the border at Sopron.<ref>Hilde Szabo: ''Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln'' (The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland - German), in Wiener Zeitung 16 August 1999; Otmar Lahodynsky: ''Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall'' (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall - German), in: ''Profil'' 9 August 2014.</ref><ref>Ludwig Greven "Und dann ging das Tor auf", in Die Zeit, 19 August 2014.</ref> The local Sopron organizers knew nothing of possible GDR refugees, but thought of a local party with Austrian and Hungarian participation.<ref>Otmar Lahodynsky "Eiserner Vorhang: Picknick an der Grenze" (Iron curtain: picnic at the border - German), in Profil 13 June 2019.</ref> More than 600 East Germans attending the "Pan-European Picnic" on the Hungarian border broke through the Iron Curtain and fled into Austria. The refugees went through the iron curtain in three big waves during the picnic under the direction of Walburga Habsburg. Hungarian border guards had threatened to shoot anyone crossing the border, but when the time came, they did not intervene and allowed the people to cross.

It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The patrons of the picnic, Otto Habsburg and the Hungarian Minister of State [[Imre Pozsgay]], who were not present at the event, saw the planned event as an opportunity to test [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]`s reaction to an opening of the border on the Iron Curtain.<ref>Thomas Roser: ''DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln'' (German - Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) in: Die Presse 16 August 2018.</ref> In particular, it was examined whether Moscow would give the Soviet troops stationed in Hungary the command to intervene.<ref>„Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows“ (German - August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.</ref> After the pan-European picnic, [[Erich Honecker]] dictated the '' Daily Mirror '' of August 19, 1989: “Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West.” But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Thus the bracket of the Eastern Bloc was broken. Now tens of thousands of the media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer ready to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use force of arms. The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely lock the borders of their own country.<ref>Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic - With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.</ref><ref>Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).</ref>

In a historic session from 16 to 20 October, the [[Parliament of Hungary|Hungarian parliament]] adopted legislation providing for multi-party parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election.<ref name="crampton394">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|pp=394–5}}</ref>

The legislation transformed Hungary from a [[People's Republic of Hungary|People's Republic]] into the [[Republic of Hungary|Republic]], guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, legislative, and executive branches of government. In November 1989, following mass protests in [[East Germany]] and the relaxing of border restrictions in Czechoslovakia, tens of thousands of [[East Berlin]]ers flooded checkpoints along the [[Berlin Wall]], crossing into [[West Berlin]].<ref name="crampton394"/>

In the [[People's Republic of Bulgaria]], the day after the mass crossings across the Berlin Wall, leader [[Todor Zhivkov]] was ousted.<ref name="crampton395">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|pp=395–6}}</ref> In the [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]], following protests of an estimated half-million Czechoslovaks, the government permitted travel to the west and abolished provisions guaranteeing the ruling Communist party its leading role, preceding the [[Velvet Revolution]].<ref name="crampton398">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=398}}</ref>

In the [[Socialist Republic of Romania]], on 22 December 1989, the Romanian military sided with protesters and turned on Communist ruler [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], who was executed after a brief trial three days later.<ref name="crampton400">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=400}}</ref> In the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]], a new package of regulations went into effect on 3 July 1990 entitling all Albanians over the age of 16 to own a passport for foreign travel. Meanwhile, hundreds of Albanian citizens gathered around foreign embassies to seek political asylum and flee the country.

The Berlin Wall officially remained guarded after 9 November 1989, although the inter-German border had become effectively meaningless. The official dismantling of the Wall by the East German military did not begin until June 1990. On 1 July 1990, the day East Germany adopted the [[Deutsche Mark|West German currency]], all border-controls ceased and West German Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] convinced Gorbachev to drop Soviet objections to a reunited Germany within NATO in return for substantial German economic aid to the Soviet Union.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Oliver Mark - Otto Habsburg-Lothringen, Pöcking 2006.jpg|[[Otto von Habsburg]], who played a leading role in opening the Iron Curtain
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R0518-182, Erich Honecker.jpg|Erich Honecker
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1990-0419-014, Berlin, Loch in Mauer, Grenzsoldaten, Wachturm.jpg|East German border guards look through a hole in the Berlin Wall in 1990
</gallery>

==Monuments==
[[File:Iron Curtain - Hungary.jpg|thumb|upright|Memorial in [[Budapest]] reads: "Iron Curtain 1949–1989"]]
There is an Iron Curtain monument in the southern part of the Czech Republic at approximately {{Coord|48.8755|15.87477|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Iron Curtain monument}}. A few hundred meters of the original fence, and one of the guard towers, has remained installed. There are interpretive signs in Czech and English that explain the history and significance of the Iron Curtain. This is the only surviving part of the fence in the Czech Republic, though several guard towers and bunkers can still be seen. Some of these are part of the Communist Era defences, some are from the never-used [[Czechoslovak border fortifications]] in defence against [[Adolf Hitler]], and some towers were, or have become, hunting platforms.

Another monument is located in [[Fertőrákos]], Hungary, at the site of the [[Pan-European Picnic]]. On the eastern hill of the stone quarry stands a metal sculpture by [[Gabriela von Habsburg]]. It is a column made of metal and barbed wire with the date of the Pan-European Picnic and the names of participants. On the ribbon under the board is the Latin text: ''In necessariis unitas – in dubiis libertas – in omnibus caritas'' ("Unity in unavoidable matters – freedom in doubtful matters – love in all things"). The memorial symbolises the Iron Curtain and recalls forever the memories of the border breakthrough in 1989.

Another monument is located in the village of [[Devín]], now part of [[Bratislava]], [[Slovakia]], at the confluence of the [[Danube]] and [[Morava River (Central Europe)|Morava]] rivers.

There are several open-air museums in parts of the former inner German border, as for example in Berlin and in [[Mödlareuth]], a village that has been divided for several hundred years. The memory of the division is being kept alive in many places along the ''Grenze''.

==Analogous terms==
Throughout the Cold War the term "curtain" would become a common euphemism for boundaries – physical or ideological – between socialist and capitalist states.

* An analogue of the Iron Curtain, the [[Bamboo Curtain]], surrounded the People's Republic of China. As the standoff between the West and the countries of the Iron and Bamboo curtains eased with the end of the Cold War, the term fell out of any but historical usage.
* The short distance, 3.8 km (2.4 mi), between the Soviet Union ([[Big Diomede]]) and the U.S. ([[Little Diomede Island]], state of [[Alaska]]) in the [[Bering Sea]] became known as the "[[Bering Strait#"Ice Curtain" border|Ice Curtain]]" during the Cold War.
* A field of [[cactus|cacti]] surrounding the [[United States Navy|U.S. Naval]] station at [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base|Guantanamo Bay]] planted by [[Cuba]] was occasionally termed the "[[Cactus Curtain]]".<ref name="Murphy chapter 18">{{cite web| url=https://www.cnic.navy.mil/Guantanamo/AboutGTMO/gtmohistgeneral/gtmohistmurphy/gtmohistmurphyvol1/gtmohistmurphyvol1ch18/CNIC_046293|title=The History of Guantanamo Bay 1494 – 1964: Chapter 18, "Introduction of Part II, 1953 – 1964"|author1=M. E. Murphy |author2=Rear Admiral |author3=U. S. Navy | access-date=27 March 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940656,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081229213928/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940656,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=29 December 2008 | work=Time | title=The Hemisphere: Yankees Besieged | date=16 March 1962 | access-date=5 May 2010}}</ref>
* The phrase "[[Grass Curtain]]" was used by South Sudanese during the [[First Sudanese Civil War]] to describe the oppression that hid political violence in Southern Sudan from wider attention.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Wöndu|first1= Steven |last2= Lesch |first2= Ann Mosely |date= 2000 |title= Battle for Peace in Sudan: An Analysis of the Abuja Conferences, 1992-1993 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SynjyYRvm4YC&q=%22Grass+Curtain%22+southern+sudan&pg=PR7 |location= Washington, D.C. |publisher= University Press of America (Rowman & Littlefield) |page= vii |isbn= 0761815163}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Danube River Conference of 1948]]
* [[EV13 The Iron Curtain Trail]], a long-distance cycling route within the European Green Belt
* [[Removal of Hungary's border fence]]
* [[Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc]]
* [[Western betrayal]]

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

=== General sources ===
*{{Citation|last=Beschloss|first=Michael R|title=The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2003|isbn=0-7432-6085-6}}
*{{Citation|last=Böcker|first=Anita|title=Regulation of Migration: International Experiences|publisher=Het Spinhuis|year=1998|isbn=90-5589-095-2}}
*{{Citation|last=Churchill|first=Winston|title=The Second World War|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=1953|isbn=0-395-41056-8}}
*{{Citation|last=Cook|first=Bernard A.|title=Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=0-8153-4057-5}}
*{{Citation|last=Crampton|first=R. J.|title=Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century and after|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0-415-16422-2}}
* Eckert, Astrid M. (2019) ''West Germany and the Iron Curtain. Environment, Economy, and Culture in the Borderlands''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197582312
*{{Citation|last=Ericson|first=Edward E.|title=Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1999 |isbn=0-275-96337-3}}
*{{Citation|last=Grenville|first=John Ashley Soames|title=A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0-415-28954-8}}
*{{Citation|last1=Grenville|first1=John Ashley Soames|last2=Wasserstein|first2=Bernard|title=The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=0-415-23798-X|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/majorinternation0000gren_v2f5}}
*{{Citation|last=Henig|first=Ruth Beatrice|title=The Origins of the Second World War, 1933–41|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0-415-33262-1}}
*{{Citation|last=Krasnov|first=Vladislav|author-link=Vladislav Krasnov|title=Soviet Defectors: The KGB Wanted List|publisher=Hoover Press|year=1985|isbn=0-8179-8231-0}}
*{{Citation|last=Miller|first=Roger Gene|title=To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-89096-967-1}}
*{{Citation|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey |title=Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-300-11204-1}}
*{{Citation|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey|title=Stalin, the Pact with Nazi Germany, and the Origins of Postwar Soviet Diplomatic Historiography|year=2002|volume=4|issue=4}}.
*{{Citation|last=Shirer|first=William L.|title=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1990 |isbn=0-671-72868-7}}
*{{Citation|last=Soviet Information Bureau|title=Falsifiers of History (Historical Survey)|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House|place=Moscow|year=1948|id=272848}}
*{{Citation|last=Department of State|title=Nazi-Soviet Relations, 1939–1941: Documents from the Archives of The German Foreign Office|publisher=Department of State|year=1948|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/nsr/nsr-preface.html}}
* Watry, David M. (2014), ''Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
*{{Citation|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6}}

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Iron_Curtain.ogg|date=2012-12-17}}
{{commons|Iron curtain}}
{{wiktionary|Iron Curtain}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091016014732/http://www.germany.info/Vertretung/usa/en/10__Press__Facts/03__Infocus/04__Without__Walls/__Main__S.html Freedom Without Walls: German Missions in the United States]—Looking Back at the Fall of the Berlin Wall – official homepage in English
* [http://www.europebybike.org/travels_by_bike_in_europe/iron-curtain/map-iron-curtain.html Information about the Iron Curtain with a detailed map and how to make it by bike]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185810/http://opal.kent.ac.uk/cartoonx-cgi/ccc.py?mode=single&start=1&search=iron%20curtain "Peep under the Iron Curtain"], a cartoon first published on 6 March 1946 in the ''[[Daily Mail]]''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071014194456/http://uwec.edu/Geography/Ivogeler/Papers/German%20border/border/001.HTM Field research along the northern sections of the former German-German border, with detailed maps, diagrams, and photos]
* [http://www.brianrose.com/lostborder.htm The Lost Border: Photographs of the Iron Curtain]
* [[:ru:С-175 "Гардина"|S-175 "Gardina (The Curtain)"]]—Main type of electronic security barrier on the Soviet borders {{in lang|ru}}
* [http://sxema.pro/photography/portfolio/greek-bulgarian-border/ Remnants of the Iron Curtain along the Greek-Bulgarian border, the Iron Curtain's Southernmost part]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/294419/Iron-Curtain Iron Curtain] at the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [http://www.historytoday.com/frederick-taylor/berlin-wall-secret-history The Berlin Wall: A Secret History] at History Today
* [http://www.criticalpast.com/video/65675072963_Iron-Curtain-speech_Winston-Churchill_Leader-of-Opposition_Westminster-College Historic film footage of Winston Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech (from "Sinews of Peace" address) at Westminster College, 1946]
* [http://www.die-narbe.de ''DIE NARBE DEUTSCHLAND'']—A 16-hour-long experimental single shot documentary showing the former Iron Curtain running through Germany in its entirety from above, 2008–2014
*[303] "On This Day: Berlin Wall falls"; [304] "Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall". Chicago Tribune. October 31, 2014. Retrieved November 1, 2014; [305] "In Photos: 25 years ago today the Berlin Wall Fell". TheJournal.i.e. November 9, 2014.

{{Secret police of Communist Europe}}
{{Eastern Bloc}}
{{Cold War}}
{{Winston Churchill}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1940s neologisms]]
[[Category:Aftermath of World War II]]
[[Category:Cold War terminology]]
[[Category:Joseph Stalin]]
[[Category:Cold War speeches]]
[[Category:Speeches by Winston Churchill]]
[[Category:Political metaphors]]
[[Category:Eastern Bloc]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:1946 in international relations]]
[[Category:1991 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Cold War in popular culture]]
[[Category:1946 speeches]]
[[Category:1946 introductions]]

Church Center for the United Nations

2021-08-12T12:51:11Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "[[File:Street Sculpture (4674592807).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Ground floor of the church center, with sculpture on the outside of the chapel and stained glass behind that]..."

[[File:Street Sculpture (4674592807).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Ground floor of the church center, with sculpture on the outside of the chapel and stained glass behind that]]
The '''Church Center for the United Nations''' is a private building founded, owned, and operated by the [[United Methodist Church]] as an interfaith space housing the offices of various religions as well as several [[non-governmental organization]]s. It is at 777 United Nations Plaza in New York City, across the street from, but not part of, the [[United Nations Headquarters]] complex.

The 12-story center is most known for its first-floor '''Chapel at the United Nations''', which has a modernist design.<ref name="dunlap"/> The chapel has long been a popular site for wedding ceremonies, especially ones between couples of different religious or national backgrounds. Other events and conferences have been held at the chapel and in the church center as well.

==History==
The plan for the Church Center was first unveiled in November 1962 by the Methodist Church.<ref name="nyt-1961">{{cite news| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1961/11/04/101481990.html?pageNumber=21 | title=Methodists Plan $2,000,000 Center | author-first=Edmond J. | author-last=Bartnett | newspaper=The New York Times | date=November 4, 1961 | page=21 }}</ref>
Construction began in the summer of 1962.<ref name="nyt-1962">{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1962/08/02/90172256.html?pageNumber=41 | title=Church Peace Center Is Started on the East Side | newspaper=The New York Times | date=August 2, 1962 | page=41}}</ref> The building is located on the southwest corner of United Nations Plaza – a local bypass of [[First Avenue (Manhattan)|First Avenue]] – and [[44th Street (Manhattan)|44th Street]].<ref name="nyt-1962"/>
The 12-story building was constructed at a cost of $3 million with the architect being the modernist [[William Lescaze]].<ref name="nyt-1963"/>

[[Image:Chapel at the United Nations interior stained glass.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Stained glass as seen from inside the chapel]]
The interior design of the chapel and church center was
done by the noted American ecclesiastical architect [[Harold Eugene Wagoner]].
<ref>{{cite book | url=http://content.aia.org/sites/default/files/2018-09/Bowker_1970_W.pdf | title=American Architects Directory | editor-first=John F. | editor-last=Gane | publisher=R. R. Bowker for American Institute of Architects | location=New York | edition=3rd | date=1970 | page=956 }}</ref> The paired stained glass interior and exterior sculpture on the street-facing wall were created by Henry Lee Willet and Benoît Gilsoul, respectively,<ref name="dunlap">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JVmnJdqKYoC&pg=PA273&dq=%22Benoit+Gilsoul%22+%22united+nations%22&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjR9rOG8O3sAhVLc98KHeojBN4Q6AEwAHoECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=%22Benoit%20Gilsoul%22%20%22united%20nations%22&f=false | title=From Abyssinian to Zion: A Guide to Manhattan's Houses of Worship | author-first=David W. | author-last=Dunlap | publisher=Columbia University Press | date=2004 | location=New York | page=273}}</ref> with both working for [[Willet Hauser Architectural Glass]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://buffaloah.com/a/DCTNRY/stained/willet/willet.html | title=Willet Studios Windows in Western New York | publisher=Buffalo Architecture and History | access-date=November 4, 2020}}</ref> The name of this large work is "Man's Search for Peace" and it shows human-like shapes around a large eye-like form.<ref name="dunlap"/> The chapel was sponsored with monies from the Women's Division of the Board of Missions of the Methodist Church; it is formally named the '''Tillman Chapel''' in honor of a prominent member of that division, Sadie Wilson Tillman.<ref name="dunlap"/> Later a small statue by [[Moissaye Marans]] entitled "Prince of Peace" was added to the inside of the chapel.<ref name="nyt-1967">{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1967/04/08/90318250.html?pageNumber=30 | title=Chapel to Unveil Statue of Christ | author-first=George | author-last=Dugan | newspaper=The New York Times | date=April 8, 1967 | page=37}}</ref>

The building was dedicated in September 1963, with UN Secretary General [[U Thant]], US Ambassador to the UN [[Adlai Stevenson II|Adlai E. Stevenson]], and US Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] all speaking at the ceremony.<ref name="ap-1963">{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/62974713/ | title=Rusk Says Cold War Not Cured | agency=Associated Press | newspaper=Fort Worth Star-Telegram | date=September 23, 1963 | page=2 | via=Newspapers.com}}{{open access}}</ref>
In addition to the Methodists, representatives from the Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were also part of the dedication.<ref name="ap-1963"/> Some two thousand attendees heard U Thant praise both the UN and the church for the "act of faith" that led to its construction,<ref name="nyac-2013"/> while Rusk talked about how the dangers from the ongoing [[Cold War]] were ever-present.<ref name="ap-1963"/>

==Goals==
From the beginning, the church center was considered interdenominational in spirit and purpose,<ref name="nyt-1967"/> and nonprofit groups representing various religions have been housed there.<ref name="nyc-ngo"/>
The church center was originally administered by the [[National Council of Churches]].<ref name="nyt-1963">{{cite news | url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1963/09/17/89546402.html?pageNumber=4 | title=U.N. Church Center to Be Dedicated | newspaper=The New York Times | date=September 17, 1963 | page=4}}</ref>
Subsequently it was run by the Methodist Church itself,<ref name="nyt-1967"/> and then by the church's [[General Board of Church and Society]].<ref name="nyac-2013">{{cite web | url=https://www.nyac.com/newsdetail/56511 | title=Across from U.N., a place for the people | author-first=Linda | author-last=Bloom | work=New York Annual Conference | publisher=United Methodist Church | date=October 4, 2013 }}</ref> The different parts of the church involved in it became complicated, so to simplify it came to be that it was owned and operated solely by the [[United Methodist Women]] organization.<ref name="nyac-2013"/><ref name="rlr-2015">{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/62945089/record-journal/ | title=Religions are facing changes in wedding traditions | author-first=Ralph Lord | author-last=Roy | newspaper=Record-Journal | location=Meriden, Connecticut | date=June 6, 2015 | page=A5 | via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}{{open access}}</ref> In any case, as one United Methodist Women official said in 2013, "From its inception, the Church Center for the U.N. was envisioned as more than a site for the Methodist Church's international work. It was to provide access to the U.N. to other faith communities and nongovernmental organizations working for human rights, development and peace."<ref name="nyac-2013"/>

One of the goals of the center was to give both people of both lay and clergy vocations an immediate understanding of what went on at the United Nations.<ref name="ap-1963"/> To the end, conference rooms in the center have had a loudspeaker set-up wherein debates from the United Nations could be piped into them.<ref name="nyt-1963"/>
The church center has hosted people pleading causes at the United Nations, such as East Timorese independence activist [[José Ramos-Horta]].<ref name="nyac-2013"/> It is also the location where most of the nongovernmental meetings in conjunction with the [[United Nations Commission on the Status of Women]] are held.<ref name="nyac-2013"/> Nonetheless, as the ''[[New York Times]]'' has written, "the affiliation between [the center] and the United Nations is more spiritual than official."<ref name="nyt-1976"/>

==Events and uses==
[[Image:Chapel at the United Nations interior altar for wedding.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Altar of the chapel, as set up for a marriage ceremony involving elements of Judaism]]
The Chapel is well known for being the site of marriage ceremonies, and especially for [[Interfaith marriage|couples of different religious backgrounds and faiths]].<ref name="rlr-2015"/> By the mid-1970s, some 400 marriages a year were being held there.<ref name="nyt-1976"/> For a ceremony, there are banners representing various faiths that can be displayed on the chapel wall.<ref name="rlr-2015"/> The chapel also attracts couples getting married from different nationalities, especially when they have met while one of them was stationed at the United Nations; in addition, people getting married for the second time, or who feel a kindred spirit with the purpose of the United Nations, also have chosen to be married there.<ref name="nyt-1976">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/05/09/archives/un-chapel-weddings-ecumenical-spirit.html | title=U.N. Chapel Weddings: Ecumenical Spirit | author-first=Shawn G. | author-last=Kennedy | newspaper=The New York Times | date= May 9, 1976 | page=48 }}</ref> Its use for interfaith ceremonies was mentioned in a 1985 ''[[Dear Abby]]'' column.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/62974854/dear-abby/ | title=Church wedding for interfaith couple | author-first=Abigail | author-last=Van Buren | newspaper=Globe-Gazette | location=Mason City–Clear Lake, Iowa | date=February 22, 1985 | page=22 | via=Newspapers.com}}{{open access}}</ref> It has been listed for this purpose on the website of the [[Mayor of New York City|Office of the Mayor of New York City]].<ref name="nyc-ngo">{{cite web | url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/rwg/mcp/html/ngo.html | title=Non-Governmental and Official Liaison Organizations | publisher=Office of the Mayor, City of New York | access-date=November 5, 2020}}</ref>

The church center charges a rental fee for use of the chapel for weddings.<ref name="nyc-ngo"/> People married at the chapel include then-US Senator [[Joe Biden]] (who would eventually become US President) and educator [[Jill Biden]], in 1977.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/25/us/politics/25wife.html | title=Jill Biden Heads Toward Life in the Spotlight | author-last=Seelye | author-first=Katharine Q. | newspaper=The New York Times | date=August 24, 2008 | page=A13}}</ref> Receptions following the ceremony are sometimes held at the [[United Nations Plaza Hotel]], located on the other side of 44th Street.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FuQCAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA21&lpg=RA1-PA21&dq=%22javier+perez+de+cuellar+suite%22+un+plaza+hotel+29th&source=bl&ots=1NibOBOEtc&sig=ACfU3U02cLkwy9hDQVOEUdLvDNCe0FxSvw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjinJ-5yJTtAhV6TTABHXJ5AMIQ6AEwA3oECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=%22javier%20perez%20de%20cuellar%20suite%22%20un%20plaza%20hotel%2029th&f=false | title=Directory: U.N. Plaza Park Hyatt | magazine=New York | date=February 10, 1992 | page=21A}}</ref>

Other ceremonies also take place in the chapel. The memorial service for prominent black academic [[Z. K. Matthews]] from [[South Africa]] was held at the Church Center in 1968.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://uir.unisa.ac.za/handle/10500/7859 | title=Zachariah K. Matthews : October 20, 1901 – May 11, 1968 : memorial service. | publisher=University of South Africa | access-date=November 6, 2020}}</ref> A memorial service by the Japanese delegation to the United Nations was held at the chapel for American inventor [[William S. Halstead]] in 1987.

In addition, a variety of politically-oriented events and conferences have taken place at the center.
In 1965, the origins of an organization known as Clergy and Laymen Concerned About Vietnam (CALCAV), which involved Jesuit priest and anti-war activist [[Daniel Berrigan]] along with the Reverend [[Richard John Neuhaus]] and Rabbi [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]], came from an anti-war rally at the church center.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://billmoyers.com/story/mlk-anti-war-speech-america-again-debating-guns-vs-butter/ | title=Fifty Years After King’s Famous Anti-War Speech, America Again Debates Guns Versus Butter | author-first=Peter | author-last=Drier | publisher=Moyers on Democracy | date=April 5, 2017}}</ref> The Global Peace Service Conference was held at the Church Center in 1993. Some events held there have been controversial, such as a hosting a panel discussion on religion with President of Iran [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] in 2007, in which representatives of some religious groups refused to participate while others thought it important to engage.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/27/world/middleeast/27clerics.html | title=Ahmadinejad Meets Clerics, and Decibels Drop a Notch | author-first= Laurie | author-last=Goodstein | newspaper=The New York Times | date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref>

A livestream of the play ''[[Sliver of a Full Moon]]'', a staged reading by survivors of domestic abuse on Native American tribal lands, was performed at the Chapel in 2014.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://howlround.com/happenings/sliver-full-moon-cherokee-playwright-mary-kathryn-nagle | title=''Sliver of a Full Moon'' by Cherokee playwright Mary Kathryn Nagle | publisher=Howlround Theatre Commons | date=September 21, 2014}}</ref>

The church center has often been the site where announcements are made about the winner of the annual [[Templeton Prize]] for progress in thought about religion.<ref>For instance, see {{cite news | url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/62974967/templeton-prize/ | title=Templeton religion prize to philosopher Charles Taylor | author-first=David | author-last=O'Reilly | newspaper=The Philadelphia Inquirer | date=March 15, 2007 | page=A4 | via=Newspapers.com}}{{open access}} For other instances, see [https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ALeKk037AcoXpEq6773d0WcEd8w6k81c_w%3A1604623063387&source=hp&ei=15qkX7qqFc2vggfltIqoBg&q=%22church+center+for+the+united+nations%22+%22templeton+prize%22&oq=%22church+center+for+the+united+nations%22+%22templeton+prize%22&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzIFCCEQoAEyBQghEKsCMgUIIRCrAjoHCCMQ6gIQJzoECCMQJzoLCC4QxwEQrwEQkQI6CAgAELEDEIMBOgUIABCxAzoLCC4QsQMQxwEQowI6BAgAEEM6BAguEEM6BQgAEJECOgsILhDHARCjAhCRAjoHCAAQsQMQQzoICAAQsQMQkQI6BwguELEDEEM6CgguEMcBEK8BEEM6CggAELEDEIMBEEM6AggAOgUIABDJAzoCCC46CAguEMcBEK8BOgcIABAUEIcCOggIABDJAxCRAjoNCC4QxwEQrwEQFBCHAjoTCC4QxwEQrwEQyQMQFBCHAhCTAjoGCAAQFhAeOg4ILhDHARCvARDJAxCTAjoJCAAQyQMQFhAeOggIIRAWEB0QHjoHCCEQChCgAVDYCVjeYWDsY2gAcAB4AYAB0wGIAbIrkgEHMzguMTguMZgBAKABAaoBB2d3cy13aXqwAQo&sclient=psy-ab&ved=0ahUKEwj68cHd1uzsAhXNl-AKHWWaAmUQ4dUDCAg&uact=5 this web search done November 6, 2020].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://umc-gbcs.org Official website of the Church Center]
* [https://www.unitedmethodistwomen.org/ccun United Methodist Women page about the Church Center]
* [http://www.nycago.org/Organs/NYC/html/ChurchCenterUN.html American Guild of Organists page about the Chapel]
{{Midtown East, Manhattan}}
{{Coord|40|45|0.4|N|73|58|9.5|W|display=title}}
[[Category:Chapels in the United States]]
[[Category:Headquarters of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Turtle Bay, Manhattan]]
[[Category:United Methodist Church]]
[[Category:Interfaith marriage]]
[[Category:1963 establishments in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Office buildings completed in 1963]]

Hungarian People's Republic

2021-08-12T12:50:27Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|1949–1989 socialist republic in Central Europe}} {{distinguish|text=the Hungarian Soviet Republic or the First Hungarian Republic}} {{use dmy dat..."

{{short description|1949–1989 socialist republic in Central Europe}}
{{distinguish|text=the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] or the [[First Hungarian Republic]]}}
{{use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name = {{native name|hu|Magyar Népköztársaság}}
| conventional_long_name = Hungarian People's Republic
| status = Member of the [[Warsaw Pact]] (1955–1989) [[Satellite state]] of the [[Soviet Union]]<ref name="Rao, B. V. 2006">Rao, B. V. (2006), ''History of Modern Europe A.D. 1789–2002'', Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>
| national_motto = [[Workers of the world, unite!|Világ proletárjai, egyesüljetek!]] {{small|(Workers of the world, unite!)}}
| event_pre = [[Ferenc Nagy#Coup d'état of 1947|Communist coup]]
| date_pre = 31 May 1947
| event_start = [[Hungarian Constitution of 1949|People's Republic]]
| date_start = 20 August
| year_start = 1949
| event1 = [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 109|Admitted]] to the [[United Nations|UN]]
| date_event1 = 14 December 1955
| event2 = [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Hungarian Revolution]]
| date_event2 = 23 October 1956
| event3 = {{nowrap|[[New Economic Mechanism|Economic Mechanism]]}}
| date_event3 = 1 January 1968
| event_end = [[End of Communism in Hungary (1989)|Third Republic]]
| date_end = 23 October
| year_end = 1989
| p1 = Hungarian Republic (1946–49){{!}}Second Hungarian Republic
| flag_p1 = Flag of Hungary (1946-1949, 1956-1957; 1-2 aspect ratio).svg
| s1 = History of Hungary#Third Republic{{!}}Third Hungarian Republic
| flag_s1 = Flag of Hungary.svg
| flag_type = Flag (1957–1989)
| flag = Flag of Hungary
| image_flag = Flag of Hungary.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Hungary (1957-1990).svg
| symbol = Coat of arms of Hungary
| symbol_type = Emblem (1957–1989)
| image_map = Hungary 1956-1990.svg
| capital = [[Budapest]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|47|26|N|19|15|E|type:city}}
| national_anthem = "[[Himnusz]]"{{anchor|info1}}[[#inforefa|[a]]] ({{Lang-en|"Hymn"}}) <center>[[File:Hu-magyarhimnusz.ogg]]</center>
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
| religion = [[Secular state]] (de jure) [[State atheism]] (de facto) [[Christianity in Hungary|Roman Catholic]] (dominant)
| demonym = [[Hungarians|Hungarian]]
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[one-party state|one-party]] [[socialist republic]]{{-}}Under a [[totalitarian dictatorship]] {{small|(1949–1953)}}<ref>{{Cite book| last = Gati | first = Charles | title = Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt | publisher = Stanford University Press |date=September 2006 | isbn = 0-8047-5606-6 |page=47–49}}</ref>
| title_leader = [[List of heads of state of Hungary#General Secretaries of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (1945–1989)|General Secretary]]
| leader1 = [[Mátyás Rákosi]]
| year_leader1 = 1949–1956
| leader2 = [[Ernő Gerő]]
| year_leader2 = 1956
| leader3 = [[János Kádár]]
| year_leader3 = 1956–1988
| leader4 = [[Károly Grósz]]
| year_leader4 = 1988–1989
| leader5 = [[Rezső Nyers]]
| year_leader5 = 1989
| title_representative = [[Presidential Council of the Hungarian People's Republic|Presidential Council]]
| representative1 = [[Árpád Szakasits]]
| year_representative1 = 1949–1950 {{small|(first)}}
| representative2 = {{nowrap|[[Brunó Ferenc Straub]]}}
| year_representative2 = 1988–1989 {{small|(last)}}
| title_deputy = [[Council of Ministers of the Hungarian People's Republic|Council of Ministers]]
| deputy1 = [[István Dobi]]
| year_deputy1 = 1949–1952 {{small|(first)}}
| deputy2 = [[Miklós Németh]]
| year_deputy2 = 1988–1989 {{small|(last)}}
| legislature = ''[[National Assembly (Hungary)| Országgyűlés]]''
| stat_year1 = 1949
| stat_pop1 = 9,204,799
| area_km2 = 93,011<ref name=revai>{{Cite encyclopedia
| encyclopedia = Révai új lexikona
| title = Magyarország határai
| trans-title = Borders of Hungary
| editor = Élesztős, László
| publisher = Babits Kiadó | location = Szekszárd
| year = 2004 | volume = 13 | page = 895
| language = hu
| isbn = 963-9556-13-0
}}</ref>
| ref_pop1 = <ref name=statsz>{{Cite journal
| title = Az 1990. évi népszámlálás előzetes adatai.
| journal = Statisztikai Szemle
| volume = 68 | issue = 10 | page = 750
| url = http://www.ksh.hu/statszemle_archive/viewer.html?ev=1990&szam=10&old=8
| date = October 1990
}}</ref>
| stat_year2 = 1955
| stat_pop2 =
| ref_pop2 =
| stat_year3 = 1970
| stat_pop3 = 10,322,099
| ref_pop3 = <ref name=statsz />
| stat_year4 = 1990
| stat_pop4 = 10,375,323
| ref_pop4 = <ref name=statsz />
| currency = [[Hungarian forint|Forint]]
| currency_code = HUF
| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| date_format = yyyy.mm.dd.
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Hungary|+36]]
| patron_saint = [[Stephen I of Hungary|Saint Stephen]]
| footnotes = {{anchor|inforefa}}a. '''[[#info1|^]]''' "[[Himnusz]]" was used before and after the Communist era as Hungary's national anthem. As its lyrics include the word "God", the Communists tried but failed to create an alternative anthem and decided to use "Himnusz" without its words.
| today = [[Hungary]]
|area_rank=|GDP_PPP=|GDP_PPP_year=|HDI=0.708|HDI_year=1990|map_caption=The Hungarian People's Republic in 1989}}
{{History of Hungary}}

The '''Hungarian People's Republic''' ({{lang-hu|Magyar Népköztársaság}}) was a [[one-party state|one-party]] [[socialist republic]] from 20 August 1949<ref>{{Cite journal
| title = 1949. évi XX. törvény. A Magyar Népköztársaság Alkotmánya.
| trans-title = Act XX of 1949. The Constitution of the Hungarian People's Republic
| journal = Magyar Közlöny
| publisher = Állami Lapkiadó Nemzeti Vállalat | location = Budapest
| volume = 4 | issue = 174 | page = 1361
| language = hu
| date = 20 August 1949
}}</ref>
to 23 October 1989.<ref>{{Cite journal
| title = 1989. évi XXXI. törvény az Alkotmány módosításáról
| trans-title = Act XXXI of 1989 on the Amendment of the Constitution
| journal = Magyar Közlöny
| publisher = Pallas Lap- és Könyvkiadó Vállalat | location = Budapest
| volume = 44 | issue = 74 | page = 1219
| language = hu
| date = 23 October 1989
}}</ref>
It was governed by the [[Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party]], which was under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Rao, B. V. 2006" /> Pursuant to the [[Moscow Conference (1944)|1944 Moscow Conference]], [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] had agreed that after the war Hungary was to be included in the [[Soviet sphere of influence]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=933uBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA175&lpg=PA175&dq=Leffler,+cambridge,+percentages+agreement#v=twopage&q=Leffler%2C%20cambridge%2C%20percentages%20agreement&f=false Melvyn Leffler, ''Cambridge History of the Cold War: Volume 1'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 175]</ref><ref>''The Untold History of the United States'', Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter (Gallery Books, 2012), p. 114, citing ''The Second World War Triumph and Tragedy'', Churchill, Winston, 1953, pp. 227–228, and ''Modern Times: The World from the Twenties to the Nineties'', Johnson, Paul (New York: Perennial, 2001), p. 434</ref> The HPR remained in existence until 1989, when opposition forces brought the [[end of communism in Hungary (1989)|end of communism in Hungary]].

The state considered itself the heir to the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic|Republic of Councils in Hungary]], which was formed in 1919 as the first [[communist state]] created after the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (Russian SFSR). It was designated a [[people's democracy (Marxism–Leninism)|people's democratic republic]] by the Soviet Union in the 1940s. Geographically, it bordered [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]] and the [[Soviet Union]] (via the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]]) to the east; [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] to the southwest; [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]] to the north and [[Austria]] to the west.

The Communists spent the next year and a half after the Moscow Conference consolidating their hold on power and emasculating the other parties. This culminated in October 1947, when the Communists told their non-Communist coalition partners that they had to cooperate with a reconfigured coalition government if they wanted to stay in the country.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/hungary/37.htm Hungary: a country study]. [[Library of Congress]] Federal Research Division, December 1989.</ref> The process was more or less completed in 1949, when a newly elected legislature chosen from a single Communist-dominated list adopted a Soviet-style constitution, and the country was officially recast as a "people's republic."

The same political dynamics continued through the years, with the Soviet Union pressing and maneuvering Hungarian politics through the Hungarian Communist Party, intervening whenever it needed to, through military coercion and covert operations.{{sfn|Crampton|1997|p=241}} Political repression and economic decline led to a nationwide popular uprising in October-November 1956 known as the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]], which was the largest single act of dissent in the history of the Eastern Bloc. After initially allowing the Revolution to run its course, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops and tanks to crush the opposition and install a new Soviet-controlled government under [[János Kádár]], killing thousands of Hungarians and driving hundreds of thousands into exile. But by the early 1960s, the Kádár government had considerably relaxed its line, implementing a unique form of semi-liberal Communism known as "[[Goulash Communism]]". The state allowed imports of certain Western consumer and cultural products, gave Hungarians greater freedom to travel abroad, and significantly rolled back the secret police state. These measures earned Hungary the moniker of the "merriest [[barracks socialism|barrack]] in the socialist camp" during the 1960s and 1970s. <ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Nyyssönen |first=Heino |date=2006-06-01 |title=Salami reconstructed |journal=Cahiers du monde russe |volume=47 |issue=1–2 |pages=153–172 |doi=10.4000/monderusse.3793 |issn=1252-6576 }}</ref>

One of the longest-serving leaders of the 20th century, Kádár would finally retire in 1988 after being forced from office by even more pro-reform forces amidst an economic downturn. Hungary stayed that way until the late 1980s, when turmoil broke out across the Eastern Bloc, culminating with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the Soviet Union's dissolution. Despite the end of communist control in Hungary, the [[Hungarian Constitution of 1949|1949 constitution]] remained in effect with amendments to reflect the country's status to liberal democracy. On 1 January 2012, the 1949 constitution was replaced with the brand new [[Constitution of Hungary|constitution]].

==History==

===Formation===
Following the occupation of Hungary by the [[Red Army]], [[Soviet occupation of Hungary|Soviet military occupation]] ensued. After seizing most material assets from German hands, the Soviets tried to control Hungarian political affairs, with some success.{{sfn|Wettig|2008|p=51}} Using force, the Red Army set up police organs to persecute the opposition, assuming this would enable the Soviet Union to seize the upcoming elections, together with intense [[communist propaganda]] to attempt to legitimize their rule.{{sfn|Wettig|2008|p=85}} Despite all efforts the Hungarian Communist Party was trounced by a [[Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party|Smallholder]]-led coalition, receiving only 17% of votes. The coalition, under Prime Minister [[Zoltán Tildy]], thus frustrated the Kremlin's expectations of ruling through a democratically elected government.<ref>Norton, Donald H. (2002). ''Essentials of European History: 1935 to the Present'', p. 47. REA: Piscataway, New Jersey. {{ISBN|0-87891-711-X}}.</ref>

The Soviet Union, however, intervened through force once again, resulting in a puppet government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministerial positions, and imposed several restrictive measures, like banning the victorious coalition government and forcing it to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the [[Hungarian Communist Party]].

Communist Interior Minister [[László Rajk]] established the [[ÁVH]] secret police, in an effort to suppress political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture.<ref>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{cite web|url= http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf |title=Chapter II.N, para 89(xi) (p. 31) }} {{small|(1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]])}}</ref>
In early 1947, the Soviet Union pressed the leader of the Hungarian Communists, [[Mátyás Rákosi]], to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle". American observers likened communist machinations to a coup and concluded that "the coup in Hungary is Russia's answer to our actions in Greece and Turkey",<ref>"The Untold History of the United States", Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, Gallery Books 2012, p. 208, citing Gardner, Lloyd C., "Architects of Illusion: Men and Ideas in American Foreign Policy, 1941–1949", p. 221, and Ann O'Hare McCormick, "Open Moves in the Political War for Europe", New York Times, 2 June 1947</ref> referring to US military intervention in the [[Greek Civil War]] and the building of US military bases in Turkey pursuant to the [[Truman Doctrine]].

Rákosi complied by pressuring the other parties to push out those members not willing to do the Communists' bidding, ostensibly because they were "fascists". Later on, after the Communists won full power, he referred to this practice as "[[salami tactics]]".{{sfn|Wettig|2008|p=110}} Prime Minister [[Ferenc Nagy]] was forced to resign as prime minister in favour of a more pliant Smallholder, [[Lajos Dinnyés]]. In [[Hungarian parliamentary election, 1947|the 1947 elections]], the Communists became the largest party, but were well short of a majority. The coalition was retained with Dinnyés as prime minister. However, by this time most of the other parties' more courageous members had been pushed out, leaving them in the hands of [[fellow traveller]]s.<ref>Kontler, László. ''A History of Hungary''. Palgrave Macmillan (2002), {{ISBN|1-4039-0316-6}}</ref>

In June 1948 the Communists forced the [[Social Democratic Party (Hungary)|Social Democrats]] to merge with them to form the [[Hungarian Working People's Party]] (MDP). However, the few independent-minded Social Democrats were quickly shunted aside, leaving the MDP as a renamed and enlarged Communist Party. Rákosi then forced Tildy to turn over the presidency to Social Democrat-turned-Communist [[Árpád Szakasits]]. In December, Dinnyés was replaced by the leader of the Smallholders' left wing, the openly pro-Communist [[István Dobi]].

At [[Hungarian parliamentary election, 1949|the elections of May 1949]], voters were presented with a single Communist-dominated list, comprising candidates from all parties and running on a common programme. By this time, there was virtually no opposition left in the country. On 18 August, the newly elected National Assembly passed [[Hungarian Constitution of 1949|a new constitution]]—a near-carbon copy of the [[1936 Soviet Constitution|Soviet constitution]]. When it was officially promulgated on 20 August, the country was renamed the People's Republic of Hungary.

===Stalinist era (1949–1956)===
{{Eastern Bloc sidebar}}
Rákosi, now the leader of Hungary, demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the [[Hungarian Working People's Party]]. Rákosi's main rival for power was [[László Rajk]], who was then Hungary's Foreign Secretary. Rajk was arrested and Stalin's [[NKVD]] emissary coordinated with Hungarian General Secretary Rákosi and his [[State Protection Authority]] to lead the way for the [[show trial]] of Rajk.<ref name="crampton263">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=263}}</ref> At the September 1949 trial, Rajk made a forced confession, claiming that he had been an agent of [[Miklós Horthy]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Josip Broz Tito]] and [[Western imperialism]]. He also admitted that he had taken part in a murder plot against Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő. Rajk was found guilty and executed.<ref name="crampton263" />

Despite their helping Rákosi to liquidate Rajk, future Hungarian leader [[János Kádár]] and other dissidents were also purged from the party during this period. During Kádár's interrogation, the ÁVH beat him, smeared him with mercury to prevent his skin pores from breathing, and had his questioner urinate into his pried-open mouth.{{sfn|Crampton|1997|p=264}}
Rákosi thereafter imposed totalitarian rule on Hungary. At the height of his rule, Rákosi developed a strong [[cult of personality]].<ref name="sugar375" /> Dubbed the "bald murderer", Rákosi imitated [[Stalinist]] political and economic programs, resulting in Hungary experiencing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.<ref name="granville">Granville, Johanna, ''The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956'', Texas A&M University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-58544-298-4}}</ref><ref>Gati, Charles, ''Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt'', Stanford University Press, 2006 {{ISBN|0-8047-5606-6}}, pp. 9–12</ref>
He described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"<ref name="sugar375">Sugar, Peter F., Peter Hanak and [[Tibor Frank]], ''A History of Hungary'', Indiana University Press, 1994, {{ISBN|0-253-20867-X}}, pp. 375–377</ref>
and "Stalin's best pupil".<ref name="matthews93">Matthews, John P. C., ''Explosion: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956'', Hippocrene Books, 2007, {{ISBN|0-7818-1174-0}}, pp. 93–94</ref>
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| width = 100
| header = Hungary in the Stalinist era (1949–1956)
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Flag of Hungary 1949-1956.svg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Flag of Hungary|National Flag]]
| image2 = Coat of arms of Hungary (1949-1956).svg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[Coat of arms of Hungary|National Emblem]]
| image3 = Flag of the Hungarian Working People's Party.svg
| alt3 =
| caption3 = Flag of the [[Hungarian Working People's Party]]
| image4 = Emblem of the State Protection Authority.svg
| alt4 =
| caption4 = Emblem of the [[State Protection Authority]]
}}
The government collectivized agriculture and it extracted profits from the country's farms to finance rapid expansion of heavy industry, which attracted more than 90% of total industrial investment. At first Hungary concentrated on producing primarily the same assortment of goods it had produced before the war, including locomotives and railroad cars. Despite its poor resource base and its favorable opportunities to specialize in other forms of production, Hungary developed new heavy industry in order to bolster further domestic growth and produce exports to pay for raw-material import.

Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary. This was mostly in attempt to replace the educated class of the past by what Rákosi called a new "working intelligentsia". In addition to some beneficial effects such as better education for the poor, more opportunities for working-class children and increased literacy in general, this measure also included the dissemination of communist ideology in schools and universities. Also, as part of an effort to [[separation of church and state|separate the Church from the State]], religious instruction was denounced as propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools.

Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]], who had opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War, was arrested in December 1948 and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest, he confessed to the charges made against him and he was condemned to life imprisonment. The [[Protestantism|Protestant churches]] were also purged and their leaders were replaced by those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government.

The new Hungarian military hastily staged public, prearranged trials to purge "Nazi remnants and imperialist saboteurs". Several officers were sentenced to death and executed in 1951, including [[Lajos Tóth (fighter pilot)|Lajos Tóth]], a 28 victory-scoring [[flying ace]] of the World War II [[Royal Hungarian Air Force]], who had voluntarily returned from US captivity to help revive Hungarian aviation. The victims were cleared posthumously following the fall of communism.

Rákosi grossly mismanaged the economy and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall rapidly. His government became increasingly unpopular, and when Joseph Stalin died in 1953, Mátyás Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by [[Imre Nagy]]. However, he retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party and over the next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power.

As Hungary's new leader, Imre Nagy removed state control of the mass media and encouraged public discussion on changes to the political system and liberalizing the economy. This included a promise to increase the production and distribution of consumer goods. Nagy also released political prisoners from Rákosi's numerous purges of the Party and society.

On 9 March 1955, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for rightist deviation. Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on 18 April he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Rákosi once again became the leader of Hungary.

Rákosi's power was undermined by a [[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|speech]] made by [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in February 1956. He denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in Eastern Europe. He also claimed that the trial of László Rajk had been a "miscarriage of justice". On 18 July 1956, Rákosi was forced from power as a result of orders from the Soviet Union. However, he did manage to secure the appointment of his close friend, [[Ernő Gerő]], as his successor.

On 3 October 1956, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party announced that it had decided that [[László Rajk]], [[György Pálffy]], [[Tibor Szőnyi]] and [[András Szalai]] had wrongly been convicted of treason in 1949. At the same time it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party.

===Revolution of 1956===
{{Main|Hungarian Revolution of 1956}}
[[File:Flag of the Hungarian Revolution (1956).svg|thumb|250px|The Hungarian flag with the 1949–1956 coat of arms cut out of it. This became the symbol of the uprising in 1956.]]
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 began on 23 October as a peaceful demonstration of students in [[Budapest]]. The students protested for the implementation of [[Demands of Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1956|several demands]] including an end to Soviet occupation. The [[State Protection Authority|police]] made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the protesters attempted to free those who had been arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd, provoking rioting throughout the capital.

Early the following morning, Soviet military units entered Budapest and seized key positions. Citizens and soldiers joined the protesters chanting "Russians go home" and defacing communist party symbols. The Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party responded to the pressure by appointing the reformer [[Imre Nagy]] as the new Prime Minister.

On 25 October, a mass of protesters gathered in front of the Parliament Building. [[ÁVH]] units began shooting into the crowd from the rooftops of neighboring buildings.<ref name="Chapter X.I, para 482 p. 153">UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{cite web|url= http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf |title=Chapter X.I, para 482 (p. 153) }} {{small|(1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]])}}</ref>

Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH, mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting.<ref name="Heller">UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{cite web|url= http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf |title=Chapter II.F, para 64 (p. 22) }} {{small|(1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]])}}</ref>
Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian soldiers who joined the uprising, some in the crowd started shooting back.<ref name="Chapter X.I, para 482 p. 153" /><ref name="Heller" />

Imre Nagy now went on Radio Kossuth and announced he had taken over the leadership of the Government as Chairman of the [[Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Hungary]]. He also promised "the far-reaching democratization of Hungarian public life, the realisation of a Hungarian road to socialism in accord with our own national characteristics, and the realisation of our lofty national aim: the radical improvement of the workers' living conditions".

On 28 October, Nagy and a group of his supporters, including János Kádár, Géza Losonczy, Antal Apró, Károly Kiss, Ferenc Münnich and Zoltán Szabó, managed to take control of the Hungarian Working People's Party. At the same time revolutionary workers' councils and local national committees were formed all over Hungary.

The change of leadership in the party was reflected in the articles of the government newspaper, ''Szabad Nép'' (i.e. Free People). On 29 October the newspaper welcomed the new government and openly criticised Soviet attempts to influence the political situation in Hungary. This view was supported by Radio Miskolc that called for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country.

On 30 October, Imre Nagy announced that he was freeing Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]] and other political prisoners. He also informed the people that his government intended to abolish the one-party state. This was followed by statements of Zoltán Tildy, [[Anna Kéthly]] and [[Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas|Ferenc Farkas]] concerning the restitution of the Smallholders Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Petőfi (former Peasants) Party.

Nagy's most controversial decision took place on 1 November when he announced that Hungary intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and proclaim Hungarian neutrality. He asked the [[United Nations]] to become involved in the country's dispute with the Soviet Union.

On 3 November, Nagy announced the details of his coalition government. It included communists (János Kádár, [[Georg Lukács]], Géza Losonczy), three members of the Smallholders Party (Zoltán Tildy, Béla Kovács and István Szabó), three Social Democrats (Anna Kéthly, Gyula Keleman, Joseph Fischer), and two Petőfi Peasants ([[István Bibó]] and Ferenc Farkas). [[Pál Maléter]] was appointed minister of defence.

[[Nikita Khrushchev]], the leader of the Soviet Union, became increasingly concerned about these developments and on 4 November 1956 he sent the [[Red Army]] into Hungary. Soviet tanks immediately captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fighting took place all over the country but the Hungarian forces were quickly defeated.

During the Hungarian Uprising, an estimated 20,000 people were killed, nearly all during the Soviet intervention.{{Citation needed|reason=Outstanding number without citation; doesn't match cited numbers from the 'Hungarian Revolution of 1956' page|date=January 2020}} Imre Nagy was arrested and replaced by the Soviet loyalist, [[János Kádár]], as head of the newly formed [[Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party]] (''Magyar Szocialista Munkáspárt'', MSZMP). Nagy was imprisoned until being executed in 1958. Other government ministers or supporters who were either executed or died in captivity included Pál Maléter, Géza Losonczy, Attila Szigethy and Miklós Gimes.{{cn|date=March 2021}}

===Changes under Kádár===
{{See also|Kádárism}}
[[File:Hung.rev.leaders.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Monument in [[Budapest]], dedicated to the leaders of the short-lived [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] of 1919, [[Tibor Szamuely]], [[Béla Kun]], [[Jenő Landler]]]]
First Kádár followed retributions against the revolutionaries. 21,600 dissidents were imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 400 executed. But in the early 1960s, he announced a new policy under the motto "He who is not against us is with us", a variation of Rákosi's quote: "He who is not with us is against us". He declared a general amnesty, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the secret police, and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility towards him and his regime. Homosexuality was decriminalized in 1961.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.fabula.org/actualites/homosexualite-communiste-1945-1989_74348.php |title = Homosexualité communiste 1945-1989 (Créteil)}}</ref>

In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "[[New Economic Mechanism]]", which moved away from a strictly planned economy towards a system more reminiscent of the [[Economy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|decentralized Yugoslav model]]. Over the next two decades of relative domestic quiet, Kádár's government responded alternately to pressures for minor political and economic reforms as well as to counter-pressures from reform opponents. Dissidents (the so-called "Democratic Opposition", ''{{ill|Demokratikus ellenzék|hu}}'') still remained closely watched by the secret police however, particularly during the anniversaries of the 1956 uprising in 1966, 1976, and 1986.

By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt, incurred to subsidize unprofitable industries. Many of Hungary's manufacturing facilities were outmoded and unable to produce goods that were salable on world markets. Despite this, they succeeded in obtaining sizable financial loans from Western countries without much difficulty. During a 1983 visit to Hungary, Soviet leader [[Yuri Andropov]] expressed interest in adopting some of the country's economic reforms in the Soviet Union.

Hungary remained committed to a pro-Soviet foreign policy and openly criticized US president [[Ronald Reagan]]'s deployment of intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Europe. In a speech to the CPH's youth organization in 1981, Kádár said "The forces of capitalism are trying to distract attention from their mounting social problems by stepping up the arms race, but there can be no prospect for mankind other than that of peace and social progress." In 1983, Vice President [[George H.W. Bush]] and the foreign ministers of France and West Germany visited Budapest, where they received a friendly welcome, but the Hungarian leadership nonetheless reiterated their opposition to US missile deployment. They also cautioned the Western representatives not to mistake Hungary's economic reforms for a sign that the country would embrace capitalism.

Other events during Kadar's tenure were Hungarian aid and support of [[North Vietnam]] during the [[Vietnam War]], severing relations with [[Israel]] following the [[Six-Day War]], and the boycott of the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] during the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet conflict in Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/17/world/hungary-joins-soviet-in-quitting-olympics.html | title=Hungary Joins Soviet In Quitting Olympics | newspaper=New York Times | date=17 May 1984 | page=A15 | access-date=11 May 2018 }}</ref>

===Transition to democracy===
{{Main article|End of communism in Hungary (1989)|Hungarian parliamentary election, 1990}} In 1985 [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] rose to power in the Soviet Union, and changed the course of its foreign policy. Hungary's transition to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By late 1988, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Some of these became reformist social democrats, while others began movements which were to develop into parties. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz). A core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ) and the national opposition established the [[Hungarian Democratic Forum]] (''Magyar Demokrata Fórum'', MDF). Nationalist movements, such as the [[Jobbik]], only reappeared after a rapid decline in nationalist sentiment following the establishment of the new Republic. Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kádár was replaced as General Secretary of the MSZMP by Prime Minister [[Károly Grósz]], and reform communist leader [[Imre Pozsgay]] was admitted to the Politburo. In 1989, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package", which included [[trade union]] pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; and a new electoral law. A Central Committee plenum in February 1989 agreed in principle to give up the MSZMP's monopoly of power, and also characterized the October 1956 revolution as a "popular uprising", in the words of Pozsgay, whose reform movement had been gathering strength as Communist Party membership declined dramatically. Kádár's major political rivals then cooperated to move the country gradually to Western-style democracy. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

While Grósz favoured reforming and refining the system, the "democracy package" went well beyond the "model change" he advocated to change the system within the framework of Communism. However, by this time, Grósz had been rapidly eclipsed by a faction of radical reformers including Pozsgay, [[Miklós Németh]] (who succeeded Grósz as prime minister later in 1988), Foreign Minister [[Gyula Horn]], and [[Rezső Nyers]], the original architect of the New Economic Mechanism. This faction now favoured a "system change"–jettisoning Communism altogether in favour of a market economy. By the summer of 1989, it was clear that the MSZMP was no longer a Marxist-Leninist party. In June, a four-man executive presidency replaced the Politburo. Three of its four members–Nemeth, Pozsgay and Nyers–came from the radical reform faction, with Nyers becoming party president. Grósz retained his title of general secretary, but Nyers now outranked him–effectively making Nyers the leader of Hungary.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national round table, comprising representatives of the new parties, some recreated old parties (such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats), and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

In October 1989, the MSZMP convened what would be its last congress. The party voted to disband and re-establish itself as the [[Hungarian Socialist Party]] (''Magyar Szocialista Párt'', MSZP), a Western European-style social democratic party with Nyers as its first president. Unable to slow down, let alone stop, the momentum toward a full "system change," Grósz eventually led a faction of Communists out of the MSZP to form a revived Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, now the [[Hungarian Workers' Party]].

The biggest changes by far came on 16–20 October 1989. In a historic session, Parliament adopted a package of nearly 100 constitutional amendments that almost completely rewrote the 1949 constitution. The package – the first comprehensive constitutional reform in the Soviet bloc – changed Hungary's official name to the Republic of Hungary and transformed the country from a one-party Marxist-Leninist state into a multiparty democracy. The revised constitution guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensured separation of powers among the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. The revised constitution also championed the "values of bourgeois democracy and democratic socialism" and gave equal status to public and private property. Although the now-dissolved MSZMP had already given up its monopoly of power in February, these changes marked the final legal step toward ending Communist rule in Hungary.

On the 33rd anniversary of the 1956 Revolution, 23 October, the Presidential Council was dissolved. In accordance with the constitution, parliament Speaker [[Mátyás Szűrös]] was named provisional president pending elections the following year. One of Szűrös' first acts was to officially proclaim the Republic of Hungary.

Hungary decentralized its economy and strengthened its ties with western Europe; in May 2004 Hungary became a member of the [[European Union]].

==Economy==
{{Further|Eastern Bloc economies}}
As a member of the [[Eastern Bloc]], initially, Hungary was shaped by various directives of [[Joseph Stalin]] that served to undermine Western institutional characteristics of [[Market economy|market economies]], [[liberal democracy]] (considered as [[Liberal_democracy#Dictatorship_of_the_bourgeoisie|bourgeoisie democracy]] in Marxist thought), and [[rule of law]].{{sfn|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=12}} The Soviets modeled economies in the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]], such as Hungary, along Soviet [[command economy]] lines.{{sfn|Turnock|1997|p=23}} Economic activity was governed by Five Year Plans, divided into monthly segments, which are drafted in order to meet plan targets for the period, and made use of methods such as [[material balance planning]] similar to other Soviet-type command economies.{{sfn|Crampton|1997|p=250}}

The plans prioritized investment for producer goods over consumer goods.{{sfn|Dale|2005|p=85}}{{Dubious|Talk section name|date=July 2021}} Consumer goods soon began to lack in quantity, resulting in a [[shortage economy]], and lack of user feedback without other incentives for innovation led to a lack of quality as well.{{sfn|Dale|2005|p=85}} Overall, the inefficiency of later economic systems without mechanisms for feedback present in other economies, such as competition, market-clearing prices or subsidies for innovation became costly and unsustainable.{{sfn|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=1}} Meanwhile, other Western European nations experienced increased economic growth in the [[Wirtschaftswunder]] ("economic miracle"), [[Trente Glorieuses]] ("thirty glorious years"), and the [[post-World War II boom]].

Housing shortages emerged.{{sfn|Sillince|1990|pp=11–12}} The near-total emphasis on large low quality [[prefabricated]] apartment blocks, such as Hungarian [[Panelház]], was a common feature of Eastern Bloc cities in the 1970s and 1980s.{{sfn|Turnock|1997|p=54}} Even by the late 1980s, [[sanitary conditions]] were generally far from adequate.{{sfn|Sillince|1990|p=18}} Only 60% of Hungarian housing had adequate sanitation by 1984, with only 36% of housing having piped water.{{sfn|Sillince|1990|pp=19–20}}

While most western European economies essentially began to approach the [[per capita]] [[Gross Domestic Product]] levels of the [[United States]], Hungary's did not,{{sfn|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=16}} with its per capita GDPs falling significantly below their comparable western European counterparts:{{sfn|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=17}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
!style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Per Capita GDP (1990 [[Dollar|$]])
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1938
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1990
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Austria]]||$1,800 ||$19,200
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]]||$1,800||$3,100
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Finland]]||$1,800 ||$26,100
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Italy]]||$1,300 ||$16,800
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|Hungary||$1,100||$2,800
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[People's Republic of Poland|Poland]]||$1,000||$1,700
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Spain]]||$900 ||$10,900
|- style="text-align:center;"
|-
|}

The per capita GDP figures, while the parities are lower, are broadly similar when calculated on PPP basis:{{sfn|Maddison|2006|p=185}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
!style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Per Capita GDP (1990 [[Dollar|$]])
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1950
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1973
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1990
|- style="text-align:left;"
|align=left|[[Austria]]|| $3,706 || $11,235|| $16,881
|-
|align=left|[[Italy]]|| $3,502 || $10,643|| $16,320
|-
|align=left|[[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]]|| $3,501 || $7,041|| $8,895(Czech Lands)/ $7,762(Slovakia)
|-
|align=left|[[Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]|| $2,834 || $6,058|| $6,871
|-
|align=left|Hungary|| $2,480 || $5,596|| $6,471
|-
|align=left|[[Spain]]|| $2,397 || $8,739|| $12,210
|-
|}

The GDP per capita of Hungary, and the Eastern Bloc as a whole, lagged behind that of [[Western Europe]].

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{Citation| title = A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change
| last1 = Bideleux | first1 = Robert
| last2 = Jeffries | first2 = Ian
| year = 2007
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 978-0-415-36626-7
}}
*{{Citation| title = Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after
| last = Crampton | first = R. J.
| year = 1997
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-16422-2
}}
*{{Citation| title = Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945-1989: Judgements on the Street
| last = Dale | first = Gareth
| year = 2005
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0714654086
}}
*{{Citation| title = East-Central European Economies in Transition
| last1 = Hardt | first1 = John Pearce
| last2 = Kaufman | first2 = Richard F.
| year = 1995
| publisher = M.E. Sharpe
| isbn = 1-56324-612-0
}}
*{{Cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus |title=The world economy|publisher=OECD Publishing|year=2006|isbn=92-64-02261-9}}
*{{Citation| title = Housing policies in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union
| last = Sillince | first = John
| year = 1990
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-02134-0
}}
*{{Citation| title = The East European economy in context: communism and transition
| last = Turnock | first = David
| year = 1997
| publisher = Routledge
| isbn = 0-415-08626-4
}}
*{{Citation| title = Stalin and the Cold War in Europe
| last = Wettig | first = Gerhard
| year = 2008
| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield
| isbn = 978-0-7425-5542-6
}}

==External links==
*[http://hungarianreview.com/print/Everyday%20Communism%20-%20On%20Life,%20Books%20and%20Women%20in%20Communist%20Hungary Everyday communism – on life, books and women in communist Hungary], Hungary Review
* ''[https://archive.org/details/HistoryRevWorkersMovementHungary4462 History of the Revolutionary Workers Movement in Hungary: 1944–1962]'', an English-language Hungarian work published in 1972.
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.browse&sort=Collection&item=Hungary%20in%20the%20Cold%20War The CWIHP at the Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars Collection on Hungary in the Cold War]

{{Navboxes
|title=Articles related to {{PAGENAME}}
|list =
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[[Category:Communism in Hungary]]
[[Category:Eastern Bloc]]
[[Category:Soviet satellite states|Hungary]]
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Mike Mansfield

2021-08-12T12:45:40Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2021}} {{short description|American politician and diplomat}} {{Other people|Michael Mansfield}} {{redirect|Senator Mansfield|the North Carolina Senat..."

{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{short description|American politician and diplomat}}
{{Other people|Michael Mansfield}}
{{redirect|Senator Mansfield|the North Carolina Senate member|Eric L. Mansfield}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mike Mansfield
| image = Mike mansfield cropped.jpg
| alt = A black-and-white photo of Mansfield holding a large book and a pipe, dressed in a suit
| caption =
| office = [[United States Ambassador to Japan]]
| president = {{ubl|[[Jimmy Carter]]|[[Ronald Reagan]]}}
| term_start = June 10, 1977
| term_end = December 22, 1988
| predecessor = [[James Day Hodgson]]
| successor = [[Michael Armacost]]
| office1 = [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate Majority Leader]]
| deputy1 = {{ubl|[[Hubert Humphrey]]|[[Russell B. Long]]|[[Ted Kennedy]]|[[Robert Byrd]]}}
| term_start1 = January 3, 1961
| term_end1 = January 3, 1977
| predecessor1 = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| successor1 = Robert Byrd
| office2 = [[Senate Democratic Caucus#Chairs|Chairman of the Senate Democratic Caucus]]
| term_start2 = January 3, 1961
| term_end2 = January 3, 1977
| predecessor2 = [[Lyndon Johnson]]
| successor2 = [[Robert Byrd]]
| office3 = [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate Majority Whip]]
| leader3 = Lyndon Johnson
| term_start3 = January 3, 1957
| term_end3 = January 3, 1961
| predecessor3 = [[Earle C. Clements]]
| successor3 = Hubert Humphrey
| jr/sr4 = United States Senator
| state4 = [[Montana]]
| term_start4 = January 3, 1953
| term_end4 = January 3, 1977
| predecessor4 = [[Zales Ecton]]
| successor4 = [[John Melcher]]
| state5 = [[Montana]]
| district5 = {{ushr|MT|1|1st}}
| term_start5 = January 3, 1943
| term_end5 = January 3, 1953
| predecessor5 = [[Jeannette Rankin]]
| successor5 = [[Lee Metcalf]]
| birth_name = Michael Joseph Mansfield
| birth_date = {{birth date|1903|3|16}}
| birth_place = {{nowrap|[[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|10|5|1903|3|16}}
| death_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| restingplace = [[Arlington National Cemetery]]
| spouse = {{Marriage|Maureen Hayes|1932|2000|reason=died}}
| children = 1
| education = [[University of Montana]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Arts|MA]])
| signature = Mike Mansfield Signature.svg
| allegiance = {{flag|United States|1912}}
| branch = {{ubl|{{flag|United States Navy|1912}}|{{army|United States}}|{{flag|United States Marine Corps}}}}
| rank = {{ubl|[[Seaman (rank)|Seaman]] (Navy)|[[Private (rank)|Private]] (Army)|[[Private first class|Private First Class]] (Marine Corps)}}
| serviceyears = {{ubl|1918–1919 (Navy)|1919–1920 (Army)|1920–1922 (Marine Corps)}}
| battles = [[World War I]]
}}
'''Michael Joseph Mansfield''' (March 16, 1903 – October 5, 2001) was an American politician and diplomat. A member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], he served as a [[United States House of Representatives|US Representative]] (1943–1953) and a [[United States Senate|US Senator]] (1953–1977) from [[Montana]]. He was the longest-serving [[party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate Majority Leader]] and served from 1961 to 1977. During his tenure, he shepherded [[Great Society]] programs through the Senate.

Born in [[Brooklyn]], Mansfield grew up in [[Great Falls, Montana]]. He lied about his age to serve in the [[United States Navy]] during [[World War I]]. After the war, he became a professor of history and political science at the [[University of Montana]]. He won election to the House of Representatives and served on the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Committee on Foreign Affairs]] during [[World War II]].

In 1952, he defeated incumbent Republican Senator [[Zales Ecton]] to take a seat in the Senate. Mansfield served as Senate Majority Whip from 1957 to 1961. Mansfield ascended to Senate Majority Leader after [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] resigned from the Senate to become vice president. In the later years of the campaign, he eventually opposed escalation of the Vietnam War and supported President [[Richard Nixon]]'s plans to replace US soldiers from [[Southeast Asia]] with Vietnamese belligerents.

After retiring from the Senate, Mansfield served as [[United States Ambassador to Japan|US Ambassador to Japan]] from 1977 to 1988. Upon retiring as ambassador, he was awarded the nation's highest civilian honor, the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. Mansfield is the longest-serving American ambassador to [[Japan]] in history.<ref name=wsj>{{cite news|first=Eleanor|last=Warnock|title=End of an Era: Yamamoto, Top 'America Hand' Dies at 76 |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2012/04/16/end-of-an-era-yamamoto-top-america-hand-dies-at-76/ |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] Japan Real Time |date=April 16, 2012 |access-date=April 18, 2012}}</ref> After his ambassadorship, Mansfield served for a time as a senior adviser on East Asian affairs to [[Goldman Sachs]], the Wall Street investment banking firm.

==Early childhood==
Mansfield was born in the [[Brooklyn]] borough of [[New York City]], the son of Patrick J. Mansfield and Josephine (née O'Brien) Mansfield,<ref>"New York, New York City Births, 1846-1909," database, ''FamilySearch''(<nowiki>https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:2W8Z-L89</nowiki> : accessed May 15, 2016), Michael Joseph Mansfield, March 16, 1903; citing Birth, Manhattan, New York, New York, United States, New York Municipal Archives, New York; FHL microfilm 1,983,861.</ref> who were both [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] immigrants.<ref name=charting>{{cite book|title=Charting a New Course: Mike Mansfield and U.S. Asian Policy|year=1978|publisher=Charles E. Tuttle Company|location=Rutland, VT}}</ref> His mother died from [[pneumonia]] in 1906, and his father subsequently sent Michael and his two sisters to live with an aunt and uncle in [[Great Falls, Montana|Great Falls]], [[Montana]].<ref name=mansfieldfdn>{{cite news|work=The Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation|title=Biography|url=http://www.mansfieldfdn.org/backup/tribute/biography.htm}}</ref> He attended local public schools, and worked in his relatives' grocery store.<ref name=charting /> He turned into a habitual runaway, even living at a state orphanage in [[Twin Bridges, Montana|Twin Bridges]] for half a year.<ref name=tribune>{{cite news|work=[[Great Falls Tribune]]|title=125 Montana Newsmakers: Mike Mansfield|url=http://www.greatfallstribune.com/multimedia/125newsmakers6/mansfield.html}}</ref>

==Military service==
At 14, Mansfield dropped out of school and lied about his age in order to enlist in the [[US Navy]] during [[World War I]].<ref name=senate>{{cite news|work=[[United States Senate]]|title=Senate Leaders: Mike Mansfield, Quiet Leadership in Troubled Times|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/People_Leaders_Mansfield.htm}}</ref> He went on several overseas convoys on the [[USS Minneapolis (C-13)|USS ''Minneapolis'']] but was discharged by the Navy after his real age was discovered.<ref name=senate /> (He was the last known veteran of the war to die before he reached the age of 100 and the last World War I veteran to sit in the US Senate.) After his Navy discharge, he enlisted in the [[US Army]], serving as a [[private (rank)|private]] from 1919 to 1920.<ref name=congress>{{cite news|work=[[Biographical Directory of the United States Congress]]|title=MANSFIELD, Michael Joseph (Mike), (1903–2001)|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=m000113}}</ref>

Mansfield was a [[Private First Class]] in the [[US Marine Corps]] from 1920 to 1922.<ref name=congress /> He served in the Western Recruiting Division at San Francisco until January 1921, when he was transferred to the Marine Barracks at Puget Sound, Washington. The following month, he was detached to the Guard Company, Marine Barracks, Navy Yard, Mare Island, California. In April, he boarded the ''USAT Sherman'', bound for the [[Philippines]]. After a brief stopover at the Marine Barracks at [[Cavite]], he arrived at his duty station on May 5, 1921, the Marine Barracks, Naval Station, Olongapo, Philippine Islands. One year later, Mansfield was assigned to Company A, Marine Battery, Asiatic Fleet. A short tour of duty with the Asiatic Fleet took him along the coast of China before he returned to Olongapo in late May 1922.<ref name=senate /> His service with the Marines established a lifelong interest in Asia.

That August, Mansfield returned to Cavite in preparation for his return to the United States and eventual discharge. On November 9, 1922, Marine Private Michael J. Mansfield was released on the completion of his enlistment. He was awarded the Good Conduct Medal, his character being described as "excellent" during his two years as a Marine.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}

==Education==
Following his return to Montana in 1922, Mansfield worked as a "mucker" and shoveled ore and other waste in the [[copper]] mines of [[Butte, Montana|Butte]] for eight years.<ref name=congress /> Having never attended high school, he took entrance examinations to attend the [[Montana Tech of the University of Montana|Montana School of Mines]] (1927–1928), studying to become a mining engineer.<ref name=tribune /> He later met a local schoolteacher and his future wife, Maureen Hayes, who encouraged him to further his education. With her financial support, Mansfield studied at the [[University of Montana]] in [[Missoula, Montana|Missoula]], where he took both high school and college courses.<ref name=mansfieldfdn /> He was also a member of [[Alpha Tau Omega]] fraternity. He earned his [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in 1933 and was offered a [[graduate assistant]]ship teaching two courses at the university. He also worked part-time in the registrar's office.<ref name=charting /> He earned a [[Master of Arts]] degree from the University of Montana in 1934 with the thesis "American Diplomatic Relations with Korea, 1866–1910." From 1934 to 1942, he taught classes in Far Eastern and Latin American history and also lectured some years on Greek and Roman history.<ref name=tribune /> He also attended the [[University of California, Los Angeles|University of California]] at [[Los Angeles]] (1936–1937).<ref name=congress />

==US Representative==
[[File:Michael Joseph Mansfield.jpg|thumb|left|An early Mansfield portrait]]
In 1940, Mansfield ran for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nomination for the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] in [[Montana's 1st congressional district]] but was defeated by [[Jerry J. O'Connell]], a former holder of the seat, in the primary. The general election was won by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Jeannette Rankin]], who had previously won what was formerly an at-large seat in the House in 1916 and served until her defeat in 1920.<ref name=senate /> Mansfield decided to run for the seat again in the following election and won it by defeating the businessman Howard K. Hazelbaker after Rankin, who had voted against the entry of the United States into World War II, decided not to run for what would have been her third term.<ref name=wilson>{{cite book|title=American Political Leaders|url=https://archive.org/details/americanpolitica0000wils|url-access=registration|last=Wilson|first=Richard L.|year=2002|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|location=New York}}</ref>

{{quote|A new-comer to the House, who is reportedly internationalist-minded, having been professor of history and political science at Montana State University for ten years. Though a supporter of the Administration's foreign policy, he is likely to be strongly critical of the smallness of China's share of [[Lend-Lease]], and of what he fears is the Administration's tendency to regard the Atlantic as more important than the Pacific, and of its apparent reluctance to regard the Chinese as an ally on equal footing. His strongly pro-Chinese sentiments may tend to make him somewhat anti-British on this score.}}

Mansfield served five terms in the House, being re-elected in 1944, 1946, 1948, and 1950. His military service and academic experience landed him a seat on the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|House Foreign Affairs Committee]].<ref name=charting /> He went to China on a special mission for [[US President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in 1944 and served as a delegate to the ninth Inter-American Conference in [[Colombia]] in 1948.<ref name=wilson /> In 1951, he was appointed by President [[Harry S. Truman]] as a delegate to the [[United Nations]]' sixth session in [[Paris]]. During his House tenure, he also expressed his support for [[price controls]], a higher [[minimum wage in the United States|minimum wage]], the [[Marshall Plan]], and aid to [[Turkey]] and [[Greece]]. He opposed the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]], the [[Taft–Hartley Act]], and the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-second Amendment]].<ref name=wilson />

==US Senator==
In 1952, Mansfield was elected to the [[United States Senate|Senate]] after he had narrowly defeated the Republican incumbent, [[Zales Ecton]].<ref name=senate /> He served as [[Assistant party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate Majority Whip]] under Majority Leader [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] from 1957 to 1961.<ref name=congress /> In 1961, after Johnson resigned from the Senate to become [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]], Mansfield was unanimously elected the Democratic floor leader and thus [[Party leaders of the United States Senate|Senate Majority Leader]]. Serving sixteen years, from 1961 until his retirement in 1977, Mansfield is the longest-serving Majority Leader in the history of the Senate.<ref name=senate /> The ''[[Washington Post]]'' compared Mansfield's behavior as Majority Leader to Johnson's by saying, "Instead of Johnson's browbeating tactics, Mansfield led by setting an example of humility and accommodation."<ref name=tribune />
{{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?102636-1/fmr-senator-mike-mansfield Presentation by Mansfield in the Old Senate Chamber, reflecting on his experiences in and observations about the Senate, March 24, 1998], [[C-SPAN]]}}
An early supporter of [[Ngo Dinh Diem]], Mansfield altered his opinion on the [[Vietnam War]] after a visit to Vietnam in 1962. He reported to [[John F. Kennedy]] on December 2, 1962, that US money given to Diem's government was being squandered and that the U.S. should avoid further involvement in [[Vietnam]]. He was thus the first American official to comment even mildly negatively on the war's condition.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.politico.com/story/2013/12/mike-mansfield-delivers-an-assessment-of-south-vietnam-dec-2-1962-100505 | title=Mike Mansfield delivers assessment of Vietnam, Dec. 2, 1962 | date=December 2, 2013 | first=Andrew | last=Glass | work=[[Politico]] | access-date=November 30, 2017}}</ref>

On September 25, 1963, Mansfield introduced Kennedy during a joint appearance with him at the Yellowstone County Fairgrounds, Kennedy expressing his appreciation afterward and adding, "I know that those of you who live in Montana know something of his character and his high standard of public service, but I am not sure that you are completely aware of what a significant role he has played in the last 3 years in passing through the United States Senate measure after measure which strengthens this country at home and abroad."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9434|title=382 - Remarks at the Yellowstone County Fairgrounds, Billings, Montana.|date=September 25, 1963|publisher=American Presidency Project}}</ref>

Mansfield delivered a eulogy on November 24, 1963 as President Kennedy's casket [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy|lay in state in the Capitol rotunda]], saying, "He gave that we might give of ourselves, that we might give to one another until there would be no room, no room at all, for the bigotry, the hatred, prejudice, and the arrogance which converged in that moment of horror to strike him down."<ref name="Mansfield">{{cite web |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/Ready-Reference/JFK-Fast-Facts/Eulogies.aspx |title=Eulogies to the Late President Kennedy |work=John F. Kennedy Fast Facts: Eulogies for President Kennedy |access-date=January 7, 2015 }}</ref>

During the Johnson administration, Mansfield, convinced that it was a blunder based on just aims, became a skeptic of US involvement in the [[Vietnam War]]. In February 1965, he lobbied against escalating aerial bombardment of [[North Vietnam]] in the aftermath of [[Pleiku]], arguing in a letter to the president that [[Operation Rolling Thunder]] would lead to a need for "vastly strengthened... American forces."<ref>Andrew J. Bacevich, ''Washington Rules: America's Path to Permanent War'' (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010), 103.</ref>

In 1964, Mansfield, as Senate Majority Leader, filed a procedural motion to have the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] discussed by the whole Senate rather than by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee|Judiciary Committee]], which had killed similar legislation seven years earlier.<ref name=judiciarysenategov>{{cite news|work=United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|title=Recess Reading: An Occasional Feature From The Judiciary Committee: The Civil Rights Act of 1964|url=http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/history/CivilRightsAct.cfm|access-date=December 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428161043/https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/history/CivilRightsAct.cfm|archive-date=April 28, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mansfield voted in favor of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957|Civil Rights Acts of 1957]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85-1957/s75|title=HR. 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957.|work=GovTrack.us}}</ref> [[Civil Rights Act of 1960|1960]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/86-1960/s284|title=HR. 8601. PASSAGE OF AMENDED BILL.}}</ref> [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|1964]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/88-1964/s409|title=HR. 7152. PASSAGE.}}</ref> and [[Civil Rights Act of 1968|1968]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/90-1968/s346|title=TO PASS H.R. 2516, A BILL TO PROHIBIT DISCRIMINATION IN SALE OR RENTAL OF HOUSING, AND TO PROHIBIT RACIALLY MOTIVATED INTERFERENCE WITH A PERSON EXERCISING HIS CIVIL RIGHTS, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.}}</ref> as well as the [[Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]] and the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/87-1962/s226|title=S.J. RES. 29. APPROVAL OF RESOLUTION BANNING THE POLL TAX AS PREREQUISITE FOR VOTING IN FEDERAL ELECTIONS.|work=GovTrack.us}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/89-1965/s78|title=TO PASS S. 1564, THE VOTING RIGHTS ACT OF 1965.}}</ref> but did not vote on the confirmation of [[Thurgood Marshall]] to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/90-1967/s176|title=CONFIRMATION OF NOMINATION OF THURGOOD MARSHALL, THE FIRST NEGRO APPOINTED TO THE SUPREME COURT.|work=GovTrack.us}}</ref>

He hailed the new [[Richard Nixon]] administration, especially the "[[Nixon Doctrine]]" announced at [[Guam]] in 1969 that the US would honor all treaty commitments, provide a [[nuclear umbrella]] for its allies, and supply weapons and technical assistance to countries where warranted without committing American forces to local conflicts.

In turn, Nixon turned to Mansfield for advice and as his liaison with the Senate on Vietnam. Nixon began a steady withdrawal and replacement of U.S. troops shortly after he took office in January 1969, a policy supported by Mansfield. During his first term, Nixon reduced American forces by 95%, leaving only 24,200 in late 1972; the last ones left in March 1973.

During the economic crisis of 1971, Mansfield was not afraid to reach across the aisle to help the economy:

<blockquote>What we're in is not a Republican recession or a Democratic recession; both parties had much to do with bringing us where we are today. But we're facing a national situation which calls for the best which all of us can produce, because we know the results will be something which we will regret.<ref>[http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/#title "Economic Crisis: 1971 Year in Review, UPI.com"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503142809/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1971/12295509436546-1/ |date=2009-05-03}}</ref></blockquote>

Mansfield attended the November 17, 1976 meeting between President-elect [[Jimmy Carter]] and Democratic congressional leaders in which Carter sought out support for a proposal to have the president's power to reorganize the government reinstated with potential to be vetoed by Congress.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/11/18/archives/carter-asks-leaders-of-congress-to-help-in-a-reorganization-he-is.html|title=CARTER ASKS LEADERS OF CONGRESS TO HELP IN A REORGANIZATION|first=Warren|last=Weaver, Jr.|newspaper=New York Times|date=November 18, 1976}}</ref>

==Mansfield Amendments==
Two controversial amendments by Mansfield limiting military funding of research were passed by Congress.
*The Mansfield Amendment of 1969, passed as part of the fiscal year 1970 Military Authorization Act (Public Law 91-121), prohibited military funding of research that lacked a direct or apparent relationship to specific military function. Through subsequent modification the Mansfield amendment moved the Department of Defense toward the support of more short-term applied research in universities."<ref>{{cite web |title=Federally funded research, decisions for a decade|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1991/9121/912104.PDF}} Office of Technology Assessment report. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, first session, March 20, 1991.by the United States. Congress. House. Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. Subcommittee on Science. Pub: Washington: U.S. G.P.O.: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., Congressional Sales Office, U.S. G.P.O., 1991. Chapter 2: The Value of Science and the Changing Research Economy, p. 61.</ref> The amendment affected the military, such as research funding by the Office of Naval Research (ONR).<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Reverberations from the Mansfield Amendment |journal=Analytical Chemistry|volume=42|issue=7|pages=689|doi=10.1021/ac60289a600|year=1970 |last1=Laitinen |first1=Herbert A. }}</ref>
*The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research through the [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]], which is largely independent of the military, to projects with direct [[military]] application.<ref>{{cite web |title=DARPA History|url=http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/sociopolitica/sociopol_DARPA01.htm}} See "Mansfield Amendment of 1973" about halfway down the page.</ref>

An earlier Mansfield Amendment, offered in 1971, called for the number of US troops stationed in Europe to be halved. On May 19, 1971, however, the Senate defeated the resolution 61–36.

==US ambassador to Japan==
[[File:Mike mansfield.jpg|thumb|1978 painting of Mansfield]]
Mansfield retired from the Senate in 1976 and was appointed ambassador to [[Japan]] in April 1977 by [[Jimmy Carter]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=7312|title=United States Ambassador to Japan - Nomination of Michael J. Mansfield|date=April 7, 1977|publisher=American Presidency Project}}</ref> a role that he retained during the [[Reagan administration]] until 1988. While serving in Japan, Mansfield was highly respected and was particularly renowned for describing the US-Japan relationship as the "most important bilateral relationship in the world, bar none."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://foreign.senate.gov/testimony/2009/RoosTestimony090723a.pdf |title=Testimony of Ambassador to Japan-designate John V. Roos before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, July 23, 2009 |access-date=August 28, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813062914/http://foreign.senate.gov/testimony/2009/RoosTestimony090723a.pdf |archive-date=August 13, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mansfield's successor in Japan, [[Michael Armacost]], noted in his memoirs that for Mansfield, the phrase was a "mantra." While in office, Mansfield also fostered relations between his home state of Montana and Japan. The state capital of [[Helena, Montana|Helena]] is the sister city to [[Kumamoto]], on the island of [[Kyushu]].<ref name=mansfieldsen>{{cite web|title=Mike Mansfield Quiet Leadership in Troubled Times|url=http://senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/People_Leaders_Mansfield.htm|publisher=United States Senate|access-date=July 23, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928110716/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/People_Leaders_Mansfield.htm|archive-date=September 28, 2011}}</ref>

==Honors==
The [[Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library]] at the [[University of Montana – Missoula|University of Montana]], [[Missoula, Montana|Missoula]] is named after him and his wife Maureen,<ref name=MansfieldLibrary>{{cite web|access-date=March 22, 2007|url=http://www2.umt.edu/catalog/manlib.htm|title=The Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library|work=Course Catalog 2006–2007|publisher=The University of Montana|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209014131/http://www2.umt.edu/catalog/manlib.htm|archive-date=February 9, 2007}}</ref> as was his request when informed of the honor. The library also contains the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Center, which is dedicated to [[Asian studies]], and, like the [[Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation]], "advancing understanding and co-operation in U.S.-Asia relations." The [[Mike Mansfield Federal Building and United States Courthouse]] in Missoula was renamed in his honor in 2002.<ref>[http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/gsa/ep/buildingView.do?pageTypeId=17109&channelPage=/ep/channel/gsaOverview.jsp&channelId=-25241&reason=bldgNameNos&bid=295 General Service Administration page on the Mike Mansfield Federal Building and United States Courthouse]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref>

The [[Montana Democratic Party]] holds an annual Mansfield-Metcalf Dinner named partially in his honor.

In 1977, Mansfield received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by [[Jefferson Awards for Public Service|Jefferson Awards]].<ref>[http://www.jeffersonawards.org/pastwinners/national National Winners | public service awards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124043935/http://jeffersonawards.org/pastwinners/national |date=November 24, 2010 }}. Jefferson Awards.org. Retrieved on August 16, 2013.</ref>

In 1977, he was awarded the [[Laetare Medal]] by the [[University of Notre Dame]], the oldest and most prestigious award for [[American Catholics]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher= University of Notre Dame |title=Recipients {{!}} The Laetare Medal |url=https://laetare.nd.edu/recipients/#info1977 |access-date=August 2, 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

On January 19, 1989, Mansfield and Secretary of State [[George P. Shultz]] were awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] by President [[Ronald Reagan]]. In his speech, Reagan recognized Mansfield as someone who has "distinguished himself as a dedicated public servant and loyal American."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=35402 |title=Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medal of Freedom: January 19, 1989 |date=January 19, 1989 |publisher=The American Presidency Project |access-date=June 5, 2017}}</ref> In 1990, he was given both the [[United States Military Academy]], [[Sylvanus Thayer Award]] and Japan's [[Order of the Rising Sun]] with Paulownia Flowers, Grand Cordon. This is Japan's highest honor for someone who is not a head of state.<ref name="mongolia2007">Campi, Alicia. [http://www.mansfieldfdn.org/programs/program_pdfs/us_mongolia.pdf "The Role of Mike Mansfield in Consolidating Mongolia's International Status and in Establishing Diplomatic Relations with the United States,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727064221/http://www.mansfieldfdn.org/programs/program_pdfs/us_mongolia.pdf |date=July 27, 2011 }} The [[Mansfield Foundation]]. May 17, 2007.</ref>

In 1999, Missoula's daily newspaper, the ''[[Missoulian]]'', chose Mansfield as The Most Influential Montanan of the 20th Century.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.missoulian.com/specials/100montanans/list/001.html|title=Special for Missoulian Online - The 100 Most Influential Montanans of the Century|last=Doherty|first=Steve|date=1999|work=[[Missoulian]]|access-date=October 30, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303143849/http://www.missoulian.com/specials/100montanans/list/001.html|archive-date=March 3, 2001}}</ref>

==Death==
Mansfield died at the age of 98 on October 5, 2001.<ref name="mongolia2007" /> He was survived by his daughter, Anne Fairclough Mansfield (1939–2013),<ref name="Washington post obituary Anne F Mansfield">[http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/washingtonpost/obituary.aspx?n=anne-f-mansfield&pid=164529118#fbLoggedOut ANNE F. MANSFIELD Obituary: View ANNE MANSFIELD's Obituary by The Washington Post]. Legacy.com (April 24, 2013). Retrieved on 2013-08-16.</ref> and one granddaughter.

The [[grave (burial)|burial plot]] of Pvt. and Mrs. Mansfield can be found in section 2, marker 49-69F of [[Arlington National Cemetery]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|World War I|Politics}}
* [[List of United States political appointments that crossed party lines]]
* [[Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation]]
{{Clear}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General references ==
=== Print ===
*{{Cite book
|author=Oberdorfer, Don
|title=Senator Mansfield: The Extraordinary Life of a Great American Statesman and Diplomat
|year=2003
|isbn=1-58834-166-6
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/senatormansfield00ober
}}
*{{Cite book|author=Olson, Gregory A.
|title='Mansfield and Vietnam, a Study in Rhetorical Adaptation
|publisher=Michigan State University Press|year=1995}} [https://www.questia.com/library/4891897/mansfield-and-vietnam-a-study-in-rhetorical-adaptation online]
*{{Cite book|author=Valeo, Francis R.
|title=Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Different Kind of Senate, 1961–1976
|publisher=M. E. Sharpe |location=New York|year=1999 |isbn=0-7656-0450-7}} [https://www.questia.com/library/90890173/mike-mansfield-majority-leader-a-different-kind online]
*{{Cite book|author=Whalen, Charles and Barbara
|title=The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the 1964 Civil Rights Act
|url=https://archive.org/details/longestdebateleg00whal
|url-access=registration
|location=Cabin John, Maryland |publisher=Seven Locks Press |year=1985}}

=== Web ===
*{{cite web
|access-date = April 22, 2006
|url = http://hqinet001.hqmc.usmc.mil/HD/Historical/Whos_Who/Mansfield_MJ.htm
|title = The Honorable Michael J. Mansfield
|work = Who's Who in Marine Corps History
|publisher = History Division, United States Marine Corps
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070429191832/http://hqinet001.hqmc.usmc.mil/HD/Historical/Whos_Who/Mansfield_MJ.htm
|archive-date = April 29, 2007
}}
*{{cite news|author=Thorne, Christopher
|title= Laid to Rest, A Tribute to Mike Mansfield
|date=October 11, 2001 |agency=Associated Press
|url=http://www.missoulian.com/specials/mansfield/laidtorest.html}}

{{Marine Corps}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://ancexplorer.army.mil/publicwmv/#/arlington-national/search/results/4/CgltYW5zZmllbGQ-/ Arlington National Cemetery]
* [http://mansfieldfdn.org/ The Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation], U.S.-Asia relations
* [http://www.umt.edu/mansfield/ The Maureen and Mike Mansfield Center] at the [[University of Montana]]
* {{Congbio|m000113}}
* 
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/~/link.aspx?_id=6BB50D037D734227856330210E5ED638&_z=z Legislative Summary: Statement by Senator Mike Mansfield], [[John F. Kennedy Library]], 1964
* [http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011989b.htm Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medal of Freedom – January 19, 1989]
* [http://nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu/findaid/ark:/80444/xv87911 Mike Mansfield Papers] (University of Montana Archives)
* [https://scholarworks.umt.edu/mansfieldsamerica_oralhistory/ Mansfield's America Oral History Project] (University of Montana Archives)
* [https://scholarworks.umt.edu/mansfield_interviews/ Don Oberdorfer Interviews with Mike Mansfield Oral History Project] (University of Montana Archives)
* {{Internet Archive film clip|id=gov.archives.arc.95943|description="Longines Chronoscope with Michael Mike Mansfield"}}
* {{C-SPAN|Michael Mansfield}}

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{{Democratic Party (United States)}}
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{{US Ambassadors to Japan}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mansfield, Mike}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American politicians]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of the United States to Japan]]
[[Category:United States Navy personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:American people of Irish descent]]
[[Category:American Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery]]
[[Category:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Montana]]
[[Category:Democratic Party United States senators from Montana]]
[[Category:Laetare Medal recipients]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Montana]]
[[Category:Montana State University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Brooklyn]]
[[Category:Politicians from Great Falls, Montana]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers]]
[[Category:United States Marines]]
[[Category:United States Navy sailors]]
[[Category:University of Montana alumni]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers]]

Hockessin, Delaware

2021-08-12T12:44:08Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Infobox settlement |official_name = Hockessin, Delaware |settlement_type = CDP |nickname = |motto..."

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Hockessin, Delaware
|settlement_type = [[Census-designated place|CDP]]
|nickname =
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|image_skyline = Hockessin Friends from south.JPG
|imagesize =
|image_caption = [[Hockessin Friends Meetinghouse]]
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|image_map = New Castle County Delaware incorporated and unincorporated areas Hockessin highlighted.svg
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|map_caption = Location in [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]] and the state of [[Delaware]].
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|subdivision_name1 = [[Delaware]]
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|subdivision_name2 = [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle]]
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|area_land_sq_mi = 10.0
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|population_as_of = [[United States Census, 2010|2010]]
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|population_density_km2 = 520.3
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|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
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|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
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'''Hockessin''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|oʊ|k|ɛ|s|ᵻ|n}} is a [[census-designated place]] (CDP) in [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]], [[Delaware]], United States. The population was 13,527 at the [[United States Census, 2010|2010 census]].

==History==
Hockessin came into existence as a little village in 1688 when several families settled in the area. The village was named after the [[Delaware languages|Lenape]] word ''hokes'', meaning good bark or good bark hill.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lake |first=Joseph |date=1997 |title=Hockessin: A Pictorial History (Second Ed.) |location= Dover Litho Printing Co Dover, DE |publisher=Friends of the Hockessin Library |pages=6–7}}</ref> There is a second and more likely origin for the name. While the word Hockessin does look like a Native American word, the name Hockessin did not show up on any early maps until many years after the Hockessin Meeting House was built and what is now the Village of Hockessin was never settled by the Native Americans, while they did have a hunting camp nearby. There was no town name Hockessin and the area was referred to as Mill Creek Hundred. The actual name is believed to be derived from one of the first settled properties which was named Occasion and settled by William Cox in 1726 and also the location of the first Quaker meetings in the area before Hockessin Meeting House was built a few years later. The earliest known use of the word Occasion was in 1734 in a property deed for this property. And the road to the Hockessin Meeting House, currently Old Wilmington Road, was written as Ockession Road on a map in 1808.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weslager |first=C.A |date=June 1961 |title=The Old Hollingsworth Plantation |url=https://www.wwrr.com/downloads/monograph_hollingsworth.pdf |location=Wilmington,Del |publisher=Historic Red Clay Valley, Inc |page=11}}</ref> The first [[Roman Catholic]] church in Delaware was located in Hockessin. [[Missionary]] priests from [[Maryland]] established the Coffee Run Mission in 1790.<ref>{{Cite news| last = Mertz| first = Ann Morris| title = Pioneer Catholic church nears 200th anniversary| newspaper = Brandywine Crossroads| location = Wilmington, DE| date = September 25, 1986| url = http://nc-chap.org/church/stpeter/crossroads.php| access-date = 26 April 2010 }}</ref>

The [[A. Armstrong Farm]], [[Coffee Run Mission Site]], [[Hockessin Friends Meetinghouse]], [[T. Pierson Farm]], [[Public School No. 29]], [[Springer Farm (Newark, Delaware)|Springer Farm]], and [[Wilmington and Western Railroad]] are listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1978.<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref> More recently added sites to the National Register of Historic Places include: Tweed's Tavern, the home of Negro league baseball player James "Nip" Winters, Colored School #107C, St. John the Evangelist Church, the Daniel Nichols house, and the Cox/Phillips/Mitchell Agricultural Complex.<ref>"Delaware National Register of Historic Places" https://history.delaware.gov/preservation/natlregister/</ref>

==Geography==
The community is near the northwest border of Delaware within {{convert|1.2|mi|abbr=on}} of the Pennsylvania border on the east bank of [[Mill Creek (White Clay Creek tributary)|Mill Creek]].<ref>''Kennett Square, PA,'' 7.5 Minute Topographic Quadrangle, USGS, 1954 (1987 rev.)</ref>

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the CDP has a total area of {{convert|10.0|sqmi|km2}}, of which, {{convert|10.0|sqmi|km2}} of it is land and 0.10% is water.

==Demographics==
{{US Census population|align=left
|1990= 10051
|2000= 12902
|2010= 13527
|footnote=source:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html|title=Census of Population and Housing (1790–2000)|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|access-date=2012-05-20}}</ref>
}}

As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=2008-01-31|title=U.S. Census website}}</ref> of 2000, there were 12,902 people, 4,464 households, and 3,731 families residing in the CDP. The [[population density]] was 1,286.7 people per square mile (496.7/km2). There were 4,575 housing units at an average density of 456.3 per square mile (176.1/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 88.8% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 2.7% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.2% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 7.2% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], <0.1% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.5% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 0.8% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 2.0% of the population. From 1990 to 2016, the population of Hockessin has grown by about 35%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bestplaces.net/people/city/delaware/hockessin|title=Sperling's Best Places: Hockessin, Delaware}}</ref>

There were 4,464 households, out of which 40.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 77.3% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 4.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16.4% were non-families. 13.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.13.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26.9% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 24.5% from 25 to 44, 28.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $100,844, and the median income for a family was $108,784. Males had a median income of $76,617 versus $46,988 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the CDP was $40,516. About 1.0% of families and 1.7% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 2.0% of those under age 18 and 1.3% of those age 65 or over.

==Economy==
Although Hockessin is primarily a [[bedroom community]], there are several [[Fungiculture|mushroom farms]] operating in the area.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}

Hockessin contains the Lantana Square Shopping Center,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://untappd.com/v/lantana-square-shopping-center/1945612|title=Lantana Square Shopping Center|last=Team|first=The Untappd|website=Untappd|language=en|access-date=2018-08-02}}</ref> and the Hockessin Athletic Club,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hachealthclub.com/|title=Hockessin Athletic Club|website=Hockessin Athletic Club|language=en|access-date=2018-08-02}}</ref> which contains a pool, indoor gym, and walking trail.

==Arts and culture==
[[File:Swift_Memorial_Park_in_Hockessin.JPG|thumb|left|Swift Memorial Park in Hockessin]]
[[File:Hindu Temple Delaware Pic -2.jpg|thumb|[[Hindu Temple of Delaware]] in Hockessin]]
Hockessin hosts several [[Fourth of July]] activities for the area residents. Local groups parade down Old Lancaster Pike, neighborhoods compete in different athletic events, and there is a fireworks display in the evening in Swift Park.

==Education==
Hockessin is served by the [[Red Clay Consolidated School District]] for public education.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st10_de/schooldistrict_maps/c10003_new_castle/DC20SD_C10003.pdf|title=2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: New Castle County, DE|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2021-06-18}}</ref>

Elementary schools serving Hockessin for grades K through 5 include Cooke Elementary School and North Star Elementary School.<ref>{{cite web|title=Approved 2015–16 Elementary Attendance Zones|publisher=Red Clay Consolidated School District|url=https://www.redclayschools.com/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1183&dataid=1343&FileName=AZ_Elementary_Approved.pdf|access-date=March 25, 2018}} - For more detail: {{cite web|url=https://www.redclayschools.com/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1183&dataid=3883&FileName=Cooke_2016.pdf|title=Cooke_2016.pdf|publisher=[[Red Clay Consolidated School District]]|accessdate=2021-06-21}} and {{cite web|url=https://www.redclayschools.com/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1183&dataid=3894&FileName=North_Star_2016.pdf|title=North_Star_2016.pdf|publisher=[[Red Clay Consolidated School District]]|accessdate=2021-06-21}}</ref> Public school students in grades 6 through 8 attend Henry B. duPont Middle School,<ref>{{cite web|title=Henry B. duPont Middle School Attendance Zone|publisher=Red Clay Consolidated School District|url=https://www.redclayschools.com/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1183&dataid=3886&FileName=HB_duPont_Sub_2016.pdf|access-date=March 12, 2018}}</ref> [[Cab Calloway School of the Arts]], or [[Conrad Schools of Science]]. CCSA and Conrad also enroll students from grades 9–12. Students in grades 9 through 12 in Hockessin attend [[Thomas McKean High School]] to the south of Hockessin or [[Alexis I. duPont High School]] in [[Greenville, Delaware|Greenville]], with students in the western part of Hockessin attending [[John Dickinson High School]] in [[Pike Creek, Delaware|Pike Creek]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas McKean High School Attendance Zone|publisher=Red Clay Consolidated School District|url=https://www.redclayschools.com/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1183&dataid=1353&FileName=McKean_Sub_2016.pdf|access-date=March 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Alexis I. duPont High School Attendance Zone|publisher=Red Clay Consolidated School District|url=https://www.redclayschools.com/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1183&dataid=1348&FileName=AIHS_2016.pdf|access-date=March 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=John Dickinson High School Attendance Zone|publisher=Red Clay Consolidated School District|url=https://www.redclayschools.com/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=1183&dataid=1349&FileName=Dickinson_Sub_2016.pdf|access-date=March 12, 2018}}</ref> Private schools in Hockessin include CACC (Chinese American Community Center) Montessori School, Hockessin Montessori School, [[Sanford School]], and Wilmington Christian School.

==Infrastructure==
[[File:Lancaster_Pike_in_Hockessin%2C_facing_north.JPG|thumb|right|Lancaster Pike ([[Delaware Route 41|Route 41]]) in Hockessin, facing north towards the business/retail area]]

===Transportation===
The main road through Hockessin is [[Delaware Route 41]] (Lancaster Pike) which heads southeast toward [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] and northwest toward the [[Pennsylvania]] border, where it becomes [[Pennsylvania Route 41]] and continues toward [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]]. South of Hockessin, [[Delaware Route 48]] splits from DE 41 to follow Lancaster Pike to Wilmington while DE 41 continues along Newport Gap Pike to Prices Corner. [[Delaware Route 7]] passes through the western part of Hockessin along Limestone Road, heading north to the Pennsylvania border and south toward [[Pike Creek, Delaware|Pike Creek]] and [[Christiana, Delaware|Christiana]]. The northern terminus of the [[Wilmington and Western Railroad]], a tourist railroad, is in Hockessin; the railroad follows the [[Red Clay Creek]] valley south to [[Greenbank, Delaware|Greenbank]].<ref name=DelDOT>{{Delaware road map|year=2008}}</ref> [[DART First State]] provides bus service to Hockessin along Route 20, which follows Lancaster Pike to Wilmington and ends at the [[Wilmington station (Delaware)|Wilmington station]] served by [[Amtrak]] and [[SEPTA Regional Rail]]'s [[Wilmington/Newark Line]]. DART First State's Route 20 bus serves [[park and ride]] lots located at Hockessin Memorial Hall and the [[Wells Fargo]] bank.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dartfirststate.com/information/routes/index.shtml|title=Routes and Schedules|publisher=DART First State|access-date=August 16, 2013}}</ref>

==Notable people==
* [[Cab Calloway]], jazz singer and bandleader
* [[Chris Coons]], US Senator from Delaware
* [[Matt Denn]], Lieutenant Governor of Delaware
* [[Trevon Duval]], basketball player for the [[Duke Blue Devils men's basketball|Duke Blue Devils]]
* [[Tony Graffanino]], [[Major League Baseball]] player
* [[Bernard Hopkins]], professional boxer
* [[Kent A. Jordan]], Federal Judge on the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Philadelphia}}
{{Wikivoyage|Hockessin}}
*[http://www.city-data.com/city/Hockessin-Delaware.html/ Hockessin, Delaware profile on City-Data.com]

{{New Castle County, Delaware}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Census-designated places in New Castle County, Delaware]]
[[Category:Census-designated places in Delaware]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1688]]

J. Caleb Boggs

2021-08-12T12:42:34Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{short description|American politician}} {{for|the similarly named US Representative from the same time period|Hale Boggs}} {{More footnotes|date=November 2010}} {{Infobox of..."

{{short description|American politician}}
{{for|the similarly named US Representative from the same time period|Hale Boggs}}
{{More footnotes|date=November 2010}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|image = BoggsCaleb.jpg
|jr/sr = United States Senator
|state = [[Delaware]]
|term_start = January 3, 1961
|term_end = January 3, 1973
|predecessor = [[J. Allen Frear Jr.]]
|successor = [[Joe Biden]]
|office1 = Chair of the [[National Governors Association]]
|term_start1 = June 25, 1959
|term_end1 = June 26, 1960
|predecessor1 = [[LeRoy Collins]]
|successor1 = [[Stephen McNichols]]
|order2 = 62nd [[List of governors of Delaware|Governor of Delaware]]
|lieutenant2 = [[John W. Rollins]] David P. Buckson
|term_start2 = January 20, 1953
|term_end2 = December 30, 1960
|predecessor2 = [[Elbert N. Carvel]]
|successor2 = [[David P. Buckson]]
|state3 = [[Delaware]]
|district3 = {{ushr|DE|AL|at-large}}
|term_start3 = January 3, 1947
|term_end3 = January 3, 1953
|predecessor3 = [[Philip A. Traynor]]
|successor3 = [[Herbert B. Warburton]]
|office4 = Associate Judge of the [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]] Family Court
|term_start4 = November 9, 1942
|term_end4 = January 3, 1947
|predecessor4 = Billy Bickson
|successor4 = Johnathan Taylor
|birth_name = James Caleb Boggs
|birth_date = {{birth date|1909|5|15}}
|birth_place = [[Cheswold, Delaware]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1993|3|26|1909|5|15}}
|death_place = [[Wilmington, Delaware]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|spouse = Elizabeth Muir
|children = 2
|education = [[University of Delaware]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) [[Georgetown University]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]])
|allegiance = {{flag|United States|1912}}
|branch = {{army|United States}}
|rank = [[Colonel]]
|serviceyears = 1941–1946
|unit = [[6th Armored Division (United States)|6th Armored Division]]
|battles = [[World War II]]
|mawards = [[Service star|Campaign Stars]] (5) [[Legion of Merit]] [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] [[Croix de Guerre]]
}}
'''James Caleb Boggs''' (May 15, 1909 – March 26, 1993) was an American lawyer and politician from [[Claymont, Delaware|Claymont]] in [[New Castle County, Delaware]]. He was commonly known by his middle name, Caleb, frequently shortened to Cale.<ref name=Cale>
* {{cite book |last=Moynihan |first=Daniel Patrick |author-link=Daniel Patrick Moynihan |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vYEvAAAAIAAJ&q=%22cale+boggs%22&pg=RA9-PP15 |chapter=Committee Statement to Report No. 96-391 |year=1979 |title=Congressional Serial Set |page=1}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44vnDwAAQBAJ&q=%22cale+boggs%22&pg=PT28 |title=No Ordinary Joe: The Life and Career of Joe Biden |last=Hagan |first=David |publisher=Oppian |year=2020 |isbn=9789518771411 |page=4}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bn08AQAAIAAJ&q=%22cale+boggs%22 |year=1985 |volume=4 |title=Delaware Lawyer |page=10}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/17/opinion/joe-biden-nytimes-interview.html |title=Joe Biden: Former vice president of the United States |author=The Editorial Board |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 17, 2020}}</ref>

He was a veteran of [[World War II]], and a member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], who served three terms as [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]] from Delaware, two terms as [[List of governors of Delaware|Governor of Delaware]], and two terms as [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator from Delaware]]. He ran for [[1972 United States Senate election in Delaware|re-election in 1972]], but was defeated by 3,162 votes by future U.S. President [[Joe Biden]].

==Early life and education==
Boggs was born on May 15, 1909, at [[Cheswold, Delaware]], the son of Edward Jefferson and Lettie Vaughn Boggs. He married Elizabeth Muir and had two children, Cale, Jr. and Marilu. They were members of the Methodist Church.

He graduated from the [[University of Delaware]] in 1931 and from [[Georgetown Law School]] in 1937.

== Career ==
In 1938, he was admitted to the [[Delaware State Bar Association]] and began the practice of law at [[Dover, Delaware]].

During World War II, he served in the [[United States Army|US Army]] with the [[U.S. 6th Armored Division|6th Armored Division]] fighting in [[Normandy]], the [[Rhineland]], the [[Ardennes]], and [[central Europe]]. He earned five [[Service star|Campaign Stars]], the [[Legion of Merit]], the [[Bronze Star Medal]] with [[Oak leaf cluster|Oak Leaf Cluster]], and the [[Croix de guerre 1939–1945|Croix de Guerre]] with palm from France.

===U.S. House of Representatives===
Boggs was appointed [[Associate Justice|Associate Judge]] of the [[Family court|Family Court]] of [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]] in 1946. He was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] in 1946, defeating incumbent [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] U.S. Representative [[Philip A. Traynor]]. He won the election a total of three times, also defeating Democrats J. Carl McGuigan in 1948, and Henry M. Winchester in 1950. Boggs served in the U.S. House from January 3, 1947, to January 3, 1953.

===Governor of Delaware===
Boggs was elected Governor of Delaware in 1952, defeating incumbent [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] Governor [[Elbert N. Carvel]], and won a second term in 1956, defeating Democrat [[J. H. Tyler McConnell]]. He served as governor from January 20, 1953, to December 30, 1960, when he resigned because of his upcoming U.S. Senate term. On April 2, 1958, he signed the bill that ended [[capital punishment]] in Delaware.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19590309&id=kQ4rAAAAIBAJ&pg=1737,4102655&hl=en|title=Answers to Questions|work=The Reading Eagle|page=8|date=March 9, 1959|access-date=May 31, 2020}}</ref>

===U.S. Senate===
Boggs was elected to the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] in 1960, defeating incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator [[J. Allen Frear, Jr.]] by 1.4 percentage points, and becoming the only Republican to defeat an incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator that year. He was again elected to the U.S. Senate in 1966, defeating Democrat [[James M. Tunnell Jr.|James M. Tunnell, Jr]]., son of the former U.S. Senator. He served two terms from January 3, 1961, to January 3, 1973. Boggs voted in favor of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Acts of 1964]] and [[Civil Rights Act of 1968|1968]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/88-1964/s409|title=HR. 7152. PASSAGE. -- Senate Vote #409 -- Jun 19, 1964|website=GovTrack.us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/90-1968/s346|title=TO PASS H.R. 2516, A BILL TO PROHIBIT DISCRIMINATION IN ... -- Senate Vote #346 -- Mar 11, 1968|website=GovTrack.us}}</ref> as well as the [[Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/87-1962/s226|title=S.J. RES. 29. APPROVAL OF RESOLUTION BANNING THE POLL TAX AS PREREQUISITE FOR VOTING IN FEDERAL ELECTIONS.|work=GovTrack.us}}</ref> the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/89-1965/s78|title=TO PASS S. 1564, THE VOTING RIGHTS ACT OF 1965.}}</ref> and the confirmation of [[Thurgood Marshall]] to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/90-1967/s176|title=CONFIRMATION OF NOMINATION OF THURGOOD MARSHALL, THE FIRST NEGRO APPOINTED TO THE SUPREME COURT.|work=GovTrack.us}}</ref>

Boggs lost his bid for a third term in 1972 to the future 47th [[Vice President of the United States|US Vice President]] and 46th [[President of the United States|US President]], Democrat [[Joe Biden|Joseph R. Biden]], then a [[New Castle County, Delaware#County government|New Castle County Councilman]]. Boggs was a reluctant candidate that year, being persuaded to run only to help avoid a divisive primary election.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonian.com/1974/06/01/joe-biden-kitty-kelley-1974-profile-death-and-the-all-american-boy/|title=Death and the All-American Boy {{!}} Washingtonian (DC)|date=1974-06-01|website=Washingtonian|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref> Biden waged an energetic campaign, questioning Boggs's age and ability, and went on to defeat Boggs by approximately 1.4 percentage points.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/when-a-young-joe-biden-used-his-opponents-age-against-him/ |title=When a young Joe Biden used his opponent's age against him |last=Erickson |first=Bo |publisher=CBS News |language=en |date=June 4, 2019}}</ref> In his last years, Boggs lived in Wilmington, Delaware, where he continued the practice of law.

==Death and legacy==
Boggs died at Wilmington and is buried in the Old Presbyterian Cemetery in Dover, on the grounds of the [[Delaware State Museum]]. The [[J. Caleb Boggs Federal Building]] at 844 King Street in [[Wilmington, Delaware]] is named for him.

Among the many tributes given by his fellow senators was one from U.S. Senator [[Robert Byrd]] of West Virginia:

{{quote|On an objective, senatorial level, Senator Boggs was a militant, but rational [[environmentalism|environmentalist]]. A co-sponsor of the [[National Air Quality Standards Act of 1970]], Senator Boggs helped to win congressional approval of this bill, which was signed into law by [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]]. Further, Cale Boggs was a co-sponsor and helped to write the [[Water Quality Act of 1965]]. In 1970, Senator Boggs helped to strengthen State authority to prohibit sewage and pesticide discharge into rivers and lakes and to provide for coordinated Federal attacks on river and lake pollution in the [[Water Quality Act of 1970]].

Through these and other vital contributions in education, medicine, agriculture, transportation, and other domestic concerns, Senator Boggs left an enviable record of legislation aimed at improving the quality of life of all Americans and at widening opportunities for all of our citizens. But, above all, Cale Boggs will probably be best remembered by his friends still serving in the Senate and by the people of Delaware as a friend, a man of warm humanity, and as a gentleman who sought ever to set people at ease through his common touch and deep consideration of other people's feelings. Cale Boggs was a man whose friendship one easily sought and, once secured, was long treasured.}}

{|class=wikitable style="width: 94%" style="text-align: center;" align="center"
|-bgcolor=#cccccc
!colspan=12 style="background: #ccccff;" |'''[[Delaware General Assembly]]''' ''(sessions while Governor)''
|-
!'''Year'''
!'''Assembly'''
!
!'''Senate Majority'''
!'''President ''pro tempore'''''
!
!'''House Majority'''
!'''Speaker'''
|-
|1953–1954
|117th
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |Thomas L. Johnson
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |Frank A. Jones
|-
|1955–1956
|118th
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |Charles G. Moore
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |James R. Quigley
|-
|1957–1958
|119th
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |Lemuel Hickman
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |Harry E. Mayhew
|-
|1959–1960
|120th
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |Allen J. Cook
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Sherman W. Tribbitt]]
|-
|}

==Elections==
{|class=wikitable style="width: 94%" style="text-align: center;" align="center"
|-bgcolor=#cccccc
!colspan=12 style="background: #ccccff;" |Election results
|-
!'''Year'''
!'''Office'''
!
!'''Subject'''
!'''Party'''
!'''Votes'''
!'''%'''
!
!'''Opponent'''
!'''Party'''
!'''Votes'''
!'''%'''
|-
|[[United States House elections, 1946|1946]]
|[[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |63,516
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |56%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Philip A. Traynor]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |49,105
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |44%
|-
|[[United States House elections, 1948|1948]]
|[[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |71,127
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |51%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |J. Carl McGuigan
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |68,909
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |49%
|-
|[[United States House elections, 1950|1950]]
|[[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |73,313
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |57%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |Henry M. Winchester
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |56,091
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |43%
|-
|1952
|[[List of governors of Delaware|Governor]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |88,977
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |52%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Elbert N. Carvel]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |81,772
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |48%
|-
|1956
|[[List of governors of Delaware|Governor]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |91,965
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |52%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |J. H. Tyler McConnell
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |85,047
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |48%
|-
|[[United States Senate elections, 1960|1960]]
|[[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |98,874
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |51%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[J. Allen Frear, Jr.]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |96,090
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |49%
|-
|[[United States Senate elections, 1966|1966]]
|[[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |97,268
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |59%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |James M. Tunnell, Jr.
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |67,263
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |41%
|-
|[[1972 United States Senate election in Delaware|1972]]
|[[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]]
|
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |J. Caleb Boggs
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |112,844
|{{Party shading/Republican}} |49%
|
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Joe Biden]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |116,006
|{{Party shading/Democratic}} |50%
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |title=Charles L. Terry |last=Davis |first=Ned |publisher=Delaware Heritage Press |location=Wilmington, Delaware |date=2000 |oclc=47186751 |lccn=00133337}}
*{{cite book |title=Honest John Williams |last=Hoffecker |first=Carol E. |publisher=University of Delaware Press |location=Newark, Delaware |date=2000}}
*{{cite book |title=Democracy in Delaware |last=Hoffecker |first=Carol E. |publisher=Cedar Tree Books |location=Wilmington, Delaware |date=2004 |isbn=1-892142-23-6}}
*{{cite book |title=History of Delaware Through its Governors |last=Martin |first=Roger A. |publisher=McClafferty Press |location=Wilmington, Delaware |date=1984}}
*{{cite book |title=Elbert N. Carvel |last=Martin |first=Roger |publisher=Delaware Heritage Press |location=Wilmington, Delaware |date=1997 |isbn=0-924117-08-7}}
*{{cite book |title=History of Delaware |last=Munroe |first=John A. |publisher=University of Delaware Press |location=Newark, Delaware |date=1993 |isbn=0-87413-493-5}}

==Images==
*[http://www.state.de.us/research/Tour/information/Governors/govs-39.shtml Hall of Governors Portrait Gallery]; ''Portrait courtesy of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Dover.''

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033333/http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=4a8b224971c81010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD&vgnextchannel=e449a0ca9e3f1010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States]
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=B000593 Biographical Directory of the United States Congress ]
*[http://www.russpickett.com/history/delgov5.htm#boggs Delaware's Governors ]
*[https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/6653444 Find a Grave]
*[http://politicalgraveyard.com/bio/boggs.html#R9M0IPU1D The Political Graveyard ]

{{s-start}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Philip A. Traynor]]}}
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{{Governors of Delaware}}
{{USSenDE}}
{{USRepDE}}
{{Government of Delaware}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Boggs, J. Caleb}}
[[Category:1909 births]]
[[Category:1993 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century American politicians]]
[[Category:United States Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:American United Methodists]]
[[Category:Burials in Dover, Delaware]]
[[Category:Delaware lawyers]]
[[Category:Delaware Republicans]]
[[Category:Georgetown University Law Center alumni]]
[[Category:Governors of Delaware]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Delaware]]
[[Category:People from Claymont, Delaware]]
[[Category:People from Kent County, Delaware]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit]]
[[Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Republican Party state governors of the United States]]
[[Category:Republican Party United States senators]]
[[Category:United States senators from Delaware]]
[[Category:University of Delaware alumni]]
[[Category:United States Army colonels]]
[[Category:20th-century Methodists]]

Richard Nixon

2021-08-12T12:41:47Z

Flying Bee: Created page with "{{Short description|37th president of the United States (1969–74)}} {{redirect|Nixon|other uses|Nixon (disambiguation)|and|Richard Nixon (disambiguation)}} {{pp-vandalism|sm..."

{{Short description|37th president of the United States (1969–74)}}
{{redirect|Nixon|other uses|Nixon (disambiguation)|and|Richard Nixon (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Richard Nixon
| image = Richard Nixon presidential portrait (1).jpg
| order = 37th
| office = President of the United States
| vicepresident = {{plainlist|
* [[Spiro Agnew]] (1969–1973)
* ''None'' (Oct–Dec 1973)
* Gerald Ford (1973–1974)
}}
| term_start = January 20, 1969
| term_end = August 9, 1974
| predecessor = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| successor = [[Gerald Ford]]
| office1 = 36th [[Vice President of the United States]]
| president1 = [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| term_start1 = January 20, 1953
| term_end1 = January 20, 1961
| predecessor1 = [[Alben W. Barkley]]
| successor1 = [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| jr/sr2 = United States Senator
| state2 = [[California]]
| term_start2 = December 1, 1950
| term_end2 = January 1, 1953
| predecessor2 = [[Sheridan Downey]]
| successor2 = [[Thomas Kuchel]]
| state3 = [[California]]
| district3 = {{ushr|CA|12|12th}}
| term_start3 = January 3, 1947
| term_end3 = November 30, 1950
| predecessor3 = [[Jerry Voorhis]]
| successor3 = [[Patrick J. Hillings]]
| birth_name = Richard Milhous Nixon
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1913|1|9}}
| birth_place = [[Yorba Linda, California]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1994|4|22|1913|1|9}}
| death_place = {{nowrap|[[New York City]]}}, U.S.
| resting_place = [[Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum]]
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Pat Nixon|Pat Ryan]]|June 21, 1940|June 22, 1993|end=died}}
| children = {{flatlist|
* [[Tricia Nixon Cox|Tricia]]
* [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]]
}}
| parents = {{plainlist|
* [[Francis A. Nixon]]
* [[Hannah Milhous Nixon|Hannah Milhous]]
}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Lawyer|author|politician}}
| education = {{plainlist|
* [[Whittier College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
* [[Duke University School of Law|Duke University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])
}}
| signature = Richard Nixon Signature.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance = {{flag|United States|1912}}
| branch = {{flag|United States Navy|1912}}
| serviceyears = {{plainlist|
* 1942–1946 (active)
* 1946–1966 (inactive)
}}
| rank = {{Dodseal|USNO5|25}} [[Commander]]
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[World War II]]
** [[Pacific War|South Pacific Theater]]<ref name="archives">{{cite web| url=http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf| title=Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum | date=September 21, 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921204555/http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf| archive-date=September 21, 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| mawards = [[Richard Nixon#Military service|Full list]]
}}
{{Richard Nixon series}}

'''Richard Milhous Nixon''' (January 9, 1913{{spnd}}April 22, 1994) was the 37th [[president of the United States]], serving from 1969 to 1974. A member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], Nixon previously served as the 36th [[vice president of the United States|vice president]] from 1953 to 1961, having risen to national prominence as a [[United States House of Representatives|representative]] and [[United States Senate|senator]] from [[California]]. After five years in the White House that saw the conclusion to the U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War]], [[détente]] with the Soviet Union and China, and the establishment of the [[Environmental Protection Agency]], he became the only president to resign from the office, following the [[Watergate scandal]].

Nixon was born into a poor family of [[Quakers]] in a small town in [[Southern California]]. He graduated from [[Duke University School of Law]] in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife [[Pat Nixon|Pat]] moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government. He served on active duty in the [[United States Navy Reserve|Naval Reserves]] during World War II. He was elected to the House of Representatives in [[1946 California's 12th congressional district election|1946]]. His pursuit of the [[Hiss Case]] established his reputation as a leading anti-Communist which elevated him to national prominence. In [[1950 United States Senate election in California|1950]], he was elected to the Senate. He was the running mate of [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the [[1952 United States presidential election|1952 election]], subsequently serving for eight years as the vice president. He unsuccessfully ran for president in [[1960 United States presidential election|1960]], narrowly losing to [[John F. Kennedy]]. Nixon then lost a race for governor of California to [[Pat Brown]] in [[1962 California gubernatorial election|1962]]. In [[1968 United States presidential election|1968]], he ran for the presidency again and was elected, defeating [[Hubert Humphrey]] and [[George Wallace]] in a close election.

Nixon ended American involvement in Vietnam in 1973, ending the military draft that same year. [[Nixon's visit to China]] in 1972 eventually led to [[Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|diplomatic relations between the two nations]], and he gained the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]] with the Soviet Union the same year. His administration generally transferred power from federal control to state control. He imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools, established the [[Environmental Protection Agency]], and began the [[War on Cancer]]. He also presided over the [[Apollo 11]] Moon landing, which signaled the end of the [[Space Race]]. He was re-elected in one of the largest electoral landslides in American history in [[1972 United States presidential election|1972]] when he defeated [[George McGovern]].

In his second term, Nixon ordered [[Operation Nickel Grass|an airlift]] to resupply Israeli losses in the [[Yom Kippur War]], a war which led to the [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis]] at home. By late 1973, Watergate escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment]] and removal from office, he became the first American president to resign. Afterwards, he was issued [[Pardon of Richard Nixon|a pardon]] by his successor, [[Gerald Ford]]. In 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote his memoirs and nine other books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18, 1994, and [[Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon|died four days later]] at age 81. Surveys of historians and political scientists have [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|ranked]] Nixon as a below-average president.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/02/16/presidential.survey/|title=Lincoln Wins: Honest Abe tops new presidential survey|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=February 16, 2009|access-date=December 2, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|title=Presidential Historians Survey 2017|publisher=C-SPAN|access-date=December 2, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Presidents 2018 Rank by Category|url=https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Presidents-2018-Rank-by-Category.pdf|access-date=December 2, 2020}}</ref> However, evaluations of him have proven complex, with his successes as president contrasted against the circumstances of his departure from office.

== Early life and education ==
[[File:Nixon child.jpeg|thumb|Nixon (second from right) makes his newspaper debut in 1916, contributing five cents to a fund for war orphans. His brother [[Donald Nixon|Donald]] is to his right.]]
Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in [[Yorba Linda, California]], in a house built by his father, located on his family's lemon ranch.<ref name="archives"/>{{sfn|NPS, Nixon Birthplace}}{{sfn|Ferris|p=209}} His parents were [[Hannah Milhous Nixon|Hannah (Milhous) Nixon]] and [[Francis A. Nixon]]. His mother was a [[Quaker]], and his father converted from [[Methodism]] to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler [[Thomas Cornell (settler)|Thomas Cornell]], who was also an ancestor of [[Ezra Cornell]], the founder of [[Cornell University]], as well as of [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[Bill Gates]].<ref>Reitwiesner, William Addams ''The Ancestors of Senator John Forbes Kerry (b. 1943) '' http://www.wargs.com/political/kerry.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427081750/http://www.wargs.com/political/kerry.html |date=April 27, 2019 }} Accessed August 31, 2016</ref>

Nixon's upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), [[Donald Nixon|Donald]] (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and [[Edward Nixon|Edward]] (1930–2019).{{sfn|Nixon Library, Childhood}} Four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in [[Middle Ages|medieval]] or legendary Britain; Richard, for example, was named after [[Richard the Lionheart]].{{sfn|Aitken|p=11}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.com/genealogy/president-nixon.html|title=Nixon Genealogy—President Richard Nixon Family History|work=archives.com|access-date=November 20, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924072604/http://www.archives.com/genealogy/president-nixon.html|archive-date=September 24, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it".{{sfn|Aitken|p=12}} The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to [[Whittier, California]]. In an area with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station.{{sfn|Aitken|p=21}} Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=41}} Richard was twelve years old when a spot was found on his lung. With a family history of [[tuberculosis]], he was forbidden to play sports. Eventually, the spot was found to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia.{{sfn|Aitken|p=27}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=56–57}}

=== Primary and secondary education ===
[[File:Richard Nixon HS Yearbook.jpg|left|thumb|Nixon at [[Whittier High School]], 1930]]

Richard attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class.{{sfn|Black|p=16}} His parents believed that attending [[Whittier High School]] had caused Richard's older brother, Harold, to live a dissolute lifestyle before he fell ill of tuberculosis (he died of it in 1933), so they sent Richard to the larger [[Fullerton Union High School]].{{sfn|Morris|p=89}}{{sfn|Black|pp=17–19}} He had to ride a school bus for an hour each way during his freshman year and received excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in [[Fullerton, California|Fullerton]] during the week.{{sfn|Morris|p=91}} He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, though he was rarely used in games.{{sfn|Morris|p=92}} He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later remembered Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them."{{sfn|Aitken|p=28}} Nixon said he tried to use a conversational tone as much as possible.{{sfn|Aitken|p=28}}

At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Richard's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon suffered his first election defeat when he lost his bid for student body president. He often rose at 4 a.m., to drive the family truck into Los Angeles and purchase vegetables at the market. He then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold had been diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona in the hopes of improving his health, the demands on Richard increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Richard graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207.{{sfn|Black|pp=20–23}}

=== College and law school education ===

Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend [[Harvard University]], but Harold's continued illness and the need for their mother to care for him meant Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown and attended [[Whittier College]] with his expenses covered by a bequest from his maternal grandfather.{{sfn|Black|pp=23–24}} Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football but lacked the size to play. He remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm.{{sfn|Gellman|p=15}} Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins; many of the Franklins were from prominent families, but Nixon was not. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society.{{sfn|Black|pp=24–25}} In addition to the society, schoolwork, and work at the store, Nixon found time for a large number of extracurricular activities, becoming a champion debater and gaining a reputation as a hard worker.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=61}} In 1933, he became engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief. They broke up in 1935.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=58–63}}

After graduating ''[[Latin honors#North America|summa cum laude]]'' with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[history]] from Whittier in 1934, Nixon received a full scholarship to attend [[Duke University School of Law]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}} The school was new and sought to attract top students by offering scholarships.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=33–34}} It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations.{{sfn|Aitken|p=67}} The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, forcing recipients into intense competition.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=33–34}} Nixon not only kept his scholarship but was elected president of the Duke Bar Association,{{sfn|Parmet|p=81}} inducted into the [[Order of the Coif]],{{sfn|Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide}} and graduated third in his class in June 1937.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}

== Early career and marriage ==

[[File:Formal Nixon Family Portrait.jpg|thumb|Nixon's family: Julie and [[David Eisenhower]], President Nixon, First Lady Pat Nixon, [[Tricia Nixon Cox|Tricia]] and [[Edward F. Cox|Edward Cox]] (December 24, 1971)]]

After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]. He received no response to his letter of application and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts.{{sfn|Aitken|p=76}} Instead, he returned to California and was admitted to the [[State Bar of California|California bar]] in 1937. He began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley,{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}} working on [[Commercial law|commercial litigation]] for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on [[Will (law)|wills]].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=79–82}} In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women.{{sfn|Morris|p=193}} In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in [[La Habra, California]],{{sfn|Black|p=44}} and became a full partner in the firm the following year.{{sfn|Black|p=43}}

In January 1938 Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of ''[[The Dark Tower (play)|The Dark Tower]]''. There he played opposite a high school teacher named [[Pat Nixon|Thelma "Pat" Ryan]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}} Nixon described it in his memoirs as "a case of [[love at first sight]]"{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=23}}—for Nixon only, as Pat Ryan turned down the young lawyer several times before agreeing to date him.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=93, 99}} Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons began their married life in Whittier.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=100–101}} They had two daughters, [[Tricia Nixon Cox|Tricia]] (born 1946) and [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]] (born 1948).{{sfn|Nixon Library, Nixon Family}}

== Military service ==
[[File:NH 84098 Lieutenant Commander Richard Milhous Nixon, USN.jpeg|thumb|left|Lieutenant Commander Richard Nixon, United States Navy (circa 1945)]]

In January 1942 the couple moved to Washington, D.C., where Nixon took a job at the [[Office of Price Administration]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}} In his political campaigns, Nixon would suggest that this was his response to [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]], but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier.{{sfn|Morris|pp=124–126}} He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the [[United States Navy]].{{sfn|Kornitzer|pp=143–144}} As a birthright Quaker, he could have by law claimed exemption from [[Conscription in the United States|the draft]]; he might also have been deferred because he worked in government service. In spite of that, Nixon sought a commission in the Navy. His application was successful, and he was appointed a [[Lieutenant (junior grade)|lieutenant junior grade]] in the [[United States Navy Reserve|United States Naval Reserve]] on June 15, 1942.<ref name="navy.mil">{{Cite web |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-n/nixon-richard.html |title=Naval Profiles: Richard Milhous Nixon |date=February 18, 2015 |website=Naval History and Heritage Command |publisher=U.S. Navy |access-date=March 6, 2017 |quote=From August through December of 1944, Nixon was assigned to Fleet Air Wing EIGHT. From December through March 1945, he served at the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department, Washington, D.C. In March, his next assignment was as the Bureau of Aeronautics Contracting Officer for Terminations in the Office of the Bureau of Aeronautics General Representative, Eastern District, headquartered in New York City. In that capacity, he had temporary additional duty at various places, including Washington D.C., Philadelphia, Buffalo, New York City, and East Hartford, Connecticut. He was released from active duty on March 10, 1946. He was promoted to Commander in the Naval Reserve on 1{{nbsp}}June 1953. While on active duty besides the Letter of Commendation, Nixon earned the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal. He is entitled to two engagement stars on the Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal for supporting air action in the Treasury–Bougainville operations from October 27 to December 15, 1943, and for consolidation of the northern Solomons from December 15, 1943, to July 22, 1944. Nixon transferred to the Retired Reserve of the Naval Reserve on June 1, 1966. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315133741/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/biographies-list/bios-n/nixon-richard.html |archive-date=March 15, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Aitken|pp=96–97}}

In October 1942, he was assigned as aide to the commander of the [[Ottumwa Regional Airport#History|Naval Air Station Ottumwa]] in [[Iowa]] until May 1943.<ref name="navy.mil"/> Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty and on July 2, 1943, was assigned to [[Marine Aircraft Group 25]] and the [[South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command]] (SCAT), supporting the [[Military logistics|logistics]] of operations in the South Pacific Theater.{{sfn|Naval Historical Center, Commander Nixon}}{{sfn|Black|pp=58–60}}{{sfn|Armstrong|p=81}} On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to [[Lieutenant (navy)|lieutenant]].<ref name="navy.mil"/> Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at [[Vella Lavella]], [[Buin, Papua New Guinea#Japan and the USA during World War II|Bougainville]], and finally at Green Island ([[Nissan Island]]).<ref name="navy.mil"/>{{sfn|Armstrong|p=81}} His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for R4D/C-47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a [[Commendation Medal|Navy Letter of Commendation]] (awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the [[Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal]]) from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the [[Alameda Naval Air Station]] in California. In January 1945 he was transferred to the [[Bureau of Aeronautics]] office in Philadelphia to help negotiate the termination of war contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the [[Secretary of the Navy]]{{sfn|Black|p=62}} for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts and finally to Baltimore.{{sfn|Aitken|p=112}} On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to [[Lieutenant commander (United States)|lieutenant commander]].<ref name="navy.mil"/>{{sfn|Black|p=62}} On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty.<ref name="navy.mil"/> On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve, from which he retired in the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966.<ref name="navy.mil"/>

{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|colspan=3|{{ribbon devices|number=0|type=oak|ribbon=Navy and Marine Corps Commendation ribbon.svg|width=103}} {{ribbon devices|number=0|type=oak|ribbon=American Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=2|type=service-star|ribbon=Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|{{ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|{{ribbon devices|number=0|type=cluster|ribbon=AFRM with Hourglass Device (Silver).jpg|width=103}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|colspan=2|[[Commendation Medal|Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal]]
|colspan=2|[[American Campaign Medal]]
|-
|[[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]] with two [[service star|stars]]
|colspan=2|[[World War II Victory Medal (United States)|World War II Victory Medal]]
|[[Armed Forces Reserve Medal]] with silver hourglass device
|}

== Rising politician ==
=== Congressional career ===

{{for|more information on Nixon's congressional election campaigns|1946 California's 12th congressional district election|1950 United States Senate election in California}}

==== California congressman (1947–1950) ====

[[File:Nixonflyer1946.jpg|thumb|left|Nixon's congressional campaign flyer]]

Republicans in [[California's 12th congressional district]] were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative [[Jerry Voorhis]]. They sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's [[Bank of America]] branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on the Whittier College Board of Trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in [[Baltimore]]. After a night of excited talk between Nixon and his wife, he responded to Perry with enthusiasm. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where Nixon began a year of intensive campaigning.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=91–96}}{{sfn|Gellman|pp=27–28}} He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=111–113}} Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994.{{sfn|Gellman|p=82}}
[[File:Richard Nixon campaigning for Senate 1950.jpg|thumb|upright|Nixon campaigning for the Senate, 1950]]

In June 1947, Nixon supported the [[Taft–Hartley Act]], a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the [[United States House Committee on Education and Labor|Education and Labor Committee]]. In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on the [[Herter Committee]],<ref name=Final>
{{cite web
|title=Final Report on Foreign Aid of the House Select Committee on Foreign Aid
|publisher = Marshall Foundation
|url=http://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2014/04/Studies_Prior_to_the_Marshall_Plan.pdf
|date=May 1, 1948
|access-date = May 30, 2020}}</ref> which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=105–107, 125–126}} Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the [[Marshall Plan]].{{sfn|Morris|p=365}}

In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" [[Gerhard Eisler]] and his sister [[Ruth Fischer]] testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative [[Charles J. Kersten]] had introduced him to Father [[John Francis Cronin]] in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945",<ref>{{cite web
| first = John Francis
| last = Cronin
| author-link = John Francis Cronin
| title = The Problem of American Communism in 1945: Facts and Recommendations
| publisher = A Confidential Study for Private Circulation
| url = http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf
| date = October 29, 1945
| access-date = July 26, 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130514131612/http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf
| archive-date = May 14, 2013
| url-status = live
}}</ref> with much information from the FBI's [[William C. Sullivan]] (who by 1961 would head domestic intelligence under [[J. Edgar Hoover]]).<ref name="NixonV1">
{{cite book
| first = Stephen E.
| last = Ambrose
| author-link = Stephen E. Ambrose
| title = Nixon Volume I: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-5zAgAAQBAJ
| pages = 144–147
| date = March 18, 2014
| access-date = July 26, 2017| isbn = 9781476745886
}}</ref>

By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored a "[[Mundt–Nixon Bill]]" to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion{{nbsp}}... It provided for registration of all [[CPUSA|Communist Party]] members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for the Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate.{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=|loc=Running for Congress: 1946}} (The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress.)<ref>{{cite web
|title = Timeline
|publisher = Nixon Library
|url = https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thetimes/timeline/
|access-date = April 2, 2017
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170403015648/https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thetimes/timeline/
|archive-date = April 3, 2017
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a HUAC member helped break the [[Alger Hiss]] spy case. While many doubted [[Whittaker Chambers]]'s allegations that Hiss, a former [[United States Department of State|State Department]] official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit for defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations. These included paper and [[Microform|microfilm]] copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after having hidden them overnight in a field; they became known as the "[[Pumpkin papers|Pumpkin Papers]]".{{sfn|Black|pp=129–135}} Hiss was convicted of [[perjury]] in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=239–241}} In 1948, Nixon successfully [[cross-filing|cross-filed]] as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries,{{sfn|Morris|p=381}} and was comfortably reelected.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Congressman}}

==== U.S. Senate (1950–1953) ====

[[File:Nixon campaigns in Sausalito 1950.jpg|thumb|upright|Nixon campaigns in Sausalito, California, 1950]]

In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the [[United States Senate]] against the Democratic incumbent, [[Sheridan Downey]],{{sfn|Gellman|p=282}} and entered the race in November.{{sfn|Morris|p=535}} Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative [[Helen Gahagan Douglas]], announced his retirement in March 1950.{{sfn|Gellman|pp=296–297}} Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections{{sfn|Gellman|p=304}} and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing [[Korean War]] was a major issue.{{sfn|Gellman|p=310}} Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a "[[United States Senate election in California, 1950#Debut of the Pink Sheet|Pink Sheet]]" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that, as Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman [[Vito Marcantonio]] (believed by some to be a communist), their political views must be nearly identical.{{sfn|Morris|p=581}} Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points.{{sfn|Gellman|p=335}} During this campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics.{{sfn|Gellman|p=303}}
[[File:1950 United States Senate election in California results map by county.svg|thumb|left|upright|1950 California Senate election results by county: '''Nixon''': {{legend0|#e27f7f|50–60%}} {{legend0|#d75d5d|60–70%}} {{legend0|#d72f30|70–80%}} '''Douglas''': {{legend0|#7996e2|50–60%}}]]

In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism, traveling frequently and speaking out against it.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Senator}} He maintained friendly relations with his fellow anti-communist, controversial [[Wisconsin]] senator [[Joseph McCarthy]], but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=211, 311–312}} Nixon also criticized President [[Harry S. Truman]]'s handling of the Korean War.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Senator}} He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia.{{sfn|Black|p=178}} He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.{{sfn|Black|p=178}}

=== Vice presidency (1953–1961) ===

General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice-presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a "[[smoke-filled room]]" and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Ohio Senator [[Robert A. Taft]], New Jersey Governor [[Alfred Driscoll]] and Illinois Senator [[Everett Dirksen]].{{sfn|Gellman|pp=440–441}}{{sfn|Aitken|pp=205–206}} On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, leaving the negative campaigning to his [[running mate]].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=222–223}}
[[File:Ike Dick.png|thumb|upright|left|Front cover of literature for the Eisenhower–Nixon campaign, 1952]]

In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis.<ref>John W. Malsberger, "Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and the Fund Crisis of 1952," ''Historian,'' 73 (Fall 2011), pp 526–47.</ref> The media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses.{{sfn|Kornitzer|pp=191}} Such a fund was not illegal but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a possible conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the [[ticket (politics)|ticket]] the senator went on television to deliver an address to the nation on September 23, 1952.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The address, later termed the [[Checkers speech]], was heard by about 60 million Americans—including the largest television audience up to that point.{{sfn|Thompson|p=291}} Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret, nor had donors received special favors. He painted himself as a man of modest means (his wife had no mink coat; instead she wore a "respectable Republican cloth coat") and a patriot.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The speech would be remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back: "a little cocker spaniel dog{{nbsp}}... sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers."{{sfn|Aitken|pp=210–217}} The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon.{{sfn|Aitken|p=218}} Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket,{{sfn|Morris|p=846}} which proved victorious in [[1952 United States presidential election|the November election]].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=222–223}}

Eisenhower gave Nixon responsibilities during his term as vice president—more than any previous vice president.<ref>John W. Malsberger, ''The General and the Politician: Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and American Politics'' (2014)</ref> Nixon attended [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]] and [[National Security Council (USA)|National Security Council]] meetings and chaired them when Eisenhower was absent. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and prompted Nixon to appreciate the potential of the region as an industrial center. He visited [[Ho Chi Minh City|Saigon]] and [[Hanoi]] in [[French Indochina]].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=225–227}} On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the amount of time he devoted to foreign relations.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=342}}

Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:
{{quote|Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed the president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president".{{r|Gellman-Small}}
}}

Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the [[1954 United States elections|1954 elections]]. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=357–358}} On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack; his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The [[25th Amendment to the United States Constitution]] had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=256–258}} According to Nixon biographer [[Stephen Ambrose]], Nixon had "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=375–376}}
[[File:Kitchen debate.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Vice President Nixon and Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] speak as the press looks on in part of what came to be known as the [[Kitchen Debate]], July 24, 1959]]

His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection in order to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration. Nixon believed such an action would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 [[New Hampshire primary]] election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=237–241}} Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the [[1956 United States presidential election|November 1956 election]].{{sfn|Parmet|p=294}}

In early 1957, Nixon undertook another major foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did.{{sfn|Black|pp=349–352}} Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.{{sfn|Black|p=355}}
{{Multiple image
| align = left
| width = 140
| title =
| image1 = LosAngelesTimes May9 1958.jpg
| caption1 = [[Los Angeles Times]]
| image2 = SanFranciscoChronicle May9 1958.jpg
| caption2 = [[San Francisco Chronicle]]
| footer = In the context of the [[Cold War]], important American newspapers showed as main news on their covers of May 9, 1958, the protests of students of the [[National University of San Marcos]], the oldest university in the Americas, during Richard Nixon's then controversial visit to their institution in [[Lima]], [[Peru]].
}}

On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of South America. In [[Montevideo]], Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached [[Lima]], Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of [[National University of San Marcos]], the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=465–469}} In [[Caracas]], Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and [[Attack on Richard Nixon's motorcade|their limousine was attacked]] by a pipe-wielding mob.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=469–479}} According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=463}} Reporting to the cabinet after the trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that [the protestors] were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] concurred in this view; [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[Allen Dulles]] sharply rebuked it.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rabe|first1=Stephen G.|author-link=Stephen G. Rabe|title=Eisenhower and Latin America: The Foreign Policy of Anticommunism|date=1988|publisher=University of North Carolina press|location=Chapel Hill|isbn=978-0807842041|page=[https://books.google.no/books?id=o2SFNdAiB7UC&pg=PA102 102]}}</ref>

In July 1959 President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the [[Soviet Union]] for the opening of the [[American National Exhibition]] in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon was touring the exhibits with Soviet First Secretary and Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the "[[Kitchen Debate]]".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|pp=521–525}}

=== 1960 and 1962 elections; wilderness years ===

{{Main|1960 United States presidential election}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1960.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|1960 electoral vote results]]

In 1960 Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries{{sfn|UPI 1960 in Review}} and chose former Massachusetts Senator [[Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.]] as his running mate.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} His Democratic opponent was [[John F. Kennedy]] and the race remained close for the duration.{{sfn|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Kennedy–Nixon Debates"}} Nixon campaigned on his experience but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the [[Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower–Nixon administration]] had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in [[ballistic missile]]s (the "[[missile gap]]").{{sfn|Steel|2003-05-25}}

A new political medium was introduced in the campaign: televised [[United States presidential election debates|presidential debates]]. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a [[five o'clock shadow]], in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won.{{sfn|Foner|p=843}} Nixon narrowly lost the election; Kennedy won the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2 percent).{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
[[File:Nixon Johnson 1961.jpg|thumb|left|Outgoing Vice President Nixon and incoming Vice President Lyndon Johnson leave the White House on the morning of January 20, 1961, for the [[Inauguration of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy–Johnson inauguration ceremonies]]]]

There were charges of [[election fraud|voter fraud]] in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests.{{sfn|Carlson|2000-11-17}} At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, ''[[Six Crises]]'', which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}}{{sfn|Black|p=431}}

Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent [[Pat Brown]] for [[Governor of California]] in [[1962 California gubernatorial election|the 1962 election]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics.{{sfn|Black|pp=432–433}} Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} In [[Richard Nixon's November 1962 press conference|an impromptu concession speech]] the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference."{{sfn|Aitken|pp=304–305}} The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s ''[[Howard K. Smith: News and Comment]]'', titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon".{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=673}} Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air,{{sfn|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Smith, Howard K."}} and public sympathy for Nixon grew.{{sfn|Ambrose|1987|p=673}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0724-0015-001, Berlin, Besuch Richard Nixon.jpg|thumb|Nixon shows his papers to an East German officer to cross between the sectors of the divided City of Berlin, 1963]]

In 1963 the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited.{{sfn|Black|p=446}} The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a [[Partner lawyer|senior partner]] in the leading law firm [[Mudge Rose Guthrie Alexander & Ferdon|Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Vice President}} When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|his assassination]], Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=297, 321}}

In 1964, he supported Arizona Senator [[Barry Goldwater]] for the Republican nomination for U.S. president; when Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at [[1964 Republican National Convention|the convention]]. Although he thought Goldwater unlikely to win, Nixon campaigned for him loyally. The [[1964 United States presidential election|election]] was a disaster for the Republicans; Goldwater's landslide loss to Johnson was matched by heavy losses for the party in Congress and among state governors.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=321–322}}

Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the 1966 Congressional elections. He campaigned for many Republicans, seeking to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide, and received credit for helping the Republicans make major gains that year.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=323–326}}

== 1968 presidential election ==

{{Main|Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign|1968 United States presidential election}}
[[File:Lyndon Johnson Richard Nixon 1968.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Nixon and Johnson meet at the White House before Nixon's nomination, July 1968]]

At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Although Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life{{sfn|Parmet|p=502}} (for example, she had been embarrassed by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech),{{sfn|Morris|pp=410–411}} she was supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the [[Vietnam War]], a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.{{sfn|Parmet|p=502}}
[[File:America needs Nixon.png|thumb|upright|Text on automobile trash bag given away by the Nixon campaign in California, 1968]]

One of the most tumultuous [[primary election]] seasons ever began as the [[Tet Offensive]] was launched in January 1968. President Johnson withdrew as a candidate in March, after doing unexpectedly poorly in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator [[Robert F. Kennedy]], a Democratic candidate, [[Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy|was assassinated]] just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan Governor [[George W. Romney|George Romney]], though New York Governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and California Governor [[Ronald Reagan]] each hoped to be nominated in a [[brokered convention]]. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=503–508}} He selected Maryland Governor [[Spiro Agnew]] as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.{{sfn|Parmet|p=509}}
[[File:NIXONcampaigns.jpg|thumb|left|Nixon during his presidential campaign, July 1968]]

Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President [[Hubert Humphrey]], who was nominated at [[1968 Democratic National Convention|a convention]] marked [[1968 Democratic National Convention protest activity|by violent protests]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} He appealed to what he later called the "[[silent majority]]" of [[socially conservative]] Americans who disliked the [[counterculture of the 1960s|hippie counterculture]] and the [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|anti-war]] demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.{{sfn|Morrow|1996-09-30}}

Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras.{{sfn|Black|pp=513–514}} He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority.{{sfn|Black|p=550}} Nixon promised "[[peace with honor]]" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific".{{sfn|Schulzinger|p=413}} He did not release specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan".{{sfn|Schulzinger|p=413}} His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.{{sfn|Black|pp=513–514}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1968.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|1968 electoral vote results]]

Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce, or at least a cessation of bombings, in Vietnam prior to the election. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called "[[October surprise]]" to elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign, and his administration had abandoned three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt.<ref name=Monkey-Wrench>{{cite web|url=https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/06/misunderstanding-a-monkey-wrench/|title=Misunderstanding a Monkey Wrench|website=Richard Nixon Foundation|access-date=November 12, 2017|date=June 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606192751/https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/06/misunderstanding-a-monkey-wrench/|archive-date=June 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with any ongoing negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging [[Anna Chennault]], a prominent Chinese-American fundraiser for the Republican party, remains an ongoing controversy. While notes uncovered in 2016 may support such a contention, the context of said notes remains of debate.<ref name=Monkey-Wrench/> It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed much encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous.<ref name=New-York-Times-Peter-Baker-January-2-2017>[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/02/us/politics/nixon-tried-to-spoil-johnsons-vietnam-peace-talks-in-68-notes-show.html?_r=0 Nixon Tried to Spoil Johnson's Vietnam Peace Talks in '68, Notes Show] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307110433/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/02/us/politics/nixon-tried-to-spoil-johnsons-vietnam-peace-talks-in-68-notes-show.html?_r=0 |date=March 7, 2017 }}, ''New York Times'', Politics Section, Peter Baker, January 2, 2017. See also [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/31/opinion/sunday/haldeman-notes.html H.R. Haldeman's Notes from Oct. 22, 1968] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205221138/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/31/opinion/sunday/haldeman-notes.html |date=February 5, 2017 }}, ''NY Times'', December 31, 2016, which reprints four pages of Haldeman's notes.</ref>

In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and [[American Independent Party]] candidate former Alabama Governor [[George Wallace]], Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500,000 votes (seven-tenths of a percentage point), with 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}}{{sfn|Black|p=558}} He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president.<ref name="Azari">{{Cite news |last=Azari |first=Julia |date=August 20, 2020 |title=Biden Had To Fight For The Presidential Nomination. But Most VPs Have To. |work=FiveThirtyEight |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/biden-had-to-fight-for-the-presidential-nomination-but-most-vps-have-to/}}</ref> In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to [[Bring Us Together|bring the divided nation together]].{{sfn|Evans & Novak|pp=33–34}} Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one."{{sfn|UPI 1968 in Review}}
{{clear}}

== Presidency (1969–1974) ==
{{Main|Presidency of Richard Nixon}}
{{for timeline|Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency}}
[[File:Richard Nixon 1969 inauguration.png|thumb|Nixon is sworn in as the 37th President by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]] on January 20, 1969. The new First Lady, Pat, holds the family Bible.]]

Nixon [[First inauguration of Richard Nixon|was inaugurated]] as [[President of the United States|president]] on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]]. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 2:4, which reads, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker"{{sfn|Black|pp=567–68}}—a phrase that would later be placed on his gravestone.{{sfn|Frick|p=189}} He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:
{{quote|In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.{{sfn|UPI 1969 in Review}}
}}

=== Foreign policy ===

{{Main|Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration}}
==== China ====
{{Main|1972 Nixon visit to China}}
{{multiple image
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|image1=Nixon shakes hands with Chou En-lai.jpg
|caption1=President Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] upon arriving in Beijing, 1972
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|caption2=Nixon and Zhou Enlai toast during Nixon's 1972 visit to China
}}

Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China before he became president, writing in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' a year before his election: "There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation."{{sfn|Miller Center}} Assisting him in this venture was Kissinger, in charge of his [[United States National Security Council]] and future Secretary of State. They collaborated closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—[[Sino-Soviet border conflict|border clashes between the two]] took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]] invited a team of American table tennis players [[Ping-pong diplomacy|to visit China and play against top Chinese players]]. Nixon followed up by sending [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]] to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials.{{sfn|Miller Center}} On July 15, 1971, it was simultaneously announced by Beijing and by Nixon (on television and radio) that the President would visit China the following February. The announcements astounded the world.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=453}} The secrecy allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact.{{r|Goh-Small}}

In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation.{{sfn|Black|p=778}} Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from [[Air Force One]] and was greeted by Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]]. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} More than a hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}

Nixon and Kissinger met for an hour with CCP Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues.{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon, whom he considered forthright, unlike the leftists and the Soviets.{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} He said he was suspicious of Kissinger,{{sfn|Black|pp=780–782}} though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history".{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the [[Great Hall of the People]]. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the [[Shanghai Communiqué|joint communique]] following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=516}} When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders including the [[Forbidden City]], [[Ming Tombs]], and the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]].{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}} Americans received their first glimpse into Chinese life through the cameras which accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.{{sfn|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}

The visit ushered in a new era of Sino-American relations.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for [[détente]] with the United States.{{sfn|Dallek|p=300}}

==== Vietnam War ====

{{Main|Vietnam War|Vietnamization|Role of the United States in the Vietnam War}}
[[File:NixononCambodia.jpg|thumb|Nixon delivers an address to the nation about the incursion in Cambodia]]

When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwc24.htm | title = Vietnam War Deaths and Casualties By Month | access-date = June 22, 2012 | publisher = The American War Library | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131204020044/http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwc24.htm | archive-date = December 4, 2013 | url-status = live }}</ref> and the war was broadly unpopular in the United States, with ongoing violent protests against the war. The Johnson administration had agreed to suspend bombing in exchange for negotiations without preconditions, but this agreement never fully took force. According to Walter Isaacson, soon after taking office, Nixon had concluded that the Vietnam War could not be won and he was determined to end the war quickly.{{sfn|Drew|p=65}} He sought some arrangement that would permit American forces to withdraw while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.{{sfn|Black|p=569}}

Nixon approved a secret [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]] carpet bombing campaign of North Vietnamese (and, later, allied [[Khmer Rouge]]) positions in Cambodia in March 1969 (code-named [[Operation Menu]]), without the consent of Cambodian leader [[Norodom Sihanouk]].{{sfn|Black|p=591}}<ref name="Kiernan"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Clymer|first=Kenton|title=The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000: A Troubled Relationship|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013|isbn=9781134341566|pages=14–16}}</ref> In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to North Vietnamese leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks, however, did not result in an agreement.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=281–283}} In May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam also did so and for South Vietnam to hold internationally supervised elections with [[Viet Cong]] participation.<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=2047&st=&st1= Address to the Nation on Vietnam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043247/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=2047&st=&st1= |date=March 4, 2016 }} May 14, 1969</ref>
[[File:President Richard Nixon greets a U.S. Army 1st Infantry Division Soldier.jpg|thumb|left|Nixon visits American troops in South Vietnam, July 30, 1969]]

In July 1969, Nixon visited [[South Vietnam]], where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President [[Nguyễn Văn Thiệu]]. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam|Vietnamese troops]], known as "[[Role of United States in the Vietnam War#Vietnamization, 1969–1975|Vietnamization]]".{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals,{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} but also authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the [[Ho Chi Minh trail]], which passed through Laos and Cambodia and was used to supply North Vietnamese forces. Nixon announced the [[Cambodian campaign|ground invasion of Cambodia]] to the American public on April 30, 1970.{{sfn|AP/''St. Peterburg Independent''}} Further protests erupted against what was perceived as an expansion of the conflict, and the unrest escalated to violence when Ohio National Guardsmen [[Kent State shootings|shot and killed]] four unarmed students on May 4.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gitlin|first=Todd|title=The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage|url=https://archive.org/details/sixtiesyearsofho00gitl|url-access=registration|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1987|isbn=9780553372120|page=[https://archive.org/details/sixtiesyearsofho00gitl/page/410 410]}}</ref> Nixon's responses to protesters included [[Richard Nixon's visit to the Lincoln Memorial|an impromptu, early morning meeting with them]] at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] on May 9, 1970.{{r|Safire pp205–209}}{{sfn|UPI/''Beaver County Times''|1970-05-09}}{{sfn|Black|pp=675–676}} Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives after 1991 reveal that the North Vietnamese attempt to overrun Cambodia in March 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by [[Pol Pot]]'s then-second-in-command, [[Nuon Chea]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Dmitry |last=Mosyakov |chapter=The Khmer Rouge and the Vietnamese Communists: A History of Their Relations as Told in the Soviet Archives |editor-first=Susan E. |editor-last=Cook |title=Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda |series=Yale Genocide Studies Program Monograph Series |issue=1 |date=2004 |page=54ff |chapter-url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |quote=In April–May 1970, many North Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in response to the call for help addressed to Vietnam not by Pol Pot, but by his deputy Nuon Chea. Nguyen Co Thach recalls: 'Nuon Chea has asked for help and we have liberated five provinces of Cambodia in ten days.' |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309074636/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/publications/Mosyakov.doc |archive-date=March 9, 2013}}</ref> Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "[[credibility gap]]" on the issue.{{sfn|''Time''|1971-04-05}} It is estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 people were killed during the [[Operation Freedom Deal|bombing of Cambodia]] between 1970 and 1973.<ref name="Kiernan">{{cite magazine|last1=Owen|first1=Taylor|last2=Kiernan|first2=Ben|title=Bombs Over Cambodia|magazine=The Walrus|date=October 2006|url=http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|pages=32–36|access-date=January 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420220434/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=April 20, 2016|url-status=live}} Kiernan and Owen later revised their estimate of 2.7 million tons of U.S. bombs dropped on Cambodia down to the previously accepted figure of roughly 500,000 tons: See {{cite web|author-link1=Ben Kiernan|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|last2=Owen|first2=Taylor|url=http://apjjf.org/2015/13/16/Ben-Kiernan/4313.html|title=Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications|work=The Asia-Pacific Journal|date=April 26, 2015|access-date=November 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912002843/http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf|archive-date=September 12, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1971, excerpts from the "[[Pentagon Papers]]", which had been leaked by [[Daniel Ellsberg]], were published by ''[[The New York Times]]'' and ''[[The Washington Post]]''. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication. The Supreme Court eventually [[New York Times Co. v. United States|ruled for]] the newspapers.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=446–448}}

As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, [[Conscription in the United States|conscription]] was reduced and in 1973 ended; the armed forces became all-volunteer.{{sfn|Evans}} After years of fighting, the [[Paris Peace Accords]] were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops without requiring the 160,000 [[North Vietnam Army]] regulars located in the South to withdraw.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=53–55}} Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting broke out again. North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=473}}

==== Latin American policy ====

{{See also|U.S. intervention in Chile#1973 coup|Operation Condor}}
[[File:Gustavo Diaz Ordaz Richard Nixon San Diego.jpg|thumb|Nixon with Mexican president [[Gustavo Díaz Ordaz]] (to his right); motorcade in San Diego, California, September 1970]]

Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy during the 1961 [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]] and 1962 [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]. On taking office in 1969, he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, [[Fidel Castro]]. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, [[Charles Rebozo|Bebe Rebozo]], who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. These activities concerned the Soviets and Cubans, who feared Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev which had ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding; despite his hard line against Castro, Nixon agreed. The process had not yet been completed when the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of [[Cienfuegos]] in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, which was concluded with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles. The final round of diplomatic notes, reaffirming the 1962 accord, were exchanged in November.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=379–383}}

The election of Marxist candidate [[Salvador Allende]] as [[President of Chile]] in September 1970 spurred Nixon and Kissinger to pursue a vigorous campaign of covert opposition to Allende,<ref name="The Pinochet File">{{cite book|last=Kornbluh|first=Peter|title=The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability|year=2003|publisher=The New Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56584-936-5}}</ref>{{rp|25}} first designed to convince the Chilean congress to confirm [[Jorge Alessandri]] as the winner of the election and then messages to military officers in support of a coup.<ref name="The Pinochet File" /> Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents. It was even alleged that "Nixon personally authorized" $700,000 in covert funds to print anti-Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper.<ref name="The Pinochet File" />{{rp|93}} Following an extended period of social, political, and economic unrest, General [[Augusto Pinochet]] assumed power in a violent [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|coup d'état]] on September 11, 1973; among the [[Death of Salvador Allende|dead was Allende]].{{sfn|Black|p=921}}

==== Soviet Union ====
[[File:Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon talks in 1973.png|thumb|Nixon with Brezhnev during the Soviet leader's trip to the U.S., 1973]]

Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972, and met with [[Leonid Brezhnev]], the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary of the Communist Party]]; [[Alexei Kosygin]], the [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman of the Council of Ministers]]; and [[Nikolai Podgorny]], the [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet]], among other leading Soviet officials.{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}}

Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev.{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}} Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: [[SALT I]], the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers,{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}} and the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]], which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence". A banquet was held that evening at the [[Kremlin]].{{sfn|BBC|1972-05-22}}

Nixon and Kissinger planned to link arms control to détente and to the resolution of other urgent problems through what Nixon called "[[Linkage (policy)|linkage.]]" David Tal argues:
{{quote|The linkage between strategic arms limitations and outstanding issues such as the Middle East, Berlin and, foremost, Vietnam thus became central to Nixon's and Kissinger's policy of détente. Through the employment of linkage, they hoped to change the nature and course of U.S. foreign policy, including U.S. nuclear disarmament and arms control policy, and to separate them from those practiced by Nixon's predecessors. They also intended, through linkage, to make U.S. arms control policy part of détente{{nbsp}}... His policy of linkage had in fact failed. It failed mainly because it was based on flawed assumptions and false premises, the foremost of which was that the Soviet Union wanted strategic arms limitation agreement much more than the United States did.<ref>David Tal, " 'Absolutes' and 'Stages' in the Making and Application of Nixon's SALT Policy." ''Diplomatic History'' 37.5 (2013): 1090–1116, quoting pp 1091, 1092. Nixon himself later wrote, "[W]e decided to link progress in such areas of Soviet concern as strategic arms limitation and increased trade with progress in areas that were important to us—Vietnam, the Mideast, and Berlin. This concept became known as linkage." {{cite book|author=Richard Nixon|title=RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UyfcLYY9F0gC&pg=RA1-PT388|year=1978|page=346|isbn=9781476731834}}</ref>}}

Seeking to foster better relations with the United States, China and the Soviet Union both cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily.{{sfn|Gaddis|pp=294, 299}} Nixon later described his strategy:
{{quote|I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.{{sfn|Nixon|1985|pp=105–106}}
}}
During the previous two years, Nixon had made considerable progress in U.S.–Soviet relations, and he embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the [[Grand Kremlin Palace]] that evening.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} Nixon and Brezhnev met in [[Yalta]], where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and [[MIRV]]s. Nixon considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, but he felt he would not have time to complete it during his presidency.{{sfn|Black|p=963}} There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.{{sfn|Black|p=963}}

==== Middle Eastern policy ====

{{anchor|Middle East policy}}
[[File:Nixon Sadat.jpg|thumb|Nixon with President [[Anwar Sadat]] of Egypt, June 1974]]

As part of the [[Nixon Doctrine]], the U.S. avoided giving direct combat assistance to its allies and instead gave them assistance to defend themselves. During the Nixon administration, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East, particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the U.S. should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the [[Suez Crisis]]—the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. The Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.{{efn|name=Jewish vote}}

On October 6, 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, supported with arms and materiel by the Soviet Union, attacked Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]]. Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. More than a week later, by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 338|negotiating a truce]], Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis; when Israel gained the upper hand, Egyptian President Sadat requested a joint U.S.–USSR peacekeeping mission, which the U.S. refused. When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily, Nixon ordered the U.S. military to [[DEFCON]]3,<ref name="fas-defcon">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/c3i/defcon.htm|title=DEFCON DEFense CONdition|work=fas.org|access-date=June 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617123557/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/c3i/defcon.htm|archive-date=June 17, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war. This was the closest the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon's actions.{{sfn|Nixon|1978|p=938–940}}

Because Israel's victory was largely due to U.S. support, the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S., resulting in the [[1973 oil crisis]].{{sfn|Black|pp=923–928}} The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, and was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=311}}

After the war, and under Nixon's presidency, the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967. Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart [[List of Middle East peace proposals|the stalled Middle East Peace Negotiations]]; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20:
<blockquote>I believe that, beyond a doubt, we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East. I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by ... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves.<ref>Tyler, Patrick (2010), p. 161</ref></blockquote>

Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974, and became the first President to visit Israel.{{sfn|Black|pp=951–52, 959}}

=== Domestic policy ===
==== Economy ====

{{further|Nixon shock|1970s energy crisis}}
[[File:Nixon Opening Day 1969 Two.jpg|thumb|Nixon at the [[History of the Texas Rangers (baseball)#Washington Senators: 1961–1971|Washington Senators]]' 1969 Opening Day with team owner [[Bob Short]] (arms folded) and Baseball Commissioner [[Bowie Kuhn]] (hand on mouth). His [[Aide-de-camp#United States|aide]], Major [[Jack Brennan]], sits behind them.]]

At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7 percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The [[Great Society]] had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at their highest in a century.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=225–226}} Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=225–226}} This could not be accomplished overnight, and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency).{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=431–432}} According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic record, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.{{r|Bowles-Small}}

Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but he believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his "[[New Federalism]]" views, he proposed grants to the states, but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=431–432}} In 1970, Congress had granted the President the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls throughout his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority.{{r|Bowles-Small}} With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at [[Camp David]]. Nixon's options were to limit fiscal and monetary expansionist policies that reduced unemployment or end the dollar's fixed exchange rate; Nixon's dilemma has been cited as an example of the [[Impossible trinity]] in international economics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Oatley|first=Thomas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4GJoDwAAQBAJ|title=International Political Economy: Sixth Edition|date=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-03464-7|pages=351-352|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Gowa|first=Joanne|date=1983|title=Closing the Gold Window: Domestic Politics and the End of Bretton Woods on JSTOR|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctvr7f40n|url-status=live|website=Cornell University Press|language=en|doi=10.7591/j.ctvr7f40n}}</ref> He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=399–400}} Bowles points out,
<blockquote>by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself.{{r|Bowles-Small}}</blockquote>

Nixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=399–400}} Nixon's decision to end the gold standard in the United States led to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. According to Thomas Oatley, "the Bretton Woods system collapsed so that Nixon might win the 1972 presidential election."<ref name=":1" />

After Nixon won re-election, inflation was returning.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} The controls produced [[Economic shortage|food shortages]], as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}} Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.{{sfn|Hetzel|p=92}}

==== Governmental initiatives and organization ====

[[File:State of the Union Speech in the US Capitol - NARA - 194346.tif|thumb|upright=1.25|President Nixon delivers the 1971 [[State of the Union Address]] at the U.S. Capitol]]

Nixon advocated a "[[New Federalism]]", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them.{{sfn|Aitken|p=395}} He eliminated the Cabinet-level [[United States Post Office Department]], which in 1971 became the government-run [[United States Postal Service]].{{sfn|USPS, Periodicals postage}}

Nixon was a late supporter of the [[conservation movement]]. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election, and the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. Nixon broke new ground by discussing environmental policy in his [[State of the Union speech]] in 1970. He saw that the first [[Earth Day]] in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA).{{sfn|Aitken|pp=397–398}} He relied on his domestic advisor [[John Ehrlichman]], who favored protection of natural resources, to keep him "out of trouble on environmental issues."<ref name="Distillations"/> Other initiatives supported by Nixon included the [[Clean Air Act of 1970]] and the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA), and the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] required [[environmental impact statement]]s for many Federal projects.<ref name="Distillations">{{cite magazine|last1=Rinde|first1=Meir|title=Richard Nixon and the Rise of American Environmentalism|magazine=Distillations|date=2017|volume=3|issue=1|pages=16–29|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/richard-nixon-and-the-rise-of-american-environmentalism|access-date=April 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405024821/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/richard-nixon-and-the-rise-of-american-environmentalism|archive-date=April 5, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Aitken|pp=397–398}} Nixon vetoed the [[Clean Water Act]] of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon [[impoundment of appropriated funds|impounded]] the funds he deemed unjustifiable.{{sfn|Aitken|p=396}}

In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate,{{efn|name=voluntary|voluntary for employees}} federalization of [[Medicaid]] for poor families with dependent minor children,{{sfn|NHI: CQ Almanac 1971}} and support for [[health maintenance organization]]s (HMOs).{{sfn|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}} A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973.{{sfn|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}} In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate{{efn|name=voluntary|voluntary for employees}} and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and [[cost sharing]].{{sfn|NHI: CQ Almanac 1974}}
[[File:US incarceration rate timeline.gif|thumb|200px|Graph demonstrating increases in [[Incarceration in the United States|U.S. incarceration rate]]]]

Nixon was concerned about the prevalence of domestic drug use in addition to drug use among American soldiers in Vietnam. He called for a [[War on Drugs]] and pledged to cut off sources of supply abroad. He also increased funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|p=418}}

As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for [[sickle-cell disease|sickle-cell]] research, treatment, and education in February 1971{{sfn|Office of the Federal Register|pp=179–182}} and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972.{{sfn|The American Presidency Project}}{{sfn|National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute|p=2}}{{efn|see especially page 2 (after introductory material) in which a bar graph displays NHLBI funding for sickle cell research from FY 1972 through FY 2001, totaling $923 million for these thirty years, starting at $10 million for 1972, then about $15 million a year through 1976, about $20 million for 1977, etc}} While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a [[War on Cancer]], at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the [[National Institutes of Health]].{{sfn|Wailoo|pp=165, 170}}

==== Civil rights ====

The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large-scale [[racial integration|integration]] of public schools in the South.{{sfn|Boger|p=6}} Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites.{{sfn|Sabia}} Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to [[School integration in the United States|integrate]] local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary [[George Shultz]]. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the [[Desegregation busing in the United States|busing]] of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.{{sfn|Parmet|pp=595–597, 603}}

Some scholars, such as James Morton Turner and John Isenberg, believe that Nixon, who had advocated for civil rights in his 1960 campaign, slowed down [[Desegregation in the United States|desegregation]] as president, appealing to the racial conservatism of Southern whites, who were angered by the [[civil rights movement]]. This, he hoped, would boost his election chances in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674979970|title=The Republican Reversal—James Morton Turner, Andrew C. Isenberg {{!}} Harvard University Press|website=www.hup.harvard.edu|page=36|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108151027/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674979970|archive-date=January 8, 2019|url-status=live|access-date=July 31, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo8212972.html|title=The Partisan Sort|pages=24|access-date=July 31, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731184243/https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo8212972.html|archive-date=July 31, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the [[Philadelphia Plan]] in 1970—the first significant federal [[affirmative action]] program.{{sfn|Delaney|1970-07-20}} He also endorsed the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification.{{sfn|Frum|p=246}} He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism.|last=Frazier|first=Nishani|publisher=University of Arkansas Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1682260180|pages=184–207}}</ref> Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.{{sfn|PBS, Nixon, Domestic Politics}}

=== Space policy ===

{{further|Space policy of the United States}}
[[File:President Nixon welcomes the Apollo 11 astronauts aboard the U.S.S. Hornet.jpg|thumb|Nixon visiting the [[Apollo 11]] astronauts in quarantine aboard the aircraft carrier [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|USS ''Hornet'']]]]

After a [[Apollo program|nearly decade-long national effort]], the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of [[Apollo 11]]. Nixon spoke with [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] during their moonwalk. He called the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House".{{sfn|Parmet|p=563}}

Nixon was unwilling to keep funding for the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) at the high level seen during the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon. NASA Administrator [[Thomas O. Paine]] drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon rejected both proposals due to the expense.{{sfn|Handlin}} Nixon also canceled the Air Force [[Manned Orbital Laboratory]] program in 1969, because unmanned [[spy satellite]]s were a more cost-effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective.{{sfn|Hepplewhite|pp=204–205|loc=ch. 5}} NASA cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place [[Skylab]] in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the [[Space Shuttle]].<ref name="MIT_notes">{{cite web | url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/video-lectures/logsdn_lec_notes.pdf | title=MIT lecture notes in "Aircraft Systems Engineering," fall 2005, on early Space Shuttle policy | publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology | date=Fall 2005 | pages=7 | access-date=August 22, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120157/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-885j-aircraft-systems-engineering-fall-2005/video-lectures/logsdn_lec_notes.pdf | archive-date=August 26, 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref>

On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the [[Soviet space program]], culminating in the 1975 [[Apollo–Soyuz Test Project|joint mission of an American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft]] linking in space.{{sfn|Ezell|p=192|loc=ch. 6–11}}

=== Reelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation ===
==== 1972 presidential campaign ====

{{Main|1972 United States presidential election}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1972.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|1972 electoral vote results]]

Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of [[political realignment]]. The Democratic "[[Solid South]]" had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a [[Southern Strategy]] with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the [[civil rights movement]]. He nominated two Southern conservatives, [[Clement Haynsworth]] and [[G. Harrold Carswell]] to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.{{r|Mason-Small}}

Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection.{{sfn|Black|p=766}} Virtually assured the Republican nomination,{{sfn|Black|p=795}} the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be [[Massachusetts]] Senator [[Edward M. Kennedy]] (brother of the late President), who was largely removed from contention after the July 1969 [[Chappaquiddick incident]].{{sfn|Black|p=617}} Instead, [[Maine]] Senator [[Edmund Muskie]] became the front runner, with [[South Dakota]] Senator [[George McGovern]] in a close second place.{{sfn|Black|p=766}}

On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination.{{sfn|Black|p=816}} The following month, Nixon was renominated at the [[1972 Republican National Convention]]. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive.{{sfn|Black|p=834}} McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending{{sfn|White|p=123}} and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as [[abortion rights]]. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for "amnesty, abortion and acid". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, [[Missouri]] Senator [[Thomas Eagleton]], dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received treatment for [[Major depressive disorder|depression]].{{sfn|''Time''|1972-08-14}}{{sfn|''Time''|1970-11-20}} Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972, in [[List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin|one of the largest landslide election victories in American history]]. He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and D.C.{{sfn|Parmet|p=629}}

==== Watergate ====

{{Main|Watergate scandal|Impeachment process of Richard Nixon}}
[[File:Richard M. Nixon press conference - NARA - 194551.tif|thumb|Nixon fielding questions at a press conference, October 26, 1973]]

The term ''Watergate'' has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks," such as bugging the offices of political opponents, and the harassment of activist groups and political figures. The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into the Democratic party headquarters at the [[Watergate complex]] in Washington, D.C. on June 17, 1972. ''[[The Washington Post]]'' picked up on the story; reporters [[Carl Bernstein]] and [[Bob Woodward]] relied on an informant known as "[[Deep Throat (Watergate)|Deep Throat]]"—later revealed to be [[W. Mark Felt|Mark Felt]], associate director at the [[FBI]]—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. A series of revelations made it clear that the [[Committee for the Re-Election of the President|Committee to Re-elect President Nixon]], and later the White House, were involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats. Senior aides such as [[White House Counsel]] [[John Dean]] faced prosecution; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing.{{sfn|Nixon Library, President}}{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Post Investigates}}{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}}
[[File:Impeach Nixon retouched.jpg|thumb|left|A demonstrator demanding Nixon's [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment]], October 1973]]

In July 1973, White House aide [[Alexander Butterfield]] testified [[Perjury|under oath]] to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system and recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. [[Nixon White House tapes|These tapes]] were [[subpoena]]ed by Watergate Special Counsel [[Archibald Cox]]; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes, citing [[executive privilege]]. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the "[[Saturday Night Massacre]]"; he was replaced by [[Leon Jaworski]]. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that a tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, had an {{frac|18|1|2}}{{nbsp}}minute gap.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}} [[Rose Mary Woods]], the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, saying that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, but her story was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=511–512}}

Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}} He admitted he had made mistakes but insisted he had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned for reasons unrelated to Watergate: he was convicted on charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Believing his first choice, [[John Connally]], would not be confirmed by Congress,{{sfn|Aitken|p=555}} Nixon chose [[Gerald Ford]], [[Minority leader of the United States House of Representatives|Minority Leader of the House of Representatives]], to replace Agnew.{{sfn|Ambrose|1989|pp=231–232, 239}} One researcher suggests Nixon effectively disengaged from his own administration after Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beckmann|first=Matthew N.|date=April 1, 2017|title=Did Nixon quit before he resigned?|journal=Research & Politics|language=en|volume=4|issue=2|pages=2053168017704800|doi=10.1177/2053168017704800|doi-access=free|issn=2053-1680}}</ref>

On November 17, 1973, during a televised question-and-answer session,{{sfn|Frum|p=26}} with 400 [[Associated Press]] [[managing editor]]s Nixon said, "People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."{{sfn|Kilpatrick|1973-11-18}}
[[File:Nixon edited transcripts.jpg|thumb|Nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of the Watergate tapes, April 29, 1974]]

The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between himself and his aides. The [[U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary|House Judiciary Committee]] opened [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment]] hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major TV networks. These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment.{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} On July 24, the Supreme Court [[United States v. Nixon|ruled unanimously]] that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must be released.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=394–395}}

The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President, ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due, and later paid $465,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|.465|1974|r=1}} million in {{Inflation-year|US}}) in back taxes in 1974.{{sfn|Samson}}
[[File:Nixon Oval Office meeting with H.R. Haldeman "Smoking Gun" Conversation June 23, 1972.wav|thumb|left|Nixon Oval Office meeting with H.R. Haldeman "Smoking Gun" Conversation June 23, 1972 [https://web.archive.org/web/20160729063732/https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/forresearchers/find/tapes/watergate/trial/exhibit_01.pdf Full Transcript]]]

Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to fight the charges. But one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as [[Watergate tapes#The "smoking gun" tape|the "Smoking Gun Tape"]] on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had had a lapse of memory.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=414–416}} Senate Minority Leader [[Hugh Scott]], Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], and House Minority Leader [[John Jacob Rhodes]] met with Nixon soon after. Rhodes told Nixon he faced certain impeachment in the House. Scott and Goldwater told the president that he had, at most, only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate, far fewer than the 34 needed to avoid removal from office.{{sfn|Black|p=978}}

==== Resignation ====

[[File:President Richard Nixon's farewell to his cabinet and members of the White House staff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Nixon's farewell speech to the White House staff, August 9, 1974]]

In light of his loss of political support and the near-certainty that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974, after [[Richard Nixon's resignation speech|addressing the nation on television the previous evening]].{{sfn|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}} The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon said he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=435–436}} He defended his record as president, quoting from [[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s 1910 speech ''[[Citizenship in a Republic]]'':
{{quote|Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, "whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly".{{sfn|PBS, Resignation Speech}}
}}

Nixon's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators, with only [[Roger Mudd]] of [[CBS]] stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=437}} It was termed "a masterpiece" by [[Conrad Black]], one of his biographers. Black opined that "What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office."{{sfn|Black|p=983}}
{{clear}}

== Post-presidency (1974–1994) ==

=== Pardon and illness ===

{{further|Pardon of Richard Nixon}}
[[File:President Ford announces his decision to pardon former President Richard Nixon - NARA - 7140608.jpg|thumb|President Ford announcing his decision to pardon Nixon, September 8, 1974, in the [[Oval Office]]]]

Following his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home [[La Casa Pacifica]] in [[San Clemente, California]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} According to his biographer, [[Jonathan Aitken]], "Nixon was a soul in torment" after his resignation.{{sfn|Aitken|p=529}} Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7:00 a.m.—with little to do.{{sfn|Aitken|p=529}} His former press secretary, [[Ron Ziegler]], sat with him alone for hours each day.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=529–530}}

Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, even though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford insisted on a statement of contrition, but Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed, and on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:
{{quote|I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an institution I so greatly respect.{{sfn|Aitken|p=532}}{{sfn|Black|p=990}}
}}

In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with [[phlebitis]]. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and [[John Ehrlichman]]—and ''The Washington Post'', disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge [[John Sirica]] excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=533–534}} Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate.{{sfn|Black|pp=994, 999}} Nixon was in the hospital when the [[1974 United States elections|1974 midterm elections]] were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 43 seats in the House and three in the Senate.{{sfn|Black|p=998}}

=== Return to public life ===

[[File:Jimmy Carter, Gerald Ford and Richard Nixon gather at the White House during funeral for Hubert Humphrey. - NARA - 177599.tif|thumb|left|President [[Jimmy Carter]], former Presidents [[Gerald Ford]] and Nixon meet at the White House in preparation for the funeral of former Vice President [[Hubert Humphrey]], 1978]]

In December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,
{{quote|So be it. We will see it through. We've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now. That is perhaps what we were made for—to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office. This is a test of character and we must not fail the test.{{sfn|Aitken|p=535}}
}}
[[File:Jimmy Carter, Richard Nixon and Deng Xiaoping during the state dinner for the Vice Premier of China. - NARA - 183214.tif|thumb|Nixon speaking with Chinese Vice Premier [[Deng Xiaoping]] and U.S. President Jimmy Carter at the White House, 1979]]

By early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] station 300 yards from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=481}} He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=537, 539}} He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with many of his staff, including Ziegler.{{sfn|Black|p=1000}} In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer [[David Frost]], who paid him $600,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|.6|1975|r=1}} million in {{Inflation-year|US}}) for [[The Nixon Interviews|a series of sit-down interviews]], filmed and aired in 1977.{{sfn|Black|p=1004}} They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing."{{sfn|Drew|p=138}} The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers—becoming the most-watched program of its kind in television history.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=512}}

The interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975 he had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy friends of Nixon, such as [[Charles Rebozo|Bebe Rebozo]].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=539–540}} In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975.{{sfn|Black|p=1005}} Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] Governor [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1976 United States presidential election|the general election]]. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]] to withhold its official invitation.{{sfn|Aitken|p=543}}

In 1976, Nixon was [[Bar (law)|disbarred]] by the [[New York State Bar Association]] for [[obstruction of justice]] in the Watergate affair. Nixon chose not to present any defense.<ref>"Nixon disbarred in New York in 1st ruling of Watergate guilt", Toledo Blade, July 9, 1976 p.1</ref>
In early 1978, Nixon went to the United Kingdom. He was shunned by American diplomats and by most ministers of the [[James Callaghan]] government. He was welcomed, however, by the [[Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)|Leader of the Opposition]], [[Margaret Thatcher]], as well as by former prime ministers [[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]] and [[Harold Wilson|Sir Harold Wilson]]. Two other former prime ministers, [[Harold Macmillan]] and [[Edward Heath]], declined to meet him. Nixon addressed the [[Oxford Union]] regarding Watergate:
{{quote|Some people say I didn't handle it properly and they're right. I screwed it up. ''Mea culpa''. But let's get on to my achievements. You'll be here in the year 2000 and we'll see how I'm regarded then.{{sfn|Aitken|pp=646–647}}
}}

=== Author and elder statesman ===

[[File:Four Presidents pose for a portrait.jpg|thumb|President [[Ronald Reagan]] meets with his three immediate predecessors, Ford, [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] and Nixon at the White House, October 1981; the three former presidents would represent the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President [[Anwar Sadat]].]]

In 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, ''RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon'', the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} The book was a bestseller and attracted a generally positive critical response.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=525}} Nixon visited the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier [[Deng Xiaoping]]. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had said he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|pp=524–525}}

[[File:Richard Nixon in 1992.jpg|thumb|left|Nixon in 1992]]

On August 10, 1979, the Nixons purchased a 12‐room condominium occupying the seventh floor of 817 [[Fifth Avenue]] New York City<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Bp9RAAAAIBAJ&pg=4685%2C1596331|newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|date=August 11, 1979|title=Nixons Buy Fifth Avenue Condo in N.Y.|access-date=June 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174454/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Bp9RAAAAIBAJ&sjid=0W0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4685%2C1596331|archive-date=September 10, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> after being rejected by two Manhattan [[housing cooperative|co-ops]].{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=528}} When the deposed [[Mohammed Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran]] died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no U.S. representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=533}} Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in [[1980 U.S. presidential election|1980]], making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray".{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=534}} He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory.{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=540}} After eighteen months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to [[Saddle River, New Jersey|Saddle River]], New Jersey.{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}}

Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing,{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former Presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President [[Anwar Sadat]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; ''The Washington Post'' ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation".{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=545}} Nixon visited the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Soviet General Secretary [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].{{sfn|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}} Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in [[Gallup's most admired man and woman poll|a Gallup poll]] as one of the ten most admired men in the world.{{sfn|Drew|p=142}}
[[File:President Bill Clinton greets President Richard Nixon.jpg|thumb|Nixon visiting President [[Bill Clinton]] in the State Dining Room, March 1993]]

In 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his ''tour d'horizon'' of the world.{{sfn|Drew|p=144}} At the time, [[Pundit|political pundit]] [[Elizabeth Drew]] wrote, "Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times."{{sfn|Drew|p=144}} ''Newsweek'' ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back".{{sfn|Aitken|pp=561–562}}

On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in [[Yorba Linda, California]] opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and [[George H. W. Bush]], as well as their wives, [[Betty Ford|Betty]], [[Nancy Reagan|Nancy]], and [[Barbara Bush|Barbara]].{{sfn|Aitken|pp=565–568}} In January 1994, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the [[Center for the National Interest]]), a Washington policy [[think tank]] and conference center.{{sfn|Black|pp=1045–1046}}<ref>{{cite press release|date= March 9, 2011|title= Nixon Center Becomes Center for the National Interest|url= https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nixon-center-becomes-center-for-the-national-interest-117654558.html|location= Washington, D.C.|publisher= Center for the National Interest|agency= PR Newswire|access-date= September 9, 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180909073801/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nixon-center-becomes-center-for-the-national-interest-117654558.html|archive-date= September 9, 2018|url-status= live}}</ref>

Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of [[emphysema]] and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former President Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a tribute to her inside the library building.{{sfn|Black|pp=1049–1050}}

== Death and funeral ==
{{Main|Death and funeral of Richard Nixon}}
Nixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his [[Park Ridge, New Jersey|Park Ridge]], New Jersey home.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} A [[Thrombus|blood clot]] resulting from the [[atrial fibrillation]] he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart, [[Embolus|broken off]], and traveled to his brain.<ref>{{Cite news|author1=Lawrence K. Altman|title=THE 37TH PRESIDENT: THE LAST DAYS; Disabled, Yet Retaining Control Over His Care|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/us/the-37th-president-the-last-days-disabled-yet-retaining-control-over-his-care.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=February 12, 2016|date=April 24, 1994|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217061301/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/us/the-37th-president-the-last-days-disabled-yet-retaining-control-over-his-care.html|archive-date=February 17, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> He was taken to [[New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center]] in [[Manhattan]], initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} Damage to the brain caused swelling ([[cerebral edema]]), and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08 p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}}
[[File:Five presidents.jpg|thumb|Five U.S. presidents (including then-incumbent President [[Bill Clinton]]) and their wives attending the funeral of Richard Nixon, April 27, 1994]]

Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994, in [[Yorba Linda, California]]. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President [[Bill Clinton]], former Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]], Senate Minority Leader [[Bob Dole]], California Governor [[Pete Wilson]], and the Reverend [[Billy Graham]]. Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.{{sfn|Black|pp=1051–1053}}

Richard Nixon was buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, [[Tricia Nixon Cox|Tricia]] and [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]], and four grandchildren.{{sfn|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}} In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full [[state funeral]], though his body did [[lie in repose]] in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service.{{sfn|BBC|2004-06-11}} Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects.{{sfn|''The Deseret News''|1994-04-27}} At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting.{{sfn|Frick|p=206}}

John F. Stacks of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death,
<blockquote>An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House [in 1993], Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice.{{sfn|Stacks|1994-05-02}}</blockquote>

[[Tom Wicker]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'' noted that Nixon had been equalled only by [[Franklin Roosevelt]] in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote,
<blockquote>Richard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not "have Nixon to kick around anymore".{{sfn|Wicker|1994-04-24}}</blockquote>

Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, "To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman."{{sfn|Sawhill|2011-02}}

Upon Nixon's death, almost all the news coverage mentioned Watergate, but for the most part, the coverage was favorable to the former president. ''[[The Dallas Morning News]]'' stated, "History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives."{{sfn|Frick|pp=205–206}} This offended some; columnist [[Russell Baker]] complained of "a group conspiracy to grant him absolution".{{sfn|Frick|pp=204–205}} Cartoonist [[Jeff Koterba]] of the ''[[Omaha World-Herald]]'' depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as "this portrait is a little more complicated than most".{{sfn|Frick|p=210}}

[[Hunter S. Thompson]] wrote a scathing piece denouncing Nixon for ''[[Rolling Stone]]'', entitled "He Was a Crook" (which also appeared a month later in ''[[The Atlantic]]'').<ref name = "atlantic">{{cite magazine | title=He Was a Crook | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/07/he-was-a-crook/308699/ | first=Hunter S. | last=Thompson | magazine=[[The Atlantic]] | date=July 1994 | access-date=June 4, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607195033/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1994/07/he-was-a-crook/308699/ | archive-date=June 7, 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref> In his article, Thompson described Nixon as "a political monster straight out of [[Grendel]] and a very dangerous enemy."<ref name = "atlantic" />

== Legacy ==

[[File:Nixon grave 2011.jpg|thumb|The graves of President Richard Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon]]

Historian and political scientist [[James MacGregor Burns]] asked of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?"{{sfn|Skidmore|p=495}} Nixon's biographers disagree on how he will be perceived by posterity. According to Ambrose, "Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation."{{sfn|Ambrose|1991|p=592}} Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's Congressional career, suggests, "He was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible [[Anti-communism|anti-Communist]] course against the excess of McCarthy."{{sfn|Gellman|p=460}} Aitken feels that "Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of [[historical revisionism]], no simple verdict is possible."{{sfn|Aitken|p=577}}

Some historians say Nixon's [[Southern Strategy]] turned the [[Southern United States]] into a Republican stronghold, while others deem economic factors more important in the change.{{r|Mason-Small}} Throughout his career, Nixon moved his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a Congressman he was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism.{{sfn|Black|p=1053}} According to his biographer Herbert Parmet, "Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans."{{sfn|Parmet|p=viii}}
[[File:Nixon Library and Gardens.jpg|thumb|left|[[Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum|Richard Nixon's Presidential Library and Museum]] located in Yorba Linda, California]]

Nixon's stance on domestic affairs has been credited with the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. In a 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, historian Paul Charles Milazzo points to Nixon's creation of the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA), and to his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 [[Endangered Species Act]], stating that "though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure".{{r|Milazzo-Small}} Nixon himself did not consider the environmental advances he made in office an important part of his legacy; some historians contend that his choices were driven more by political expediency than any strong [[environmentalism]].<ref name="Distillations"/>

Nixon saw his policies on Vietnam, China, and the Soviet Union as central to his place in history.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} Nixon's onetime opponent [[George McGovern]] commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War{{nbsp}}II [...] With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history."{{sfn|Greider|1983-10-10}} Political scientist [[Jussi Hanhimäki]] disagrees, saying that Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the [[Cold War]] policy of [[containment]] by diplomatic, rather than military means.{{r|Hanhimäki-Small}} Kissinger noted similarities between Nixon's opening of China in 1972 and President [[Donald Trump|Donald Trump's]] Middle East diplomacy.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shawn|first=Eric|date=March 3, 2021|title=Kissinger says Trump, Nixon foreign policies similar, warns Biden on Iran|url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/kissinger-trump-nixon-foreign-policies-similar|access-date=March 4, 2021|website=Fox News|language=en-US}}</ref> Historian [[Christopher Andrew (historian)|Christopher Andrew]] concludes that "Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena. While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making, Nixon's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships both with Communist China and with the Soviet Union."{{sfn|Andrew|1995|p=384}}

Historian [[Keith W. Olson]] has written that Nixon left a legacy of fundamental mistrust of government, rooted in Vietnam and Watergate.{{r|Olson-Small}} In [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|surveys of historians and political scientists]], Nixon is generally ranked as a below average president.<ref name="brottinghaus">{{cite news|last1=Rottinghaus|first1=Brandon|last2=Vaughn|first2=Justin S.|title=How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best—and Worst—Presidents?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html|access-date=March 6, 2018|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=February 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305092423/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html|archive-date=March 5, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Presidential Historians Survey 2017|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|website=C-Span|access-date=May 14, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301043807/https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|archive-date=March 1, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Siena's 6th Presidential Expert Poll 1982–2018 |url=https://scri.siena.edu/2019/02/13/sienas-6th-presidential-expert-poll-1982-2018/ |publisher=Siena College Research Institute |date=February 13, 2019 |access-date=July 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719163759/https://scri.siena.edu/2019/02/13/sienas-6th-presidential-expert-poll-1982-2018/ |archive-date=July 19, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[impeachment of Bill Clinton]] in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct was comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than Clinton's.{{sfn|Frick|pp=211–214}} Another legacy, for a time, was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson suggests that legislation in the aftermath of the [[September 11 attacks]] restored the president's power.{{r|Olson-Small}}

== Personality and public image ==

Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.{{sfn|Reeves|pp=281–283}}
[[File:Elvis-nixon.jpg|thumb|Nixon and [[Elvis Presley]] in December 1970: "The President & The King"]]

Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone.{{sfn|Drew|p=150}} Nixon biographer [[Conrad Black]] described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways".{{sfn|Black|p=574}} According to Black, Nixon
<blockquote>thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]], but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail.{{sfn|Black|p=700}}</blockquote>
[[File:Nixon-rebozo-hoover.jpg|thumb|[[Bebe Rebozo]], FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], and Nixon relax before dinner at Key Biscayne, Florida, December 1971]]

Nixon sometimes drank to excess, especially during 1970 when things were not going well for him. He also had trouble battling insomnia, for which he was prescribed sleeping pills. According to [[Ray Price (speechwriter)|Ray Price]], he sometimes took them in together. Nixon also took [[dilantin]], recommended by [[Jack Dreyfus]]. That medicine is usually prescribed to treat and prevent seizures, but in Nixon's case it was to battle depression. His periodic overindulgences, especially during stressful times such as during [[Apollo 13]], concerned Price and others, including then-advisor Ehrlichman and long-time [[valet]] [[Manolo Sanchez (Nixon staff member)|Manolo Sanchez]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/john-farrell-nixon-book-excerpt-214954 | title=The Year Nixon Fell Apart | access-date=July 15, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607015351/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/john-farrell-nixon-book-excerpt-214954 | archive-date=June 7, 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref> Author and former British politician [[David Owen#Selected publications|David Owen]] deemed Nixon an alcoholic.<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/david-owen-lessons-in-removing-politicians-from-public-office-891446.html| title=David Owen: Lessons in removing politicians from public office| date=August 12, 2008| access-date=July 15, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715193824/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/david-owen-lessons-in-removing-politicians-from-public-office-891446.html| archive-date=July 15, 2019| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/28/politicians-hubris-medical-condition|title = A doctor writes: Politicians' pride is a medical disorder|newspaper = The Guardian|date = March 28, 2009|last1 = Boseley|first1 = Sarah|access-date = July 15, 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190715195739/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/28/politicians-hubris-medical-condition|archive-date = July 15, 2019|url-status = live}}</ref>

Biographer [[Elizabeth Drew]] summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents".{{sfn|Drew|p=151}} In his account of the Nixon presidency, author [[Richard Reeves (American writer)|Richard Reeves]] described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts".{{sfn|Reeves|p=12}} Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues:
<blockquote>He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being "tough". He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness.{{sfn|Reeves|p=13}}</blockquote>

In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes was released which contained multiple statements by Nixon deemed derogatory toward Jews.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/oct99/nixon6.htm "New tapes reveal depth of Nixon's anti-Semitism"]. ''[[The Washington Post]]'', October 6, 1999. Retrieved on April 4, 2011.</ref> In one conversation with [[H. R. Haldeman]], Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal", making exceptions for some of his top aides.<ref name = "Noah"/> He then added, "But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?"<ref name=Noah>[[Timothy Noah|Noah, Timothy]]. [http://www.slate.com/id/1003783 "Nixon: I Am Not an Anti-Semite"]. [[Slate (magazine)|''Slate'']], October 7, 1999. Retrieved on July 17, 2011.</ref> Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings, Nixon denies being anti-Semitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be anti-Semitic, I did ... And I'm not, you know what I mean?"<ref name="Noah"/>

Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even [[Bebe Rebozo]], by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon said of this,
<blockquote>Even with close friends, I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, "Gee, I couldn't sleep ..." I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts ... [and] reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way.{{sfn|Greene}}</blockquote>
When Nixon was told that most Americans felt they did not know him even at the end of his career, he replied, "Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know."{{sfn|Greene}}

==Books==
* Nixon, Richard M. (1960) ''[[Six Crises]]'', Doubleday, {{ISBN|0-385-00125-8}}
* ''Quotations from the would-be chairman: [[Richard Milhous Nixon]]'', edited by M. B. Schnapper (Washington: [[Public Affairs Press]], 1968)
* Nixon, Richard M. (1978) ''[https://archive.org/details/memoirsofrichard00nixo RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon]'', Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|0-671-70741-8}}
* Nixon, Richard M. (1980) ''The Real War'', Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. {{ISBN|0-283-98650-6}}
* Nixon, Richard M. (1982) ''Leaders'', Random House {{ISBN|0-446-51249-4}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1984) ''Real Peace'', Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd {{ISBN|0-283-99076-7}}
{{external media
| float = right
| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?24604-1/seize-moment-part-1 Part One of ''Booknotes'' interview with Nixon on ''Seize the Moment'', February 23, 1992]
| video2 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?24737-1/seize-moment-part-2 Part Two of ''Booknotes'' interview, March 1, 1992]
}}
* Nixon, Richard M. (1987) ''No More Vietnams'', Arbor House Publishing {{ISBN|0-87795-668-5}}
* Nixon, Richard M. (1988) ''1999: Victory Without War'', Simon & Schuster {{ISBN|0-671-62712-0}}
* Nixon, Richard M. (1990) ''In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal'', Simon & Schuster {{ISBN|0-671-72318-9}}.
* Nixon, Richard M. (1992) ''Seize the Moment: America's Challenge in a One-Superpower World'', Simon & Schuster {{ISBN|0-671-74343-0}}
* Nixon, Richard M. (1994) ''Beyond Peace'', Random House (1994) {{ISBN|0-679-43323-6}}.

== See also ==
* [[Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon]]
* [[Electoral history of Richard Nixon]]
* [[Nixon (film)|''Nixon'' (film)]]

== Notes ==
=== Explanatory notes ===

{{notes
| notes =
{{efn
| name = Jewish vote
| {{harvnb|Black|pp=583–585}}. In 1972, Nixon did more than double his percentage of the Jewish vote, from 17 percent to 35 percent. {{harvnb|Merkley|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TP4g-RhUJmcC&lpg=PA68&dq=nixon%20jewish%20vote%201972&pg=PA68 68]}}.
}}
}}

=== Citations ===

{{Reflist
| colwidth = 20em
| refs =
<ref name="Gellman-Small">Gellman, Irwin. "The Richard Nixon vice presidency: Research without the Nixon manuscripts" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=102–120}}.</ref>

<ref name="Goh-Small">Goh, Evelyn. "The China card" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=425–443}}.</ref>

<ref name="Hanhimäki-Small">Hanhimäki, Jussi M. "Foreign Policy Overview" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=345–361}}.</ref>

<ref name="Bowles-Small">Bowles, Nigel. "Economic Policy" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=235–251}}.</ref>

<ref name="Mason-Small">Mason, Robert "Political realignment" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=252–269}}.</ref>

<ref name="Milazzo-Small">Milazzo, Paul Charles. "Nixon and the Environment" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=270–291}}.</ref>

<ref name="Olson-Small">Olson, Keith W. "Watergate" in {{harvnb|Small|pp=481–496}}.</ref>

<ref name="Safire pp205–209">{{harvnb|Safire|pp=[https://books.google.com/?id=xahIAOPX8JwC&lpg=PA205&ots=BRet8aBsjr&dq=%E2%80%9CManolo%20Sanchez%2C%20his%20valet%2C%20heard%20the%20music%20and%20soon%20appeared%E2%80%9D&pg=PA205 205–209]}}</ref>
}}

== References ==
=== Bibliography ===

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| author-link = Jonathan Aitken
| year = 1996
| title = Nixon: A Life
| publisher = Regnery Publishing
| location = Washington, D.C.
| isbn = 978-0-89526-720-7
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}}
* {{cite book
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| year = 1987
| title = Nixon: The Education of a Politician 1913–1962
| volume = I
| url = https://archive.org/details/nixon00ambr
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-671-52836-2
| url-access = registration
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ambrose
| first = Stephen E.
| year = 1989
| title = Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician 1962–1972
| volume = II
| url = https://www.amazon.com/Nixon-II-Triumph-Politician-1962-1972-ebook/dp/B00HL709ZG/
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-671-72506-8
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ambrose
| first = Stephen E.
| year = 1991
| title = Nixon: Ruin and Recovery 1973–1990
| volume = III
| url = https://archive.org/details/nixon00ambr
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York
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| url-access = registration
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Andrew
| first = Christopher
| year = 1995
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| url = https://archive.org/details/forpresidentseye00andr
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| publisher = HarperCollins
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| isbn = 978-0-06-092178-1
}}
* {{cite book
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}}
* {{cite book| last = Black
| first = Conrad
| year = 2007
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| title = Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full
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| location = New York
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| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781586485191
}}
* {{cite book
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}}
* {{cite book
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}}
* {{cite book
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| year = 2007
| title = Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power
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| url-access = registration
| publisher = HarperCollins
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-06-072230-2
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}}
* {{cite book| last = Drew
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| year = 2007
| title = Richard M. Nixon
| series = The American Presidents Series
| publisher = Times Books
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| ref = {{sfnRef|Drew}}
| url = https://archive.org/details/richardmnixon00drew
}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Evans
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| author-link2 = Robert Novak
| year = 1971
| title = Nixon in the White House: The Frustration of Power
| publisher = Random House
| location = New York
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}}
* {{cite book
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| year = 1978
| title = The Partnership: A History of the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
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}}
* Farrell, John A. ''Richard Nixon: The Life'' (2017)
* {{cite book
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| year = 1999
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}}
* {{cite book
| last = Foner
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| volume = 2
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}}
* {{cite book
| last = Frick
| first = Daniel
| year = 2008
| title = Reinventing Richard Nixon
| publisher = University of Kansas Press
| location = Lawrence, Kans.
| isbn = 978-0-7006-1599-5
| ref = {{sfnRef|Frick}}
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}}
* {{cite book| last = Frum
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| author-link = David Frum
| year = 2000
| title = How We Got Here: The '70s
| publisher = Basic Books
| location = New York
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}}
* {{cite book| last = Gaddis
| first = John Lewis
| author-link = John Lewis Gaddis
| year = 1982
| title = Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = Oxford
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}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gellman
| first = Irwin
| year = 1999
| title = The Contender
| url = https://archive.org/details/contenderrichard00gellrich
| url-access = registration
| publisher = The Free Press
| isbn = 978-1-4165-7255-8
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}}
* Greenberg, David. ''Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image'' (2003). Important study of how Nixon was perceived by media and scholars.
* Hall, Mitchell K. ed. ''Historical Dictionary of the Nixon-Ford Era'' (2008) 285pp
* {{cite book
| last = Hepplewhite
| first = T.A.
| year = 1999
| title = The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle
| publisher = NASA History Office
| location = Washington D.C.
| url = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/sp4221.htm
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}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hetzel
| first = Robert L.
| year = 2008
| title = The Monetary Policy of the Federal Reserve
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}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ingle
| first = H. Larry
| year = 2015
| title = Nixon's First Cover-up: The Religious Life of a Quaker President
| publisher = University of Missouri Press
| location = Columbia, Missouri
| isbn = 978-0-8262-2042-4
| ref = {{sfnRef|Ingle|}}
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/nixonsfirstcover00ingl
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kornitzer
| first = Bela
| year = 1960
| title = The Real Nixon: An Intimate Biography
| publisher = Rand McNally & Company
| location = New York
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1V3AAAAMAAJ
| ref = {{sfnRef|Kornitzer}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Langguth
| first = A.J.
| author-link = A. J. Langguth
| year = 2000
| title = Our Vietnam: The War 1954–1975
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-7432-1244-1
| url =https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_f6q3
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}}
* Malsberger, John W. ''The General and the Politician: Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and American Politics'' (2014)
* {{cite book
| last = Merkley
| first = Paul Charles
| year = 2004
| title = American Presidents, Religion, and Israel: the Heirs of Cyrus
| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group
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| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TP4g-RhUJmcC
| ref = {{sfnRef|Merkley}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Morris
| first = Roger
| author-link = Roger Morris (American writer)
| year = 1990
| title = Richard Milhous Nixon: The Rise of an American Politician
| location = New York
| publisher = Henry Holt & Co
| isbn = 978-0-8050-1834-9
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Uw8_HAAACAAJ
| ref = {{sfnRef|Morris}}
}}
* {{cite book| last = Nixon
| first = Richard
| year = 1978
| title = RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon
| publisher = Grosset & Dunlap
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-448-14374-3
| url = https://archive.org/details/rnmemoirsofricha00nixo
}}
* {{cite book| last = Nixon
| first = Richard
| year = 1985
| title = No More Vietnams
| publisher = Arbor House Publishing Company
| location = Westminster, Md.
| isbn = 978-0-87795-668-6
| url = https://archive.org/details/nomorevietnams00nixo
}}
* {{cite book| last = Parmet
| first = Herbert S.
| year = 1990
| title = Richard Nixon and His America
| publisher = Little, Brown & Co
| location = Boston
| isbn = 978-0-316-69232-8
| ref = {{sfnRef|Parmet}}
| url = https://archive.org/details/richardnixonhisa00parm_0
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Perlstein
| first = Richard
| author-link = Rick Perlstein
| year = 2008
| title = Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America
| publisher = Scribner
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-7432-4302-5
| title-link = Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America
}}
* {{cite book| last = Reeves
| first = Richard
| author-link = Richard Reeves (American writer)
| year = 2001
| title = President Nixon: Alone in the White House
| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-684-80231-2
| ref = {{sfnRef|Reeves}}
| url = https://archive.org/details/presidentnixonal00reev
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Safire
| first = William
| author-link = William Safire
| year = 2005
| orig-year = 1975
| title = Before The Fall: An Insider View of the Pre-Watergate White House, with a 2005 Preface by the Author
| publisher = Transaction Publishers
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xahIAOPX8JwC
| ref = {{sfnRef|Safire}}
| isbn = 978-1-4128-0466-0
}} Originally published: Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975 (new material 2005)
* {{cite book
| editor-last = Small
| editor-first = Melvin
| year = 2011
| title = A Companion to Richard M. Nixon
| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell
| location = Oxford
| isbn = 978-1-4443-3017-5
|url=https://www.questia.com/library/120083897/a-companion-to-richard-m-nixon
| ref = {{sfnRef|Small}}
| editor-link = Melvin Small
}}; Emphasis on historiography
* {{cite book
| last = Schulzinger
| first = Robert D.
| year = 2003
| title = A Companion to American Foreign Relations
| publisher = Blackwell Publishing
| location = Oxford
| isbn = 978-1-4051-4986-0
| ref = {{sfnRef|Schulzinger}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Thompson
| first = John B.
| author-link = John Thompson (sociologist)
| year = 2000
| title = Political Scandal: Power and Visibility in the Media Age
| publisher = Polity Press
| location = Cambridge
| isbn = 978-0-7456-2550-8
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PAEwuLjQm4gC
| ref = {{sfnRef|Thompson}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Tyler
| first = Patrick
| author-link = Patrick Tyler
| year = 2010
| title = A World of Trouble: The White House and the Middle East—from the Cold War to the War on Terror
| publisher = Macmillan
| location = New York
}}
* {{cite book
| last = White
| first = Theodore H.
| author-link = Theodore H. White
| year = 1973
| title = The Making of the President 1972
| url = https://archive.org/details/makingofpresiden1972whit
| url-access = registration
| publisher = Antheneum
| location = New York
| isbn = 978-0-689-10553-1
| ref = {{sfnRef|White}}
}}

=== Nixon Library ===
* {{cite web
|title = Childhood
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php
|access-date = July 16, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Childhood}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194530/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/childhood.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = A Student & Sailor
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/astudentandsailor.php
|access-date = July 16, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Student & Sailor}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194531/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/astudentandsailor.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Nixon Family
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/thenixonfamily.php
|access-date = July 16, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Nixon Family}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021225422/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/thenixonfamily.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Congressman
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php
|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Congressman}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615041941/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thecongressman.php
|archive-date = June 15, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Senator
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thesenator.php
|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Senator}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130216113442/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thesenator.php
|archive-date = February 16, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The Vice President
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
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|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Vice President}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130615014220/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thevicepresident.php
|archive-date = June 15, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = The President
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
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|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, President}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121120163546/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/
|archive-date = November 20, 2012
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|title = Post Presidency
|publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
|work = The Life
|url = http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/postpresidency.php
|access-date = March 5, 2012
|ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Post Presidency}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131021194537/http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/postpresidency.php
|archive-date = October 21, 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Lee
| first = Meghan
| url = https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/sites/default/files/forresearchers/find/textual/findingaids/findingaid_nixonfamily.pdf
| date = June 22, 2004
| title = Guide to the Nixon Family Collection (1909–1967)
| publisher = Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
| ref = {{sfnRef|Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide}}
}}

=== Other sources ===
* {{Cite news
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| publisher=BBC
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| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_4373000/4373149.stm
| access-date = July 17, 2011
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}}
* {{Cite news
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| ref = {{sfnRef|BBC|2004-06-11}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Delaney
| first = Paul
| date = July 20, 1970
| newspaper = The New York Times
| title = Nixon Plan for Negro Construction Jobs Is Lagging
| page = 1
| url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20813F7355A1B7493C2AB178CD85F448785F9
| ref = {{sfnRef|Delaney|1970-07-20}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = [[The Deseret News]]
| date = April 27, 1994
| title = Mourners pay last respects to Nixon
| page = 1
| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=i_RHAAAAIBAJ&dq=nixon%20funeral&pg=6218%2C5816141
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Deseret News''|1994-04-27}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Steel
| first = Ronald
| author-link = Ronald Steel
| date = May 25, 2003
| newspaper = The New York Times
| title = The World: New Chapter, Old Debate; Would Kennedy Have Quit Vietnam?
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/25/weekinreview/the-world-new-chapter-old-debate-would-kennedy-have-quit-vietnam.html
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Steel|2003-05-25}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Wicker
| first = Tom
| author-link = Tom Wicker
| date = April 24, 1994
| newspaper = The New York Times
| title = From afar: An indomitable man, an incurable loneliness
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/24/weekinreview/from-afar-an-indomitable-man-an-incurable-loneliness.html
| access-date = August 7, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Wicker|1994-04-24}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Kilpatrick
| first = Carroll
| date = November 18, 1973
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = Nixon tells editors, 'I'm not a crook'
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/articles/111873-1.htm
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Kilpatrick|1973-11-18}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = The Post Investigates
| series = The Watergate Story
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/watergate/part1.html
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', The Post Investigates}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = The Government Acts
| series = The Watergate Story
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| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', The Government Acts}}
}}
* {{cite news
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| title = Nixon Resigns
| series = The Watergate Story
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| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''The Washington Post'', Nixon Resigns}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last1 = Weil
| first1 = Martin
| last2 = Randolph
| first2 = Eleanor
| date = April 23, 1994
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| page = A01
| title = Richard M. Nixon, 37th President, dies
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2002/06/11/AR2005112200809.html
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Weil & Randolph|1994-04-23}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last1 = Lardner
| first1 = George Jr.
| last2 = Dobbs
| first2 = Michael
| date = October 6, 1999
| newspaper = The Washington Post
| page = A31
| title = New tapes reveal depth of Nixon's anti-Semitism
| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/oct99/nixon6.htm
| access-date = April 4, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Lardner & Dobbs}}
}}
* {{cite news
|last = Carlson
|first = Peter
|date = November 17, 2000
|newspaper = The Washington Post
|page = A01
|title = Another Race to the Finish
|ref = {{sfnRef|Carlson|2000-11-17}}
}}
* {{cite news
| title = 8,000 Move Into Cambodia
| newspaper = [[Evening Independent|St. Petersburg Independent]]
| agency = AP (Saigon)
| date = May 1, 1970
| page = 20–A
| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=utwLAAAAIBAJ&pg=7133%2C160415
| ref = {{sfnRef|AP/''St. Peterburg Independent''}}
}}
* {{cite news
| title = Nixon Up Early, See Protesters
| agency = UPI
| newspaper = Beaver County Times
| date = May 9, 1970
| location = Pennsylvania
| page = one [presumably late edition]
| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=FGwyAAAAIBAJ&pg=1864%2C2379598
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI/''Beaver County Times''|1970-05-09}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Greene
| first = Bob
| author-link = Bob Greene
| date = April 8, 2002
| magazine = [[Jewish World Review]]
| title = What Nixon's best friend couldn't buy
| url = http://www.jewishworldreview.com/bob/greene040802.asp
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Greene}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Greider
| first = William
| date = November 10, 1983
| title = The McGovern factor
| magazine = [[Rolling Stone]]
| page = 13
| ref = {{sfnRef|Greider|1983-10-10}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last1 = Kiernan
| first1 = Ben
| author-link = Ben Kiernan
| last2 = Owen
| first2 = Taylor
| date = October 2006
| title = Bombs over Cambodia
| magazine = The Walrus
| url = http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf
| access-date = January 29, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|Kiernan & Owen}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Noah
| first = Timothy
| author-link = Timothy Noah
| date = October 7, 1999
| magazine = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]
| title = Nixon: I Am Not an Anti-Semite
| url = http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/chatterbox/1999/10/nixon_i_am_not_an_antisemite.html
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|Noah|1999-10-07}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Sawhill
| first = Ray
| date = February 2011
| title = The Fall and Rise of an American President
| magazine = [[Opera News]]
| url = http://www.operanews.com/Opera_News_Magazine/2011/2/Features/The_Fall_and_Rise_of_an_American_President.html
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Sawhill|2011-02}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]]
| date = April 5, 1971
| title = Again, the Credibility Gap?
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876891,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081221212832/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876891,00.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = December 21, 2008
| access-date = July 29, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1971-04-05}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]]
| date = August 14, 1972
| title = Behavior: Evaluating Eagleton
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,906223,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080102000612/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,906223,00.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = January 2, 2008
| access-date = July 23, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1972-08-14}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]]
| date = November 20, 1972
| title = Democrats: The long journey to disaster
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,712186,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080421063556/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,712186,00.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = April 21, 2008
| access-date = July 23, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|1970-11-20}}
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Skidmore
| first = Max J.
| year = 2001
| title = Ranking and Evaluating Presidents: The Case of Theodore Roosevelt
| journal = White House Studies
| volume = 1
| issue = 4
| ref = {{sfnRef|Skidmore}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Stacks
| first = John F.
| date = May 2, 1994
| magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]]
| title = Richard Nixon: Victory in Defeat
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980651,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110122202901/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980651,00.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = January 22, 2011
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Stacks|1994-05-02}}
}}
* {{cite magazine
| last = Morrow
| first = Lance
| date = September 30, 1996
| magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]]
| title = Naysayer to the nattering nabobs
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,985217,00.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061110050539/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,985217,00.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = November 10, 2006
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Morrow|1996-09-30}}
}}
* {{cite web
|last = Allen
|first = Erika Tyler
|publisher = The Museum of Broadcast Communications
|title = The Kennedy–Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960
|url = http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=kennedy-nixon
|access-date = May 11, 2012
|ref = {{sfnRef|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Kennedy–Nixon Debates"}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120511211530/http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=kennedy-nixon
|archive-date = May 11, 2012
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|last = Auster
|first = Albert
|publisher = The Museum of Broadcast Communications
|title = Smith, Howard K
|url = http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=smithhoward
|access-date = May 11, 2012
|ref = {{sfnRef|Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Smith, Howard K."}}
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120805122035/http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=smithhoward
|archive-date = August 5, 2012
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite web
|last = Evans
|first = Thomas W.
|year = 1993
|title = The All-Volunteer Army After Twenty Years: Recruiting in the Modern Era
|publisher = Sam Houston State University
|url = http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/VolArm.html
|access-date = July 17, 2011
|ref = {{sfnRef|Evans}}
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130808222147/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/VolArm.html
|archive-date = August 8, 2013
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Handlin
| first = Daniel
| date = November 28, 2005
| title = Just another Apollo? Part two
| work = The Space Review
| url = http://www.thespacereview.com/article/507/1
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|Handlin}}
}}
* {{cite web
|title=American President: Richard Milhous Nixon (1913–1994), Foreign Affairs
|publisher=Miller Center for Public Affairs, University of Virginia
|url=http://millercenter.org/president/nixon/essays/biography/5
|access-date=July 17, 2011
|ref={{sfnRef|Miller Center}}
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811201550/http://millercenter.org/president/nixon/essays/biography/5
|archive-date=August 11, 2011
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = [[National Park Service]]
| title = Richard M. Nixon Birthplace
| url = http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/presidents/nixon_birthplace.html
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|NPS, Nixon Birthplace}}
}}
* {{cite web
|title=Commander Richard M. Nixon, USNR
|work=Naval Historical Center
|publisher=United States Navy
|date=August 7, 2006
|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm
|access-date=July 16, 2011
|ref={{sfnRef|Naval Historical Center, Commander Nixon}}
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816114029/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm
|archive-date=August 16, 2011
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Nixon
| first = Richard
| date = August 8, 1974
| title = President Nixon's Resignation Speech
| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
| work = Character Above All
| url = https://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/links/nixon_speech.html
| access-date = July 15, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, Resignation Speech}}
}}
* {{cite web
| title = The Nixon Visit (February 21–28, 1972)
| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
| work = American Experience
| url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/sfeature/nixon.html
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, The Nixon Visit}}
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Richard M. Nixon, Domestic Politics
| publisher = Public Broadcasting Service
| work = American Experience
| url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/nixon-domestic/
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|PBS, Nixon, Domestic Politics}}
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Sabia
| first = Joseph J.
| url = http://hnn.us/articles/5331.html
| title = Why Richard Nixon Deserves to Be Remembered Along with ''Brown''
| publisher = History News Network
| date = May 31, 2004
| access-date = May 11, 2012
| ref = {{sfnRef|Sabia}}
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = United Press International
| work = 1960 Year In Review
| title = Kennedy Wins 1960 Presidential Election
| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1960/Kennedy-Wins-1960-Presidential-Election/12295509435928-8/
| access-date = July 17, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1960 in Review}}
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = United Press International
| work = 1968 Year in Review
| title = 1968 Presidential Election
| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/1968-Presidential-Election/12303153093431-2/
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1968 in Review}}
}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = United Press International
| work = 1969 Year in Review
| title = Nixon Becomes President
| url = http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/War-Protests/12303189849225-3/
| access-date = July 16, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|UPI 1969 in Review}}
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/periodicals-postage-history.pdf
| title = Postage rates for periodicals: A narrative history
| publisher = [[United States Postal Service]]
| access-date = August 6, 2011
| ref = {{sfnRef|USPS, Periodicals postage}}
}}
* {{cite book
| author = Office of the Federal Register
| title = Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Richard Nixon, 1971
| chapter = New Actions To Prevent Illnesses And Accidents
| year = 1999
| publisher = General Services Administration
| work = National Archives and Records Service
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=r2qRyBmB15EC&pg=PA180
| isbn = 978-0-16-058863-1
| ref = {{sfnRef|Office of the Federal Register}}
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Statement on Signing the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act
| date = May 16, 1972
| work = The American Presidency Project
| publisher = University of California, Santa Barbara
| url = http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3413
| ref = {{sfnRef|The American Presidency Project}}
}}
* {{cite web
|author=<nowiki>National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute</nowiki>
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|date=September 2002
|title=Sickle Cell Research for Treatment and Cure
|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/scd30/scd30.pdf
|id=02-5214
|ref={{sfnRef|National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131185453/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/scd30/scd30.pdf
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Wailoo
| first = Keith
| year = 2001
| publisher = University of North Carolina Press
| title = Dying in the City of the Blues: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health
| url = https://archive.org/details/dyingincityofblu00keit
| url-access = registration
| page = [https://archive.org/details/dyingincityofblu00keit/page/165 165]
| isbn = 978-0-8078-4896-8
| ref = {{sfnRef|Wailoo}}
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 1972
| chapter = Health insurance: hearings on new proposals
| title = Congressional Quarterly Almanac. 92nd Congress 1st Session ... 1971
| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
| volume = 27
| location = Washington, D.C.
| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
| pages = 541–544
| issn = 0095-6007
| oclc = 1564784
| ref = {{sfnRef|NHI: CQ Almanac 1971}}
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 1974
| chapter = Limited experimental health bill enacted
| title = Congressional Quarterly Almanac. 93rd Congress 1st Session ... 1973
| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
| volume = 29 | location = Washington, D.C.
| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
| pages = 499–508
| issn = 0095-6007
| oclc = 1564784
| ref = {{sfnRef|HMO: CQ Almanac 1973}}
}}
* {{cite book
| year = 1975
| chapter = National health insurance: no action in 1974
| title = Congressional Quarterly Almanac. 93rd Congress 2nd Session ... 1974
| journal = Congressional Quarterly Almanac Plus
| volume = 30 | location = Washington, D.C.
| publisher= Congressional Quarterly
| pages = 386–394
| issn = 0095-6007
| oclc = 1564784
| ref = {{sfnRef|NHI: CQ Almanac 1974}}
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.taxhistory.org/thp/readings.nsf/cf7c9c870b600b9585256df80075b9dd/f8723e3606cd79ec85256ff6006f82c3?OpenDocument
| title = President Nixon's Troublesome Tax Returns
| last = Samson
| first = William
| year = 2005
| publisher = TaxAnalysts
| access-date = December 20, 2013
| ref = {{sfnRef|Samson}}
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2011/0418/Tax-Day-2011-Why-do-presidents-release-tax-returns-Hint-I-am-not-a
| title = Tax Day 2011: Why do presidents release tax returns?
| last = Grier
| first = Peter
| year = 2011
| work=[[Christian Science Monitor]]
| access-date = December 20, 2013
}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* Farrell, John A (2017) ''[http://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/225246/richard-nixon-by-john-a-farrell/ Richard Nixon: The Life]'' New York: Doubleday
* {{cite book|title=Nixon in New York: How Wall Street Helped Richard Nixon Win the White House|first=Victor|last=Li|year=2018|isbn=978-1-68393-000-6|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|location=Madison, NJ}}
* {{Cite book |first=Evan |last=Thomas |author-link=Evan Thomas |year=2015 |title=Being Nixon: A Man Divided |location=New York |publisher=Random House |isbn=9780812995367 |oclc=904756092 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFoDBwAAQBAJ}}

== External links ==

{{sister project links|Richard Nixon}}

===Official websites===
* [https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/richard-m-nixon/ White House biography]
* [http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/ Nixon Presidential Library and Museum]
* [http://nixonfoundation.org/ Richard Nixon Foundation]

===Media coverage===
* {{NYTtopic|people/n/richard_milhous_nixon}}
* {{C-SPAN|Richard Nixon}}
** [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151633-1/life-portrait-richard-m-nixon "Life Portrait of Richard M. Nixon"], from [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', November 19, 1999

===Other===
* {{CongBio|N000116}}
* [http://millercenter.org/president/nixon Essays on Richard Nixon, each member of his cabinet and First Lady] from the [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/nixon/index.html Richard Nixon: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* [http://video.pbs.org/video/979746298 "The Presidents: Nixon"], an [[American Experience]] documentary
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Richard Milhous Nixon}}
* {{Librivox author |id=10724}}
* [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/Nixon-Richard-M Richard Nixon Personal Manuscripts]
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=1668}}

{{Richard Nixon|state=expanded}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] nominee for [[United States Senator|U.S. Senator]] from [[California]] ([[Classes of United States Senators|Class 3]])|years=[[1950 United States Senate election in California|1950]]}}
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