https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=FlossiePolglazeBharatpedia - User contributions [en]2026-08-08T11:46:28ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sealdah%E2%80%93Silchar_Kanchanjungha_Express&diff=533809Sealdah–Silchar Kanchanjungha Express2026-05-07T04:39:25Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: </p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}<br />
{{italic title}}<br />
<br />
{{Short description|Train in India}}<br />
{{Infobox rail service<br />
| name = ''Sealdah - Silchar Kanchanjungha Express''<br />
| logo = Ministry of Railways India.svg<br />
| image = <br />
| image_width = <br />
| caption = <br />
| type = [[Kanchanjunga Express]]<br />
| locale = [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[West Bengal]]<br />
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2016|02|01}}<br />
| last = <br />
| operator = [[Eastern Railway zone]] and <br />
[[Northeast Frontier Railway Zone|North-east Frontier Railway]]<br />
| ridership = <br />
| start = {{stnlnk|Sealdah}} (SDAH)<br />
| stops = 38<br />
| end = {{stnlnk|Silchar}} (SCL)<br />
| distance = {{convert|1359|km|0|abbr=on}}<br />
| journeytime = 33h 55m<br />
| frequency = Tri-weekly {{efn|Runs two days in a week for every direction.}}<br />
| class = AC 2 tier, AC 3 tier, Sleeper class, General Unreserved<br />
| seating = No<br />
| sleeping = Yes<br />
| autorack = <br />
| catering = On-board catering <br> E-catering<br />
| observation = [[ICF coach]]<br />
| entertainment = No<br />
| baggage = No<br />
| other facilities = Below the seats<br />
| stock = 4<br />
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}<br />
| electrification = <br />
| trainnumber = 13175/13176<br />
| speed = {{convert|45|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, including halts<br />
| map = <br />
| map_state = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''''Sealdah - Silchar Kanchanjungha Express''''' is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train belonging to [[Eastern Railway zone]] that runs between {{stnlnk|Sealdah}} ([[Kolkata]]) and {{stnlnk|Silchar}} ([[Assam]]) in India via [[Barddhaman Junction railway station|Barddhaman]] , [[Rampurhat Junction railway station|Rampurhat]] , [[Malda Town railway station|Malda Town]] , [[New Jalpaiguri Junction railway station|New Jalpaiguri]] , [[Guwahati railway station|Guwahati]]. It is currently being operated with 13175/13176 train numbers on a tri-weekly basis.<ref>[http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=jul1516/state050 Passenger train services restored ]</ref><ref>[http://www.sentinelassam.com/northeast/story.php?sec=2&subsec=9&id=268123&dtP=2016-05-22&ppr=1#268123 Rain, landslides disrupt road, rail traffic in Northeast]</ref><ref>[http://www.theshillongtimes.com/2016/05/19/train-services-remain-cancelled-between-guwahati-and-barak-valley/ Train services remain cancelled between Guwahati and Barak Valley]</ref><ref>[http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/mdetails.asp?id=may1816/state050 Trains disrupted in Lumding-Badarpur section]</ref><br />
<br />
== Major halts ==<br />
Bardhaman, Rampurhat, Malda Town, New Jalpaiguri, New Cooch behar, Guwahati, Lumding, Badarpur<br />
<br />
==Locomotive==<br />
this train completely run end to end by [[WAP-4]] or [[WDG-4D]] so was [[WDM-3A]] and [[WDM-3D]] carry with or without push-pull configuration<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Agartala railway station]]<br />
* [[Silchar railway station]]<br />
* [[Sealdah–Sabroom Kanchanjunga Express]]<br />
* [[Kanchenjunga Express]]<br />
<br />
==Other trains on the Kolkata–New Jalpaiguri sector==<br />
* 12041/42 [[New Jalpaiguri–Howrah Shatabdi Express]]<br />
* 22301/02 [[Howrah–New Jalpaiguri Vande Bharat Express]]<br />
* 12377/78 [[Padatik Express]]<br />
* 12343/44 [[Darjeeling Mail]]<br />
* 15959/60 [[Kamrup Express]]<br />
* 13175/76 Sealdah–Silchar Kanchanjungha Express<br />
* 12345/46 [[Saraighat Express]]<br />
* 15721/22 [[Paharia Express|New Jalpaiguri–Digha Express]]<br />
* 12516/15 [[Silchar–Coimbatore Superfast Express]]<br />
* 15961/62 [[Kamrup Express]]<br />
* 13141/42 [[Teesta Torsha Express]]<br />
* 13147/48 [[Uttar Banga Express]]<br />
* 12503/04 [[Bangalore Cantonment–Agartala Humsafar Express]]<br />
* 13181/82 [[Kolkata–Silghat Town Kaziranga Express]] <br />
* 22511/12 [[Lokmanya Tilak Terminus–Kamakhya Karmabhoomi Express]]<br />
* 15643/44 [[Puri–Kamakhya Weekly Express (via Howrah)]]<br />
* 12363/64 [[Kolkata–Haldibari Intercity Express]]<br />
* 12509/10 [[Guwahati–Bengaluru Cantt. Superfast Express]]<br />
* 12507/08 [[Thiruvananthapuram–Silchar Superfast Express]]<br />
* 12513/14 [[Guwahati–Secunderabad Express]]<br />
* 22503/04 [[Dibrugarh–Kanyakumari Vivek Express]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
<br />
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/40941 13175/Kanchanjungha Express] India Rail Info<br />
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/40939 13176/Kanchanjungha Express] India Rail Info<br />
<br />
{{Railways in Eastern India}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sealdah-Silchar Kanchenjunga Express}}<br />
[[Category:Transport in Kolkata]]<br />
[[Category:Transport in Silchar]]<br />
[[Category:Express trains in India]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Jharkhand]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Bihar]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Assam]]<br />
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2016]]<br />
[[Category:Named passenger trains of India]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=2024_Jharkhand_Legislative_Assembly_election&diff=4832312024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election2026-05-06T03:35:41Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Made new article</p>
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<div>{{Short description|none}}<br />
{{For|Lok Sabha elections|2024 Indian general election in Jharkhand}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox election<br />
| election_name = 2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election<br />
| type = Legislative<br />
| ongoing = no<br />
| country = India<br />
| previous_election = 2019 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election<br />
| previous_year = 2019<br />
| election_date = 13–20 November 2024<br />
| next_election = Next Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election<br />
| next_year = Next<br />
| seats_for_election = All 81 seats in the [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]<br />
| majority_seats = 41<br />
| outgoing_members = 5th Jharkhand Assembly#Members of Legislative Assembly<br />
| elected_members = 6th Jharkhand Assembly<br />
| opinion_polls = 2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election#Exit Polls<br />
| image_size = 120px<br />
<!--JMM--><br />
| leader1 = [[Hemant Soren]]<br />
| party1 = [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|JMM]]<br />
| alliance1 = Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)<br />
| leader_since1 = 2024<br />
| image1 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Hemant Soren 2024.jpg |bSize=125 |cWidth=100 |cHeight=150 |oTop=05 |oLeft=15 |Location=center}}<br />
| leaders_seat1 = [[Barhait Assembly constituency|Barhait]] (won)<br />
| last_election1 = 18.72%, 30 seats<br />
| popular_vote1 = 4,183,281 <br />
| seats1 = '''34'''<br />
<!--BJP--><br />
| image2 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Babulal Marandi.jpg|bSize=140|cWidth=100|cHeight=150|oTop=05 |oLeft=16.5 |Location=center}}<br />
| leader2 = [[Babulal Marandi]]<br />
| party2 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]<br />
| alliance2 = National Democratic Alliance<br />
| leader_since2 = 2020<br />
| leaders_seat2 = [[Dhanwar Assembly constituency|Dhanwar]] (won)<br />
| last_election2 = 33.37%, 25 seats<br />
| popular_vote2 = '''5,921,474'''<br />
| seats2 = 21<br />
<!--INC--><br />
| image3 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Keshav mahto Kamlesh.jpg |bSize=155 |cWidth=100 |cHeight=150 |oTop=05 |oLeft=18 |Location=center}}<br />
| leader3 = [[Keshav Mahto Kamlesh]]<br />
| party3 = Indian National Congress<br />
| alliance3 = Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)<br />
| seats3 = 16<br />
| leader_since3 = 2024<br />
| leaders_seat3 = ''Did not contest''<br />
| last_election3 = 13.88%, 16 seats<br />
| percentage3 = 15.56%<br />
| seat_change3 = {{steady}}<br />
| popular_vote3 = 2,776,805 <br />
| swing3 = {{increase}} 1.68 [[Percentage point|pp]]<br />
<!--Map--><br />
| map_caption = Constituencies of the Jharkhand Legislative Assembly<br />
| map_size = 300px<br />
| title = [[List of chief ministers of Jharkhand|Chief Minister]]<br />
| before_election = [[Hemant Soren]]<br />
| before_party = [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|JMM]]<br />
| posttitle = [[List of chief ministers of Jharkhand|Chief Minister]] after election<br />
| after_election = [[Hemant Soren]]<br />
| after_party = [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|JMM]]<br />
| swing1 = {{increase}} 4.72 [[Percentage point|pp]]<br />
| percentage1 = 23.44%<br />
| seat_change1 = {{increase}} 4<br />
| swing2 = {{decrease}} 0.19[[Percentage point|pp]]<br />
| percentage2 = '''33.18%'''<br />
| seat_change2 = {{decrease}} 4<br />
| turnout = 68.34% ({{increase}} 2.96 [[Percentage point|pp]])<br />
| map_image = {{Switcher|[[File:2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Election Result Map.svg|350px]] | Party-wise results by constituency (winners)|[[File:2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Alliance Wise Election Result Map.svg|350px]] | Alliance-wise results by constituency (winners)|[[File:2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election results by constituency.svg|350px]] | Alliance-wise results by constituency (vote strength)}}<br />
| map2 = {{Switcher|[[File:India Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Election 2024.svg|350px]] | Party-wise structure|[[File:India Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Election Alliance Wise 2024.svg|350px]] | Alliance-wise structure}}<br />
| 1blank = Alliance seats<br />
| 1data1 = '''56'''<br />
| 1data2 = 24<br />
| 1data3 = '''56'''<br />
| 2blank = Seat change<br />
| 2data1 = {{increase}} 8 <br />
| 2data2 = {{decrease}} 3<br />
| 2data3 = {{increase}} 8 <br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election''' was held in three phases from [[2024 elections in India|13 to 20 November 2024]] to elect all 81 members of the [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |title=Stay Update on Jharkhand Vidhan Sabha Election with Latest News |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/topic/jharkhand-assembly-election}}</ref> The counting of votes was done on 24 November 2024. The [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]] won 34 seats, securing 23.44% of the popular vote and its alliance, [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan]] ([[Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance|INDIA Bloc]]) including the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]], [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|CPI(ML)L]] and [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]] won 56 seats, securing 44.37% of the popular vote. The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] won 21 seats, securing 33.18% of the popular vote and its alliance, [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]] won 24 seats, securing 38.14% of the popular vote.<ref name="Jharkhand Assembly Election Results 2024 – Seats won by JMM">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Jharkhand Assembly Election Results 2024 – Seats won by JMM |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywisewinresult-852S27.htm |access-date=24 November 2024 |date=24 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124045445/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywisewinresult-852S27.htm |archive-date=24 November 2024}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
The tenure of [[5th Jharkhand Assembly]] is scheduled to end on 5 January 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Terms of the Houses |url=https://eci.gov.in/elections/term-of-houses/ |access-date=3 October 2021 |website=Election Commission of India |language=en-IN |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328103956/https://eci.gov.in/elections/term-of-houses/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[2019 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|previous assembly elections]] were held in November–December 2019. The coalition of [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]], [[Indian National Congress]] and [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] formed the [[Government of Jharkhand|state government]], with [[Hemant Soren]] becoming the [[List of chief ministers of Jharkhand|Chief Minister]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 December 2019 |title=JMM's Hemant Soren takes oath as 11th CM of Jharkhand |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/national-politics/jmms-hemant-soren-takes-oath-as-11th-cm-of-jharkhand-789621.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228151540/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/national-politics/jmms-hemant-soren-takes-oath-as-11th-cm-of-jharkhand-789621.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Schedule ==<br />
{| class="wikitable"style="text-align:center;margin:auto;font-size:90%;<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Poll event<br />
! colspan="2" |Phase<br />
|-<br />
! style="background: #fdddc9" |I<br />
! style="background: #fdf9c6" |II<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align:center" |Notification date<br />
|18 October<br />
|22 October<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align:center" |Last date for filing nomination<br />
|25 October 2024<br />
|29 October 2024<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align:center" |Scrutiny of nomination<br />
|28 October<br />
|30 October<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align:center" |Last date for withdrawal of nomination<br />
|30 October<br />
|1 November<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align:center" |Date of poll<br />
|'''13 November'''<ref name="Maharashtra, Jharkhand election 2024 dates Highlights: Maharashtra to go to polls on November 20, Jharkhand in two phases">{{cite news |work=The Hindu |date=15 October 2024 |title=Maharashtra, Jharkhand election 2024 dates Highlights: Maharashtra to go to polls on November 20, Jharkhand in two phases |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra-jharkhand-assembly-polls-dates-election-commission-updates-october-15-2024/article68755925.ece |access-date=17 October 2024 |language=en-IN |archive-date=26 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241126175520/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra-jharkhand-assembly-polls-dates-election-commission-updates-october-15-2024/article68755925.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|'''20 November'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align:center" |Date of counting of votes<br />
| colspan="2" | '''23 November'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="text-align:center" |No. of constituencies<br />
|43<br />
|38<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[File:Jharkhand Assembly Phase I and II.png|center|thumb|300x300px|Jharkhand Assembly Phase I and II (2024 Legislative Assembly Election)]]<br />
<br />
== Issues ==<br />
<br />
=== Polarisation campaign ===<br />
The Bharatiya Janata Party's campaign focused on infiltrator polarisation and ran a high-decibel campaign on claims of "infiltration" by Bangladeshis.<ref name="takers">{{cite news |title=Few Takers for BJP's 'love' and 'land' jihad among tribals in Jharkhand areas which vote first |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/jharkhand-assembly-elections-few-takers-for-bjp-love-land-jihad-9664817/ |date=12 November 2024 |first=Liz |last=Mathew |work=The Indian Express |access-date=21 December 2024}}</ref><ref name="frontline">{{cite news |title=How JMM converted crisis into opportunity in Jharkhand |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/politics/jharkhand-election-jmm-hemant-soren-india-alliance-tribals-bjp-polarisation-welfare-schemes-congress-nda/article68927164.ece |date=8 December 2024 |first=Anand |last=Mishra |work=The Hindu |access-date=21 December 2024 |archive-date=12 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241212165758/https://frontline.thehindu.com/politics/jharkhand-election-jmm-hemant-soren-india-alliance-tribals-bjp-polarisation-welfare-schemes-congress-nda/article68927164.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The party pushed the narratives of [[love jihad]] and land jihad with the claim that "infiltrators" were marrying tribal women and taking over tribal lands causing fall in the tribal population.<ref name="angad">{{cite news |title=BJP's love and land jihad talk, do the numbers hold |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/decode-politics-bjp-love-land-jihad-jharkhand-9469734/ |date=23 July 2024 |first=Abhishek |last=Angad |work=The Indian Express |access-date=21 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=BJP claims Muslims are marrying Adivasi women to grab land in Jharkhand. The claim doesn't add up |url=https://scroll.in/article/1072333/bjp-claims-muslims-are-marrying-adivasi-women-to-grab-land-in-jharkhand-the-claims-dont-add-up |date=26 August 2024 |first=Nolina |last=Minj |work=Scroll |access-date=21 December 2024 |archive-date=27 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241227213949/https://scroll.in/article/1072333/bjp-claims-muslims-are-marrying-adivasi-women-to-grab-land-in-jharkhand-the-claims-dont-add-up |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="other">{{cite news |title=Amid Jharkhand's Hindutva v Adivasi identity battle, a new "other" emerges |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/amid-jharkhands-hindutva-vs-adivasi-identity-battle-a-new-other-emerges |date=8 November 2024 |first=Kunal |last=Shahadeo |work=Outlook |access-date=21 December 2024 |archive-date=13 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241113022225/https://www.outlookindia.com/national/amid-jharkhands-hindutva-vs-adivasi-identity-battle-a-new-other-emerges |url-status=live }}</ref> The campaign characterised Muslims as infiltrators.<ref name="roti-beti-mati">{{cite news |title='Roti, Beti and Mati', the BJP's narrative of Bangladeshi infiltration in Jharkhand |url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2024/11/11/roti-beti-aur-mati-the-bjps-narrative-of-bangladeshi-infiltration-in-jharkhand |date=11 November 2024 |first=Haritha |last=John |work=Newslaundry |access-date=21 December 2024 |archive-date=22 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122162037/https://www.newslaundry.com/2024/11/11/roti-beti-aur-mati-the-bjps-narrative-of-bangladeshi-infiltration-in-jharkhand |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="other" /><br />
<br />
One video advertisement depicted a "horde of Muslims" including children moving into the house of a Middle-class family sporting a JMM flag was pulled down later by the ECI upon receiving complaints but after it had been widely circulated on social media.<ref name="land">{{cite news |title=Amid the rhetoric of land jihad, concerns over land rights persist in Jharkhand |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/land-jihad-jharkhand |date=22 November 2024 |first=Eram |last=Agha |work=The Caravan |access-date=7 February 2025 |archive-date=7 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250207114143/https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/land-jihad-jharkhand |url-status=live }}</ref> The video advertisement continued to be available on the BJP Jharkhand's verified WhatsApp channel and pushed by Twitter accounts which regularly engage in disinformation.<ref name="video">{{cite news |title=BJP Jharkhand's latest ad: A dogwhistle on 'Muslim Infiltrators'; EC orders takedown amid Right-Wing support |url=https://www.altnews.in/bjp-jharkhands-latest-ad-a-dogwhistle-on-muslim-infiltrators-ec-orders-takedown-amid-right-wing-support/ |date=21 November 2024 |first=Prantik |last=Ali |work=Alt News |access-date=7 February 2025 |archive-date=20 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250520093608/https://www.altnews.in/bjp-jharkhands-latest-ad-a-dogwhistle-on-muslim-infiltrators-ec-orders-takedown-amid-right-wing-support/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
According to ground reports, even people who said they would vote BJP were skeptical of these claims, and it had caused apprehensions against the campaign particularly among tribals in the [[Kolhan division|Kolhan region]] for reasons of impact on [[Communal violence#Asia|communal amity]] and being cast as part of the broader Hindu community.<ref name="takers" /> These claims were described as a bogey by civil society organisations which attempted to counter the narrative on the ground by bringing data to people that the fall in tribal population is not large and caused by factors like out-of-state migration of tribals for jobs.<ref name="frontline" /><br />
<br />
=== Tribal Land Issues ===<br />
<br />
Land rights of tribals continued to remain an core issue for the election.<ref name="land" /><ref name="landbank">{{cite news |title=Jharkhand's controversial Land Bank is undermining rights of marginalised |url=https://maktoobmedia.com/india/jharkhands-controversial-land-bank-is-undermining-rights-of-marginalised/ |date=17 November 2024 |first=Mahmodul |last=Hassan |work=Maktoob Media |access-date=7 February 2025 |archive-date=7 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250207114144/https://maktoobmedia.com/india/jharkhands-controversial-land-bank-is-undermining-rights-of-marginalised/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="csds">{{cite news |title=Culture, land and identity: How JMM secured Jharkhand's tribal vote |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/jharkhand-assembly-elections-culture-land-and-identity-how-jmm-secured-jharkhands-tribal-vote/article68909886.ece |date=26 November 2024 |first=Devesh |last=Kumar |work=The Hindu |access-date=7 February 2025 |archive-date=7 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250207114143/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/jharkhand-assembly-elections-culture-land-and-identity-how-jmm-secured-jharkhands-tribal-vote/article68909886.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The previous BJP government led by Chief Minister [[Raghubar Das]] had introduced the policy of "land banks" in 2016 after failing to dilute the SPT and CNT Acts due to protests by tribals in which one person was killed in police firing.<ref name="land" /><ref name="landbank" /><ref name="takers" /> The land banks policy combined with the dilution of protections for tribals in the [[LARR Act]] by the Raghubar Das government in 2013 had led to increasing occurrences of takeover of tribal land by corporations and [[contractors]] over the years.<ref name="land" /><ref name="landbank" /><br />
<br />
The BJP moved away from its usual strategy of pitting Christian and non-Christian tribals and instead to appeal to tribals attempted to portray Muslims as the "diku", a term generally used by tribals to refer to moneylenders, traders and administrators coming from outside the state and belonging to [[dominant caste]] groups.<ref name="land" /> The party relied on [[Arjun Munda]] and [[Madhu Koda]] in tribal areas but their leaders faced significant pressure over the land issue.<ref name="takers" /><br />
<br />
Questions were also raised against the incumbent JMM over the issue.<ref name="land" /><ref name="landbank" /> JMM had near the end introduced a bill to repeal the policy after urging from their coalition partner [[CPI(ML)L]] but the [[Governor of Jharkhand|Governor]] had not given his assent to it.<ref name="land" /> JMM campaigned on a platform of tribal culture, land and identity including a pledge to implement land registers to determine domicile status based on a 1932 survey.<ref name="csds" /><br />
<br />
=== Populist Schemes ===<br />
Election campaigns have focused heavily on populist welfare schemes. The JMM government's Mukhyamantri Maiya Samman Yojana, which provides Rs 1,000 per month to women, was countered by the BJP's Gogo-Didi Yojana, promising Rs 2,100.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 November 2024 |title=Special Report: Is Hemant Soren's Maiya Yojna silently changing the game in Jharkhand |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/jharkhand-assembly-elections-special-report-hemant-soren-maiya-yojna-silently-changing-game-jharkhand-2632064-2024-11-12 |access-date=28 November 2024 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=2 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202092756/https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/jharkhand-assembly-elections-special-report-hemant-soren-maiya-yojna-silently-changing-game-jharkhand-2632064-2024-11-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> In response, the JMM increased its scheme's payout to Rs 2,500, effective December 2024. The BJP has also pledged subsidized LPG cylinders, monthly stipends for unemployed graduates and postgraduates, and extensive job creation programs.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Abhijeet |date=11 November 2024 |title=Key Issues in Jharkhand Election 2024 |url=https://www.business-standard.com/elections/jharkhand-elections/corruption-populism-infiltration-key-issues-in-jharkhand-assembly-polls-124111100574_1.html |website=Business Standard |access-date=10 December 2024 |archive-date=9 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209171615/https://www.business-standard.com/elections/jharkhand-elections/corruption-populism-infiltration-key-issues-in-jharkhand-assembly-polls-124111100574_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=8 November 2024 |title=Jharkhand Assembly Election 2024: Bangladeshi 'infiltration' to populism — key issues in upcoming polls – CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/politics/jharkhand-assembly-election-2024-bangladeshi-infiltration-corruption-populist-schemes-key-issues-hemant-soren-jmm-champai-soren-19506410.htm |access-date=30 November 2024 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en |archive-date=4 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204082643/https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/politics/jharkhand-assembly-election-2024-bangladeshi-infiltration-corruption-populist-schemes-key-issues-hemant-soren-jmm-champai-soren-19506410.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== State vs. Centre on Fund Allocation ===<br />
The JMM has accused the BJP-led Central government of withholding funds owed to the state, with Chief Minister Hemant Soren demanding the release of Rs 1.36 trillion in dues from coal companies.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 November 2024 |title=Request PM, Shah with folded hands to clear Jharkhand's ₹1.36 lakh crore coal dues: Hemant |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jharkhand/request-pm-shah-with-folded-hands-to-clear-jharkhands-136-lakh-crore-coal-dues-hemant/article68822327.ece |access-date=28 November 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=1 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201103227/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jharkhand/request-pm-shah-with-folded-hands-to-clear-jharkhands-136-lakh-crore-coal-dues-hemant/article68822327.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Soren has emphasized that the demand is for rightful state funds, not a special grant.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dayal |first=Harishwar |date=25 November 2024 |title=Jharkhand Assembly elections {{!}} Welfare politics: how Central and State government schemes shaped voting patterns |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/jharkhand-assembly-elections-welfare-politics-how-central-and-state-government-schemes-shaped-voting-patterns/article68909859.ece |access-date=30 November 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=26 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241126082445/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/jharkhand-assembly-elections-welfare-politics-how-central-and-state-government-schemes-shaped-voting-patterns/article68909859.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
=== Corruption Allegations ===<br />
Corruption charges have taken center stage, with BJP leaders highlighting Soren's alleged involvement in a land-related money laundering case.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 February 2024 |title=Hemant Soren: Jharkhand CM arrested in a corruption case |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-68163338 |access-date=28 November 2024 |language=en-GB |archive-date=25 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241125073717/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-68163338 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhelari |first=Amit |date=15 October 2024 |title='Bangladeshi infiltration', corruption, cash schemes dominate Jharkhand election campaigns |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jharkhand/bangladeshi-infiltration-corruption-cash-schemes-dominate-jharkhand-election-campaigns/article68757189.ece |access-date=30 November 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=20 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220060641/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jharkhand/bangladeshi-infiltration-corruption-cash-schemes-dominate-jharkhand-election-campaigns/article68757189.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The JMM has countered these accusations by asserting that the BJP is targeting Soren unfairly because he is a tribal leader.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
== Voting ==<br />
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2024}}<br />
In the first phase of voting on 13 November 2024, electorates exercised their franchise across 43 Assembly constituencies spread over 15 districts contested by 638 candidates. The overall voting percentage was 66.65%. While 69.04% of women voters came out to press the EVM button, the percentage for men was 64.27% while just 31.02% of the third gender voted. In 37 of the 43 constituencies that voted in the first phase, the female voters had a higher turnout than males.<br />
<br />
The maximum voting percentage was recorded in the Kharsawan Assembly with 77.32%. The next two seats were Baharagora (76.15%) and Lohardaga (73.21%). However, Ranchi saw the lowest polling with just 51.5% of the electorate participating in the election process.<br />
<br />
The second phase on 20 November saw voting taking place in 38 Assembly seats. The number of candidates is 528. The polling percentage in 38 constituencies of Jharkhand was 68.45%.<br />
<br />
== Parties and alliances ==<br />
<br />
=== Mahagathbandhan (INDIA Bloc) ===<br />
<!-- Per [[MOS:NOSECTIONLINKS]]: for technical reasons, section headings should, among other things, not contain links, citations, or template transclusions. --><br />
{{legend2|{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}|[[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan]]}} ([[INDIA Alliance|INDIA Bloc]]) <br />
[[File:2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Election INDIA Alliance Seat Sharing.png|thumb|Seat sharing of [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan]] for 2024 Jharkhand Assembly election]]<br />
{| class="wikitable" width="56%" style="text-align:center;<br />
! colspan="2" | Party<br />
! Flag<br />
! Symbol<br />
! Leader<br />
! Seats contested<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha]]<br />
| [[File:Jharkhand Mukti Morcha logo.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Bow And Arrow.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[Hemant Soren]]<br />
| 43{{efn|name=JMMCPI(ML)L|[[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|JMM]] and [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|CPI(ML)L]] had friendly contest on [[Dhanwar Assembly constituency|Dhanwar]] constituency.}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Indian National Congress]]<br />
| [[File:Indian National Congress Flag.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:INC Hand.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[Rameshwar Oraon]]<br />
| 30{{efn|name=INCRJD|[[Indian National Congress|Congress]] and [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]] had friendly contests on [[Chhatarpur, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Chhatarpur]] and [[Bishrampur Assembly constituency|Bishrampur]] constituencies.}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]]<br />
| [[File:RJD Flag.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Hurricane Lamp.png|50px]]<br />
| Ram Kumar<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/wont-sabotage-indias-prospects-rjd-on-contesting-jharkhand-polls-alone-101729420771344-amp.html |title=RJD to go solo in Jharkhand after rift in Mahagathbandhan over seat sharing |website=Hindustan Times |date=20 October 2024}}</ref><br />
| 7{{efn|name=INCRJD}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation]]<br />
| [[File:CPIML LIBERATION FLAG.png|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Flag Logo of CPIML.png|50px]]<br />
| Manoj Bhakt<ref>{{citation |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/cpiml-set-to-make-critical-coalition-government-decision-in-jharkhand-on-november-29/articleshow/115631767.cms |title=CPI(ML) to decide on joining coalition govt in state on Nov 29 |newspaper=The Times of India |date=24 November 2024}}</ref><br />
| 4{{efn|name=JMMCPI(ML)L}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== National Democratic Alliance ===<br />
<!-- Per [[MOS:NOSECTIONLINKS]]: for technical reasons, section headings should, among other things, not contain links, citations, or template transclusions. --><br />
{{legend2|{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}|[[National Democratic Alliance]]}}<br />
[[File:2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Election NDA Seat Sharing.svg|thumb|Seat sharing of [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]]]<br />
{| class="wikitable" width="56%" style="text-align:center;<br />
! colspan="2" | Party<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newsonair.gov.in/nda-announces-seat-sharing-for-jharkhand-assembly-elections/#:~:text=The%20seat%2Dsharing%20formula%20among,Students%20Union%2C%20AJSU%2C%20Party |title=NDA Announces Seat-Sharing for Jharkhand Assembly Elections}}</ref><br />
! Flag<br />
! Symbol<br />
! Leader<br />
! Seats contested<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]<br />
| [[File:BJP flag.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Lotus flower symbol.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[Babulal Marandi]]<br />
| 68<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| [[All Jharkhand Students Union]]<br />
| [[File:ANSU Party flag.jpg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Banana.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[Sudesh Mahto]]<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Janata Dal (United)}}<br />
| [[Janata Dal (United)]]<br />
| [[File:JanataDalUnitedFlag.PNG|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Gas Cylinder.jpg|50px]]<br />
| [[Khiru Mahto]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 April 2024 |title=JD(U) to campaign for NDA candidates in Jharkhand |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/jdu-to-campaign-for-nda-candidates-in-jharkhand/articleshow/109706156.cms |access-date=2 September 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center; background:{{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}};color:white" |<br />
| [[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)]]<br />
|<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Helicopter.jpg|50px]]<br />
| Birendra Prasad Pradhan<br />
| 1<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Others ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" width="56%" style="text-align:center;<br />
! colspan="2" | Party<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2024 |title=Candidate Affidavit Management |url=https://affidavit.eci.gov.in/CandidateCustomFilter |access-date=28 October 2024 |website=affidavit.eci.gov.in}}</ref><br />
! Flag<br />
! Symbol<br />
! Leader<br />
! Seats contested<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Bahujan Samaj Party}}<br />
| [[Bahujan Samaj Party]]<br />
| [[File:Elephant Bahujan Samaj Party.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Elephant.png|50px]]<br />
| Mayawati<br />
| 81<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Green}}<br />
| [[Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2024 |title=Jharkhand Vidhan Sabha Chunav: JLKM ने जारी की चौथी सूची, 25 उम्मीदवारों के नामों की घोषणा |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/jharkhand/dhanbad/jharkhand-vidhan-sabha-election-2024-jlkm-released-fourth-list-announced-25-candidates/amp |access-date=23 October 2024 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=JLKM to fight from 25 seats, names first six candidates |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/jlkm-announces-candidate-list-for-25-assembly-seats-in-jharkhand/articleshow/113920290.cms |access-date=23 October 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><br />
|<br />
| [[File:Scissors - Indian Election Symbol.png|50px]]<br />
| [[Jairam Kumar Mahato]]<br />
| 68<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2024 |title=जयराम की पार्टी ने जारी की आठवीं लिस्ट, तीन विधानसभा सीटों पर बदले गए प्रत्याशी |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hi/!state/jairam-mahto-party-jlkm-released-eighth-list-of-candidates-for-jharkhand-assembly-election-jharkhand-news-jhs24102801702 |access-date=28 October 2024 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=hi}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Jharkhand Party}}<br />
| [[Jharkhand Party]]<br />
|<br />
| [[File:JHAPA.png|50px]]<br />
| Ajit Kumar<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India}}<br />
| [[Communist Party of India]]<br />
| [[File:CPI-banner.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:CPI symbol.svg|50px]]<br />
| Mahendra Pathak<br />
| 15<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cpi-breaks-rank-with-india-bloc-in-jharkhand-to-go-solo-in-assembly-polls/articleshow/114467784.cms |title=CPI breaks ranks with INDIA bloc in Jharkhand, to go solo in assembly polls |newspaper=The Times of India |date=22 October 2024}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Azad Samaj Party (Kanshi Ram)}}<br />
| [[Azad Samaj Party (Kanshi Ram)]]<br />
|<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Kettle.jpg|50px]]<br />
| [[Chandrashekhar Azad (politician)|Chandrashekhar Azad]]<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)}}<br />
| [[Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)]]<br />
| [[File:SUCI flag.svg|50px]]<br />
|<br />
| Robin Samajpati<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Samajwadi Party}}<br />
| [[Samajwadi Party]]<br />
| [[File:Samajwadi Party.png|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Cycle.png|50px]]<br />
| TBA<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}<br />
| [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]<br />
| [[File:CPI-M-flag.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:CPI(M) election symbol - Hammer Sickle and Star.svg|50px]]<br />
| Prakash Viplav<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Jharkhand People's Party}}<br />
| [[Jharkhand People's Party]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| [[Surya Singh Besra]]<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|All India Forward Bloc}}<br />
| [[All India Forward Bloc]]<br />
| [[File:All India Forward Bloc flag.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Lion.svg|50px]]<br />
| Arun Mondal<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}<br />
| [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]<br />
| [[File:All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen logo.svg|50px]]<br />
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Kite.svg|50px]]<br />
| N/A<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Nationalist Congress Party}}<br />
| [[Nationalist Congress Party]]<br />
| [[File:NCP-flag.svg|center|50x50px]]<br />
| [[File:Nationalist Congress Party Election Symbol.png|center|50x50px]]<br />
| N/A<br />
| 24<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Bharat Adivasi Party}}<br />
| [[Bharat Adivasi Party]]<br />
| [[File:Bharat Adivasi Party.png|50px]]<br />
|<br />
| Prem Shankar Shahi Munda<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| {{party color cell|Rashtriya Jankranti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Rashtriya Jankranti Morcha]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| Abdul Mobin Rizvi<br />
| 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Candidates ==<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" | Voting Date<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/election-details/2024/S27/3 |title=ECI Schedule Jharkhand Assembly Election 2024 |work=Election Commission of India |access-date=23 October 2024}}</ref><br />
! rowspan="2" | District<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Constituency<br />
| colspan="3" bgcolor={{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}|<br />
| Colspan="3" bgcolor={{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" | [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|MGB]]<br />
! colspan="3" | [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="18" bgcolor="#fdf9c6" | 20 November 2024<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Sahebganj district|Sahebganj]]<br />
! 1<br />
| [[Rajmahal Assembly constituency|Rajmahal]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| M.T. Raja<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Anant Kumar Ojha]]<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| [[Borio Assembly constituency|Borio]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Dhananjay Soren<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Lobin Hembrom]]<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| [[Barhait Assembly constituency|Barhait]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Hemant Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Gamliyel Hembrom<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Pakur district|Pakur]]<br />
! 4<br />
| [[Litipara Assembly constituency|Litipara]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Hemlal Murmu]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Babudhan Murmu<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| [[Pakur Assembly constituency|Pakur]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Nishat Alam<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| Azhar Islam<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| [[Maheshpur Assembly constituency|Maheshpur]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Stephen Marandi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Navneet Hembrom<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dumka district|Dumka]]<br />
! 7<br />
| [[Sikaripara Assembly constituency|Sikaripara]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Alok Soren<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Paritosh Soren<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Jamtara district|Jamtara]]<br />
! 8<br />
| [[Nala Assembly constituency|Nala]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Rabindra Nath Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Madhav Chandra Mahto<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| [[Jamtara Assembly constituency|Jamtara]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Irfan Ansari]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Sita Soren]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Dumka district|Dumka]]<br />
! 10<br />
| [[Dumka Assembly constituency|Dumka]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Basant Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Sunil Soren]]<br />
|-<br />
! 11<br />
| [[Jama Assembly constituency|Jama]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Louis Marandi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Suresh Murmu<br />
|-<br />
! 12<br />
| [[Jarmundi Assembly constituency|Jarmundi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Badal Patralekh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Devendra Kunwar (Jharkhand politician)|Devendra Kunwar]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Deoghar district|Deoghar]]<br />
! 13<br />
| [[Madhupur Assembly constituency|Madhupur]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Hafizul Hasan]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Ganga Narayan Singh<br />
|-<br />
! 14<br />
| [[Sarath Assembly constituency|Sarath]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Uday Shankar Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Randhir Kumar Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
! 15<br />
| [[Deoghar Assembly constituency|Deoghar]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| [[Suresh Paswan]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Narayan Das<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Godda district|Godda]]<br />
! 16<br />
| [[Poreyahat Assembly constituency|Poreyahat]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Pradeep Yadav (Indian politician)|Pradeep Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Devendra Nath Singh<br />
|-<br />
! 17<br />
| [[Godda Assembly constituency|Godda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| [[Sanjay Prasad Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Amit Kumar Mandal]]<br />
|-<br />
! 18<br />
| [[Mahagama Assembly constituency|Mahagama]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Dipika Pandey Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Ashok Kumar Bhagat<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4" bgcolor="#fdddc9" | 13 November 2024<br />
| [[Kodarma district|Kodarma]]<br />
! 19<br />
| [[Kodarma Assembly constituency|Kodarma]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| Subhash Yadav<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Neera Yadav (politician)|Dr. Neera Yadav]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]]<br />
! 20<br />
| [[Barkatha Assembly constituency|Barkatha]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Janki Yadav<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Amit Kumar Yadav]]<br />
|-<br />
! 21<br />
| [[Barhi Assembly constituency|Barhi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Arun Sahu<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Manoj Kumar Yadav (Jharkhand politician)|Manoj Yadav]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Ramgarh district|Ramgarh]]<br />
! 22<br />
| [[Barkagaon Assembly constituency|Barkagaon]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Amba Prasad (politician)|Amba Prasad Sahu]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Roshan Lal Choudhary]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="#fdf9c6" | 20 November 2024<br />
! 23<br />
| [[Ramgarh, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Ramgarh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Mamta Devi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| [[Sunita Choudhary]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]]<br />
! 24<br />
| [[Mandu Assembly constituency|Mandu]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Jai Prakash Bhai Patel|Jai Prakash Patel]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| [[Nirmal Mahto (Jharkhand politician)|Nirmal Mahto]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" bgcolor="#fdddc9" | 13 November 2024<br />
! 25<br />
| [[Hazaribagh Assembly constituency|Hazaribagh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Munna Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Pradip Prasad]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Chatra district|Chatra]]<br />
! 26<br />
| [[Simaria Assembly constituency|Simaria]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Manoj Chandra<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Ujjwal Das<br />
|-<br />
! 27<br />
| [[Chatra Assembly constituency|Chatra]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| Rashmi Prakash<br />
| {{Party name with color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}<br />
| [[Janardan Paswan]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="17" bgcolor="#fdf9c6" | 20 November 2024<br />
| rowspan="7" | [[Giridih district|Giridih]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | 28<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Dhanwar Assembly constituency|Dhanwar]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| Raj Kumar Yadav<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}<br />
| rowspan=2 | [[Babulal Marandi]]<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Nizamuddin Ansari<br />
|-<br />
! 29<br />
| [[Bagodar Assembly constituency|Bagodar]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| [[Vinod Kumar Singh (Bagodar politician)|Vinod Kumar Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Nagendra Mahto<br />
|-<br />
! 30<br />
| [[Jamua Assembly constituency|Jamua]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Kedar Hazra<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Manju Kumari|Manju Devi]]<br />
|-<br />
! 31<br />
| [[Gandey Assembly constituency|Gandey]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Kalpana Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Muniya Devi<br />
|-<br />
! 32<br />
| [[Giridih Assembly constituency|Giridih]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Sudivya Kumar]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Nirbhay Kumar Shahabadi<br />
|-<br />
! 33<br />
| [[Dumri Assembly constituency|Dumri]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Baby Devi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| Yashoda Devi<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4" | [[Bokaro district|Bokaro]]<br />
! 34<br />
| [[Gomia Assembly constituency|Gomia]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Yogendra Prasad<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| [[Lambodar Mahto]]<br />
|-<br />
! 35<br />
| [[Bermo Assembly constituency|Bermo]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Kumar Jaimangal<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Ravindra Kumar Pandey]]<br />
|-<br />
! 36<br />
| [[Bokaro Assembly constituency|Bokaro]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Shweta Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Biranchi Narayan<br />
|-<br />
! 37<br />
| [[Chandankiyari Assembly constituency|Chandankiyari]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Uma Kant Rajak<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Amar Kumar Bauri]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="6" | [[Dhanbad district|Dhanbad]]<br />
! 38<br />
| [[Sindri Assembly constituency|Sindri]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| [[Bablu Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Tara Devi<br />
|-<br />
! 39<br />
| [[Nirsa Assembly constituency|Nirsa]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| Arup Chatterjee<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Aparna Sengupta]]<br />
|-<br />
! 40<br />
| [[Dhanbad Assembly constituency|Dhanbad]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Ajay Dubey<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Raj Sinha]]<br />
|-<br />
! 41<br />
| [[Jharia Assembly constituency|Jharia]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Purnima Niraj Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Ragini Singh<br />
|-<br />
! 42<br />
| [[Tundi Assembly constituency|Tundi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Mathura Prasad Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Vikash Mahato<br />
|-<br />
! 43<br />
| [[Baghmara, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Baghmara]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Jaleshwar Mahato<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Shatrughan Mahto<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="17" bgcolor="#fdddc9" | 13 November 2024<br />
| rowspan="6" | [[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]]<br />
! 44<br />
| [[Baharagora Assembly constituency|Baharagora]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Samir Mohanty]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Dineshanand Goswami<br />
|-<br />
! 45<br />
| [[Ghatsila Assembly constituency|Ghatsila]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Ramdas Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Babulal Soren<br />
|-<br />
! 46<br />
| [[Potka Assembly constituency|Potka]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Sanjib Sardar]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Meera Munda<br />
|-<br />
! 47<br />
| [[Jugsalai Assembly constituency|Jugsalai]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Mangal Kalindi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| [[Ram Chandra Sahis]]<br />
|-<br />
! 48<br />
| [[Jamshedpur East Assembly constituency|Jamshedpur East]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Ajoy Kumar]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Purnima Sahu|Purnima Das Sahu]]<br />
|-<br />
! 49<br />
| [[Jamshedpur West Assembly constituency|Jamshedpur West]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Banna Gupta]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}<br />
| [[Saryu Roy (politician)|Saryu Roy]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]<br />
! 50<br />
| [[Ichagarh Assembly constituency|Ichagarh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Sabita Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| Harelal Mahato<br />
|-<br />
! 51<br />
| [[Seraikella Assembly constituency|Seraikella]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Ganesh Mahali<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Champai Soren]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | [[West Singhbhum district|West Singhbhum]]<br />
! 52<br />
| [[Chaibasa Assembly constituency|Chaibasa]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Deepak Birua]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Geeta Balmuchu<br />
|-<br />
! 53<br />
| [[Majhgaon Assembly constituency|Majhgaon]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Niral Purty]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Barkunwar Gagrai<br />
|-<br />
! 54<br />
| [[Jaganathpur Assembly constituency|Jaganathpur]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Sona Ram Sinku]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Geeta Koda]]<br />
|-<br />
! 55<br />
| [[Manoharpur Assembly constituency|Manoharpur]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Jagat Majhi<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| Dinesh Chandra Boipai<br />
|-<br />
! 56<br />
| [[Chakradharpur Assembly constituency|Chakradharpur]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Sukhram Oraon]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Shashibhushan Samad<br />
|-<br />
| [[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]<br />
! 57<br />
| [[Kharsawan Assembly constituency|Kharsawan]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Dashrath Gagrai]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Sonaram Bodra<br />
|-<br />
| [[Ranchi district|Ranchi]]<br />
! 58<br />
| [[Tamar Assembly constituency|Tamar]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Vikash Kumar Munda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}<br />
| Gopal Krishna Patar<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Khunti district|Khunti]]<br />
! 59<br />
| [[Torpa Assembly constituency|Torpa]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Sudeep Guria<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Koche Munda]]<br />
|-<br />
! 60<br />
| [[Khunti Assembly constituency|Khunti]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Ram Surya Munda<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Nilkanth Singh Munda]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="#fdf9c6" | 20 November 2024<br />
| rowspan="6" | [[Ranchi district|Ranchi]]<br />
! 61<br />
| [[Silli Assembly constituency|Silli]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Amit Mahato<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| [[Sudesh Mahto]]<br />
|-<br />
! 62<br />
| [[Khijri Assembly constituency|Khijri]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Rajesh Kachhap]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Ram Kumar Pahan<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="21" bgcolor="#fdddc9" | 13 November 2024<br />
! 63<br />
| [[Ranchi Assembly constituency|Ranchi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Mahua Maji]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[C. P. Singh (Indian politician)|Chandreshwar Prasad Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
! 64<br />
| [[Hatia Assembly constituency|Hatia]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Ajay Nath Sahdeo<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Navin Jaiswal]]<br />
|-<br />
! 65<br />
| [[Kanke Assembly constituency|Kanke]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Suresh Kumar Baitha<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Jitu Charan Ram<br />
|-<br />
! 66<br />
| [[Mandar Assembly constituency|Mandar]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Shilpi Neha Tirkey]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Sunny Toppo<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Gumla district|Gumla]]<br />
! 67<br />
| [[Sisai Assembly constituency|Sisai]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| Jiga Susaran Horo<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Arun Oraon<br />
|-<br />
! 68<br />
| [[Gumla Assembly constituency|Gumla]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Bhushan Tirkey]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Sudarshan Bhagat]]<br />
|-<br />
! 69<br />
| [[Bishunpur Assembly constituency|Bishunpur]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Chamra Linda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Sameer Oraon]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Simdega district|Simdega]]<br />
! 70<br />
| [[Simdega Assembly constituency|Simdega]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Bhushan Bara]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Shradhanand Besra<br />
|-<br />
! 71<br />
| [[Kolebira Assembly constituency|Kolebira]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Naman Bixal Kongari]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Sujan Jojo<br />
|-<br />
| [[Lohardaga district|Lohardaga]]<br />
! 72<br />
| [[Lohardaga Assembly constituency|Lohardaga]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Rameshwar Oraon]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| Niru Shanti Bhagat<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Latehar district|Latehar]]<br />
! 73<br />
| [[Manika Assembly constituency|Manika]] (ST)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Ramchandra Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Harikrishna Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
! 74<br />
| [[Latehar Assembly constituency|Latehar]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Baidyanath Ram]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Prakash Ram]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="7" | [[Palamu district|Palamu]]<br />
! 75<br />
| [[Panki Assembly constituency|Panki]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Lal Suraj<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Kushwaha Shashi Bhushan Mehta]]<br />
|-<br />
! 76<br />
| [[Daltonganj Assembly constituency|Daltonganj]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| [[Krishna Nand Tripathi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Alok Kumar Chaurasiya]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 77<br />
| rowspan=2 | [[Bishrampur Assembly constituency|Bishrampur]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Sudhir Kumar Chandravanshi<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}<br />
| rowspan=2 | [[Ramchandra Chandravanshi]]<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| Naresh Prasad Singh<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 78<br />
| rowspan=2 | [[Chhatarpur, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Chhatarpur]] (SC)<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| Radha Krishna Kishore<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}<br />
| rowspan=2 | [[Pushpa Devi]] Bhuiyan<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| Vijay Ram<br />
|-<br />
! 79<br />
| [[Hussainabad Assembly constituency|Hussainabad]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| [[Sanjay Kumar Singh Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Kamlesh Kumar Singh]]<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Garhwa district|Garhwa]]<br />
! 80<br />
| [[Garhwa Assembly constituency|Garhwa]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Mithilesh Kumar Thakur]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| Satyendra Nath Tiwari<br />
|-<br />
! 81<br />
| [[Bhawanathpur Assembly constituency|Bhawanathpur]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| [[Anant Pratap Deo]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| [[Bhanu Pratap Shahi]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Post-poll surveys ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size:95%;line-height:20px"<br />
! rowspan="2" width="250px" |Polling agency<br />
! style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}" |<br />
! style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}" |<br />
! style="color:inherit;background:{{party color|Others}}" |<br />
! rowspan="2" width="75px" |Lead<br />
|-<br />
! style="width:75px;" | [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]<br />
! style="width:75px;" | [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|MGB]]<br />
! style="width:75px;" | Others<br />
|-<br />
| [[Axis My India]]<br />
| 17–27<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}; color:white" |49–59<br />
| 1–6<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}; color:white" |''MGB''<br />
|-<br />
| People's Insight<br />
| 42<br />
| 33<br />
| 6<br />
| NDA<br />
|-<br />
| Chanakya Strategies<br />
| style="background:#FFD580;" |45–50<br />
| 35–38<br />
| 3–5<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |''NDA''<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dainik Bhaskar]]<br />
| 37–40<br />
| 36–39<br />
| 0–2<br />
| style="background:gray; color:white;" |''Hung''<br />
|-<br />
| Electoral Edge<br />
| 32<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}; color:white" |42<br />
| 7<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}; color:white" |''MGB''<br />
|-<br />
| Matrize<br />
| style="background:#FFD580;" | 42–47<br />
| 25–30<br />
| 1–4<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |''NDA''<br />
|-<br />
| P Marq<br />
| 31–40<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}; color:white" |37–47<br />
| 6–8<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}; color:white" |''MGB''<br />
|-<br />
| Times Now – JVC<br />
| style="background:#FFD580;" | 40–44<br />
| 30–40<br />
| 1<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |''NDA''<br />
|-<br />
| People's Pulse<br />
| style="background:#FFD580;" | 44–53<br />
| 25–37<br />
| 5–9<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |''NDA''<br />
|}<br />
According to a Lokniti post-poll survey, the INDIA alliance's Maiya Samman Scheme, which initially provided ₹1,000 and later increased to ₹2,500, garnered support from 47% of registered women voters, particularly in rural areas. In contrast, the BJP's Gogo Didi Scheme, offering ₹2,100, found greater appeal among urban women voters. Overall, women showed stronger backing for the INDIA alliance (45%) compared to the BJP (38%), with rural women (48%) and tribal women (60%) favoring INDIA significantly. The BJP, however, performed better among urban and non-tribal women voters. A notable outcome was the BJP securing only one ST-reserved seat, reflecting tribal dissatisfaction attributed to issues such as changes in tenancy laws, messaging perceived as undermining tribal identity, and Hemant Soren's incarceration. Women voter turnout was remarkably high at 70.46% (91.16 lakh), surpassing men's turnout of 65% (85.64 lakh), with the gender gap widening compared to the previous Lok Sabha elections.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/womens-welfare-powered-india-blocs-performance-in-jharkhand/article68909873.ece |title=Women's Welfare Powered INDIA Bloc's Performance in Jharkhand |work=The Hindu |date=25 November 2024 |access-date=10 December 2024 |last1=Mishra |first1=Jyoti |archive-date=13 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213180606/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/womens-welfare-powered-india-blocs-performance-in-jharkhand/article68909873.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/jharkhand-election-women-shaping-politics-but-is-that-enough-9700382/ |title=Jharkhand Election: Women Shaping Politics, But Is That Enough? |date=December 2024 |access-date=10 December 2024 |archive-date=14 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241214024635/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/jharkhand-election-women-shaping-politics-but-is-that-enough-9700382/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
=== Results by alliance or party ===<br />
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center;"<br />
|- style="color:white;"<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}; width:69.14%;" | '''56'''<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}};color:white;width:29.63%;" | '''24'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}};color:black;width:1.23%;" | '''1'''<br />
|-<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}|'''MGB'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}|'''NDA'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Jharkhand Lol Krantikari Morcha}} color:black|'''JLKM'''}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center;"<br />
|- style="color:white;"<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}; width:41.97%;" | '''34'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|Indian National Congress}};color:black;width:19.75%;" | '''16'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}};color:black;width:4.92%;" | '''4'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:black;width:2.46%;" | '''2'''<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}};color:white;width:29.63%;" | '''21'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|All Jharkhand Students Union}};color:black;width:1.23%;" | '''1'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|Janata Dal (United)}};color:black;width:1.23%;" | '''1'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}};color:black;width:1.23%;" | '''1'''<br />
| style="background:{{Party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}};color:black;width:1.23%;" | '''1'''<br />
|-<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}|'''JMM'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Indian National Congress}} color:black|'''INC'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal }} color:black|'''RJD'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation }} color:black|'''CPI(ML)L'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|'''BJP'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|All Jharkhand Students Union}} color:black|'''AJSU'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Janata Dal (United) }} color:black|'''JD(U)'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas) }} color:black|'''LJP(RV)'''}}<br />
| {{color|{{party color|Jharkhand Lol Krantikari Morcha}} color:black|'''JLKM'''}}<br />
|}<br />
{{Pie chart<br />
|thumb = right<br />
|caption = Party wise Vote Share<br />
|label1 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|'''BJP''']]<br />
|value1 = 33.18<br />
|color1 = {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
|label2 = [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|'''JMM''']]<br />
|value2 = 23.44<br />
|color2 = {{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
|label3 = [[Indian National Congress|'''INC''']]<br />
|value3 = 15.56<br />
|color3 = {{party color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
|label6 = [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|'''RJD''']]<br />
|value6 = 3.44<br />
|color6 = Blue<br />
|label5 = [[All Jharkhand Students Union|'''AJSU''']]<br />
|value5 = 3.54<br />
|color5 = {{party color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
|label4 = [[Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha|'''JLKM''']] <br />
|value4 = 6.20<br />
|color4 = {{party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}<br />
|label7 = '''Others'''<br />
|value7 = 14.64<br />
|color7 = Grey<br />
}}{{Pie chart<br />
| value1 = 41.97<br />
| value2 = 25.92<br />
| value3 = 19.75<br />
| label1 = [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|'''JMM''']]<br />
| label2 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|'''BJP''']]<br />
| label3 = [[Indian National Congress|'''INC''']]<br />
| color1 = {{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| color2 = {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| color3 = {{party color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| caption = Party wise seats<br />
| value4=4.92|value5=2.46|value6=1.23|value7=1.23|value8=1.23|value9=1.23|color4={{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}|color5={{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}|color6={{party color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}|color7={{party color|Janata Dal (United)}}|color8={{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}|color9={{party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}|label4=[[Rashtriya Janata Dal|'''RJD''']] | label5=[[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|'''CPI(ML)L''']] | label6=[[All Jharkhand Students Union|'''AJSU''']] | label7=[[Janata Dal (United)|'''JD(U)''']] | label8=[[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)|'''LJP(RV)''']] | label9=[[Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha|'''JLKM''']]}}{{Pie chart<br />
| value1 = 69.14<br />
| value2 = 29.63<br />
| value3 = 1.23<br />
| label1 = [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|'''MGB''']]<br />
| label2 = [[National Democratic Alliance|'''NDA''']]<br />
| label3 = [[Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha|'''JLKM''']]<br />
| color1 = {{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}<br />
| color2 = {{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}<br />
| color3 = {{party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}<br />
| caption = Alliance-wise seats<br />
}}<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
! colspan="4" rowspan="2" | Alliance/ Party<br />
! colspan="3" | Popular vote<br />
! colspan="3" | Seats<br />
|-<br />
! Votes<br />
! %<br />
! ±[[Percentage point|pp]]<br />
! Contested<br />
! Won<ref name="Jharkhand Assembly Election Results 2024">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Jharkhand Assembly Election Results 2024 |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywiseresult-S27.htm |access-date=24 November 2024 |date=23 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124045257/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywiseresult-S27.htm |archive-date=24 November 2024}}</ref><br />
! '''+/−'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" {{Party color cell|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}<br />
! rowspan="5" | [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|MGB]]<br />
| {{Party color cell|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|JMM]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:4183281}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 23.44<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 4.72<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 43<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 34<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 4<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Indian National Congress|INC]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:2776805}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 15.56<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 1.68<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 30<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 16<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{no change}}<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:613880}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 3.44<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 0.69<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 7<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 4<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 3<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|CPI(ML)}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation|CPI(ML)L]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:337062}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 1.89<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 0.74<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 4<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 2<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 1<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2"style="background:#eaefe5; text-align:center;" | '''Total'''<br />
| style="background:#eaefe5; text-align:center;" | '''{{formatnum:7911028}}'''<br />
| style="background:#eaefe5; text-align:center;" | '''44.33'''<br />
| style="background:#eaefe5; text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 8.98<br />
| style="background:#eaefe5; text-align:center;" | 81<br />
| style="background:#eaefe5; text-align:center;" | 56<br />
| style="background:#eaefe5; text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 8<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" {{Party color cell|National Democratic Alliance}}<br />
! rowspan="5" | [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]<br />
| {{Party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:5921474}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 33.18<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 0.19<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 68<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 21<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 4<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[All Jharkhand Students Union|AJSU]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:632186}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 3.54<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 4.56<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 10<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 1<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 1<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Janata Dal (United)}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:145040}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 0.81<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 0.07<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 2<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 1<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{increase}} 1<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)|LJP(RV)]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:109019}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 0.61<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | ''New''<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 1<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 1<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | ''New''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2"style="background:#fef3e8; text-align:center;" | '''Total'''<br />
| style="background:#fef3e8; text-align:center;" | '''{{formatnum:6807719}}'''<br />
| style="background:#fef3e8; text-align:center;" | 38.14<br />
| style="background:#fef3e8; text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 4.68<br />
| style="background:#fef3e8; text-align:center;" | 81<br />
| style="background:#fef3e8; text-align:center;" | 24<br />
| style="background:#fef3e8; text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 3<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}<br />
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha|JLKM]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:1092178}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 6.20<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | ''New''<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 68<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 1<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | ''New''<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Independent (politician)}}<br />
| colspan="3"style="text-align:center;" | Other parties<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | <br />
| style="text-align:center;" | <br />
| style="text-align:center;" | <br />
| style="text-align:center;" | <br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 0<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 4<br />
|-<br />
| {{Party color cell|Independent (politician)}}<br />
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[Independent (politician)|Independents]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:1126753}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 6.39<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | <br />
| style="text-align:center;" | <br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 0<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{decrease}} 2<br />
|-<br />
| bgcolor="Black" | <br />
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[None of the above (India)|NOTA]]<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | {{formatnum:226431}}<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | 1.27<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | <br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | '''Total'''<br />
| style="text-align:center;" | '''{{formatnum:17619852}}'''<br />
! 100%<br />
! –<br />
! 81<br />
! 81<br />
! –<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Results by phase ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" | Phase<br />
! rowspan="2" | Seats<br />
| bgcolor="{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}" |<br />
| bgcolor="{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}" |<br />
| bgcolor="{{party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}"|<br />
|-<br />
! [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|MGB]]<br />
! [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]<br />
! [[Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha|JLKM]]<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
! 43<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |27<br />
| 16<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
! 38<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |29<br />
| 8<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
! Total<br />
! 81<br />
! style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |56<br />
! 24<br />
! 1<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Results by district ===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" | District<br />
! rowspan="2" | Seats<br />
| bgcolor="{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)}}" |<br />
| bgcolor="{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}" |<br />
| bgcolor="{{party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}"|<br />
|-<br />
! [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|MGB]]<br />
! [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]<br />
! [[Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha|JLKM]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[Sahibganj district|Sahebganj]]<br />
! 3<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Pakur district|Pakur]]<br />
! 3<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Dumka district|Dumka]]<br />
! 4<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 1<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Jamtara district|Jamtara]]<br />
! 2<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |2<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Deoghar district|Deoghar]]<br />
! 3<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Godda district|Godda]]<br />
! 3<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Kodarma district|Kodarma]]<br />
! 1<br />
| 0<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |1<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]]<br />
! 4<br />
| 0<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |4<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Ramgarh district|Ramgarh]]<br />
! 2<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Chatra district|Chatra]]<br />
! 2<br />
| 0<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |2<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Giridih district|Giridih]]<br />
! 6<br />
| 2<br />
| style="background:{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
! [[Bokaro district|Bokaro]]<br />
! 4<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |4<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Dhanbad district|Dhanbad]]<br />
! 6<br />
| 3<br />
| 3<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]]<br />
! 6<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |4<br />
| 2<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]<br />
! 3<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |2<br />
| 1<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[West Singhbhum district|West Singhbhum]]<br />
! 5<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |5<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Ranchi district|Ranchi]]<br />
! 7<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |5<br />
| 2<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Khunti district|Khunti]]<br />
! 2<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |2<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Gumla district|Gumla]]<br />
! 3<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Simdega district|Simdega]]<br />
! 2<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |2<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Lohardaga district|Lohardaga]]<br />
! 1<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |1<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Latehar district|Latehar]]<br />
! 2<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Palamu district|Palamu]]<br />
! 5<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |3<br />
| 2<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! [[Garhwa district|Garhwa]]<br />
! 2<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
! Total<br />
! 81<br />
! style="background:{{party color|Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan}}; color:white" |56<br />
! 24<br />
! 1<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Results by constituency ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style="line-height:20px;text-align:center;font-size:94%;"<br />
! rowspan="2" | District<br />
! colspan="2" | Constituency<br />
! colspan="5" | Winner<ref name="Jharkhand election results 2024: Constituency-wise full winners list and key highlights">{{cite news |work=The Times of India |title=Jharkhand election results 2024: Constituency-wise full winners list and key highlights |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/jharkhand-election-results-2024-constituency-wise-full-winners-list-and-key-highlights/articleshow/115585742.cms |access-date=24 November 2024 |date=23 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124044412/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/jharkhand-election-results-2024-constituency-wise-full-winners-list-and-key-highlights/articleshow/115585742.cms |archive-date=24 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="Jharkhand Election Winners List 2024: Here is the full list victorious candidates in the state">{{cite news |work=The Economic Times |date=23 November 2024 |title=Jharkhand Election Winners List 2024: Here is the full list victorious candidates in the state |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/assembly-elections/jharkhand/jharkhand-election-winners-list-2024-check-full-winning-candidates-list-constituency-wise/articleshow/115585344.cms?from=mdr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124045044/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/assembly-elections/jharkhand/jharkhand-election-winners-list-2024-check-full-winning-candidates-list-constituency-wise/articleshow/115585344.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=24 November 2024 |access-date=24 November 2024}}</ref><br />
! colspan="5" | Runner-up<br />
! colspan="2" | Margin<br />
|-<br />
! No.<br />
! Name<br />
! Candidate<br />
! colspan="2" | Party<br />
! Votes<br />
! %<br />
! Candidate<br />
! colspan="2" | Party<br />
! Votes<br />
! %<br />
! Votes<br />
! %<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Sahebganj district|Sahebganj]]<br />
! 1<br />
| [[Rajmahal Assembly constituency|Rajmahal]]<br />
| [[Md. Tajuddin]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,40,176<br />
| 53.67<br />
| [[Anant Kumar Ojha]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 96,744<br />
| 37.04<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |43,432<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |16.63<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| [[Borio Assembly constituency|Borio]] (ST)<br />
| [[Dhananjay Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 97,317<br />
| 50.79<br />
| [[Lobin Hembrom]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 78,044<br />
| 40.73<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |19,273<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |10.06<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
| [[Barhait Assembly constituency|Barhait]] (ST)<br />
| [[Hemant Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 95,612<br />
| 58.95<br />
| Gamliyel Hembrom<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 55,821<br />
| 34.42<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |39,791<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |24.53<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Pakur district|Pakur]]<br />
! 4<br />
| [[Litipara Assembly constituency|Litipara]] (ST)<br />
| [[Hemlal Murmu]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 88,469<br />
| 53.97<br />
| Babudhan Murmu<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 61,720<br />
| 37.65<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |26,749<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |16.32<br />
|-<br />
! 5<br />
| [[Pakur Assembly constituency|Pakur]]<br />
| [[Nisat Alam]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,55,827<br />
| 52.27<br />
| Azhar Islam<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| 69,798<br />
| 23.41<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |86,029<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |28.86<br />
|-<br />
! 6<br />
| [[Maheshpur Assembly constituency|Maheshpur]] (ST)<br />
| [[Stephen Marandi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,14,924<br />
| 59.63<br />
| Navneet Anthony Hembrom<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 53,749<br />
| 27.89<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |61,175<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |31.74<br />
|-<br />
| [[Dumka district|Dumka]]<br />
! 7<br />
| [[Sikaripara Assembly constituency|Sikaripara]] (ST)<br />
| [[Alok Kumar Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,02,199<br />
| 58.63<br />
| Paritosh Soren<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 61,025<br />
| 35.01<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |41,174<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |23.62<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Jamtara district|Jamtara]]<br />
! 8<br />
| [[Nala Assembly constituency|Nala]]<br />
| [[Rabindra Nath Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 92,702<br />
| 47.09<br />
| Madhav Chandra Mahato<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 82,219<br />
| 41.76<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |10,483<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |5.33<br />
|-<br />
! 9<br />
| [[Jamtara Assembly constituency|Jamtara]]<br />
| [[Irfan Ansari]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,33,266<br />
| 54.62<br />
| [[Sita Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 89,590<br />
| 36.72<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |43,676<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |17.90<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Dumka district|Dumka]]<br />
! 10<br />
| [[Dumka Assembly constituency|Dumka]] (ST)<br />
| [[Basant Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 95,685<br />
| 51.33<br />
| [[Sunil Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 81,097<br />
| 43.50<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |14,588<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |7.83<br />
|-<br />
! 11<br />
| [[Jama Assembly constituency|Jama]] (ST)<br />
| [[Lois Marandi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 76,424<br />
| 46.89<br />
| Suresh Murmu<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 70,686<br />
| 43.37<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |5,738<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |3.52<br />
|-<br />
! 12<br />
| [[Jarmundi Assembly constituency|Jarmundi]]<br />
| [[Devendra Kunwar (Jharkhand politician)|Devendra Kunwar]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 94,892<br />
| 48.73<br />
| [[Badal Patralekh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 77,346<br />
| 39.72<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |17,546<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |9.01<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Deoghar district|Deoghar]]<br />
! 13<br />
| [[Madhupur Assembly constituency|Madhupur]]<br />
| [[Hafizul Hasan]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,43,953<br />
| 50.97<br />
| Ganga Narayan Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,23,926<br />
| 43.88<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |20,027<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |7.09<br />
|-<br />
! 14<br />
| [[Sarath Assembly constituency|Sarath]]<br />
| [[Uday Shankar Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,35,219<br />
| 54.32<br />
| [[Randhir Kumar Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 97,790<br />
| 39.28<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |37,429<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |15.04<br />
|-<br />
! 15<br />
| [[Deoghar Assembly constituency|Deoghar]] (SC)<br />
| [[Suresh Paswan]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| 1,56,079<br />
| 53.53<br />
| [[Narayan Das (Jharkhand politician)|Narayan Das]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,16,358<br />
| 39.91<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |39,721<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |13.62<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Godda district|Godda]]<br />
! 16<br />
| [[Poreyahat Assembly constituency|Poreyahat]]<br />
| [[Pradeep Yadav (Indian politician)|Pradeep Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,17,842<br />
| 52.90<br />
| Devendranath Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 83,712<br />
| 37.58<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |34,130<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |15.32<br />
|-<br />
! 17<br />
| [[Godda Assembly constituency|Godda]]<br />
| [[Sanjay Prasad Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| 1,09,487<br />
| 49.56<br />
| [[Amit Kumar Mandal]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 88,016<br />
| 39.84<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}} ; color:white;" |21,471<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |9.72<br />
|-<br />
! 18<br />
| [[Mahagama Assembly constituency|Mahagama]]<br />
| [[Dipika Pandey Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,14,069<br />
| 51.03<br />
| Ashok Kumar<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 95,424<br />
| 42.69<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |18,645<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |8.34<br />
|-<br />
| [[Kodarma district|Kodarma]]<br />
! 19<br />
| [[Kodarma Assembly constituency|Kodarma]]<br />
| [[Neera Yadav (politician)|Neera Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 86,734<br />
| 33.69<br />
| [[Subhash Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| 80,919<br />
| 31.43<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |5,815<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |2.26<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]]<br />
! 20<br />
| [[Barkatha Assembly constituency|Barkatha]]<br />
| [[Amit Kumar Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 82,221<br />
| 32.77<br />
| Janki Prasad Yadav<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 78,561<br />
| 31.31<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |3,660<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |1.46<br />
|-<br />
! 21<br />
| [[Barhi Assembly constituency|Barhi]]<br />
| [[Manoj Kumar Yadav (Jharkhand politician)|Manoj Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,13,274<br />
| 51.09<br />
| Arun Sahu<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 63,983<br />
| 28.86<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |49,291<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |22.23<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Ramgarh district|Ramgarh]]<br />
! 22<br />
| [[Barkagaon Assembly constituency|Barkagaon]]<br />
| [[Roshan Lal Choudhary]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,24,468<br />
| 46.85<br />
| [[Amba Prasad (politician)|Amba Prasad Sahu]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 93,075<br />
| 35.03<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |31,393<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |11.82<br />
|-<br />
! 23<br />
| [[Ramgarh, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Ramgarh]]<br />
| [[Mamta Devi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 89,818<br />
| 34.51<br />
| [[Sunita Choudhary]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| 83,028<br />
| 31.90<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |6,790<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |3.51<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]]<br />
! 24<br />
| [[Mandu Assembly constituency|Mandu]]<br />
| [[Nirmal Mahto (Jharkhand politician)|Nirmal Mahto]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| 90,871<br />
| 31.85<br />
| [[Jai Prakash Bhai Patel]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 90,640<br />
| 31.77<br />
| style="background:{{party color|All Jharkhand Students Union}} ; color:white;" | 231<br />
| style="background:{{party color|All Jharkhand Students Union}} ; color:white;" | 0.08<br />
|-<br />
! 25<br />
| [[Hazaribagh Assembly constituency|Hazaribagh]]<br />
| [[Pradip Prasad]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,39,458<br />
| 51.91<br />
| Munna Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 95,981<br />
| 35.73<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |43,477<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |16.18<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Chatra district|Chatra]]<br />
! 26<br />
| [[Simaria Assembly constituency|Simaria]] (SC)<br />
| [[Kumar Ujjwal]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,11,906<br />
| 44.47<br />
| Manoj Kumar Chandra<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,07,905<br />
| 42.88<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |4,001<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |1.59<br />
|-<br />
! 27<br />
| [[Chatra Assembly constituency|Chatra]] (SC)<br />
| [[Janardan Paswan]]<br />
| {{party name with color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}}<br />
| 1,09,019<br />
| 40.58<br />
| Rashmi Prakash<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| 90,618<br />
| 33.73<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}} ; color:white;" | 18,401<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas)}} ; color:white;" | 6.85<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="6" | [[Giridih district|Giridih]]<br />
! 28<br />
| [[Dhanwar Assembly constituency|Dhanwar]]<br />
| [[Babulal Marandi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,06,296<br />
| 45.35<br />
| Nizam Uddin Ansari<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 70,858<br />
| 30.23<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |35,438<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |15.12<br />
|-<br />
! 29<br />
| [[Bagodar Assembly constituency|Bagodar]]<br />
| [[Nagendra Mahto]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,27,501<br />
| 50.22<br />
| [[Vinod Kumar Singh (Bagodar politician)|Vinod Kumar Singh]]<br />
| {{party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| 94,884<br />
| 37.37<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |32,617<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |12.85<br />
|-<br />
! 30<br />
| [[Jamua Assembly constituency|Jamua]] (SC)<br />
| [[Manju Kumari]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,17,532<br />
| 53.40<br />
| [[Kedar Hazra]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 84,901<br />
| 38.58<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |32,631<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |15.12<br />
|-<br />
! 31<br />
| [[Gandey Assembly constituency|Gandey]]<br />
| [[Kalpana Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,19,372<br />
| 50.51<br />
| Muniya Devi<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,02,230<br />
| 43.26<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |17,142<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |7.25<br />
|-<br />
! 32<br />
| [[Giridih Assembly constituency|Giridih]]<br />
| [[Sudivya Kumar]] Sonu<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 94,042<br />
| 45.28<br />
| Nirbhay Shahbadi<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 90,204<br />
| 43.43<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |3,838<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |1.85<br />
|-<br />
! 33<br />
| [[Dumri Assembly constituency|Dumri]]<br />
| [[Jairam Kumar Mahato]]<br />
| {{party name with color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}<br />
| 94,496<br />
| 41.80<br />
| [[Baby Devi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 83,551<br />
| 36.96<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}} ;" |10,945<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}} ;" |4.84<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4" | [[Bokaro district|Bokaro]]<br />
! 34<br />
| [[Gomia Assembly constituency|Gomia]]<br />
| [[Yogendra Prasad]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 95,170<br />
| 42.19<br />
| Puja Kumari<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}<br />
| 59,077<br />
| 26.19<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |36,093<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |16.00<br />
|-<br />
! 35<br />
| [[Bermo Assembly constituency|Bermo]]<br />
| [[Kumar Jaimangal]] Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 90,246<br />
| 40.34<br />
| [[Jairam Kumar Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}<br />
| 60,871<br />
| 27.21<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |29,375<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |13.13<br />
|-<br />
! 36<br />
| [[Bokaro Assembly constituency|Bokaro]]<br />
| [[Shwettaa Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,33,438<br />
| 42.34<br />
| [[Biranchi Narayan]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,26,231<br />
| 40.05<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |7,207<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |2.29<br />
|-<br />
! 37<br />
| [[Chandankiyari Assembly constituency|Chandankiyari]] (SC)<br />
| [[Umakant Rajak]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 90,027<br />
| 42.56<br />
| Arjun Rajwar<br />
| {{party name with color|Jharkhand Loktantrik Krantikari Morcha}}<br />
| 56,294<br />
| 26.61<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |33,733<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |15.95<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="6" | [[Dhanbad district|Dhanbad]]<br />
! 38<br />
| [[Sindri Assembly constituency|Sindri]]<br />
| [[Bablu Mahato|Chandradeo Mahato]]<br />
| {{party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| 1,05,136<br />
| 39.64<br />
| Tara Devi<br />
| {{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,01,688<br />
| 38.34<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}} ; color:white;" |3,488<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}} ; color:white;" |1.30<br />
|-<br />
! 39<br />
| [[Nirsa Assembly constituency|Nirsa]]<br />
| [[Arup Chatterjee]]<br />
| {{party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}<br />
| 1,04,855<br />
| 43.74<br />
| [[Aparna Sengupta]]<br />
| {{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,03,047<br />
| 42.98<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}} ; color:white;" |1,808<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}} ; color:white;" |0.76<br />
|-<br />
! 40<br />
| [[Dhanbad Assembly constituency|Dhanbad]]<br />
| [[Raj Sinha]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,36,336<br />
| 53.90<br />
| Ajay Dubey<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 87,595<br />
| 34.63<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |48,741<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |19.27<br />
|-<br />
! 41<br />
| [[Jharia Assembly constituency|Jharia]]<br />
| [[Ragini Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 87,892<br />
| 51.47<br />
| [[Purnima Niraj Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 73,381<br />
| 42.97<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |14,511<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |8.50<br />
|-<br />
! 42<br />
| [[Tundi Assembly constituency|Tundi]]<br />
| [[Mathura Prasad Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 95,527<br />
| 41.29<br />
| Vikash Mahato<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 69,924<br />
| 30.22<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |25,603<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |11.07<br />
|-<br />
! 43<br />
| [[Baghmara, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Baghmara]]<br />
| [[Shatrughan Mahto]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 87,529<br />
| 43.85<br />
| Jaleshwar Mahato<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 68,847<br />
| 34.49<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |18,682<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |9.36<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="6" | [[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]]<br />
! 44<br />
| [[Baharagora Assembly constituency|Baharagora]]<br />
| [[Samir Mohanty]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 96,870<br />
| 50.65<br />
| Dineshananda Goswami<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 78,745<br />
| 41.17<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |18,125<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |9.48<br />
|-<br />
! 45<br />
| [[Ghatsila Assembly constituency|Ghatsila]] (ST)<br />
| [[Ramdas Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 98,356<br />
| 51.50<br />
| Babulal Soren<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 75,910<br />
| 39.75<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |22,446<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |11.75<br />
|-<br />
! 46<br />
| [[Potka Assembly constituency|Potka]] (ST)<br />
| [[Sanjib Sardar]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,20,322<br />
| 51.97<br />
| Meera Munda<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 92,420<br />
| 39.92<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |27,902<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |12.05<br />
|-<br />
! 47<br />
| [[Jugsalai Assembly constituency|Jugsalai]] (SC)<br />
| [[Mangal Kalindi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,21,290<br />
| 48.26<br />
| [[Ram Chandra Sahis]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| 77,845<br />
| 30.97<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |43,445<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |17.29<br />
|-<br />
! 48<br />
| [[Jamshedpur East Assembly constituency|Jamshedpur East]]<br />
| [[Purnima Sahu]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,07,191<br />
| 54.39<br />
| Ajoy Kumar<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 64,320<br />
| 32.63<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |42,871<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |21.76<br />
|-<br />
! 49<br />
| [[Jamshedpur West Assembly constituency|Jamshedpur West]]<br />
| [[Saryu Roy (politician)|Saryu Roy]]<br />
| {{party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}<br />
| 1,03,631<br />
| 46.74<br />
| [[Banna Gupta]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 95,768<br />
| 43.19<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Janata Dal (United)}} ; color:white;" |7,863<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Janata Dal (United)}} ; color:white;" |3.55<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]<br />
! 50<br />
| [[Ichagarh Assembly constituency|Ichaghar]]<br />
| [[Sabita Mahato]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 77,552<br />
| 33.90<br />
| Hare Lal Mahato<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| 51,029<br />
| 22.31<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |26,523<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |11.59<br />
|-<br />
! 51<br />
| [[Seraikella Assembly constituency|Seraikella]] (ST)<br />
| [[Champai Soren]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,19,379<br />
| 44.27<br />
| Ganesh Mahali<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 98,932<br />
| 36.69<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |20,447<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |7.58<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | [[West Singhbhum district|West Singhbhum]]<br />
! 52<br />
| [[Chaibasa Assembly constituency|Chaibasa]] (ST)<br />
| [[Deepak Birua]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,07,367<br />
| 64.89<br />
| Geeta Balmuchu<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 42,532<br />
| 25.70<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |64,835<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |39.19<br />
|-<br />
! 53<br />
| [[Majhgaon Assembly constituency|Majhgaon]] (ST)<br />
| [[Niral Purty]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 94,163<br />
| 60.96<br />
| Barkuwar Gagrai<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 34,560<br />
| 22.37<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |59,603<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |38.59<br />
|-<br />
! 54<br />
| [[Jaganathpur Assembly constituency|Jaganathpur]] (ST)<br />
| [[Sona Ram Sinku]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 57,065<br />
| 40.89<br />
| [[Geeta Koda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 49,682<br />
| 35.60<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |7,383<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |5.29<br />
|-<br />
! 55<br />
| [[Manoharpur Assembly constituency|Manoharpur]] (ST)<br />
| [[Jagat Majhi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 73,034<br />
| 51.53<br />
| Dinesh Chandra Boipai<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| 41,078<br />
| 28.98<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |31,956<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |22.55<br />
|-<br />
! 56<br />
| [[Chakradharpur Assembly constituency|Chakradharpur]] (ST)<br />
| [[Sukhram Oraon]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 58,639<br />
| 40.64<br />
| Shashibhushan Samad<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 49,329<br />
| 34.19<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |9,310<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |6.45<br />
|-<br />
| [[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]<br />
! 57<br />
| [[Kharsawan Assembly constituency|Kharsawan]] (ST)<br />
| [[Dashrath Gagrai]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 85,772<br />
| 47.24<br />
| Sonaram Bodra<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 53,157<br />
| 29.28<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |32,615<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |17.96<br />
|-<br />
| [[Ranchi district|Ranchi]]<br />
! 58<br />
| [[Tamar Assembly constituency|Tamar]] (ST)<br />
| [[Vikash Kumar Munda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 65,655<br />
| 40.28<br />
| Gopal Krishna Patar<br />
| {{Party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}<br />
| 41,409<br />
| 25.40<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |24,246<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |14.88<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Khunti district|Khunti]]<br />
! 59<br />
| [[Torpa Assembly constituency|Torpa]] (ST)<br />
| [[Sudeep Gudhiya]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 80,887<br />
| 59.76<br />
| [[Koche Munda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 40,240<br />
| 29.73<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |40,647<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |30.03<br />
|-<br />
! 60<br />
| [[Khunti Assembly constituency|Khunti]] (ST)<br />
| [[Ram Surya Munda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 91,721<br />
| 57.38<br />
| [[Nilkanth Singh Munda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 49,668<br />
| 31.07<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |42,053<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |26.31<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="6" | [[Ranchi district|Ranchi]]<br />
! 61<br />
| [[Silli Assembly constituency|Silli]]<br />
| [[Amit Mahto]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 73,169<br />
| 41.91<br />
| [[Sudesh Mahto]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}<br />
| 49,302<br />
| 28.24<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |23,867<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |13.67<br />
|-<br />
! 62<br />
| [[Khijri Assembly constituency|Khijri]] (ST)<br />
| [[Rajesh Kachhap]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,24,049<br />
| 47.11<br />
| Ram Kumar Pahan<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 94,984<br />
| 36.07<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |29,065<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |11.04<br />
|-<br />
! 63<br />
| [[Ranchi Assembly constituency|Ranchi]]<br />
| [[Chandreshwar Prasad Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,07,290<br />
| 53.91<br />
| [[Mahua Maji]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 85,341<br />
| 42.88<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |21,949<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |11.03<br />
|-<br />
! 64<br />
| [[Hatia Assembly constituency|Hatia]]<br />
| [[Navin Jaiswal]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,52,949<br />
| 49.16<br />
| Ajay Nath Shahdeo<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,38,326<br />
| 44.46<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |14,623<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |4.70<br />
|-<br />
! 65<br />
| [[Kanke Assembly constituency|Kanke]] (SC)<br />
| [[Suresh Kumar Baitha]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,33,499<br />
| 43.47<br />
| Dr. Jitu Charan Ram<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,32,531<br />
| 43.16<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |968<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |0.31<br />
|-<br />
! 66<br />
| [[Mandar Assembly constituency|Mandar]] (ST)<br />
| [[Shilpi Neha Tirkey]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,35,936<br />
| 49.01<br />
| Sunny Toppo<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,13,133<br />
| 40.79<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |22,803<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |8.22<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | [[Gumla district|Gumla]]<br />
! 67<br />
| [[Sisai Assembly constituency|Sisai]] (ST)<br />
| [[Jiga Susaran Horo]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,06,058<br />
| 55.09<br />
| Arun Kumar Oraon<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 67,069<br />
| 34.84<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |38,989<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |20.25<br />
|-<br />
! 68<br />
| [[Gumla Assembly constituency|Gumla]] (ST)<br />
| [[Bhushan Tirkey]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 84,974<br />
| 51.54<br />
| [[Sudarshan Bhagat]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 58,673<br />
| 35.59<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |26,301<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |15.95<br />
|-<br />
! 69<br />
| [[Bishunpur Assembly constituency|Bishunpur]] (ST)<br />
| [[Chamra Linda]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,00,366<br />
| 49.64<br />
| [[Samir Oraon]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 67,580<br />
| 33.43<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |32,756<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |16.21<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Simdega district|Simdega]]<br />
! 70<br />
| [[Simdega Assembly constituency|Simdega]] (ST)<br />
| [[Bhushan Bara]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 75,392<br />
| 44.13<br />
| Shradhanand Besra<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 66,164<br />
| 38.73<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |9,228<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |5.40<br />
|-<br />
! 71<br />
| [[Kolebira Assembly constituency|Kolebira]] (ST)<br />
| [[Naman Bixal Kongari]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 75,376<br />
| 51.86<br />
| Sujan JoJo<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 38,345<br />
| 26.38<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |37,031<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |25.48<br />
|-<br />
| [[Lohardaga district|Lohardaga]]<br />
! 72<br />
| [[Lohardaga Assembly constituency|Lohardaga]] (ST)<br />
| [[Rameshwar Oraon]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,13,507<br />
| 53.06<br />
| Neru Shanti Bhagat<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 78,837<br />
| 36.85<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |34,670<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |16.21<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Latehar district|Latehar]]<br />
! 73<br />
| [[Manika Assembly constituency|Manika]] (ST)<br />
| [[Ramchandra Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 74,946<br />
| 42.50<br />
| Harikrishna Singh<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 58,092<br />
| 32.94<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |16,854<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |9.56<br />
|-<br />
! 74<br />
| [[Latehar Assembly constituency|Latehar]] (SC)<br />
| [[Prakash Ram]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 98,063<br />
| 44.74<br />
| [[Baidyanath Ram]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 97,628<br />
| 44.54<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |434<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |0.20<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | [[Palamu district|Palamu]]<br />
! 75<br />
| [[Panki Assembly constituency|Panki]]<br />
| [[Kushwaha Shashi Bhushan Mehta]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 75,991<br />
| 35.19<br />
| Devendra Kumar Singh<br />
| style="color:inherit;background:#DDDDDD" | <br />
| [[Independent (politician)|IND]]<br />
| 66,195<br />
| 30.66<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |9,796<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |4.53<br />
|-<br />
! 76<br />
| [[Daltonganj Assembly constituency|Daltonganj]]<br />
| [[Alok Kumar Chaurasiya]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,02,175<br />
| 38.43<br />
| [[Krishna Nand Tripathi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 1,01,285<br />
| 38.10<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |890<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |0.33<br />
|-<br />
! 77<br />
| [[Bishrampur Assembly constituency|Bishrampur]]<br />
| [[Naresh Prasad Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| 74,338<br />
| 32.34<br />
| [[Ramchandra Chandravanshi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 59,751<br />
| 25.99<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}} ; color:white;" |14,587<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}} ; color:white;" |6.35<br />
|-<br />
! 78<br />
| [[Chhatarpur, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Chhatarpur]] (SC)<br />
| [[Radha Krishna Kishore]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<br />
| 71,857<br />
| 36.52<br />
| [[Pushpa Devi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 71,121<br />
| 36.15<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |736<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Indian National Congress}} ; color:white;" |0.37<br />
|-<br />
! 79<br />
| [[Hussainabad Assembly constituency|Hussainabad]]<br />
| [[Sanjay Kumar Singh Yadav]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}<br />
| 81,476<br />
| 41.98<br />
| [[Kamlesh Kumar Singh]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 47,112<br />
| 24.27<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}} ; color:white;" |34,364<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}} ; color:white;" |17.71<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Garhwa district|Garhwa]]<br />
! 80<br />
| [[Garhwa Assembly constituency|Garhwa]]<br />
| [[Satyendra Nath Tiwari]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,33,109<br />
| 45.40<br />
| [[Mithilesh Kumar Thakur]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,16,356<br />
| 39.68<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |16,753<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} ; color:white;" |5.72<br />
|-<br />
! 81<br />
| [[Bhawanathpur Assembly constituency|Bhawanathpur]]<br />
| [[Anant Pratap Deo]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}<br />
| 1,46,265<br />
| 48.49<br />
| [[Bhanu Pratap Sahi]]<br />
| {{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<br />
| 1,24,803<br />
| 41.37<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |21,462<br />
| style="background:{{party color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}} ; color:white;" |7.12<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Reactions ==<br />
Prime Minister Narendra Modi extended his congratulations to the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) on its electoral victory, to which Chief Minister Hemant Soren responded with gratitude, thanking the Prime Minister for his wishes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhelari |first=Amit |date=23 November 2024 |title=Hemant Soren thanks people of Jharkhand on JMM-led alliance's grand victory |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/hemant-soren-thanks-people-of-jharkhand-on-jmm-led-alliances-grand-victory/article68903253.ece |access-date=28 November 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=27 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127231757/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/jharkhand-assembly/hemant-soren-thanks-people-of-jharkhand-on-jmm-led-alliances-grand-victory/article68903253.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>{{importance inline|date=December 2024}} Chief Minister Hemant Soren lauded the state's democratic engagement. Soren also expressed gratitude to the people for their overwhelming support and underscored the cultural and political vision encapsulated in the phrase "Abua Raj, Abua Sarkar" (our state, our government), which he asserted as a commitment to the ideals of self-reliance and local empowerment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 November 2024 |title=Have passed exam of democracy: Hemant Soren after win in Jharkhand Assembly polls |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/jharkhand-assembly-elections-jmm-hemant-soren-india-bloc-2638940-2024-11-23 |access-date=28 November 2024 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
Following the Jharkhand Assembly election results, incidents of violence and vandalism come up, signaling the presence of deep political divides. A person named Imam Mirza in Mohammadpur village was alleged by the BJP to have been attacked by JMM workers for supporting BJP. In [[Barkagaon Assembly constituency|Barkagaon]], the Congress candidate [[Amba Prasad (politician)|Amba Prasad]] alleged that her car came under attack from supporters of the newly elected BJP MLA [[Roshan Lal Choudhary]] after the result. Prasad showed images of her car with a bashed in windshield to support her assertion and questioned their motives.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 November 2024 |title=Violence Erupts in Jharkhand After Election Results |url=https://en.themooknayak.com/politics/violence-erupts-in-jharkhand-after-election-results |access-date=1 December 2024 |website=The Mooknayak English – Voice Of The Voiceless |language=en |archive-date=25 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125210229/https://en.themooknayak.com/politics/violence-erupts-in-jharkhand-after-election-results |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[2024 elections in India]]<br />
* [[Elections in Jharkhand]]<br />
* [[Government of Jharkhand]]<br />
* [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]<br />
* [[List of chief ministers of Jharkhand]]<br />
* [[List of deputy chief ministers of Jharkhand]]<br />
* [[Politics of Jharkhand]]<br />
* [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Jharkhand elections}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2020s in Jharkhand|Assembly election]]<br />
[[Category:2024 State Assembly elections in India|Jharkhand]]<br />
[[Category:November 2024 in India|Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]<br />
[[Category:State Assembly elections in Jharkhand]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rishina_Kandhari&diff=530567Rishina Kandhari2026-05-06T03:30:19Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian television actress}}<br />
{{Notability|Biography|date=June 2021}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Rishina Kandhari<br />
| image =<br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_name = Rishina Awasthi<br />
| birth_date = 21 June 1986<br />
| birth_place = <br />
| burial_place = <br />
| burial_coordinates = <br />
| education = <br />
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Actress]]}}<br />
| years_active = 2004–present<br />
| known_for = <br />
| spouse = Vishal Kandhari<br />
| website = <br />
| relatives = Ashok Awasthi (father)<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Rishina Kandhari''' is an Indian actress whose major roles include Princess [[Khyati]] on [[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev|''Devon Ke Dev... Mahadev'']], the Goddess [[Laxmi]] in [[Tenali Rama (TV series)|''Tenali Rama'']], Empress [[Hamida Banu Begum]] in ''[[Akbar - Rakht Se Takht Ka Safar]]'' and Shanti Madam on ''[[Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai]]''. Her father, Ashok Awasthi is also a television actor who does supporting roles.<br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
<br />
===Television===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
!Show !! Role !! Notes<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Kkusum]]''<br />
|Sonia<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Saath Rahega Always]]''<br />
|Palak<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''Aakrosh''<br />
|Saloni Saxena <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''Akbar - Rakht Se Takht Ka Safar''<br />
|[[Hamida Banu Begum]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[CID (Indian TV series)|C.I.D]]''<br />
|various characters<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Crime Patrol (TV series)|Crime Patrol]]''<br />
|various characters<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Rishton Se Badi Pratha]]'' <br />
|Pratima Amar Singh<br />
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://photogallery.indiatimes.com/events/mumbai/rishton-se-badi-cast-celebrate-christmas/articleshow/7183412.cms |title=Ranjan Sehgal, Zeb Khan and Shalini during Christmas celebrations in Mumbai - Photogallery |publisher=Photogallery.indiatimes.com |date=2010-12-29 |access-date=2016-04-25}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|''[[Uttaran]]''<br />
|Malavika Rathore / Mouli<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Tashan-e-Ishq]]''<br />
|Nikki Sarna<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Yudh (TV series)|Yudh]]''<br />
|<br />
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianage.com/tv/rishina-kandhari-lesbian-amitabh-bachchan-show-339 |title=Rishina Kandhari lesbian in the Amitabh Bachchan show &#124; the Asian Age |access-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009151612/http://www.asianage.com/tv/rishina-kandhari-lesbian-amitabh-bachchan-show-339 |archive-date=9 October 2014 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|''[[Dil Ki Nazar Se Khoobsurat]] '' <br />
|Aaradhya Periwal<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Adaalat (TV series)|Adaalat]]''<br />
|ATS Head Sunanda<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''Karan - The Detective''<br />
|Monica (Karan's assistant)<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Na Aana Is Des Laado]]'' <br />
|Tanisha Chautala<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Diya Aur Baati Hum]]''<br />
|Arpita Khanna<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Yeh Chanda Kanoon Hai]]''<br />
|Inspector Moonmoon<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|[[SuperCops Vs SuperVillains|''Supercops Vs Supervillians'']]<br />
|Kiana<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev]]'' <br />
|Princess [[Khyati]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai]]''<br />
|Shanti<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Tu Sooraj, Main Saanjh Piyaji]]''<br />
|Arpita Khanna<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Prithvi Vallabh - Itihaas Bhi, Rahasya Bhi]]''<br />
|Rohini<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Tenali Rama (TV series)|Tenali Rama]]''<br />
|Goddess [[Laxmi]]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[21 Sarfarosh - Saragarhi 1897]]''<br />
|Begum<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Laut Aao Trisha]]''<br />
|Inspector Reshma<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Ishaaron Ishaaron Mein]]''<br />
|Rani Srivastav<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Aye Mere Humsafar]]''<br />
|Imarti Kothari<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Na Umra Ki Seema Ho]]''<br />
|Priya Raichand<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Television ==<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
! Year<br />
! Serial<br />
! Role<br />
! Channel<br />
|- <br />
| 2012<br />
| ''[[Savdhaan India]]''<br />
| Episode 8<br />
| [[Life OK]]<br />
|-<br />
| 2023–2024<br />
| ''[[Teri Meri Doriyaann]]''<br />
| Senior Inspector Megha Kashyap<br />
| [[Star Plus]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Films===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
!Year !! Film !! Role !! Notes<br />
|-<br />
|2014<br />
|''[[Ek Villain]]''<br />
|Nurse<br />
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Ek-Villain-debutant-Rishina-Kandhari-wishes-to-do-meaningful-films/articleshow/36954433.cms |title=Ek Villain debutant Rishina Kandhari wishes to do meaningful films|newspaper=The Times of India|first=Tejashree|last=Bhopatkar|date=21 June 2014|access-date=2022-06-05}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|''[[Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster 3]]''<br />
|News Reporter<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|2018<br />
|''[[Lupt]]''<br />
|Geeta<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Web series===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Title<br />
! Role<br />
! Platform<br />
|-<br />
|''Virgin Suspect''<br />
|Shanaya<br />
|[[Ullu App]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{IMDb name|5810739}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kandhari, Rishina}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]<br />
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi television]]<br />
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]<br />
[[Category:People from Kandahar]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]<br />
[[Category:1986 births]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muhajir_(Pakistan)&diff=518767Muhajir (Pakistan)2026-04-30T06:58:10Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: starting first info added tags</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Multi-origin ethnic group of Pakistan}}<br />
{{about|the social group in Pakistan|3=Muhajir (disambiguation)}}<br />
{{pp|small=yes}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}<br />
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox ethnic group<br />
| group = Muhajirs<br />
| native_name = {{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|مہاجر}}|rtl=yes}}<br />
| native_name_lang = ur<br />
| image = [[File:Someone saved a page from the Manchester Guardian in a scrapbook 1.jpg|275px]]<br />
| caption = Photo from ''[[The Guardian|The Manchester Guardian]]'' of a group of Muslim migrants boarding a [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]]-bound train in [[Delhi]] amidst the [[partition of India]], {{circa|1947–1953}}<br />
| population = {{circa|'''15&nbsp;million'''}}<br />
| region1 = {{flag|Pakistan}}<br />
| pop1 = 14,703,744 ([[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017 census]])<ref name=Totalpop2017>{{Cite web |last=Hasnain |first=Khalid |date=19 May 2021 |title=Pakistan's population is 207.68m, shows 2017 census result |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1624375 |access-date=12 November 2022 |website=DAWN.COM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017131612/https://www.dawn.com/news/1624375|archive-date=17 October 2022}}</ref>{{efn|7.08% of Pakistan's population}}<br />
| region2 = {{flag|Bangladesh}}<br />
| pop2 = 300,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangladesh: Urdu-Speaking "Biharis" Seek Recognition, Respect and Rights |url=https://www.iri.org/resources/new-bangladesh-report-reveals-priorities-of-the-bihari-minority/ |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=International Republican Institute |date=4 February 2021 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926190315/https://www.iri.org/resources/new-bangladesh-report-reveals-priorities-of-the-bihari-minority/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{efn|0.18% of Bangladesh's population}}<br />
| region3 = {{flagu|United Kingdom}}<br />
| pop3 = 269,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=2011 Census - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/2011censusquickstatisticsforenglandandwales/2013-01-30#tab-Main-language |access-date=15 October 2022 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref><br />
| region4 = {{flagu|United States}}<br />
| pop4 = 188,983<ref>{{Cite book |last=Najam |first=Adil |title=Portrait of a giving community : philanthropy by the Pakistani-American diaspora |date=2006 |publisher=Global Equity Initiative, Asia Center, Harvard University |others=Harvard University. Global Equity Initiative |isbn=0-674-02366-8 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |oclc=44648966}}</ref><br />
| region5 = {{flag|United Arab Emirates}}<br />
| pop5 = 80,000{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}<br />
| region6 = {{flagu|Canada}}<br />
| pop6 = 74,405<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=8 February 2017 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census - Canada [Country] and Canada [Country] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Language&TABID=1 |access-date=15 October 2022 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref><br />
| region7 = {{flagu|Australia}}<br />
| pop7 = 69,131<ref>{{Cite web |title=Find out how many people speak Urdu in your suburb |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/language/urdu/en/article/find-out-how-many-people-speak-urdu-in-your-suburb/ycpjw1cxa |access-date=2 January 2023 |website=SBS Language |date=23 November 2018 }}</ref><br />
| region8 = {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}<br />
| pop8 = 53,000<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalmediainsight.com/blog/saudi-arabia-population-statistics/ | title=Saudi Arabia (KSA) Population Statistics [Infographics] | date=20 April 2022 }}</ref><br />
| langs = [[Urdu language|Urdu]] {{small|(native language of the majority)}}<br />
<br />
Other languages: <br />
[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Memoni language|Memoni]], [[Rajasthani languages]], and others {{small|(spoken by minorities)}}<br />
| religions = [[Islam]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} EASO Country of Origin Information Report. Pakistan Country Overview |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/55e061f24.html |access-date=3 January 2023 |website=Refworld }}</ref><br />
| related_groups = <br />
}}<br />
{{Contains special characters|Urdu}}<br />
{{Muhajirs}}<br />
<br />
The '''Muhajir people''' (also spelled '''Mohajir''' and '''Mahajir''') ({{langx|ur|{{Nq|مہاجر}}}}) are a multi-origin ethnic group of Pakistan. They are the [[Muslim]] immigrants, of various ethnic groups and regional origins, who migrated from various regions of India after the 1947 independence to settle in the newly independent state of [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]], and their descendants.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkQfwA30aY4C&pg=PA264|title=The World Factbook|date=1992|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|page=264}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/20715/dont-label-me-mohajir/|title=Don't label me 'Mohajir'|work=tribune.com.pk|date=11 February 2014 |access-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617192944/http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/20715/dont-label-me-mohajir/|archive-date=17 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
Muhajirs come from various ethnic and regional backgrounds, with a significant portion of the community residing in [[Karachi]] and other major urban centers of Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 February 2008 |title=PAK32916 Research Response |url=https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4b6fe2dd0.pdf |website=www.refworld.org}}</ref><br />
<br />
The total population of Muhajrs worldwide is estimated to be around 15 million, and the overwhelming majority of this figure (14.7 million) is located in Pakistan, according to the [[2017 Pakistani census]]. Though the official controversial 2017 census of Karachi, which has historically hosted the country's largest Muhajir population, has been challenged by most of Sindh's political parties.<br />
<br />
{{TOC limit|3}}<br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
The Urdu term ''muhājir'' ({{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|مہاجر}}}}) comes from the Arabic ''muhājir'' ({{langx|ar|مهاجر}}), meaning an "immigrant",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urdu Word مہاجر – Mohajir Meaning in English is Immigrant |url=https://www.urdupoint.com/dictionary/urdu-to-english/mohajir-meaning-in-english/49772.html |access-date=21 November 2022 |website=UrduPoint }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=MQM to observe 'black day' over Khursheed Shah's 'Muhajir' comment|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1140322/mqm-to-observe-black-day-over-khursheed-shahs-muhajir-comment|access-date=27 April 2015|publisher=Dawn|date=26 October 2014|quote=Read 5th Paragraph|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224100352/http://www.dawn.com/news/1140322/mqm-to-observe-black-day-over-khursheed-shahs-muhajir-comment|archive-date=24 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite web|title=Muhajirs in Pakistan|website=European Country of Origin Information Network|date=5 July 2012 |url=http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/222874/330352_en.html |access-date=27 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818211452/http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/222874/330352_en.html |archive-date=18 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> or "emigrant".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muhajir – Meaning of Muhajir Name, Muhajir Origin and Astrology |url=https://www.babynamescube.com/muhajir-name-meaning |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=www.babynamescube.com }}</ref> This term is associated in early [[History of Islam|Islamic history]] to the [[Hijra (Islam)|migration]] of [[Muslim]]s and connotes 'separation, migration, flight, specifically the flight of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hijrah {{!}} History, Definition, & Importance {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Hijrah-Islam |access-date=2 January 2023 |website=www.britannica.com }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2013 |title=The Qur'anic Perspective on Immigrants: Prophet Muhammad's Migration and Its Implications in Our Modern Society {{!}} The Journal of Scriptural Reasoning |url=https://jsr.shanti.virginia.edu/back-issues/vol-10-no-1-august-2011-people-and-places/the-quranic-perspective-on-immigrants/ |access-date=21 November 2022}}</ref> This term was popularised in Pakistan by the 1951 census, although its earliest uses date back to Partition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Laurent |first=Gayer |date=9 March 2008 |title=Projections internationales ou détours vers le local? Les diplomaties identitaires des sikhs (Inde) et des Mohajirs (Pakistan) |journal=International Review of Sociology |language=French |volume=18 |issue=1 |via=SocINDEX}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
=== Origins ===<br />
Most of the Muhajirs who settled in the [[Sindh|Sindh province of Pakistan]] came from the present-day Indian states of [[Madhya Pradesh|Central Provinces]], [[Berar Province|Berar]], [[Bombay presidency|Bombay]], [[Uttar Pradesh|United Provinces]], [[Haryana]], [[Gujarat]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Bihar]] and [[Delhi]], while others were from princely states of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], [[Baroda]], [[Kutch]], and the [[Rajputana Agency]].<ref name="Mahapatra1989"/><ref name="Ahmad2009">{{cite book|author=Aijazuddin Ahmad|title=Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA76|year=2009|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-568-1|pages=76–}}</ref><ref>Bhavnani, Nandita. "Unwanted refugees: Sindhi Hindus in India and muhajirs in Sindh." South Asia: ''Journal of South Asian Studies'' 39.4 (2016): 790-804.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Population ===<br />
Muhajirs, worldwide, have a population of over 15 million.<ref name="Skutsch2013">{{cite book|author=Carl Skutsch|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSUKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT2234|date=7 November 2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-19395-9|pages=2234–}}</ref> Urdu-speaking Muhajirs are mostly settled in Pakistan and currently are the fifth-largest [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan|ethnic group of Pakistan]], with a population of around 7.6% of the national population, according to the census.<ref name="FactbookCIA">{{Citation |title=Pakistan |date=2 November 2022 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/pakistan/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115164214/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/pakistan/ |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=13 November 2022 |archive-date=15 January 2023}}</ref> Although the population figures of the Muhajir dominated city of Karachi, have faced many controversies mainly due to the controversial 2017 census of Pakistan. The population figure has been rejected by most major political parties of Sindh including [[Muttahida Qaumi Movement – Pakistan|MQM-P]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2023 |title=Unified MQM-P holds first workers' convention |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1733254 |access-date=25 January 2023 |website=Dawn }}</ref> [[Pak Sarzameen Party|PSP]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 April 2018 |title=Mustafa Kamal challenges census 2017 results in SC |url=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/mustafa-kamal-challenges-census-2017-results-in-sc/ |access-date=20 November 2022 |website=Daily Pakistan Global }}</ref> and [[Pakistan People's Party|PPP]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghori |first=Habib Khan |date=3 November 2017 |title=Sindh Assembly refuses to accept census results |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1367985 |access-date=20 November 2022 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 December 2020 |title=Will not accept 2017 census figures, agree MQM-P, PPP after meeting |url=https://nation.com.pk/31-Dec-2020/will-not-accept-2017-census-figures-agree-mqm-p-ppp-after-meeting |access-date=20 November 2022 |website=The Nation }}</ref> <br />
<br />
Estimates of Muhajir nationalist organizations range from 22 million<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shah |first=Syed Mehtab |title=Ethnic tensions in Sindh and their possible solution |date=17 November 1997 |journal=Contemporary South Asia |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=259 |doi=10.1080/09584939708719820|issn = 0958-4935}}</ref> to around 30 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Sindhis and Mohajirs |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/sindhis-and-mohajirs/ |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=Minority Rights Group |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120173632/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/sindhis-and-mohajirs/|archive-date=20 November 2022}}</ref> Conversely, [[Christophe Jaffrelot]] gives a lower number, estimating their modern population to number between 7 and 9 millions, mostly in Karachi.<ref>Christophe Jaffrelot, ''The Pakistan Paradox: Instability and Resilience'', Oxford University Press (2015), p. 176</ref> The variation in population estimates arises from differing definitions: the term ''Muhajir'' as an ethnic group typically refers to descendants of migrants from present-day India, whereas the broader category of ''Urdu speakers'' may also include millions of individuals, particularly ethnic [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabis]] in major urban centers, who now speak Urdu as their first language.<br />
<br />
Historically, Muhajirs have constituted above 7% population of West Pakistan (3.5% in Pakistan as a whole).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistanis demand that their government recognize Bengali as an official language, 1947-1952 {{!}} Global Nonviolent Action Database |url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/pakistanis-demand-their-government-recognize-bengali-official-language-1947-1952 |access-date=15 February 2023 |website=nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Languages ===<br />
Being a multi-linguistic group of people, the Muhajirs speak different languages natively depending on their ethnicity and ancestral history.<ref name=":8">{{cite book|title=Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia|author=Stanley J. Tambiah|date=3 January 1997 |pages=183|isbn=9780520918191|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WT9uAAAAMAAJ&q=with+blood+relations+in+India+are+the+muhajirs+,+the+overwhelming+majority+of+whom+are+from+the+United+Provinces |title= The Pakistani Historian |author= Khursheed Kamal Aziz |date= 1993 |publisher= the University of Michigan}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ll02P7G5XD8C&dq=muhajir+urdu-speaking+areas&pg=PA73 |title= Pakistan – Social and Cultural Transformations in a Muslim Nation |author= Mohammad Qadeer |date= 2006 |publisher= Taylor & Francis |page= 73 |isbn= 9781134186174 }}</ref><ref>Oskar Verkaaik, ''A people of migrants: ethnicity, state, and religion in Karachi'', Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1994</ref><br />
<br />
==== Urdu ====<br />
{{Main|Urdu-speaking people}}<br />
<br />
Most Muhajirs speak Urdu, the third-largest [[Urdu-speaking people|Urdu-speaking]] population in the world.<ref name="Skutsch2013" /> In Sindh, those that speak Urdu as first language mostly migrated from [[Delhi]], [[United Provinces (1937–1950)|United Provinces]], [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad Deccan]], [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]], [[Ajmer]], [[Bhopal]], [[Bihar]], [[Karnal]] including from other regions with other native tongues who eventually assimilated into the community amid nation building.<ref name="Mahapatra1989">{{cite book|last1=Mahapatra|first1=B. P.|title=Constitutional languages|date=1989|publisher=[[Presses Université Laval]]|isbn=978-2-7637-7186-1}}</ref><ref name="AlexanderChatterji2015">{{cite book|author1=Claire Alexander|author2=Joya Chatterji|author3=Annu Jalais|title=The Bengal Diaspora: Rethinking Muslim migration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ_hCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|date=6 November 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-33593-1|pages=96–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2014 |title=Muhajirs in historical perspective |url=https://nation.com.pk/07-Nov-2014/muhajirs-in-historical-perspective |access-date=9 July 2024 |website=The Nation |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Papiya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xP4jAwAAQBAJ&dq=maulana+abdul+quddus+bihaor&pg=PA7 |title=Partition and the South Asian Diaspora: Extending the Subcontinent |date=21 March 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-80966-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=MyPluralist |date=18 December 2022 |title=How Urdu-Speaking Muhajir Domination Shaped Pakistan |url=https://mypluralist.com/2022/12/18/urdu-speaking-muhajir-domination-pakistan/ |access-date=9 July 2024 |website=MyPluralist}}</ref><br />
<br />
In [[Punjab]], although most migrants were of East Punjab origin and Punjabi speaking, a sizeable number of natively Urdu speaking communities also migrated to its urban centres mainly from [[Delhi]], [[Rohtak]], [[Hisar (city)|Hisar]], [[Karnal]], [[Alwar]], [[Bharatpur, Rajasthan|Bharatpur]], [[Jodhpur]], [[Mewat]] and [[United Provinces (1937–1950)|UP]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The paradox of Mohajirism |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/960973/the-paradox-of-mohajirism?amp=1 |access-date=9 July 2024 |website=The Express Tribune | date=21 September 2015 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Gujarati ====<br />
There is a large community of [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] Muhajirs mainly settled in the Pakistani [[Administrative units of Pakistan|province]] of [[Sindh]]. Estimates say there are 3,500,000 speakers of the Gujarati language in [[Karachi]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Rehman |first=Zia |date=18 August 2015 |title=With a handful of subbers, two newspapers barely keeping Gujarati alive in Karachi |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/57104-with-a-handful-of-subberstwo-newspapers-barely-keeping-gujarati-alive-in-karachi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128152831/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/57104-with-a-handful-of-subberstwo-newspapers-barely-keeping-gujarati-alive-in-karachi |archive-date=28 November 2022 |access-date=15 October 2022 |website=www.thenews.com.pk }}</ref> Although the Gujaratis speak their own language, they tend to identify with the Urdu-speakers{{sfn|Lieven|2011|p=310}} This group includes [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Walsh |first=Judith E. |year=2017 |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iekF9X3OwwMC&pg=PA173 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=173 |isbn=978-1-4381-0825-4 |quote=son of a middle-class merchant of the Muslim Khoja community who had migrated to Sind from Gujarat}}</ref> [[Abdul Sattar Edhi]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Boone|first=Jon|date=13 July 2016|title=Abdul Sattar Edhi obituary|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/13/abdul-sattar-edhi-obituary|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108113000/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/13/abdul-sattar-edhi-obituary|archive-date=8 November 2020|access-date=7 December 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> [[Javed Miandad]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Samiuddin |first=Osama |date=6 December 2017 |title=Javed Miandad and Pakistan's quest for izzat |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/an-extract-on-javed-miandad-from-osman-samiuddin-s-i-the-unquiet-ones-i-1102974 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211071505/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/an-extract-on-javed-miandad-from-osman-samiuddin-s-i-the-unquiet-ones-i-1102974 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |access-date=25 November 2022 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> [[Abdul Razzak Yaqoob]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reporter |first=The Newspaper's Staff |date=22 February 2014 |title=Founder of ARY Group passes away |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1088706 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206060441/https://www.dawn.com/news/1088706 |archive-date=6 December 2022 |access-date=25 November 2022 |url-status=live |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> [[I. I. Chundrigar]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGtmAAAAMAAJ&q=i+i++chundrigar+born+1897 |title=Biographical Encyclopedia of Pakistan |date=1960 |publisher=Biographical Research Institute, Pakistan. }}</ref><ref name="Contemporary Targett, Goradia, 2003">{{cite book|last1=Goradia|first1=Prafull|title=Muslim League's unfinished agenda |year=2003 |publisher=Contemporary Targett |location=New Delhi |page=53 |isbn=9788175253766 |quote=Jinnah Wanted All Non-Muslims To Migrate To India And All Muslims To Inhabit Pakistan. The Book Is The Story Of This Unfulfilled Dream. While Pakistan Particularly, The Western Wing Went About Ethnic Cleansing, India Failed To Encourage`Hijrat}}</ref> and [[Ahmed Dawood]].{{sfn|Batliwala|1995|p=16}}<br />
<br />
==== Others ====<br />
Non-Urdu speaking Muslim peoples from what is now the [[Republic of India]], such as [[Marathi Muslims|Marathi]], [[Konkani Muslims|Konkani]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=26 September 2014 |title=Visual Karachi: From Paris of Asia, to City of Lights, to Hell on Earth |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1134284 |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> 60,000 [[Rajasthani people|Rajasthanis]]<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnAMAQAAMAAJ |title=The Gazetteer of West Pakistan: The Former Province of Sind Including Khairpur State |date=1968 |publisher=Gazetteer Cell, Board of Revenue |language=en}}</ref> who speak the [[Marwari language|Marwari dialect]] of [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani language]]<ref name="Masica">{{Citation| last= Masica| first= Colin| author-link= Colin Masic | year= 1991| title= The Indo-Aryan Languages| place= Cambridge| publisher= Cambridge University Press| isbn= 978-0-521-29944-2| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC}}.</ref> and several-thousand [[Malabar Muslims|Malabari Muslims]] from [[Kerala]] in [[South India]], are considered Muhajirs.<ref name=":12">{{cite web |author=M R Narayan Swamy |date=5 October 2005 |title=Where Malayalees once held sway & Updates at |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report_where-malayalees-once-held-sway_4610 |access-date=10 February 2014 |website=Daily News and Analysis}}</ref> These ethno-linguistic groups are being [[Cultural assimilation|assimilated]] in the Urdu-speaking community.<ref name="http">{{cite web|url=http://www.merinews.com/article/political-and-ethnic-battles-turn-karachi-into-beirut-of-south-asia/15875445.shtml|title=Political and ethnic battles turn Karachi into Beirut of South Asia " Crescent|publisher=Merinews.com|access-date=24 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130080304/http://www.merinews.com/article/political-and-ethnic-battles-turn-karachi-into-beirut-of-south-asia/15875445.shtml|archive-date=30 November 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
Many dialects related to Urdu such as [[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]], and [[Rangri dialect (Haryanvi)|Haryanvi (Rangari dialect)]] or other languages like [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Mewati language|Mewati]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Nagpuri language|Sadri]] are also spoken by the Muhajirs.<ref name=":82">{{cite book |author=Stanley J. Tambiah |title=Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia |date=3 January 1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520918191 |pages=183}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Geographic distribution ==<br />
=== In Pakistan ===<br />
{{Expand section|date=February 2023}}<br />
[[File:Urdu-speakers by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg|thumb|Distribution of Urdu-speaking Muhajirs in Pakistan as per [[2017 Census of Pakistan|2017 census]].]]<br />
There are an estimated 14.7 million Urdu speakers presumably mostly of Muhajir origin in Pakistan.<ref name=FactbookCIA /> Most of them are settled in the towns and cities of Pakistan mainly those of Urban Sindh, such as [[Karachi]], [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]], [[Mirpur Khas]] and [[Sukkur]]. Muhajir pockets are also found in other metropolizes of Pakistan such as [[Islamabad]] and [[Lahore]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zaidi |first=S. Akbar |date=1991 |title=Sindhi vs Mohajir in Pakistan: Contradiction, Conflict, Compromise |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=26 |issue=20 |pages=1295–1302 |jstor=4398031 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<!-- When updating a figure, don't forget to update the total figures --><br />
|+Percent of Urdu speakers by administrative unit<br />
|-<br />
!Administrative units of Pakistan<br />
! data-sort-type="number" |Population<br />
!%<br />
|-<br />
| {{flag|Balochistan}} || 12,335,129 <ref name="DISTRICT WISE CENSUS RESULTS CENSUS 2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|title=District Wise Census Results Census 2017|publisher=pbscensus.gov.pk|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829164748/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/files/DISTRICT_WISE_CENSUS_RESULTS_CENSUS_2017.pdf|archive-date=29 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="POP">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Pak-population-increased-by-46-9-between-1998-and-2011/articleshow/12453387.cms|title=Pak population increased by 46.9% between 1998 and 2011|work=The Times of India|date=29 March 2012 |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129125417/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Pak-population-increased-by-46-9-between-1998-and-2011/articleshow/12453387.cms|archive-date=29 January 2016}}</ref><br />
|0.81%<ref name="CCIDEFER">{{Cite web |last=Kiani |first=Khaleeq |date=28 May 2018 |title=CCI defers approval of census results until elections |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1410447 |access-date=3 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| [[File:Proposed Flag of Islamabad Capital Territory.svg|25x18px]] [[Islamabad Capital Territory]]|| 2,003,368<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICT District wise 2017 |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2017/tables/islamabad/Table01d.pdf |website=www.pbs.gov.pk}}</ref><br />
|12.23%<ref name="CCIDEFER" /><br />
|-<br />
| {{flag|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa}} || 35,501,964<ref>{{Cite web |title=KP District wise 2017 |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2017/kp_tehsil.pdf}}</ref><br />
|0.9%<ref name="CCIDEFER" /><br />
|-<br />
| {{flag|Punjab}} || 110,012,442<ref name="punjabpopulation">[http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk 2017 Census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015113737/http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/ |date=15 October 2017 }}</ref><br />
|4.87%<ref name="CCIDEFER" /><br />
|-<br />
| {{flag|Sindh}} || 47,854,510<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sindh District wise Population 2017 |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2017/sindh_district_wise.pdf |access-date=3 January 2023 |website=www.pbs.gov.pk}}</ref><br />
|18.2%<ref name="URDUSINDH">{{cite web|title=Salient Features Of Final Results Census-2017|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files//population_census/sailent_feature_%20census_2017.pdf|access-date=20 May 2021|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829194924/https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files//population_census/sailent_feature_%20census_2017.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| '''{{flag|Pakistan}}'''|| '''232,675,212'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistan Population (2023) - Worldometer |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/pakistan-population/ |access-date=3 January 2023 |website=www.worldometers.info }}</ref><br />
|'''7.08%'''<ref name="URDUSINDH" /><br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== In Bangladesh ===<br />
A large number of Urdu-speaking Muslims from [[Bihar]] went to [[East Pakistan]] after the independence of India and Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 December 2020 |title=The forgotten Biharis in East Pakistan |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/705972/the-forgotten-biharis-in-east-pakistan/ |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=Daily Times }}</ref> After the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|formation of Bangladesh in 1971]], the Biharis maintained their loyalty to Pakistan and wanted to leave Bangladesh for Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chowdhury |first=Afsan |date=18 December 2010 |title=Biharis In 1971: Used & Left Behind By Pakistan Army |url=https://leagueofindia.com/india-world/biharis-1971-used-left-behind-pakistan-army/ |access-date=9 November 2022 }}</ref> The majority of these people still await repatriation, however. About 178,000 have been repatriated.<ref name="HofmannCaruso2011">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKCKe7J9Uq4C&pg=PA101|title=Minority Rights in South Asia|author1=Rainer Hofmann|author2=Ugo Caruso|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2011|isbn=978-3-631-60916-3|pages=101–}}</ref> In 2015, the Pakistani government stated that the remaining '[[Stranded Pakistanis]]' are not its responsibility but rather the responsibility of Bangladesh.<ref name="Tribune">{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/861364/stranded-pakistanis-in-bangladesh-not-pakistans-responsibility-fo-tells-sc/|title=Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh not Pakistan's responsibility, FO tells SC|date=30 March 2015|newspaper=The Express Tribune|access-date=26 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502165931/http://tribune.com.pk/story/861364/stranded-pakistanis-in-bangladesh-not-pakistans-responsibility-fo-tells-sc/|archive-date=2 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Nearly 300,000 [[Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh|Biharis]] are currently settled in the urban areas of [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 August 2014 |title='Stranded Pakistanis' living in camps in Bangladesh – in pictures |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/gallery/2014/aug/11/stranded-pakistanis-camps-bangladesh-bihari-in-pictures |access-date=2 January 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XdeCwAAQBAJ |title=The Pakistan Paradox: Instability and Resilience |date=15 August 2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-061330-3 |page=104 }}</ref><ref name="refugeeinterbihari">[http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/8245 Bangladesh: Stateless Biharis Grasp for a Resolution and Their Rights - Refugees international] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321134045/http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/8245 |date=21 March 2007 }}</ref> These muhajirs are settled mainly in Shahjahan Pur, [[Kamalapur railway station|Kamla Pur]], [[Motijheel Thana|Motijheel]], [[Paltan|Purana Pultan]], [[Nawabpur Road|Nawabpur road]], Nawab Bari, Thatheri Bazar, [[Moulvibazar district|Moulvi Bazar]], [[Armanitola|Armani Tola]], [[Islampur, Jagannathpur|Islam Pur]], [[Azimpur, Dhaka|Azim Pur]], [[Sadarghat, Chittagong|Saddar Ghat]], Eskatan, [[Dhanmondi Thana|Dhanmandi]], [[Dhakeshwari Temple|Dhakeshwari]], Neel Khet.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Engr Imtiaz Alam |date=15 December 2019 |title=History: The Fall Of Dhaka From Bihari Eyes |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1522385 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102052156/https://www.dawn.com/news/1522385 |archive-date=2 January 2023 |access-date=2 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> In 2003, these Muhajirs were granted nationality and the right to vote.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rahman |first=Waliur |date=6 May 2003 |title=Vote for 'stranded Pakistanis' |work=[[BBC]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3003949.stm |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108181750/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3003949.stm |archive-date=8 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lynch |first=Maureen |date=23 March 2006 |title=Bangladesh: Stateless Biharis Grasp for a Resolution and Their Rights |url=http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/8245 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718065517/http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/8245 |archive-date=18 July 2006 |access-date=16 January 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
{{Main|History of Muhajirs}}<br />
<br />
{{See also|Partition of India}}<br />
[[File:A couple migrating from India To Pakistan with their household stuff and cattle during Partition.JPG|thumb|The photo monument depicting a couple migrating from India to Pakistan with their household stuff and cattle during the [[Partition of India]].]]<br />
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The [[Partition of India]] caused the largest migration in human history.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 June 2020 |title=What Was The Largest Migration In History? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-was-the-largest-migration-in-history.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104051631/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-was-the-largest-migration-in-history.html |archive-date=4 January 2023 |access-date=4 January 2023 |website=WorldAtlas }}</ref> Many Muslims in parts of present-day India were persecuted by Hindus and Sikhs, while many Hindus and Sikhs in present-day Pakistan were persecuted by Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, New Edition|author=Yasmin Khan|date=4 July 2017|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=9780300233643 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PEpDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> After the [[Partition of India|independence of Pakistan]], a significant number of Muslims emigrated or were out-migrated from the territory that became the [[Dominion of India]] and later the [[Republic of India]].<ref name="INDEXMIG">{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2017/aug/14/when-muslims-left-pakistan-for-india-1642817.html|title=When Muslims left Pakistan for India|work=The New Indian Express|date=14 August 2017 |type=Opinion|access-date=19 August 2017|archive-date=5 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905102113/http://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2017/aug/14/when-muslims-left-pakistan-for-india-1642817.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In the aftermath of partition, a huge population exchange occurred between the two newly formed states.<ref name="INDEXMIG" /> In the riots which preceded the partition, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide.<ref>{{cite web|author=Paul R. Brass |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|title=The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes |author-link=Paul Brass|date=2003|page=75 (5(1), 71–101)|work=[[Journal of Genocide Research]]|access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414153300/http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/291225/20th-century-international-relations/32936/South-Asia#ref304573|title=20th-century international relations (politics) :: South Asia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=16 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426211905/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/291225/20th-century-international-relations/32936/South-Asia#ref304573|archive-date=26 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[UNHCR]] estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims were displaced during the partition; it was the largest [[mass migration]] in human history.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rupture in South Asia |publisher=UNHCR|url=http://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bab0.pdf|access-date=16 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311071256/http://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bab0.pdf|archive-date=11 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml|date=3 March 2011|author=Crispin Bates|work=BBC|access-date=16 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150410110938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/partition1947_01.shtml|archive-date=10 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Basu|first=Tanya |date=15 August 2014|title=The Fading Memory of South Asia's Partition|journal=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/08/the-fading-memory-of-partition-india-pakistan-bangladesh/376120/|access-date=16 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319112828/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/08/the-fading-memory-of-partition-india-pakistan-bangladesh/376120/|archive-date=19 March 2017}}</ref><br />
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=== First immigration wave (August–November 1947) ===<br />
[[File:Muslim refugees in the Tomb of Humayun.png|thumb|Muslim refugees in the Tomb of Humayun, 1947|left]]<br />
[[File:Partition of Punjab, India 1947.jpg|thumb|Muslim refugees boarding a train in September 1947, similar to those involved in the massacre, with the intent of fleeing India]]<br />
There were three predominant stages of Muslim migration from India to West Pakistan. The first stage lasted from August–November 1947. In this stage of migration the Muslim immigrants originated from [[East Punjab]], [[Delhi]], the four adjacent districts of [[Uttar Pradesh|U.P.]], and the princely states of [[Alwar]] and [[Bharatpur State|Bharatpur]] which are now part of the present-day Indian state of [[Rajasthan]].<ref name="Khalidi">{{cite journal|last=Khalidi|first=Omar|date=Autumn 1998|title=From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan, 1947–97|journal=Islamic Studies|publisher=Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad|volume=37|jstor=20837002|number=3|pages=339–52}}</ref> The violence affecting these areas during partition precipitated an exodus of Muslims from these areas to Pakistan.<ref name="Khalidi" /> Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab crossed to West Punjab and settled in a culturally and linguistically similar environment.<ref name="Jaffrelot2016" /><br />
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The migration to Sindh was of a different nature to that in Punjab, as the migrants to Sindh were ethnically heterogenous and were linguistically different from the locals.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sodhar |first1=Qasim |last2=Panhwar |first2=Bushra |title=Migration to Sindh: It's [sic] effects on Political Economy & Demography of Sindh |url=https://irpll.aiou.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/11-M.-Qasim-Sodhar-Bushra-Panhwar.pdf}}</ref> The migrants were also more educated than the native, and predominantly rural Sindhi Muslims who had been less educated and less prosperous than the former Sindhi Hindu residents, suffered as a result.<ref name="Shah1997">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7czT4fipTyoC&pg=PA47|title=The Foreign Policy of Pakistan: Ethnic Impacts on Diplomacy 1971–1994|author=Mehtab Ali Shah|date=15 November 1997|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-169-5|pages=47–}}</ref> The migrants, who were urban, also tended to regard the local Sindhis as "backwards" and subservient to landowners.<ref name="KudaisyaYong2004" /><br />
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Prior to the partition, the majority of urban Sindh's population had been Hindu,<ref name="Visweswaran2011">{{cite book|author=Kamala Visweswaran|title=Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&pg=PA96|date=6 May 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-0062-5|pages=96–}}</ref> but after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the majority of Sindh's Hindus migrated to India,<ref name="Jaffrelot2016" /> although a substantial number of Hindus did remain in Sindh.<ref name="Falzon2004">{{cite book|author=Mark-Anthony Falzon|title=Cosmopolitan Connections: The Sindhi Diaspora, 1860–2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ljbS-I5Y8WMC&pg=PA6|year=2004|publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-14008-5|pages=6–}}</ref> 1.1 million Muslims from Uttar Pradesh, Bombay Presidency, Delhi, and Rajasthan settled in their place; half in Karachi and the rest across Sindh's other cities.<ref name="Rehman2000">{{cite book|author=Javaid Rehman|title=The Weaknesses in the International Protection of Minority Rights |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHRMEoS7-YQC&pg=PA215|date=13 April 2000 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-411-1350-9|pages=215–}}</ref><ref name="Jaffrelot2016">{{cite book|author=Christophe Jaffrelot |title=The Pakistan Paradox: Instability And Resilience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQDzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT100|date=16 June 2016|publisher=Random House Publishers India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-8400-707-7|pages=100–}}</ref> By the 1951 census, the migrants constituted 57 per cent of the population of Karachi, 65 per cent in Hyderabad, and 55 per cent in Sukkur.<ref name="TanKudaisya2004" /> As [[Karachi]] was the capital of the new nation, educated urban migrants from [[Delhi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Mumbai|Bombay]], [[Bihar]], and [[Hyderabad]] [[Deccan]] preferred it as their site of settlement for better access to employment opportunities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of Karachi |website=Newsline |url=https://newslinemagazine.com/magazine/brief-history-karachi/ |access-date=21 November 2022}}</ref> The migrants were compensated for their properties lost in India by being granted the evacuee property left behind by the departing Hindus.<ref name="KudaisyaYong2004">{{cite book|author1=Gyanesh Kudaisya |author2=Tan Tai Yong|title=The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPOBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229|date=March 2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-44048-1|pages=229–}}</ref> A sizeable community of [[Malayali people|Malayali]] Muslims (the [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]), originally from [[Kerala]] in [[South India]], also settled in Karachi.<ref name=Malay>{{Cite web |title=Where Malayalees once held sway |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-where-malayalees-once-held-sway-4610 |access-date=12 November 2022 |website=DNA India }}</ref><ref>Delage, R., 2014. [http://www.booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html Muslim Castes in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831000710/http://www.booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html |date=31 August 2017 }}. India: Books Ideas.</ref><br />
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=== Second immigration wave (December 1947 – December 1971) ===<br />
[[File:India - Pakistan Refugees.ogv|thumb|This film contrasts the old and new India and Pakistan, with emphasis on the Bangladesh and Kashmir disputes.]]<br />
Many Muslim families from India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950s and even early 1960s. This second stage (December 1947 – December 1971) of the migration was from areas in the present-day Indian states of [[Uttar Pradesh|U.P]]., [[Delhi]], [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]], [[Telangana]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Kerala]]. The main destination of these migrants was [[Karachi]] and the other urban centers of [[Sindh]].<ref name="Khalidi" /><br />
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In 1952, a joint passport system was introduced for travel purposes between the two countries which made it possible for [[Indian Muslims]] to legally move to Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 July 2021 |title=Did You Know That India & Pakistan Used To Have A Joint Passport? Here's How You Could Get It |url=https://www.scoopwhoop.com/news/india-pakistan-shared-a-joint-passport-once/ |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=ScoopWhoop}}</ref> Pakistan still required educated and skilled workers to absorb into its [[Economy of Pakistan|economy]] at the time, due to relatively low levels of education (15.9 per cent in 1961) in Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Changes in Levels of Educational Attainment in Pakistan: 1951-1961 - PIDE - Pakistan Institute of Development Economics - - |url=https://pide.org.pk/research/changes-in-levels-of-educational-attainment-in-pakistan-1951-1961/ |access-date=21 November 2022 |website=pide.org.pk/ }}</ref> As late as December 1971, the Pakistan High Commission in New Delhi was authorized to issue documents to educationally-qualified Indians to migrate to Pakistan.{{Sfn|Khalidi|1998|p=345}} The legal route was taken by unemployed but educated Indian Muslims seeking better fortunes, however poorer Muslims from India continued to go illegally via the [[Khokhropar|Rajasthan-Sindh border]] until the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965 India–Pakistan war]] when that route was shut.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2001 |title=A Muhajir's Prayer |website=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/a-muhajirs-prayer/articleshow/494482109.cms |access-date=21 November 2022}}</ref> After the conclusion of the 1965 war, most Muslims who wanted to go to Pakistan had to go there via the [[Bangladesh–India border|East Pakistani-India border]]. Once reaching [[Dhaka]], most made their way to the final destination-[[Karachi]].<ref name="Khalidi" /> However, not all managed to reach [[West Pakistan]] from [[East Pakistan]].<ref name="Khalidi" /><br />
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In 1959, the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) published a report stating that between the period of 1951–1956, around 650,000 Muslims from India relocated to [[West Pakistan]].{{Sfn|Khalidi|1998|p=344}} However, Visaria (1969) raised doubts about the authenticity of the claims about [[Immigration to Pakistan|Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan]], since the [[1951 Census of Pakistan|1961 Census of Pakistan]] did not corroborate these figures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Visaria |first=Pravin M. |date=1 August 1969 |title=Migration between India and Pakistan, 1951–61 |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/demography/article/6/3/323/172436/Migration-between-India-and-Pakistan-1951-61 |journal=Demography |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=323–334 |doi=10.2307/2060400 |jstor=2060400 |pmid=21331852 |s2cid=23272586 |issn=0070-3370|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, the [[Census in Pakistan|1961 Census of Pakistan]] did incorporate a statement suggesting that there had been a migration of 800,000 people from India to Pakistan throughout the previous decade.<ref name="lse.ac.uk">{{cite web |title=Effects of Migration, Socioeconomic Status and Population Policy on Reproductive Behaviour |author=Mehtab Karim |publisher=Asia Research Centre |id=Working Paper 4 |url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/asiaResearchCentre/_files/ARCWP04-Karim.pdf |access-date=15 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127011533/http://www.lse.ac.uk/asiaResearchCentre/_files/ARCWP04-Karim.pdf}}</ref> Of those who had left for Pakistan, most never came back. The Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] conveyed distress about the continued migration of [[Indian Muslims]] to [[West Pakistan]]:<blockquote>There has...since 1950 been a movement of some Muslims from India to Western Pakistan through Jodhpur–Sindh via Khokhropar. Normally, traffic between India and West Pakistan was controlled by the permit system. But these Muslims going via Khokhropar went without permits to West Pakistan. From January 1952 to the end of September, 53,209 Muslim emigrants went via Khokhropar....Most of these probably came from the U.P. In October 1952, up to the 14th, 6,808 went by this route. After that Pakistan became much stricter on allowing entry on the introduction of the passport system. From 15 October to the end of October, 1,247 went by this route. From 1 November, 1,203 went via Khokhropar.{{Sfn|Khalidi|1998|p=343}}</blockquote>[[Islam in India|Indian Muslim]] migration to [[West Pakistan]] continued unabated despite the cessation of the permit system between the two countries and the introduction of the [[Pakistani passport|passport system]] between them.<ref name="Khalidi" /><br />
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=== Third immigration wave (1973–1990s) ===<br />
The third stage, which lasted between 1973 and the 1990s, was when migration levels of [[Islam in India|Indian Muslims]] to Pakistan was reduced to its lowest levels since 1947.{{Sfn|Khalidi|1998|p=340}} [[Islam in India|Indian Muslim]] migration to Pakistan had declined drastically by the 1970s, a trend noticed by the [[Government of Pakistan|Pakistani authorities]]. In June 1995, Pakistan's interior minister, [[Naseerullah Babar]], informed the [[National Assembly (Pakistan)|National Assembly]] that between the period of 1973–1994, as many as 800,000 visitors came from India on valid travel documents, of which only 3,393 stayed.<ref name="Khalidi" /> In a related trend, intermarriages between [[Islam in India|Indian]] and [[Islam in Pakistan|Pakistani Muslims]] have declined sharply. According to a November 1995 statement of [[Riaz Khokhar]], the Pakistani High Commissioner in New Delhi, the number of cross-border marriages has declined from 40,000 a year in the 1950s and 1960s to barely 300 annually.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Theodore |date=1993 |title=Intra-Provincial Marriages and National Integration in Pakistan |journal=Contemporary South Asia}}</ref><br />
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==Politics==<br />
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The Muhajirs have started many socio-political groups in Pakistan such as the [[Muttahida Qaumi Movement – London|Muttahida Qaumi Movement]] under [[Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)|Altaf Hussain]] in 1984, the [[All Pakistan Muslim League]] under [[Pervez Musharraf]], and [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat e Islami]] under [[Abul A'la Maududi]].<ref name="sec1">{{Citation |first=Stephen P. |last=Cohen |title=Pakistan: Arrival and Departure |work=The future of Pakistan |publisher=The Brookings Institution |year=2011 |page=22 |quote=The avowedly secular Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM)...}}</ref><ref name="sec2">{{Citation |first=Peter |last=Lyon |title=Mohajir Qaumi Mahaz |encyclopedia=Conflict between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2008 |page=115 |quote=Despite its ethnic-based politics, the MQM claims to be the only significant political force in Pakistan to stand up openly for secular values.}}</ref><br />
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=== British-era Khilafat Movement ===<br />
{{Main article|Khilafat Movement}}<br />
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[[File:Maulana Shaukat Ali 1932.jpg|Maulana Shaukat Ali, a leader of the [[Khilafat Movement]]|thumb|upright]]<br />
During the last period of the [[Ottoman Empire]], the empire was indebted and the community provided significant financial support to preserve the empire.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Md Umar |date=30 April 2020 |title=The Indian Subcontinent Red Crescent Society's Aid to the Ottoman State during the Balkan war in 1912 |url=https://www.heritagetimes.in/the-indian-subcontinent-red-crescent-societys-aid-to-the-ottoman-state-during-the-balkan-war-in-1912/ |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=Heritage Times }}</ref> The members of the movement who are now Muhajirs granted the money to preserve the Ottoman Empire but were unable to prevent its decline; it was the biggest political eminence in pre-Muhajir history.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Qureshi |first1=M. N. |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/28516/1/10672675.pdf|title=The Khilafat Movement in India, 1919–1924 |date=1973 |doi=10.25501/SOAS.00028516 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Peasants in India's Non-Violent Revolution: Practice and Theory|author=Mridula Mukherjee|date=8 September 2004|publisher=SAGE Publications India, 2004|isbn=8132102894}}</ref><br />
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==== Pakistan Movement ====<br />
{{Main|Pakistan Movement}}<br />
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The [[Pakistan movement]], to constitute a separate state comprising the Muslim-majority provinces, was supported by the [[Urdu-speaking people|Urdu-speaking]] Muslim elite and many notables of the [[Aligarh Movement]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Centralised state and ethnic discontent {{!}} Political Economy {{!}} thenews.com.pk |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/567803-centralised-state-ethnic-discontent |access-date=2 February 2023 |website=www.thenews.com.pk }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Burki |first=Shahid Javed |title=Pakistan: Fifty Years of Nationhood |publisher=Westview Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8133-3621-3 |edition=3rd |location=Boulder, Colorado |page=4 |quote=The university that [Sir Sayyid] founded in the town of Aligarh ... not only provided the Pakistan movement with its leadership but, later, also provided the new country of Pakistan with its first ruling elite ... Aligarh College made it possible for the Muslims to discover a new political identity: Being a Muslim came to have a political connotation-a connotation that was to lead this Indian Muslim community inexorably toward acceptance of the 'two-nation theory' |author-link=Shahid Javed Burki |orig-year=First published in 1986}}</ref> It was initiated in the 19th century when Sir [[Syed Ahmed Khan]], the grandson of the Khwaja Fakhruddin, the [[Vizier]] of [[Akbar Shah II]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life and Work of Syed Ahmed Khan |author= Graham, George Farquhar |date= 1885 |publisher= Black wood |page= 2 }}</ref> expounded the cause of Muslim autonomy in [[Aligarh Muslim University|Aligarh]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mondal |first=Puja |date=4 January 2014 |title=Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement |url=https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/history/sir-syed-ahmed-khan-and-the-aligarh-movement/23145 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502223526/http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/history/sir-syed-ahmed-khan-and-the-aligarh-movement/23145/ |archive-date=2 May 2015 |access-date=2 January 2023 |website=Your Article Library }}</ref> In its early years, Muslim nobles such as [[nawabs]] (aristocrats and landed gentry) supported the idea, but as the idea spread, it gained great support among the Muslim population and in particular the rising middle and upper classes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=John R. McLane |date=July 1965 |title=The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905 |journal=Indian Economic and Social History Review |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=221–237 |doi=10.1177/001946466400200302 |s2cid=145706327 }}</ref><br />
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The Muslims launched the movement under the banner of the [[All India Muslim League]] and [[Delhi]] was its main centre. The headquarters of the All India Muslim League (the founding party of Pakistan) was based, since its creation in 1906, in [[Dhaka]] (present-day Bangladesh). The Muslim League won 90 per cent of reserved Muslim seats in the 1946 elections and its demand for the creation of Pakistan received overwhelming popular support among Indian Muslims, especially in those provinces of British India such as [[Uttar Pradesh|U.P.]] where Muslims were a minority.<ref>Prof. M. Azam Chaudhary, ''The History of the Pakistan Movement'', p. 368. Abdullah Brothers, Urdu Bazar Lahore.</ref><ref>Dhulipala, Venkat (2015).&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?id=PrqLBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA496 ''Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India'']. Cambridge University Press. p.&nbsp;496.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-1-316-25838-5}}.&nbsp;"The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities, but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the 'minority provinces' of British India such as U.P."</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMy0B9OZjAC&pg=PA68|title=Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook|last=Mohiuddin|first=Yasmin Niaz|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2007|isbn=978-1-85109-801-9|pages=70|quote=In the elections of 1946, the [[All India Muslim League|Muslim League]] won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates, and the powerful campaign among the poor peasants of Bengal on economic issues of rural indebtedness and zamindari abolition, that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan.}}</ref><br />
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=== 1947–1958 ===<br />
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The Muhajirs of Pakistan were largely settled in [[Sindh province]], particularly in the province's capital, [[Karachi]], where the Muhajirs were in a majority.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1100948|title=The evolution of Mohajir politics and identity|author=Nadeem F. Paracha |work=dawn.com|date=20 April 2014 |access-date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617194130/http://www.dawn.com/news/1100948|archive-date=17 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of their domination of major Sindhi cities, there had been tensions between Muhajirs and the native [[Sindhis]], and this has been a major factor in the shaping of Muhajir politics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Sindhis and Mohajirs |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/sindhis-and-mohajirs/ |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=Minority Rights Group }}</ref> The Muhajirs, upon their arrival in Pakistan, soon joined the Punjabi-dominated ruling elite of the newborn country due to their high rates of education and urban background.<ref name="TanKudaisya2004" /> They possessed the required expertise for running Pakistan's nascent bureaucracy and economy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who are the Mohajirs and why do they fight the Pashtuns? – eNotes.com |url=https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/who-mohajirs-why-they-fight-pashtuns-1022568 |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=eNotes }}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Although the Muhajirs were, socially, urbane and liberal, they sided with the country's religious political parties such as [[Jamiat Ulema-i-Pakistan]] (JUP) because of their non affiliation with any particular ethnic group.<ref name="Visweswaran2011–97">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&pg=PA97 |title=Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation|date=6 May 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-0062-5|pages=97–|author=Kamala Visweswaran|access-date=24 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408182730/https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&pg=PA97|archive-date=8 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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Upon arrival in Pakistan, the Muhajirs did not assert themselves as a separate ethnic identity, being multi-ethnic themselves, but were at the forefront of trying to construct an Islamic Pakistani identity.<ref name="Bahadur1998">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ND9yNyTpntYC&pg=PA292|title=Democracy in Pakistan: Crises and Conflicts|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|year=1998|isbn=978-81-241-0083-7|pages=292– |author=Kalim Bahadur|access-date=8 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408182902/https://books.google.com/books?id=ND9yNyTpntYC&pg=PA292|archive-date=8 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Muhajirs dominated the [[Government of Sindh|bureaucracy of Sindh]] in the early years of the Pakistani state, largely due to their higher levels of educational attainment.<ref name="TanKudaisya2004">{{cite book |author2=Gyanesh Kudaisya |author-link2=Gyanesh Kudaisya |author1=Tai Yong Tan |author-link1=Tan Tai Yong |year=2000 |title=The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/aftermathpartiti00kuda |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |page=[https://archive.org/details/aftermathpartiti00kuda/page/n249 235] |isbn=0-415-17297-7 |quote=Sind province itself became a centre of Muhajir immigration, with 57 per cent of the population of Karachi [being Muhajirs] ... [They] 'were more educated than the province's original Muslim population' ... It was inevitable that a sense of competition and hostility between the two communities would develop. As the Muhajirs made their presence felt in the civil service the local Sindhis began to feel threatened ... In the early years of Pakistan, the Muhajirs dominated the commercial, administrative and service sector of the province ...the modern and urbanised Muhajirs ... quickly established themselves.}}</ref> Prior to the partition, [[Hindus]] dominated the professions of lawyers, teachers, and tradesmen in [[Sindh]] and the vacancies they left behind were filled up by the Muhajirs.<ref name="Jaffrelot2016"/><br />
<br />
Many upper class Muhajirs people had higher education and civil service experience from working for the [[British Raj]] and [[Princely state|Muslim princely states]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hanif |first=Siddiqui |date=4 February 2010 |title=Intra-ethnic fissures in ethnic movements: the rise of Mohajir identity politics in post-1971 Pakistan |journal=Asian Ethnicity|volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=25–41 |doi=10.1080/14631360903506752|s2cid=144719100 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zakaria |first=Rafiq |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2RdITXUpyVgC&pg=PA207 |title=The Man who Divided India: An Insight Into Jinnah's Leadership and Its Aftermath, with a New Chapter on Musharraf's Do Or Die Leadership |date=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7991-145-7 }}</ref> Out of the 101 [[Islam in India|Muslims]] in [[Civil Services of India|India's civil service]], 95 chose to leave India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2014 |title=Muslim representation in India's civil service |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/663383/muslim-representation-in-indias-civil-service |access-date=25 November 2022 |website=The Express Tribune }}</ref> A third of those civil servants were West Punjabis and there were as many Muhajirs as [[Punjabis]].<ref name="Jaffrelot2016"/> From 1947 to 1958, the Urdu-speaking Muhajirs held more jobs in the [[Government of Pakistan]] than their proportion in the country's population (3.3%). In 1951, of the 95 senior civil services jobs, 33 were held by the [[Urdu-speaking people|Urdu-speaking]] Muhajirs and 40 by Punjabis.<ref name="orf">{{Cite web |first1=Sushant |last1=Sareen |first2=Kriti M. |last2=Shah |title=The Mohajir: Identity and politics in multiethnic Pakistan |url=https://www.orfonline.org/public/uploads/posts/pdf/20230724132623.pdf |access-date=6 August 2022 |website=ORF}}</ref> The Muhajirs also had a strong hold over the economy, 36 of the 42 largest private companies belonged to Muhajirs, mainly those from the [[Gujarat|Indian state of Gujarat]].<ref name="Jaffrelot2016"/><br />
<br />
Gradually, as education became more widespread, [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]] and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]], as well as other ethnic groups, started to take their fair share of the pool in the bureaucracy.<ref name="Kukreja2003" /> But even by the early 1960s, 34.5 per cent of [[Central Superior Services|Pakistan's civil servants]] were those who had not been born in the territory comprising Pakistan in 1947. Most of them were born in the [[United Provinces (1937–1950)|United Provinces]].<ref name="Jaffrelot2016"/><br />
<br />
=== 1958–1970 ===<br />
On 27 October 1958, [[Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan)|General Ayub Khan]] staged a [[1958 Pakistani coup d'état|coup]] and imposed [[martial law]] across Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|title=Army and Democracy: Military Politics in Pakistan|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-674-72893-6|author=Aqil Shah}}</ref> By the time of Pakistan's first military regime (Ayub Khan, 1958), the Muhajirs had already begun to lose their influence in the ruling elite, especially after he changed the federal capital of Karachi to Islamabad.<ref name="Visweswaran2011" /><ref name="Leonard2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQCvgavbQjgC&pg=PA37|title=Locating Home: India's Hyderabadis Abroad|date=January 2007|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-5442-2|pages=37–|author=Karen Isaksen Leonard|access-date=8 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408184537/https://books.google.com/books?id=HQCvgavbQjgC&pg=PA37|archive-date=8 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="orf" /> Ayub slowly began to pull non-muhajirs into the mainstream areas of the economy and politics, coupled with completely ousting Muhajirs from the ruling elite.<ref name="Kukreja20032" /> This caused the Muhajirs' to agitate against the Ayub dictatorship from the early 1960s onwards.<ref name="Kukreja20032" /> The relation was further deteriorated when the quota system, revived and expanded by the 1962 constitution, increased the number of seats in professional colleges for students from backward areas which was anathema to the middle-class literate Muhajirs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rehman |first=J |title=Self-determination, state-building and the Muhajirs: An international legal perspective of the role of Indian muslim refugees in the constitutional development of Pakistan |date=24 July 1994 |journal=Contemporary South Asia |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=111–129 |doi=10.1080/09584939408719734 |via=Academic Search}}</ref><br />
<br />
The percentage of Muhajirs in the [[Central Superior Services of Pakistan|civil service]] declined while the percentage of others increased. In the [[1965 Pakistani presidential election|presidential election of 1965]], the [[Muslim League (Pakistan)|Muslim League]] split into two factions: the [[Pakistan Muslim League|Muslim League (Fatima Jinnah)]] supported [[Fatima Jinnah]], the younger sister of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, while the [[Convention Muslim League]] supported General Ayub Khan.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=26 January 2017 |title=The Muslim League: A factional history |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1310662 |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> The Muhajirs at this time supported the Muslim League of Fatima Jinnah against Ayub Khan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 October 2013 |title=Presidential Election {{!}} Elections were held on 2 January 1965 |url=https://storyofpakistan.com/presidential-election/ |access-date=21 November 2022 |website=Story Of Pakistan }}</ref> The rivalry reached a peak after the [[electoral fraud]] of the 1965 presidential election and a post-election triumphal march by Gohar Ayub Khan, the son of General Ayub Khan, set off ethnic clashes between Pashtuns and Muhajirs in Karachi on 4 January 1965.<ref name="Kukreja20032">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA144|title=Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises|date=24 February 2003|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-9683-5|pages=144–|author=Veena Kukreja|access-date=8 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408191739/https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA144 |archive-date=8 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
Four years later, on 24 March 1969, President Ayub Khan directed a letter to [[Yahya Khan|General Yahya Khan]], inviting him to deal with the tense political situation in Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pakistan – AYUB KHAN|url=http://www.countrystudies.us/pakistan/18.htm|access-date=5 October 2020|website=www.countrystudies.us}}</ref> On 26 March 1969, General Yahya appeared on national television and proclaimed martial law over the country.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Akbar|first=M. K.|date=1 January 1997|title=Pakistan from Jinnah to Sharif |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BcIniHQAHfUC&q=ayub+khan+1965+war&pg=PA37 |publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-674-3|pages=48}}</ref> Yahya subsequently abrogated the [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1962|1962 Constitution]], dissolved [[Parliament of Pakistan|parliament]], and dismissed President Ayub's civilian officials.<ref name="KLUWER LAW INTERNATIONAL">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-wZP7Tz8YC&q=Yahya+Khan&pg=PA59|title=Emergency powers and the courts in India and Pakistan|last=Omar|first=Imtiaz|publisher=Kluwer Law International|year=2002 |isbn=904111775X|location=England|access-date=15 November 2015|url-status=live|archive-date=3 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603202821/https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-wZP7Tz8YC&pg=PA59&dq=Yahya+Khan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Wm9PU7ypJ8WvyASb2ICIBQ&ved=0CEUQuwUwAw#v=onepage&q=Yahya%20Khan&f=true}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 1970–1977 ===<br />
<br />
The [[1970 Pakistani general election]] on 7 December 1970, saw the [[Awami League]] winning the elections.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baxter |first=Craig |date=1971 |title=Pakistan Votes -- 1970 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=197–218 |doi=10.2307/3024655 |jstor=3024655 |issn=0004-4687}}</ref> The Muhajirs had voted for the [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan]] and [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Pakistan]],<ref name="orf" />{{sfn|Baxter|1971}} this popular support for these parties resulted in ethnic muhajirs winning all six NA seats and 18 PA seats in [[Karachi]] and [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]].{{Sfn|Baxter|1971|p=214}} Muhajirs had decisively lost their place in the ruling elite, but they were still an economic force to be reckoned with (especially in urban Sindh).<ref name=":3" /> When [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] became the country's head of state in December 1971, the Muhajirs feared that they would be further sidelined, this time by the economic and political resurgence of [[Sindhis]] under Bhutto.<ref name=":3" /> From the 1970s and onwards, Bhutto implemented a series of policies in Sindh that the Urdu-speaking population viewed as an assault on their political and economic rights as well as cultural identity.<ref name="orf"/><br />
<br />
The [[Pakistan Peoples Party|Pakistan People's Party]] government [[Nationalization in Pakistan|nationalized]] the financial industry, educational institutions, and industry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Farazmand |first=Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSW5FKVYH4wC&q=Nationalization+and+Benazir++Bhutto&pg=PA182 |title=Public Enterprise Management: International Case Studies |date=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-28025-2 }}</ref> The nationalization of Pakistan's educational institutions, financial institutions, and industry in 1972 by Prime Minister [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] of Pakistan People's Party impacted the Muhajirs hardest as their educational institutions, commerce, and industries were nationalized without any compensation.<ref name="State Bank of Pakistan">{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:mAryvHSL5uoJ:www.sbp.org.pk/publications/fsa/Contents.pdf+Nationalization+process+in+Pakistan&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShmkWUJpZtA1eXm_C8NwVGnEezf-2eX5dH9PTFGvJzRNcsEj4yC675klHLB4O5fyGbUXvFHu30MS2nOZPHDONWOY9Xlr1Zq9r4Q7OyzxaZblfkSKPbU819ATdUUlH034-POgyLG&sig=AHIEtbQHaDZkwToNIFPQaAQ660UzY3CuXg|title=Pakistan: Financial Sector Assessment (1990–2000)|last=Riazuddin |first=Riaz|publisher=State Bank of Pakistan|work=Economic Research Department of State Bank of Pakistan|access-date=2 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518180759/https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3AmAryvHSL5uoJ%3Awww.sbp.org.pk%2Fpublications%2Ffsa%2FContents.pdf+Nationalization+process+in+Pakistan&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShmkWUJpZtA1eXm_C8NwVGnEezf-2eX5dH9PTFGvJzRNcsEj4yC675klHLB4O5fyGbUXvFHu30MS2nOZPHDONWOY9Xlr1Zq9r4Q7OyzxaZblfkSKPbU819ATdUUlH034-POgyLG&sig=AHIEtbQHaDZkwToNIFPQaAQ660UzY3CuXg|archive-date=18 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, the quota system introduced by [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] which allowed Muhajirs to take government jobs was reversed by [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto|Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] preventing them from taking government jobs and other government institutions, by introducing urban rural quota divide in government job slots.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Memon |first=Naseer |date=2 October 2016 |title=The Quota Controversy |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/561845-quota-controversy |access-date=12 August 2022 |website=The News PK}}</ref> These policies also included the forceful retirement, dismissal or demotion of over 1,000 Urdu-speaking officers.<ref name="orf"/><br />
<br />
In 1972, language riots broke out between Sindhis and Muhajirs after the passage of the [[1972 Sindhi Language Bill|"Teaching, Promotion, and use of Sindhi Language"]] bill in July 1972 by the [[Sindh Assembly]]; which declared [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] as the only official language of Sindh.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1972 Riots was it a Language Issue – Matruka Sindh |url=https://matrukasindh.com/outside-articles/1972-riots-was-it-a-language-issue/ |access-date=10 November 2022 }}</ref> Due to the clashes, Prime Minister Bhutto compromised and announced that Urdu and Sindhi would both be official languages in Sindh.<ref>{{Cite web |last=InpaperMagazine |first=From |date=6 October 2012 |title=A leaf from history: Language frenzy in Sindh |url=https://www.dawn.com/2012/10/06/a-leaf-from-history-language-frenzy-in-sindh/ |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=DAWN.COM }}{{dead link|date=April 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The move had frustrated the Muhajirs as they did not speak the Sindhi language.<ref name="Kukreja2003">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA145|title=Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises|date=24 February 2003|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-9683-5|pages=145–|author=Veena Kukreja|access-date=8 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408192032/https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA145|archive-date=8 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 1977–1988 ===<br />
<br />
In the [[1977 Pakistani general election]], [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan]] and [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Pakistan]] joined in a coalition named the [[Pakistan National Alliance]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2003 |title=General Elections 1977 {{!}} Second general elections in the history of Pakistan |url=https://storyofpakistan.com/general-elections-1977/ |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=Story Of Pakistan }}</ref> Since the Muhajirs voted mostly for the Pakistan National Alliance,<ref name="Visweswaran2011" /> they enthusiastically participated in the [[1977 Pakistan uprising|1977 right-wing movement against the Bhutto regime]] which was caused by the alleged [[electoral fraud]] by [[Pakistan People's Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem Farooq |date=25 March 2022 |title=Prosperous Rebels: The Curious Romance Between Lifestyle Liberals And Right-Wing Populists in South Asia |url=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2022/03/25/prosperous-rebels-the-curious-romance-between-lifestyle-liberals-and-right-wing-populists-in-south-asia/ |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=The Friday Times – Naya Daur }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Times |first=William Borders |date=21 April 1977 |title=Protests Against Pakistan Regime Virtually Paralyze Karachi Port |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/04/21/archives/protests-against-pakistan-regime-virtually-paralyze-karachi-port.html |access-date=10 November 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The movement was particularly strong among [[Karachi]]'s middle and lower-middle-classes who clashed with state forces and political opponents in deadly gun battles and destroyed state-owned plants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2017 |title=March 20, 1977, Forty Years Ago: Riots in Karachi |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/march-20-1977-forty-years-ago-riots-in-karachi-4576590/ |access-date=11 February 2023 |website=The Indian Express }}</ref><ref name="Kukreja2003" /> On 5 July 1977, [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Army Staff]] General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] led a coup d'état against Bhutto and imposed [[martial law]], due to the rising unrest in the country.<ref name="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (July 2005)">{{cite book|last=Haqqani|first=Hussain|title=Pakistan:Between Mosque and Military; §From Islamic Republic to Islamic State|year=2005|publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (July 2005)|location=United States|isbn=978-0-87003-214-1|pages=395 pages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&q=Pakistan:Between+Mosque+and+Military}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2018 |title=The Judicial Murder of Z.A Bhutto |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/223769/the-judicial-murder-of-z-a-bhutto/ |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=Daily Times }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Daniel |first=Carol |date=2 February 2022 |title=Why Zia Imposed Martial Law? (Correct answer) |url=https://www.tahseenbutt.com/legal-advice/why-zia-imposed-martial-law-correct-answer.html |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=Informasi Legal di Pakistan }}</ref> A year after [[Operation Fair Play|Zia's coup]], Jamaat e Islami started losing support to the newly founded [[All Pakistan Muttahidda Students Organization|APMSO]], which believed that Jamat Islami and Jamiat Ulema Pakistan were "playing the muhajirs false".<ref name="MQMREV">{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=21 May 2009 |title=MQM: From revolt to redemption |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/812907/mqm-from-revolt-to-redemption |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> APMSO created several militant cells, such as Black Tigers and [[Nadeem Commando]]s, to counter the heavily armed Thunder squad of [[Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=21 July 2011 |title=Militant liberal |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/645724/militant-liberal |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> On 18 March 1984, the senior members of APMSO launched the [[Muttahida Qaumi Movement – London|Mohajir Qaumi Movement (MQM)]] – an ethnic Muhajir party that was to serve as the senior partner of the APMSO.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=23 August 2012 |title=Born to run: The rise and leveling of the APMSO |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/743914/born-to-run-the-rise-and-leveling-of-the-apmso |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> On 8 August 1986, a day still celebrated by the party as the moment the MQM came to the fore as a political force, Altaf Hussain drew thousands of Muhajirs to a rally in [[Nishtar Park]] where he declared Muhajirs a fifth sub-nationality within Pakistan.<ref name="thenews">{{cite news|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=167749 |title=25 years of MQM: a critical analysis |last=Peshimam |first=Gibran |date=18 March 2009 |publisher=The News |access-date=4 February 2023 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806021058/http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=167749 |archive-date=6 August 2009 }}</ref> A year after the rally in Nishtar Park, MQM swept the local bodies' election in [[Karachi]] and [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]].<ref name="thenews" /><br />
<br />
=== 1988–2016 ===<br />
[[File:MQM protests 2015.jpg|thumb|Mass protest of Muhajirs in favour of [[Muttahida Qaumi Movement – London|MQM]]]]<br />
After the [[1988 Pakistani general election|1988 General Elections]], MQM, the largest Muhajir nationalist party to exist at the time (with more than 100,000 party workers),<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 December 2017 |title=MIT to observe 'Mohajir cultural day' on 25th |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1374980 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> emerged as the third-largest political party of Pakistan, in alliance with PPP.<ref name=":AyeshaShaukat">{{Cite web |last=Shukhat |first=Ayesha |date=17 February 2022 |title=The Muhajir Movement: A Political and Social Aspect |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2022/02/17/the-muhajir-movement-a-political-and-social-aspect/ |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=Modern Diplomacy }}</ref> Differences developed between the [[Pakistan People's Party|PPP]] and [[Muttahida Qaumi Movement – London|MQM]] after dozens were killed at an MQM congregation by Sindhi nationalists, and the alliance fell apart in the wake of ensuing violence.<ref name=":6" /> The MQM lent its support to [[Nawaz Sharif]]'s [[Islami Jamhoori Ittehad]] instead.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Dawn.com |date=25 May 2013 |title=Timeline: A history of MQM |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1027569/timeline-a-history-of-mqm |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> In June 1992, a massive '[[Operation Clean-up|Operation Cleanup]]' was launched to rid the city of terrorism but MQM was selectively targeted.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Khurram |first=Shahjahan |date=18 March 2015 |title=A brief look at MQM's history |url=https://arynews.tv/a-brief-look-at-mqms-history/ |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=ARY NEWS }}</ref> The Party's political offices were shut down as scores of its workers were killed in extra judicial murders and shootouts,<ref name=":7" /> forcing to move its offices to London.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 September 2010 |title=MQM plans to move secretariat to Dubai |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/851744/mqm-plans-to-move-secretariat-to-dubai |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> After the operation ended, MQM staged a comeback and a second crackdown against MQM was carried out during the tenure of [[Benazir Bhutto|Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto]], in which many associated with the party were killed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-karachi-bloodbath-it-is-mohajir-vs-pushtuns/20110920.htm|title=Karachi Bloodbath: It is Mohajir Vs Pushtuns|date=20 September 2011|work=Rediff|access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617191800/http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-karachi-bloodbath-it-is-mohajir-vs-pushtuns/20110920.htm|archive-date=17 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> After the [[1999 Pakistani coup d'état|military takeover in 1999]] by [[Pervez Musharraf]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 January 2023 |title=Pakistan: A Shia leads a Sunni army |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/strategic-insights/pakistan-a-shia-leads-a-sunni-army/ |access-date=25 January 2023 |website=Times of India Blog }}</ref> the MQM backed Pervez Musharraf strongly till his resignation in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |last=migrate |date=21 January 2008 |title=Newsweek's Fareed Zakaria cites IRI Pakistan Poll |url=https://www.iri.org/news/newsweeks-fareed-zakaria-cites-iri-pakistan-poll/ |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=International Republican Institute }}</ref> Even after Musharraf's fall from power, MQM continued to dominate Muhajir politics until 2016 when it broke up into four factions and collapsed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chandran |first=Suba |date=22 August 2018 |title=The Fall of MQM |url=https://pakistanreader.org/view_articles.php?url=Election2018Analysis-03&recordNo=90 |website=Pakistan Reader}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2016–present ===<br />
Amid a fractured MQM, the populist leader [[Imran Khan]]'s PTI started to dominate Karachi's politics with a multiethnic support base from all walks of life, including the Muhajirs mainly from upper-middle and middle class, while lower-middle class Muhajirs turned to [[Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=30 January 2022 |title=Smokers' Corner: Is Karachi Ready For Change? |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1672151 |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> Despite tough opposition from [[Pakistan People's Party|PPP]] and [[Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan|TLP]], [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf|PTI]] managed to bag the popular vote en masses during the [[2018 Pakistani general election]]s, though with a lower voter turnout.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zaidi |first=Syed Sheheryar Raza |date=25 January 2023 |title='Mohajir problem' |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1733444 |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> But in 2023, after the merger of the MQM factions, MQM staged a comeback into Muhajir politics. In [[2023 Karachi local government elections]] MQM-P's boycott resulted in very low voter turnouts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=22 January 2023 |title=Smokers' Corner: When The Polling Goes Awry |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1733013 |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Society ==<br />
<br />
=== National integration ===<br />
A 2009 [[Pew Research Center]] report found that 92% of Muhajirs identified primarily as Pakistani when choosing between national and ethnic identities, the second highest proportion among all surveyed groups after [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabis]] (96%), and at an equal level with [[Pashtuns]].<ref>[[Pew Research Center]]. (13 August 2009). ''[https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2009/08/13/chapter-2-religion-law-and-society/ Chapter 2. Religion, Law, and Society]''. Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. [https://web.archive.org/web/20250512155333/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2009/08/13/chapter-2-religion-law-and-society/ Archived] 12 May 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Economic status ===<br />
A 2023 research project conducted by [[University of Karachi|Karachi University]] found that 9% of Muhajirs were upper-class, while 17% were upper-middle class, 52% middle class, 13% lower middle and 9% lower class.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nabbo |first=Habbo |date=6 February 2023 |title=Socio-economic Status of Muhajirs (2023) |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/624124272/Socio-economic-Status-of-Muhajirs-2023# |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=Scribd}}</ref> A 2019 study by Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Center found that Muhajir women have the highest employment rate and monthly income among all major ethnic groups of Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahsan |first1=Mahnoor |last2=Taj |first2=Arsa |last3=Mahr |first3=Khalil |last4=Aslam |first4=Batool |last5=Mubashir |first5=Saima |title=Breast Cancer Among Different Ethnicities (A Single Institution Study) |journal=Pakistan Armed Forces Medical Journal |year=2022 |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=594–598 |doi=10.51253/pafmj.v72i2.3578 |s2cid=254387050 |issn=0030-9648|doi-access=free }}</ref> And according to the 1951 census of Pakistan, less than 15 per cent of Muhajirs were unskilled labourers, with almost 61 per cent classified as skilled workers and more than 5 per cent belonging to professional and managerial backgrounds.{{Sfn|Lieven|2011|p=311}} By settlements, 68.4% Muhajirs lived in planned areas and 88.9% have access to basic utilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Siddiqi |first=Farhan Hanif |date=9 April 2009 |title=Discrimination is what ethnic groups make of it: subjective perceptions of peripherality among the Mohajirs of Pakistan |journal=Nations & Nationalism |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=697–717|doi=10.1111/nana.12460 |s2cid=149902887 }}</ref> They have been very successful in finance institutions, and have founded most of Pakistan's banking institutions including [[State Bank of Pakistan]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 2001 |title=SBP to set up Zahid Husain chair: Higher studies |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/5394/sbp-to-set-up-zahid-husain-chair-higher-studies |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref> [[Habib Bank Limited]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=History|url=http://www.hbl.com/history|access-date=21 June 2016|website=www.hbl.com}}</ref> [[United Bank Limited]],<ref name=archive>{{cite web|url=http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1995/09Ag95.html#agha|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908113823/http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1995/09Ag95.html#agha|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 September 2006|title=Agha Hasan Abedi passes away|date=9 August 1995|publisher=Dawn Wire Service|accessdate= 15 January 2017}}</ref> and [[Bank AL Habib]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://hoh.net/history/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=House of Habib }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Sports ===<br />
Until the 1970s, Karachi had been a historical centre for producing cricketers and hockey players for the [[Pakistan national cricket team]] and [[Pakistan men's national field hockey team|hockey team]]. Some of the notable cricketers of a Muhajir background during the era include [[Javed Miandad]] among [[List of Muhajir people|many others]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=19 September 2013 |title=Pakistan cricket: A class, ethnic and sectarian history |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1043800 |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=11 April 2021 |title=Smokers' Corner: Pakistan Cricket And Its Ethnicities |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1617560 |access-date=29 January 2023 |website=DAWN.COM }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Health and genetics ===<br />
In the ethnic groups of Pakistan, the lowest prevalence of metabolic syndrome was seen in Muhajirs (32.5%).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Faraz |first=Danish Alvi |title=Ethnic differences in metabolic syndrome among South Asians of Pakistan. |journal=Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences |volume=27 |issue=3}}</ref> Muhajirs have a gene diversity of 0.6081, which is 0.001 less than the Pakistani average of 0.6091.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nuzhat |first1=Akram |last2=Farooqi |first2=A |last3=Shakeel |first3=R |date=4 March 2014 |title=A model-based 'varimax' sampling strategy for a heterogeneous population. |journal=Annals of Human Biology |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=116–126 |via=Academic Search}}</ref> The overall prevalence of proteinuria in Muhajir children 3.6%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jafar |first1=Tazeen H |last2=Levey |first2=Andrew S |last3=Schmid |first3=Christopher H |last4=Portman |first4=Ronald |last5=Khan |first5=Abdul Qayum |last6=Anas |first6=Rabbani |last7=Khan |first7=Iqtidar |last8=Hatcher |first8=Juanita |last9=Chaturvedi |first9=Nish |date=25 October 2005 |title=Proteinuria in South Asian children: prevalence and determinants |journal=Pediatric Nephrology |volume=20 |issue=10 |pages=1458–1465 |doi=10.1007/s00467-005-1923-8 |pmid=15947988 |s2cid=28880508 |issn=0931-041X |via=Academic Search}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Culture ==<br />
{{Main|Muhajir culture}}<br />
<br />
Muhajir culture is the culture that migrated mainly from North India after the independence of Pakistan in 1947 generally to Karachi. The Muhajir culture refers to the Pakistani variation of Indo-Islamic culture and part of the [[Culture of Karachi]] city in Pakistan.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}}<br />
<br />
=== Cuisine ===<br />
{{Main|Muhajir cuisine}}<br />
<br />
{{See also|Mughlai cuisine|Hyderabadi cuisine}}[[File:"Hyderabadi Dum Biryani".jpg|thumb|Hyderabadi biryani]]<br />
<br />
Muhajir cuisine refers to the cuisine of Muhajirs, and is covered under both [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] and [[Pakistani cuisine]]s, and is mostly found in the Pakistani city of [[Karachi]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tariq |first=Minahil |date=8 December 2014 |title=Different cultures of Pakistan: Muhajir Cuisine |url=https://differentculturesofpakistan.blogspot.com/2014/12/muhajiris-muhajir-cuisine-karachi.html |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Different cultures of Pakistan}}</ref> Special dishes include [[biryani]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistani food debate: Team Biryani Vs Team Pulao, who will win? |url=https://gulfnews.com/food/pakistani-food-debate-team-biryani-vs-team-pulao-who-will-win-1.1642666465571 |access-date=2 January 2023 |website=gulfnews.com |date=20 January 2022 }}</ref> [[Korma|qorma]], [[kofta]], [[Seekh kebab|seekh kabab]], [[nihari]], [[haleem]], [[Nargisi Koftay|Nargisi koftay]], [[Roghani Naan|roghani naan]], [[naan]], [[Sheer khurma|sheer-khurma (dessert)]], and [[Tea|chai (sweet, milky tea)]] are associated with Muhajir cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Falah |first=Gulzar |date=2 May 2021 |title=Biryani, Lahori fish, pulao ... Pakistani cuisine and its presence in the UAE |url=https://gulfnews.com/food/biryani-lahori-fish-pulao--pakistani-cuisine-and-its-presence-in-the-uae-1.1614580263565 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712233811/https://gulfnews.com/food/biryani-lahori-fish-pulao--pakistani-cuisine-and-its-presence-in-the-uae-1.1614580263565 |archive-date=12 July 2022 |access-date=13 February 2023 |website=Gulf News}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=June 2023}}<br />
<br />
=== Traditional dress ===<br />
{{Further|Kurta|Pajamas|Sari}}<br />
The traditional clothing of Muhajirs is the traditional clothing worn by Muslims in [[North Indian culture|North India]], and it has both Muslim and South Asian influences. Both Muslim men and women wear the [[shalwar kameez]].<ref>{{cite book |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=v25zAwAAQBAJ&dq=indian+muslims+in+north+india+shalwar+kameez&pg=PA103 |title= Diana and Beyond: White Femininity, National Identity, and Contemporary Media Culture |date= 2014 |author= Raka Shome |publisher= University of Illinois Press |isbn= 9780252096686 }}</ref> Men also wear the [[sherwani]], and it is believed to have been introduced to Pakistan by Muhajirs.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7YdUEAAAQBAJ&dq=muslim+men+sherwani&pg=PT228 |title= Indian Etiquette: A Glimpse Into India's Culture |author= Niraalee Shah |date= 2021 |publisher= Notion Press|isbn= 9781638865544 }}</ref> Muhajir women (mainly from [[North India|Northern India]]) wear [[sari]],<ref name="sarri">{{Cite book|last=Boulanger|first=Chantal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1pEAAAAYAAJ|title=Saris: an illustrated guide to the Indian art of draping|date=1997|publisher=Shakti Press International|pages=55|isbn=9780966149616}}</ref> which is an un-stitched stretch of [[woven fabric]] arranged over the body like a [[robe]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0O9je9dECH8C&q=sari&pg=PA121 | title=Thai Art with Indian Influences | isbn=9788170170907 | last1=Jermsawatdi | first1=Promsak | year=1979 | publisher=Abhinav Publications }}</ref> The [[Gharara]] was also worn by Muhajir women, which originated from the [[Oudh|Nawabs']] attempt to imitate the British evening gown.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13430/page/n199/mode/2up?q=fe |title=The Lucknow Omnibus |page=177 |author=H.r. Nevill |date= 1884 }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Festivals ===<br />
{{See also|Muhajir Cultural Day}}<br />
Muhajirs celebrate many festivals which include religious, political, ethnic, and [[Public holidays in Pakistan|national festivals]]. Islamic festivals which are celebrated by Muhajirs include [[Eid al-Fitr|Eid-al-Fitr]], [[Eid al-Adha|Eid-al-Adha]], and [[Ashura|Ashoura]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karachi Festivals - Karachi Annual Events. |url=https://www.karachi.com/v/festivals/ |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=www.karachi.com}}</ref> Political celebrations include [[MQM Founding Day]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=English Newspaper Coverage : 32nd foundation day of Mqm |url=https://www.mqm.org/englishnews/35795/english-newspaper-coverage-32nd-foundation-day-of-mqm |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=www.mqm.org}}</ref> Death anniversary of [[Azeem Ahmed Tariq|Azeem Ahmad Tariq]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=18th death anniversary of Azeem Ahmad Tariq today |url=http://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/49342-18th-death-anniversary-of-Azeem-Ahmad-Tariq-today- |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=Dunya News |date=14 February 2008 |language=en}}</ref> and [[APMSO Founding Day]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mr. Altaf Hussain congratulates to all his loyalist comrades and the nation on 43rd foundation day of APMSO |url=https://www.mqm.org/englishnews/42181/mr-altaf-hussain-congratulates-to-all-his-loyalist-comrades-and-the-nation-on-43rd-foundation-day-of-apmso#:~:text=London,%20June%2010,%202021%20Mr.%20Altaf%20Hussain,%20Founder,nation%20on%20the%2043rd%20foundation%20day%20of%20APMSO. |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=www.mqm.org}}</ref> Muhajirs celebrate [[Muhajir Cultural Day]] as an ethnic and cultural festival.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 December 2021 |title=Muhajir Culture Day celebrated |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2335586/muhajir-culture-day-celebrated |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Notable people ==<br />
{{main article|List of Muhajir people}}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh|Stranded Muhajirs in Bangladesh]]<br />
* <br />
* <br />
* [[List of people from Karachi]]<br />
* [[List of Muhajir people]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
* {{Citation |last1=Batliwala |first1=Usman Umar |title=احمد داؤد – ایک پیکرِ اوصاف (Aik Paiker-e-Ausaaf)|date=1995 |publisher=Faran Publications |location=Karachi |edition=1 |language=Urdu}}<br />
* {{cite book|first=Christophe |last = Jaffrelot |title=The Pakistan Paradox: Instability And Resilience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQDzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT100|date=16 June 2016|publisher=Random House Publishers India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-8400-707-7|pages=100–}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Lieven |first=Anatol |title=Pakistan : a hard country |date=2011 |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-1-61039-021-7 |edition=1st |location=New York |oclc=710995260}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |year=1984 |title=Jinnah of Pakistan |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-503412-7 |ref={{SfnRef|Wolpert}}}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928102530/http://www.conflict-prevention.net/page.php?id=40&formid=73&action=show&surveyid=15%2F Pakistan: The Sindhi-Muhajir conflict]<br />
* [http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-10-0-000-08-Web/Anth-10-1-000-08-Abst-PDF/Anth-10-1-005-08-432-Ara-G/Anth-10-1-005-08-432-Ara-G-Tt.pdf Gene Diversity among Some Muslim Populations of Western Uttar Pradesh]<br />
* [http://www.antrocom.net/upload/sub/antrocom/090113/02-Antrocom.pdf Gene Diversity Analysis and Microdifferentiation Process in North Indian Muslim Populations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422072059/http://www.antrocom.net/upload/sub/antrocom/090113/02-Antrocom.pdf |date=22 April 2018 }}<br />
* [https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/148363-The-crisis-of-Mohajir-identity The crisis of Mohajir identity] Harris Khalique. The News International.<br />
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242234085_The_Captive_State_Corruption_Intelligence_Agencies_and_Ethnicity_in_Pakistan The Captive State: Corruption, Intelligence Agencies, and Ethnicity in Pakistan]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons}}<br />
* [https://www.scribd.com/doc/24567580/Muhajir-diaspora Muhajir diaspora]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030083640/http://yespakistan.com/education/edu_quotas.asp Quotas and Karachi]<br />
<br />
{{Ethnic groups in Pakistan}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Muhajir people| ]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Balochistan, Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Punjab, Pakistan]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Sindh]]<br />
[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]<br />
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prabhakar_Raghavan&diff=526129Prabhakar Raghavan2026-04-29T22:08:04Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Started A Entry.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|American computer scientist}}<br />
{{Infobox scientist<br />
| name = <br />
| native_name = <br />
| native_name_lang = <br />
| image = Prabhakar Raghavan, Vice-Presidente Sênior do Google Global (cropped).jpg<br />
| image_size = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = Raghavan in 2023<br />
| birth_date = <br />
| birth_place = <br />
| death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (death date then birth date) --><br />
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| workplaces = [[Google]]<br />[[University of California Berkeley]],<br />[[Indian Institute of Technology, Madras]]<br />[[Yahoo! Labs]]<br />[[Stanford University]]<br />[[IBM]]<br />
| alma_mater = [[University of California Berkeley]],<br />[[Indian Institute of Technology, Madras]]<br />
<br />[[Campion School, Bhopal]]<br />
| thesis_title = Randomized Rounding and Discrete Ham-Sandwich Theorems: Provably Good Algorithms for Routing and Packing Problems (Integer Programming)<br />
| thesis_url = http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/TechRpts/1987/CSD-87-312.pdf<br />
| thesis_year = 1987<br />
| doctoral_advisor = Clark D. Thompson<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/TechRpts/1986/5986.html | title = Randomized Rounding And Discrete Ham-Sandwich Theorems: Provably Good Algorithms for Routing and Packing Problems | quote = Advisor: Clark D. Thompson | publisher = UC Berkeley | access-date = 19 May 2014}}</ref><br />
| academic_advisors = <br />
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| influences = <br />
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| awards = <br />
| signature = <!--(filename only)--><br />
| signature_alt = <br />
<!-- | website = {{URL|http://research.google.com/pubs/PrabhakarRaghavan.html}} --><br />
| footnotes = <br />
| spouse = <br />
| children = <br />
}}<br />
'''Prabhakar Raghavan''' is a computer scientist and the Chief Technologist at Google.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Emma |date=2024-10-17 |title=Google is replacing the exec in charge of Search and ads |url=https://www.theverge.com/2024/10/17/24272786/google-search-prabhakar-raghavan-nick-fox |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=[[The Verge]] |language=en}}</ref> His research spans algorithms, web search and databases.<ref name="Bloomberg Businessweek">{{cite web|title=Prabhakar Raghavan|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/person/3368123|work=Executive Profile|publisher=Bloomberg Businessweek|access-date=1 May 2024}}</ref> He is the co-author of the textbooks ''Randomized Algorithms''<ref name="ralgorithms">{{cite book |author1=Raghavan, Prabhakar |author2=Motwani, Rajeev |title=Randomized algorithms |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-47465-8 }}</ref> with [[Rajeev Motwani]]<ref name="motwani">{{Cite journal | last1 = Raghavan | first1 = Prabhakar| author-link1 = Prabhakar Raghavan| title = Rajeev Motwani (1962-2009)| journal = Theory of Computing | volume = 8 | pages = 55–57 | doi = 10.4086/toc.2012.v008a003 | url = http://www.theoryofcomputing.org/articles/v008a003/v008a003.pdf| year = 2012 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and ''Introduction to Information Retrieval''.<ref name="retrieval">{{cite book |author1=Schütze, Hinrich |author2=Christopher D. Manning |author3=Raghavan, Prabhakar |title=Introduction to information retrieval |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-86571-5 }}</ref><ref name="dblp">{{DBLP|name=Prabhakar Raghavan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Broder | first1 = A. | last2 = Kumar | first2 = R. | last3 = Maghoul | first3 = F. | last4 = Raghavan | first4 = P. | last5 = Rajagopalan | first5 = S. | last6 = Stata | first6 = R. | last7 = Tomkins | first7 = A. | last8 = Wiener | first8 = J. | doi = 10.1016/S1389-1286(00)00083-9 | title = Graph structure in the Web | journal = Computer Networks | volume = 33 | issue = 1–6 | pages = 309–320 | year = 2000 }}</ref><ref name="acm">{{ACMPortal}}</ref><ref name="scopus">{{Scopus}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Early life and education==<br />
Prabhakar was born in India and spent his youth in [[Bhopal]], [[Madras]] and [[Manchester]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The driving force behind Yahoo Research |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/tech-industry/the-driving-force-behind-yahoo-research/ |access-date=2024-06-07 |work=CNET |date=2006-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607174012/https://www.cnet.com/tech/tech-industry/the-driving-force-behind-yahoo-research/ |archive-date=2024-06-07 |language=en}}</ref> In 1981, he earned a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the [[Indian Institute of Technology Madras]], followed by a [[Master of Science]] in electrical and computer engineering from the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] in 1982.<ref name="cv">{{cite web |title=Curriculum Vitae |url=http://theory.stanford.edu/~pragh/cv.pdf |access-date=2024-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802201735/http://theory.stanford.edu/~pragh/cv.pdf |archive-date=2011-08-02 |language=en}}</ref> <br />
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Prabhakar continued his education at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], where he earned a Ph.D. in computer science in 1986.<ref name="profile">{{cite web |title=Prabhakar Raghavan |url=http://theory.stanford.edu/people/raghavan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990220223110/http://theory.stanford.edu/people/raghavan/ |archive-date=1999-02-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="cv"/><br />
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==Career==<br />
After completing his doctorate, Prabhakar worked in various research positions at [[IBM]]. He began as a research staff member at the [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]]. In 1994, he was promoted to manager of theory of computing.<ref name="cv"/> A year later, he relocated to the Almaden center in Silicon Valley to become the senior manager of the computer science principles and methodologies department of [[IBM Research]] until 2000.<ref name="ZDNet">{{cite news|last=Farber|first=Dan|title=Yahoo's new search master|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/yahoos-new-search-master/|work=Between the Lines Blog|publisher=ZDNet|access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="cv"/> His research group focused on algorithms, [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]], [[cryptography]], text mining, and other fields. While working for IBM in the late 1990s, he was also a consulting professor at [[Stanford University]].<ref name="profile"/><br />
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Raghavan's research team at Stanford co-existed with another researching [[search engine]]s that included students [[Larry Page]] and [[Sergey Brin]], who later founded [[Google]].<ref name=Kiss2011>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2011/apr/26/yahoo-ibm-google-prabhakar-raghavan|access-date=23 April 2024|title=Yahoo's secret weapon: the ex-IBMer who worked with Google's founders|newspaper=The Guardian |date=26 April 2011 |last1=Kiss |first1=Jemima }}</ref><br />
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After working 14 years at IBM, he became senior vice president and chief technology officer at enterprise search vendor Verity in 2004.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prabhakar Raghavan {{!}} CDSS at UC Berkeley |url=https://cdss.berkeley.edu/prabhakar-raghavan |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=cdss.berkeley.edu}}</ref><ref name="ZDNet"/><ref name="cv"/> In July 2005, he was hired by [[Yahoo!]] to lead Yahoo! Research in [[Sunnyvale]], California.<ref>{{cite press release |author=<!--Not stated--> |title= Yahoo! Appoints Dr. Prabhakar Raghavan to Lead Research Efforts|url=https://www.altaba.com/static-files/b939898f-4737-462e-ad31-354b3614815e |location= Sunnyvale, California|publisher=Yahoo! |agency= |date=2005-07-28 |access-date=2024-06-06}}</ref> At Yahoo!, he worked on research projects including search and [[online advertising|advertising]].<ref name="Kiss2011" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reisinger |first=Don |date=2012-03-05 |title=Yahoo Labs chief, strategist jumps to Google, report says |url=https://www.cnet.com/home/smart-home/yahoo-labs-chief-strategist-jumps-to-google-report-says/ |access-date=2024-04-24 |website=CNET |language=en}}</ref> In 2011, he was appointed as Yahoo!'s chief strategy officer by CEO Carol Bartz.<ref name="swisher">{{Cite web |last=Swisher |first=Kara |date=2012-03-04 |title=Yahoo Labs Head Raghavan Departing to Google |url=https://allthingsd.com/20120304/exclusive-yahoo-labs-head-raghavan-departing-to-google/ |access-date=2024-04-24 |website=AllThingsD |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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In 2012, Prabhakar joined Google after severe funding cuts in Yahoo!'s research division.<ref name="swisher"/> In 2018, he was put in charge of Ads and Commerce at Google and in 2020 his scope was expanded to include Search, Geo, and Assistant.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sterling |first=Greg |date=2020-06-04 |title=Google promotes Prabhakar Raghavan to lead Search, replacing Ben Gomes |url=https://searchengineland.com/google-promotes-prabhakar-raghavan-to-lead-search-replacing-ben-gomes-335561 |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=Search Engine Land |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Levy |first=Steven |title=Prabhakar Raghavan Isn’t CEO of Google—He Just Runs the Place |url=https://www.wired.com/story/prabhakar-raghavan-isnt-ceo-of-google-he-just-runs-the-place/ |access-date=2025-03-12 |work=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028}}</ref><br />
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In 2024, he transitioned to the role of Chief Technologist at Google, leaving his tenure as Head of Search.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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Raghavan has published over 100 papers in various fields and has secured 20 issued patents.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-10-18 |title=This Indian-origin executive is Google's new chief technologist |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/global-trends/this-indian-origin-executive-prabhakar-raghavan-is-now-googles-new-chief-technologist-sundar-pichai-makes-big-changes/articleshow/114348808.cms |access-date=2025-05-27 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><!-- Per [[WP:BLPSPS]] DO NOT cite Ed Zitron's "The Man Who Killed Google Search" here. --><br />
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==Awards and honors==<br />
Prabhakar is a member of the [[National Academy of Engineering]] and a Fellow of both the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] and the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE).<ref name="Yahoo Pressroom">{{cite web|title=Dr. Prabhakar Raghavan|url=http://pressroom.yahoo.net/pr/ycorp/prabhakar-raghavan.aspx|work=Company Info|publisher=Yahoo! News Center|access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> From 2003 to 2009, Prabhakar was the editor-in-chief of ''[[Journal of the ACM]]''.<ref name=ACM>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://jacm.acm.org/history|work=Journal of the ACM|access-date=28 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026032429/http://jacm.acm.org/history|archive-date=26 October 2011}}</ref><br />
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In 1986, Prabhakar received the [[Machtey Award]] for Best Student Paper.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/SFCS.1986.30 |date=October 1986 |title=Machtey Award |publisher=IEEE Computer Society |issn=0272-5428}}</ref> In 2000, he was named a fellow of the IEEE;<ref name=IEEE>{{cite web|title=IEEE Fellows: R|url=http://www.ieee.org/membership_services/membership/fellows/alphabetical/rfellows.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120905235038/http://www.ieee.org/membership_services/membership/fellows/alphabetical/rfellows.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 5, 2012|work=IEEE Fellows|publisher=IEEE|access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> received the Best Paper Award at the ACM Symposium on Principles of Database Systems;<ref name=Cornell>{{cite web|title=Department of Computer Science 1999-2000 Annual Report|url=https://www.cs.cornell.edu/annual_report/99-00/Kleinberg.htm|publisher=Cornell University|access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> and received the Best Paper Award at the Ninth International World Wide Web Conference (WWW9).<ref name=IBM>{{cite web|title=2000 IBM Research Computer Science Best Paper Awards|url=http://domino.watson.ibm.com/comm/research.nsf/pages/d.compsci.bestpapers2000.html|work=IBM Computer Science|publisher=IBM|access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> In 2002, Prabhakar was named a fellow of the ACM.<ref name=Autonomy>{{cite web|title=Verity Executive Prabhakar Raghavan Inducted as an ACM Fellow|url=http://www.autonomy.com/content/News/Releases/2002/0116a.en.html|work=News & Events|publisher=Autonomy.com|access-date=28 October 2011|archive-date=19 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319091849/http://www.autonomy.com/content/News/Releases/2002/0116a.en.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He received the 2006 Distinguished Alumnus Award, UC Berkeley Division of Computer Science.<ref name=EECS>{{cite web|title=Distinguished Alumni|url=http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/alumni/distinguished.cs.shtml|publisher=Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences|access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> In 2008, Prabhakar was made a member of the National Academy of Engineering,<ref name="National Academy">{{cite web|title=National Academy of Engineering Elects 65 Members and Nine Foreign Associates|url=http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=02082008|work=News|publisher=National Academies|access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> and in 2009, he was awarded a ''Laurea honoris causa'' from the [[University of Bologna]]. In 2012, he was named a Distinguished Alumnus by the [[IIT Madras]]. In 2017, Prabhakar and co-authors received the Seoul test of time award for their 2000 paper "Graph Structure in the Web" at the WWW conference.<ref>{{Cite web | title=IW3C2 - ToT Awards | url=https://www.iw3c2.org/ToT/PressRelease-3rdToT-20170405.pdf | access-date=2025-02-15 | website=www.iw3c2.org}}</ref><br />
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==Criticism==<br />
In April of 2024, the blogger [[Ed Zitron]] published a report explaining how Raghavan was responsible for a massive [[enshittification|decline in quality]] at Google following his takeover of [[Google Search]] and subsequent focus on ad revenue in the prioritization of search results.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boingboing.net/2024/04/23/how-one-power-hungry-leader-destroyed-google-search.html|title=How one power-hungry leader destroyed Google search|last=Frauenfelder|first=Mark|work=Boing Boing|date=April 23, 2024|access-date=January 12, 2025}}</ref> Google publicly denied the claims, calling them "baseless speculation".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.seroundtable.com/how-man-killed-google-search-report-37281.html|title= Report: How Prabhakar Raghavan Killed Google Search |work=Search Engine Roundtable|date=April 25, 2024|access-date=January 12, 2025}}</ref><br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Raghavan, Prabhakar}}<br />
[[Category:Yahoo! employees]]<br />
[[Category:IBM employees]]<br />
[[Category:American chief executives]]<br />
[[Category:American businesspeople in the computer industry]]<br />
[[Category:American computer scientists]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering]]<br />
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Indian computer scientists]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian mathematicians]]<br />
[[Category:IIT Madras alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Google employees]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=S._N._Tripathi&diff=531274S. N. Tripathi2026-04-28T23:41:47Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Started New Stub.</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Film music composer (1913-1988)}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=April 2015}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = S. N. Tripathi<br />
| image = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_name = Shri Nath Tripathi<br />
| birth_date = 14 March 1913<br />
| birth_place = [[Benares]], [[Benares State]], [[British India]]<br />
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1988|03|28|1913|03|14}}<br />
| death_place = [[Bombay]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]<br />
| other_names = <br />
| occupation = playback singer<br/>film music director<br/>film director<br />
| years active = 1936–1988<br />
}}<br />
'''Shri Nath Tripathi''' (14 March 1913 – 28 March 1988) was an Indian composer, whose active years were from the 1930s to the 1980s.<ref name=upperstall>{{cite web|title=S. N. Tripathi filmography|url=http://www.upperstall.com/people/sn-tripathi|archive-date=6 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406225001/http://www.upperstall.com/people/sn-tripathi|website=Upperstall.com website|access-date=2 October 2023}}</ref><ref name=citwf>{{cite web|url=http://www.citwf.com/person416829.htm |title=S. N. Tripathi filmography|website=Complete Index To World Film (CITWF) website|archive-date=13 September 2014|access-date=2 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913145205/http://www.citwf.com/person416829.htm}}</ref><br />
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Tripathi's multi-faceted work range included being a composer, writer, actor, and director of films. His debut film as an independent composer was ''Chandan'' (1942). He was the first composer to make use of the slogan "[[Jai Hind]]" (Victory to India) in a song in films, during the end of the [[British Raj]]. The song was "Jai Hind, Jai Hind, Jai Hind, Yeh Hind Ki Kahaniyan" from the film ''Mansarovar'' (1946).<ref name="GulazāraChatterjee2003">{{cite book|author1=Gulazāra|author2=Saibal Chatterjee|title=Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8y8vN9A14nkC&pg=PT310|year=2003|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7991-066-5|pages=310–}}</ref> He gained popularity as an actor when he started playing the role of [[Hanuman]] in mythological and religious films like [[Homi Wadia]]'s ''[[Shri Ram Bhakta Hanuman]]'' (1948) and ''[[Hanuman Patal Vijay|Hanuman Pataal Vijay]]'' (1951).<ref name="DwyerDwyer2006">{{cite book|author1=Rachel Dwyer|author2=Senior Lecturer in Indian Studies Rachel Dwyer|title=Filming the Gods: Religion and Indian Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsKR1RKoJKUC&pg=PA44|date=27 September 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-38070-1|pages=44–}}</ref><br />
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Tripathi turned to direction in 1957 starting with ''Rani Roopmati''. Two of his films with [[Nirupa Roy]] and [[Bharat Bhushan]], ''Rani Roopmati'' (1957) and ''Kavi Kalidas'' (1959), are cited as having "cinematic merit" and "unforgettable music".<ref name="Ranade2006"/><br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
S. N. Tripathi, was born in [[Varanasi]], Uttar Pradesh. His father, Damodar Dutt Thakur, was a school principal. After obtaining his BSc from [[Allahabad]], Tripathi got his training in classical music from Pandit V. N. Bhatkhande's Morris College of Music in Lucknow.<ref name="Ranade2006">{{cite book|author=Ashok Damodar Ranade|title=Hindi Film Song: Music Beyond Boundaries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI1wqkWsIjYC&pg=PA250|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Bibliophile South Asia|isbn=978-81-85002-64-4|pages=250–}}</ref><br />
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==Career==<br />
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===As composer===<br />
In 1935, Tripathi arrived in Bombay and found work as a violinist assisting music director [[Saraswati Devi (music director)|Saraswati Devi]] at [[Bombay Talkies]]. His first film as a composer was Chandan (1942). He continued to compose for films like ''Janam Janam Ke Phere'' (1957), where the song "Zara Saamne Toh Aao Chhaliye" became the top [[Binaca Geetmala]] song.<ref name="Ghosh2010">{{cite book|author=Avijit Ghosh|title=CINEMA BHOJPURI|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAuTZ6_1XL4C&pg=PT34|date=22 May 2010|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-256-4|pages=34–}}</ref> Trained as a classicist, the popularity of his songs from ''Rani Roopmati'', ''[[Sangeet Samrat Tansen]]'' (1962) and other films has been attributed to Tripathi's mixing of Rajasthani folk with musical instruments like [[shehnai]] and mandolin, which never "offended sensibilities", yet had the "pulsating dance-like quality".<ref name="GokulsingDissanayake2013">{{cite book|author1=K. Moti Gokulsing|author2=Wimal Dissanayake|title=Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinemas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djUFmlFbzFkC&pg=PA250|date=17 April 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-77284-9|pages=250–}}</ref> His "experimental compositions" like "Na Kisi Ki Ankh Ka Noor Hoon" and "Lagta Nahin Hai Dil Mera" from the film ''Lal Qila'' (1960) remain popular.<ref name=Ghosh2010 /><br />
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According to Raju Bharatan, [[Ustad Amir Khan]] of film music composers, rated [[Naushad]], S. N. Tripathi and [[Vasant Desai]] and to a lesser extent [[C. Ramchandra]] as notable composers.<ref name="Bharatan2010">{{cite book|author=Raju Bharatan|title=A Journey Down Melody Lane|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WnxABAAAQBAJ&pg=PT9|date=1 September 2010|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=978-93-81398-05-0|pages=9–}}</ref> He gave music for several mythological and fantasy films and was "tagged as a mythological composer".<br />
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===As actor===<br />
Interested in acting, Tripathi's first role was in the film ''[[Jeevan Naiya]]'' (1936). He acted in ''[[Uttara Abhimanyu]]'' (1946) and then played the role of [[Hanuman]] along with [[Trilok Kapoor]] who played Ram in the Homi Wadia directed superhit movie ''[[Shri Ram Bhakta Hanuman|Ram Bhakt Hanuman]]'' (1948) where he also composed the music, his first prominent role as an actor. He was to continue playing the character of Hanuman in several films, including Homi Wadia's film, ''Hanuman Patal Vijay'' (1951).<br />
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===As director===<br />
Besides acting and composing music, Tripathi began directing films in 1957. He first directorial venture was ''Rani Roopmati'' for which he also composed the music. In 1959, Tripathi directed ''Kavi Kalidas'' and ''Pakshiraj'' as well ''Ram Hanuman Yudh''. In 1962, he directed Shiv Parvati starring [[Trilok Kapoor]], [[Ragini (actress)|Ragini]] and [[Jeevan (Hindi actor)|Jeevan]]. He ventured into directing [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] films like ''Bidesiya'' (1963), which became a success at the box-office. He continued to direct films till 1980 when he directed ''Jaagal Bhag Hamaar'', his last film as a director.<ref >{{cite web |title=Jagal Bhag Hamaar (1980) |url=https://indiancine.ma/UTW/info |website=Indiancine.ma |access-date=17 April 2026}}</ref><br />
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==Death==<br />
Tripathi died on 28 March 1988 at the age of 75 years in Mumbai, Maharashtra.<ref>{{cite book|author=Manek Premchand|title=Yesterday's Melodies Today's Memories (2018)|date=27 December 2018 |publisher=Notion Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJCBDwAAQBAJ&q=SN+Tripathi+died&pg=PT437 |isbn=9781644298770}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
<br />
===As composer===<br />
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}} <br />
* Chandan (1941)<br />
* Sewa (1942)<br />
* [[Duniya Tumhari Hai]] (1942)<br />
* [[Chudiyan]] (1942)<br />
* [[Panghat]] (1943)<br />
* [[Shararat (1944 film)|Shararat]] (1944)<br />
* [[Bachpan (1945 film)|Bachpan]] (1945)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* [[Ramayani]] (1945)<br />
* Ji Haan (1945)<br />
* Adhar (1945)<br />
* [[Uttara Abhimanyu]] (1946)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Mansarovar (1946)<br />
* [[Shri Ram Bhakta Hanuman]] (1948)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Veer Ghatotkach (1949)<br />
* Saudamini (1950)<br />
* [[Shri Ganesh Mahima]] (1950)<br />
* [[Laxmi Narayan (1951 Film)|Laxmi Narayan]] (1951)<br />
* [[Hanuman Patal Vijay]] (1951)<br />
* [[Aladdin Aur Jadui Chirag]] (1952)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Nav Durga (1953)<br />
* Tilottama (1954)<br />
* Durga Puja (1954)<br />
* Alibaba and 40 Thieves (1954)<br />
* Inaam (1955)<br />
* Ratna Manjari (1955)<br />
* Chirag-e-Cheen (1955)<br />
* Roop Kumari (1956)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Panna (1956)<br />
* Sati Naag Kanya (1956)<br />
* Raj Rani Meera (1956)<br />
* [[Hatim Tai (1956 film)|Hatim Tai]] (1956)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Delhi Durbar (1956)<br />
* Bajrang Bali (1956)<br />
* Rani Rupmati (1957)<br />
* Ram Hanuman Yuddha (1957)<br />
* ''Paristan'' (1957)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Khuda Ka Banda (1957)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Janam Janam Ke Phere (1957)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Bhakt Pralhad (1959)<br />
* Pakshiraj (1959)<br />
* Kavi Kalidas (1959)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Jagga Daku (1959)<br />
* Sinhal Dweep Ki Sundari (1960)<br />
* ''Lal Qila'' (1960)<br />
* Chandramukhi (1960)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Do Aadmi (1960)<br />
* Piya Milan Ki Aas (1961)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Ram Lila (1961)<br />
* Jai Chitod (1961)<br />
* Jadoo Nagri (1961)<br />
* Amrit Manthan (1961)<br />
* Shiv Parvati (1962)<ref name=upperstall/><br />
* Sher Khan (1962)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Sangeet Samrat Tansen (1962)<br />
* Naag Devata (1962)<br />
* Maya Jaal (1962)<br />
* Bijli Chamke Jamna Paar (1962)<br />
* Pareeksha (1963)<br />
* Dev Kanya (1963)<br />
* Zingaro (1963)<br />
* Cobra Girl (1963)<br />
* Bidesiya (1963)<br />
* Mahasati Anusuya (1964)<br />
* Shankar Khan (1966)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* [[Loha Singh]] (1966)<br />
* Lav-Kush (1967)<br />
* Nadir Shah (1968)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Lahu Pukarega (1968)<br />
* Har Har Gange (1968)<br />
* [[Shri Krishna Leela]] (1971)<br />
* Mahashivratri (1972)<br />
* Baal Mahabharat (1973)<br />
* Subhadra Haran (1974)<br />
* Shri Ram Hanuman Yudha (1975)<br />
* Naag Champa (1976)<br />
* Jai Ambe Maa (1977)<br />
* Jai Ganesh (1978)<br />
* Sati Savitri (1981)<br />
* Mahasati Tulsi (1985)<br />
* 108 Teerthyatra (1987)<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
===As actor===<br />
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}} <br />
* Jeevan Naiya (1936)<br />
* Uttara Abhimanyu (1946)<br />
* Woh Zamana (1947)<br />
* Ram Bhakta Hanuman (1948)<br />
* Jai Hanuman (1948)<br />
* Veer Ghatotkach (1949)<br />
* Jai Mahakali (1951)<br />
* Bhakta Puran (1952)<br />
* Aladdin Aur Jadui Chirag (1952)<br />
* Alibaba and 40 Thieves (1954)<br />
* Bhagwat Mahima (1955)<br />
* Delhi Durbar (1956)<br />
* Janam Janam Ke Phere (1957)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Kavi Kalidas (1959)<br />
* Piya Milan Ki Aas (1961)<br />
* Bidesiya (1968)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Lav-Kush (1967)<br />
* Deedar (1970)<br />
* Mahashivratri (1972)<br />
* Vishnu Puran (1973)<br />
* Banarasi Babu (1973)<br />
* Ponga Pandit (1975)<br />
* Naag Champa (1976)<br />
* Har Har Gange (1979)<br />
* Mahabali Hanuman (1981)<br />
* ''[[Paan Khaye Saiyan Hamaar (film)|Paan Khaye Saiyan Hamaar]]'' (1984)<br />
* 108 Teerthyatra (1987)<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
===As director===<br />
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}} <br />
* Rani Rupmati (1957)<br />
* Ram Hanuman Yuddha (1957)<br />
* Pakshiraj (1959)<br />
* Kavi Kalidas (1959)<br />
* Piya Milan Ki Aas (1961)<br />
* Amrit Manthan (1961)<br />
* Shiv Parvati (1962)<br />
* Sangeet Samrat Tansen (1962)<br />
* Dev Kanya (1963)<br />
* Bidesiya (1968)<ref name=citwf/><br />
* Mahasati Anusuya (1964)<br />
* Maharaja Vikram (1965)<br />
* Kunwari (1966)<br />
* Lav-Kush (1967)<br />
* Nadir Shah (1968)<br />
* Lahu Pukarega (1968)<br />
* ''Sati Sulochana'' (1969)<br />
* Naag Champa (1976)<br />
* Jaagal Bhag Hamaar (1980)<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{IMDb name | id=0873035 | name = S. N. Tripathi }}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tripathi, S. N.}}<br />
[[Category:Indian film score composers]]<br />
[[Category:Hindi-language playback singers]]<br />
[[Category:Indian male singers]]<br />
[[Category:1913 births]]<br />
[[Category:1988 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian composers]]<br />
[[Category:Musicians from Varanasi]]<br />
[[Category:Indian male film score composers]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian male singers]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=AHS_Nursing_College_%26_Hospital&diff=483860AHS Nursing College & Hospital2026-04-26T23:19:18Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: redirect created</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[Bihar University of Health Sciences#Nursing Colleges]]<br />
<br />
{{Rcat shell|<br />
{{R to related topic}}<br />
}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coordinating_Committee_on_Manipur_Integrity&diff=494903Coordinating Committee on Manipur Integrity2026-04-25T15:53:25Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: starting new entry.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use Indian English|date=October 2023}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox organization<br />
| name = Coordinating Committee on Manipur Integrity<br />
| region_served = [[Imphal Valley]], [[Manipur]], India<br />
| logo = <br />
| type = Meitei activist organisation<br />
| headquarters = [[Lamphel]], Imphal<br />
| native_name = <br />
| method = <br />
| revenue = <br />
| num_volunteers = <br />
| owner = <br />
| leader_title = Coordinator<br />
| leader_name = Somorendro Thokchom<br />
| leader_title2 = Spokesperson<br />
| leader_name2 = Khuraijam Athouba<br />
| founders = <br />
| key_people = <br />
| founded = 21 October 2019<br />
| dissolved = <br />
| focus = Preserving integrity of Manipur<br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
The '''Coordinating Committee on Manipur Integrity''' ('''COCOMI''') is a joint body of [[Meitei people|Meitei]] civil society organisations in the Indian state of [[Manipur]]. It came into being in 2019 in the wake of the peace talks between the Indian government and [[Insurgency in Manipur#List of militant organisations as per ethnicity|Naga rebel groups]], as the latter sought autonomy and integration of the Naga-inhabited areas of Manipur into a Greater Nagaland. COCOMI campaigns for maintaining the "territorial integrity" of Manipur, which was a [[princely state]] under the [[British Raj]] and became part of the [[Dominion of India|Indian Union]] upon India's independence.<ref name="Sangai 22 Oct 2019"><br />
[https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2019/10/22/IMPHAL-Oct-21-Major-civil-society-organisations-of-the-State-namely-AMUCO-CCSK-HERICOUN-LIPUL-and-UCM-have-jointly-formed-a-Coordinating-Committee-on-Manipur-Integrity-COCOMI-.html CSOs form united front to fight for integrity], The Sangai Express, 22 October 2019.<br />
</ref><ref name="HT 24 Oct 2019"><br />
[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ahead-of-naga-peace-deal-manipuri-women-demand-protection-of-state-s-territorial-integrity/story-iwwmCgD7KopcuOCt0ggI9N.html Ahead of Naga peace deal, Manipuri women demand protection of state's territorial integrity], The Hindustan Times, 24 October 2019. {{ProQuest|2308267133}}<br />
</ref><ref name="IE 28 Oct 2019"><br />
Jimmy Leivon, [https://indianexpress.com/article/north-east-india/manipur/indo-naga-talks-manipur-groups-to-launch-mass-protest-on-oct-31-6091957/ Indo-Naga talks: Manipur groups to launch mass protest on Oct 31], Indian Express, 28 October 2019. {{ProQuest|2309556791}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
During the [[2023–2024 Manipur violence]], COCOMI acted as the main representative body of the Meitei community.<ref><br />
[https://thewire.in/security/manipur-mass-burial-of-kuki-victims-postponed-after-mha-zoramthangas-intervention Manipur: Mass Burial of Kuki Victims Postponed After MHA Request, Zoramthanga's Intervention], The Wire, 3 August 2023. 'Urging the state government to prohibit such “illegal moves on time”, the organisation, seen as close to chief minister N. Biren Singh, said it would block such a move if the Kukis go ahead with it. COCOMI is vehemently opposed to a division of the state.'<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
== Organisation ==<br />
COCOMI is an activist body in Manipur that strives for preserving the "integrity" of Manipur, which essentially means preserving the territory of [[Manipur (princely state)|Manipur]] as it existed as a [[princely state]] at the end of [[British Raj]] in 1947. Any form of division or cession of this territory is sternly opposed. The organisation is described as an "umbrella body" of several civil society organisations of [[Meitei people|Meitei]] ethnicity. It was described in October 2019 as having been "recently formed". Its convener at that time was mentioned as Sunil Karam.<ref name="IE 28 Oct 2019"/><br />
<br />
In 2023, COCOMI was headed by [[Jeetendra]] Ningomba as its coordinator. Upon the end of his term in January 2024, he passed on the office of coordinator to Somorendro Thokchom.<ref name="CNS 21 Jan"><br />
[https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=33..220124.jan24 Myanmarese Kukis fuelling crisis in state: COCOMI], Chronicle News Service, via e-pao.net, 21 January 2024.<br />
</ref>{{efn|The coordinator's name is also written as "Somendro Thokchom" in some sources.<ref name="CNS 21 Jan"/>}}<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
COCOMI was formed on 21 October 2019 as an umbrella organisation of several Meitei civil society organisations. These were:<ref name="Sangai 22 Oct 2019"/><br />
* United Committee Manipur (UCM), headed by Sunil Karam<br />
* Committee of Civil Societies of Kangleipak (CCSK), headed by Jeetendra Ningomba<br />
* League of Indigenous People's Upliftment (LIPUL), headed by Somorendro Thokchom<br />
* Ethno Heritage Council (HERICOUN), headed by Longjam Ratankumar<br />
* All Manipur United Clubs Organisation (AMUCO), headed by Ph. Nando Luwang<br />
Sunil Karam and Somorendro Thokchom were elected as the coordinators of the new organisation and the other leaders were named as assistant coordinators.<ref name="Sangai 22 Oct 2019"/><br />
<br />
'''United Committee Manipur''', the best known of these constituents, was founded in July 2001 as an umbrella body in itself. It was formed in response to the extension of the Naga ceasefire agreement to the Naga-inhabited areas of Manipur.<ref><br />
[https://www.unitedcommitteemanipur.com/about.html About UCM], United Committee Manipur, retrieved 1 July 2024.<br />
</ref><br />
In 2024, COCOMI was reported to be operating from the offices of UCM.<ref><br />
[https://www.imphaltimes.com/news/sit-in-protest-held-new-office-bearer-of-ucm-appointed/ Sit in protest held; new office bearer of UCM appointed], Imphal Times, 30 August 2024.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
=== Indo-Naga peace talks ===<br />
In October 2019, COCOMI launched a mass protest to oppose any deal that could affect the territorial integrity of Manipur during the Indo-Naga peace talks. The then president, Sunil Karam, said that the central government's move to settle the Naga issue without Maniput state's involvement was an "insult" to Manipur.<ref name="IE 28 Oct 2019"/><br />
<br />
=== 2023–2024 Manipur violence ===<br />
[[2023–2024 Manipur violence|Ethnic violence]] between the majority [[Meitei people|Meitei]] community and the hill-based [[Kuki-Zo people|Kuki-Zo]] community broke out on 3 May 2023, causing virtually all of the Meitei people living in Kuki-dominated hills to get displaced to the Valley, and all the Kuki-Zo people living in the Valley to get displaced to the hills. COCOMI was reported to have supported the "age-old tradition of coexistence".<ref><br />
[https://www.ifp.co.in/undefined/cocomi-reaffirms-stand-to-maintain-age-old-tradition-of-coexistence-in-manipur COCOMI reaffirms stand to maintain age-old tradition of coexistence in Manipur], Imphal Free Press, 10 May 2023. {{ProQuest|2811665894}}<br />
</ref><br />
But in early June, it organised a People's Convention in Imphal East, and declared a "national war against Chin-Kuki narco-terrorists", which was supposed to be fought unitedly by all the "indigenous people of Manipur". It also claimed that, with the declaration of war, a "public emergency" came into force.<ref name="TFM COCOMI Convention"><br />
[https://thefrontiermanipur.com/convention-declares-war-against-narco-terrorists/ Convention Declares ‘War Against Narco Terrorists’], The Frontier Manipur, 8 June 2023.<br />
</ref><ref name="THJ COCOMI Convention"><br />
[https://web.archive.org/web/20230607163708/https://thehillsjournal.com/cocomi-organizes-peoples-convention-declares-war-against-kuki-chin-narco-terrorists/ COCOMI organizes People's Convention, Declares war against Kuki-Chin Narco-terrorists], The Hills Journal, 7 June 2023.<br />
</ref><ref name="IE Newsmaker"><br />
[https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/manipur-conflict-row-cocomi-meitei-group-assam-rifles-8942405/ Newsmaker | COCOMI: The Meitei group at the fore of Manipur conflict, row with Assam Rifles], The Indian Express, 18 September 2023.<br />
</ref><br />
The Convention also rejected the Union home minister [[Amit Shah]]'s appeal to surrender weapons looted from the police armouries and refused combing operations by security forces, though it backtracked on this resolution the following day.<ref name="TOI COCOMI Convention"><br />
Prabin Kalita, [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/imphal/wont-surrender-arms-allow-combing-operations-imphal-groups/articleshow/100834891.cms Manipur violence: Won't surrender arms, allow combing operations, say Imphal groups], The Times of India, 8 June 2023.<br />
</ref><ref name="Scroll COCOMI backtracks"><br />
[https://scroll.in/latest/1050568/manipur-group-backtracks-a-day-after-passing-resolution-to-not-give-up-arms-looted-during-violence Manipur group backtracks a day after passing resolution to not give up arms looted during violence], Scroll.in, 8 June 2023.<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Coalition of Indigenes' Rights Campaign, Manipur]]<br />
* [[Federation of Haomee]]<br />
* [[International Meeteis Forum]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* Karan Thapar [https://thewire.in/video/watch-will-never-accept-separate-kuki-administration-says-manipuri-body Watch | 'Will Never Accept Separate Kuki Administration,' Says Manipuri Body], The Wire, 2 August 2023.<br />
<br />
[[Category:2019 establishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:Meitei organisations]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_University_Entrance_Test&diff=494815Common University Entrance Test2026-04-22T06:47:27Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: starting new data</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Entrance exam for universities in India}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox examination<br />
|name = Common University Entrance Test<br />
|image_alt = NTA<br />
|image =<br />
|acronym = CUET<br />
|type = Paper-based<br/>Computer-based test (CBT)<br />
|test_admin = [[National Testing Agency]] (since 2021)<br />
|purpose = Admission to various Universities and participating institutes<br />
|skills_tested = Language, domain-specific subject, general aptitude and reasoning<br />
|year_started = {{Start date|2010|df=y}}<br />
|duration = Section 1A, 1B - 60mins for each language<br /> Section 2 - 60mins for each Subject <br /> Section 3 - 60minutes<br />
|score_range = 250 per subject (Max. 5 subjects can be chosen)<br />
|offered = Once a year<br />
|attempt_restriction =<br />
|regions = India<br />
|language = [[English language|English]], [[Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Urdu]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Odia language|Odia]]<br />
|test_takers ={{Decrease}} 1,071,735 (2025)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3d1a21da7bca4abff8b0b61b87597de73/uploads/2025/07/2025070428.pdf|title=CUET 2025 Press Release}}</ref>(UG)<br />
|website = {{URL|https://cuet.nta.nic.in/}}<br />
|footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
The '''Common University Entrance Test''' ('''CUET''') is a [[standardised test]] in India conducted by the [[National Testing Agency]] at various levels for admission to [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate]] programmes in [[Central university (India)|Universities]] and other participating institutes.<ref name="2024-01-01">{{Cite news |date=March 24, 2024|title=What is the difference between CUCET and CUET 2022? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/what-is-the-difference-between-cucet-and-cuet-2024-1928881-2024-01-01 |access-date=2024-01-01 |work=India Today |language=en}}</ref> It is also the way to some [[Deemed university|Deemed universities]] across India.<ref>{{Cite web|script-title=hi:केंद्रीय विश्वविद्यालय-संयुक्त प्रवेश परीक्षा (सीयू-सीईटी) 2021 |trans-title=Central Universities -Common Entrance Test (CU-CET) 2021 |url=https://cucet.nta.nic.in/WebinfoCms/Page/Page?PageId=1&LangId=P|access-date=2022-02-10|website=National Testing Agency |publisher=Government of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/news/du-to-provide-phd-admissions-through-cuet-from-upcoming-academic-year-101686380611565.html|title=DU to provide PhD admissions through CUET from upcoming academic year|publisher=Hindustan Times|website=hindustantimes.com|access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
CUCET was first conducted to admission for seven central universities for 1,500 seats in 41 undergraduate, postgraduate and integrated courses from 2010. The application form was filled up through ''CUCET-2010'' which held on 19 and 20 June 2010 in about 30 examination centers spread across the country.<ref name="The Hindu 5 May 2010">{{cite news |title=Now, the all-new CUCET |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/now-the-allnew-cucet/article422630.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=5 May 2010 |language=en-IN}}</ref> From its inception in 2010 till 2020, the CUCET was conducted by the [[Central University of Rajasthan]] for 12 Central Universities. The [[National Testing Agency]] took over the conduct of these exams in 2021.<ref name="india_today_2022-03-24">{{Cite news |date=March 24, 2022 |title=What is the difference between CUCET and CUET 2022? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/what-is-the-difference-between-cucet-and-cuet-2022-1928881-2022-03-24 |access-date=2022-04-15 |work=India Today |language=en}}</ref> In 2024, as a part of [[National Education Policy 2020]], CUET is introduced as revamped version of CUCET making it compulsory for all 45 central universities and other universities to adopt it.<br />
<br />
==Exam pattern and structure==<br />
All question papers are MCQ-based organized into different parts.<br />
<br />
=== For UG Programmes ===<br />
Starting 2024, the CUET exam pattern has three sections, which are Section IA – 13 Languages, Section IB – 20 Languages, Section II – 27 Domain-Specific Subjects, and Section III – General Test.<br />
<br />
The CUET-UG consists of the Language Test, Domain-Specific papers, and the General Test.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-23 |title=CUET (CUCET) Exam Pattern 2022 (Revised): Marking Scheme, Subject, Marks, Duration |url=https://university.careers360.com/articles/cucet-exam-pattern |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=university.careers360.com |language=en}}</ref> Candidates can opt for a combination of at most 2 languages and 6 domain-specific subjects or 3 languages and 5 domain-specific tests. CUET entrance test 2024 will now be conducted in two slots. The duration of the first slot is 45 to 195 minutes, and the duration of the second slot is 45 to 225 minutes. CUET-UG 2023 was conducted in 3 slots of 3 hours each.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-18 |title=CUET Explained {{!}} Exam Format, Dates, Slot, Eligibility, Admit Cards, Evaluation – All You Need to Know |url=https://www.news18.com/explainers/cuet-explained-exam-format-dates-slot-eligibility-admit-cards-evaluation-all-you-need-to-know-7849585.html |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
The marking scheme includes 5 marks for each correct answer, and 1 mark will be deducted for each wrong response.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Subjects, Pattern of CUET - UG<br />
!<br />
!Section 1A -<br />
13 languages<br />
!Section 2 -<br />
27 Domain-specific Subjects<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/site/syllabus|title=CUET Syllabus}}</ref><br />
!Section 3 -<br />
General Aptitude Test<br />
|-<br />
|'''Subjects'''<br />
|<br />
* English<br />
* Telugu<br />
* Tamil<br />
* Kannada<br />
* Malayalam<br />
* Marathi<br />
*Bhojpuri<br />
* Bengali<br />
* Assamese<br />
* Punjabi<br />
* Hindi<br />
* Urdu<br />
|'''[[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]]:'''<br />
<br />
* Agriculture Sciences<br />
* Biology/Biological Studies/Biotechnology/Biochemistry<br />
* Chemistry<br />
* Computer Science/Informatics Practices/Information Technology<br />
* Environmental Studies/sciences<br />
* Mathematics / Applied Mathematics<br />
* Physics<br />
<br />
'''Commerce/Business:'''<br />
<br />
* Accountancy/Book Keeping<br />
* Business Studies<br />
* Economics/Business Economics <br />
'''[[Humanities, arts, and social sciences|Humanities and Social Sciences]]:'''<br />
* Anthropology<br />
* Geography/Geology<br />
* History<br />
* Home Science<br />
* Knowledge Tradition-Practices India<br />
* Mass Media, Journalism & Communication<br />
* Political Science<br />
* Psychology<br />
* Sanskrit<br />
* Sociology<br />
'''Arts, Sports & Others:'''<br />
* Fine Arts/Visual Arts<br />
* Art Education & Sculpture /Painting & Commercial Art<br />
* Performing Arts<br />
* Teaching Aptitude<br />
* Physical Education/National Cadet Corps (NCC)/Yoga<br />
|<br />
* General Aptitude Test<br />
|-<br />
|'''Syllabus'''<br />
|<br />
* Reading Comprehension based on different types of passages–Factual, Literary and Narrative - Tested on understanding of a passage and its central theme, meanings of words used therein, etc.<br />
* Literary Aptitude and Vocabulary - Tested on Questions on synonyms & antonyms<br />
* Grammar from all topics - Tested on correcting grammatically incorrect sentences, filling blanks in sentences with appropriate words, Rearranging the parts, etc.<br />
* Verbal Ability<br />
* Vocabulary, Writings<br />
|Based On Latest Syllabus Prescribed As Per NCERT. <br />
|<br />
* General Knowledge & Current Affairs<br />
* General Mental Ability<br />
* Numerical Ability<br />
* Aptitude<br />
* Quantitative Reasoning (application of basic mathematical concepts arithmetic, algebra geometry, mensuration, statistics & Probability)<br />
* Logical & Analytical Reasoning<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=General Test - Syllabus CUET 2022 |url=https://cdnasb.samarth.ac.in/site/Syllabus+of+CUET+(UG)+-+2022/501_General_Test.pdf }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|'''Pattern & Duration'''<br />
|50 MCQs to be answered in 50 Minutes (per subject)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Language Papers 1, 2, Syllabus CUET 2022 |url=https://cdnasb.samarth.ac.in/site/Syllabus%20of%20CUET%20%28UG%29%20-%202022/LanguageSyllabus(IAandIB).pdf }}</ref><br />
|50 MCQs to be answered in 60<br />
Minutes (per subject)<br />
|50 MCQs to be answered in 60 minutes as per 2025<br />
circular<ref name=":0" /><br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== For PG Programmes ===<br />
CUET PG will have 72 more test papers for various courses. The complete mapping of test paper code versus course and university is provided by NTA in the information brochure.<ref>{{cite web |title=CUET PG Test Paper Codes |url=https://admission.aglasem.com/cuet-pg-test-paper-code/ |website=aglasem.com |access-date=2 June 2022}}</ref><br />
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"<br />
|+CUET PG Subjects<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syllabus |url=https://pgcuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/site/syllabus |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=pgcuet.samarth.ac.in}}</ref><br />
!Languages & Linguistics<br />
!Sciences & Mathematics<br />
!Engineering & Technology<br />
!Education<br />
!Arts<br />
!Commerce & Management<br />
!Humanities & Social Sciences<br />
!Indology, Religion & Philosophy<br />
!Others<br />
|-<br />
|Linguistics:<br />
<br />
* Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Linguistics and Language Technology, Linguistics & Tribal Languages, Computational Linguistics (LAQP04)<br />
* English, Comparative Literature, English & Cultural Studies, English, Modern European etc. (LAQP01)<br />
* Hindi, Hindi translation, Hindi and Comparative Literature, Hindi and Modern Indian Languages etc. (LAQP02)<br />
<br />
Indian Languages:<br />
<br />
* Assamese (LAQP06)<br />
* Bhutia (LAQP08)<br />
* Bengali (LAQP07)<br />
* Gujarati (LAQP13)<br />
* Hindi (LAQP02)<br />
* Kannada (LAQP16)<br />
* Kashmiri (LAQP17)<br />
* Khasi (LAQP18)<br />
* Kokborok (LAQP19)<br />
* Lepcha (LAQP21)<br />
* Malayalam (LAQP23)<br />
* Manipuri (LAQP24)<br />
* Marathi (LAQP25)<br />
* Nepali (LAQP26)<br />
* Odia (LAQP27)<br />
* Pali (LAQP28)<br />
* Punjabi (LAQP33)<br />
* Sanskrit (LAQP03)<br />
* Santali (LAQP40)<br />
* Tamil (LAQP35)<br />
* Telugu (LAQP36)<br />
* Urdu (LAQP37)<br />
<br />
Foreign Languages:<br />
<br />
* Arabic (LAQP05)<br />
* Chinese (LAQP09)<br />
* French (LAQP10)<br />
* German (LAQP12)<br />
* Italian (LAQP41)<br />
* Japanese (LAQP15)<br />
* Korean (LAQP20)<br />
* Persian (LAQP30)<br />
* Russian (LAQP34)<br />
* Spanish (LAQP31)<br />
|<br />
* Agricultural Science etc. (SCQP01)<br />
* Agro-forestry etc. (SCQP02)<br />
* Animal Science & Poultry (SCQP30)<br />
* Applied Microbiology & Microbiology etc. (SCQP03)<br />
* Architecture etc. (SCQP04)<br />
* Biochemistry (SCQP05)<br />
* Bioinformatics (SCQP06)<br />
* Botany (SCQP07)<br />
* Chemistry etc. (SCQP08)<br />
* Computer Applications and Information Technology etc. (SCQP09)<br />
* Environmental Sciences etc. (SCQP11)<br />
* Food Science and Technology etc. (SCQP12)<br />
* Forensic Science (SCQP13)<br />
* Geology, Earth Sciences etc. (SCQP14)<br />
* Geophysics (SCQP15)<br />
* Horticulture etc. (SCQP16)<br />
* Life Science etc. (SCQP17)<br />
* Material Science and Technology etc. (SCQP18)<br />
* Mathematics etc. (SCQP19)<br />
* Medical Laboratory Technology etc. (SCQP20)<br />
* MPT/MRT etc. (SCQP21)<br />
* Nanoscience etc. (SCQP22)<br />
* Pharmacy etc. (SCQP23)<br />
* Physics etc. (SCQP24)<br />
* Plant Biotechnology etc. (SCQP25)<br />
* Soil Science - Soil & Water Conservation etc. (SCQP26)<br />
* Statistics etc. (SCQP27)<br />
* Zoology etc. (SCQP28)<br />
* Atmospheric Science (SCQP29)<br />
* Public Health (COQP19)<br />
<br />
|<br />
* Architecture etc. (SCQP04)<br />
* Chemical Thermal & Polymer Engineering (MTQP01)<br />
* Civil, Structural & Transport Engineering (MTQP02)<br />
* Dairy Technology (MTQP03)<br />
* Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Cyber Security & Computer Science (MTQP04)<br />
* Electrical, Power and Energy Engineering (MTQP10)<br />
* Electronics, Communication and Information Engineering (MTQP05)<br />
* Food Engineering and Technology (MTQP06)<br />
* Mechanical Engineering (MTQP07)<br />
* Nanoelectronics & Material Sciences (MTQP09)<br />
* Nano Science & Nano Technology etc. (MTQP08)<br />
* Textile Engineering (MTQP12)<br />
* Water Engineering and Management etc. (MTQP11)<br />
<br />
|<br />
* B.Ed. (COQP03)<br />
* B.Ed. Humanities and Social Sciences (COQP04)<br />
* B.Ed. Languages (COQP05)<br />
* B.Ed. Mathematics (COQP07)<br />
* B.Ed. Science (COQP06)<br />
* M.A. Education (COQP16)<br />
* M.Ed. (COQP15)<br />
<br />
|<br />
* Applied Arts (HUQP03)<br />
* Art and Aesthetics (HUQP04)<br />
* Fine Arts etc. (HUQP07)<br />
* Dance (HUQP05)<br />
* Music - Karnatak (HUQP12)<br />
* Music - Percussion (HUQP25)<br />
* Music – Hindustani (HUQP14)<br />
* Painting (HUQP15)<br />
* Pottery & Ceramics (HUQP19)<br />
* Plastic Arts (HUQP17)<br />
* Theatre (HUQP24)<br />
|<br />
* Agri-Business Management etc. (COQP01)<br />
* Commerce, Business Finance, Accounting & Taxation, Economic Administration and Financial Management etc. (COQP08)<br />
* Economics, Financial Economics, Business Economics, Rural Economics etc. (COQP10)<br />
* General MBA, Marketing & Finance Management, Tourism, Travel & Hotel Management, Business Analytics, Sales & Marketing etc. (COQP12)<br />
* Healthcare & Hospital Management (COQP22)<br />
|<br />
* Ancient Indian History, Culture & Arch, Archaeology Heritage Management, Conservation Preservation and Heritage Management etc. (HUQP01)<br />
* Anthropology (HUQP02)<br />
* Disaster Studies (COQP09)<br />
* Development and Labour Studies (HUQP06)<br />
* Geography (HUQP08)<br />
* History and Archaeology, Ancient Indian History, Culture etc. (HUQP09)<br />
* History of Art, Archaeology Heritage Management etc. (HUQP10)<br />
* Home Science-Food & Nutrition, Nutrition and Health, Human Development & Childhood Studies, Fabric & Apparel Science, Resource Management & Design Application, Development Communication & Extension etc. (HUQP11)<br />
* Museology (HUQP13)<br />
* Philosophy (HUQP16)<br />
* Political Science, Public Administration, Human Rights, Politics and International Relations etc. (HUQP18)<br />
* Psychology, Applied Psychology, Health Psychology etc. (HUQP20)<br />
* Social Work, Urban & Rural Community Development etc. (HUQP21)<br />
* Sociology, Peace and Conflict Studies and Management (HUQP22)<br />
* Rabindra Sangit (HUQP26)<br />
* Commerce etc. (COQP08)<br />
* Criminology (SCQP10)<br />
|<br />
* Shiksha Shastri B.Ed. (ACQP01)<br />
* Shiksha Acharya M.Ed. (ACQP02)<br />
* Agama (ACQP03)<br />
* Baudha Darshan & Buddhist Studies (Trilingual - Hindi, Sanskrit & English) (ACQP04)<br />
* Dharma Shastra, Vastu, Paurohitya and Veda (ACQP05)<br />
* Dharma Vijnan (ACQP06)<br />
* Dharmashastra (BHU) (ACQP07)<br />
* Hindu Studies (Bilingual - Sanskrit, English) (ACQP08)<br />
* Indian Knowledge System (ACQP09)<br />
* Jain Darshan (BHU) (ACQP10)<br />
* Jyotish - Falit (BHU) (ACQP11)<br />
* Jyotish - Ganit (BHU) (ACQP12)<br />
* Krishna Yajurveda (BHU) (ACQP13)<br />
* Nyaya Vaisheshika (ACQP14)<br />
* Phalita and Siddantha Jyotisha (ACQP15)<br />
* Puranetihas (ACQP16)<br />
* Rigveda (ACQP17)<br />
* Sahitya (BHU) (ACQP18)<br />
* Sahitya (Alankara and Kavya Varga) (ACQP19)<br />
* Samveda (ACQP20)<br />
* Shukla Yajurveda (BHU) (ACQP21)<br />
* Veda etc. (ACQP22)<br />
* Vedanta (BHU) (ACQP23)<br />
* Vedanta, Sarvadarshan, Mimansa, Nyaya etc. (ACQP24)<br />
* Vyakaran (BHU) (ACQP25)<br />
* Vyakarana & Sabdabodha Systems (ACQP26)<br />
* Yoga (COQP21)<br />
|<br />
* General, L.L.B., Bachelor of Library & Information Science, Defence and Strategic Studies, Jammu & Kashmir Studies, Hindu Studies, Women Studies, Anthropology, Digital Society, Finance & Taxation, Physical Education, Textile Design, Hospitality and Tourism Management, Gender Studies etc. (COQP11)<br />
<br />
<u>Library and Information Science</u>:<br />
<br />
* Library & Information Science (COQP13)<br />
* L.L.M. (COQP14)<br />
<br />
<u>Mass Communication and Journalism</u>:<br />
<br />
* Mass Communication and Journalism (COQP17)<br />
<br />
<u>Physical Education, Yoga and Sports</u>:<br />
<br />
* Physical Education (COQP18)<br />
* Sports - Physiology, Biochemistry, Nutrition, Biomechanics etc. (COQP20)<br />
* Yoga (COQP21)<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Negative marking===<br />
Negative marking scheme is followed with a deduction of 1 mark for each wrong answer.<br />
<br />
== Application fees ==<br />
Only online applications are accepted for CUCET-2024, and application fees for various categories are listed below.<br />
<br />
'''For CUET-UG: (According to Data of CUET-UG 2024)''' <ref>{{Cite web |title=CUET-PG Information Bulletin(IB) |url=https://cdnasb.samarth.ac.in/v2/2024/pg/pg-site-admin24/public-notice/IB+of+CUET+(PG)+-+2024.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
For CUET (UG) – 2024, fees will be charged based on the number of subjects chosen by the candidates. The following fee structure is applicable for CUET (UG) - 2024:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Category<br />
!Up to 03 Subjects<br />
!For each Additional Subject<br />
|-<br />
|[[General Category caste|General]] (UR) Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|1000|year=2024}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|400|year=2024}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[OBC quota|OBC]]/[[EWS quota|EWS]] Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|900|year=2024}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|375|year=2024}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|SC/ST]]/[[Persons with disabilities|PWD]] Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|800|year=2024}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|350|year=2024}}<br />
|-<br />
|Centres outside India Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|4500|year=2024}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|1800|year=2024}}<br />
|}<br />
'''For CUET-PG: (According to Data of CUET-PG 2024)''' <ref>{{Cite web |title=CUET-PG IB |url=https://cdnasb.samarth.ac.in/v2/2024/pg/pg-site-admin24/public-notice/IB+of+CUET+(PG)+-+2024.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
For CUET (PG) – 2024, fees will be charged based on the number of subjects chosen by the candidates. The following fee structure is applicable for CUET (PG) - 2024:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!Category<br />
!Up to 02 Subjects<br />
!For each Additional Subject<br />
|-<br />
|[[General Category caste|General]] (UR) Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|1200|year=2023}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|600|year=2023}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[OBC quota|OBC]]/[[EWS quota|EWS]] Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|1000|year=2023}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|500|year=2023}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|SC/ST]] Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|900|year=2023}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|500|year=2023}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Persons with disabilities|PWD]] Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|800|year=2023}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|500|year=2023}}<br />
|-<br />
|Centres outside India Applicants<br />
!{{INRConvert|6000|year=2023}}<br />
!{{INRConvert|2000|year=2023}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Participating Universities ==<br />
=== CUET-UG ===<br />
Admission to the following universities is done through CUET-UG in 2024 (only undergraduate and integrated master's dees)-<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
!Central Universities<br />
!Deemed Universities<br />
!State Universities<br />
! Private Universities<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
* [[Aligarh Muslim University]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-10 |title=AMU to adopt CUET for UG admissions, centre denies exemption request |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/education/amu-to-adopt-cuet-for-ug-admissions-centre-denies-exemption-request-article-90756883 |access-date=2022-04-10 |website=TimesNow}}</ref><br />
* [[Assam University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=AUS|title=Assam University}}</ref><br />
* [[Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=BBAU|title=Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University}}</ref><br />
* [[Banaras Hindu University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=BHU|title=Banaras Hindu University}}</ref><br />
* [[Central Sanskrit University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=SANSKRIT|title=Central Sanskrit University}}</ref><br />
* [[Central Tribal University of Andhra Pradesh]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=CTUAP|title=Central Tribal University of Andhra Pradesh}}</ref><br />
* [[Central University of Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
* [[Central University of Gujarat]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=CUG|title=Central University of Gujarat}}</ref><br />
* [[Central University of Haryana]]<br />
* [[Central University of Himachal Pradesh]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=CUHIMANCHAL|title=Central University of Himachal Pradesh}}</ref><br />
* [[Central University of Jammu]]<br />
* [[Central University of Jharkhand]]<br />
* [[Central University of Karnataka]]<br />
* [[Central University of Kashmir]]<br />
* [[Central University of Kerala]]<br />
* [[Central University of Odisha]]<br />
* [[Central University of Rajasthan]]<br />
* [[Central University of South Bihar]]<br />
* [[Central University of Tamil Nadu]]<br />
* [[Dr. Hari Singh Gour University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=DHSGSU|title=Dr. Hari Singh Gour University}}</ref><br />
* [[The English and Foreign Languages University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=EFLU|title=The English and Foreign Languages University}}</ref><br />
* [[Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=GGV|title=Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya}}</ref><br />
* [[Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=HNBGU|title=Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University}}</ref><br />
* [[Indira Gandhi National Tribal University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=IGNTU|title=Indira Gandhi National Tribal University}}</ref><br />
* [[Jamia Millia Islamia]]<br />
* [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]]<br />
* [[Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya]]<br />
* [[Mahatma Gandhi Central University]]<br />
* [[Manipur University]]<br />
* [[Maulana Azad National Urdu University]]<br />
* [[Mizoram University]]<br />
* [[Nagaland University]]<br />
* [[National Sanskrit University]]<br />
* [[North Eastern Hill University]]<br />
* [[Pondicherry University]]<br />
* [[Rajiv Gandhi University]]<br />
* [[Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University]]<br />
* [[Sikkim University]]<br />
* [[Tezpur University]]<br />
* [[Tripura University]]<br />
* [[University of Allahabad]]<br />
* [[University of Delhi]]<br />
* [[University of Hyderabad]]<br />
* [[Visva-Bharati University]]<br />
|<br />
* [[Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=AVINUTY|title=Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women}}</ref><br />
* [[Gurukul Kangri]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=GKV|title=Gurukul Kangri}}</ref><br />
* [[Jamia Hamdard]]<br />
* [[National Rail and Transportation Institute]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=NRTI|title=National Rail and Transportation Institute}}</ref><br />
* [[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=TISS|title=Tata Institute of Social Sciences}}</ref><br />
* [[Gandhigram Rural Institute]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=RURALUNIV|title=Gandhigram Rural Institute}}</ref><br />
|<br />
* [[Sri Dev Suman Uttarakhand University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uttrakhandhub.in/2023/06/uk-cuet-samarth-admission-form-uttarakhand-cuet-uk-admission-samarth.html|title=Sri_Dev_Suman_Uttarakhand_University}}</ref><br />
* [[Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=DAVV|title=Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya}}</ref><br />
* [[Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=AKTU|title=Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University}}</ref><br />
* [[Dr. B. R. Ambedkar School of Economics University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=BASE|title=Dr. B. R. Ambedkar School of Economics University}}</ref><br />
* [[Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University Delhi]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=AUD|title=Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University Delhi}}</ref><br />
* [[Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=MMMUT|title=Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology}}</ref><br />
* University of Kashmir https://www.kashmiruniversity.net/ <br />
* Cluster University of Srinagar https://www.cusrinagar.edu.in/<br />
* Cluster University of Jammu https://clujammu.ac.in/v1/index.php<br />
* Islamia College of Science & Commerce https://islamiacollege.co.in/<br />
<br />
|<br />
* [[BML Munjal University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=BMU|title=BML Munjal University}}</ref><br />
* [[Galgotias University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=GU|title=Galgotias University}}</ref><br />
* [[IIMT University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=IIMTU|title=IIMT University}}</ref><br />
* [[Jagannath University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=JNUH|title=Jagannath University}}</ref><br />
* Jagannath University, Jaipur<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=JU|title=Jagannath University, Jaipur}}</ref><br />
* [[Jaypee University of Information Technology]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=JUIT|title=Jaypee University }}</ref><br />
* [[Mewar University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=MUR|title=Mewar University}}</ref><br />
* [[Teerthanker Mahaveer University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuet.samarth.ac.in/index.php/app/info/eligibility?q=TMU|title=Teerthanker Mahaveer University}}</ref><br />
* [[K.R. Mangalam University]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Best University in Gurgaon {{!}} Private University in Gurugram: KRMU |url=https://www.krmangalam.edu.in/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=www.krmangalam.edu.in}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== CUET-PG ===<br />
Admission in the following universities is done through CUET-PG in 2024 (only master's degrees and postgraduate diplomas):<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
!Central Universities<br />
!Deemed Universities<br />
!State Universities<br />
! Private Universities<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
* [[Banaras Hindu University]]<br />
* [[Central Sanskrit University]]<br />
* [[Central Tribal University of Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
* [[Central University of Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
* [[Central University of Gujarat]]<br />
* [[Central University of Haryana]]<br />
* [[Central University of Himachal Pradesh]]<br />
* [[Central University of Jammu]]<br />
* [[Central University of Jharkhand]]<br />
* [[Central University of Karnataka]]<br />
* [[Central University of Kashmir]]<br />
* [[Central University of Kerala]]<br />
* [[Central University of Odisha]]<br />
* [[Central University of Punjab]]<br />
* [[Central University of Rajasthan]]<br />
* [[Central University of South Bihar]]<br />
* [[Central University of Tamil Nadu]]<br />
* [[Dr. Hari Singh Gour University]]<br />
* [[The English and Foreign Languages University]]<br />
* [[Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya]]<br />
* [[Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University]]<br />
* [[Indira Gandhi National Tribal University]]<br />
* [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]]<br />
* [[Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya]]<br />
* [[Mahatma Gandhi Central University]]<br />
* [[Manipur University]]<br />
* [[National Sanskrit University]]<br />
* [[North Eastern Hill University]]<br />
* [[Pondicherry University]]<br />
* [[Sikkim University]]<br />
* [[Tezpur University]]<br />
* [[Tripura University]]<br />
* [[University of Hyderabad]]<br />
* [[Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development]]<br />
|<br />
* [[National Rail and Transportation Institute]]<br />
* [[IIS University|IIS (Deemed to be) University, Jaipur]]<br />
* [[Jain University|Jain (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore (Karnataka)]]<br />
* [[Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute]]<br />
* [[Jaypee Institute of Information Technology|Jaypee Institute of Information Technology Noida]]<br />
|<br />
* [[Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya]]<br />
* [[Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University]]<br />
* [[Dr. B. R. Ambedkar School of Economics University]]<br />
* [[Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology]]<br />
* [[Sardar Patel University of Police, Security and Criminal Justice]]<br />
* [[Tata Institute of Social Sciences|Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS)]]<br />
* [[Delhi Technological University]]<br />
* [[Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University]]<br />
* [[Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University]]<br />
* [[Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women]]<br />
* [[Ranchi University]]<br />
|<br />
* Apex University, Jaipur<br />
* [[Teerthanker Mahaveer University]]<br />
<ref><br />
[https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3d1a21da7bca4abff8b0b61b87597de73/uploads/2022/05/2022051957.pdf Common University Entrance Test Guide (Graduate)] National Testing Agency</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
* [[Joint Entrance Examination – Main]]<br />
* [[National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (disambiguation) ]]<br />
* [[Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* Central Universities Common Entrance Test - [https://cuet.nta.nic.in/ Official website]<br />
* National Testing Agency (NTA) - [https://nta.nic.in Official website]<br />
<br />
{{Standardised tests in India}}<br />
{{Central universities of India}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Central universities in India]]<br />
[[Category:Standardised tests in India]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tanuj_Punia&diff=539595Tanuj Punia2026-04-21T23:21:36Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Creating first pg w/ refs - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian politician}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Tanuj Punia<br />
| image = File:Tanuj Punia.jpg<br />
| caption = Punia in 2024<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|16 January 1985}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Aligarh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India<br />
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]<br />
| constituency = [[Barabanki Lok Sabha constituency|Barabanki]]<br />
| term_start = 4 June 2024<br />
| predecessor = [[Upendra Singh Rawat]]<br />
| successor =<br />
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]<br />
| spouse = Shraddha Singh<br />
| father = [[P. L. Punia]]<br />
| occupation = [[Politician]]<br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
| date = <br />
| year = <br />
| source = https://sansad.in/ls/members/biographyM/5728?from=members<br />
| education = [[IIT Roorkee]] ([[Bachelor of Technology|BTech]]) <br />
}}<br />
'''Tanuj Punia''' (born 16 January 1985) is an Indian politician and serving as the [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]] from [[Barabanki Lok Sabha constituency|Barabanki]]. He is a member of [[Indian National Congress]].<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Barabanki">{{cite news |date=4 June 2024 |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Barabanki |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2453.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250531172301/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2453.htm |archive-date=31 May 2025 |access-date=31 May 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Inheritors {{!}} Next-gen netas">{{cite news|title=Inheritors {{!}} Next-gen netas|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-inheritors-next-gen-netas-2565854-2024-07-13|accessdate=25 March 2025|publisher=India Today|date=13 July 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325141549/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-inheritors-next-gen-netas-2565854-2024-07-13|archivedate=25 March 2025|language=en}}</ref> He completed his [[Bachelor of Technology|BTech]] in [[chemical engineering]] from [[IIT Roorkee]].<br />
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== Political career ==<br />
Punia was elected in 2024 as a Member of Parliament from [[Barabanki Lok Sabha constituency|Barabanki Lok Sabha Constituency]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-06-04 |title=Barabanki election results 2024 live updates: Congress's Tanuj Punia wins with over 2 lakh vote margin |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/barabanki-sc-election-results-2024-uttar-pradesh-barabanki-sc-lok-sabha-elections-poll-result-updates-tanuj-punia-cong-rajrani-rawat-bjp-shiv-kumar-doharey-bsp/articleshow/110673820.cms |access-date=2024-06-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> He defeated Rajrani Rawat of the Bharatiya Janata Party by a margin of over 2 lakh votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-04 |title=Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh Lok Sabha Election Results 2024 Highlights: Tanuj Punia Claims Victory by 215704 Votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/lok-sabha/story/barabanki-uttar-pradesh-lok-sabha-election-results-2024-live-updates-clse-2548031-2024-06-04 |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Barabanki Constituency Lok Sabha Election Result 2024">{{cite news |date=4 June 2024 |title=Barabanki Constituency Lok Sabha Election Result 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/uttar-pradesh/barabanki |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250531172425/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/uttar-pradesh/barabanki |archive-date=31 May 2025 |access-date=31 May 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><br />
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== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Punia, Tanuj}}<br />
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]<br />
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:People from Barabanki district]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:1985 births]]<br />
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance candidates in 2024 Indian general election]]<br />
<br />
{{UttarPradesh-INC-politician-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christianity&diff=452830Christianity2026-03-29T09:56:19Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: added references</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}}<br />
{{Redirect|Christian faith|the theological concept|Faith in Christianity}}<br />
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}<br />
{{Use American English|date=October 2019}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox religion<br />
| name = Christianity<br />
| image = Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Gerd Eichmann (cropped).jpg<!-- Please do not change the image without consensus; there is an ongoing discussion on the talk page addressing this issue, in which you are welcome to participate --><br />
| imagewidth = 275px<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = The [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in the [[Christian Quarter]] of the [[Old City of Jerusalem]], a [[List of Christian holy places in the Holy Land|holy place of Christianity]]<br />
| main_classification = [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]]<br />
| scripture = [[Bible]] ([[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]])<br />
| theology = [[God in Christianity|Monotheistic]]<br />
| area = [[Christianity by country|Worldwide]]<ref name="Global Christianity" /><br />
| language = {{Plainlist|<br />
* [[Biblical Hebrew]]<br />
* [[Biblical Aramaic]]<br />
* [[Koine Greek|Biblical Greek]]<br />
}}<br />
| territory = [[Christendom]]<br />
| founder = [[Jesus]]<br />
| founded_date = [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century AD]]<br />
| founded_place = [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], Roman Empire<br />
| separated_from = [[Judaism]]{{efn|group=note|Christianity originated in 1st-century [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] from the [[Jewish Christian]] sect of [[Second Temple Judaism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |author-link=Bart D. Ehrman |year=2005 |orig-year=2003 |title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew |chapter=At Polar Ends of the Spectrum: Early Christian Ebionites and Marcionites |volume=74 |issue=2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA95 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1017/s0009640700110273 |isbn=978-0-19-518249-1 |s2cid=152458823 |access-date=20 January 2021}} ''Church History''. {{doi|10.1017/s0009640700110273}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hurtado |first=Larry W. |author-link=Larry Hurtado |year=2005 |chapter=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Approaches to Jesus-Devotion in Earliest Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&pg=PA13 |title=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus |location=Grand Rapids and Cambridge |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |pages=13–55 |isbn=978-0-8028-2861-3 |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Freeman (historian) |year=2010 |title=A New History of Early Christianity |chapter=Breaking Away: The First Christianities |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_in-6VLgRoC&pg=PA31 |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=31–46 |doi=10.12987/9780300166583 |isbn=978-0-300-12581-8 |jstor=j.ctt1nq44w |s2cid=170124789 |access-date=20 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert Louis |year=2013 |title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity |chapter=Beginning in Jerusalem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA6 |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=6–16 |isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 |jstor=j.ctt32bd7m |s2cid=160590164 |access-date=20 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Lietaert Peerbolte |author-first=Bert Jan |year=2013 |chapter=How Antichrist Defeated Death: The Development of Christian Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Early Church |editor1-last=Krans |editor1-first=Jan |editor2-last=Lietaert Peerbolte |editor2-first=L. J. |editor3-last=Smit |editor3-first=Peter-Ben |editor4-last=Zwiep |editor4-first=Arie W. |title=Paul, John, and Apocalyptic Eschatology: Studies in Honour of Martinus C. de Boer |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |series=[[Novum Testamentum|Novum Testamentum: Supplements]] |volume=149 |pages=238–255 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MoKxIeOTkqYC&pg=PA238 |doi=10.1163/9789004250369_016 |isbn=978-90-04-25026-0 |issn=0167-9732 |s2cid=191738355 |access-date=13 February 2021}}</ref>}}<br />
| separations = <br />
| number_of_followers = {{est.}} [[Christianity by country|2.3&nbsp;billion]]<ref>{{Cite web|doi=10.58094/fj71-ny11|author-last6=Fahmy|author-first1=Conrad|author-last1=Hackett|author-first2=Marcin|author-last2=Stonawski|author-first3=Yunping|author-last3=Tong|author-first4=Stephanie|author-last4=Kramer|author-first5=Anne|author-last5=Shi|author-first6=Dalia|date=2025-06-09|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|access-date=2025-06-10|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|archive-date=9 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609194548/https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> {{increase}} ([[List of Christian synonyms|referred to]] as [[Christians]])<br />
}}<br />
{{Christianity|expanded=all}}<br />
<br />
'''Christianity''' is an [[Abrahamic]] [[monotheistic]] [[religion]], which states that [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] is the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]] after [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]], whose coming as the [[Messiah#Christianity|messiah]] ([[Christ (title)|Christ]]) was [[Old Testament messianic prophecies quoted in the New Testament|prophesied]] in the [[Old Testament]] and chronicled in the [[New Testament]]. It is the [[Major religious groups|world's largest]] and most widespread religion with over 2.3&nbsp;billion followers, comprising around 28.8% of the [[world population]]. Its adherents, known as [[Christians]], are estimated to make up a majority of the population in [[Christianity by country|120 countries and territories]].<br />
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Christianity remains [[Christian culture|culturally diverse]] in its [[Western Christianity|Western]] and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern branches]], and doctrinally diverse concerning [[Justification (theology)|justification and the nature of salvation]], [[ecclesiology]], [[ordination]], and [[Christology]]. Most [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]], however, generally hold in common the belief that Jesus is [[God the Son]]{{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"}}—the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]] [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnated]]—who [[Ministry of Jesus|ministered]], [[Passion of Jesus|suffered]], and died on a cross, but rose from the dead for the [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] of humankind; this message is called [[the gospel]], meaning the "good news". The four [[Gospel|canonical gospels]] of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] and [[Gospel of John|John]] describe Jesus' life and teachings as preserved in the early Christian tradition, with the Old Testament as the gospels' respected background.<br />
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Christianity [[Christianity in the 1st century|began in the 1st century]], after the death of Jesus, as a [[Second Temple Judaism|Judaic]] sect with [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenistic influence]] in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]. The [[disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] of Jesus [[Spread of Christianity|spread their faith]] around the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] area, despite [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|significant persecution]]. The inclusion of [[Gentile]]s led Christianity to slowly [[Split of Christianity and Judaism|separate from Judaism]] in the 2nd century. Emperor [[Constantine I]] decriminalized Christianity in the [[Roman Empire]] by the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313 AD. Later, Constantine convened the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] in 325 AD, where the [[Nicene Creed]] was adopted, and where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the state religion of the Roman Empire by around 380 AD. The [[Church of the East]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] both split over differences in [[Christology]] during the 5th century, while the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church]] separated in the [[East–West Schism]] in the year 1054. [[Protestantism]] split into numerous denominations from the Catholic Church during the [[Reformation]] era (16th century). Following the [[Age of Discovery]] (15th–17th century), Christianity expanded throughout the world via [[Christian mission|missionary work]], [[evangelism]], immigration, and extensive trade. Christianity played [[Role of Christianity in civilization|a prominent role]] in the [[Christian ethics|development]] of [[Western civilization]], particularly in [[Europe]] from [[late antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]].<br />
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The three main [[Christian denomination|branches of Christianity]] are [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] (1.3 billion people), [[Protestantism]] (800 million),{{refn|group=note|The denominations of [[Adventism]], [[Anabaptism]] ([[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]], [[River Brethren]], and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]]), [[Anglicanism]], [[Baptist]]s, [[Lutheranism]], [[Methodism]], [[Moravian Church|Moravianism/Hussites]], [[Pentecostalism]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Quakers|Quakerism]], [[Calvinism|Reformed Christianity]] ([[Congregational church|Congregationalists]], [[Continental Reformed Protestantism|Continental Reformed]], and [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]]), and [[Waldensians|Waldensianism]] are the main families of Protestantism. Other groups that are sometimes regarded as Protestant include [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational Christian]] congregations.<ref name="Melton2005">{{Cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |year=2005 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5 |page=398}}</ref>}} and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] (300 million), while other prominent branches include [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodoxy]] (60 million) and [[Restorationism]] (35 million).{{refn|group=note|The denominations of Restorationism include the [[Catholic Apostolic Church|Irvingians]], [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|Swedenborgians]], [[Christadelphians]], [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter Day Saints]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[La Luz del Mundo]], and [[Iglesia ni Cristo]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Paul W. |last2=Mittelstadt |first2=Martin William |title=What's So Liberal about the Liberal Arts?: Integrated Approaches to Christian Formation |date=27 April 2016 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-4982-3145-9 |quote=The Second Great Awakening (1790-1840) spurred a renewed interest in primitive Christianity. What is known as the Restoration Movement of the nineteenth century gave birth to an array of groups: Mormons (The Latter Day Saint Movement), the Churches of Christ, Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Though these groups demonstrate a breathtaking diversity on the continuum of Christianity they share an intense restorationist impulse.}}</ref><ref name="Spinks2017">{{cite book |last1=Spinks |first1=Bryan D. |title=Reformation and Modern Rituals and Theologies of Baptism: From Luther to Contemporary Practices |date=2 March 2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-351-90583-1 |quote=However, Swedenborg claimed to receive visions and revelations of heavenly things and a 'New Church', and the new church which was founded upon his writings was a Restorationist Church. The three nineteenth-century churches are all examples of Restorationist Churches, which believed they were refounding the Apostolic Church, and preparing for the Second Coming of Christ.}}</ref>}} Smaller church communities number in the thousands. In Christianity, efforts toward unity ([[ecumenism]]) are underway.<ref name="Briggs1975">{{cite web |last1=Briggs |first1=Kenneth A. |title=Protestants and Catholics Get a Common Catechism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/03/17/archives/protestants-and-catholics-get-a-common-catechism-protestants-and.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=8 July 2025 |date=17 March 1975 |quote=Forty Lutheran, Reformed and Roman Catholic theologians worked over a five‐year period to produce the statement {[[The Common Catechism]]}.}}</ref><ref name="Chia2018">{{cite book |last1=Chia |first1=Edmund Kee-Fook |title=World Christianity Encounters World Religions: A Summa of Interfaith Dialogue |date=23 October 2018 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-8447-4 |page=160 |language=en|quote=The observance was renamed [[Week of Prayer for Christian Unity|Universal Week of Prayer for Christian Unity]] in 1935. With the founding of the [[World Council of Churches]] in 1948 it became more universally adopted by the different denominations around the world, even as the dates of the observance may differ.}}</ref> In the [[Western world|West]], Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a [[Decline of Christianity in the Western world|decline in adherence]], with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. [[Christian population growth|Christianity is growing]] in Africa and [[Asia]], the world's most populous continents. Many Christians are still [[persecution of Christians|persecuted]] in some regions of the world, particularly where they are a minority, such as in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[East Asia]], and [[South Asia]].<br />
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== Etymology ==<br />
{{further|Christ (title)}}<br />
Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as being of 'The Way' ({{langx|grc-x-koine|τῆς ὁδοῦ|tês hodoû}}), an expression possibly coming from [[Isaiah 40:3]], "prepare the way of the Lord".{{refn|group=note|It appears in the Acts of the Apostles, {{bibleverse|Acts|9:2|KJV}}, {{bibleverse|Acts|19:9|KJV}} and {{bibleverse|Acts|19:23|KJV}}. Some [[English translations of the Bible|English translations of the New Testament]] capitalize 'the Way' (e.g. the [[New King James Version]] and the [[English Standard Version]]), indicating that this was how 'the new religion seemed then to be designated'<ref>{{cite web|title=Acts 19 {{!}} Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary|url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/jfb//acts/19.htm |website=Bible Hub|accessdate=8 October 2015}}</ref> whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—'the way',<ref>Jubilee Bible 2000</ref> 'that way'<ref>[[American King James Version]]</ref> or 'the way of the Lord'.<ref>[[Douai-Rheims Bible]]</ref> The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] version reads, "the way of God" and the [[Vulgate]] Latin version, "the way of the Lord".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm|title=Online Bible Study Suite {{!}} Gill, J., ''Gill's Exposition of the Bible'', commentary on Acts 19:23|accessdate=8 October 2015|archive-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025104001/http://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}} According to [[Acts 11:26]], the term "Christian" ({{lang|grc-x-koine|Χρῑστῐᾱνός}}, {{transliteration|grc|Khrīstiānós}}), meaning "followers of Christ" and referring to Jesus' [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]], was first used in the city of [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]] by the non-Jewish inhabitants there.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=E. |last1=Peterson|year=1959|chapter=Christianus|title=Frühkirche, Judentum und Gnosis|publisher=Herder, Freiburg|page= 353–72}}</ref> The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity/Christianism" ({{lang|grc-x-koine|Χρῑστῐᾱνισμός}}, {{transliteration|grc|Khrīstiānismós}}) was by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] around 100&nbsp;[[Anno Domini|AD]].{{Sfn|Elwell|Comfort|2001|pp=266, 828}} The name Jesus comes from {{langx|grc|Ἰησοῦς}} {{transliteration|grc|Iēsous}}, probably from {{langx|he|יֵשׁוּעַ|label=[[Hebrew]]/[[Aramaic]]}} ''Yēšūaʿ.''<br />
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== History ==<br />
{{Main|History of Christianity}}<br />
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{{For timeline}}<br />
<br />
=== Early Christianity ===<br />
{{Main|Early Christianity}}<br />
<br />
{{further|Historical background of the New Testament}}<br />
<br />
==== Apostolic Age ====<br />
{{Main|Christianity in the 1st century}}<br />
<br />
{{further|Chronology of Jesus}}<br />
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 73792 mount zion jerusalem.jpg|thumb|The [[Cenacle]] on [[Mount Zion]] in [[Jerusalem]], claimed to be the location of the [[Last Supper]] and [[Pentecost]]]]<br />
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Christianity developed during the 1st century AD in [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] as a [[Jewish Christian]] sect with [[Hellenistic religion|Hellenistic]] influence<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |entry=Evodius of Antioch → Antioch, Church of |encyclopedia=Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online |doi=10.1163/2589-7993_eeco_dum_00001220 |title=Evodius of Antioch → Antioch, Church of |date=2018 }}</ref> of [[Second Temple Judaism]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Catherine |last=Cory |title=Christian Theological Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsZcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |year=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-34958-7 |at=p. 20 and forward}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Benko |title=Pagan Rome and the Early Christians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LHHxkapsiEgC&pg=PA22 |year=1984 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=978-0-253-34286-7 |at=p. 22 and forward}}</ref> An early Jewish Christian community was founded in [[Jerusalem]] under the leadership of the three [[Pillars of the Church]], namely [[James the Just]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], and [[John the Apostle|John]].<ref>{{Citation |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |author-link=Alister McGrath |year=2006 |title=Christianity: An Introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-0899-1 |page=174}}</ref><br />
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Jewish Christianity soon attracted [[Gentile]] [[God-fearer]]s, posing a problem for its [[Jewish principles of faith|Jewish religious outlook]], which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commandments. [[Paul the Apostle]] solved this by insisting that salvation by [[Pistis Christou|faith in Christ]], and [[Participation in Christ|participation]] in his death and resurrection by their baptism, sufficed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seifrid |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark A. Seifrid |title=Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme |chapter='Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument |series=[[Novum Testamentum]] |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=9004095217 |issn=0167-9732 |pages=210–211, 246–247 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdUkuOtOw68C&pg=PA210}}</ref> At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles, and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging [[Christians|Christian]] identity as [[Split of Christianity and Judaism|separate from Judaism]]. Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in the establishment of Christianity as an independent religion.<ref>Wylen, Stephen M., ''The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction'', Paulist Press (1995), {{ISBN|0809136104}}, pp. 190–192; Dunn, James D.G., ''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), {{ISBN|0802844987}}, [pp. 33–34.; Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander, ''The Romans: From Village to Empire'', Oxford University Press (2004), {{ISBN|0195118758}}, p. 426.</ref><br />
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==== Ante-Nicene period ====<br />
{{Main|Christianity in the ante-Nicene period}}<br />
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{{further|Great Church|Gnosticism}}<br />
[[File:Ann Arbor, University of Michigan P.Mich.inv. 6238 (Papyrus 46) fol. 142r - 2 Corinthians 11,33-12,9.jpg|thumb|A folio from [[Papyrus 46]], an early-3rd-century collection of [[Pauline epistles]]]]<br />
This formative period was followed by the early [[bishop]]s, whom Christians consider the [[apostolic succession|successors of Christ's apostles]]. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the [[Church Fathers]], and the study of them is called [[patristics]]. Notable early Fathers include [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Polycarp]], [[Justin Martyr]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Origen]].<br />
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[[Persecution of Christians]] occurred intermittently and on a small scale by both Jewish and [[Persecution of early Christians by the Romans|Roman authorities]], with Roman action starting at the time of the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in 64 AD. Examples of early executions under Jewish authority reported in the [[New Testament]] include the deaths of [[Saint Stephen]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|7:59}}</ref> and [[James, son of Zebedee]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|12:2}}</ref> The [[Decian persecution]] was the first empire-wide conflict,<ref>Martin, D. 2010. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90 ''The "Afterlife" of the New Testament and Postmodern Interpretation''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608093412/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90 |date=8 June 2016 }} ([https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/ lecture transcript] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812141627/https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/ |date=12 August 2016 }}). Yale University.</ref> when the edict of [[Decius]] in 250 AD required everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods. The [[Diocletianic Persecution]] beginning in 303 AD was also particularly severe. Roman persecution ended in 313 AD with the [[Edict of Milan]].<br />
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While [[Proto-orthodox Christianity]] was becoming dominant, heterodox sects also existed at the same time, which held radically different beliefs. [[Gnostic Christianity]] developed a [[duotheistic]] doctrine based on illusion and enlightenment rather than forgiveness of sin. With only a few scriptures overlapping with the developing orthodox canon, most [[Gnostic texts]] and [[Gnostic gospels]] were eventually considered heretical and suppressed by mainstream Christians. A gradual splitting off of [[Gentile Christianity]] left [[Jewish Christians]] continuing to follow the [[Law of Moses]], including practices such as circumcision. By the fifth century, they and the [[Jewish–Christian gospels]] would be largely suppressed by the dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity.<br />
<br />
=== Spread and acceptance in the Roman Empire ===<br />
{{further|Christianity in late antiquity}}<br />
{{see also|Historiography of the Christianization of the Roman Empire}}<br />
[[File:Mor-mattai.png|thumb|The [[Mar Mattai Monastery|Monastery of St. Matthew]], located atop [[Mount Alfaf]] in northern [[Iraq]], is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|language=fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303004713/https://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|title=Monastère de Mor Mattai – Mossul – Irak|archive-date=3 March 2014}}</ref>]]<br />
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Christianity spread to [[Aramaic]]-speaking peoples along the [[Mediterranean coast]] and also to the inland parts of the [[Roman Empire]] and beyond that into the [[Parthian Empire]] and the later [[Sasanian Empire]], including [[Mesopotamia]], which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires.<ref>Michael Whitby, et al. eds. ''Christian Persecution, Martyrdom and Orthodoxy'' (2006) [https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624034855/https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy|date=24 June 2011}}</ref> The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around [[Carthage]]. [[Mark the Evangelist]] is claimed to have started the [[Church of Alexandria]] in about 43 AD; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' in the 4th century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |title=A History of the Christian Church in Western North Africa |first=Neil |last=Lettinga |website=African Christianity|publisher=Bethel University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010730174045/https://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |archive-date=30 July 2001 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |title=Allaboutreligion.org |publisher=Allaboutreligion.org |access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116113632/https://allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |archive-date=16 November 2010}}</ref> Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen of Alexandria]], [[Cyprian]], [[Athanasius]], and [[Augustine of Hippo]].<br />
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[[File:Khor Virap Monastery and Mount Ararat, Armenia.jpg|thumb|The 7th-century [[Khor Virap]] monastery in the shadow of [[Mount Ararat]]; [[Armenia]] was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion in the early 4th century AD.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="almanac"/>]]<br />
[[Tiridates III of Armenia|King Tiridates III]] made Christianity the [[state religion]] in [[Armenia]] in the early 4th century AD, making Armenia the first officially Christian state.<ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Armenia|access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="almanac">{{cite book |last=Brunner |first=Borgna |title=Time Almanac with Information Please 2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2007w00brun/page/685 685] |isbn=978-1-933405-49-0 |year=2006 |publisher=Time Home Entertainment |location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2007w00brun/page/685}}</ref> It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier.<ref>{{cite journal|last=van Lint|first=Theo Maarten |title=The Formation of Armenian Identity in the First Millennium |journal=Church History and Religious Culture|year=2009 |volume=89 |issue=1/3 |page=269}}</ref><br />
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[[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed.<ref>{{cite book |title= Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium |last=Harris |first=Jonathan |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |edition=2nd |year=2017 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ECDgAAQBAJ |page=38 |isbn= 978-1-4742-5467-0}}</ref> During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians was ended with the [[Edict of Serdica|Edict of Toleration]] in 311 and the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief, comprising perhaps only 5% of the Roman population.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christianity: A Global History|last=Chidester|first=David|publisher=HarperOne|year=2000|page=91}}</ref> Influenced by his adviser [[Mardonius (philosopher)|Mardonius]], Constantine's nephew [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity.<ref>{{harvnb|Ricciotti|1999}}</ref> On 27 February 380, [[Theodosius I]], [[Gratian]], and [[Valentinian II]] issued the [[Edict of Thessalonica]] establishing [[Nicene Christianity]] as the [[State church of the Roman Empire]].<ref>[https://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html Theodosian Code XVI.i.2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182634/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html |date=14 August 2014 }}, in: Bettenson. ''Documents of the Christian Church''. p. 31.</ref> As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference |last1=Burbank |first1=Jane |last2=Copper |first2=Frederick|publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2010 |page=64}}</ref><br />
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Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, which sought to address [[Arianism]] and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in [[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]], and many other [[Protestant]] churches.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McTavish |first1=T. J. |title=A Theological Miscellany: 160 Pages of Odd, Merry, Essentially Inessential Facts, Figures, and Tidbits about Christianity |year=2010 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=978-1-4185-5281-7 |quote=The Nicene Creed, as used in the churches of the West (Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran, and others), contains the statement, "We believe [''or'' I believe] in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son."}}</ref><ref name="UMC—Our Common Heritage as Christians" /> Nicaea was the first of a series of [[ecumenical council]]s, which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning [[Christology]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 37ff.</ref> The [[Church of the East]] did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors ([[Assyrian Church of the East]]).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gao |first1=Ronnie Chuang-Rang |last2=Sawatsky |first2=Kevin |date=7 February 2023 |title=Motivations in Faith-Based Organizations |url=https://hc.edu/center-for-christianity-in-business/2023/02/07/motivations-in-faith-based-organizations/ |access-date=29 August 2024 |publisher=[[Houston Christian University]] |quote=For example, Christianity comprises six major groups: Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, and Restorationism. |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122190615/https://hc.edu/center-for-christianity-in-business/2023/02/07/motivations-in-faith-based-organizations/ |url-status=live }} Gao and Sawatsky refer to [[Robert S. Ellwood|Ellwood, Robert S.]], ''The Encyclopedia of World Religions'', New York: Infobase Publishing (2008) as their source for this taxonomy.</ref><br />
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In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the peaks in [[Christian history]] and [[Christian civilization]],<ref name="Cameron 2006 42">{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=42}}.</ref> and [[Constantinople]] remained the leading city of the [[Christian world]] in size, wealth, and culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=47}}.</ref> [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy]], as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.<ref>{{harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}}.</ref> Byzantine art and literature held a preeminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of [[Byzantine art]] on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.<ref>{{harvnb|Browning|1992|p=218}}.</ref> The later rise of [[Islam]] in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Church]] in Egypt, the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] in the Horn of Africa and the [[Christianity in Sudan|Nubian Church]] in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia).<br />
<br />
=== Middle Ages ===<br />
{{Main|Christianity in the Middle Ages}}<br />
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==== Early Middle Ages ====<br />
With the decline and [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the Roman Empire in the West]], the [[papacy]] became a political player, first visible in [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo]]'s diplomatic dealings with [[Attila the Hun|Huns]] and [[Vandals]].<ref name="Gonzalez-p238" /> The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While [[Arianism|Arianists]] instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see the [[Massacre of Verden]], for example), [[Catholicism]] also spread among the [[Hungarians]], the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]],<ref name="Gonzalez-p238">{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=238–242}}</ref> the [[Celts|Celtic]], the [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] and some [[Slavic peoples]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chadwick|1995|pp=60, 130}}</ref><br />
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Around 500, Christianity was thoroughly integrated into Byzantine and [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|Kingdom of Italy]] culture<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |pages=243, 247 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}}</ref> and [[Benedict of Nursia]] set out [[Rule of Saint Benedict|his Monastic Rule]], establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of [[monasteries]].<ref name="Gonzalez-p238" /> [[Monasticism]] became a powerful force throughout Europe,<ref name="Gonzalez-p238" /> and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], and [[Gaul]], contributing to the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the 9th century.<br />
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[[File:Krist spred 3.jpg|thumb|[[Christendom]] by AD 600 after its [[Spread of Christianity|spread to Africa and Europe]] from the Middle East]]<br />
In the 7th century, [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslims conquered Syria]] (including [[Jerusalem]]), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to [[Islam]], including some of the [[Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia|Christian populations in pre-Islamic Arabia]], and placing the rest under a separate [[Dhimmi|legal status]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0EbKFRxrT4C |title=The Jews of Islam |date=1984 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-00807-3 |pages=10, 20}}</ref><ref name="Cahen">Cl. Cahen in [[Encyclopedia of Islam]] – Jizya</ref> Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with [[Persia]].{{sfn|Mullin|2008|p=88}} Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of [[Carolingian]] leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the [[Frankish Kingdom]].{{sfn|Mullin|2008|pp=93–94}}<br />
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The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church.<ref>''Religions in Global Society''. p. 146, Peter Beyer, 2006</ref><ref>Cambridge University Historical Series, ''An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects'', p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.</ref><ref>Caltron J.H Hayas, ''Christianity and Western Civilization'' (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: "That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."</ref><ref>Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, ''Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices'' (2004), p. 22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.</ref> [[Pope Gregory the Great]] dramatically reformed the [[Ecclesiastical polity|ecclesiastical structure]] and administration.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=244–47}}</ref> In the early 8th century, [[iconoclasm]] became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] emperors. The [[Second Council of Nicaea|Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea]] (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|p=260}}</ref> In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]].<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=278–281}}</ref><br />
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==== High and Late Middle Ages ====<br />
[[File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|thumb|upright|An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the [[Deësis]] mosaic at the [[Hagia Sophia#Deësis mosaic|Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]]]<br />
[[File:Passages d'outremer Fr5594, fol. 19r, Concile de Clermont.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]], where he preached the [[First Crusade]]. Illustration by [[Jean Colombe]] from the ''[[Passages d'outremer]]'', {{c.|1490|lk=no}}.]]<br />
In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools [[Medieval university|became universities]] (see, for example, [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Paris]] and [[University of Bologna]]). Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian [[cathedral school]]s or [[monastic school]]s (''Scholae monasticae''), led by [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s. Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century&nbsp;AD.<ref>Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0872493768}}, pp.&nbsp;126–127, 282–298</ref> These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians.<ref>Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40</ref> The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name=verger1999>{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |year=1999 |author-link=:fr:Jacques Verger |title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |language=fr |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2868473448 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |access-date=17 June 2014 |archive-date=13 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313042832/https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W/Culture_enseignement_et_soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_en_Occident_aux_XIIe_et_XIIIe_si%C3%A8cles |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism", in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.</ref><ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0521361052}}, pp. xix–xx</ref><br />
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Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, [[mendicant order]]s were founded, bringing the [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|consecrated religious life]] out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the [[Franciscans]]<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=303–307, 310ff., 384–386}}</ref> and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]],<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=305, 310ff., 316ff}}</ref> founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic|Dominic]], respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order was the [[Cistercians]], whose large, isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic architecture]] and the building of the great European cathedrals.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=321–323, 365ff}}</ref><br />
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[[Christian nationalism]] emerged during this era in which Christians felt the desire to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished.<ref>{{cite book |title=Parole de l'Orient |volume=30 |year=2005 |publisher=Université Saint-Esprit |page=488}}</ref> From 1095 under the pontificate of [[Urban II]], the [[First Crusade]] was launched.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=292–300}}</ref> These were a series of military campaigns in the [[Holy Land]] and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I]] for aid against [[Turkish people|Turkish]] expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of [[Constantinople]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]].<ref>Riley-Smith. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''.</ref><br />
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The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a [[East-West Schism|schism]] between the [[Latin Church]] of [[Western Christianity]] branch, the now-Catholic Church, and an [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]], largely Greek, branch (the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently [[Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx|title = The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom|publisher=Orthodox Information Centre|access-date = 26 May 2007|archive-date = 29 June 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070629153450/http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 91</ref> The [[Second Council of Lyon]] (1274) and the [[Council of Florence]] (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various [[Eastern Catholic Churches|smaller eastern churches]].<br />
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In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom [[Jewish deicide|Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death]]. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to [[Edict of Expulsion|the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290]], the first of many such expulsions in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=Diarmaid |title=Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years |publisher=Penguin |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC |isbn=978-1-101-18999-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |title=Jewish Literacy |publisher=HarperCollins |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jewishliteracy00telu/page/192 192–193] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-688-08506-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishliteracy00telu/page/192}}</ref><br />
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Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against [[Cathars|Cathar]] heresy,<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=300, 304–305}}</ref> various institutions, broadly referred to as the [[Inquisition]], were established with the aim of suppressing [[heresy]] and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through [[religious conversion|conversion]] and prosecution.<ref>{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=310, 383, 385, 391}}</ref><br />
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=== Modern era ===<br />
{{Main|Christianity in the modern era}}<br />
<br />
==== Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation ====<br />
{{Main|Reformation|Counter-Reformation}}<br />
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{{See also|European wars of religion|Renaissance Papacy}}<br />
[[File:Luther 95 Thesen.png|thumb|upright|[[Martin Luther]] initiated the [[Reformation]] with his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' in 1517.]]<br />
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The 15th-century [[Renaissance]] brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the [[Reformation]], [[Martin Luther]] posted the ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' 1517 against the sale of [[indulgences]].<ref name="Simon">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 39, 55–61.</ref> Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the [[Edict of Worms]] condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the [[Western Christianity|Western Christendom]] into several branches.<ref>Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. p. 7.</ref><br />
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Other reformers like [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]], [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]], [[John Calvin|Calvin]], [[John Knox|Knox]], and [[Jacobus Arminius|Arminius]] further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called [[Protestantism]], which repudiated the [[papal primacy|primacy of the pope]], the role of tradition, the [[Catholic sacraments|seven sacraments]], and other doctrines and practices.<ref name="Simon" /> The [[English Reformation|Reformation in England]] began in 1534, when [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] had himself [[Act of Supremacy|declared head]] of the [[Church of England]]. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were [[Dissolution of the monasteries|dissolved]].<ref>Schama. ''A History of Britain''. pp. 306–310.</ref><br />
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[[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Andreas Karlstadt]] and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the [[Magisterial Reformation]] as corrupted. Their activity brought about the [[Radical Reformation]], which gave birth to various [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] denominations.<br />
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[[File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned edit.jpg|thumb|[[Michelangelo]]'s 1498–99 ''[[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]'' in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]; the Catholic Church was among the patronages of the [[Renaissance]].<ref>National Geographic, 254.</ref><ref>Jensen, De Lamar (1992), ''Renaissance Europe'', {{ISBN|0395889472}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Levey|first=Michael|title=Early Renaissance|publisher=Penguin |year=1967}}</ref>]]<br />
Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the [[Counter-Reformation]] or Catholic Reform.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=242–244}} The [[Council of Trent]] clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.<ref>Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 109–120.</ref><br />
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Meanwhile, the discovery of America by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of [[Colonialism|colonial expansion]] by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.<br />
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Throughout Europe, the division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of [[religious violence]] and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. [[Lutheranism]] spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, [[Livonia]], and Scandinavia. [[Anglicanism]] was established in England in 1534. [[Calvinism]] and its varieties, such as [[Presbyterianism]], were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France. [[Arminianism]] gained followers in the Netherlands and [[Frisia]]. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of [[religious war|conflicts]] in which religion played a key factor. The [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[English Civil War]], and the [[French Wars of Religion]] are prominent examples. These events intensified the [[Christian debate on persecution and toleration]].<ref>A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''.</ref><br />
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In the revival of neoplatonism [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanists]] did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the [[Renaissance]] were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of [[Renaissance art]].<ref name="openuni">Open University, ''[https://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Religious Context in the Renaissance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031153119/http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm |date=31 October 2017 }}'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007)</ref> Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.<ref name="openuni" /> Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution:<br />
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* {{cite web |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |date=8 May 2012 |title=Christianity and the rise of western science |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208161915/https://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm |archive-date=2014-02-08 |access-date=28 August 2014 |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}}<br />
* {{citation |last=Noll |first=Mark |title=Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" |page=4 |url=https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf |access-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2015 |url-status=dead |publisher=The Biologos Foundation |author-link=Mark Noll}}<br />
* {{Citation |last1=Lindberg |first1=David C. |title=God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science |pages=5, 12 |year=1986 |chapter=Introduction |place=Berkeley and Los Angeles |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05538-4 |last2=Numbers |first2=Ronald L. |author-link=David C. Lindberg |author2-link=Ronald L. Numbers}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Gilley |first=Sheridan |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Brian Stanley |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-81456-1 |page=164}}<br />
* Lindberg, David. (1992). ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</ref> Many well-known historical figures who influenced [[Western science]] considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus]],<ref>''Pro forma'' candidate to Prince-Bishop of Warmia, cf. Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'' (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], 1969, p. 11.</ref> [[Galileo Galilei]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Sharratt |first=Michael |year=1994 |title=Galileo: Decisive Innovator |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-56671-1|pages=17, 213}}</ref> [[Johannes Kepler]],<ref>"Because he would not accept the Formula of Concord without some reservations, he was excommunicated from the Lutheran communion. Because he remained faithful to his Lutheranism throughout his life, he experienced constant suspicion from Catholics." John L. Treloar, "Biography of Kepler shows man of rare integrity. Astronomer saw science and spirituality as one." ''National Catholic Reporter'', 8 October 2004, p. 2a. A review of James A. Connor ''Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order amid Religious War, Political Intrigue and Heresy Trial of His Mother'', Harper San Francisco.</ref> [[Isaac Newton]]<ref>[[Richard S. Westfall]] – [[Indiana University]] {{cite book |url=https://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html |title=The Galileo Project |publisher=[[Rice University]] |access-date=5 July 2008<!-- , 2012-02-07--> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818061206/https://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html |archive-date=2014-08-18}}</ref> and [[Robert Boyle]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture |title=The Boyle Lecture |work=St. Marylebow Church |access-date=18 February 2022 |archive-date=22 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051144/http://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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==== Post-Enlightenment ====<br />
[[File:Madonna and Child, Kakure Kirishitan.jpg|thumb|A depiction of [[Madonna and Child]] in a 19th-century [[Kakure Kirishitan]] [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese woodcut]]]]<br />
In the era known as the [[Great Divergence]], when in the West, the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Scientific Revolution]] brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of [[skepticism]] and with certain modern [[Ideology|political ideologies]], such as versions of [[socialism]] and [[liberalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Novak|first=Michael|title=Catholic social thought and liberal institutions: Freedom with justice|year=1988|publisher=Transaction|isbn=978-0-88738-763-0|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pb1GDmxA1UC&pg=PA63}}</ref> Events ranged from mere [[anti-clericalism]] to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the [[dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution|dechristianization of France during the French Revolution]],<ref>Mortimer Chambers, ''The Western Experience'' (vol. 2) chapter 21.</ref> the [[Spanish Civil War]], and certain [[Marxism|Marxist]] movements, especially [[Russian Revolution (1917)|the Russian Revolution]] and the [[persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union]] under [[state atheism]].<ref>''Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival'', by Christopher Marsh, p. 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011.</ref><ref>''Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History'', by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Adappur|first=Abraham|title=Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Intercultural Publications|isbn=978-8185574479|quote=Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government—that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.}}</ref><ref>Geoffrey Blainey 2011). ''A Short History of Christianity''; Viking; p. 494</ref><br />
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Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of [[nation states]] after the [[Napoleonic era]]. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the [[University of Fribourg]], looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altermatt|first=Urs|title=Religion und Nation: Katholizismen im Europa des 19. und 20. Jahrhundert|year=2007|publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|isbn=978-3-17-019977-4|pages=15–34|editor-first=Urs |editor-last=Altermatt |editor-first2=Franziska |editor-last2=Metzger|language=de|chapter=Katholizismus und Nation: Vier Modelle in europäisch-vergleichender Perspektive}}</ref><br />
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The combined factors of the formation of nation states and [[ultramontanism]], especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent,<ref>{{cite book |last=Heimann |first=Mary |title=Catholic Devotion in Victorian England |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon |isbn=978-0-19-820597-5 |pages=165–173}}</ref> often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the [[First Vatican Council]], and in Germany would lead directly to the ''[[Kulturkampf]]''.<ref>''The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History'' Helmut Walser Smith, p. 360, OUP Oxford, 2011</ref><br />
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[[File:Consecration of new pastors.jpg|thumb|[[Ordination]] of new pastors in [[Cameroon]], 2014]]<br />
Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12811197 | work=BBC News | title=Religion may become extinct in nine nations, study says | date=22 March 2011 | archive-date=22 April 2018 | access-date=20 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422050308/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12811197 | url-status=live }}</ref> particularly in the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Estonia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |script-title=ja:図録▽世界各国の宗教 |publisher=.ttcn.ne.jp |language=ja |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=18 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818064540/http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the [[Global South]] and Third World countries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Jenkins |year=2011 |title=The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity |chapter=The Rise of the New Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPBoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=101–133 |isbn=978-0-19-976746-5}}</ref> The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the [[Third World]] and the Southern Hemisphere in general,<ref>{{cite book |page=2 |title=Christianity as a World Religion |author-last1=Kim |author-first1=Sebastian |author-last2=Kim|author-link=Sebastian Kim |author-first2=Kirsteen |author-link2=Kirsteen Kim |publisher=Continuum|location=London |year=2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Jehu |last=Hanciles |title=Beyond Christendom: Globalization, African Migration, and the Transformation of the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmCDAwAAQBAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Orbis |isbn=978-1-60833-103-1}}</ref> with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of [[Arabs]] are [[Arab Christians and Arabic-speaking Christians|Christians]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Fargues|first=Philippe |title=Christian Communities in the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-829388-0 |chapter=A Demographic Perspective |editor1-last=Pacini |editor1-first=Andrea}}</ref> most prevalent in Egypt, [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd |title=Christianity in the Middle East |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/christianity-in-the-middle-east/ |website=[[Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary]] |access-date=13 December 2024 |date=26 February 2020 |archive-date=13 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213144541/https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/christianity-in-the-middle-east/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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== Beliefs ==<br />
While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are differences of interpretations and opinions of the [[Bible]] and [[sacred tradition]]s on which Christianity is based.<ref>Olson, ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''.</ref> Christianity encompasses various movements of [[Christian theology]], the main ones being conservative [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] or [[Moderate Christianity|moderate]], [[Liberal Christianity|liberal]] and [[Progressive Christianity|progressive]].<ref> Jennifer McBride, ''The Church for the World: A Theology of Public Witness'', Oxford University Press USA, USA, 2014, p. 49</ref><br />
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=== Creeds ===<br />
{{Main|Christian creed|List of Christian creeds}}<br />
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{{stack|{{Wikisource|Apostles' Creed}}<br />
{{Wikisource|Nicene Creed}}}}<br />
[[File:Nicaea icon.jpg|thumb|An [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] icon depicting [[Constantine the Great|Emperor Constantine]] and the Fathers of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381]]<br />
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Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as [[creeds]]. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the [[Christology|Christological]] controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. "[[Jesus is Lord]]" is the earliest creed of Christianity and continues to be used, as with the [[World Council of Churches]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tayviah |first=Frederick K. D. |title=Why Do Bad Things Keep on Happening? |year=1995 |publisher=CSS Publishing |isbn=978-1-55673-979-8 |page=29}}</ref><br />
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The [[Apostles' Creed]] is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]] for both [[liturgy|liturgical]] and [[catechesis|catechetical]] purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of [[Western Christian]] tradition, including the [[Latin Church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]], and [[Western Rite Orthodoxy]]. It is also used by [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], and [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]].<br />
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This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the [[Trinity]] and [[God in Christianity|God]] the [[Creator deity|Creator]]. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the [[Apostolic Age|apostolic period]]. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.<ref>Pelikan/Hotchkiss, ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''.</ref> Its points include:<br />
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* Belief in [[God the Father]], [[Jesus Christ]] as the [[God the Son|Son of God]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Christianity &#124; Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, Symbols, Types, & Facts &#124; Britannica |entry=Christianity |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity |last=Jan Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |date=13 August 2022 |quote=...there is a core of ideas that all New Testament scholars and believers would agree are central to ancient Christian beliefs. One British scholar, James G. Dunn, for example, says they would all agree that “the Risen Jesus is the Ascended Lord.” That is to say, there would have been no faith tradition and no scriptures had not the early believers thought that Jesus was “Risen,” raised from the dead, and, “Ascended,” somehow above the ordinary plane of mortal and temporal experience. |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101193717/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Young |first=Frances M. |author-link=Frances Young |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-139-05483-6 |editor1-last=Mitchell |editor1-first=M. |volume=1 |pages=1–34 |chapter=Prelude: Jesus Christ, foundation of Christianity |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.002 |quote=The death of Jesus Christ by crucifixion, together with his resurrection from the dead, lies at the heart of Christianity. |editor2-last=Young |editor2-first=F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2005 |title=Christianity - The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095610483 |access-date=6 August 2024 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |quote=The religion based on the person and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, or its beliefs and practices. |archive-date=7 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907073910/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095610483 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"}} and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]]<br />
* The [[crucifixion of Jesus|death]], [[Harrowing of Hell|descent into hell]], [[resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] and [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] of Christ<br />
* The holiness of the [[Christian Church|Church]] and the [[communion of saints]]<br />
* Christ's [[second coming]], the [[Last Judgment|Day of Judgement]] and [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] of the faithful<br />
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The [[Nicene Creed]] was formulated, largely in response to [[Arianism]], at the Councils of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] in 325 and 381 respectively,<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 2005 |title="We Believe in One God....": The Nicene Creed and Mass |url=https://www.cuf.org/2005/02/we-believe-in-one-god-the-nicene-creed-at-mass/ |url-access=registration |access-date=16 June 2014 |publisher=Catholics United for the Fath |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819224429/https://www.cuf.org/2005/02/we-believe-in-one-god-the-nicene-creed-at-mass/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>''Encyclopedia of Religion'', "Arianism".</ref> and ratified as the universal creed of [[Christendom]] by the [[First Council of Ephesus]] in 431.<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', [https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05491a.htm "Council of Ephesus"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718154429/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05491a.htm |date=18 July 2022 }}.</ref><br />
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The [[Chalcedonian Definition]], or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451,<ref>Christian History Institute, {{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20080106201425/https://chi.gospelcom.net/DAILYF/2003/10/daily-10-08-2003.shtml ''First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon'']}}.</ref> though rejected by the [[Oriental Orthodox]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peter Theodore Farrington |date=February 2006 |title=The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon |url=https://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |journal=Glastonbury Review |issue=113 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619122112/https://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |archive-date=19 June 2008}}</ref> taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also [[Hypostatic union|perfectly united into one person]].<ref>Pope Leo I, [https://www.dailycatholic.org/history/4ecumen2.htm ''Letter to Flavian''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620231801/http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/4ecumen2.htm |date=20 June 2022 }}</ref><br />
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The [[Athanasian Creed]], received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the [[Consubstantiality|Substance]]".<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02033b.htm Athanasian Creed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02033b.htm |date=18 February 2022 }}".</ref><br />
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Most Christians ([[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Protestant]] alike) accept the use of creeds and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.<ref name="UMC—Our Common Heritage as Christians">{{Cite web |title=Our Common Heritage as Christians |url=https://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060114032325/https://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |archive-date=14 January 2006 |access-date=31 December 2007 |publisher=The United Methodist Church}}</ref><br />
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Certain [[Evangelical Protestants]], though not all of them, reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the [[Restoration Movement]], such as the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], the [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]], and the [[Churches of Christ]].<ref>White, Howard A. ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20171130221959/http://www.appiusforum.net/restoration.html The History of the Church]}}''.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cummins |first=Duane D. |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookfortoday0000cumm |title=A handbook for Today's Disciples in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) |publisher=Chalice |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8272-1425-5 |edition=Revised |location=St Louis, MO |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|14–15}}<ref>Ron Rhodes, ''The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations'', Harvest House Publishers, 2005, {{ISBN|0736912894}}</ref>{{rp|123}}<br />
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=== Jesus ===<br />
{{Main|Jesus in Christianity|Christ (title)}}<br />
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{{See also|Incarnation (Christianity)|Jesus in comparative mythology}}<br />
[[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|Various [[Depiction of Jesus|depictions of Jesus]]]]<br />
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The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in [[Jesus]] as the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]]{{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"}} and the [[Messiah]] (Christ).<ref>{{harvnb|Woodhead|2004|p=45}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Woodhead|2004|p=n.p.}}</ref> Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was [[anointing|anointed]] by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of [[Christian messianic prophecies|messianic prophecies]] of the [[Old Testament]]. The Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from [[Messiah in Judaism|the contemporary Jewish concept]]. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|the death and resurrection of Jesus]], [[original sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[Immortality|eternal life]].<ref>Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible'', pp. 513, 649.</ref><br />
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While there have been many [[Christian theology|theological]] disputes over the [[Christology|nature of Jesus]] over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become [[Incarnation (Christianity)|fully human]], suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not [[Christian views on sin|sin]]. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the [[New Testament]], he [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose]] from the dead,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|2:24}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|2:31–32}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:15}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:26}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|4:10}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|5:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|10:40–41}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:34}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:37}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|17:30–31}}, {{Bibleverse|Romans|10:9}}, {{bibleverse|1Cor|15:15 || 1 Cor. 15:15}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Cor|6:14}}, {{bibleverse|2Cor|4:14 || 2 Cor. 4:14}}, {{Bibleverse|Gal|1:1}}, {{Bibleverse|Eph|1:20}}, {{Bibleverse|Col|2:12}}, {{bibleverse|1Thess|1:10 || 1 Thess. 11:10}}, {{Bibleverse|Heb.|13:20}}, {{bibleverse|1Pet|1:3 || 1 Pet. 1:3}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Pet|1:21}}</ref> [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended]] to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father,<ref>[[s:Nicene Creed]]</ref> and will ultimately [[Second Coming|return]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|1:9–11}}</ref> to fulfill the rest of the [[Messianic prophecy]], including the [[resurrection of the dead]], the [[Last Judgment]], and the final establishment of the [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|Kingdom of God]].<br />
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According to the [[canonical gospels]] of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], Jesus was [[Incarnation (Christianity)|conceived]] by the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] from [[Mary, mother of Jesus|the Virgin Mary]]. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although [[infancy gospels]] were popular in antiquity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gambero |first=Luigi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero%2C+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church |title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought |publisher=Ignatius |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-89870-686-4 |via=Google Books}}</ref> In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the [[New Testament]], because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of [[Ministry of Jesus|Jesus' ministry]] include: [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], preaching, teaching, and deeds.<br />
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==== Death and resurrection ====<br />
{{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus}}<br />
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[[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Christ Crucified (Velázquez)|Crucifixion]]'', representing the death of [[Jesus]] on the [[Christian Cross|Cross]], painting by [[Diego Velázquez]], {{c.|1632|lk=no}}]]<br />
Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see [[1 Corinthians 15]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanegraaff |first=Hank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZfZYMt8Tx4C |title=Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity |year=2002 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=978-1-4185-1723-6}}</ref> Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Significance of the Death and Resurrection of Jesus for the Christian |url=https://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901153606/https://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |archive-date=1 September 2007 |access-date=16 May 2007 |publisher=Australian Catholic University National}}</ref> According to the New Testament, Jesus was [[Crucifixion|crucified]], died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later.<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:30–31}} {{bibleverse|Mk.|16:1}} {{bibleref2-nb|Mark|16:6}}</ref><br />
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The [[Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul|New Testament mentions]] several [[Resurrection of Jesus#Biblical accounts|post-resurrection appearances of Jesus]] on different occasions to his [[twelve apostles]] and [[disciple (Christianity)|disciples]], including "more than five hundred brethren at once",<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor|15:6}}</ref> before Jesus' [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during [[Holy Week]], which includes [[Good Friday]] and [[Easter]] Sunday.<br />
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The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in [[Christian theology]], partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{bibleverse || John|3:16}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|5:24}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:39–40}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:47}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|10:10}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|11:25–26}}, and {{bibleref2-nb|John|17:3}}</ref><br />
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Christian churches accept and teach the [[New Testament]] account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions.<ref>This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', works contained in the ''Book of Concord''.</ref> Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the [[historical Jesus]] and the proclamation of the [[early church]].<ref>Fuller, ''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'', p. 11.</ref> Some [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Christians]] do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,<ref>A [[Jesus Seminar]] conclusion held that "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on [[vision hypothesis|visionary experiences]] of [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], and [[Mary Magdalene|Mary]]."</ref><ref>Funk. ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''.</ref> seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing [[mythology|myth]]. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious [[debate]]s and [[interfaith dialogue]]s.<ref>Lorenzen. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today'', p. 13.</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]], an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless".<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor|15:14}}</ref><ref>Ball/Johnsson (ed.). ''The Essential Jesus''.</ref><br />
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=== Salvation ===<br />
{{Main|Salvation in Christianity}}<br />
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{{quote box<br />
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| quote="For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life".<br />
| source = — John 3:16, NIV<ref>{{cite web |title=John 3:16 New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+3%3A16&version=NIV |website=Bible Gateway |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003110729/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+3%253A16&version=NIV |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
}}<br />
[[File:Lucas Cranach (I) - The Law and the Gospel.jpg|thumb|''[[Law and Gospel (Cranach)|The Law and the Gospel]]'' by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529); Moses and Elijah point the sinner to Jesus for salvation.]]<br />
[[Paul the Apostle]], like Jews and Roman [[pagan]]s of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life.<ref name="remedy">{{cite journal |last=Eisenbaum |first=Pamela |date=Winter 2004 |title=A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=671–702 |doi=10.2307/3268465 |url=https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1234.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1234.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2009 |jstor=3268465 |url-access=subscription |issn=0021-9231}}</ref> For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise"<ref>{{bibleverse|Gal.|3:29}}</ref><ref>Wright, N.T. ''What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity?'' (Oxford, 1997), p. 121.</ref> The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel, the "children of God", and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".<ref>{{bibleverse|Rom.|8:9,11,16}}</ref><ref name="remedy" /><br />
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Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be [[eternal salvation|saved]] from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to [[Eastern Orthodox]] theology, based upon their understanding of the atonement as put forward by Irenaeus' [[Recapitulation (Irenaeus)|recapitulation theory]], Jesus' death is a [[Ransom theory of atonement|ransom]]. This restores the relation with God, who is loving and reaches out to humanity, and offers the possibility of ''[[Theosis (Eastern Orthodox theology)|theosis]]'' c.q. [[Divinization (Christian)|divinization]], becoming the kind of humans God wants humanity to be. The Catholic church also holds to a form of ransom theory<ref>{{cite ccc|2.1|601}}</ref> but also teaches that Jesus' death [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|satisfies]] the debt to the Father incurred by the sins of humanity.<ref>{{cite ccc|2.1|616}}</ref> The Catholic Church further affirms that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|846}}</ref> In Protestant theology, Jesus' death is regarded as a [[Penal substitution|substitutionary penalty]] carried by Jesus, for the debt that has to be paid by humankind when it broke God's moral law.<ref>[[L. W. Grensted]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PUW8AAAAIAAJ A Short History of the Doctrine of the Atonement]'' (Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]], 1920), p. 191: 'Before the Reformation only a few hints of a Penal theory can be found.'</ref><br />
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Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are [[total depravity|completely incapable of self-redemption]], but that [[irresistible grace|sanctifying grace is irresistible]].<ref>Westminster Confession, [https://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 Chapter X] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528062341/https://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 |date=28 May 2014 }};<br />Spurgeon, ''[https://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm A Defense of Calvinism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410133140/https://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm |date=10 April 2008 }}''.</ref> In contrast [[Catholics]], Orthodox Christians, and [[Arminianism|Arminian]] Protestants believe that the exercise of [[free will]] is necessary to have faith in Jesus.<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Grace and Justification|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815001751/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archive-date=15 August 2010}}</ref><br />
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=== Trinity ===<br />
{{Main|Trinity}}<br />
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[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Trinity]] is the belief that [[God in Christianity|God]] is one God in three persons: the [[God the Father|Father]], the [[God the Son|Son]] ([[Jesus]]), and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]].<ref>Definition of the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] quoted in {{Cite CCC|2.1|253}}.</ref>]]<br />
''Trinity'' refers to the teaching that the one God<ref>Christianity's status as monotheistic is affirmed in, among other sources, the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (article "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm Monotheism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410210210/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm |date=10 April 2020 }}"); [[William F. Albright]], ''From the Stone Age to Christianity''; [[H. Richard Niebuhr]]; Kirsch, ''God Against the Gods''; Woodhead, ''An Introduction to Christianity''; [[Columbia Encyclopedia|The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]] [https://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html ''Monotheism''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001051959/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html |date=1 October 2012 }}; The New Dictionary of [[Cultural Literacy]], {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071212011435/https://www.bartleby.com/59/5/monotheism.html ''monotheism'']}}; New Dictionary of Theology, [https://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm ''Paul''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720034723/http://ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm |date=20 July 2016 }}, pp. 496–499; Meconi. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity". pp. 111ff.</ref> comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons: the ''[[God the Father|Father]]'', the ''Son'' (incarnate in Jesus Christ) and the ''[[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]''. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]],<ref>Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 87–90.</ref><ref>Alexander. ''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology''. pp. 514ff.</ref><ref>McGrath. ''Historical Theology''. p. 61.</ref> although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead.<ref>Metzger/Coogan. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 782.</ref> In the words of the [[Athanasian Creed]], an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God".<ref>Kelly. ''The Athanasian Creed''.</ref> They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the [[Old Testament]], it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the [[New Testament]] and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bowden |first=John Stephen |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0000unse_u1l4/page/1206/mode/2up |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=1207|others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-522393-4}}</ref> However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the [[Trinity#Art|Trinity is depicted in art]], the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a [[cruciform halo]] identifying Christ, and in depictions of the [[Garden of Eden]], this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur. In some [[Early Christian art|Early Christian]] [[sarcophagi]], the Logos is distinguished with a beard, "which allows him to appear ancient, even pre-existent".<ref>Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BmWpMKaDBVUC&pg=PA34 Interpreting Christian Art: Reflections on Christian art]'', Mercer University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0865548501}}, pp. 32–35.</ref><br />
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The [[Trinity]] is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated<ref>''Examples of ante-Nicene statements'':{{blockquote|Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men's ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}{{blockquote|We have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For 'the Word was made flesh.' Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}<br />
{{blockquote|The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: ...one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father 'to gather all things in one,' and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, 'every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all...|St. Irenaeus in ''Against Heresies'', ch.X, v.I, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher =William B. Eerdmans | orig-year = 1950|year=1988| isbn = 978-0-8028-8087-1}}}}<br />
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{{blockquote|For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water|Justin Martyr in ''First Apology'', ch. LXI, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first =James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans| orig-year = 1950|year=1988| isbn = 978-0-8028-8087-1}}}}</ref> the triune [[Holy Mystery|mystery]]-nature of [[God in Christianity|God]] as a normative profession of faith. According to [[Roger E. Olson]] and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=Roger E.|title=The Trinity|year=2002|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUAidAp8AgEC|isbn=978-0-8028-4827-7}}</ref><ref>Fowler. ''World Religions: An Introduction for Students''. p. 58.</ref><!-- ref supports entire paragraph --><br />
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According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see [[Perichoresis]]). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in [[Western Christian]] theology) [[Filioque|from the Son]]. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three "persons" are each [[eternity|eternal]] and [[omnipotent]]. Other Christian religions including [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and [[Mormonism]], do not share those views on the Trinity.<br />
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The Greek word ''trias''<ref>{{LSJ|tria/s1|τριάς|ref}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas|The Latin equivalent, from which English ''trinity'' is derived,<ref>{{OEtymD|trinity}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2020}} is ''trinitas''<ref name="Trinitas" /> though Latin also borrowed Greek ''trias'' verbatim.<ref>{{L&S|trias|ref}}</ref>}} is first seen in this sense in the works of [[Theophilus of Antioch]]; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom".<ref>{{cite book|series=[[Patrologiae Graecae]] Cursus Completus|volume=6|author=Theophilus of Antioch|title=Apologia ad Autolycum|chapter=Book II.15|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/PatrologiaGraeca/Patrologia%20Graeca%20Vol.%20006#page/n569|language=el, la|quote=Ὡσαύτως καὶ αἱ τρεῖς ἡμέραι τῶν φωστήρων γεγονυῖαι τύποι εἰσὶν τῆς Τριάδος, τοῦ Θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦ Λόγου αὐτοῦ, καὶ τῆς Σοφίας αὐτοῦ.}}</ref> The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent,{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas}} ''trinitas'',<ref name="Trinitas">{{L&S|trinitas|ref}}</ref> appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in [[Tertullian]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. p. 50.</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Tertullian|title=De Pudicitia|chapter=21|chapter-url=https://www.tertullian.org/latin/de_pudicitia.htm|language=la|quote=Nam et ipsa ecclesia proprie et principaliter ipse est spiritus, in quo est trinitas unius diuinitatis, Pater et Filius et Spiritus sanctus.|access-date=18 February 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.tertullian.org/latin/de_pudicitia.htm|url-status=live}}.</ref> In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of [[Origen]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 53.</ref><br />
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==== Trinitarianism ====<br />
{{Main|Trinitarianism}}<br />
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''Trinitarianism'' denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the [[Trinity]]. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate [[apprehension (understanding)|apprehension]] of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of [[Tritheism]]), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father ([[Arianism]]). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three persons.<ref>[[Jürgen Moltmann|Moltmann, Jürgen]]. ''The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God.'' Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. {{ISBN|080062825X}}</ref><br />
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==== Nontrinitarianism ====<br />
{{Main|Nontrinitarianism}}<br />
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''Nontrinitarianism'' (or ''antitrinitarianism'') refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as [[adoptionism]] or [[modalism]], existed in early Christianity, leading to disputes about [[Christology]].<ref>Harnack, ''[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120100311/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html |date=20 November 2018 }}''.</ref> Nontrinitarianism reappeared in the [[Gnosticism]] of the [[Cathars]] between the 11th and 13th centuries, among groups with [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] theology in the [[Protestant Reformation]] of the 16th century,<ref>''Pocket Dictionary of Church History'' Nathan P. Feldmeth p. 135 "Unitarianism. Unitarians emerged from Protestant Christian beginnings in the sixteenth century with a central focus on the unity of God and subsequent denial of the doctrine of the Trinity"</ref> in the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], among [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] groups arising during the [[Second Great Awakening]] of the 19th century, and most recently, in [[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness Pentecostal]] churches.<br />
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=== Eschatology ===<br />
{{Main|Christian eschatology}}<br />
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The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the [[Great Tribulation|Tribulation]], death and the afterlife, (mainly for [[Evangelical Christianity|Evangelical]] groups) [[Millennialism|the Millennium]] and the following [[Rapture]], the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus, [[Resurrection of the Dead]], Heaven, (for [[Christian liturgy|liturgical]] branches) [[Purgatory]], and Hell, the [[Last Judgment]], the end of the world, and the [[New Heavens and New Earth]].<br />
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Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the [[eschatology|end of time]], after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrected bodily from the dead]] for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the [[Kingdom of God]] in fulfillment of [[Bible prophecy|scriptural prophecies]].<ref>[[Thomas Aquinas]], [https://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm ''Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134857/https://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm |date=18 February 2022 }} questions 69 through 99</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Calvin | first =John | title =Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25 | publisher =reformed.org | url =https://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html | access-date =1 January 2008 | archive-date =10 December 2007 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20071210215923/http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html | url-status =dead }}</ref><br />
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==== Death and afterlife ====<br />
Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or [[hell|eternal damnation]]. This includes the [[Last Judgment|general judgement]] at the [[resurrection of the dead]] as well as the belief (held by Catholics,<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm Particular Judgment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134854/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm |date=18 February 2022 }}".</ref><ref>Ott, ''Grundriß der Dogmatik'', p. 566.</ref> Orthodox<ref>David Moser, ''[https://www.orthodox.net/articles/about-prayer-for-the-dead.html What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134857/https://www.orthodox.net/articles/about-prayer-for-the-dead.html |date=18 February 2022 }}''.</ref><ref>Ken Collins, ''[https://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm What Happens to Me When I Die?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928055816/https://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm |date=28 September 2008 }}''.</ref> and most Protestants) in a [[particular judgment|judgment particular to the individual soul]] after physical death.<br />
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In the Catholic branch of Christianity, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of [[purgatory]] to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_04081999_en.html |title=Audience of 4 August 1999 |publisher=Vatican.va |date=4 August 1999 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-date=31 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531082150/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_04081999_en.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Those who have attained this goal are called ''saints'' (Latin ''sanctus'', "holy").<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04171a.htm The Communion of Saints]".</ref><br />
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Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to [[Christian mortalism|mortalism]], the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to [[Annihilationism]], the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view.<ref>"The death that Adam brought into the world is spiritual as well as physical, and only those who gain entrance into the Kingdom of God will exist eternally. However, this division will not occur until Armageddon, when all people will be resurrected and given a chance to gain eternal life. In the meantime, "the dead are conscious of nothing." What is God's Purpose for the Earth?" Official Site of Jehovah's Witnesses. ''Watchtower'', 15 July 2002.</ref><br />
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== Practices ==<br />
{{Main|Christian worship|Church service}}<br />
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{{See also|Mass (liturgy)|Reformed worship|Contemporary worship}}<br />
[[File:Complete-church-midnight-mass (3135957575).jpg|thumb|Christmas Eve [[Midnight Mass]] at a Catholic parish church in [[Woodside, Queens|Woodside]], New York City, U.S.]]<br />
[[File:Old Order River Brethren women.jpg|thumb|[[Old Order Anabaptist]] and [[Conservative Anabaptist]] women, for modesty, wear [[cape dress]]es and [[Christian head covering|head coverings]], the latter of which is taught as a [[Ordinance (Christianity)|church ordinance]].<ref name="Hartzler2013">{{cite book |last1=Hartzler |first1=Rachel Nafziger |title=No Strings Attached: Boundary Lines in Pleasant Places: A History of Warren Street / Pleasant Oaks Mennonite Church |year= 2013 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-62189-635-7}}</ref>]]<br />
Depending on the specific [[Christian denomination|denomination of Christianity]], practices may include [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]] (Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), [[Christian prayer|prayer]] (including the [[Lord's Prayer]]), [[Confession (religion)|confession]], [[confirmation]], [[Christian burial|burial rites]], [[Christian views on marriage|marriage]] rites and the religious education of children. Most denominations have [[ordained]] [[clergy]] who lead regular [[wikt:communal|communal]] worship services.<ref name="White_71-82" /><br />
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[[Rite (Christianity)|Christian rites]], rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language. Many ritualistic Christian churches make a distinction between sacred language, liturgical language and vernacular language. The three important languages in the [[Early Christianity|early Christian era]] were: [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baha'i Faith |first=Christopher |last=Buck |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7914-4062-9 |page=6 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Saving Paradise: How Christianity Traded Love of this World for Crucifixion and Empire |first=Rita |last=Nakashima Brock |year=2008 | isbn=978-0-8070-6750-5 |page=446 |publisher=Beacon |quote= the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East |first=Mark |last=A. Lamport |year=2020 | isbn=978-0-8070-6750-5 |page=135 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |quote=the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}}</ref><br />
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=== Communal worship ===<br />
[[Church service|Services]] of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]].{{refn|group=note|Frequently a distinction is made between "liturgical" and "non-liturgical" churches based on how elaborate or antiquated the worship; in this usage, churches whose services are unscripted or improvised are described as "non-liturgical".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=Thomas Arthur |title=Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions |year=2010 |publisher=Universal-Publishers |isbn=978-1-59942-877-2 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmMarHDbglgC&pg=PT21}}</ref>}} [[Justin Martyr]] described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his ''[[First Apology]]'' ({{circa|150|lk=no}}) to Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]], and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:<br />
{{blockquote|And Sundays, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the [[Presbyter|president]] verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying [[Amen]]; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.<ref name="justin">Justin Martyr, [https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html ''First Apology''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206032601/http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html |date=6 February 2022 }} §LXVII</ref>}}<br />
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Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the [[Lord's Day]], though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels.{{refn|group=note|Often these are arranged on an [[annual cycle]], using a book called a [[lectionary]].}}<ref>{{harvnb|White|2010|p=36}}</ref> Instruction is given based on these readings, in the form of a [[sermon]] or [[homily]]. There are a variety of [[Church (congregation)|congregational]] prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and [[intercession]], which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung.<ref name="White_71-82">{{harvnb|White|2010|pp=71–82}}</ref> [[Psalms]], [[hymn]]s, [[worship song]]s, and other [[church music]] may be sung.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Witvliet |first1=John D. |title=The Biblical Psalms in Christian Worship: A Brief Introduction and Guide to Resources |year=2007 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0767-0 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s7cyEGLwHicC |access-date=24 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Wallwork |first1=Norman |title=The Purpose of a Hymn Book |url=https://jlg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Hymns-Purpose.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://jlg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Hymns-Purpose.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=Joint Liturgical Group of Great Britain |access-date=24 June 2020 |year=2019}}</ref> Services can be varied for special events like significant [[Calendar of saints|feast days]].<ref>For example, {{citation |title=The Calendar |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |publisher=Church of England |access-date=25 June 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710092401/https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
[[File:The Last Supper - Leonardo Da Vinci - High Resolution 32x16.jpg|thumb|[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|''The Last Supper'']] in the [[Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan|Santa Maria delle Grazie Church]] in [[Milan]], [[Italy]], a late 1490s mural painting by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], depicting the [[Last Supper]] of Jesus and his [[Apostles in the New Testament|twelve apostles]], depicts the [[Last Supper|final meal]] of [[Jesus]] before [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion and death]].]]<br />
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Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of bread and wine (or a substitute). It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the [[Last Supper]] that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples [[Sacramental bread|bread]], saying, "This is my body", and gave them [[sacramental wine|wine]] saying, "This is my blood".<ref>Ignazio Silone, ''Bread and Wine'' (1937).</ref> In the [[Early Christianity|early church]], Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benz |first1=Ernst |title=The Eastern Orthodox Church: Its Thought and Life |year=2008 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-202-36575-6 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5Z_evECb1UC&pg=PA35}}</ref> Some denominations such as [[Confessional Lutheran]] churches continue to practice '[[closed communion]]'.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060812151753/https://www.lordlife.org/site/dbpage.asp?page_id=140000871&sec_id=140000527 Understanding Closed Communion]}}, stating "''Therefore, our Congregation and our Denomination practices what is called 'close or closed Communion', meaning that before you take Communion at our Churches, we ask you to take a Communion Class first to properly learn what Communion is all about.''", by [[Archive.org]]</ref> They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics further restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of [[mortal sin]].<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1415}}</ref> Many other churches, such as [[Anglican Communion]] and the [[Methodism|Methodist Churches]] (such as the [[Free Methodist Church]] and [[United Methodist Church]]), practice '[[open communion]]' since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.<ref>{{cite web|title=An open table: How United Methodists understand communion – The United Methodist Church|url=https://www.umc.org/what-we-believe/an-open-table-how-united-methodists-understand-communion|publisher=[[United Methodist Church]]|access-date=24 June 2020|archive-date=28 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128120807/http://www.umc.org/what-we-believe/an-open-table-how-united-methodists-understand-communion|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Order of Worship |url=https://wilmorefmc.org/worship/current-order-of-worship/ |publisher=Wilmore Free Methodist Church |access-date=21 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.churchofengland.org/more/policy-and-thinking/canons-church-england/section-b#b28|title = Canon B28 of the Church of England|access-date = 24 June 2020|archive-date = 25 June 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200625074933/https://www.churchofengland.org/more/policy-and-thinking/canons-church-england/section-b#b28|url-status = live}}</ref><br />
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=== Sacraments or ordinances ===<br />
{{Main|Sacrament}}<br />
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{{See also|Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Lutheran sacraments|Anglican sacraments|Ordinance (Christianity)}}<br />
{{further|Rite (Christianity)|Pre-Tridentine Mass}}<br />
{{quote box<br />
| title = 2nd-century description of the [[Eucharist]]<br />
| quote = And this food is called among us ''Eukharistia'' [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.<br />
| source = [[Justin Martyr]]<ref name=justin /><br />
| align = right<br />
| width = 30%<br />
| bgcolor = #BCF5A9<br />
}}<br />
In Christian belief and practice, a ''sacrament'' is a [[Ritual|rite]], instituted by Christ, that confers [[divine grace|grace]], constituting a [[Sacred Mysteries|sacred mystery]]. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''sacramentum'', which was used to translate the Greek word for ''mystery''. Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.<ref name="ODCC1435">Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. pp. 1435ff.</ref><br />
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The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are [[Baptism]] and the Eucharist; however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: [[Confirmation (Christian sacrament)|Confirmation]] ([[Chrismation]] in the Eastern tradition), [[Holy Orders]] (or [[ordination]]), [[Penance]] (or [[Confession (religion)|Confession]]), [[Anointing of the Sick]], and [[Matrimony]] (see [[Christian views on marriage]]).<ref name="ODCC1435" /><br />
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Taken together, these are the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Seven Sacraments]] as recognized by churches in the [[High Church]] tradition—notably [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]], [[Old Catholic]], some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] and [[Anglican sacraments|Anglicans]]. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.<ref name="ODCC1435" /> Certain denominations of Christianity, such as Anabaptists, use the term "[[ordinance (Christianity)|ordinances]]" to refer to rites instituted by Jesus for Christians to observe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krahn |first1=Cornelius |last2=Rempel |first2=John D. |title=Ordinances |year=1989 |publisher=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia |url=https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Ordinances |quote=The term "ordinance" emphasizes the aspect of institution by Christ and the symbolic meaning. |archive-date=11 May 2022 |access-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511072310/https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Ordinances |url-status=live }}</ref> Seven ordinances have been taught in many [[Conservative Mennonite]] Anabaptist churches, which include "baptism, communion, footwashing, marriage, anointing with oil, the holy kiss, and the prayer covering".<ref name="Hartzler2013" /> <br />
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In addition to this, the [[Church of the East]] has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include [[Holy Leaven]] (Melka) and the [[sign of the cross]].<ref>''Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon.''</ref> The [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] Anabaptist churches, such as the [[Dunkard Brethren Church]], observe the [[agape feast]] (lovefeast), a [[Rite (Christianity)|rite]] also observed by [[Moravian Church]] and [[Methodist Church]]es.<ref>{{cite news |title=Love Feast of the Dunkards; Peculiar Ceremonies of a Peculiar Sect of Christians |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1891/04/26/archives/love-feast-of-the-dunkards-peculiar-ceremonies-of-a-peculiar-sect.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=25 December 2023 |date=26 April 1891 |archive-date=25 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231225012542/https://www.nytimes.com/1891/04/26/archives/love-feast-of-the-dunkards-peculiar-ceremonies-of-a-peculiar-sect.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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=== Liturgical calendar ===<br />
{{Main|Liturgical year}}<br />
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{{See also|Calendar of saints}}<br />
Catholics, Eastern Christians, Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the [[liturgical year]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Senn |first1=Frank C. |title=Introduction to Christian Liturgy |year=2012 |publisher=Fortress |isbn=978-1-4514-2433-1 |page=103 |quote=For example, days of Mary, Joseph, and John the Baptist (e.g., August 15, March 19, June 24, respectively) are ranked as solemnities in the Roman Catholic calendar; in the Anglican and Lutheran calendars they are holy days or lesser festivals respectively.}}</ref> The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of [[season]]s, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colors of [[parament]]s and [[vestment]]s for clergy,<ref name="calendar">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Fortescue |first1=Adrian |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Christian Calendar |entry=Christian Calendar |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03158a.htm |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=Robert Appleton |access-date=18 July 2014 |year=1912 |archive-date=1 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701004113/http://newadvent.org/cathen/03158a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home.<br />
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Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the [[Roman Rite]] of the Catholic Church,<ref name="calendar" /> and Eastern Christians use analogous calendars based on the cycle of their respective [[Christian rite|rites]]. Calendars set aside holy days, such as [[Solemnity|solemnities]] which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus, Mary, or the [[saint]]s, and periods of [[fasting]], such as [[Lent]] and other pious events such as [[memoria]], or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as [[Christmas]], [[Easter]], and [[Pentecost]]: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively. A few denominations such as [[Quakers|Quaker Christians]] make no use of a liturgical calendar.<ref>Hickman. ''Handbook of the Christian Year''.</ref><br />
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=== Symbols ===<br />
{{Main|Christian symbolism}}<br />
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[[File:Ephesus IchthysCrop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|An early circular [[ichthys]] symbol, created by combining the Greek letters [[ΙΧΘΥΣ]] into a wheel, [[Ephesus]], Asia Minor]]<br />
Most Christian denominations have not generally practiced [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kitzinger |first1=Ernst |author1-link=Ernst Kitzinger |title=The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |year=1954 |volume=8 |pages=83–150 |doi=10.2307/1291064 |jstor=1291064 |issn=0070-7546}}</ref> the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early [[Jewish Christian]]s, invoking the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue's]] prohibition of [[idolatry]], avoided figures in their symbols.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bryer |editor1-first=Anthony |editor2-last=Herrin |editor2-first=Judith |last=Freedberg |first=David |author-link=David Freedberg |chapter=The Structure of Byzantine and European Iconoclasm |title=Iconoclasm |year=1977 |page=176 |publisher=Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham |isbn=0-7044-0226-2}}</ref><br />
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The [[Christian cross|cross]], today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm |title=ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second &#124; Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |access-date=5 May 2009}}</ref><ref>Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer ([https://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm#P5713_906729 Octavius of Minucius Felix] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518093915/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm#P5713_906729 |date=18 May 2008 }}, chapter XXIX).</ref> Tertullian, in his book ''De Corona'', tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.<ref>"At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, [https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.vi.iii.html ''De Corona'', chapter 3])</ref> Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the [[crucifix]] did not appear in use until the 5th century.<ref name="soc">Dilasser. ''The Symbols of the Church''.</ref><br />
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Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or [[Ichthys]] seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.<ref name="cefish">{{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Symbolism of the Fish |first=Maurice M.|last=Hassett}}</ref> Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ''ichthys'' (fish) forming an [[acrostic]] for the Greek phrase ''Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter'' (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ),{{refn|group=note|''Iesous Christos Theou '''H'''yios Soter'' may be a more complete transliteration; in [[Koine Greek phonology#Loss of aspiration|Koine Greek]], the daseia or [[spiritus asper]] had largely ceased being pronounced and was not—commonly—marked in the [[majuscule]] script of the time.}} (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.<ref name="cefish" /><br />
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Other major Christian symbols include the [[Chi-Rho|chi-rho monogram]], the [[Dove of peace|dove and olive branch]] (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the [[vine]] (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament.<ref name="soc" /><br />
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=== Baptism ===<br />
{{Main|Baptism}}<br />
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{{multiple image<br />
| align = right<br />
| direction = vertical<br />
| image1 = Christening celebration - Celebración de bautizo.JPG<br />
| caption1 = [[Infant baptism]] by effusion in a [[Catholic Church in Venezuela]]<br />
| image2 = Baptism at Northolt Park Baptist Church (cropped).jpg<br />
| caption2 = [[Believer's baptism]] of adult by immersion, [[Northolt]] Park Baptist Church, in [[Greater London]], [[Baptist Union of Great Britain]]<br />
}}<br />
Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the [[Christian Church|Church]]. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and [[Eastern Orthodox churches]], as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of [[baptismal regeneration]], which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. [[Baptists]] and [[Plymouth Brethren]] view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology (or mode) of the act. These modes are: by [[Immersion baptism|''immersion'']]; if immersion is total, by ''submersion''; by [[affusion]] (pouring); and by [[aspersion]] (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of [[infant baptism]];<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1213|quote=Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission.}}</ref><ref>"Holy Baptism is the sacrament by which God adopts us as his children and makes us members of Christ's Body, the Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of God" ([https://anglicansonline.org/basics/catechism.html#Holy%20Baptism Book of Common Prayer, 1979, Episcopal)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219062846/http://anglicansonline.org/basics/catechism.html#Holy%20Baptism |date=19 February 2022 }}</ref><ref>"Baptism is the sacrament of initiation and incorporation into the body of Christ" ([https://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf By Water and The Spirit – The Official United Methodist Understanding of Baptism (PDF)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313053601/https://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf |date=13 March 2016 }}</ref><ref>"As an initiatory rite into membership of the Family of God, baptismal candidates are symbolically purified or washed as their sins have been forgiven and washed away" ([[William H. Brackney]], [https://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm Doing Baptism Baptist Style{{snd}}Believer's Baptism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107183031/https://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm|date=7 January 2010}})</ref> the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.<ref>"After the proclamation of faith, the baptismal water is prayed over and blessed as the sign of the goodness of God's creation. The person to be baptized is also prayed over and blessed with sanctified oil as the sign that his creation by God is holy and good. And then, after the solemn proclamation of "Alleluia" (God be praised), the person is immersed three times in the water in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" ([https://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=51 Orthodox Church in America: Baptism).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101012021946/https://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=51 |date=12 October 2010}}</ref><ref>"In the Orthodox Church we totally immerse, because such total immersion symbolizes death. What death? The death of the "old, sinful man". After Baptism we are freed from the dominion of sin, even though after Baptism we retain an inclination and tendency toward evil.", Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, article "[https://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism Baptism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140930002357/https://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism |date=30 September 2014 }}".</ref> The Lutheran Church and the Catholic Church also practice infant baptism,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Olson |first1=Karen Bates |title=Why infant baptism? |url=https://www.livinglutheran.org/2017/01/why-infant-baptism/ |publisher=[[Living Lutheran]] |access-date=11 May 2022 |date=12 January 2017 |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702081123/https://www.livinglutheran.org/2017/01/why-infant-baptism/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|403}}</ref><ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1231,1233,1250,1252}}</ref> usually by affusion, and using the [[Trinitarian formula]].<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1240}}</ref> [[Anabaptist Christian]]s practice [[believer's baptism]], in which an adult chooses to receive the ordinance after making a decision to follow Jesus.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eby |first1=Edwin R. |title=Early Anabaptist Positions on Believer's Baptism and a Challenge for Today |url=https://www.pilgrimministry.org/literature/early-anabaptist-positions-on-believer%E2%80%99s-baptism-and-a-challenge-for-today |publisher=Pilgrim Mennonite Conference |access-date=11 May 2022 |quote=They concluded according to the Scriptures that baptism must always follow a conscious decision to take up "following Christ." They believed that a regenerated life becomes the experience of an adult who counts the cost of following Christ, exercises obedience to Christ, and is therefore baptized as a sign of such commitment and life. |archive-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511071751/https://www.pilgrimministry.org/literature/early-anabaptist-positions-on-believer%E2%80%99s-baptism-and-a-challenge-for-today |url-status=dead }}</ref> Anabaptist denominations such as the [[Mennonites]], [[Amish]] and [[Hutterites]] use [[affusion|pouring]] as the mode to administer believer's baptism, whereas Anabaptists of the [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] and [[River Brethren]] traditions baptize by [[immersion baptism|immersion]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kurian |first1=George Thomas |last2=Day |first2=Sarah Claudine |title=The Essential Handbook of Denominations and Ministries |date=14 March 2017 |publisher=Baker |isbn=978-1-4934-0640-1 |quote=The Conservative Mennonite Conference practices believer's baptism, seen as an external symbol of internal spiritual purity and performed by immersion or pouring of water on the head; Communion; washing the feet of the saints, following Jesus' example and reminding believers of the need to be washed of pride, rivalry, and selfish motives; anointing the sick with oil – a symbol of the Holy Spirit and of the healing power of God—offered with the prayer of faith; and laying on of hands for ordination, symbolizing the imparting of responsibility and of God's power to fulfill that responsibility.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kraybill |first1=Donald B. |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites, and Mennonites |year=2010 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-9911-9 |page=23 |quote=All Amish, Hutterites, and most Mennonites baptized by pouring or sprinkling.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nolt |first1=Steven M. |last2=Loewen |first2=Harry |title=Through Fire and Water: An Overview of Mennonite History |year=2010 |publisher=MennoMedia |isbn=978-0-8316-9701-3 |quote=...both groups practiced believers baptism (the River Brethren did so by immersion in a stream or river) and stressed simplicity in life and nonresistance to violence.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brackney |first1=William H. |title=Historical Dictionary of Radical Christianity |date=3 May 2012 |publisher=Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-7365-0 |page=279 |quote=The birthdate in 1708 marked the baptism by immersion of the group in the River Eder, thus believer's baptism became one of the primary tenets of The Brethren.}}</ref><br />
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=== Prayer ===<br />
{{Main|Christian prayer}}<br />
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{{See also|Christian meditation|Canonical hours}}<br />
{{quote box<br />
| width = 30%<br />
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| quote = "... 'Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. Forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil'".<br />
| source = — The [[Lord's Prayer]], Matthew 6:9–13, [[Evangelical Heritage Version|EHV]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Matthew 6:9–13 Evangelical Heritage Version (EHV) |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+6%3A9-13&version=EHV |access-date=10 March 2020 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519040904/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+6%3A9-13&version=EHV |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
}}<br />
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In the [[Gospel of Saint Matthew]], Jesus taught the [[Lord's Prayer]], which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jordan |first1=Anne |title=Christianity |year=2000 |publisher=Nelson Thornes |isbn=978-0-7487-5320-8 |quote=When he was standing on a hillside, Jesus explained to his followers how they were to behave as God would wish. The talk has become known as the Sermon on the Mount, and is found in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 5, 6 and 7. During the talk Jesus taught his followers how to pray and he gave them an example of suitable prayer. Christians call the prayer the Lord's Prayer, because it was taught by the Lord, Jesus Christ. It is also known as the Pattern Prayer as it provides a pattern for Christians to follow in prayer, to ensure that they pray in the way God and Jesus would want.}}</ref> The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the ''[[Didache]]'' and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Milavec |first1=Aaron |title=The Didache: Faith, Hope, & Life of the Earliest Christian Communities, 50–70 C.E. |year=2003 |publisher=Paulist |isbn=978-0-8091-0537-3 |quote=Given the placement of the Lord's Prayer in the Didache, it was to be expected that the new member of the community would come to learn and to pray the Lord's Prayer at the appointed hours three times each day only after baptism (8:2f.).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beckwith |first1=Roger T.|author-link1=Roger T. Beckwith |title=Calendar, Chronology And Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism And Early Christianity |year=2005 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-14603-7 |quote=So three minor hours of prayer were developed, at the third, sixth and ninth hours, which, as Dugmore points out, were ordinary divisions of the day for worldly affairs, and the Lord's Prayer was transferred to those hours.}}</ref><br />
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In the second century ''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'', [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] instructed Christians to pray at [[fixed prayer times|seven fixed prayer times]]: "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion".<ref>{{cite book |first1=Henry |last1=Chadwick |author1-link=Henry Chadwick (theologian) |title=The Early Church |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-101-16042-8 |quote=Hippolytus in the ''Apostolic Tradition'' directed that Christians should pray seven times a day – on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight, and also, if at home, at the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion. Prayers at the third, sixth, and ninth hours are similarly mentioned by Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, and must have been very widely practised. These prayers were commonly associated with private Bible reading in the family.}}</ref> Prayer positions, including kneeling, standing, and [[prostration]]s have been used for these seven fixed prayer times since the days of the early Church.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lössl |first1=Josef |title=The Early Church: History and Memory |year=2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-16561-9 |page=135 |quote=Not only the content of early Christian prayer was rooted in Jewish tradition; its daily structure too initially followed a Jewish pattern, with prayer times in the early morning, at noon and in the evening. Later (in the course of the second century), this pattern combined with another one; namely prayer times in the evening, at midnight and in the morning. As a result seven 'hours of prayer' emerged, which later became the monastic 'hours' and are still treated as 'standard' prayer times in many churches today. They are roughly equivalent to midnight, 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, 3 p.m., 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. Prayer positions included prostration, kneeling and standing. ... Crosses made of wood or stone, or painted on walls or laid out as mosaics, were also in use, at first not directly as objections of veneration but in order to 'orientate' the direction of prayer (i.e. towards the east, Latin ''oriens'').}}</ref> [[Breviary|Breviaries]] such as the [[Shehimo]] and [[Agpeya]] are used by [[Oriental Orthodox Christians]] to pray these [[canonical hours]] while facing in the [[direction of prayer|eastward direction of prayer]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kurian |first1=Jake |title="Seven Times a Day I Praise You" – The Shehimo Prayers |url=https://www.ds-wa.org/seven-times-a-day-i-praise-you-the-sheema-prayers.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219211748/https://ds-wa.org/seven-times-a-day-i-praise-you-the-sheema-prayers.html |archive-date=2017-12-19 |access-date=2 August 2020 |publisher=[[Malankara Orthodox Diocese of Southwest America|Diocese of South-West America of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney]] |title=A Sketch of Egyptian History from the Earliest Times to the Present Day |year=1906 |publisher=Methuen |page=399 |quote=Prayers 7 times a day are enjoined, and the most strict among the Copts recite one or more of the Psalms of David each time they pray. They always wash their hands and faces before devotions, and turn to the East.}}</ref><br />
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The ''Apostolic Tradition'' directed that the [[sign of the cross]] be used by Christians during the [[Minor exorcism in Christianity|minor exorcism]] of [[baptism]], during [[ablution in Christianity|ablutions]] before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Hippolytus |author1-link=Hippolytus of Rome |title=Apostolic Tradition |url=https://www.stjohnsarlingtonva.org/Customer-Content/saintjohnsarlington/CMS/files/EFM/Apostolic_Tradition_by_Hippolytus.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.stjohnsarlingtonva.org/Customer-Content/saintjohnsarlington/CMS/files/EFM/Apostolic_Tradition_by_Hippolytus.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=St. John's Episcopal Church |access-date=5 September 2020 |pages=8, 16, 17}}</ref><br />
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''Intercessory prayer'' is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the [[Apostle Peter]] on behalf of sick persons<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|9:40}}</ref> and by [[prophet]]s of the Old Testament in favor of other people.<ref>{{bibleverse|1Kings|17:19–22}}</ref> In the [[Epistle of James]], no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet [[Elijah]].<ref>{{bibleverse|James|5:16–18}}</ref> The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Alexander |editor-first=T. D. |editor-last2=Rosner |editor-first2=B. S. |year=2001 |title=Prayer |encyclopedia=New Dictionary of Biblical Theology|publisher=Intervarsity |location=Downers Grove, IL}}</ref><br />
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The ancient church, in both [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and [[Western Christianity]], developed a tradition of asking for the [[intercession of saints|intercession of (deceased) saints]], and this remains the practice of most [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], and some [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and [[Anglican]] churches.<ref>{{cite web |title=What We Believe |url=http://www.orgsites.com/pa/rac/index.html |publisher=[[Evangelical Community Church-Lutheran]] |access-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070518100544/http://www.orgsites.com/pa/rac/index.html |archive-date=18 May 2007}}</ref> Apart from certain sectors within the latter two denominations, other Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ferguson |first1=S. B. |last2=Packer |first2=J. |name-list-style=amp |year=1988 |title=Saints |encyclopedia= New Dictionary of Theology |publisher=Intervarsity |location=Downers Grove, IL}}</ref> The reformer [[Huldrych Zwingli]] admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was [[idolatry in Christianity|idolatrous]].<ref>Madeleine Gray, ''The Protestant Reformation'', (Sussex Academic Press, 2003), p. 140.</ref><br />
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According to the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'': "Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God".<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|2559}}</ref> The ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Book of Common Prayer |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/book-common-prayer |publisher=[[Church of England]] |access-date=24 June 2020 |archive-date=20 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620175342/https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/book-common-prayer |url-status=live }}</ref> Frequently in Western Christianity, when praying, the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal [[commendation ceremony]]. At other times the older [[orans]] posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in.<br />
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=== Marriage ===<br />
{{Main|Christian views on marriage}}<br />
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Most Christian churches in the world only support [[marriage]] between a man and a woman.<ref>Stephen Hunt, ''Contemporary Christianity and LGBT Sexualities'', Routledge, Abingdon-on-Thames, 2016, p. 40-41</ref><br />
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Some Christian churches allow local churches to decide about [[blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches|blessings of same-sex marriage]].<ref> Jeffrey S. Siker, ''Homosexuality and Religion: An Encyclopedia'', Greenwood Publishing Group, USA, 2007, p. 147</ref><br />
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Some international networks of [[Affirming church|Affirming churches]] support [[blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches|blessings of same-sex marriage]], such the [[Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists]],<ref name="AWAB">Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists, [https://awab.org/find-a-church/ Our Church Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250911073634/https://awab.org/find-a-church/ |date=11 September 2025 }}, awab.org, USA, accessed August 16, 2025</ref> [[Ecumenical Catholic Church]],<ref name="ECC">Ecumenical Catholic Church, [https://ecumenicalcatholicchurch.org/en/doctrinas/ Doctrines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251210195455/https://ecumenicalcatholicchurch.org/en/doctrinas/ |date=10 December 2025 }}, ecumenicalcatholicchurch.org, Mexico, accessed August 16, 2025</ref> [[Metropolitan Community Church]],<ref name="MCC2">Metropolitan Community Church, [https://visitmccchurch.com/our-churches/ Our churches] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250912090428/https://visitmccchurch.com/our-churches/ |date=12 September 2025 }}, visitmccchurch.com, USA, accessed August 16, 2025</ref> Reconciling Ministries Network ([[Methodist]]),<ref name="RMN">Reconciling Ministries Network, [https://rmnetwork.org/find-a-reconciling-ministry/ Find a Reconciling Ministry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250921002004/https://rmnetwork.org/find-a-reconciling-ministry/ |date=21 September 2025 }}, rmnetwork.org, USA, accessed August 16, 2025</ref> The Covenant Network ([[Pentecostal]]).<ref name="CN2">Covenant Network, [https://www.thecovenantnetwork.com/locations Our churches] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250916123942/https://www.thecovenantnetwork.com/locations |date=16 September 2025 }}, thecovenantnetwork.com, USA, accessed August 16, 2025</ref><br />
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== Scriptures ==<br />
{{Main|Bible|Biblical canon|Development of the Christian biblical canon|Religious text}}<br />
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[[File:Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library, 2009. Pic 01.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Bible]] is the sacred book in Christianity.]]<br />
Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the [[biblical canon]], the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]], as the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in {{bibleverse|2Timothy|3:16||2 Timothy 3:16}} is ''theopneustos'', which literally means "God-breathed".<ref>{{cite book |title=Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation |edition=2nd |last=Virkler |first=Henry A. |editor-last=Ayayo |editor-first=Karelynne Gerber |year=2007 |publisher=Baker |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=978-0-8010-3138-0 |page=21}}</ref><br />
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Some believe that divine inspiration makes present Bibles [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]], while others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant.<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909213651/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archive-date=9 September 2010}}(§&nbsp;105–108)</ref><ref>Second Helvetic Confession, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071203120450/https://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c01.htm ''Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God'']}}</ref><ref>[[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]], [https://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html ''online text''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980129093951/https://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html |date=29 January 1998}}</ref> Another closely related view is [[biblical infallibility]] or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.{{citation needed|date=March 2026}}<br />
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The canon of the Old Testament accepted by Protestant churches, which is only the [[Tanakh]] (the canon of the [[Hebrew Bible]]), is shorter than that accepted by the Orthodox and Catholic churches which also include the [[deuterocanonical books]] which appear in the [[Septuagint]], the Orthodox canon being slightly larger than the Catholic;<ref>{{cite book| first=S. T. |last=Kimbrough |title=Orthodox And Wesleyan Scriptural Understanding And Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&pg=PA23 |year=2005 | publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |isbn=978-0-88141-301-4 |page=23}}</ref> Protestants regard the latter as [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal]], important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.<ref>Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 39.</ref> The New Testament, originally written in [[Koine Greek]], contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all major churches.<br />
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Some denominations have [[List of religious texts#Additional and alternative scriptures|additional canonical holy scriptures]] beyond the Bible, including the [[standard works]] of the [[Latter Day Saints movement]] and ''[[Divine Principle]]'' in the [[Unification Church]].<ref>{{Cite book|author-link=John Bowker (theologian)|first1=John |last1=Bowker|year= 2011|title=The Message and the Book|location=UK|publisher=[[Atlantic Books]]|pages= 13–14}}</ref><br />
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=== Catholic interpretation ===<br />
{{Main|Catholic theology of Scripture}}<br />
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[[File:PonteSantAngeloRom.jpg|thumb|[[St. Peter's Basilica]] viewed from the [[Tiber]]; the [[Vatican Hill]] in the back and [[Castel Sant'Angelo]] in [[Rome]] to the right. Both the basilica and the hill are part of the [[United Nations General Assembly observers|sovereign state]] of [[Vatican City]], the [[Holy See]] of the [[Catholic Church]].]]<br />
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In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in [[School of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[School of Antioch|Antioch]]. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by [[Origen]], tended to read Scripture [[allegory|allegorically]], while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called ''[[theoria]]'') could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.<ref>Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 69–78.</ref><br />
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[[Catholic theology]] distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III, ''The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture'' §&nbsp;115–118]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015}}</ref><br />
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The ''literal'' sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The ''spiritual'' sense is further subdivided into:<br />
* The ''allegorical'' sense, which includes [[Typology (theology)|typology]]. An example would be the [[Passage of the Red Sea|parting of the Red Sea]] being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor|10:2}}</ref><br />
* The ''[[moral]]'' sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching.<br />
* The ''[[anagoge|anagogical]]'' sense, which applies to [[eschatology]], eternity and the [[Apocalypse|consummation of the world]].<br />
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Regarding [[exegesis]], following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:<br />
* The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the ''literal''<ref>Thomas Aquinas, [https://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906114843/https://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm |date=6 September 2006}}</ref><ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III §&nbsp;116] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015}}</ref><br />
* That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held<ref>[[Second Vatican Council]], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html ''Dei Verbum'' (V.19)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html |date=31 May 2014 }}.</ref><br />
* That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609220852/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=9 June 2010 }}</ref> and<br />
* That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]]".<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" §&nbsp;85]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403212113/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III |date=3 April 2015}}</ref><br />
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=== Protestant interpretation ===<br />
==== Qualities of Scripture ====<br />
Many Protestant Christians, such as Lutherans<ref name=solascriptura>{{cite web |url=https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=39&cuItem_itemID=12132 |title=Sola Scriptura? |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=15 May 2006 |website=WELS Topical Q&A |publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod |access-date=26 May 2024 |quote=[M]any passages...state sola scriptura, such as Revelation 22:18-19. If we cannot add anything to the words of Scripture and we cannot take anything away from them, that is Scripture alone. |archive-date=27 September 2009 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927214527/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=39&cuItem_itemID=12132 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the Reformed, believe in the doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]''—that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and [[Revelation|revealed all truth]] necessary for salvation;<ref name="WELS2014" /><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_PHAGr2TfgC&pg=PA15|title=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |first=Keith A. |last=Mathison |publisher=[[Canon Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-885767-74-5|chapter=Introduction |page=15|title-link=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |author-link=Keith A. Mathison}}</ref> other Protestant Christians, such as Methodists and Anglicans, affirm the doctrine of ''[[prima scriptura]]'' which teaches that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible.<ref name="WELS2014">{{cite web|url=https://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|title=Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?|year=2014|publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod|access-date=22 May 2014|quote=The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.|archive-date=22 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522105449/https://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Humphrey|first=Edith M.|title=Scripture and Tradition |date=15 April 2013|publisher=Baker|isbn=978-1-4412-4048-4|page=16|quote=historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position.}}</ref> Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or "perspicuous"). Martin Luther believed that without God's help, Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness".<ref name="Foutz" /> He advocated for "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".<ref name="Foutz">{{cite web |last=Foutz |first=Scott David |url=https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 April 2000 |title=Martin Luther and Scripture |publisher=Quodlibet Journal |access-date=16 June 2014}}</ref> [[John Calvin]] wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light".<ref>John Calvin,[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom45.vii.iv.iv.html '' Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles'' 2 Peter 3:14–18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom45.vii.iv.iv.html |date=18 February 2022 }}</ref> Related to this is "efficacy", that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and "sufficiency", that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.<ref>{{cite book|last=Engelder |first=Theodore E. W. |url=https://archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1 |title=Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture |page=[https://archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1/page/n57 28] |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1934}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Original intended meaning of Scripture ====<br />
Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the [[historical-grammatical method]].<ref>Sproul. ''Knowing Scripture'', pp. 45–61; Bahnsen, ''[https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204091801/https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm |date=4 December 2014 }}.''</ref> The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in [[Biblical hermeneutics]] to find the intended original meaning in the text.<ref name="Elwell565">{{Cite book |publisher=Baker |isbn=978-0-8010-3413-8 |last=Elwell |first=Walter A. |title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology |location=Grand Rapids, MI |year=1984 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evangelicaldicti00elwe/page/565 565] |title-link=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology}}</ref> This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Elliott |url=https://archive.org/details/expositoryhermen0000john |title=Expository hermeneutics : an introduction |publisher=Academie Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-310-34160-4 |location=Grand Rapids, MI |url-access=registration}}</ref> The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As [[Milton S. Terry]] said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture".<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Zondervan |last=Terry |first=Milton |author-link=Milton Terry|title=Biblical hermeneutics: a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments |location=Grand Rapids, MI |year=1974 |page=205}} (1890 edition page 103, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22fundamental+principle%22 view1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22neglect+this+principle%22 view2])</ref> Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.<ref name="Elwell565" /><br />
Some Protestant interpreters make use of [[Typology (theology)|typology]].<ref>e.g., in his [https://biblehub.com/commentaries/mhcw/matthew/1.htm commentary on Matthew 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/mhcw/matthew/1.htm |date=18 February 2022 }} (§III.1). [[Matthew Henry]] interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and [[Jewish Christians]]. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, ''[https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_typology_glenny.html Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_typology_glenny.html |date=18 February 2022 }}''.</ref><br />
<br />
== Demographics ==<br />
{{Main|Christianity by country|Christian population growth}}<br />
{{See also|Christendom|Christian state}}<br />
[[File:2020+ Proportion of people in world religions.svg |thumb |Global percentage of adherents by religion. Christians are the world's largest religious group, with about 2.3 billion adherents in 2020, with about 28.8% of the world's population.<ref name=Pew_20250609>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Stonawski |first2=Marcin |last3=Tong |first3=Yunping |last4=Kramer |first4=Stephanie |last5=Shi |first5=Anne |last6=Fahmy |first6=Dalia |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260222070137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |archive-date=22 February 2026 |date=9 June 2025 |url-status=live |quote=Source: Pew Research Center estimates based on more than 2,700 censuses and surveys. "How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
With around 2.3&nbsp;billion adherents according to a 2020 estimation by [[Pew Research Center]],<ref name="pew2010-2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.orgreligion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020. Muslims grew fastest; Christians lagged behind global population increase|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|date=June 9, 2025|access-date=2025-06-28}}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}<br />
* {{cite web|author-last6=Fahmy|author-first1=Conrad|author-last1=Hackett|author-first2=Marcin|author-last2=Stonawski|author-first3=Yunping|author-last3=Tong|author-first4=Stephanie|author-last4=Kramer|author-first5=Anne|author-last5=Shi|author-first6=Dalia|date=2025-06-09|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|access-date=2025-06-10|publisher=Pew Research Center|archive-date=9 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609194548/https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jan Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |title=Christianity &#124; Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, Symbols, Types, & Facts &#124; Britannica |date=13 August 2022 |entry=Christianity |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |quote=It has become the largest of the world's religions and, geographically, the most widely diffused of all faiths. |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101193717/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education |url-status=live }}</ref> split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the [[major religious groups|world's largest religion]].<ref name="pew2010-2020" /><ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web |author=Analysis |url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |archive-date=2018-03-23 |url-status=live |title=Global religious landscape: Christians |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref> High birth rates and [[Conversion to Christianity|conversions]] in the [[global South]] were cited as the reasons for the Christian population growth.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Christian Conversion |first=David |last=W. Kling |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-532092-3 |pages=586–587 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Edinburgh Companions to Global Christianity |first=Kenneth |last=R. Ross |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4744-1204-9 |page=17 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> For the last hundred years, the Christian share has stood at around 33% of the world population. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Western Europe and North America.<ref>Werner Ustorf. "A missiological postscript", in McLeod and Ustorf (eds), ''The Decline of Christendom in (Western) Europe, 1750–2000'', ([[Cambridge University Press]], 2003) pp. 219–20.</ref> Based on the 2020 population estimate, Christians comprise 28.8% of the [[world's population]].<ref name=pew>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/christian-population-change/|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020: 2. Christian population change|date=9 June 2025|access-date=15 February 2026|website=[[Pew Research Center]]|archive-date=13 February 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260213055536/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/christian-population-change/|url-status=live}}</ref> 46.8% of the christian population is concentrated in 10 countries: [[United States]] (over 210 million), [[Brazil]] (over 160 million), [[Mexico]] (over 110 million), [[Philippines]] and [[Russia]] (each one over 100 million), [[Nigeria]] and [[DRC|Congo]] (each one over 90 million), [[Ethiopia]] (over 70 million), [[South Africa]] (over 50 million) and [[Italy]] (over 40 million).<ref name=pew/><br />
<br />
[[File:Reabertura Museu de Arte Sacra (18626301050).jpg|thumb|A Christian procession in [[Brazil]], the country with the largest Catholic population in the world<ref name="PewDec2012" />]]<br />
[[File:День Святой Троицы. Престольный праздник.jpg|thumb|[[Trinity Sunday]] in [[Russia]]; the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] has experienced a great revival since the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], a country that had a policy of [[state atheism]].<ref name="Pew20152016" />|alt=]]<br />
[[File:Auto de Páscoa - IgrejaDaCidade (crop).jpg|thumb|right|Show on the life of [[Jesus]] at [[City Church (Brazil)|City Church]] in [[São José dos Campos]], affiliated with the [[Brazilian Baptist Convention]]]]<br />
<br />
Based on a 2015 [[Pew Research Center]] study, within the next four decades, Christianity will remain the largest religion; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3&nbsp;billion.<ref name=PewProjections>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title=The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506113049/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|archive-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|60}} According to some scholars, Christianity ranks at first place in net gains through [[religious conversion]].<ref>{{cite book |year=2014 |editor-first1=Lewis Ray |editor-last1=Rambo |editor-first2=Charles E. |editor-last2=Farhadian |title=The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversio|pages=58–61|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533852-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |year=2010 |editor1=Carla Gardina Pestana |title=Evangelicalism and Conversion: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-980834-2}}</ref> As a percentage of Christians, the [[Catholic Church]] and [[Orthodoxy]] (both [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental]]) are declining in some parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while [[Protestants]] and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world.<ref name="pewforum1" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Johnstone|first=Patrick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109|title=The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities|year=2011|publisher=InterVarsity|via=[[Google Books]]|page=100|isbn=978-0-8308-5695-4 }}</ref><ref>Hillerbrand, Hans J., [https://books.google.com/books?id=4tbFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT3311 "Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set"], p. 1815, "Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first time ever in the history of Protestantism, ''Wider Protestants'' will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Catholics – each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year."</ref><ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |access-date=23 May 2024 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |quote=Protestants: 625,606,000; Independents: 421,689,000; Unaffiliated Christians: 123,508,000 |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406231727/https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="KimOsmerSchweitzer2018">{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun-Sook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=muV0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |title=The Future of Protestant Religious Education in an Age of Globalization |last2=Osmer |first2=Richard R. |last3=Schweitzer |first3=Friedrich |publisher=Waxmann Verlag |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-8309-8876-2 |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Walsham |first1=Alexandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XrpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18 |title=Remembering the Reformation |last2=Cummings |first2=Brian |last3=Law |first3=Ceri |last4=Riley |first4=Karis |date=4 June 2020 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-429-61992-2 |page=18}}</ref> The so-called ''popular Protestantism''<ref group="note">A flexible term, defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving directly from the Protestant Reformation.</ref> is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.<ref>Some scholars suggest that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religion in the world:<br />
* {{cite book|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199920570.001.0001/acprof-9780199920570|title=Spirit and Power: The Growth and Global Impact of Pentecostalism|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199920570.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-934563-2|quote=Pentecostalism is the fastest-growing religious movement in the world|editor1-last=Miller|editor1-first=Donald E.|editor2-first=Kimon H.|editor2-last=Sargeant|editor3-first=Richard|editor3-last=Flory|archive-date=2 June 2021|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212919/https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199920570.001.0001/acprof-9780199920570|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite book|url=https://california.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1525/california/9780520266612.001.0001/upso-9780520266612|publisher=University of California Press Scholarship|doi=10.1525/california/9780520266612.001.0001|quote=With its remarkable ability to adapt to different cultures, Pentecostalism has become the world's fastest growing religious movement.|last1=Anderson|first1=Allan|last2=Bergunder|first2=Michael|last3=Droogers|first3=Andre|title=Studying Global PentecostalismTheories and Methods|year=2010|isbn=978-0-520-26661-2|archive-date=19 July 2021|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719115608/https://california.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1525/california/9780520266612.001.0001/upso-9780520266612|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite podcast|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/rearvision/pentecostal/13360182|title=Pentecostalism—the fastest growing religion on earth|date=30 May 2021|publisher=ABC Radio National|first1=Annabelle|last1=Quince|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719115558/https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/rearvision/pentecostal/13360182|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite web|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/pentecostalism-massive-global-growth-under-radar|title=Pentecostalism: Massive Global Growth Under the Radar|date=9 March 2015|publisher=Pulitzer Center|quote=Today, one quarter of the two billion Christians in the world are Pentecostal or Charismatic. Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religion in the world.|author-first1=Richard|author-last1=Vijgen|author-first2=Bregtje|author-last2=van der Haak|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-date=20 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720232316/https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/pentecostalism-massive-global-growth-under-radar|url-status=live}}<br />
* {{cite thesis|author-first1=Keith|author-last1=Smith|url=https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1067&context=political_science_theses|title=Max Weber and Pentecostals in Latin America: The Protestant Ethic, Social Capital and Spiritual Capital Ethic, Social Capital and Spiritual Capital|date=9 May 2016|publisher=Georgia State University|quote=Many scholars claim that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religious phenomenon in human history.|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-date=21 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721004302/https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&httpsredir=1&article=1067&context=political_science_theses|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5pyiIkTxAC&pg=PA16|title=Religion in Global Civil Society|first=Mark|last=Juergensmeyer|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=16|isbn=978-0-19-804069-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|title=Engendering Charismatic Economies: Pentecostalism, Global Political Economy, and the Crisis of Social Reproduction|last=Barker|first=Isabelle V.|year=2005|publisher=[[American Political Science Association]]|pages=2, 8 and footnote 14 on page 8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217004703/https://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|archive-date=17 December 2013|access-date=25 March 2010}}</ref> Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63&nbsp;billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Todd M. |last1=Johnson|first2=Gina A |last2=Zurlo|first3=Albert W. |last3=Hickman|first4=Peter F. |last4=Grossing|title=Christianity 2016: Latin America and Projecting Religions to 2050|journal=International Bulletin of Mission Research|year=2016|volume=40|number=1|pages=22–29 |doi=10.1177/2396939315625968 }}</ref> Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics.<ref>Barrett, 29.{{Clarify|reason=There are two sources attributed to a person named Barrett.|date=October 2025}}</ref> According to Pew Research Center, Africa is expected to be home to 1.1&nbsp;billion [[Christianity in Africa|African Christians]] by 2050.<ref name="PewProjections" /><br />
<br />
In 2010, 87% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the majority, while 13% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the minority.<ref name="Global Christianity">{{Cite web |title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population |url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801204254/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-date=2019-08-01 |publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, Oceania, and Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Global Christianity" /> There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as [[Central Asia]], the [[Middle East and North Africa]], [[East Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], and the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="Global Christianity" /> In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Armenia, Cyprus, Georgia, East Timor, and the Philippines.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 Encyclopædia Britannica] table of religions, by region. Retrieved November 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218163337/https://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 |date=18 February 2008}}</ref> However, it is declining in some areas including the northern and western United States,<ref>{{cite web|author=ARIS 2008 Report: Part IA – Belonging |url=https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |title=American Religious Identification Survey 2008 |publisher=B27.cc.trincoll.edu |access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518163841/https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |archive-date=18 May 2011}}</ref> some areas in Oceania (Australia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/PopularAreas?collection=Census&period=2006&&navmapdisplayed=true&textversion=false |title=Australian 2006 census – Religion |publisher=Censusdata.abs.gov.au |access-date=19 November 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and New Zealand<ref>[https://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.ashx Table 28, 2006 Census Data – QuickStats About Culture and Identity – Tables]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724200044/https://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.ashx |date=24 July 2011}}</ref>), northern Europe (including Great Britain,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ekklesia.co.uk/news/uk/061223/christendom |title=New UK opinion poll shows continuing collapse of 'Christendom' |publisher=Ekklesia.co.uk |date=23 December 2006|access-date=19 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714013820/https://www.ekklesia.co.uk/news/uk/061223/christendom|archive-date=14 July 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, Canada,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm |website=Statistics Canada |date=26 October 2022 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117175209/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm |archive-date=2023-11-17}}</ref> and some parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the [[Christian emigration]],<ref>Barrett/Kurian.''World Christian Encyclopedia'', p. 139 (Britain), 281 (France), 299 (Germany).</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4499668.stm |title=Christians in the Middle East |work=BBC News |date=15 December 2005 |access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Gregory |url=https://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/world/4425100.html |title=Is Christianity dying in the birthplace of Jesus? |publisher=Chron.com |date=25 December 2006 |access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref> and Macau<ref>{{cite news|last=Greenlees |first=Donald |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/26/world/asia/26macao.html |title=A Gambling-Fueled Boom Adds to a Church's Bane |location=Macao |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=26 December 2007 |access-date=30 June 2011}}</ref>).<br />
<br />
The total Christian population is not decreasing in [[Brazil]] and the [[southern United States]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |title=American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) 2008 |first1=Barry A. |last1=Kosmin |first2=Ariela |last2=Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, CN|access-date=1 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2009}}</ref> however, the percentage of the population identifying as Christian is in decline. Since the fall of communism, the proportion of Christians has been largely stable in [[Central Europe]], except in the [[Czech Republic]].<ref name="Pew Research Center">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2018/10/29/eastern-and-western-europeans-differ-on-importance-of-religion-views-of-minorities-and-key-social-issues/|title=Eastern and Western Europeans Differ on Importance of Religion, Views of Minorities, and Key Social Issues|work=Pew Research Center|date=29 October 2018}}</ref> On the other hand, Christianity is growing rapidly in both numbers and percentages in Eastern Europe,<ref name="Pew Research Center" /><ref name="Pew20152016">{{cite web|title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|date=10 May 2017}}</ref> China,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Chinese Conversion to Evangelical Christianity: The Importance of Social and Cultural Contexts|date=20 January 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|jstor=3711910|last1=Yang|first1=Fenggang|journal=Sociology of Religion|volume=59|issue=3|pages=237–257|doi=10.2307/3711910 }}</ref><ref name="PewDec2012" /> other [[Asian countries]],<ref name="PewDec2012" /><ref name="Singapore Management University" /> [[Sub-Saharan Africa]],<ref name="PewDec2012" /><ref name="The Next Christendom 2002">The Next Christendom: The Rise of Global Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press. 2002. 270 pp.</ref> [[Latin America]],<ref name="PewDec2012" /> [[North Africa]] ([[Maghreb]]),<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="The Next Christendom 2002" /> [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] countries,<ref name="PewDec2012" /> [[Muslim world]],<ref name="Johnstone-2015">{{cite journal|last1=Johnstone|first1=Patrick|last2=Miller|first2=Duane Alexander|title=Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census|journal=IJRR|date=2015|volume=11|issue=10|pages=1–19|url=https://www.academia.edu/16338087|access-date=30 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A Short History of Christianity| first=Geoffrey |last=Blainey|year= 2011| isbn= 978-1-74253-416-9|publisher=Penguin Random House Australia|quote=Since the 1960s, there has been a substantial increase in the number of Muslims who have converted to Christianity}}</ref> and [[Oceania]].<ref name="The Next Christendom 2002" /><br />
<br />
Despite a decline in adherence in the [[Western world|West]], Christianity remains the dominant religion in the region, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian.<ref name="Global Christianity" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Henderso |first1=Errol A |title=Scriptures, Shrines, Scapegoats, and World Politics: Religious Sources of Conflict and Cooperation in the Modern Era |last2=Maoz |first2=Zeev |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-472-13174-7 |pages=129–130}}</ref> Christianity remains the largest religion in [[Western Europe]], where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|date=29 May 2018|title=Being Christian in Western Europe|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2018/05/29/being-christian-in-western-europe/|access-date=21 January 2021|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> A 2011 [[Pew Research Center]] survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians.<ref name="PewDec2012" /><ref name="Global Christianity" /> By 2020, 120 countries and territories in the world had [[Christianity by country|Christian majorities]].<ref name="pew2010-2020" /><br />
<br />
There are many [[charismatic movements]] that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America, and Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=David |last1=Stoll|title=Is Latin America Turning Protestant?|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html|title=Pentecostalism|first=Jeff|last=Hadden|year=1997|access-date=24 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427204250/https://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html |archive-date=27 April 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://pewforum.org/events/?EventID=109|title=Moved by the Spirit: Pentecostal Power and Politics after 100&nbsp;Years|author1=Pew Forum on Religion |author2=Public Life |date=24 April 2006|access-date=24 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pentecostalism |encyclopedia=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |year=2007 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |access-date=21 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112143456/https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |archive-date=12 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/november13/36.107.html|title=The CT Review: Pie-in-the-Sky Now|author-first1=Ed |author-last1=Gitre|website= Christianity Today Magazine|date=13 November 2000}}</ref><ref name="Global Christianity" /> Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PR11|title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism|first=J. Gordon|last=Melton|year=2005|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5|page=11}}</ref> From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported [[Evangelical Protestants]] grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite book| title=Know the Truth: A Handbook of Christian Belief | last=Milne | first=Bruce | year=2010 | publisher=InterVarsity | page=332 |isbn=978-0-8308-2576-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_ttliPuhjQC}}</ref> According to the historian [[Geoffrey Blainey]] from the [[University of Melbourne]], since the 1960s there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to the [[Evangelical]] and [[Pentecostal]] forms.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Short History of Christianity| first=Geoffrey |last=Blainey |year=2011| isbn= 978-1-74253-416-9|publisher=Penguin Random House |quote=Since the 1960s, there has been a substantial increase in the number of Muslims who have converted to Christianity}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Living among the Breakage: Contextual Theology-Making and Ex-Muslim Christians |first=Duane Alexander |last=Miller |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4982-8417-2 |pages=435–481 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> Significant numbers of Muslim converts to Christianity can be found in Afghanistan,<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Duane Alexander|last2=Koepping|first2=Elizabeth|title=Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census|journal=University of Edinburgh School of Divinity|year=2014|pages=88–89|url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/9513?show=full}}</ref> Azerbaijan,<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> Central Asia (including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and other countries),<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> Indonesia,<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> Malaysia,<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> the Middle East (including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gajAgAAQBAJ&q=turkish+protestant+muslim&pg=PA93|title=Muslim Nationalism and the New Turks|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=978-1-4008-5125-6|last1=White|first1=Jenny|year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> and other countries),<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> North Africa (including Algeria, Morocco,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2013/may/christian-converts-in-morocco-fear-fatwa-calling-for-their.html|title=Christian Converts in Morocco Fear Fatwa Calling for Their Execution|work=Morning Star News|date=9 May 2013 |via=[[Christianity Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/house-churches-and-silent-masses-the-converted-christians-of-morocco-are-praying-in-secret/|title='House-Churches' and Silent Masses —The Converted Christians of Morocco Are Praying in Secret|website=Vice|author-first1=Rik|author-last1=Goverde|date=23 March 2015 }}</ref> and Tunisia<ref>{{source-attribution|[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90222.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Tunisia]. United States [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] (14 September 2007).}}</ref>),<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> Sub-Saharan Africa,<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> and the Western World (including Albania, Belgium, France, Germany, Kosovo, the Netherlands, Russia, Scandinavia, United Kingdom, the United States, and other western countries).<ref name="Johnstone-2015" /><ref name="Miller-2014" /> It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in Africa and Asia; according to a report by the [[Singapore Management University]], more people in Southeast Asia are converting to Christianity, many of them young and having a [[university degree]].<ref name="Singapore Management University">{{cite web|url=https://cmp.smu.edu.sg/perspectives/2012/06/26/understanding-rapid-rise-charismatic-christianity-southeast-asia|title=Understanding the rapid rise of Charismatic Christianity in Southeast Asia|date=27 October 2017|publisher=Singapore Management University}}</ref> According to scholar Juliette Koning and Heidi Dahles of {{lang|nl|[[Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam]]|italic=no}} there is a "rapid expansion" of [[Christianity in Singapore]], China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, [[Christianity in Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Christianity in Malaysia|Malaysia]], and South Korea.<ref name="Singapore Management University" /> According to scholar Terence Chong from the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, since the 1980s Christianity is expanding in China, Singapore,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newnation.sg/2011/01/christianity-non-religious-register-biggest-growth-census-2010/ |title=Christianity, non-religious register biggest growth: Census 2010 |author-first1=Terence|author-last1=Lee|publisher=Newnation.sg |date=13 January 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=24 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124010232/http://newnation.sg/2011/01/christianity-non-religious-register-biggest-growth-census-2010/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Indonesia, [[Christianity in Japan|Japan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.christianpost.com/news/more-people-claim-christian-faith-in-japan-1549/|title=More People Claim Christian Faith in Japan|date=19 March 2006|author-first1=Audrey|author-last1=Barrick|website=The Christian Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=International Handbook of Protestant Education| first=David |last= W. Robinson|year= 2012| isbn=978-9400723870| page =521 |publisher=Springer |quote=A 2006 Gallup survey, however, is the largest to date and puts the number at 6%, which is much higher than its previous surveys. It notes a major increase among Japanese youth professing Christ.}}</ref> Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea,<ref name="Global Christianity" /> and Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/28092015-the-state-of-pentecostalism-in-southeast-asia-ethnicity-class-and-leadership-analysis/ |title=The State Of Pentecostalism In Southeast Asia: Ethnicity, Class And Leadership – Analysis|work=Eurasia Review |date=28 September 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
In most countries in the developed world, [[church attendance]] among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.<ref>Putnam, ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society'', p. 408.</ref> Some sources view this as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=McGrath|title=Christianity: An Introduction|page= xvi}}</ref> while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Peter |last1=Marber|title=Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles|page=99}}</ref> Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Philip |last1=Jenkins |title=God's Continent|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|page=56}}</ref> According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of [[Christianity in Europe|European Christians]] say they attend services once a month or more.<ref name="economist">{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21684679-march-christianity-future-worlds-most-popular-religion-african|title=The future of the world's most popular religion is African|date=25 December 2015|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> Conversely, according to the [[World Values Survey]], about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians, and about 90% of [[Christianity in Africa|African Christians]] (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly.<ref name="economist" /> According to a 2018 study by the [[Pew Research Center]], Christians in Africa and Latin America and the United States have high levels of commitment to their faith.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/08/22/the-worlds-most-committed-christians-live-in-africa-latin-america-and-the-u-s/|title=The world's most committed Christians live in Africa, Latin America – and the U.S.|author-first1=Joey|author-last1=Marshall|date =22 August 2018|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Christian state|Christianity]], in one form or another, is the sole [[state religion]] of the following nations: [[Argentina]] (Catholic),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33657/Argentina| title = Argentina|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> [[Costa Rica]] (Catholic),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139528/Costa-Rica| title = Costa Rica|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> the [[Kingdom of Denmark]] (Lutheran),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157748/Denmark| title = Denmark|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> [[England]] (Anglican),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |title=Church and State in Britain: The Church of privilege |publisher=Centre for Citizenship |access-date=11 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511204430/https://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |archive-date=11 May 2008}}</ref> [[Greece]] (Greek Orthodox),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/181798/El-Salvador| title = El Salvador|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> [[Iceland]] (Lutheran),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland|title = Iceland|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Liechtenstein (Catholic),<ref>{{cite web|url =https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24418.htm|title = Liechtenstein|publisher = U.S. Department of State|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> [[Malta]] (Catholic),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360532/Malta|title = Malta|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Monaco (Catholic),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388747/Monaco|title = Monaco |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref> [[Norway]] (Lutheran),<ref>[https://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke Løsere bånd, men fortsatt statskirke] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108043939/https://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke|date=8 January 2014}}, ABC Nyheter<!-- https://www.webcitation.org/6DEb3MkkC?url=https://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke --></ref> [[Samoa]],<ref>{{cite news|last1=Feagaimaali'i-Luamanu|first1=Joyetter|title=Constitutional Amendment Passes; Samoa Officially Becomes 'Christian State'|url=http://www.pireport.org/articles/2017/06/08/constitutional-amendment-passes-samoa-officially-becomes-christian-state|publisher=Pacific Islands Report|date=8 June 2017|access-date=15 November 2022|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111223748/http://www.pireport.org/articles/2017/06/08/constitutional-amendment-passes-samoa-officially-becomes-christian-state|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Tonga]] (Methodist), [[Tuvalu]] (Reformed), and [[Vatican City]] (Catholic).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/623972/Vatican-City |title=Vatican |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=11 May 2008}}</ref><br />
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There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an [[established church]], still give official recognition and support to a specific [[Christian denomination]].<ref>{{cite web|url =https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/27433.htm|title = Cyprus|publisher = U.S. Department of State|access-date = 11 May 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
<div style="overflow:auto;"><br />
[[File:Christianity percent population in each nation World Map Christian data by Pew Research.svg|upright=3|thumb|center|The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.<ref>{{cite web|author=Analysis |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-percentages/ |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref>]]</div><br />
<br />
<br /><br />
<gallery widths="300" mode="nolines"><br />
File:Christian World—Pew Research Center 2010.svg|Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple; countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink.<br />
File:State Religions.svg|Nations with Christianity as their [[state religion]] are in blue.<br />
File:Percent of Catholics by Country–Pew Research 2011.svg|Distribution of Catholics<br />
File:Countries by percentage of Protestants (2010).svg|Distribution of Protestants<br />
File:Percent of Eastern Orthodox Christians by country.svg|Distribution of Eastern Orthodox<br />
File:Percent of Oriental Orthodox Christians by country.svg|Distribution of Oriental Orthodox<br />
File:Percent of Other Christians by Country–Pew Research 2011.svg|Distribution of other Christians<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== Churches and denominations ==<br />
{{Further|List of Christian denominations|List of Christian denominations by number of members|Schism in Christianity}}<br />
{{See also|Ecclesiology}}<br />
{{pie chart|thumb = right<br />
|caption = World Christianity by tradition in 2024 as per World Christian Database<ref name="WorldChristian Database">{{cite web |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |quote=Christian total 2,631,941,000, Catholic total 1,278,009,000 (48.6%), Wider Protestant total including Independents 1,047,295,000 (39.8%), Orthodox total including Eastern and Oriental 293,158,000 (11.1%) |access-date=23 May 2024}}</ref><br />
|label1 = [[Catholic Church by country|Catholic]]<br />
|value1 = 48.6<br />
|label2 = [[Protestantism by country|Protestant]]<br />
|value2 = 39.8<br />
|label3 = Orthodox<br />
|value3 = 11.1<br />
|label4 = Other<br />
|value4 = 0.5}}<br />
Christianity can be taxonomically divided into three main groups: [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], [[Protestantism]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]] while other groups include [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Restorationism]] and [[Church of the East]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Riswold |first=Caryn D. |title=Feminism and Christianity: Questions and Answers in the Third Wave |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-62189-053-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Mitchell |first1=Lynn |title=Christian Denominations by Dr. Lynn Mitchell |url=http://www.dialoguesociety.org/leeds-outreach-participation/417-christian-denominations-by-dr-lynn-mitchell.html |publisher=Dialogue Society |access-date=23 January 2021 |date=8 December 2010}}</ref> A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between [[Eastern Christianity]] and [[Western Christianity]], which has its origins in the [[East–West Schism]] (Great Schism) of the 11th century. Recently, neither Western nor Eastern [[World Christianity]] has also stood out, for example, in [[African-initiated church]]es. However, there are other present<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm|archive-url = https://archive.today/20120910194517/http://www.religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm|url-status = usurped|archive-date = 10 September 2012| title = The LDS Restorationist movement, including Mormon denominations |publisher = Religious Tolerance|access-date = 31 December 2007}}</ref> and historical<ref>{{cite book|first=Bart D.|last=Ehrman|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-514183-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lostchristianiti00ehrm/page/1 1]|url=https://archive.org/details/lostchristianiti00ehrm/page/1}}</ref> Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories.<br />
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There is a diversity of [[doctrine]]s and [[Liturgy|liturgical]] practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary [[ecclesiology|ecclesiologically]] in their views on a classification of [[Christian denomination]]s.<ref>[[Sydney E. Ahlstrom]], characterized [[denominationalism]] in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Catholic Church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." ({{cite book |last1=Ahlstrom |first1=Sydney E. |last2=Hall |first2=David D. |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&pg=PA381 |title=A Religious History of the American People |edition=Revised |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10012-9 |page=381 }});<br />
* {{cite book |last=Nash |first=Donald A. |url=https://www.thecra.org/files/WhyNotDenom.pdf |title=Why the Churches of Christ are Not a Denomination |access-date=17 June 2014 |pages=1–3 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5n7kJH3Yf?url=https://www.crownhillchurch.com/Why_the_Churches_of_Christ_Are_Not_A_Denomination.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2010 |url-status=dead |ref=none }};<br />
* Wendell Winkler, [https://www.thebible.net/introchurch/ch4.html Christ's Church is not a Denomination] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122063058/http://www.thebible.net/introchurch/ch4.html |date=22 November 2021 }};<br />
* {{cite web |url=https://www.biblestudylessons.com/jesuslord/jeslord8-lesson.php |title=Jesus Is Lord Free Online Bible Study Course Lesson 8, II. How Did Modern Denominations Begin? |first=David E. |last=Pratte |year=1999 |website=biblestudylessons.com |access-date=17 June 2014 }}</ref> The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant, such as Lutheran and Anglican denominations.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | entry=Nicene Creed |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2007 | url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055702 |access-date =31 December 2007 |ref=none |title=Nicene Creed -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia }}</ref><br />
{{Christian denomination tree}}<br />
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=== Catholic Church ===<br />
{{Main|Catholic Church}}<br />
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[[File:Pope Leo XIV 3 (3x4 cropped).png|thumb|upright|[[Pope Leo XIV]], the leader of the Catholic Church since 2025]]<br />
The Catholic Church consists of those [[particular Church]]es, headed by bishops, in communion with the [[pope]], the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and church governance.<ref>[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}''.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Duffy|title=Saints and Sinners|page= 1}}</ref> Like [[Eastern Orthodox]]y, the Catholic Church, through [[apostolic succession]], traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Hitchcock|title=Geography of Religion|page= 281}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Norman|title=The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History|pages=11, 14}}</ref> Catholics maintain that the "[[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church]]" founded by Jesus [[Subsistit in|subsists fully]] in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities<ref name="LumenGentium">[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium]'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}, chapter 2, paragraph 15.</ref><ref>[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV paragraph 865]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812051820/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV |date=12 August 2015}}</ref> and works towards [[ecumenism|reconciliation]] among all Christians.<ref name="LumenGentium" /> The Catholic faith is detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Marthaler|title=Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues|year=1994|chapter=preface}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=John Paul II |language=la |title=Laetamur Magnopere | publisher=Vatican |year=1997 |url=https://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080211121910/https://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm |archive-date=11 February 2008 |access-date =9 March 2008}}</ref><br />
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Of its [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|seven sacraments]], the [[Eucharist in the Catholic Church|Eucharist]] is the principal one, celebrated [[Catholic liturgy|liturgically]] in the [[Mass in the Catholic Church|Mass]].<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1322–1327|quote=[T]he Eucharist is the sum and summary of our faith}}</ref> The church teaches that through [[Consecration#Eucharist|consecration]] by a [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priest]], the sacrificial [[Sacramental bread|bread]] and [[Sacramental wine|wine]] [[Transubstantiation|become the body and blood of Christ]]. The [[Virgin Mary]] is [[Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church|venerated]] in the Catholic Church as [[Mother of God]] and [[Queen of Heaven]], honoured in [[Mariology of the Catholic Church#Dogmatic teachings|dogmas]] and [[Marian devotions|devotions]].{{refn|name=marian_dogmas|{{cite web |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resource/55423/the-four-marian-dogmas |publisher=Catholic News Agency |title=The Four Marian Dogmas |access-date=25 March 2017}}}} Its teaching includes [[Divine Mercy]], [[sanctification]] through faith and [[evangelization]] of [[the Gospel]] as well as [[Catholic social teaching]], which emphasizes voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the [[Works of mercy|corporal and spiritual works of mercy]]. The Catholic Church operates thousands of [[Catholic schools]], [[Catholic higher education|universities]], [[Catholic Church and health care|hospitals]], and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of [[Catholic school|education]] and [[Healthcare and the Catholic Church|health care]] in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Agnew |first=John |title=Deus Vult: The Geopolitics of Catholic Church |journal=Geopolitics |date=12 February 2010 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=39–61 |doi=10.1080/14650040903420388|s2cid=144793259}}</ref> Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations.<br />
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[[Canon law of the Catholic Church|Canon law]] ({{Langx|la|jus canonicum}})<ref>Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 771: "Jus canonicum"</ref> is the [[legal system|system]] of [[law]]s and [[canon law|legal principles]] made and enforced by the [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|hierarchical authorities]] of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church.<ref>Della Rocca, ''Manual of Canon Law'', p. 3.</ref> The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western [[legal system]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Berman|first1= Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution|pages= 86, 115}}</ref> and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West.<ref>[[Edward N. Peters]], [https://canonlaw.info/ CanonLaw.info Home Page], accessed 11 June 2013.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first1=Raymond |last1=Wacks|title=Law: A Very Short Introduction|edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press|year= 2015|page= 13}}</ref> while the distinctive traditions of [[Eastern Catholic canon law]] govern the 23 Eastern Catholic [[particular church]]es ''[[sui iuris]].''<br />
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As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution,<ref>Mark A. Noll. ''The New Shape of World Christianity'' (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009), 191.</ref> it has played a prominent role in the history and development of [[Western culture|Western civilization]].<ref>[[Gerald O'Collins|O'Collins]], p. v (preface).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Perry |first=Marvin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&pg=PA33 |title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789 |publisher=Cengage |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-111-83720-4 |page=33}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|loc=Preface}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Carlton J. H. |title=Christianity and Western Civilization |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |orig-year=1954 |year=2006|isbn=978-0-7581-3510-0 |page=2}}</ref> The 2,834 [[Episcopal see|sees]]<ref>''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' (2012), p. 1142.</ref> are grouped into [[Sui iuris#Catholic ecclesiastical use|24 particular autonomous Churches]] (the largest of which being the [[Latin Church]]), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the [[liturgy]] and the administering of [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]].<ref>Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 71</ref> With more than 1.1&nbsp;billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian [[Christian Church|church]] and represents 50.1%<ref name="Global Christianity" /> of all Christians as well as 16.7% of the [[world population|world's population]].<ref>[[Central Intelligence Agency]], ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20260116020830/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world CIA World Factbook]'' (2007).</ref><ref name="Adherents">Adherents.com, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20000816004118/https://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html ''Religions by Adherents'']}}</ref><ref>''Zenit.org'', "[https://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english Number of Catholics and Priests Rises] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225194908/https://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english |date=25 February 2008 }}", 12 February 2007.</ref> Catholics live all over the world through [[Catholic missions|missions]], [[diaspora]], and [[Conversion to Christianity|conversions]].<br />
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=== Eastern Orthodox Church ===<br />
{{Main|Eastern Orthodox Church}}<br />
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[[File:Church of St. George, Istanbul (August 2010).jpg|thumb|[[St. George's Cathedral, Istanbul|St. George's Cathedral]] in [[Istanbul]]: It has been the seat of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] whose leader is regarded as the ''[[primus inter pares]]'' in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Eastern Churches Journal: A Journal of Eastern Christendom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOAkAQAAIAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Society of Saint John Chrysostom| page=181 |quote=His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew is the 270th successor to the Apostle Andrew and spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide.}}</ref>|218x218px]]<br />
The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the [[patriarch]]al sees of the East, such as the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]].<ref>Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', p. 1199.</ref> Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through [[apostolic succession]] and has an [[Episcopal polity|episcopal]] structure, though the [[autocephaly|autonomy]] of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.<br />
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[[Eastern Orthodox theology]] is based on [[holy tradition]] which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the [[First seven ecumenical councils|seven Ecumenical Councils]], the Scriptures, and the teaching of the [[Church Fathers]]. The church teaches that it is the [[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic and apostolic]] [[One true church|church]] established by [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ]] in his [[Great Commission]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Orthodox Faith – Volume I – Doctrine and Scripture – The Symbol of Faith – Church|url=https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/doctrine-scripture/the-symbol-of-faith/church|access-date=27 July 2020|website=www.oca.org}}</ref> and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wo9MwwEACAAJ|title=Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes |year=1983|publisher=Fordham University Press}}</ref> It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition. Its [[patriarchates]], reminiscent of the [[pentarchy]], and other [[autocephalous]] and [[autonomous]] churches reflect a variety of [[hierarchical]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church organization|organisation]]. It recognizes seven major sacraments, of which the [[Eucharist]] is the principal one, celebrated [[Divine Liturgy|liturgically]] in [[synaxis]]. The church teaches that through [[Consecration#Eucharist|consecration]] [[epiclesis|invoked]] by a [[Priesthood (Orthodox Church)|priest]], the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] is [[veneration|venerated]] in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the ''[[Theotokos]]'', meaning God-bearer, and is honoured in [[Marian devotions#Eastern Orthodoxy|devotions]].<br />
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Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 300 million adherents,<ref name=":4">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/findingglobalbal0000mars |title=Finding Global Balance |publisher=World Bank Publications |year=2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/findingglobalbal0000mars/page/119 119] |quote="His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew is the spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide." |access-date=8 December 2023 |url-access=registration}}</ref> although [[Protestantism|Protestants]] collectively outnumber them, substantially.<ref name="Global Christianity" /><ref name="CSGC2019">{{Cite web |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2019, in the Context of 1900–2050 |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2019/04/StatusofGlobalChristianity20191.pdf?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=dbc877fea75b25fc6737b0fd6bd1d6bd5d4e0119-1589502882-0-AWKZpJ8Cde9iLLQo_A-22M_6Yx_NzYkoJXkWheGxqt79XJKGAsGe9toy2d0WPGwhF-35Z5iB65LQsTW3m1PdGbFd6Pz1FN8-LTUPA-7p3VA9qU1sUJgKAyskRYjdAd0nnbE1K-Hekmpb1HvqRyiyTVMvdoiAQgbQ-x1tFESeE7IEPbEr0ePTUaTOq_G4kXbl8tty1gBEzw8IXz3nc987229mqJBKaNGFMSVFhwIzaLKjTkv5qbwuKBmYwZgAVO2HRopF4H-YG7QxTS3V8NgWvWxvKHSwzN3xPcJXwStewDjYL9XE7FUB8bncjdGvSFX_yA3OZlfXOAqatMcH3w0Jebe-r7HC14HXVGSUPzjxATzH3krdCRrsVQ5T_N3AEDXA-TDldZcNJpl_EpuDcfobDniMsNiSbFzIH6EuBv7Vy4aP |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity}}</ref> As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] has played a prominent role in the history and culture of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Southeastern Europe]], the [[Caucasus]], and the [[Near East]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ware |first=Kallistos |title=The Orthodox Church |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-014656-1 |page=8}}</ref> The majority of Eastern Orthodox Christians live mainly in [[Southeast Europe|Southeast]] and [[Eastern Europe]], [[Cyprus]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and parts of the [[Caucasus]] region, [[Siberia]], and the [[Russian Far East]]. Over half of Eastern Orthodox Christians follow the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], while the vast majority live within [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Peter |first=Laurence |date=17 October 2018 |title=Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45877584 |work=[[BBC]] |quote=The Moscow-based Russian Orthodox Church has at least 150 million followers – more than half the total of Orthodox Christians.&nbsp;... But Mr Shterin, who lectures on trends in ex-Soviet republics, says some Moscow-linked parishes will probably switch to a new Kiev-led church, because many congregations 'don't vary a lot in their political preferences.'}}</ref> There are also communities in the former [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine regions]] of Africa, the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], and in the [[Middle East]]. Eastern Orthodox communities are also present in many other parts of the world, particularly North America, Western Europe, and Australia, formed through [[diaspora]], [[Conversion to Christianity|conversions]], and [[missionary]] activity.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bautista |first1=Julius |title=Christianity and the State in Asia: Complicity and Conflict |last2=Gee Lim |first2=Francis Khek |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-134-01887-1 |pages=28 |quote=Nevertheless, it is clear in Asia that Christianity spread as a result of both trade and military power.}}</ref><br />
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=== Oriental Orthodox Churches ===<br />
{{Main|Oriental Orthodox Churches}}<br />
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[[File:Addis abeba, chiesa della trinità, esterno 02.jpg|thumb|[[Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)|Holy Trinity Cathedral]] in [[Addis Ababa]], the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox; the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Churches]]<br />
The [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—[[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]], [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]], and [[First Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]]—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the [[Council of Chalcedon]] and instead espouse a [[Miaphysite christology]].<br />
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The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: [[Syriac Orthodox]], [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]], [[Eritrean Orthodox]], [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] (India), and [[Armenian Apostolic]] churches.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |title=Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Wcc-coe.org|access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406014259/https://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pluralism.org/affiliates/student/allen/Oriental-Orthodox/Home.html |title=An Introduction to the Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Pluralism.org |date=15 March 2005 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-date=8 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708191023/http://www.pluralism.org/affiliates/student/allen/Oriental-Orthodox/Home.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> These churches are generally not in communion with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.<ref name="sor.cua.edu">{{cite web |author=OONS |url=https://sor.cua.edu/Ecumenism/20010317oomtg4.html |title=Syrian Orthodox Resources – Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration |publisher=Sor.cua.edu |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626020037/https://sor.cua.edu/Ecumenism/20010317oomtg4.html |archive-date=26 June 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Together, they have about 62 million members worldwide.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lamport |first1=Mark A. |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South |year=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-7157-9 |page=601 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6xVDwAAQBAJ&q=oriental+orthodox+50+million&pg=PA601 |quote=Today these churches are also referred to as the Oriental Orthodox Churches and are made up of 50 million Christians.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century |journal=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=8 November 2017 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/11/08/orthodox-christianity-in-the-21st-century/ |quote=Oriental Orthodoxy has separate self-governing jurisdictions in Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, India, Armenia and Syria, and it accounts for roughly 20% of the worldwide Orthodox population.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/orthodox-churches-oriental |title=Orthodox churches (Oriental) — World Council of Churches |website=www.oikoumene.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=19 December 2011 |title=Christian Traditions |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-traditions/ |journal=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |quote=About half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic (50%), while more than a third are Protestant (37%). Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the world's Christians.}}</ref><ref name="CSGC2019" /><br />
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As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of [[Armenia]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Christian Nubia|Sudan]], [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barry|first1=James |title=Christians in Iran and Azerbaijan|year=2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108429047|page=241-242}}</ref> and parts of the [[Middle East]] and [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHstAQAAIAAJ |title=Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study |last=Betts |first=Robert B. |publisher=Lycabettus |year=1978 |edition=2nd |location=Athens |isbn=978-0-8042-0796-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ |title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. |last=Meyendorff |first=John |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=1989 |series=The Church in history |volume=2 |location=Crestwood, NY |author-link=John Meyendorff |isbn=978-0-88141-055-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barry |first1=James |title=Armenian Christians in Iran |year=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108429047 |pages=241–242}}</ref> An Eastern Christian body of [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[Christian denomination|churches]], its [[bishop]]s are equal by virtue of [[episcopal ordination]], and its doctrines can be summarized in that the churches recognize the validity of only the first three [[ecumenical council]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hindson |first1=Ed |last2=Mitchell |first2=Dan |title=The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eE2LdSKiQwC |year=2013 |publisher=Harvest House |isbn=978-0-7369-4806-7}}</ref><br />
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Some followers of Oriental Orthodox Churches follow cultural practices that are reminiscent of [[Old Testament]] practices, like [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork|abstaining from pork]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |last2=Gates |first2=Henry Louis |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |page=566}}</ref> [[circumcising]] male babies,<ref>{{Cite book |last=N. Stearns |first=Peter |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-517632-2 |page=179 |quote=Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.}}</ref> and observing [[ritual purification]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Ian |last=Bradley |title=Water: A Spiritual History |year=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4411-6767-5 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=H. Bulzacchelli |first=Richard |title=Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas |publisher=[[University Press of America]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7618-3501-1 |page=19 |quote=The Ethiopian and Coptic Churches distinguishes between clean and unclean meats, observes days of ritual purification, and keeps a kind of dual Sabbath on both Saturday and Sunday.}}</ref><br />
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=== Church of the East ===<br />
{{Further|Assyrian Church of the East|Ancient Church of the East}}<br />
[[File:Church of Saint John the Arab.jpg|thumb|A 6th-century [[Nestorian church]], St. John the Arab, in the [[Assyrian tribes|Assyrian village]] of [[Andac|Geramon]] in [[Hakkari (historical region)|Hakkari]], southeastern Turkey.]]<br />
The [[Church of the East]], which was part of the [[Great Church]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&q=anagignoskomena&pg=PA23 |title=Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural understanding and practice |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-88141-301-4 |editor-last=S. T. Kimbrough}}</ref> shared [[communion (Christian)|communion]] with those in the [[Roman Empire]] until the [[Council of Ephesus]] [[Nestorian schism|condemned Nestorius]] in 431. Continuing as a ''[[dhimmi]]'' community under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] after the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] (633–654), the [[Church of the East]] played a major role in the history of [[Christianity in Asia]]. Between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largest [[Christian denomination]] in terms of geographical extent. It established [[Dioceses of the Church of the East to 1318|dioceses]] and communities stretching from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and today's Iraq and [[Iran]], to [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|India]] (the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Saint Thomas Syrian Christians]] of [[Kerala]]), the [[Christianity among the Mongols|Mongol kingdoms]] in Central Asia, and [[Church of the East in China|China]] during the [[Tang dynasty]] (7th–9th centuries). In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church experienced a final period of expansion under the [[Mongol Empire]], where influential Church of the East clergy sat in the Mongol court.<br />
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The [[Assyrian Church of the East]], with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent [[Eastern Christian]] denomination which claims continuity from the [[Church of the East]]—in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], an [[Eastern Catholic]] church in [[full communion]] with the [[Pope]]. It is an Eastern Christian [[Christian denomination|church]] that follows the traditional [[christology]] and [[ecclesiology]] of the historical Church of the East. Largely [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconic]] and not in [[communion (Christianity)|communion]] with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of [[Syriac Christianity]], and uses the [[East Syriac Rite]] in its [[liturgy]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Baumer|first=Christoph|title=The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity|year=2006|location=London & New York|publisher=Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ7ZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-1-84511-115-1}}</ref><br />
[[File:Church of Saint Mary - Urmia - Iran - کلیسای ننه مریم، ارومیه - ایران.jpg|thumb|[[St. Mary Church, Urmia|Saint Mary Church]]; an ancient Assyrian church located in the city of [[Urmia]], Iran]]<br />
Its main spoken language is [[Syriac language|Syriac]], a dialect of [[Eastern Aramaic]], and the majority of its adherents are ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], mostly living in [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], [[India]] ([[Chaldean Syrian Church]]), and in the [[Assyrian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Islam| first=Juan |last=Eduardo Campo |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-2696-8| page=142 |publisher=Infobase |quote=the Assyrian Church of the East (found mainly in northern Iraq, southern Turkey, Iran, southwest India, and now the United States).}}</ref> It is officially headquartered in the city of [[Erbil]] in northern [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], and its original area also spreads into south-eastern Turkey and north-western Iran, corresponding to ancient [[Assyria]]. Its hierarchy is composed of [[metropolitan bishop]]s and [[diocesan bishop]]s, while lower clergy consists of [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Middle East, India, North America, Oceania, and Europe (including the [[Caucasus]] and Russia).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hunter|first=Erica C.D.|chapter=The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East|editor-last=Leustean|editor-first=Lucian N.|title=Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century|year=2014|location=London & New York|publisher=Routledge|pages=601–620|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zt2vAwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-317-81866-3}}</ref><br />
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The [[Ancient Church of the East]] distinguished itself from the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] in 1964. It is one of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] churches that claim continuity with the historical Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |title=CNEWA: Ronald G. Roberson, C.S.P. – The Assyrian Church of the East |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316110009/http://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |archive-date=16 March 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is officially headquartered in the city of [[Baghdad]], Iraq.<ref name="blackwell1" /> The majority of its adherents are ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]].<ref name="blackwell1">{{Cite book|title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity|year=2017|publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6658-4|editor-last=Parry|editor-first=Ken|location=Oxford|pages=122–123|chapter=Church of the East|doi=10.1002/9781405166584|orig-year=1999|editor-last2=Melling|editor-first2=David J.|editor-last3=Brady|editor-first3=Dimitri|editor-last4=Griffith|editor-first4=Sidney H.|editor-last5=Healey|editor-first5=John F.}}</ref><br />
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=== Protestantism ===<br />
{{Main|Protestantism|Proto-Protestantism}}<br />
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{{See also|Protestant ecclesiology}}<br />
In 1521, the [[Edict of Worms]] condemned [[Martin Luther]] and officially banned citizens of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] from defending or propagating his ideas.<ref>Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p. 362.</ref> This split within the Roman Catholic church is now called the [[Reformation]]. Prominent Reformers included Martin Luther, [[Huldrych Zwingli]], and [[John Calvin]]. The 1529 [[Protestation at Speyer]] against being excommunicated gave this party the name [[Protestantism]]. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally and are referred to as the [[Calvinism|Reformed tradition]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. pp. 251–259.</ref> The [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches descended from the [[Church of England]] and organized in the [[Anglican Communion]]. Some Lutherans identify as [[Evangelical Catholic]]s and some but not all Anglicans consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mulvaine |first1=Troy A. |title=Evangelical Catholic |url=https://churchoftheapostleslutheran.org/evangelical-catholic |publisher=Church of the Apostles, Lutheran |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180903061548/http://churchoftheapostleslutheran.org/evangelical-catholic/ |archive-date=3 September 2018 |date=2013}}</ref><ref>Sykes/Booty/Knight. ''The Study of Anglicanism'', p. 219. Some Anglicans consider their church a [[Branch theory|branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church"]] alongside of the Catholic, Scandinavian Lutheran and Eastern Orthodox churches, a concept rejected by the Catholic Church, some Eastern Orthodox, and many [[evangelical Anglican]]s themselves, for more on this, see Gregory Hallam, ''[https://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/ecumenical/hallam_orthodoxy_ecumenism.htm Orthodoxy and Ecumenism]''.</ref><ref>Gregory Mathewes-Green, "[https://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html Whither the Branch Theory?]", ''Anglican Orthodox Pilgrim'' Vol. 2, No. 4. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519104645/https://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html |date=19 May 2012}}</ref> Protestants have developed [[Protestant culture|their own culture]], with major contributions in education, the [[Merton thesis|humanities and sciences]], the political and social order, the [[Protestant work ethic|economy]] and the arts, and many other fields.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Martin |last=E. Marty |title=The Protestant Heritage - Protestantism's influence in the modern world |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Protestant-Heritage-1354359/Protestantisms-influence-in-the-modern-world|entry=Protestantism's influence in the modern world |date=13 August 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><br />
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Since the Anglican, Lutheran, and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated for the most part in cooperation with the government, these movements are termed the "[[Magisterial Reformation]]". On the other hand, groups such as the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]], who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the [[Radical Reformation]], which though sometimes protected under ''Acts of Toleration'', do not trace their history back to any state church. They are further distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers—[[credobaptism]] (Anabaptists include the [[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof]], [[Mennonites]], [[Hutterites]], [[River Brethren]] and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] groups.)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gertz |first1=Steven |title=Outsider's Guide to America's Anabaptists |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-84/outsiders-guide-to-americas-anabaptists.html |publisher=[[Christianity Today]] |access-date=20 May 2021 |date=2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Benedetto|first1=Robert|last2=Duke|first2=James O.|title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History|year=2008|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22416-5|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Littell|first=Franklin H.|title=The Anabaptist View of the Church|year=2000|publisher=The Baptist Standard Bearer |isbn=978-1-57978-836-0|page=79|quote=In reviewing the records, the reader is struck with the Anabaptists' acute consciousness of separation from the "fallen" church—in which they included the Reformers as well as the Roman institution. Some writers have therefore concluded that Anabaptism is not merely a variant form of Protestantism, but rather an ideology and practice quite different in kind from those of both Rome and the Reformers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://mennoniteusa.org/who-we-are/|title=Who We Are: A Quick Visual Guide |year=2018|publisher=Mennonite Church US|access-date=26 April 2018|quote=Anabaptists: We are neither Catholic nor Protestant, but we share ties to those streams of Christianity. We cooperate as a sign of our unity in Christ and in ways that extend the reign of God's Kingdom on earth. We are known as "Anabaptists" (not anti-Baptist)—meaning "rebaptizers."}}</ref><br />
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The term ''Protestant'' also refers to any churches which formed later, with either the Magisterial or Radical traditions. In the 18th century, for example, [[Methodism]] grew out of [[Anglican]] minister [[John Wesley]]'s [[Evangelical Revival|evangelical revival movement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |title=About The Methodist Church |publisher=Methodist Central Hall Westminster |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070121041402/https://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |archive-date=21 January 2007}}</ref> Several [[Pentecostal]] and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational churches]], which emphasize the cleansing power of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], in turn grew out of Methodism.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|title = Christianity: Pentecostal Churches|publisher = GodPreach |access-date = 31 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150211234057/https://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|archive-date = 11 February 2015|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |title=Statement of Belief |publisher=Cambridge Christ United Methodist Church |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928101604/https://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the [[Born again (Christianity)|New Birth]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |title=The New Birth by John Wesley (Sermon 45) |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913232442/https://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |archive-date=13 September 2007}}</ref> they often refer to themselves as being [[born again]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm |title=God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109013416/https://gbgm-umc.org/UMW/Wesley/walk.stm |archive-date=9 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |title=Total Experience of the Spirit |publisher=Warren Wilson College |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903030820/https://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |archive-date=3 September 2006}}</ref><br />
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Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism by number of followers, although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination.<ref name="Adherents" /> Estimates vary, mainly over the question of which denominations to classify as Protestant. The total Protestant population has reached 1.17 billion in 2024, corresponding to nearly 44% of the world's Christians.<ref name="gordonconwell.edu"/><ref name="CSGC2019" /><ref name="pewforum1">{{cite web |url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |title=Pewforum: Christianity (2010) |access-date=14 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805020311/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="KimOsmerSchweitzer2018" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Noll |first1=Mark A. |title=Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-162013-3 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GKBgK00JSsC&q=protestantism+million&pg=PA9}}</ref> The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e. [[Adventism]], [[Anabaptism]] ([[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]], [[River Brethren]], and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]]), [[Anglicanism]], [[Baptist]]s, [[Lutheranism]], [[Methodism]], [[Moravian Church|Moravianism/Hussites]], [[Pentecostalism]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Quakers|Quakerism]], [[Calvinism|Reformed Christianity]] ([[Congregational church|Congregationalists]], [[Continental Reformed Protestantism|Continental Reformed]], [[Reformed Anglican]]s, and [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]]),<ref>This branch was first called Calvinism by [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word ''Reformed''.</ref> and [[Waldensians|Waldensianism]] are the main families of Protestantism.<ref name="Melton2005"/><ref name="pewforum1" /> [[Nondenominational Christianity|Nondenominational]], [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]], [[Charismatic Movement|charismatic]], [[Neo-charismatic churches|neo-charismatic]], independent, and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.<ref>[https://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/evangelical-churches World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches]: "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities."</ref><br />
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Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves as "Christians" or "[[born-again]] Christians". They typically distance themselves from the [[confessionalism (religion)|confessionalism]] and [[creed]]alism of other Christian communities<ref name="ReferenceA">Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, ''The Reformation: A History'', p. xxiv.)</ref> by calling themselves "[[Non-denominational Christianity|non-denominational]]" or "[[evangelical]]". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf|title = Classification of Protestant Denominations|publisher = Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey|access-date = 27 September 2009|archive-date = 9 October 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091009175734/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref><br />
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{{Plain image with caption|image=Protestant branches.svg|caption=Historical chart of the main Protestant branches|width=650px|align=center|caption position=top}}<br />
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=== Restorationism ===<br />
{{Main|Restorationism}}<br />
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[[File:Priesthood03080u.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|A 19th-century drawing of [[Joseph Smith]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] receiving the [[Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Aaronic priesthood]] from [[John the Baptist]]. [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter Day Saints]] believe that the [[Christian priest|Priesthood]] ceased to exist after the death of the apostles and therefore needed to be [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restored]].]]<br />
The [[Second Great Awakening]], a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as [[Restorationism|restoring]] the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 91ff.</ref> A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the [[Great Apostasy]].<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212202036/http://www.religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm|url-status = usurped|archive-date = 12 December 2006| title = The Restorationist Movements|publisher = Religious Tolerance|access-date = 31 December 2007}}</ref> In Asia, {{lang|tl|[[Iglesia ni Cristo]]|italic=no}} is a known Restorationist denomination that was established during the early 1900s. Other examples of Restorationist denominations include [[Catholic Apostolic Church|Irvingianism]] and [[Swedenborgians|Swedenborgianism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bloesch |first1=Donald G. |title=The Holy Spirit: Works Gifts |date=2 December 2005 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-2755-8 |page=158 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Spinks2017"/><br />
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Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics|title=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Statistics and Church Facts {{!}} Total Church Membership|work=newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org|access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref> American [[Millennialism]] and [[Adventism]], which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] movement and, as a reaction specifically to [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]], the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. Others, including the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]],<ref>Sydney E. Ahlstrom, ''A Religious History of the American People'' (2004)</ref><ref>Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)</ref> [[Churches of Christ]], and the [[Christian churches and churches of Christ]], have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell [[Restoration Movement]], which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the [[Christadelphians]] and the previously mentioned [[Latter Day Saints movement]]. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.<ref>''Manuscript History of the Church'', LDS Church Archives, book A-1, p. 37; reproduced in [[Dean C. Jessee]](comp.) (1989). ''The Papers of Joseph Smith: Autobiographical and Historical Writings''(Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret Book) '''1''':302–303.</ref><br />
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=== Other ===<br />
[[File:Biserica unitariană 20180321 115158 05.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|[[Unitarian Church of Transylvania]] in [[Cluj-Napoca]]]]<br />
Within Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom, [[Unitarianism|Unitarian Churches]] emerged from the [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] tradition in the 16th century;<ref>J. Gordon Melton, ''Encyclopedia of Protestantism'', 2005, p. 543: "Unitarianism – The word ''unitarian'' [italics] means one who believes in the oneness of God; historically it refers to those in the Christian community who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity (one God expressed in three persons). Non-Trinitarian Protestant churches emerged in the 16th century in ITALY, POLAND, and TRANSYLVANIA."</ref> the [[Unitarian Church of Transylvania]] is an example of such a denomination that arose in this era.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fahlbusch |first1=Erwin |last2=Bromiley |first2=Geoffrey William |last3=Lochman |first3=Jan Milic |last4=Mbiti |first4=John |last5=Pelikan |first5=Jaroslav |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Vol. 5 |year= 2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2 |page=603}}</ref> They adopted the [[Anabaptist]] doctrine of [[credobaptism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bochenski |first1=Michael I. |title=Transforming Faith Communities: A Comparative Study of Radical Christianity in Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism and Late Twentieth-Century Latin America |date=14 March 2013 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-62189-597-8}}</ref><br />
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Various smaller [[Independent Catholic]] communities, such as the [[Old Catholic Church]],<ref>{{citation |title=God, Land & Freedom: The True Story of ICAB|first=Edward|last=Jarvis|author-link=Edward Jarvis (author)|year=2018|publisher=The Apocryphile Press|location=Berkeley, CA|isbn=978-1-947826-90-8}}</ref> include the word ''[[Catholic (term)|Catholic]]'' in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church but are no longer in [[full communion]] with the [[Holy See]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Plummer |first=John P. |date=2004 |title=The Many Paths of the Independent Sacramental Movement|location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=The Apocryphile Press |isbn=0-9771461-2-X | page = 86}}</ref><br />
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[[Spiritual Christians]], such as the [[Doukhobors]] and [[Molokan]]s, broke from the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and maintain close association with Mennonites and [[Quakers]] due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be [[peace churches]] due to their belief in [[Christian pacifism|pacifism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Fahlbusch|first=Erwin|title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity|year=2008|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2|page=208}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fleming|first1=John A.|last2=Rowan|first2=Michael J.|last3=Chambers|first3=James Albert|title=Folk Furniture of Canada's Doukhobors, Hutterites, Mennonites and Ukrainians|year=2004|publisher=University of Alberta|isbn=978-0-88864-418-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/folkfurnitureofc00flem/page/4 4]|quote=The English Quakers, who had made contact with the Doukhobors earlier, as well as the Philadelphia Society of Friends, also determined to help with their emigration from Russia to some other country—the only action which seemed possible.|url=https://archive.org/details/folkfurnitureofc00flem/page/4}}</ref><br />
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[[Messianic Judaism]] (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.<ref>{{Cite book<br />
|last = Ariel<br />
|first = Yaakov<!--NOT the Yaakov Ariel with a Bharatpedia entry--><br />
|editor1-last=Gallagher<br />
|editor1-first=Eugene V.<br />
|editor2-last=Ashcraft<br />
|editor2-first=W. Michael<br />
|title= Jewish and Christian Traditions<br />
|access-date= 9 September 2015<br />
|series= Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America<br />
|volume= 2<br />
|year= 2006<br />
|publisher=Greenwood<br />
|location= Westport, CN<br />
|isbn= 978-0-275-98714-5<br />
|page= 208<br />
|chapter= Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism<br />
|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oZiScvbS6-cC&pg=RA1-PA208<br />
|quote = For example, Messianic Jews, without exception, believe that the way to eternal life is through the acceptance of Jesus as one's personal savior and that no obedience to the Jewish law or "works" is necessary in order to obtain that goal....Remarkably, it has been exactly this adherence to the basic Christian evangelical faith that has allowed Messianic Jews to adopt and promote Jewish rites and customs. They are Christians in good standing and can retain whatever cultural attributes and rites they choose.}}</ref><br />
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[[Esoteric Christianity|Esoteric Christians]], such as [[The Christian Community]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |last2=Baumann |first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |edition=2nd |year= 2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 |page=620}}</ref> regard Christianity as a [[Western esotericism|mystery religion]]<ref>Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion: Selected Papers Presented at the 17th Congress</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Besant | first = Annie | title = Esoteric Christianity or the Lesser Mysteries | publisher = Adamant Media | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-4021-0029-1}}</ref> and profess the existence and possession of certain [[Western esotericism|esoteric]] doctrines or practices,<ref>From the Greek ἐσωτερικός (esôterikos, "inner"). The term [[Western esotericism|esotericism]] itself was coined in the 17th century. (Oxford English Dictionary Compact Edition, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 894.)</ref><ref>Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Antoine Faivre, [[Roelof van den Broek]], Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism, Brill 2005.</ref> hidden from the public and accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esotericism |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esotericism |publisher=Webster.com |date=13 August 2010 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202062757/https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esotericism |archive-date=2 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esoteric |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esoteric |publisher=Webster.com |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907075009/https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esoteric |archive-date=7 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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[[Nondenominational Christianity]] or non-denominational Christianity consists of [[Simple church|churches]] which typically distance themselves from the [[confessionalism (religion)|confessionalism]] or [[creed]]alism of other Christian communities<ref name="ReferenceA" /> by not formally aligning with a specific [[Christian denomination]].<ref name="Hughes1997" /> Nondenominational Christianity first arose in the 18th century through the [[Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement]], with followers organizing themselves as "[[Christians (Stone Movement)|Christians]]" and "[[Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement)|Disciples of Christ]]",{{refn|group=note|The first Nondenominational Christian churches which emerged through the [[Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement]] are tied to associations such as the [[Churches of Christ]] or the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]].<ref name="Hughes1997" /><ref name="Barnett2020" />}}<ref name="Hughes1997">{{cite book |title=The Journal of American History |year=1997 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=1400 |quote=Richard T. Hughes, professor of religion at Pepperdine University, argues that the Churches of Christ built a corporate identity around "restoration" of the primitive church and the corresponding belief that their congregations represented a nondenominational Christianity.}}</ref><ref name="Barnett2020">{{cite web |last1=Barnett |first1=Joe R. |title=Who are the Churches of Christ |url=https://www.southsidehopkinsville.com/who-are-the-churches-of-christ/ |publisher=Southside Church of Christ |access-date=7 December 2020 |year=2020 |quote=Not A Denomination: For this reason, we are not interested in man-made creeds, but in the New Testament pattern. We do not conceive of ourselves as being a denomination–nor as Catholic, Protestant, or Jewish—but as members of the church which Jesus established and for which he died. And that, incidentally, is why we wear his name. The term "church of Christ" is not used as a denominational designation, but rather as a descriptive term indicating that the church belongs to Christ. |archive-date=19 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219100501/https://www.southsidehopkinsville.com/who-are-the-churches-of-christ/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> but many typically adhere to [[evangelical Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nash |first1=Donald A. |title=Why the Churches of Christ Are Not A Denomination |url=https://www.thecra.org/files/WhyNotDenom.pdf |publisher=The Christian Restoration Association |access-date=7 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Richard Thomas |last2=Roberts |first2=R. L. |title=The Churches of Christ |year=2001 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-23312-8 |page=63 |quote=Barton Stone was fully prepared to ally himself with Alexander Campbell in an effort to promote nondenominational Christianity, though it is evident that the two men came to this emphasis by very different routes.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cherok |first1=Richard J. |title=Debating for God: Alexander Campbell's Challenge to Skepticism in Antebellum America |date=14 June 2011 |publisher=[[ACU Press]] |isbn=978-0-89112-838-0 |quote=Later proponents of Campbell's views would refer to themselves as the "Restoration Movement" because of the Campbellian insistence on restoring Christianity to its New Testament form. ... Added to this mix were the concepts of American egalitarianism, which gave rise to his advocacy of nondenominational individualism and local church autonomy, and Christian primitivism, which led to his promotion of such early church practices as believer's baptism by immersion and the weekly partaking of the Lord's Supper.}}</ref><br />
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== Cultural influence ==<br />
{{Main|Christian culture|Role of Christianity in civilization}}<br />
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{{Further|Protestant culture|Christian influences in Islam}}<br />
{{multiple image<br />
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| total_width = 300<br />
| perrow = 1/2/2<br />
| title = [[Christian culture]]<br />
| image1 = La volta della Cappella Sistina (Michelangelo Buonarroti 1508-1512) - panoramio.jpg<br />
| image2 = Hollfeld Krippe P1340403.jpg<br />
| image3 = NotreDameDeParis.jpg<br />
| image4 = Christ the Redeemer - Cristo Redentor.jpg<br />
| image5 = Svatba (2).jpg<br />
| footer = ''Clockwise from top'': [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]], [[Notre-Dame de Paris|Notre-Dame]] cathedral in Paris, Eastern Orthodox [[wedding]], ''[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Christ the Redeemer]]'' statue, [[Nativity scene]]<br />
}}<br />
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The history of the [[Christendom]] spans about 1,700 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the [[Christian art|arts]], [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches|architecture]], [[Christian literature|literature]], [[Christianity and science|science]], [[Christian philosophy|philosophy]], and technology.<ref name="Crisis in Western Education">{{cite book|last1=Dawson|first1=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|orig-year=1961|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6|edition=Reprint|first2=Glenn |last2=Olsen|publisher=CUA Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= E. McGrath|first= Alister |title=Christianity: An Introduction|year=2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=1-4051-0899-1|page=336}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Review of ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization'' by Thomas Woods Jr. |url=http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/bookpage.asp?prod_cd=c6664 |work=National Review Book Service |access-date=16 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822150152/http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6664 |archive-date=22 August 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since the spread of Christianity from the [[Levant]] to [[Europe]] and [[North Africa]] during the early [[Roman Empire]], Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing [[Greek East and Latin West]]. Consequently, different versions of the Christian cultures arose with their own rites and practices, centered around the cities of Rome ([[Western Christianity]]) and [[Archdiocese of Carthage|Carthage]], whose communities were called Western or Latin Christendom,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chazan |first=Robert |year=2006 |title=The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom: 1000–1500 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxJQ_98I3R0C |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=xi |isbn=978-0-521-61664-5 |access-date=26 January 2018}}</ref> and [[Constantinople]] ([[Eastern Christianity]]), [[Antioch]] ([[Syriac Christianity]]), [[Kerala]] ([[Saint Thomas Christians|Indian Christianity]]) and [[Alexandria]] ([[Coptic Christianity]]), whose communities were called Eastern or Oriental Christendom.<ref>Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "christendom. §&nbsp;1.3 Scheidingen". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Meyendorff |first=John |title=The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-913836-90-3 |location=Yonkers |author-link=John Meyendorff|page=19}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|pp=42–49}}.</ref> The [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the peaks in [[Christian history]] and Eastern [[Christian civilization]].<ref name="Cameron 2006 42" /> From the 11th to 13th centuries, [[Latin Christendom]] rose to the central role of the [[Western world]].<br />
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The Bible has had a profound influence on Western civilization and on cultures around the globe; it has contributed to the formation of [[Western law]], [[Western art|art]], [[Western literature|texts]], and education.<ref>{{cite book |title=Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry |first=Harold |last=G. Koenig |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-88952-0 |page=31 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |quote=The Bible is the most globally influential and widely read book ever written. ... it has been a major influence on the behavior, laws, customs, education, art, literature, and morality of Western civilization.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=God, Justice, and Society: Aspects of Law and Legality in the Bible |first=Jonathan |last=Burnside |year=2011| isbn=978-0-19-975921-7 |page=XXVI |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Riches|2000|loc=ch. 1}} With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible is one of the most influential works ever written. From practices of [[Hygiene in Christianity|personal hygiene]] to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, toilet etiquette, letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more.{{sfn|Riches|2000|loc=ch. 1}}<br />
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[[Lists of Christians|Christians]] have made a myriad of contributions to [[Progress (history)|human progress]] in a broad and diverse range of fields, including philosophy,<ref>{{cite book |last= A. Spinello|first= Richard |title=The Encyclicals of John Paul II: An Introduction and Commentary |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |quote= ... The insights of Christian philosophy "would not have happened without the direct or indirect contribution of Christian faith" (FR 76). Typical Christian philosophers include St. Augustine, St. Bonaventure, and St. Thomas Aquinas. The benefits derived from Christian philosophy are twofold....|isbn=978-1-4422-1942-7|page=147}}</ref> [[List of Christians in science and technology|science and technology]],<ref>{{cite book |last1= Gilley |first1= Sheridan |last2=Stanley |first2=Brian |title=World Christianities c. 1815–c.1914 |series=The Cambridge History of Christianity |volume=8 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|quote= ... Many of the scientists who contributed to these developments were Christians...|isbn=0-521-81456-1|page=164}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Steane |first=Andrew |title=Faithful to Science: The Role of Science in Religion|year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote= ... the Christian contribution to science has been uniformly at the top level, but it has reached that level and it has been sufficiently strong overall ...|isbn=978-0-19-102513-6|page=179}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Graves|first=Daniel|url=https://www.rae.org/influsci.html|title=Christian Influences in the Sciences|website=rae.org|date=7 July 1998|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084347/https://www.rae.org/influsci.html|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adherents.com/people/100_Nobel.html|title=50 Nobel Laureates and Other Great Scientists Who Believe in God|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617072212/https://www.adherents.com/people/100_Nobel.html|archive-date=17 June 2019}} Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Isaac Newton]], [[Robert Boyle]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]].</ref> [[Catholic Church and health care|medicine]],<ref>{{cite book |last=S. Kroger|first= William |title=Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis in Medicine, Dentistry and Psychology |year=2016 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |quote=Many prominent Catholic physicians and psychologists have made significant contributions to hypnosis in medicine, dentistry, and psychology.|isbn=978-1-78720-304-4}}</ref> [[List of Catholic Church artists|fine arts and architecture]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adherents.com/people/adh_art.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211024930/https://www.adherents.com/people/adh_art.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=11 December 2005|title=Religious Affiliation of the World's Greatest Artists}}</ref> [[Christianity and politics|politics]], [[List of Catholic authors|literatures]], [[Christian music|music]],<ref>Suzel Ana Reily, Jonathan M. Dueck, ''The Oxford Handbook of Music and World Christianities'', Oxford University Press, USA, 2016, p. 443</ref> and business.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adherents.com/people/100_business.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119112115/https://www.adherents.com/people/100_business.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=19 November 2005|title=Wealthy 100 and the 100 Most Influential in Business}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression |first=Peter |last=W. Williams |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4696-2698-7 |page=176 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press}}</ref> According to ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of [[Nobel Prizes]] Laureates, [[List of Christian Nobel laureates|have identified Christianity]] in its various forms as their religious preference.<ref>Baruch A. Shalev, ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religions. Most (65.4%) have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. {{ISBN|978-0935047370}}</ref><br />
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Outside the Western world, Christianity has had an influence on various cultures, such as in Africa, the Near East, Middle East, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Curtis 2017 173">{{cite book |title=Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East|first=Michael |last=Curtis |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-51072-1 |page=173 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Cultural Politics and Asian Values |first=Michael |last=D. Barr |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-136-00166-6 |page=81 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> [[List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world|Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world]] (particularly [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Jacobite]] and [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] Christians) contributed to the [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] during the reign of the [[Ummayyad]]s and the [[Abbasid]]s, by translating works of [[Greek philosophers]] to [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and afterwards, to [[Arabic language|Arabic]].<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0748604553}}, p. 4</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Legend of the Middle Ages |last=Brague |first=Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC |isbn=978-0-226-07080-3 |page=164 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Kitty |last=Ferguson |title=Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&pg=PT100 |year=2011 |publisher=Icon |isbn=978-1-84831-250-0 |page=100 |quote=It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language}}</ref> They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaser |first=Karl |title=The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC&pg=PA137 |year=2011 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-50190-5 |page=135}}</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, [https://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/https://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=27 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorian Nestorian]</ref> Scholars and intellectuals agree [[Christians in the Middle East]] have made significant contributions to Islamic civilization since the introduction of [[Islam]], and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the [[Mashriq]], [[Turkey]], and [[Iran]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Pacini |first=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ |title=Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future |publisher=Clarendon |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-829388-0 |pages=38, 55}}</ref><ref name="Curtis 2017 173" /><br />
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=== Influence on Western culture ===<br />
[[File:St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Aquinas]], an Italian [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[friar]] and [[Catholic priest|priest]], the foremost [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] thinker,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Thomas Aquinas |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia Britannica|date= |year= |last= |first= |publisher= |location= |id= |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas|access-date=October 9, 2024 |quote= Thomas Aquinas... was an Italian Dominican theologian, the foremost medieval Scholastic.}}</ref> as well as one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in the Western tradition.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year= |title=Thomas Aquinas (1224/6–1274) |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher= |location= |id= |url=https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas/ |access-date=October 10, 2024 |last= |first= |date= |quote=However, it also seems right to say—if only from the sheer influence of his work on countless philosophers and intellectuals in every century since the 13th, as well as on persons in countries as culturally diverse as Argentina, Canada, England, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Poland, Spain, and the United States—that, globally, Thomas is one of the 10 most influential philosophers in the Western philosophical tradition.}}</ref>]]<br />
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[[Western culture]], throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to [[Christian culture]], and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or nominal Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many historians even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified [[European identity]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dawson|first1=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|orig-year=1961|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6|edition=Reprint|first2=Glenn|last2=Olsen|page=108|publisher=CUA Press }}</ref><br />
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Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire]]s, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.<ref name="Koch-1994">{{cite book|last=Koch|first=Carl|title=The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission|year=1994|publisher=St. Mary's Press|location=Early Middle Ages|isbn=978-0-88489-298-4|url=https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch}}</ref> Until the [[Age of Enlightenment]],<ref name="Koch-1994" /> Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.<ref name="Koch-1994" /><ref name="Crisis in Western Education" /> Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into [[Christian philosophy]], [[Christian art]], [[Christian music]], [[Christian literature]], and so on.<br />
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Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,<ref name="Britannica2022" /> and was the sponsor of [[Medieval university|founding universities]] in the Western world, as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name=verger1999 /> Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine; many [[List of Catholic cleric-scientists|Catholic clergy]],<ref>{{citation|title=Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvmDeAxEiO8C&pg=PA68 |first=Susan Elizabeth |last=Hough|author-link=Susan Hough |year=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12807-8|page=68}}</ref> [[List of Jesuit scientists|Jesuits]] in particular,{{Sfn|Woods|2005|p=109}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Jonathan |year=2004 |title=God's Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, intrigue and Power: A History of the Jesuits |publisher=HarperCollins|page=200}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302999/Jesuit |entry=Jesuit |date=16 May 2023 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Jesuit &#124; History, Definition, Order, Catholic, Slavery, & Facts &#124; Britannica }}</ref> have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the [[Christianity and science|development of science]].<ref>[[Rodney Stark]], ''For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts and the End of Slavery'', 2003, [[Princeton University Press]], {{ISBN|0691114366}}, p. 123</ref><ref>Wallace, William A. (1984). ''Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science''. NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref> Some scholars state that Christianity contributed to the rise of the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Lindberg | first1 = David C. | author-link = David C. Lindberg | last2 = Numbers | first2 = Ronald L. | author2-link = Ronald L. Numbers | title = God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science | place = Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1986 | chapter = Introduction | pages = 5, 12 | isbn = 978-0-520-05538-4 }}</ref> Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the [[Merton Thesis]], there was a positive correlation between the rise of English [[Puritanism]] and German [[Pietism]] on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other.<ref>{{cite book | last = Cohen | first =I. Bernard |title = Puritanism and the rise of modern science: the Merton thesis | publisher = Rutgers University Press | location = New Brunswick, NJ | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-8135-1530-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = H. | author-link = H. Floris Cohen | title = The scientific revolution: a historiographical inquiry | publisher = University of Chicago Press | pages = [https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00cohe/page/320 320–321] | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-226-11280-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00cohe/page/320 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=2iieLX7nrEAC&dq=Merton+thesis&pg=PA320 Google Print, pp.&nbsp;320–321]</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Ferngren | first = Gary B. | author-link = Gary B. Ferngren | title = Science and religion: a historical introduction | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | page = 125 | location = Baltimore, MD | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-8018-7038-5 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&dq=Merton+thesis&pg=PA125 Google Print, p.125]</ref><br />
The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare,<ref name="Britannica2022" /> contribution to the medical and health care,<ref>{{cite book |last=Crislip |year=2005 |first=Andrew T. |title=From Monastery to Hospital: Christian Monasticism & the Transformation of Health Care in Late Antiquity |publisher=University of Michigan Press |place=Ann Arbor |isbn=978-0-472-11474-0 |page=3 |url={{googlebooks|r90OUzO9AP8C|plainurl=y}} }}</ref> founding hospitals,<ref name="Britannica2022">{{cite encyclopedia|first = Jaroslav |last = Jan Pelikan| title=Christianity - Church, State, History &#124; Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state|entry=The Christian community and the world|date =13 August 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> economics (as the [[Protestant work ethic]]),<ref name="Britannica2022" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Max|title=The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism|year=1905}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Hillerbrand|first=Hans J. |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set |year=2016 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing|quote= ... In the centuries succeeding the holy ''Reformation'' the teaching of Protestantism was consistent on the nature of work. Some Protestant theologians also contributed to the study of economics, especially the nineteenth-century Scottish minister Thomas Chalmers ....|isbn=978-1-78720-304-4|page=174}}</ref> architecture,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide|year=2014|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-78067-163-5 |pages=23, 25}}</ref> literature,<ref>Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp.&nbsp;409–445 (416, table 1)</ref> [[Hygiene in Christianity|personal hygiene]] ([[Ablution in Christianity|ablution]]),<ref>Christianity has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene:<br />
* {{cite book |last1= Warsh |first1= Cheryl Krasnick |last2=Strong-Boag |first2=Veronica |title=Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective |year=2006 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |quote= ... From Fleming's perspective, the transition to Christianity required a good dose of personal and public hygiene ... |isbn=978-0-88920-912-1|page=315}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Warsh |first=Cheryl Krasnick |others=Veronica Strong-Boag |title=Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective |year=2006 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press| quote= ... Thus bathing also was considered a part of good health practice. For example, Tertullian attended the baths and believed them hygienic. Clement of Alexandria, while condemning excesses, had given guidelines for Christians who wished to attend the baths ... |isbn=978-0-88920-912-1 |page=315}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Squatriti |first=Paolo |title=Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400–1000, Parti 400–1000 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |quote= ... but baths were normally considered therapeutic until the days of Gregory the Great, who understood virtuous bathing to be bathing "on account of the needs of body" ... |isbn=978-0-521-52206-9 |page=54}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Eveleigh |first=Bogs |title=Baths and Basins: The Story of Domestic Sanitation |publisher=Stroud, England: Sutton|year=2002}}<br />
Christianity's role in the development and promotion of spas:<br />
* {{cite book |title=Water: A Spiritual History |first=Ian |last=Bradley |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4411-6767-5 |publisher=Bloomsbury}}<br />
Contribution of the Christian missionaries of better health care of the people through hygiene and introducing and distributing the soaps:<br />
* {{cite book |last=Channa |first=Subhadra|title=The Forger's Tale: The Search for Odeziaku |year=2009 |publisher=Indiana University Press|quote=A major contribution of the Christian missionaries was better health care of the people through hygiene. Soap, tooth–powder and brushes came to be used increasingly in urban areas. |isbn=978-8177550504 |page=284}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=John |title=Evangelising the Nation: Religion and the Formation of Naga Political Identity|year=2015|publisher=Routledge |quote=cleanliness and hygiene became an important marker of being identified as a Christian |isbn=978-1-317-41398-1|page=284}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=Gariepy |title=Christianity in Action: The History of the International Salvation Army|url=https://archive.org/details/christianityinac0000gari|url-access=registration |year=2009 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-4841-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/christianityinac0000gari/page/16 16]}}</ref> and family life.<ref name="Britannica2022" /><ref>{{cite book|title=A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds |first=Beryl |last=Rawson |year=2010| isbn=978-1-4443-9075-9 |page=111 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |quote= ...Christianity placed great emphasis on the family and on all members from children to the aged...}}</ref> Historically, ''[[Extended family|extended families]]'' were the basic family unit in the [[Christian culture]] and [[Christian countries|countries]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Mental Health Social Work: Evidence-Based Practice| first=Colin |last=Pritchard |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-134-36544-9 |page=111 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref><br />
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[[Cultural Christian]]s are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, [[Christian music|music]], and so on related to the religion.<ref>James D. Mallory, Stanley C. Baldwin, ''The kink and I: a psychiatrist's guide to untwisted living'', 1973, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ahEG4X5pSXIC&q=%22cultural+Christian%22+-%22multi-cultural+Christian%22+-%22cross-cultural+Christian%22 p. 64]</ref><br />
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''[[Postchristianity]]'' is a term for the [[decline of Christianity]], particularly in [[Christianity in Europe|Europe]], [[Religion in Canada|Canada]], [[Christianity in Australia|Australia]], and to a minor degree the [[Southern Cone]], in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of [[postmodernism]]. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on [[values]] and [[world view]] in historically Christian societies.<ref>G.C. Oosthuizen. ''Postchristianity in Africa''. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd (1968). {{ISBN|0903983052}}</ref><br />
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Christian leaders and congregations have had an influence on the broader [[environmental movement]]. Christian teachings relate to ecology, and draw on teachings of the [[Bible]] to promote the moral responsibility of humans to care for God's creation. Christianity acknowledges the tension between humanity's duty to care for God's creation and the natural human inclination to resist God's will.<ref>Gottlieb, R.S., & Gottlieb, R.S. (2003). This Sacred Earth: Religion, Nature, Environment (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203426982</ref> In recent decades, major Christian denominations have revisited their teachings and practices in response to the environmental crisis. There has been a rise in activity in Christian congregations to curb [[climate change]],<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2018.1449822 | doi=10.1080/13549839.2018.1449822 | title=Faith-based climate action in Christian congregations: Mobilisation and spiritual resources | date=2018 | last1=Bomberg | first1=Elizabeth | last2=Hague | first2=Alice | journal=Local Environment | volume=23 | issue=5 | pages=582–596 | bibcode=2018LoEnv..23..582B | hdl=20.500.11820/2365e019-d817-4f3f-a5d1-f5916df49e6c | hdl-access=free }}</ref> partly inspired by the advocacy of [[Pope Francis]] following his publication of the encyclical letter [[Laudato Si']]—On Care for Our Common Home. Organizations such as Green Christian,<ref>"[http://greenchristian.org.uk/ Promoting Prayer, Hope and Action]." Green Christian. Accessed 27 Jan. 2025.</ref> [[Laudato Si' Movement]],<ref>[http://laudatosimovement.org/ "Laudato Si’ Movement, Catholics for Our Common Home] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325184501/https://laudatosimovement.org/ |date=25 March 2025 }}." Laudato Si’ Movement, Accessed 6 Jan. 2025.</ref> and the [[Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development]]<ref>"[http://interfaithsustain.com/christian-ecology/ Christian Ecology]." The Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development, 24 May 2024.</ref> are a few examples of groups working in the Christian and ecology movement. These initiatives reflect how Christians, alongside other people of faith, are increasingly embracing ecological concerns, recognizing that the protection of the [[Earth]] is a spiritual imperative tied to faith and justice.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1111/jore.12376 | doi=10.1111/jore.12376 | title=Toward an Ecocentric Christian Ecology | date=2021 | last1=Waters | first1=James W. | journal=Journal of Religious Ethics | volume=49 | issue=4 | pages=768–792 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><br />
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== Ecumenism ==<br />
{{Main|Ecumenism}}<br />
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[[File:2bishopsReformation.jpg|thumb|Bishop [[John M. Quinn]] of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Winona]] and Bishop Steven Delzer of [[List of ELCA synods|Evangelical Lutheran Southeastern Minnesota Synod]] leading a [[Reformation Day]] service (2017)|229x229px]]<br />
Christian groups, sects and [[List of Christian denominations|denominations]] have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Peter |first=Laurence |date=17 October 2018 |title=Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45877584 |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="McManners581">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 581–584.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pizzey |first1=Antonia |title=Receptive Ecumenism and the Renewal of the Ecumenical Movement: The Path of Ecclesial Conversion |year= 2019 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004397804 |page=131 }}</ref> One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the [[World Evangelical Alliance]] founded in 1846 in London or the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]] of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the [[World Council of Churches]] founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the [[National Council of Churches in Australia]], which includes Catholics.<ref name="McManners581" /><br />
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The other way was an institutional union with [[United and uniting churches|united churches]], a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the [[United Church of Canada]],<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. pp. 413ff.</ref> and in 1977 to form the [[Uniting Church in Australia]]. The [[Church of South India]] was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 498.</ref><br />
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The [[Christian Flag]] is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and [[Christendom]].<ref>{{cite journal|year=1942|title=Resolution|journal=Federal Council Bulletin|publisher=Religious Publicity Service of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America|volume=25–27}}</ref> Substantial agreement between various Christian denominations, especially those of Catholicism and Protestantism, has led to a unified presentation of the Christian religion in ''[[The Common Catechism]]''.<ref name="Bent1994">{{cite book |last1=Bent |first1=Ans Joachim van der |title=Historical Dictionary of Ecumenical Christianity |date=1 December 1994 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4616-5922-8 |page=70 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Phan2016">{{cite book|last=Phan|first=Peter C.|title=The Gift of the Church: A Textbook on Ecclesiology|date=24 March 2016|publisher=Liturgical Press|language=English|isbn=9780814680827|page=165}}</ref><br />
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The ecumenical, [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] [[Taizé Community]] is notable for being composed of more than one hundred [[monk|brothers]] from Protestant and Catholic traditions.<ref name="taize">{{cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to Christian thought|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-860024-4|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hast|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hast/page/694 694]}}</ref> The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in [[Taizé, Saône-et-Loire]], France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation".<ref name="taize" /> The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]] annually.<ref>Oxford, "Encyclopedia of Christianity, p. 307.</ref><br />
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Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in 1054;<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 373.</ref> the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 583.</ref> and the [[Lutheran World Federation]] and the Catholic Church signing the [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]] in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the [[World Methodist Council]], representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |title=Methodist Statement |access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116215437/https://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2010}}</ref><br />
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== Criticism, persecution, and apologetics ==<br />
{{Main|Criticism of Christianity|Persecution of Christians|Christian apologetics}}<br />
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{{See also|Anti-Christian sentiment}}<br />
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=== Criticism ===<br />
[[File:Bronze statue of Giordano Bruno by Ettore Ferrari , Campo de' Fiori, Roma.jpg|thumb|The monument to [[Giordano Bruno]] in the place he was executed in Rome]]<br />
Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the [[Apostolic Age]], with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the [[Pharisees]] and [[scribes]] (e.g., {{Bibleverse||Matthew|15:1–20|NIV}} and {{Bibleverse||Mark|7:1–23|NIV}}).<ref>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 {{ISBN|0-8028-3782-4}} p. 175</ref> In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g., that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.<ref>''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135'' by James D.G. Dunn 1999 {{ISBN|0802844987}} pp.&nbsp;112–113</ref> Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, [[God in Judaism]] is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.<ref>Asher Norman ''Twenty-six Reasons why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus'' Feldheim Publishers 2007 {{ISBN|978-0977193707}} p. 11</ref><ref>Keith Akers ''The Lost Religion of Jesus: Simple Living and Nonviolence in Early Christianity''. Lantern Books 2000 {{ISBN|978-1930051263}} p. 103</ref> One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher [[Celsus]], who wrote ''[[The True Word]]'', a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg|url-access=limited|year=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg/page/n581 562]–564|edition=second}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Stephen|date=2004|chapter=Celsus|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|location=Louisville, KY|editor-last=McGuckin|editor-first=John Anthony|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=72–73}}</ref><ref name="Olson1999" /> In response, the church father [[Origen]] published his treatise ''[[Contra Celsum]]'', or ''Against Celsus'', a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.<ref>{{cite book|last=McGuckin|first=John Anthony|year=2004|chapter=The Scholarly Works of Origen|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riEdrWEDFq0C&q=Origen+ordination&pg=PA13|location=Louisville, KY |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=32–34}}</ref><ref name="Olson1999">{{citation|last=Olson|first=Roger E.|year=1999|title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zexBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|location=Downers Grove, IL|publisher=InterVarsity |isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0|page=101}}</ref><br />
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By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were [[atheism|atheists]] and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg|url-access=limited|year=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg/page/n575 556] 561|edition=second}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherwin-White |first1=A. N. |title=Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted? – An Amendment |journal=Past and Present|date=April 1964|issue=27|pages=23–27|jstor=649759|doi=10.1093/past/27.1.23}}</ref> The [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] wrote the fifteen-volume ''Adversus Christianos'' as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of [[Plotinus]].<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 1'' by George Thomas Kurian and James Smith 2010 {{ISBN|081086987X}} p. 527</ref><ref>''Apologetic Discourse and the Scribal Tradition'' by Wayne Campbell Kannaday 2005 {{ISBN|9004130853}} pp.&nbsp;32–33</ref><br />
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By the 12th century, the [[Mishneh Torah]] (i.e., [[Rabbi]] [[Moses Maimonides]]) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body.<ref>''A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations'' by Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn 2005 {{ISBN|0521826926}} p. 168</ref> In the 19th century, [[Nietzsche]] began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.<ref>''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'' by Bernd Magnus, Kathleen Marie Higgins 1996 {{ISBN|0521367670}} pp.&nbsp;90–93</ref> In the 20th century, the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] expressed his criticism of Christianity in ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]'', formulating his rejection of Christianity.<ref>''Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell'' by Bertrand Russell, Stefan Andersson and Louis Greenspan 1999 {{ISBN|0415180910}} pp.&nbsp;77–87</ref><br />
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Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. [[Jewish]] and [[Muslim]] theologians criticize the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of [[monotheism]].<ref>''Christianity: An Introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 {{ISBN|1405108991}} pp.&nbsp;125–126.</ref> New Testament scholar [[Robert M. Price]] has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in ''The Christ Myth Theory and its problems''.<ref>" The Christ Myth Theory and its Problems ", published 2011 by American Atheist Press, Cranford, NJ, {{ISBN|1578840171}}</ref><br />
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=== Persecution ===<br />
[[File:Kharput Greek-Orthodox refugees - C.D.Morris - National Geographic, Nov. 1925.jpg|thumb|right|Christians fleeing their homes in the [[Ottoman Empire]], {{c.|1922|lk=no}}. Many Christians were persecuted and killed during the [[Armenian genocide]], [[Greek genocide]], and [[Assyrian genocide]].<ref>{{Cite book|first1=James L. |last1=Barton|title=Turkish Atrocities: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917|publisher=Gomidas Institute|year=1998|isbn=1884630049}}</ref>]]<br />
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Christians are one of the most [[Persecution of Christians|persecuted]] religious groups in the world, especially in the [[Christianity in the Middle East|Middle-East]], [[North Africa]] and South and East Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaplan|first=S.|year=2005|title="Religious Nationalism": A Textbook Case from Turkey|journal=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East|volume=25|issue=3|pages=665–676|doi=10.1215/1089201x-25-3-665|s2cid=144003006 |issn=1089-201X}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48146305 "Christian persecution 'at near genocide levels'".] ''[[BBC News]]''. 3 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.</ref><ref name="Wintour 2019 Guardian">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/02/persecution-driving-christians-out-of-middle-east-report|author-last1=Wintour|author-first1=Patrick|title=Persecution of Christians coming close to genocide' in Middle East – report|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2 May 2019|access-date= 7 October 2019}}</ref> In 2017, [[Open Doors]] estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to "high, very high, or extreme persecution"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2017/january/top-50-countries-christian-persecution-world-watch-list.html|author-last1=Weber|author-first1=Jeremy|title='Worst year yet': the top 50 countries where it's hardest to be a Christian|work=[[Christianity Today]]|date=11 January 2017|access-date=7 October 2019}}</ref> with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliviaenos/2017/01/25/north-korea-is-the-worlds-worst-persecutor-of-christians/#36250678318e Enos, Olivia. "North Korea is the world's worst persecutor of Christians".] ''[[Forbes]]''. 25 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.opendoorsusa.org/|title=Serving Persecuted Christians – Open Doors USA|last=Worldwatchlist2020|first=Most dangerous countries for Christians|website=www.opendoorsusa.org|access-date=24 March 2020|archive-date=2 March 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000302223728/https://www.opendoorsusa.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2019, a report<ref>[https://christianpersecutionreview.org.uk/storage/2019/05/interim-report.pdf Mounstephen, Philip. "Interim report".] ''Bishop of Truro's Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians''. April 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.</ref><ref name="Mounstephen 2019 FCO final rep" /> commissioned by the United Kingdom's [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Secretary of State]] of the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America, among others, and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalpost.com/opinion/barbara-kay-our-politicians-may-not-care-but-christians-are-under-siege-across-the-world|author-last1=Kay|author-first1=Barbara|title=Our politicians may not care, but Christians are under siege across the world|work=[[National Post]]|date=8 May 2019|access-date=7 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="Mounstephen 2019 FCO final rep">[https://christianpersecutionreview.org.uk/storage/2019/07/final-report-and-recommendations.pdf Mounstephen, Philip. "Final Report and Recommendations".] ''[[Philip Mounstephen|Bishop of Truro's]] Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians''. July 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.</ref> This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians.<ref name="Wintour 2019 Guardian" /><br />
<br />
=== Apologetics ===<br />
[[File:SummaTheologiae.jpg|upright|thumb|A copy of the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' by [[Thomas Aquinas]]]]<br />
<br />
Christian apologetics aims to present a [[reason|rational]] basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" (Greek: ἀπολογητικός ''apologētikos'') comes from the Greek verb ἀπολογέομαι ''apologeomai'', meaning "(I) speak in defense of".<ref>{{LSJ|a)pologhtiko/s|ἀπολογητικός}}, {{LSJ|a)pologe/omai|ἀπολογέομαι|shortref}}.</ref> Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher [[Thomas Aquinas]] presented five arguments for God's existence in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', while his ''[[Summa contra Gentiles]]'' was a major apologetic work.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dulles|first=Avery Robert Cardinal|title=A History of Apologetics |year=2005 |publisher=Ignatius |location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-89870-933-9|page=120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics |year=1983 |publisher=Zondervan |location=Grand Rapids |isbn=978-0-310-45641-4 |editor-first=L. Russ |editor-last=Bush|page=275}}</ref> Another famous apologist, [[G. K. Chesterton]], wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/|title=Why I Believe in Christianity – Society of Gilbert Keith Chesterton|date=6 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Hauser, Chris (History major, Dartmouth College class of 2014)|date=Fall 2011|title=Faith and Paradox: G.K. Chesterton's Philosophy of Christian Paradox|journal=[[Dartmouth College publications#The Dartmouth Apologia|The Dartmouth Apologia: A Journal of Christian Thought]]|volume=6|issue=1|pages=16–20|url=https://issuu.com/apologia/docs/apol11sv25|access-date=29 March 2015|archive-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714080437/http://issuu.com/apologia/docs/apol11sv25|url-status=dead}}</ref> He pointed to the [[Role of the Christian Church in civilization|advance of Christian civilizations]] as proof of its practicality.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/|title=Christianity|date=6 December 2010}}</ref> The physicist and priest [[John Polkinghorne]], in his ''[[Questions of Truth]]'', discusses the subject of [[religion and science]], a topic that other Christian apologists such as [[Ravi Zacharias]], [[John Lennox]], and [[William Lane Craig]] have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the [[Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory|inflationary Big Bang model]] is evidence for the [[existence of God]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Howson|first=Colin|title=Objecting to God|url=https://archive.org/details/objectingtogod00hows|url-access=limited|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49856-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/objectingtogod00hows/page/n104 92]|quote=Nor is the agreement coincidental, according to a substantial constituency of religious apologists, who regard the inflationary Big Bang model as direct evidence for God. John Lennox, a mathematician at the University of Oxford, tells us that 'even if the non-believers don't like it, the Big Bang fits in exactly with the Christian narrative of creation'. ... William Lane Craig is another who claims that the Biblical account is corroborated by Big Bang cosmology. Lane Craig also claims that there is a prior ''proof'' that there is a God who created this universe.}}</ref> [[Creationist apologetics]] is apologetics that aims to defend [[creationism]].<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Outline of Christianity]]<br />
* [[Christian atheism]]<br />
* [[Christians of Saint John]]<br />
* [[Christianity and Islam]]<br />
* [[Christianity and Judaism]]<br />
* [[Christianity and politics]]<br />
* [[Christian mythology]]<br />
* [[Christianisation]]<br />
* [[One true church]]<br />
* [[Prophets in Christianity]]<br />
* [[Christian ethics]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{reflist|group="note"|2|refs=<br />
<!-- N --><br />
<!-- "nontrinitarianism"--><br />
{{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"|A small minority of Christians, such as the [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], reject the belief that Jesus is God the Son.<ref>{{cite book|last=Halsey|first=A.|title=British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain|year=1988|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en |isbn=978-1-349-19466-7|page=518|quote=his so called 'non-Trinitarian' group includes the Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Christadelphians, Apostolics, Christian Scientists, Theosophists, Church of Scientology, Unification Church (Moonies), the Worldwide Church of God and so on.}}</ref>}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
{{Refbegin|30em}}<br />
* [[Greg Bahnsen|Bahnsen, Greg]]. [https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm ''A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204091801/https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm |date=4 December 2014 }}.<br />
* Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.). ''The Essential Jesus''. Pacific Press (2002). {{ISBN|0816319294}}.<br />
* Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom and others. (ed.). ''World Christian Encyclopedia''. Oxford University Press (2001).<br />
* Barry, John F. ''One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief''. William H. Sadlier (2001). {{ISBN|0821522078}}<br />
* Benton, John. ''Is Christianity True?'' Darlington, Eng.: Evangelical Press (1988). {{ISBN|0-85234-260-8}}<br />
* [[Bettenson, Henry]] (ed.). ''Documents of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press (1943).<br />
* {{cite book|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas|title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church|publisher=Doubleday|year=2004|isbn=978-0-385-50584-0|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Browning|first=Robert|title=The Byzantine Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire0000brow|url-access=registration|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=The Catholic University of America Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Averil |author-link=Averil Cameron |title=The Byzantines |year=2006|location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=A history of Christianity |publisher=St. Martin's |location=New York |year=1995 | isbn=978-0-312-18723-1 | last=Chadwick |first=Owen}}<br />
* Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. ''The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period''. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). {{ISBN|0394317343}}.<br />
* Coffey, John. ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''. Pearson Education (2000).<br />
* Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (ed.). ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press (1997). {{ISBN|019211655X}}.<br />
* Deppermann, Klaus. ''Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation''. {{ISBN|0567086542}}.<br />
* Dilasser, Maurice. ''The Symbols of the Church''. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999). {{ISBN|081462538X}}<br />
* Duffy, Eamon. ''Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes''. Yale University Press (1997). {{ISBN|0300073321}}<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Elwell|first1=Walter|last2=Comfort|first2=Philip Wesley|title=Tyndale Bible Dictionary|publisher=Tyndale House |year=2001|isbn=0-8423-7089-7}}<br />
* Esler, Philip F. (2004). ''The Early Christian World''. Routledge.<br />
* Farrar, F. W. ''[https://www.tentmaker.org/books/mercyandjudgment/mercy_and_judgment_ch1.html Mercy and Judgment. A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, "What Is Of Faith?"]''. Macmillan, London/New York (1904).<br />
* Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David, eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press (1988). {{ISBN|0-85110-636-6}}<br />
* Foutz, Scott. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml ''Martin Luther and Scripture'']}}.<!-- ? --><br />
* Fowler, Jeaneane D. ''World Religions: An Introduction for Students'', Sussex Academic Press (1997). {{ISBN|1898723486}}.<br />
* [[Reginald H. Fuller|Fuller, Reginald H.]] ''[[The Foundations of New Testament Christology]]'' Scribners (1965). {{ISBN|068415532X}}.<br />
* Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, ''Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church'', Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) {{ISBN|157075375X}}<br />
* Funk, Robert. ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''. Polebridge Press (1998). {{ISBN|0060629789}}.<br />
* Glenny, W. Edward. ''Typology: A Summary of the Present Evangelical Discussion''.<br />
* {{cite book|last1=González|first1=Justo L.|author-link1=Justo L. González|title=The Story of Christianity|date=1984|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=0-06-063315-8|edition=1st}}<br />
* Hanegraaff, Hank. ''Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity''. Thomas Nelson (2000). {{ISBN|0849916437}}.<br />
* Harnack, Adolf von. ''[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma]'' (1894).<!-- ? --><br />
* Hickman, Hoyt L. and others. ''Handbook of the Christian Year''. Abingdon Press (1986). {{ISBN|068716575X}}<br />
* Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. ''Geography of Religion''. National Geographic Society (2004) {{ISBN|0792273133}}<br />
* Kelly, J. N. D. ''Early Christian Doctrines''.<!-- ? --><br />
* Kelly, J. N. D. ''The Athanasian Creed''. Harper & Row, New York (1964).<br />
* Kirsch, Jonathan. ''God Against the Gods''.<!-- ? --><br />
* Kreeft, Peter. ''Catholic Christianity''. Ignatius Press (2001) {{ISBN|0898707986}}<br />
* Letham, Robert. ''The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship''. P & R Publishing (2005). {{ISBN|0875520006}}.<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Lim |first=Timothy H. |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls: a very short introduction |date=2017 |orig-date=2005 |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-877952-0}}<br />
* Lorenzen, Thorwald. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today''. Smyth & Helwys (2003). {{ISBN|1573123994}}.<br />
* [[Diarmaid MacCulloch|MacCulloch, Diarmaid]], ''The Reformation: A History''. Viking Adult (2004).<br />
* MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ''[[A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years]]''. London, Allen Lane. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0713998696}}<br />
* Marber, Peter. ''Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles''. FT Press (2003). {{ISBN|0130654809}}<br />
* Marthaler, Berard. ''Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues''. Paulist Press (1994). {{ISBN|0809134950}}<br />
* Mathison, Keith. ''The Shape of Sola Scriptura'' (2001).<!-- ? --><br />
* McClintock, John, ''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature''. Harper & Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889)<br />
* McLaughlin, R. Emmet, ''Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540'', New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). {{ISBN|0300033672}}.<br />
* [[John McManners|McManners, John]]. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Oxford University Press (1990). {{ISBN|0198229283}}.<br />
* Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Oxford University Press (1993). {{ISBN|0195046455}}.<br />
* {{cite book|last1=Mullin|first1=Robert Bruce|title=A short world history of Christianity|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|date=2008}}.<br />
* Norman, Edward. ''The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History''. University of California (2007) {{ISBN|978-0520252516}}<br />
* Olson, Roger E., ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''. InterVarsity Press (2002). {{ISBN|978-0830826957}}.<br />
* Orlandis, Jose, ''A Short History of the Catholic Church''. Scepter Publishers (1993) {{ISBN|1851821252}}<br />
* Otten, Herman J. ''Baal or God? Liberalism or Christianity, Fantasy vs. Truth: Beliefs and Practices of the Churches of the World Today''.... Second ed. New Haven, Mo.: Lutheran News, 1988.<br />
* Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.) ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''. Yale University Press (2003). {{ISBN|0300093896}}.<br />
* Putnam, Robert D. ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society''. Oxford University Press (2002).<br />
* {{cite book|last=Ricciotti|first=Giuseppe|date=1999|title=Julian the Apostate: Roman Emperor (361–363)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1c9CwAAQBAJ|publisher=TAN Books|isbn=978-1-5051-0454-7|author-link=Giuseppe Ricciotti}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Riches |first=John |year=2000 |title=The Bible: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285343-1}}<br />
* Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. New York: Oxford University Press, (1999).<br />
* Schama, Simon. ''A History of Britain''. Hyperion (2000). {{ISBN|0786866756}}.<br />
* Servetus, Michael. ''Restoration of Christianity''. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007).<br />
* Simon, Edith. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. Time-Life Books (1966). {{ISBN|0662278208}}.<br />
* Spitz, Lewis. ''The Protestant Reformation''. Concordia Publishing House (2003). {{ISBN|0570033209}}.<br />
* [[Charles Spurgeon|Spurgeon, Charles]]. ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080410133140/https://www.pcanet.org/general/cof_chapvi-x.htm#chapx A Defense of Calvinism]}}''.<br />
* Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan. ''The Study of Anglicanism''. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). {{ISBN|080063151X}}.<br />
* Talbott, Thomas. ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080413172335/https://www.willamette.edu/~ttalbott/PICTURES.pdf Three Pictures of God in Western Theology]}}'' (1995).<br />
* Ustorf, Werner. "A missiological postscript", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.). ''The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000''. Cambridge University Press (2003).<br />
* Walsh, Chad. ''Campus Gods on Trial''. Rev. and enl. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1962, t.p.&nbsp;1964. xiv, [4], 154 p.<br />
* {{cite book|last1=White|first1=James F.|title=Introduction to Christian Worship Third Edition: Revised and Expanded|year=2010|publisher=Abingdon |isbn=978-1-4267-2285-1|edition=3rd}}<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Woodhead|first1=Linda|title=Christianity: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-280322-1}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Woods|first=Thomas E.|author-link=Thomas Woods|year=2005|title=How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=Regnery}}<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
{{Refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |chapter=[[s:Think Well On't/Rules|Rules for a Christian Life]] |title=Think Well On't or, Reflections on the great truths of the Christian religion for every day of the month |year=1801 |publisher=T. Haydock |first=Richard |last=Challoner |author-link=Richard Challoner}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Gill |first=Robin |author-link=Robin Gill (priest) |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-77918-0 |ref=none}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Gunton |first=Colin E. |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-47695-9 |ref=none}}<br />
* MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years'' (Viking; 2010) 1,161 pp.; survey by leading historian<br />
* {{Cite book |last=MacMullen |first=Ramsay |title=Voting About God in Early Church Councils |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-300-11596-3 |ref=none}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Padgett |first1=Alan G. |first2=Sally |last2=Bruyneel |title=Introducing Christianity |publisher=Orbis |location=Maryknoll, NY |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57075-395-4 |ref=none}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Price |first1=Matthew Arlen |last2=Collins |first2=Michael |title=The story of Christianity |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7513-0467-1 |ref=none}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Ratzinger |first=Joseph |title=Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books) |publisher=Ignatius |location=San Francisco |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-58617-029-5 |author-link=Pope Benedict XVI}}<br />
* Roper, J.C., ''Bp''. (1923), ''et al.''. ''Faith in God'', in series, ''Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada'', vol. 2. Toronto, Ont.: Musson Book Co. ''N.B''.: The series statement is given in the more extended form which appears on the book's front cover.<br />
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=George |title=Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialjudaism00robi |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Pocket |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-671-03481-8 |ref=none}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Rüegg |first=Walter |title="Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1, Universities in the Middle Ages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-521-36105-2}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Karen |last2=Wainwright |first2=Geoffrey |title=The Oxford History of Christian Worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-513886-3}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |year=1999 |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2868473448 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |language=fr}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Wagner |first=Richard |title=Christianity for Dummies |publisher=For Dummies |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7645-4482-8}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Webb |first=Jeffrey B. |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity |publisher=Alpha |location=Indianapolis |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59257-176-5}}<br />
* [[Garry Wills|Wills, Garry]], "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of [[David Bentley Hart]], ''The New Testament: A Translation'', Yale University Press, 577 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp.&nbsp;34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the [[New Testament]].<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Library resources box}}<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity "Christianity"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''<br />
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/index.shtml Religion & Ethics – Christianity] A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the BBC<br />
<br />
{{Christianity footer|uncollapsed}}<br />
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[[Category:Christianity| ]]<br />
[[Category:1st-century establishments]]<br />
[[Category:1st-century introductions]]<br />
[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]<br />
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[[Category:Western culture]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iyer_the_Great&diff=450633Iyer the Great2026-03-21T17:11:07Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|1990 film directed by Bhadran}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{one source|date=November 2015}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Iyer the Great<br />
| image = Iyer the Great.jpg<br />
<br />
| caption = Promotional poster<br />
| director = [[Bhadran (director)|Bhadran]]<br />
| producer = [[Ratheesh]]<br />[[R. Mohan]]<br />
| story = <br />
| writer = Bhadran {{small|(Story)}}<br />
[[Malayattoor Ramakrishnan]] {{small|(Screenplay & Dialogues)}}<br />
| narrator = <br />
| starring = [[Mammootty]]<br />[[Geetha (actress)|Geetha]]<br />[[Shobana]]<br />[[Sukumari]]<br/>[[Devan (actor)|Devan]]<br />
| music = [[M. S. Viswanathan]]<br />
| cinematography = [[Anandakuttan]]<br />
| editing = [[M. S. Mani (film editor)|M.S.Mani]]<br />
| studio = [[Shogun Films|GoodKnight Films]]<br />
| released = {{Film date|1990|08|31|India|df=y}}<br />
| runtime = 123 minutes<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Malayalam<br />
| budget = <br />
| gross = <br />
}}<br />
'''''Iyer the Great''''' is a 1990 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[psychological thriller]] film directed by [[Bhadran (director)|Bhadran]], starring [[Mammootty]], [[Geetha (actress)|Geetha]], [[Shobana]], [[Sukumari]], and [[Devan (actor)|Devan]]. It was a commercial success upon release. [[M. S. Mani (film editor)|M. S. Mani]] won the [[National Film Award for Best Editing]] for his work in the film. <ref>{{cite book|last=Ojha|first=Rajendra|title=Screen World Publication presents National film award winners: 1953-1997|publisher=Screen World Publication|year=1998|pages=228|isbn=9788190025829|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgEbAQAAIAAJ&q=%22iyer+the+great%22+malayalam}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
Vaikundam Soorya Narayana Iyer, a business executive, leads a normal family life with Veni, his wife and his mother. After falling from a tree while trying to capture an escaped pet parrot, Iyer undergoes [[acrophobia]] giving him the power of [[clairvoyance]].<br />
<br />
A couple of days later, he foresees a train crash with the precise train number and time of the incident. He warns the railway authorities but is ignored. The crash killed more than a hundred passengers. Then, Iyer foresees an airplane crash and informs the authorities about a future bombing on a flight in Delhi. Aided by the information, the disaster is prevented, causing Iyer to hit the headlines.<br />
<br />
Iyer gets an insight about steroids added to a particular brand of baby food by Gabrias Group. Iyer contacts Amala, a news reporter who does an exposé, destroying the business empire of Gabrias. Gabria vows vengeance on Iyer and plants a bomb in his car, killing Iyer's entire family. In retaliation, Iyer kills Gabrias but is shot and admitted to the hospital. At the hospital, he predicts the sun will set early at 3 p.m. on the upcoming 3rd. Amala realises that Iyer had just predicted his own death. The police impose tight security; however, a terrorist group successfully enters the hospital and shoots Iyer down at 3 p.m. The film ends showing Iyer's broken pair of glasses, with the caption ''The man who foresaw future''.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
* [[Mammootty]] as Soorya Narayana Iyer<br />
* [[Geetha (actress)|Geetha]] as Veni<br />
* [[Sukumari]] as Soorya's Mother<br />
* [[Devan (actor)|Devan]] as Gabria<br />
* [[Shobana]] as Amala<br />
* [[Ratheesh]] as Police Officer Chellappan<br />
* [[M.G. Soman]] as Dr. Jacob<br />
* [[M. S. Thripunithura]] as Moorthy<br />
* [[K. P. Ummer]] as G.D. Nair<br />
* Ragini as Ammu<br />
* [[Vijay Menon]]<br />
* [[Pradeep Shakthi]]<br />
* Rachana Prasad as Saudham<br />
* Nisha as Raji<br />
* Kokila Gopinath as Dr Jacob's Wife<br />
<br />
== Release ==<br />
The film was released on 31 August 1990.<br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
The film received positive reviews from critics and audience. It was a commercial success and ran for a considerable period in [[Tamil Nadu]] too.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 September 2019 |title=Thamizh Talkies: Union of stars |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2019/sep/23/thamizh-talkies-union-of-stars-2037598.html |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|id=0271572}}<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120325210331/http://popcorn.oneindia.in/title/6699/iyer-the-great.html ''Iyer the Great''] at [[Oneindia.in]]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Iyer The Great}}<br />
[[Category:1990 films]]<br />
[[Category:1990 Malayalam-language films]]<br />
[[Category:1990 psychological thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Films about psychiatry]]<br />
[[Category:Works by Malayattoor Ramakrishnan]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by M. S. Viswanathan]]<br />
[[Category:Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing National Award]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Bhadran]]<br />
[[Category:Films about journalism]]<br />
[[Category:Films about journalists]]<br />
[[Category:Films about mass media in India]]<br />
[[Category:Films about mass media people]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{1990s-Malayalam-film-stub}}<br />
{{psychological-thriller-film-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=100_(2021_film)&diff=481591100 (2021 film)2026-03-20T04:54:11Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Made post</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|2021 Kannada film by Ramesh Arvind}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = 100<br />
| image = 100 2021 poster.jpg<br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| director = [[Ramesh Aravind]]<br />
| writer = Ramesh Aravind (additional screenplay)<br />
| based_on = {{Based on | ''[[Thiruttu Payale 2]]'' | [[Susi Ganesan]]}}<br />
| producer = M. Ramesh Reddy<br /> Uma<br />
| starring = [[Ramesh Aravind]]<br /> [[Rachita Ram]]<br /> [[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]]<br>Vishwa Karna<br />
| cinematography = [[Satya Hegde]]<br />
| editing = [[Akash Srivatsa]]<br />
| music = [[Ravi Basrur]]<br />
| studio = Suraj Productions<br />
| distributor = Lilac Entertainments<br /> Jagadeesh Films<br />
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2021|11|19|ref1=}}<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Kannada<br />
}}<br />
'''''100''''' is a 2021 Indian Kannada-language [[crime thriller film]] directed by [[Ramesh Aravind]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2019/aug/01/ramesh-aravind-takes-complete-charge-of-100-2012477.html|title=Ramesh Aravind takes complete charge of 100|website=The New Indian Express|date=August 2019 |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224110/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2019/aug/01/ramesh-aravind-takes-complete-charge-of-100-2012477.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The film stars himself, [[Rachita Ram]], [[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]], and newcomer Vishwa Karna.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/ramesh-aravind-spends-time-in-cyber-crime-station-for-100/articleshow/72438108.cms|title=Ramesh Aravind spends time in Cyber Crime station for '100'|website=The Times of India|date=9 December 2019 |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224108/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/ramesh-aravind-spends-time-in-cyber-crime-station-for-100/articleshow/72438108.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/real-hero-of-100-is-the-story/articleshow/87787770.cms|title=Real hero of 100 is the story|website=Bangalore Mirror|access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224107/https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/real-hero-of-100-is-the-story/articleshow/87787770.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> It is a remake of the Tamil film ''[[Thiruttu Payale 2]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ramesh-aravind-confident-film-industry-will-bounce-back-123039|title=Ramesh Aravind confident that film industry will bounce back|date=April 21, 2020|website=The News Minute|access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224107/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ramesh-aravind-confident-film-industry-will-bounce-back-123039|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/actor-ramesh-aravinds-100-is-about-a-person-who-stalks-women-on-social-media/article29258619.ece|title=On the sets of Ramesh Aravind's '100'|first=Shilpa Sebastian|last=R|newspaper=The Hindu |date=August 26, 2019|via=www.thehindu.com|access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224107/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/actor-ramesh-aravinds-100-is-about-a-person-who-stalks-women-on-social-media/article29258619.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> The film released on November 19, 2021.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2021/oct/26/finally-wewill-be-out-with-our-family-thriller-100-2375660.html|title='Finally, we will be out with our family thriller, 100'|website=The New Indian Express|date=26 October 2021 |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224113/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2021/oct/26/finally-wewill-be-out-with-our-family-thriller-100-2375660.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
[[Inspector]] Vishnu is an honest officer, who is living with his family- his mother, younger sister Hima and wife Anagha where he is also involved in [[Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988|benami]] dealings. Vishnu's boss asks him to tap the phone calls of a few senior officers and politicians to track their illegal activities. Vishnu learns that the politicians' wives and other women, including Anagha, are having affairs with Harsha, a sociopath and [[cybercriminal]], who seduces woman to fall for him and blackmails them for money.<br />
<br />
Vishnu confronts Harsha, who blackmails him by hacking Vishnu's [[personal computer]] and downloaded the [[audio recordings]] that Vishnu has collected so far. It is revealed that Vishnu was involved in the dealings, in order to construct a hospital for the poor. Harsha leaks the call of [[Director general of police|DGP]] in order to get Vishnu into trouble. However, Vishnu is instead congratulated by his boss for publicly removing the DGP from competing. When the scandal escalates, The higher-ups in the department decide to frame Vishnu as the [[scapegoat]] to save their name.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Vishnu plants bugs at his house where he learns that Hima was having an affair with Harsha, not Anagha. Hima met Harsha in [[Facebook]]. When he called her to sleep with him, she learnt about his true nature and blocks his phone number, but was blackmailing by calling her from different numbers. Hima confronts Harsha and tries to have [[sexual intercourse|sex]] with her, but escapes and she learnt that he made a [[Lascivious|lascivious photos]] on her and is torturing her since.<br />
<br />
Realizing that his higher-ups are framing him, Vishnu blackmails his higher-ups with their audio recordings that he is heading to kill Harsha and the charges against him should be dropped. The higher-ups follow Vishnu's orders where Vishnu kidnaps Harsha and kills him at his [[guest house]]. Vishnu returns to work and decide to expose many cyber criminals, who are targeting women for their personal benefits.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
* [[Ramesh Aravind]] as Vishnu, [[cybercrime]] officer<ref name="T" /><br />
* [[Rachita Ram]] as Hima, Vishnu's sister<ref name="T" /><br />
* [[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]] as Ananga, Vishnu's wife<ref name="T" /><br />
* Vishwa Karna as Harsha,<ref name="T" /> a cyber criminal<br />
* [[Prakash Belawadi]] as IGP Siddharama<ref name="T" /><br />
* [[Raju Talikote]]<br />
* [[Shobaraj]] as DGP Surya Prakash<br />
* Amita Ranganath<br />
<br />
==Production==<br />
The film is produced by M Ramesh Reddy and Uma under Suraj Productions. Akash Shrivatsa worked as an editor for this film.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2019/jun/21/shivaji-surathkal-director-akash-srivatsa-turns-editor-for-ramesh-aravinds-100-12457.html|title=Shivaji Surathkal director Akash Srivatsa turns editor for Ramesh Aravind's 100|website=[[Cinema Express]]|date=21 June 2019 |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224106/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2019/jun/21/shivaji-surathkal-director-akash-srivatsa-turns-editor-for-ramesh-aravinds-100-12457.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Soundtrack==<br />
Music is composed by Ravi Basrur.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/music/rangu-rangu-partyge-from-kannada-film-100-released-on-ramesh-aravinds-birthday/articleshow/78043477.cms|title=Rangu Rangu Partyge from Kannada film 100, released on Ramesh Aravind's birthday|website=The Times of India|date=10 September 2020 |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224107/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/music/rangu-rangu-partyge-from-kannada-film-100-released-on-ramesh-aravinds-birthday/articleshow/78043477.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Track listing<br />
| collapsed =<br />
| headline =<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| lyrics =<br />
| all_music =<br />
| title1 = Rangu Rangu Partyge<br />
| extra1 = [[Ramesh Arvind]], [[Ananya Bhat]], Neethu Subramanyan<br />
| length1 = 4.00<br />
| lyrics1 = Kinnal Raj, Pramod Maravante, Baskar Bangera<br />
| title3 =<br />
| extra3 =<br />
| length3 =<br />
| lyrics3 =<br />
| title4 =<br />
| extra4 =<br />
| length4 =<br />
|lyrics4 =<br />
| total_length =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Release ==<br />
''100'' was released on 19 November 2021 and received positive reviews from critics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/news/2021/nov/29/sudha-murtyheaps-praise-on-ramesh-aravinds-100-28087.html|title=Sudha Murty heaps praise on Ramesh Aravind's 100|website=[[Cinema Express]]|date=28 November 2021 |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204224108/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/news/2021/nov/29/sudha-murtyheaps-praise-on-ramesh-aravinds-100-28087.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Critical response ===<br />
A. Sharaadha of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote "The timing of this film is noteworthy considering digital crime is on the rise. 100 is an attempt at sensitising audiences about the crime".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2021/nov/20/100-review-a-well-cast-and-well-executedfamily-thriller-2385743.html|title='100' Review: A well-cast and well-executed family thriller|website=The New Indian Express|date=20 November 2021 |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129042754/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2021/nov/20/100-review-a-well-cast-and-well-executedfamily-thriller-2385743.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Jagadish Angadi of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' gave 4 out of 5 stars and wrote "Ramesh Aravind's '100', a masterfully crafted cyber crime drama, proves this. The seasoned artiste brings in his experience to craft a near-perfect suspense thriller. It's hard to find faults in the film as it shines in all departments".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/dh-talkies/100-review-ramesh-hits-a-century-1052391.html|title=100 review: Ramesh hits a century|date=November 19, 2021|website=Deccan Herald|access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=19 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119152910/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/dh-talkies/100-review-ramesh-hits-a-century-1052391.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Madiri of ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' gave 4 out of 5 stars and wrote "Ramesh Aravind has balanced direction and playing the lead role well."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/100-movie-review-100-a-thriller-with-a-message/articleshow/87807981.cms|title=100 Movie Review : 100, a thriller with a message|website=Bangalore Mirror|access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129012300/https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/100-movie-review-100-a-thriller-with-a-message/articleshow/87807981.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Sunayana Suresh of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "100 has a pertinent message that deals with how social media has taken over most lives. This can be a good choice for a family movie outing for this weekend".<ref name="T">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/100/movie-review/87798527.cms|title=100 Movie Review: Ramesh Aravind headlines this crisp cybercrime thriller|newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=4 February 2022|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129031554/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/100/movie-review/87798527.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [https://m.imdb.com/title/tt15767350/ 100] at [[IMDb]]<br />
[[Category:2021 crime thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:2021 films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Kannada remakes of Tamil films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Ramesh Aravind]]<br />
[[Category:2021 Kannada-language films]]<br />
[[Category:2021 Indian films]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oka_Padhakam_Prakaram&diff=522816Oka Padhakam Prakaram2026-03-17T19:20:45Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Started New Info</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|2025 Indian Telugu-language film by Vinod Vijayan}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| image = Oka Padhakam Prakaram.jpg<br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| director = [[Vinod Vijayan]]<br />
| writer = Vinod Vijayan<br />
| screenplay = <br />
| story = <br />
| producer = {{plain list|<br />
* Vinod Vijayan<br />
* Garlapati Ramesh<br />
}}<br />
| starring = {{plain list|<br />
* [[Sairam Shankar]]<br />
* [[P. Samuthirakani]]<br />
* [[Ashima Narwal]]<br />
}}<br />
| cinematography = {{plain list|<br />
* [[Rajeev Ravi]]<br />
* Pappu<br />
* Vinod Illampally<br />
* Suresh Rajan}}<br />
| editing = Karthik Jogesh<br />
| music = '''Songs:'''<br/>[[Rahul Raj]]<br/>'''Score:'''<br/>[[Gopi Sundar]]<br />
| studio = {{plain list|<br />
* Vinod Vijayan Films<br />
* Vihari Cinema House<br />
}}<br />
| distributor = <br />
| released = {{Film date|2025|02|07|df=y}}<br />
| runtime = <br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Telugu<br />
| budget = <br />
| gross = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Oka Padhakam Prakaram''''' (alternatively known as '''''Oka Pathakam Prakaram''''') is a 2025 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[legal thriller]] film written and directed by [[Vinod Vijayan]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Telugu |first1=10TV |last2=Nill |first2=Saketh |date=2025-02-07 |title='ఒక పథకం ప్రకారం' మూవీ రివ్యూ.. సాయి రామ్ శంకర్ కంబ్యాక్ ఇచ్చాడా? |url=https://10tv.in/telugu-news/movies/sai-ram-shankar-oka-pathakam-prakaram-movie-review-and-rating-here-sy-913329.html |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=10TV Telugu |language=te}}</ref> The film features [[Sairam Shankar]], [[P. Samuthirakani]] and [[Ashima Narwal]] in important roles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harsh |first=B. H. |date=2025-01-10 |title=Oka Padhakam Prakaram trailer: Sai Raam Shankar is mystified by a 'devilish' criminal in the upcoming thriller |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2025/Jan/10/oka-padhakam-prakaram-trailer-sai-raam-shankar-is-mystified-by-a-devilish-criminal-in-the-upcoming-thriller |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
The film was released on 7 February 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sistu |first=Suhas |date=2025-01-21 |title=Sairam Shankar's 'Oka Pathakam Prakaram' set for Feb 7 release |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/sairam-shankars-oka-pathakam-prakaram-set-for-feb-7-release-938703 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en |archive-date=25 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125230720/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/sairam-shankars-oka-pathakam-prakaram-set-for-feb-7-release-938703 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
Siddharth is an advocate framed for the murder of his spouse, who becomes addicted to recreational drugs. Afterwards, he is also framed for the murder of his close aide, Divya, too. Being a lawyer, he fights his own case and establishes his innocence. However, another lawyer's wife is murdered, and Siddharth is framed for the crime again. How he resolves them, forms the crux of the story. <br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
* [[Sairam Shankar]] as Siddharth Neelakanta<br />
* [[P. Samuthirakani]] as Raghuram<br />
* [[Ashima Narwal]] as Sita<br />
* [[Shruti Sodhi]] as Kavitha<br />
* [[Kalpa Latha]]<br />
* Bhanu Sri as Divya<br />
* Pallavi Gowda<br />
* Sudhakar as Siddharth Father in law<br />
<br />
== Music ==<br />
<br />
{{Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| all_music = [[Rahul Raj]]<br />
| title1 = Osaarilaa Raa<br />
| length1 = 4:05<br />
| lyrics1 = Rehman<br />
| extra1 = [[Sid Sriram]]<br />
| title2 = Kanulalo<br />
| length2 = 3:30<br />
| lyrics2 = Rehman<br />
| extra2 = Sid Sriram<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Release and reception ==<br />
''Oka Padhakam Prakaram'' was released on 7 February 2025.<br />
<br />
Suhas Sistu of ''[[The Hans India]]'' gave a rating of 2.75 out of 5 stated that, "Despite its minor flaws, ''Oka Pathakam Prakaram'' manages to keep crime thriller enthusiasts engaged with its gripping moments and decent performances".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sistu |first=Suhas |date=2025-02-07 |title='Oka Pathakam Prakaram' review: A legal thriller with twists and turns |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/oka-pathakam-prakaram-review-a-legal-thriller-with-twists-and-turns-943355 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref> Avad Mohammad of ''[[OTTPlay]]'' rated it 2.5 out of 5 and wrote, "''Oka Pathakam Prakaram'' has a decent few thrills that impress. If you can overlook a few logical errors, the film ends as a passable watch for crime thriller enthusiasts".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oka Pathakam Prakaram Review: Sai Ram Shankar's film is just a passable thriller |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/oka-pathakam-prakaram-review-sai-ram-shankars-film-is-slow-but-a-passable-thriller/04926482c0822 |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*{{IMDb title|id=27845205|title=Oka Padhakam Prakaram}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2025 Telugu-language films]]<br />
[[Category:2025 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:2025 films]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Visakhapatnam]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Visakhapatnam]]<br />
[[Category:Indian legal thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:2020s legal thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Andhra Pradesh Police]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tirukkannapuram_Vijayaraghavan&diff=451959Tirukkannapuram Vijayaraghavan2026-03-08T16:38:16Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Improved article clarity and structure</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian mathematician (1902-1955)}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}<br />
{{infobox person<br />
|name = Thirukannapuram Vijayaraghavan<br />
|birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1902|11|30}}<br />
|death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1955|4|20|1902|11|30}}<br />
|occupation = mathematician<br />
}}<br />
'''Tirukkannapuram Vijayaraghavan''' ({{langx|ta|திருக்கண்ணபுரம் விஜயராகவன்}}; 30 November 1902 – 20 April 1955) was an Indian mathematician from the [[Madras]] region. He worked with [[G. H. Hardy]] on [[Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number]]s when he went to [[Oxford]] in the mid-1920s. He was a fellow of [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] elected in 1934. His father was a [[pandit]].<br />
<br />
Vijayaraghavan was well-versed in Sanskrit and Tamil. He was a close friend of [[André Weil]]. Weil hired him in 1930 despite his lack of diploma, and they served together in [[Aligarh Muslim University]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weil |first=André |title=The apprenticeship of a mathematician |last2=Weil |first2=André |date=1992 |publisher=Birkhäuser |isbn=978-3-7643-2650-0 |location=Basel Boston Berlin}}</ref> While Weil was away in Europe, [[Ross Masood]] planned to replace Weil's professorship with Vijayaraghavan, but Vijayaraghavan quit in protest and moved to the [[University of Dhaka]].<ref>M.S. Raghunathan, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040104021712/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252003/526.pdf Artless innocents and ivory-tower sophisticates: Some personalities on the Indian mathematical scene].</ref><br />
<br />
Vijayaraghavan proved a special case of [[Nested_radical#Herschfeld's_convergence_theorem|Herschfeld's theorem]] on [[nested radicals]]:<ref>[[Srinivasa Ramanujan|Ramanujan, S]]. Collected Papers of Srinivasa Ramanujan (Ed. G. H. Hardy, P. V. S. Aiyar, and B. M. Wilson). Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society (2000), p. 348.</ref> For <math>a_n>0</math><br />
:<math>\sqrt{a_1 + \sqrt{a_2 + \sqrt{a_3 + \sqrt{a_4 + \cdots}}}}</math><br />
converges if and only if<br />
:<math>\overline{\lim} (\log a_n)/2^n < +\infty,</math><br />
where <math>\overline{\lim}</math> denotes the [[Limit superior and limit inferior|limit superior]].<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{MathGenealogy|id=18536}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vijayaraghavan, Tirukkannapuram}}<br />
[[Category:Academic staff of Aligarh Muslim University]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian mathematicians]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences]]<br />
[[Category:1902 births]]<br />
[[Category:1955 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Scientists from Chennai]]<br />
[[Category:Expatriates from British India in the United Kingdom]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{India-mathematician-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Akash_Lokhande&diff=485216Akash Lokhande2026-03-07T21:13:29Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Made new info</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian basketball player (born 1992)}}<br />
{{Infobox basketball biography <br />
| name = Akash Lokhande<br />
| image = <br />
| image_size =<br />
| caption = <br />
| number = <br />
| team =<br />
| position = [[Point Guard]] / [[Shooting Guard]]<br />
| league = <br />
| birth_date = 1992<br />
| birth_place = [[Pune, Maharashtra]], [[India]]<br />
| height_cm = 189<br />
| weight_kg = <br />
| high_school = <br />
| draft_year =<br />
| career_start =<br />
| career_end = 2017<br />
| years1 = 2017<br />
| team1 = [[Pune Peshwas]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Akash Lokhande''' (born {{Circa|1992}}) is an Indian head coach, businessman, and former basketball player for the [[Pune Peshwas]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Asia-Basket.com |first= |title=Aakash Lokhande profile |url=https://basketball.asia-basket.com/player/Aakash-Lokhande/370328 |website=Asia-Basket.com |access-date=October 23, 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
Lokhande was born in [[Pune, Maharashtra]], [[India]].,<ref>{{cite web |last=FIBA |title=Akash Lokhande |url=https://play.fiba3x3.com/players/17e1b058-afd6-4a37-9abd-8f20145ce5b4 |website=FIBA 3x3 |access-date=October 23, 2025}}</ref> He started playing basketball at the age of 16 at Deccan Gymkhana Club in Pune and is known as Rutvik, Luhiya & Rashid Kaba amongst his contemporaries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sports Reporter |title=Nagpur U-18 boys teams enter SF |url=https://www.thehitavada.com/Encyc/2023/7/9/Nagpur-U-18-boys-teams-enter-SF.html |website=The Hitavada |date=July 9, 2023 |access-date=October 24, 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[https://play.fiba3x3.com/players/17e1b058-afd6-4a37-9abd-8f20145ce5b4 Akash Lokhande FIBA 3x3 profile]<br />
*[https://basketball.asia-basket.com/player/Aakash-Lokhande/370328 Asia-basket.com profile]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lokhande, Akash}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:1992 births]]<br />
[[Category:Indian men's basketball players]]<br />
[[Category:Point guards]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{India-basketball-bio-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kattumaram_(film)&diff=508979Kattumaram (film)2026-03-07T06:00:38Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Starting some pg nd citations</p>
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<div>{{short description|Indian Tamil language drama film}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Kattumaram<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = <br />
| director = [[Swarnavel Eswaran]]<br />
| producer = Swarnavel Eswaran<br />
| writer = Swarnavel Eswaran<br />
| starring = [[Mysskin]]<br>Preeti Karan<br>Anusha Prabhu<br />
| music = P. Bharani Dharan<br />
| cinematography = Karthik Muthukumar<br />
| editing = Arun Kumar<br />
| released = {{Film date|2019|df=yes}}<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Tamil<br />
| runtime = 73 minutes<ref name="Frameline" /><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Kattumaram''''' ({{translation|[[Kattumaram]]}}; also known as '''''Catamaran'''''), is a 2019 Indian [[Tamil language]] drama film written, directed, and produced by Swarnavel Eswaran. Set in [[Tamil Nadu]], it tells the story of a conservative uncle grappling with his niece's romantic relationship with another woman. The film stars [[Mysskin]], Preeti Karan, and Anusha Prabhu.<br />
<br />
''Kattumaram'' premiered at the [[New York Indian Film Festival]] on 10 May 2019.<ref name="NYIFF">{{cite web |title=Screening Schedule |url=https://www.iaac.us/NYIFF2019/schedule.htm |website=[[New York Indian Film Festival]] |date=2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502202750/https://www.iaac.us/NYIFF2019/schedule.htm |archive-date=2 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The 19th Annual New York Indian Film Festival Announces Full Lineup May 7 – May 12 |url=https://urbanasian.com/featured/2019/04/the-19th-annual-new-york-indian-film-festival-announces-full-lineup/ |website=Urban Asian |date=26 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308203841/https://urbanasian.com/featured/2019/04/the-19th-annual-new-york-indian-film-festival-announces-full-lineup/ |archive-date=8 March 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
Set in a coastal village in Tamil Nadu, ''Kattumaram'' follows Singaram, a traditional fisherman who becomes the guardian of his niece, Anandhi, a teacher at the local school, after the tragic loss of their family to a tsunami. As Singaram endeavors to find a suitable husband for Anandhi, he discovers her romantic [[lesbian|same-sex]] relationship with Kavita, a photography instructor at the school. The revelation challenges Singaram's beliefs, leading him on a journey of understanding and acceptance.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
* [[Mysskin]] as Singaram<br />
* Preeti Karan as Anandhi<br />
* Anusha Prabhu as Kavita<br />
* Selvam as Alankaram<br />
* Giri Prasad as Iqbal<br />
<br />
== Production ==<br />
[[Mysskin]] accepted the film since director [[Swarnavel Eswaran]] was his friend.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/irrespective-of-what-it-does-to-the-viewer-art-affects-its-creator-ram/articleshow/62581573.cms|title=Irrespective of what it does to the viewer, art affects its creator: Ram|first=V|last=Lakshmi|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=21 January 2018|access-date=2 April 2025}}</ref> The film is one of the few Tamil films that deal with [[lesbian]]ism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/trans-formation-on-screen-queer-themes-in-indian-cinema/article65564150.ece|title=Trans-formation on the big screen: Queer themes in Indian cinema|first=Nadika|last=Nadia|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212001130/https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/trans-formation-on-screen-queer-themes-in-indian-cinema/article65564150.ece|archive-date=12 February 2025|date=26 June 2022|access-date=2 April 2025|url-access=subscription}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Release and reception ==<br />
''Kattumaram'' premiered at the 2019 [[New York Indian Film Festival]].<ref name="NYIFF" /> It was screened at the 2020 [[Bangalore Queer Film Festival]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2020/Mar/05/queer-films-from-25-countries-come-to-town-2112222.html |title=Queer films from 25 countries come to town |date=4 March 2020 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |access-date=2 April 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
The ''[[Frameline Film Festival]]'' described the film as "a heartfelt look at the strength of community in rural India, showcasing the importance of tradition along with the need for evolution" and "a beautiful and genuine experience".<ref name="Frameline">{{Cite web|url=https://www.frameline.org/films/frameline43/kattumaram |title=Kattumaram |website=[[Frameline Film Festival]] |date=2019 |access-date=2 April 2025}}</ref> Racha Raj Kaur of ''[[Now Toronto]]'' wrote, "The dialogue is minimal, with expressive gestures and stunning cinematography of the jungles, seashore and ruined homes of Akkampetai imparting the story’s emotional weight. With an ending that’s heartbreaking but also perfect and realistic, this is the best film I’ve seen about inherent queerness in South Asia, ever".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nowtoronto.com/movies/inside-out-review-catamaran-kattumaram/ | title=Inside Out review: Catamaran (Kattumaram)|work=[[Now Toronto]]|first =Racha Raj|last=Kaur|date=22 May 2019|access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|id=13098938|title=Kattumaram}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2019 films]]<br />
[[Category:2019 drama films]]<br />
[[Category:2019 LGBTQ-related films]]<br />
[[Category:2019 romantic drama films]]<br />
[[Category:2019 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:2019 Tamil-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian drama films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian LGBTQ-related films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]<br />
[[Category:Lesbian-related films]]<br />
[[Category:Films about women in India]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Tamil Nadu]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuzhandaiyum_Deivamum&diff=511382Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum2026-03-04T05:17:53Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Starting the details added tags</p>
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<div>{{short description|1965 film by Krishnan–Panju}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2022}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| image = Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum.jpg<br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| director = [[Krishnan–Panju]]<br />
| screenplay = [[Javar Seetharaman]]<br />
| based_on = {{based on|''[[The Parent Trap (1961 film)|The Parent Trap]]''|[[David Swift (director)|David Swift]]}}<br />
| producer = [[A. V. Meiyappan]]<br />
| starring = [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] <br /> [[Jamuna (actress)|Jamuna]]<br />
| cinematography = [[S. Maruti Rao]]<br />G. Vittal Rao<br />
| editing = Panjabi<br />Vittal<br />
| music = [[M. S. Viswanathan]]<br />
| studio = [[AVM Productions]]<br />
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1965|11|19}}<br />
| runtime = 167 minutes{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=188}}<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Tamil<br />
}}<br />
'''''Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum''''' ({{translation|Child and God}}) is a 1965 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[children's film|children's]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] directed by [[Krishnan–Panju]] and written by [[Javar Seetharaman]]. It is based on the American film ''[[The Parent Trap (1961 film)|The Parent Trap]]'' (1961) which in turn was based on [[Erich Kästner]]'s 1949 German novel ''[[Lisa and Lottie]]'' ({{langx|de|Das doppelte Lottchen}}). The film stars [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] and [[Jamuna (actress)|Jamuna]], with [[Nagesh]], [[Major Sundarrajan|Sundarrajan]], [[G. Varalakshmi]], Santha, [[Kutty Padmini]], M. S. S. Bhagayam and V. R. Thilagam in supporting roles. It revolves around a couple who separate, and the efforts of their twin daughters to reunite them.<br />
<br />
''Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum'' was produced by A. V. Meiyappan via [[AVM Productions]], photographed by [[S. Maruti Rao]] and G. Vittal Rao, edited by Panju and features music by [[M. S. Viswanathan]]. The film was released on 19 November 1965, became a commercial success, and won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil]]. Krishnan–Panju remade the film twice; in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Leta Manasulu (1966 film)|Leta Manasulu]]'' (1966) and in [[Hindi]] as ''[[Do Kaliyan]]'' (1967). It was also remade in [[Malayalam]] as ''[[Sethubandhanam (film)|Sethubandhanam]]'' (1974) and in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Makkala Bhagya]]'' (1976).<br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
Chandrasekar "Sekar", Sundaram and Sathyabama "Bama" are college-mates in [[Madurai]]. Bama's parents – the henpecked Ramalingam and [[Shrew (stock character)|domineering]] Alamelu – own a bus company. Due to Alamelu's influence, Bama takes after her mother's ways. Sekar survives on scholarship provided by Ramalingam because the former's grandfather helped Ramalingam, but is unaware as money is always sent to him through a lawyer. Sekar and Bama fall in love. Alamelu objects, and Sekar leaves Bama, but at her insistence, Alamelu agrees for their wedding after finding Sekar intelligent and smart. Post-wedding, Sekar moves into Bama's house. He is appointed as the manager of the bus company, but is frustrated over lacking the clout to decide or to handle financial matters.<br />
<br />
A year later, Bama gives birth to twin girls Lalitha "Lalli" and Padmini "Pappi". Sekar continues to struggle working under Alamelu. When she insults Sekar's friends who came as guests for an official event, an infuriated Sekar decides to leave the house. He asks Bama to come with him, but as Bama shows hesitation and tries to pacify Sekar, Alamelu pushes her into a room. Bama falls unconscious due to the push. An unaware Sekar continues knocking on her door asking her to come with him. He mistakenly believes she is reluctant to accompany him, and leaves with Pappi for Singapore, where he becomes an estate manager. Bama publishes advertisements unsuccessfully seeking them.<br />
<br />
A few years later, Sekar returns to Madurai and Pappi joins the school where Lalli studies. Nirmala, Pappi's newly appointed dance teacher, plots to exploit Sekar with the help of her mother Sogusu. Sundaram, who is unemployed after losing multiple jobs, joins Sekar and tries to unite him and Bama. Nirmala and Sogusu move into Sekar's house. Pappi and Lalli fight during their school picnic, and are forced to share a room for the night as punishment, during which they start bonding and also realise that they are twins.<br />
<br />
Sekar becomes ill and Nirmala serves him alcohol. He becomes drunk, and Nirmala tricks him into sexually pursuing her. When he falls unconscious in bed, Nirmala and Sogusu stage it to appear like he had sex with Nirmala. The next morning, Sekar, who cannot remember what happened, thinks he impregnated Nirmala. He promises to marry her to save her from shame.<br />
<br />
Pappi and Lalli agree to swap identities for a while; after the picnic ends, Pappi goes to Bama as Lalli, and Lalli to Sekar as Pappi. Lalli is against her father marrying Nirmala. She later learns about Nirmala and Sogusu's true colours and informs Pappi over phone. Sundaram overhears this and realises the twins swapped identities but promises to support them. Sundaram's attempt to expose Nirmala causes Sekar to repeatedly slap him. Lalli demands that Nirmala leave the house. Enraged, Nirmala, pushes Lalli and she faints.<br />
<br />
Sundaram informs Pappi over phone about Lalli's injury and when she cries on learning this, Ramalingam and Bama learn about the identity swap. Bama and Pappi rush to meet Lalli. On regaining consciousness, Lalli reveals her true identity to her father. Bama meets Sekar and unsuccessfully begs him for forgiveness. Sekar decides to keep both girls and throws Bama out of his house, but she chooses to wait outside the house. The girls, locked in a room, pray to [[Murugan]] to unite their parents, and Lalli remembers an earlier suggestion by Sundaram that praying at the [[Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple|Murugan Temple]], [[Palani]] would be effective. When attempting to escape, they meet Sogusu and share their plans. Sogusu, seeing an opportunity to rid them, helps them out.<br />
<br />
The next day, Sogusu sends a killer with the girls, lying that he is their bodyguard. Sekar finds Bama still waiting outside his house, and refuses Sundaram's pleas to accept her. Sekar later overhears Nirmala and Sogusu conversing and realises they manipulated his relationship with Nirmala and their current plan to kill the girls to usurp his wealth. Enraged, he disowns Nirmala and rushes with Bama to Palani to save the girls. Lalli realises her bodyguard is a killer and informs Pappi. They escape to the temple through [[Palani Hills|the hills]], but the killer catches up. He attempts to kill them but a snake kills him instead. The family reunites.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
;Male cast<br />
* [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] as Chandrasekar "Sekar"{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=188}}<br />
* [[Nagesh]] as Sundaram{{sfn|Glaser|2022|p=109}}<br />
* [[Major Sundarrajan|Sundarrajan]] as Ramalingam{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=188}}<br />
<br />
;Female cast<br />
* [[Jamuna (actress)|Jamuna]] as Sathyabama "Bama"{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|p=188}}<br />
* [[G. Varalakshmi]] as Alamelu{{sfn|Glaser|2022|p=108}}<br />
* Santha as Nirmala{{sfn|Glaser|2022|p=109}}<br />
* [[Kutty Padmini]] Lalitha "Lalli" and Padmini "Pappi"{{sfn|Glaser|2022|p=108}}<br />
* M. S. S. Bhagayam as Sogusu<br />
* V. R. Thilagam as Pankajam<br />
<br />
== Production ==<br />
M. Kumaran of [[AVM Productions]] saw the American film ''[[The Parent Trap (1961 film)|The Parent Trap]]'' (1961), based on [[Erich Kästner]]'s German novel ''[[Lisa and Lottie]]'', and saw potential for a Tamil version of it; he persuaded his brother [[M. Saravanan (producer)|Saravanan]] to watch the film. Saravanan complied, but was sceptical over the story's commercial viability if filmed in Tamil and also felt audience would not be receptive towards the concept of divorce, although Kumaran remained adamant. They later asked [[Javar Seetharaman]] to watch ''The Parent Trap'' and if he could [[Indianisation|Indianise]] it in his screenplay; AVM was impressed with his screenplay. Saravanan said Seesumpatti Rajagopal wrote the climax portions.<ref name="kalki">{{Cite magazine |last=சரவணன் |first=ஏவி.எம். |author-link=M. Saravanan (producer) |date=13 March 2005 |title=ஜெயலலிதாவின் ஆர்வம்! |trans-title=Jayalalithaa's interest! |url=https://archive.org/download/kalki2005-03-13/kalki2005-03-13.pdf |access-date=25 April 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=44–47 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> [[Krishnan–Panju]] were selected to direct the film, titled ''Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum''.{{Sfn|Saravanan|2013|pp=157–158}} Cinematography was handled by [[S. Maruti Rao]] and G. Vittal Rao, art direction by A. K. Sekar,<ref name="poster">{{Cite news |date=19 November 1965 |title=Kuzhandhaiyum Deivamum |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19651119&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=4 February 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and Panju edited the film under the pseudonym "Panjabi".<ref name="BFTP">{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=30 July 2011 |title=Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum 1965 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/kuzhandaiyum-deivamum-1965/article2308458.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301030247/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/kuzhandaiyum-deivamum-1965/article2308458.ece |archive-date=1 March 2014 |access-date=3 March 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]] was selected to play the male lead and was paid {{INRConvert|10000|year=1965}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=சரவணன் |first=ஏவி.எம். |author-link=M. Saravanan (producer) |date=18 March 2017 |title=36. குறைந்த சம்பளத்தில் நடித்த ஜெமினிகணேசன் |trans-title=36. Gemini Ganesan, who acted for a lower salary |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/CinemaNews/2017/03/17175005/At-low-wage-starring-jeminikanecan.vpf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109215638/https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/CinemaNews/2017/03/17175005/At-low-wage-starring-jeminikanecan.vpf |archive-date=9 November 2022 |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=[[Dina Thanthi]] |language=ta}}</ref> [[Kutty Padmini]] portrayed twin sisters; in the scenes where both characters appear, [[Split screen (video production)|split screen]] and [[body double]] techniques were used.{{sfn|Glaser|2022|p=110}} The climax was shot at [[Palani]].{{sfn|Saravanan|2013|p=158}}<ref name="kalki" /> A real snake was brought for filming at the time, but Padmini, unlike other South Indian child actors, was unafraid of the snake.<ref name="snake">{{Cite web |date=23 July 2016 |title=குட்டி பத்மினிக்கு நழுவ இருந்த விருதை இந்திரா காந்தி கொடுத்தார்: கன்னத்தில் முத்தம் கொடுத்து பாராட்டு |trans-title=Indira Gandhi gave Kutty Padmini the award that was about to slip away: She congratulated her with a kiss on the cheek |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinehistory/2016/07/23221741/1027772/Cine-History-Kutty-Padmini.vpf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250412154937/https://www.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinehistory/2016/07/23221741/1027772/Cine-History-Kutty-Padmini.vpf |archive-date=12 April 2025 |access-date=12 April 2025 |website=[[Maalai Malar]] |language=ta}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Soundtrack ==<br />
The music was composed by [[M. S. Viswanathan]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 November 1965 |title=Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/kuzhandaiyum-deivamum/SuRLJ1ZesbQ_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204174608/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/kuzhandaiyum-deivamum/SuRLJ1ZesbQ_ |archive-date=4 February 2019 |access-date=4 February 2019 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum Tamil Film EP Vinyl Record by M S Viswanathan |url=https://mossymart.com/product/kuzhandaiyum-deivamum-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-m-s-viswanathan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822085322/https://mossymart.com/product/kuzhandaiyum-deivamum-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-m-s-viswanathan/ |archive-date=22 August 2022 |access-date=22 August 2022 |website=Mossymart}}</ref> The song "Pazhamuthir Solaiyile" is set in the [[Abheri]] raga,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mani |first=Charulatha |author-link=Charulatha Mani |date=5 August 2011 |title=A Raga's Journey&nbsp;– Aspects of Abheri |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/a-ragas-journey-aspects-of-abheri/article2325286.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009045743/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/a-ragas-journey-aspects-of-abheri/article2325286.ece |archive-date=9 October 2015 |access-date=12 September 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>{{Sfn|Sundararaman|2007|p=153}} and "Enna Vegam Nillu Bhama" is set in [[Shivaranjani]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mani |first=Charulatha |author-link=Charulatha Mani |date=28 September 2012 |title=Sivaranjani for pathos |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/sivaranjani-for-pathos/article3945587.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009133841/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/sivaranjani-for-pathos/article3945587.ece |archive-date=9 October 2014 |access-date=21 February 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>{{Sfn|Sundararaman|2007|p=130}} The song "Anbulla Maanvizhiye" was remixed by Rafi in the film ''[[Jaggubhai]]'' (2010),<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pillai |first=Sreedhar |date=26 January 2010 |title=Gung-ho about Jaggubhai |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2010/01/26&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar02101 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221094708/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib%3ALowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text%2Fhtml&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH%2F2010%2F01%2F26&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar02101 |archive-date=21 February 2018 |access-date=21 February 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]] |pages=21}}</ref> and "Enna Vegam" was remixed by Mursak in ''[[Kadhal Meipada]]'' (2011).<ref>{{Cite news |last=கிருஷ்ணா |first=மனோஜ் |date=2 May 2009 |title=திரைக்கதிர்: என்ன கோபம் சொல்லு பாமா... |trans-title=Thiraikathir: Tell me what's wrong, Bama... |url=https://www.dinamani.com/weekly-supplements/dinamani-kathir/2009/may/02/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE-6987.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231218123718/https://www.dinamani.com/weekly-supplements/dinamani-kathir/2009/may/02/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE-6987.html |archive-date=18 December 2023 |access-date=19 December 2020 |work=[[Dinamani]] |language=Tamil}}</ref> [[Randor Guy]] of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote, "One of the major factors contributing to the success of the movie was its melodious music composed by M. S. Viswanathan. Many of the songs became hits and are still remembered today".<ref name="BFTP" /><br />
<br />
{{Track listing<br />
| headline = Track listing<br />
| extra_column = Singer(s)<br />
| title1 = Enna Vegam Nillu<br />
| note1 = <br />
| lyrics1 = [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]<br />
| music1 = <br />
| extra1 = [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[A. L. Raghavan]]<br />
| length1 = 4:42<br />
| title2 = Anbulla Maan Vizhiyae<br />
| note2 = <br />
| lyrics2 = Vaali<br />
| music2 = <br />
| extra2 = T. M. Soundararajan, [[P. Susheela]]<br />
| length2 = 4:47<br />
| title3 = Naan Nandri Solven<br />
| note3 = <br />
| lyrics3 = Vaali<br />
| music3 = <br />
| extra3 = [[M. S. Viswanathan]], P. Susheela<br />
| length3 = 3:48<br />
| title4 = Anbulla Mannavane<br />
| note4 = sad<br />
| lyrics4 = Vaali<br />
| music4 = <br />
| extra4 = T. M. Soundararajan, P. Susheela<br />
| length4 = 3:32<br />
| title5 = Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum<br />
| note5 = <br />
| lyrics5 = [[Kannadasan]]<br />
| music5 = <br />
| extra5 = P. Susheela<br />
| length5 = 3:57<br />
| title6 = Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum<br />
| note6 = campfire song<br />
| lyrics6 = Kannadasan<br />
| music6 = <br />
| extra6 = P. Susheela<br />
| length6 = 1:30<br />
| title7 = Pazhamuthir Solaiyilae<br />
| note7 = <br />
| lyrics7 = Vaali<br />
| music7 = <br />
| extra7 = P. Susheela<br />
| length7 = 4:12<br />
| title8 = Ahah Idhu Nalliravu<br />
| note8 = <br />
| lyrics8 = Kannadasan<br />
| music8 = <br />
| extra8 = [[L. R. Eswari]]<br />
| length8 = 4:04<br />
| title9 = Kozhi Oru Koottile<br />
| note9 = <br />
| lyrics9 = Kannadasan<br />
| music9 = <br />
| extra9 = [[M. S. Rajeswari]]<br />
| length9 = 2:54<br />
| total_length = 33:26 <!-- Automatically generated with User:JPxG/TrackSum.js --><br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Release and reception ==<br />
''Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum'' was released on 19 November 1965.<ref name="poster" /> The Tamil magazine ''[[Ananda Vikatan]]'', in a review dated 19 December 1965, applauded Padmini's performance and stated that she was the sole reason to watch the film, which the reviewer called childish.{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=190}} Writing for ''[[Sport and Pastime]]'', T. M. Ramachandran criticised the film's lack of originality, but called it a "clever adaptation" of ''The Parent Trap'', and described Padmini's dual role performance as the film's "[[wikt:pièce de résistance|pièce de résistance]]".<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Ramachandran |first=T. M. |date=18 December 1965 |title=Another Box-Office from A.V.M. |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12064/page/n671/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230309125726/https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12064/page/n671/mode/2up |archive-date=9 March 2023 |access-date=9 March 2023 |magazine=[[Sport and Pastime]] |page=51 |via=[[Internet Archive]] |volume=19}}</ref> ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' appreciated the cast performances, but criticised the film for lacking AVM's signature touch.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=12 December 1965 |title=குழந்தையும் தெய்வமும் |trans-title=Child and God |url=https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1965/dec/12-12-1965/p47.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220822085509/https://kalkionline.com/kalkionline_archive/imagegallery/archiveimages/kalki/1965/dec/12-12-1965/p47.jpg |archive-date=22 August 2022 |access-date=6 November 2021 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=47 |language=ta}}</ref> [[K. Kamaraj]], then the [[Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu]], appreciated the film mainly for the twins' performance, and was initially unaware they were played by the same actress.<ref name="snake" /> The film was a commercial success, running for over 100 days in theatres.<ref name="BFTP" /> At the [[13th National Film Awards]], it won in the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil|Best Tamil Film]] category.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recipients of State Awards for Films 1965 |url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/13th_NFA.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008121223/http://dff.nic.in/2011/13th_NFA.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2015 |access-date=4 February 2019 |website=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]] |page=31}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Remakes ==<br />
Krishnan–Panju remade the film twice; in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Leta Manasulu (1966 film)|Leta Manasulu]]'' (1966) and in [[Hindi]] as ''[[Do Kaliyan]]'' (1967).<ref name="BFTP" /> It was also remade in [[Malayalam]] as [[Sethubandhanam (film)|''Sethubandhanam'']] (1974) and in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Makkala Bhagya]]'' (1976).{{Sfn|Glaser|2022|p=111}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Dhananjayan |first=G. |author-link=G. Dhananjayan |title=Pride of Tamil Cinema: 1931–2013 |title-link=Pride of Tamil Cinema |publisher=Blue Ocean Publishers |year=2014 |oclc=898765509}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Glaser |first=Ed |title=How the World Remade Hollywood: Global Interpretations of 65 Iconic Films |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-4766-4467-7}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Saravanan |first=M. |author-link=M. Saravanan (producer) |title=AVM 60 Cinema |publisher=Rajarajan Pathippagam |year=2013 |edition=3rd |language=ta |oclc=1158347612 |orig-date=2005}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Sundararaman |title=Raga Chintamani: A Guide to Carnatic Ragas Through Tamil Film Music |publisher=Pichhamal Chintamani |year=2007 |edition=2nd |oclc=295034757 |orig-date=2005}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title}}<br />
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}<br />
<br />
{{AVM Productions}}<br />
{{Krishnan–Panju}}<br />
{{Lottie and Lisa}}<br />
{{NationalFilmAwardBestFeatureFilmTamil}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1960s children's drama films]]<br />
[[Category:1965 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:1965 Tamil-language films]]<br />
[[Category:1965 films]]<br />
[[Category:AVM Productions films]]<br />
[[Category:Best Tamil Feature Film National Film Award winners]]<br />
[[Category:Films about twin sisters]]<br />
[[Category:Films based on adaptations]]<br />
[[Category:Films based on Lottie and Lisa]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Krishnan–Panju]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by M. S. Viswanathan]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Madurai]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Singapore]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Tamil Nadu]]<br />
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Javar Seetharaman]]<br />
[[Category:Indian children's drama films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian remakes of American films]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:Twins in Indian films]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parattai_Engira_Azhagu_Sundaram&diff=460236Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram2026-03-03T04:38:01Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: general reworked page per sources and corrected details</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| image = Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram.jpg<br />
| caption = DVD cover<br />
| director = [[Suresh Krissna]]<br />
| writer = Rajkannan (dialogues)<br />
| screenplay = A. V. Durai Sahib<br />Sai Ramani<br />
| story = [[Prem (director)|Prem]]<br />
| producer = Yogesh K R<br />[[Keyaar]]<br />
| starring = [[Dhanush]]<br />[[Meera Jasmine]]<br />[[Archana (actress)|Archana]]<br />
| cinematography = [[Velraj]]<br />
| editing = Suraj Kavee<br />
|based_on = [[Jogi (2005 film)|Jogi]] by Prem<br />
| music = [[Gurukiran]]<br />
| studio = KR Infotainment Pvt. Ltd.<br />
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2007|04|27}}<br />
| runtime = 157 minutes<br />
| country = India<br />
| language = Tamil<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram''''' ({{translation|Azhagu Sundaram alias Parattai}}) is a 2007 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[crime action film]] directed by [[Suresh Krissna]]. The film stars [[Dhanush]], [[Meera Jasmine]] and [[Archana (actress)|Archana]]. A remake of the 2005 [[Kannada]] film ''[[Jogi (2005 film)|Jogi]]'', it revolves around a woman who comes to the city from her village in search of her presumably lost son. The film was released on 27 April 2007 and unlike its original version was a box-office failure.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhaskaran |first=Gautaman |date=27 March 2012 |title=Will Dhanush replace Rajinikanth as the new God? |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/will-dhanush-replace-rajinikanth-as-the-new-god/story-gzN5o1DBYoZaUQfbixgKSP.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510060813/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/will-dhanush-replace-rajinikanth-as-the-new-god/story-gzN5o1DBYoZaUQfbixgKSP.html |archive-date=10 May 2022 |access-date=4 June 2018 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Plot ==<br />
{{more plot|date=May 2022}}<br />
Azhagu Sundaram is a village bumpkin who comes from [[Tirunelveli]] to [[Chennai]] to earn money to buy gold bangles for his beloved mother Meenakshi. He gets entangled in the big bad world of dons and goondas and is unable to get back home to see his mother. On the other hand, Meenakshi lands up in Chennai in search of her son without even knowing his address or whereabouts. Meenakshi bumps into Shwetha, a journalism student who takes pity on her, takes her home, and promises to help her find her son. Azhagu is now known as Parattai in Chennai and is taken under the wings of Khader Bhai, a tea shop owner. Parattai is forced to take the [[aruval]] as gang wars erupt and single-handedly, he wipes out Deva, Kesavan and Suri, all dreaded criminals in the city. On parallel lines, he never sees his mother and finally accompanies her dead body to the [[crematorium]], thinking it is an orphan's corpse. He dances with others, offers flowers, and finally after her body is charred, he realises that it was his mother.<br />
<br />
== Cast ==<br />
{{cast listing|<br />
*[[Dhanush]] as Azhagu Sundaram (Parattai)<br />
*[[Meera Jasmine]] as Shwetha<br />
*[[Archana (actress)|Archana]] as Meenakshi, Azhagu Sundaram's mother <br />
*[[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] as Khader Bhai<br />
*[[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]] as Sannasi/Santosh<br />
*[[J. Livingston|Livingston]] as Azhagu Sundaram's father<br />
*[[Adithya (actor)|Adithya]] as Deva<br />
*[[Kadhal Dhandapani]] as Kesavan<br />
*[[Aryan (Tamil actor)|Aryan]] as Suri<br />
*[[Vidharth]] as Parattai's friend<br />
*Kadhal Arun Kumar as Chitti<br />
*Monisha Ravishankar as Shwetha's friend<br />
*[[Ajay Rathnam]]<br />
*[[Crane Manohar]]<br />
*[[Manobala]]<br />
*[[K. Natraj]]<br />
*[[Riyaz Khan]]<br />
*[[Mumaith Khan]] as [[item number]] ('Nee Rasthali')<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Production ==<!-- https://web.archive.org/web/20070409065923/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/19052006-4.shtml --><br />
<br />
[[Rajinikanth]] watched the Kannada film ''[[Jogi (2005 film)|Jogi]]'' and liked it. He encouraged his then son-in-law [[Dhanush]] to accept [[Keyaar]] to star in its Tamil remake. The film was titled ''Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram'', paying homage to Parattai, a character played by Rajinikanth in ''[[16 Vayathinile]]'' (1977).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-04-26 |title=Mother-son sentiment |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/article2244251.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524130428/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/article2244251.ece |archive-date=24 May 2015 |access-date=2025-02-25 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en }}</ref> When Rajinikanth initially wanted to portray the lead role, he approached [[Prem (director)|Prem]], the director of the original, to direct the remake, but Prem declined as he did not want to pander to the lead actor's popular image at the cost of [[Realism (arts)|realism]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=R |first=Manoj Kumar |date=2018-10-15 |title=When Villain director Prem said no to Rajinikanth |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/villain-director-prem-said-no-to-rajinikanth-jogi-5402662/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021154618/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/villain-director-prem-said-no-to-rajinikanth-jogi-5402662/ |archive-date=21 October 2018 |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> Dance choreographer [[Raju Sundaram]] was selected to direct the film but later he was replaced by [[Suresh Krissna]]. Sundaram opted out of the film due to his assignments as choreographer.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 October 2006 |title=Raju Sundaram removed from Dhanush's film! |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/10102006-1.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061106103151/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/10102006-1.shtml |archive-date=6 November 2006 |access-date=6 August 2024 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rasika |date=2 February 2007 |title=Raju Sundaram sticks to choreography |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Reeltalk/2007/01reel117.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213041856/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Reeltalk/2007/01reel117.asp |archive-date=2007-12-13 |access-date=2025-10-29 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref> The film was launched on 31 August 2006 with a [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]. Archana, who was part of the films directed by [[Balu Mahendra]] agreed to play the mother of Dhanush.<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2006 |title=Parattai Engira Azhagusundaram pooja / with pics |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/31082006-6.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018054812/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/31082006-6.shtml |archive-date=18 October 2006 |access-date=8 August 2024 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> To portray his role in the film, Dhanush grew his hair out.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=P.V. Sathish |date=1 September 2006 |title=Dhanush-starrer 'Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram launched |url=https://www.nowrunning.com/news/tamil/dhanush-starrer-parattai-engira-azhagu-sundaram-launched/7632/story.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730045622/https://www.nowrunning.com/news/tamil/dhanush-starrer-parattai-engira-azhagu-sundaram-launched/7632/story.htm |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=30 July 2022 |website=Nowrunning}}</ref> One of the songs was shot at [[Gingee Fort|Senji fort]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=18 March 2007 |title=தனுஷின் தசாவதாரம்! |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2007-03-18/page/n31/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240417161742/https://archive.org/details/kalki2007-03-18/page/n31/mode/2up |archive-date=17 April 2024 |access-date=17 April 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=30–31 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Soundtrack ==<br />
The music was composed by [[Gurukiran]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/04xArYI38L8w9JEPOs7th4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230411133948/https://open.spotify.com/album/04xArYI38L8w9JEPOs7th4 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |access-date=11 April 2023 |website=[[Spotify]]}}</ref> who retained the soundtrack of ''Jogi'' for this version too.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"<br />
! Song !! Singer(s) !! Lyrics !! Duration<br />
|-<br />
| "Chikku Bukku" || [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Priya Himesh]] || [[Viveka (lyricist)|Viveka]] || 4:25<br />
|-<br />
| "Engeda Azhagundhan" || [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], [[Rita (Indian singer)|Rita]] || rowspan=2|[[Na. Muthukumar]] || 5:19<br />
|-<br />
| "Adithadi" || Chandran, [[Vijay Yesudas]] || 3:59<br />
|-<br />
| "Nee Rasthali" || Chandran, [[Roshini (singer)|Roshini]] || [[Pa. Vijay]] || 4:15<br />
|-<br />
| "Ezezhu Jenmam" || [[Mohammed Aslam]] || rowspan=2|Na. Muthukumar || 4:59<br />
|-<br />
| "Aaru Padai Veedu" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] || 2:00<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Reception ==<br />
''[[Sify]]'' wrote, "''Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram'' is a steamy sob story harping on mother-son sentiments' reminding you of 60's tearjerker's laced with lot of violence and Rajnikanth's favourite director Suresh Krishna's presentation and direction is old fashioned, to put it mildly".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/parattai-engira-azhagu-sundaram-review-tamil-14439394.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207050739/http://www.sify.com/movies/parattai-engira-azhagu-sundaram-review-tamil-14439394.html |archive-date=7 December 2013 |access-date=14 August 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> Sriram Iyer of ''[[Rediff.com|Rediff]]'' wrote, "Director Suresh Krishna has relied on melodrama to make up for the story's deficiencies. Poor performances add to the film's low points".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Iyer |first=Sriram |date=27 April 2007 |title=Paratai is a letdown |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/apr/27sspar.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823072543/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/apr/27sspar.htm |archive-date=23 August 2022 |access-date=23 August 2022 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> Malathi Rangarajan of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote "`''Parattai ... ''<nowiki>'</nowiki> is remake of the Kannada `''Jogi''.' The original was a hit you hear, and that sets you wondering!"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=4 May 2007 |title=Action dons a sentimental garb – Parattai Engira Azhagu Sundaram |url=http://hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2007/05/04/stories/2007050400110200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014161425/http://hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2007/05/04/stories/2007050400110200.htm |archive-date=14 October 2007 |access-date=11 April 2023 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Lajjavathi of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised the acting of Dhanush and Livingston, music and cinematography but felt Krishna's screenplay lacked speed and concluded the suspense of whether mother and child will meet up to a certain point starts to creep up. The director who offered the affection may have added a little ecstasy.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=லஜ்ஜாவதி |date=20 May 2007 |title=பரட்டை என்கிற அழகு சுந்தரம் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2007-05-20/page/28/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240501160406/https://archive.org/details/kalki2007-05-20/page/28/mode/2up |archive-date=1 May 2024 |access-date=1 May 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=28–29 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*{{IMDb title}}<br />
*{{Rotten Tomatoes}}<br />
<br />
{{Suresh Krissna}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2000s crime action films]]<br />
[[Category:2000s gangster films]]<br />
[[Category:2007 Indian films]]<br />
[[Category:2007 Tamil-language films]]<br />
[[Category:2007 films]]<br />
[[Category:Films about organised crime in India]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Suresh Krissna]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Gurukiran]]<br />
[[Category:Indian crime action films]]<br />
[[Category:Indian gangster films]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil remakes of Kannada films]]<br />
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uttaranchal_University&diff=542982Uttaranchal University2026-02-28T10:14:29Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Creating initial info w/ sources</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian University}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox university<br />
| name = Uttaranchal University<br />
| image = Logo Uttaranchal University.svg<br />
| image_size = 250px<br />
| caption = <br />
| motto = For the Excellence Within "U"<br />
| established = 2013<br />
| chancellor = Jitender Joshi<br />
| vice_chancellor = Dharam Buddhi<ref>{{cite web|title=Vice Chancellor's Message|url=https://uttaranchaluniversity.ac.in/about-uu/messages/vice-chancellors-message/|website=Uttaranchal University|access-date=12 Jan 2022}}</ref><br />
| type = [[Private university|Private]] [[research university]]<br />
| students = <br />
| undergrad = <br />
| postgrad = <br />
| doctoral = <br />
| city = [[Dehradun]]<br />
| state = [[Uttarakhand]]<br />
| country = [[India]]<br />
| coordinates = <br />
| campus = Urban<br />
| campus_size = over {{convert|70|acre}}<br />
| website = {{URL|https://uudoon.in/}}<br />
| logo = <br />
| dean = <br />
| faculty = <br />
| staff = <br />
| accreditation = [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]] A+<br />
| affiliations = {{hlist|[[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]|[[Association of Indian Universities|AIU]]|[[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Uttaranchal University campus.jpg|thumb|right|Uttaranchal University campus]]<br />
'''Uttaranchal University''' is a [[State Private University|state private university]] located at [[Dehradun]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[India]] near Indian Military Academy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ugc.ac.in/privateuniversitylist.aspx?id=34&Unitype=3|title=UGC Approval}}</ref> It was established by an Act of the [[Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]] under Smt Shushila Devi education foundation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uttaranchaluniversity.ac.in/about-uu/statutory-approvals/|title = Statutory Approvals}}</ref><ref>https://governoruk.gov.in/files/Uttaranchal_university_final.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjVyfy5nuDrAhXs63MBHY8cDsMQFjABegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw08F8FG7O1ssUuoDi_qDyzp{{Dead link|date=February 2022}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Academic profile==<br />
The Uttaranchal University has been recognized by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]] under sections 2(f) and 12(B) of the UGC Act, 1956.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uudoon.in/about/accrediations-approvals.php | title=Statutory Approvals }}</ref> The University is made up of several faculties and departments. The departments are governed by statutes and regulations promulgated by the University Grants Commission, Government of India.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uudoon.in/academics/colleges-and-departments.php | title=Colleges & Departments at Uttaranchal University }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Awards ==<br />
<br />
* 'Uttarakhand Udai Ratna': Awarded by ''Amar Ujala''.<br />
* 'The Amar Ujala Achievers’ Award': Conferred upon the university.<br />
* 'Best Law College' Award: Law College Dehradun received this accolade from ''Divya Himgiri''.<br />
* 'Best Private University' Award: Bestowed by ''Divya Himgiri''.<br />
* 'Jagran Excellence Award': Presented by the ''Jagran Prakashan Group''.<br />
<br />
===Accreditation===<br />
Uttaranchal University has been also accredited with [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]] Grade A+.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uudoon.in/about/accrediations-approvals.php | title=Statutory Approvals }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Constituent Colleges==<br />
* Law College Dehradun (LCD)<br />
* Uttaranchal Institute of Technology (UIT)<br />
* Uttaranchal Institute of Management (UIM)<br />
* Uttaranchal Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS)<br />
* School of Applied & Life Sciences (SALS)<br />
* School of Agriculture (SOA)<br />
* School of Liberal Arts (SLA)<br />
* Uttaranchal College of Nursing (UCN)<br />
* Uttaranchal School of Computing Science (USCS)<br />
* Uttaranchal School of Journalism & Mass Communication (USJMC)<br />
* Uttaranchal School of Hotel & Hospitality Management (USHHM)<br />
* Uttaranchal College of Health Sciences (UCHS)<br />
* Uttaranchal College of Online & Distance Education (UCODE)<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{official|http://uttaranchaluniversity.ac.in}}<br />
<br />
{{Dehradun}}<br />
{{Universities in Uttarakhand}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Universities in Uttarakhand]]<br />
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Dehradun]]<br />
[[Category:2013 establishments in Uttarakhand]]<br />
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2013]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=KSR_Bangalore%E2%80%93Gandhidham_Express&diff=507149KSR Bangalore–Gandhidham Express2026-02-26T06:41:42Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Starting some post from scratch</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Train in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox rail service<br />
| name = Gandhidham–KSR Bengaluru Express<br />
| image = <br />
| image_width = <br />
| caption = <br />
| type = [[Express trains in India|Express]]<br />
| locale = <br />
| first = {{start date and age|df=yes|2002|07|11}}<br />
| last =<br />
| operator = [[South Western Railway zone|South Western Railway]]<br />
| ridership =<br />
| start = {{stnlnk|Gandhidham Junction}} (GIMB)<br />
| stops = 30<br />
| end = {{stnlnk||KSR Bengaluru}} (SBC)<br />
| distance = {{convert|1954|km|0|abbr=on}}<br />
| journeytime = 38 hrs 10 mins<br />
| frequency = Weekly {{efn|Runs one day in a week for every direction.}}<br />
| class = AC 1st Class, AC 2 tier, AC 3 tier, Sleeper class, General Unreserved<br />
| seating = Yes<br />
| sleeping = Yes<br />
| autorack = <br />
| catering = On-board catering <br> E-catering<br />
| observation = Large windows <br />
| entertainment = <br />
| baggage = Available<br />
| otherfacilities = Below the seats<br />
| stock = [[LHB coach]]<br />
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}<br />
| electrification = <br />
| trainnumber = 16505 / 16506<br />
| speed = {{convert|51|km/h|0|abbr=on}} average including halts<br />
| map = [[File:(Gandhidham - Bengaluru) Express route map.png|250px]]<br />
| map_state =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The 16505 / 16506 '''Gandhidham–KSR Bengaluru Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train belonging to [[South Western Railway zone]] that runs between {{stnlnk|Gandhidham Junction}} and {{stnlnk|KSR Bengaluru}} in India. It is currently being operated with 16505/16506 train numbers on a weekly basis.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/surat/train-driver-injured-in-stone-pelting-complaint-lodged/articleshow/57657779.cms Train driver injured in stone-pelting, complaint lodged]</ref><ref>[http://www.wr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&dcd=2870&id=0,4,268 NEW MAIN LINE TIME TABLE WITH MAJOR INITIATIVES RELEASED BY WESTERN RAILWAY GM]</ref><ref>[http://www.swr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&id=0,4,268&dcd=605&did=140263641540077CE9FF8D0174961DD28BF3BE64B29FC.web91 PR81-EXTENSION OF PERIOD OF TEMPORARY STOPPAGES PROVIDED AT VARIOUS STATIONS ]</ref><br />
<br />
== Service==<br />
<br />
*The 16505/Gandhidham–KSR Bengaluru Express has an average speed of 46&nbsp;km/h and covers 1955&nbsp;km in 42 hrs 15 mins.<br />
*The 16506/KSR Bengaluru–Gandhidham Express has an average speed of 51&nbsp;km/h and covers 1955&nbsp;km in 38 hrs 40 mins.<br />
<br />
== Route and halts ==<br />
<br />
The important halts of the train are:<br />
<br />
* '''{{stnlnk|Gandhidham Junction}}'''<br />
* {{stnlnk|Ahmedabad Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Vadodara Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Surat}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Vasai Road}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Bhiwandi Road}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Kalyan Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Karjat}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Lonavala}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Pune Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Satara}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Miraj Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Belagavi}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Londa Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Dharwad}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Hubballi Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Arsikere Junction}}<br />
* {{stnlnk|Yesvantpur Junction}}<br />
* '''{{stnlnk|Bangalore City||KSR Bengaluru City}}'''<br />
<br />
==Coach composition==<br />
<br />
Earlier was ICF rakes, and now The train has standard [[LHB coach|LHB rakes]] with a maximum speed of 110&nbsp;km/h. The train consists of 22 coaches:<br />
<br />
* 1 AC I Tier<br />
* 2 AC II Tier<br />
* 6 AC III Tier<br />
* 7 Sleeper coaches<br />
* 2 General Unreserved<br />
* 1 Seating cum Luggage Rake<br />
* 1 Pantry car<br />
* 2 Generator Cars (EOG)<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders unsortable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|-<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| Loco<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 1<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 2<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 3<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 4<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 5<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 6<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 7<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 8<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 9<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 10<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 11<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 12<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 13<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 14<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 15<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 16<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 17<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 18<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 19<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 20<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 21<br />
!scope="col" rowspan="1" style="background:lightskyblue;"| 22<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:BSicon LDER.svg|25px]] ||SLR||EOG||GEN||H1||A1||A2||B1||B2||B3||B4||B5||B6||S1||S2||S3||PC||S4||S5||S6||S7||GEN||EOG<br />
|}<br />
As is customary with most train services in India, coach composition may be amended at the discretion of Indian Railways depending on demand.<br />
<br />
==Schedule==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Train number !! Station code !! Departure station !! Departure time !! Departure day !! Arrival station !! Arrival time !! Arrival day <br />
|-<br />
| 16505 || GIMB || Gandhidham Junction || 09:00 AM || Tue || Bangalore City || 03:15 AM || Thu<br />
|-<br />
| 16506 || SBC || Bangalore City || 10:20 PM || Sat || Gandhidham Junction || 11:00 AM || Mon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Traction==<br />
<br />
earlier first run was with [[WDP-4]]. Both trains are hauled by a [[Diesel Loco Shed, Krishnarajapuram|Krishnarajapuram loco shed]] based [[WAP-7]] Electric locomotive from [[KSR Bengaluru]] to [[Gandhidham]] and vice versa.<br />
<br />
== Rake sharing ==<br />
<br />
The train shares its rake with; <br />
* 16573/16574 [[Yesvantpur–Puducherry Weekly Express]], <br />
* 16533/16534 [[Jodhpur–Bangalore City Express (via Guntakal)]],<br />
* 16533/16534 [[Ajmer–Bangalore City Garib Nawaz Express]] <br />
* 16507/16508 [[Jodhpur–Bangalore City Express (via Hubballi)]].<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
* [[Bangalore City railway station]]<br />
* [[Gandhidham Junction railway station]]<br />
* [[Yesvantpur–Puducherry Weekly Express]]<br />
* [[Jodhpur–Bangalore City Express (via Guntakal)]]<br />
* [[Ajmer–Bangalore City Garib Nawaz Express]]<br />
* [[Jodhpur–Bangalore City Express (via Hubballi)]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
<br />
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/142 16505/Gandhidham–KSR Bengaluru Express] India Rail Info<br />
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/466 16506/KSR Bengaluru–Gandhidham Express] India Rail Info<br />
<br />
{{Railways in Southern India}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gandhidham-Bangalore City Express}}<br />
[[Category:Transport in Gandhidham]]<br />
[[Category:Transport in Bengaluru]]<br />
[[Category:Express trains in India]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Gujarat]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Maharashtra]]<br />
[[Category:Rail transport in Karnataka]]<br />
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 2002]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{India-express-train-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shan_people&diff=473367Shan people2026-02-24T23:42:53Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: add layout for clarity and cleaned formatting</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Southeast Asian ethnic group}}<br />
{{Redirect-distinguish-text|Tai Yai|[[Tai Ya]] or [[Tayal]]. For other uses of ''Shan'', see [[Shan (disambiguation)|Shan]]}}<br />
{{Infobox ethnic group<br />
| group = Tai Shan<br />တႆး<br />Tai Yai<br />
| image = [[File:NarngSaoTai.jpg|200px|center]]<br />
| caption = Shan woman from [[Lai-Hka]], [[Shan State]]<br />
| pop = {{circa}} 5 million + (est.)<ref name=POTWF/><ref name="CIA geos"/><br />
| region1 = {{flag|Myanmar}}<br>(mainly {{flag|Shan State}})<br />
| pop1 = 5 million{{efn|According to the [[CIA Factbook]], the Shan make up 9% of the total population of Myanmar (55 million) or approximately 5 million people.}}<br />
| ref1 = <ref name="CIA geos">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |publisher=cia.gov |access-date=24 January 2018 |title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201171209/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burma/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
| rels = Majority: [[Theravada Buddhism]], [[Tai folk religion]] <br/><br />
| langs = [[Shan language|Shan]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Northern Thai language|Northern Thai]], [[Thai language|Thai]]<br />
| related = [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]], [[Dai people|Chinese Shan]], [[Lao people|Tai Lao]], [[Nung people|Nung]], [[Bouyei people|Bouyei]], [[Kam people|Dong]], [[Thai people|Tai Thai]], [[Ahom people|Tai Ahom]],<br />
}}<br />
{{Contains special characters|Burmese}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Felice Beato (British, born Italy - Shan Beauty - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|280x280px|1889 photograph of a Shan woman]]<br />
<br />
The '''Shan people''' ({{langx|shn|တႆး}}, {{IPA|shn|taj˥|pron}}, or {{langx|my|ရှမ်းလူမျိုး}}, {{IPA|my|ʃáɰ̃ lùmjó|pron}}), also known as the '''Tai Long''' (တႆးလူင်, {{IPA|[taj˥.loŋ˨˦]|}}) or '''Tai Yai''', are a [[Tai peoples|Tai ethnic group]] of [[Southeast Asia]]. The Shan are the biggest minority of [[Burma]] ([[Myanmar]])<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Shan {{!}} people|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shan|access-date=2020-08-26|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=2020-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004170712/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shan|url-status=live}}</ref> and primarily live in the [[Shan State]], but also inhabit parts of [[Mandalay Region]], [[Kachin State]], [[Kayah State]], [[Sagaing Region]] and [[Kayin State]], and in adjacent regions of [[China]] ([[Dai people]]), [[Laos]], [[Assam]] and [[Meghalaya]] ([[Ahom people]]), [[Cambodia]] ([[Kula people]]), [[Vietnam]] and [[Thailand]].<ref>Sao Sāimöng, ''The Shan States and the British Annexation''. Cornell University, Cornell, 1969 (2nd ed.)</ref> Though no reliable census has been taken in Burma since 1935, the Shan are estimated to number 4–6 million,<ref name=POTWF>{{cite web|title=The Shan People|url=http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/text?people=Shan|website=The Peoples of the World Foundation|access-date=2015-01-16|archive-date=2016-03-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314045020/http://peoplesoftheworld.org/text?people=Shan|url-status=live}}</ref> with [[CIA Factbook]] giving an estimate of five million spread throughout Myanmar<ref name="CIA geos"/> which is about 10% of the overall Burmese population.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news|date=2007-08-30|title=Factbox: The Shan, Myanmar's largest minority|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-shan-factbox-idUSBKK22090520070830|access-date=2020-08-26|archive-date=2021-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929234107/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-shan-factbox-idUSBKK22090520070830|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
'Shan' is a generic term for all [[Tai peoples|Tai-speaking peoples]] within Myanmar (Burma). The capital of Shan State is [[Taunggyi]], the fifth-largest city in Myanmar with about 390,000 people. Other major cities include [[Thibaw (Shan State)|Thibaw]] (Hsipaw), [[Lashio]], [[Kengtung]] and [[Tachileik]].<br />
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== Etymology ==<br />
The Shan use the endonym '''Tai''' (တႆး) in reference to themselves, which is also used in Chinese ({{lang-zh|c=傣族|p=Dǎizú|s=|t=}}).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sao Tern Moeng|title=Shan–English Dictionary|publisher=Dunwoody Press|year=1995|isbn=0-931745-92-6}}</ref><br />
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'''Shan''' (ရှမ်း) is an [[Exonym and endonym|exonym]] from the [[Burmese language]]; the term itself was historically spelt သျှမ်း ([[MLC Transcription System|MLCTS]]: ''hsyam:''), and is cognate with the term "[[Siam]]," the former name of Thailand.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Pain |first=Frédéric |date=2008 |title=An Introduction to Thai Ethnonymy: Examples from Shan and Northern Thai |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608449 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=641–662 |jstor=25608449 |issn=0003-0279}}</ref> The term is extant to [[Old Burmese]], first attested to a [[Pagan kingdom|Bagan era]] inscription from 1120, where it referred to Tai-speaking populations east of the kingdom.<ref name=":1" /> "Shan" has also been borrowed into Chinese ({{lang-zh|c=掸族|p=Shànzú|s=|t=}}).<br />
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In [[Thai language|Thai]], the Shan are called '''Tai Yai''' (ไทใหญ่, {{Lit|Great Tai}})<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A48403.0001.001/1:4.2?rgn=div2;view=fulltext|title=A New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam|chapter=Chap. II. A Continuation of the Geographical Description of the Kingdom of Siam, with an Account of its Metropolis.|last1=de La Loubère|first1=Simon|translator=A.P.|date=1693|access-date=2021-04-01|archive-date=2021-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924033514/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A48403.0001.001/1:4.2?rgn=div2;view=fulltext|url-status=live}}</ref> or ''Ngiao'' ({{langx|th|เงี้ยว}}) in [[Northern thai language|Tai yuan language]]. The Shan also have a number of exonyms in other minority languages, including [[Pa'O language|Pa'O]]: ဖြဝ်ꩻ, [[Western Pwo Karen language|Western Pwo Karen]]: ၥဲၫ့, and [[Mon language|Mon]] သေံဇၞော် {{audio|LL-Q13349 (mnw)-咽頭べさ-သေံဇၞော်.wav|listen}} (''seṃ jnok)''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shorto|first=H.L.|title=Dictionary of Modern Spoken Mon|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1962}}</ref><br />
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==Sub-ethnicity==<br />
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===Major subdivisions===<br />
The major groups of Shan people are:<br />
# '''Tai Yai''' ([[Shan language|Shan]]: {{lang|my|တႆးယႂ်ႇ}}) or '''Thai Yai''' ({{langx|th|ไทใหญ่}}); the 'Shan Proper', by far the largest group, by which all Shan people are known in the [[Thai language]].<br />
# '''[[Tai Lue people|Tai Lü]]''' or '''Tai Lue''' ([[Shan language|Shan]]: {{lang|my|တႆးလိုဝ်ႉ}}). Its traditional area is in [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture|Xishuangbanna]] ([[China]]) and the eastern states.<br />
# '''Tai Khuen''' or '''Tai Khün''' ([[Shan language|Shan]]: {{lang|my|တႆးၶိုၼ်}}), a subgroup of the Tai Yai making up the majority in the [[Keng Tung]] area. The former ruling family of [[Kengtung State]] belonged to this group.<br />
# '''[[Tai Nüa people|Tai Nüa]]''' or ''Tai Neua'', ([[Shan language|Shan]]: {{lang|my|တႆးၼိူဝ်}}). The 'upper' or 'northern Tai'. This group lives north of the [[Shweli River]], mostly in the area of [[Dehong]], China.<br />
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The speakers of Shan, Lue, Khun and Nua languages form the majority of [[Dai people|Dai nationality]] in [[China]].<br />
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===Other Tai Shan groups===<br />
There are various ethnic groups designated as ''Tai'' throughout [[Shan State]], [[Sagaing Region|Northern Sagaing Division]] and [[Kachin State]]. Some of these groups in fact speak [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] and [[Mon Khmer|Mon-Khmer]] and [[Assamese language|Assamese languages]], although they are assimilated into Shan society.<ref name="TK">Edmondson, Jerold A. 2008. "Shan and other Northern Tier Southeast Tai languages of Myanmar and China: Themes and Variations." In Diller, Anthony, Jerold Edmondson, & Yongxian Luo, (eds.) ''The Tai–Kadai languages''. London: Routledge.</ref><br />
* '''[[Tai Ahom people]]''': The Tai Ahom people live in India's northeastern state of [[Assam]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] where tradition says that they established the [[Ahom kingdom]], or Mueng Doon Soon Kham, and ruled for almost 600 years (1228–1826). They now speak the [[Assamese language]] with the [[Ahom language]] falling into disuse by the 19th century.<br />
* '''Tai Mao''', living in the area along the banks of the [[Shweli River]] (Nam Mao). Chinese Shan language is also known as (Tai) Mao, referring to the old Shan State of [[Mong Mao]].<br />
* '''[[Khamti people|Tai Khamti]]'''. The Tai Khamti an [[outlier]] group speaking the [[Khamti language]]. Traditionally they lived in the northernmost and westernmost edges of Shan-settled areas, such as [[Hkamti Long|Putao-O]], [[Kachin State]]. Part of the Tai Khamti were once ruled by the [[Mongkawng]] Shan.<br />
* '''[[Tai Laing language|Tai Laing]]''', '''Tai Leng''', or '''Shan-ni''' ({{lit|red Shan}}), a Tai group living north of [[Myitkyina]] in the Kachin / Shan State border area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shanniyouth.blogspot.com/2012/01/taileng-nationalities-development-party.html|title=သျှမ်းနီလူငယ်: သျှမ်းနီလူမျိုးတို့၏ အိုးစည်နိုင်ငံတော် Country of Drum|first=Kyar|last=Pauk|date=24 January 2012|work=ShanniYouth.Blogspot.com|access-date=24 March 2017|archive-date=24 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324174709/http://shanniyouth.blogspot.com/2012/01/taileng-nationalities-development-party.html|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
* '''Tai Ting''', a group living around the confluence of the [[Ting River|Ting]] and [[Salween]] rivers, just to the west of [[Gengma County]], [[Yunnan]], China.<br />
* '''Tai Taɯ''': ''Taɯ'' means 'under' or 'south.' This group lives in southern Shan State.<br />
* '''Tai Nui''', a group living to the south and east of Kengtung town.<br />
* '''[[Tai Phake people|Tai Phake]]'''. Related to the Tai Khamti, this group has a significant presence in [[Assam]], India.<br />
* '''Tai Saʔ'''. The Tai Saʔ speak a variety of Ngochang ([[Achang language|Achang]]), but are part of mainstream Shan society.<br />
* '''Tai Loi'''. The Tai Loi speak a [[Palaungic languages|Palaungic language]] resembling De'ang (especially the Bulei dialect of Yunnan) and Silver Palaung. They take part in mainstream Shan society.<br />
* '''[[Tai Dam people|Tai Dam]]''': Also known as the "[[Tai Dam people|Black Tai]]."<br />
* '''[[Tai Dón people|Tai Dón]]''': Also known as the "White Tai".<br />
* '''[[Achang people|Maingtha]]''', a Shan group that speaks a Northern [[Burmish language]]<ref name="Sawada2017">Sawada, Hideo. 2017. ''Two Undescribed Dialects of Northern Burmish Sub-branch: Gyannoʔ and Thoʔlhang''. Presented at ICSTLL 50, Beijing, China.</ref><br />
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==Religion and culture==<br />
The majority of Shan are [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhists]], and [[Tai folk religion]]. The Shan constitute one of the four main Buddhist ethnic groups in Burma; the others are the [[Bamar]], the [[Mon people|Mon]] and the [[Rakhine people|Rakhine]]. The Mon were the main source of early Shan Buddhism and [[Shan script]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scott|first=George|date=1911|title=Buddhism in the Shan States|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland|volume=43|issue=4|pages=917–934|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00042295|s2cid=163824875}}</ref> <br />
Among the Shan Buddhists in both Burma and [[Yunnan]] are the [[Tai Zawti|Zawti sect]], an austere sect of [[Theravada]] Buddhism whose practitioners are distinguished by their use of palm leaf texts in home altars instead of Buddha images.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who are the Tai Zawti? Hidden in Plain Sight |author=Porter, Olivia |date=2021 |url=https://blogs.ed.ac.uk/ukabs2021/wp-content/uploads/sites/4648/2021/06/Olivia-Porter-UKABS-Poster-Presentation-2021.pdf |access-date=November 11, 2025}}</ref><br />
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Most Shan speak the [[Shan language]] and are bilingual in [[Burmese language|Burmese]]. The Shan language, spoken by about 5 or 6 million, is closely related to [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Lao language|Lao]], and is part of the family of [[Tai languages]].<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=shn Shan language page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929065106/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=shn |date=2012-09-29 }} from Ethnologue</ref> It is spoken in [[Shan State]], some parts of [[Kachin State]], some parts of [[Sagaing Division]] in Burma, parts of [[Yunnan]], and in parts of northwestern Thailand, including [[Mae Hong Son Province]] and [[Chiang Mai Province]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=shn |title=Shan: A language of Myanmar |access-date=2006-12-02 |work=Ethnologue |archive-date=2012-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929065106/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=shn |url-status=live }}</ref> The two major dialects differ in number of [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]]: [[Hsenwi]] Shan has six tones, while [[Mongnai]] Shan has five.<ref name="dalby">{{cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages |year=2004 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11569-8 }}</ref> The [[Shan alphabet]] is an adaptation of the [[Mon–Burmese script]] via the [[Burmese alphabet]].<ref name="dalby"/> However, only a few Shan can read and write in their own language. Shan state is the most illiterate state with over a million illiterates in Myanmar due to lack of basic infrastructures and [[Myanmar conflict|long ongoing civil war]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Myanmar 2014 census dashboard |url=https://themimu.info/Census_2014_SR_dashboard |access-date=2024-05-31 |archive-date=2020-02-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229203934/https://themimu.info/Census_2014_SR_dashboard |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
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The Shan are traditionally [[Paddy field|wet-rice]] cultivators, shopkeepers, and [[artisan]]s.<ref>Susan Conway, '''The Shan: Culture, Art and Crafts''' (Bangkok, 2006).</ref><br />
{|<br />
|- valign="top"<br />
|[[File:CVK-Nam Ngiao43.JPG|thumb|230px|[[Nam ngiao]], a Shan dish]]<br />
|[[File:A Shan ceremony.jpg|thumb|230px|A Shan deer dance ceremony in the early 1900s]]<br />
|[[File:Shan peacock dance.jpg|thumb|240px|The Shan [[kinnara]] and kinnari dance]]<br />
|[[File:Shan Htamin.jpg|thumb|Shan style pounded oily rice served on a banana leaf with garlicky roots]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
{{see also|Shan States|List of Shan states and rulers}}<br />
<br />
The [[Tai peoples|Tai-Shan]] people are believed to have migrated from [[Yunnan]] in [[China]]. The Shan are descendants of the oldest branch of the Tai-Shan, known as ''Tai Luang'' ('Great Tai') or Tai Yai ('Big Tai'). The Tai-Shan who migrated to the south and now inhabit modern-day [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]] are known as ''Tai Noi'' (or ''Tai Nyai''), while those in parts of northern Thailand and Laos are commonly known as ''Tai Noi'' ('Little Tai' – Lao spoken)<ref name="nisbet">{{cite book |last=Nisbet |first=John |title=Burma under British Rule – and before|volume= 2 |year= 2005|publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |isbn=978-1-4021-5293-1 | page=414 }}</ref> The Shan have inhabited the [[Shan Hills|Shan Plateau]] and other parts of modern-day [[Myanmar|Burma]] as far back as the 10th century CE. The Shan kingdom of [[Mong Mao]] (Muang Mao) existed as early as the 10th century CE but became a Burmese [[vassal]] state during the reign of King [[Anawrahta]] of [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan]] (1044–1077).<br />
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After the [[Pagan Kingdom]] fell to the [[Mongols]] in 1287, the Shan chiefs quickly gained power throughout central Burma, and founded:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100"|State<br />
! width="250"|Peak territory<br />
! width="100"|Duration<br />
! width="400"|Notes<br />
|-<br />
| [[Myinsaing Kingdom|Myinsaing]]–[[Pinya Kingdom]] (1297–1364)<br />
| Central Burma<br />
| 1297–1364<br />
| Founded by three Shan brothers named [[Athinkhaya]], [[Yazathingyan]] and [[Thihathu]], and the minor kingdom was a predecessor to [[Ava Kingdom]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Sagaing Kingdom]]<ref name=app-ava>{{cite book | title=History of Burma | author=Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. Phayre | year=1967 | pages=282–285 | edition=2nd | publisher=Susil Gupta | location=London}}</ref><br />
| Central Burma<br />
| 1315–1364<br />
| [[Thihathu]] was a co-founder of the Myinsaing Kingdom and the founder of the Pinya Kingdom, and the minor kingdom was a predecessor to Ava Kingdom.<br />
|-<br />
| [[Confederation of Shan States]]<br />
| Upper Burma<br />
| 1527–1555<br />
| A group of Shan States led by [[Sawlon]], [[Saopha]] of [[Mohnyin]] conquered the Ava Kingdom in 1527 and ruled Upper Burma until 1555<br />
|-<br />
| [[History of Shan States|Shan States]] (Princely states)<br />
| Shan States<br />
| 1215–1885, 1948–1959<br />
| Princely Shan States<br />
|-<br />
| British Shan States / [[Federated Shan States]]<br />
| Shan States<br />
| 1885–1922, 1922–1948<br />
| Princely Shan States of [[British Burma]] were nominally sovereign [[princely states]], but they were subject to British Crown.<ref>Great Britain India Office. ''The Imperial Gazetteer of India.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908.</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924077742959/cu31924077742959_djvu.txt Census of India 1901 – Burma]</ref><br />
|}<br />
Many [[Kingdom of Ava|Ava]] and [[Hanthawaddy Kingdom|Pegu]] kings of Burmese history between the 13th–16th centuries were of (partial) Shan descent. The kings of Ava fought kings of Pegu for control of the [[Irrawaddy River|Irrawaddy]] valley. Various Shan states fought Ava for the control of [[Upper Burma]]. The states of [[Mohnyin Township|Monyhin]] (Mong Yang) and [[Mogaung]] were the strongest of the Shan States. Monhyin-led [[Confederation of Shan States]] defeated Ava in 1527, and ruled all of Upper Burma until 1555.<ref name=hb-95>{{cite book | title=A History of Burma | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofburma00htin | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofburma00htin/page/95 95] | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=New York and London | year=1967 | author=Maung Htin Aung | author-link=Htin Aung}}</ref><br />
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The Burmese king [[Bayinnaung]] conquered all of the Shan states in 1557.<ref name=app-108>{{cite book | title=History of Burma | author=Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. Phayre | year=1967 | pages=108–109 | edition=2 | publisher=Susil Gupta | location=London}}</ref> Although the Shan states would become a tributary to Irrawaddy valley based Burmese kingdoms from then on, the Shan [[Saopha]]s retained a large degree of autonomy. Throughout the Burmese feudal era, Shan states supplied much manpower in the service of Burmese kings. Without Shan manpower, it would have been harder for the [[Burmans]] alone to achieve their victories in [[Lower Burma]], [[Siam]], and elsewhere. Shans were a major part of Burmese forces in the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] of 1824–1826, and fought valiantly—a fact even the British commanders acknowledged.<ref name=rlf-123>{{cite book | title=The River of Lost Footsteps Histories of Burma | pages=123–124 | author=Thant Myint-U | year=2006 | publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | isbn=978-0-374-16342-6}}</ref><br />
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In the latter half of the 19th century Shan people migrated into [[Northern Thailand]] reaching [[Phrae Province]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thailandsworld.com/en/thai-people/north-thailand-people/shan-people-thailand/index.cfm|title=Thailand's World: Shan People Thailand|work=ThailandsWorld.com|access-date=24 March 2017|archive-date=22 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422045313/http://www.thailandsworld.com/en/thai-people/north-thailand-people/shan-people-thailand/index.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> The Shan population in Thailand is concentrated mainly in [[Chiang Rai city|Chiang Rai]], [[Chiang Mai]], [[Mae Hong Son]], [[Mae Sariang District|Mae Sariang]], [[Mae Sai District|Mae Sai]] and [[Lampang]], where there are groups which settled long ago and built their own communities and temples. Shan people are known as "Tai Yai" in north Thailand, where the word ''Shan'' is very seldom used to refer to them.<ref>[http://www.chiangraiprovince.com/guide/index.php?page=p40_13 History of Lanna – From Dark Times to Modern Times] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110085946/http://www.chiangraiprovince.com/guide/index.php?page=p40_13 |date=2014-01-10 }}</ref><br />
<br />
After the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]] in 1885, the [[British Empire|British]] gained control of the [[Shan States|Shan states.]] Under the British colonial administration, the [[Shan States|Shan principalities]] were administered separately as British protectorates with limited monarchical powers invested in the Shan [[Saopha]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mackerras |first=Colin |title=Ethnicity in Asias |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-25816-6 |year=2003 }}</ref><br />
<br />
After [[World War II]], the Shan and other ethnic minority leaders negotiated with the majority [[Bamar]] leadership at the [[Panglong Conference]], and agreed to gain independence from Britain as part of [[Burma|Union of Burma]]. The Shan states were given the option to secede after 10 years of independence. The Shan states became Shan State in 1948 as part of the newly independent Burma.<br />
<br />
General [[Ne Win]]'s [[coup d'état]] overthrew the democratically elected government in 1962, and abolished Shan saopha system.<br />
<br />
==Conflict in Shan State==<br />
{{Infobox military conflict<br />
| conflict = Shan conflict<br />
| partof = the [[Myanmar conflict]]<br />
| date = 21 May 1958 – present<br />
| place = [[Shan State]], [[Myanmar]]<br />
| status = ongoing<br />
| combatant1 = *{{flagicon|Myanmar}}'''[[Myanmar]]'''<br />
** {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Armed_Forces_(Tatmadaw)_of_Myanmar.svg}}[[Tatmadaw]]<br />
** {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Myanmar_Police_Force.svg}}[[Myanmar Police Force]]<br />
----<br />
* {{flagicon image|United_Wa_State_Army_flag.png}}[[United Wa State Army|UWSA]] (from 1989)<br />
| combatant2 = *{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Shan_State_Army.svg}}[[Shan State Army|SSA]](1964–1975)<br />
* {{flagicon image|Shan_United_Revolutionary_Army_flag.png}}[[Shan United Revolutionary Army|SURA]](1960–1966)<br />
* {{flagicon image|Mong_Tai_Army_flag.svg}}[[Mong Tai Army|MTA]](1985–1996)<br />
* {{flagicon image|Shan_State_National_Army.svg}} [[Shan State National Army|SSNA]](1995–2005)<br />
* {{flagicon image|Shan State Army (South) Flag.svg}} [[Shan State Army – South]]<br />
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Pa-O_National_Organisation.svg}}[[Pa-O National Army|PNA]]<br />
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Pa-O_National_Organisation.svg}}[[Pa-O National Liberation Army|PNLA]]<br />
* {{flagicon image|Lahu_flag.svg}}[[Lahu Democratic Union|LDU]]<br />
* [[Mongko Region Defence Army|MRDA]] (1985–2000)<br />
| combatant3 = *'''[[Northern Alliance (Myanmar)|Northern Alliance]]'''<br />
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Arakan Army, under the United League of Arakan.svg}}[[Arakan Army|AA]]<br />
** {{flagicon image|Kachin_Independence_Army_flag.svg}}[[Kachin Independence Army|KIA]]<br />
** {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Myanmar_National_Democratic_Alliance_Army.svg}}[[Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army|MNDAA]]<br />
** {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Ta'ang_National_Liberation_Army.svg}}[[Ta'ang National Liberation Army|TNLA]]<br />
----<br />
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Shan_State_Army-North.svg}}[[Shan State Army – North|SSA-N]]<br />
* {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Wa_National_Army.svg}}[[Wa National Army|WNA]]<br />
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the National Democratic Alliance Army.svg}}[[National Democratic Alliance Army|NDAA]]<br />
* {{flagicon image|Kachin_Independence_Army_flag.svg}}[[Kachin Defense Army|KDA]] (1961-2010)<br />
* {{flagicon image|United_Wa_State_Army_flag.png}}[[United Wa State Army|UWSA]] (until 1989)<br />
* [[New Democratic Army – Kachin|NDA-K]] (1989–2009)<br />
| commander1 = {{unbulletedlist|<br />
|{{flagicon|Myanmar}} [[Min Aung Hlaing]]<br />
|{{flagicon|Myanmar}} [[Myint Swe]]<br />
|{{flagicon|Myanmar}} [[Soe Win (general)|Soe Win]]<br />
|{{flagicon|Myanmar}} [[Henry Van Thio]]<br />
----<br />
|{{flagicon image|United_Wa_State_Army_flag.png}}[[Bao Youxiang]]}}<br />
| commander2 = {{unbulletedlist|<br />
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Shan_State_Army.svg}}[[Sao Nang Hearn Kham]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Shan_United_Revolutionary_Army_flag.png}}Mo Heng<br />
|{{flagicon image|Mong_Tai_Army_flag.svg}}[[Khun Sa]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Shan_State_National_Army.svg}}Kan Yod<br />
|{{flagicon image|Shan State Army (South) Flag.svg}}[[Yawd Serk]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Pa-O_National_Organisation.svg}}Khun Okka}}<br />
| commander3 = {{unbulletedlist|<br />
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Arakan Army, under the United League of Arakan.svg}}[[Twan Mrat Naing]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Kachin_Independence_Army_flag.svg}}[[N'Ban La]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Myanmar_National_Democratic_Alliance_Army.svg}}[[Pheung Kya-shin]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Ta'ang_National_Liberation_Army.svg}}[[Tar Aik Bong]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Ta'ang_National_Liberation_Army.svg}}[[Tar Bone Kyaw]]<br />
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Eastern Shan State Special Region 4 (Myanmar).png}}[[U Sai Leun]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
A Shan independence movement has been active and engaged in armed struggle, leading to intermittent [[civil war]] within Burma for decades. Currently two main Shan armed insurgent forces operate within Shan State: the [[SSA/SR-3|Shan State Army/Special Region 3]] and [[SSA/RCSS|Shan State Army/Restoration Council of Shan State]]. In 2005 the [[Shan State National Army]] (SSNA) was effectively abolished after its surrender to the Burmese government. Some SSNA units joined the SSA/RCSS, which has yet to sign any agreements, and is still engaged in [[guerrilla warfare]] against the [[Burmese Army]].<ref>[http://www.geopium.org/Photos/Thailand2006/Photos-Thailand-2006-Thai-Burma-Border.htm Photos of Shan State Army-South (SSA-S) military outposts along the border of Thailand, Chiang Rai province] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923052206/http://geopium.org/Photos/Thailand2006/Photos-Thailand-2006-Thai-Burma-Border.htm |date=2010-09-23 }}</ref><br />
<br />
During conflicts, Shan civilians are often burned out of their villages and forced to flee into Thailand. Some of the worst fighting in recent times occurred in 2002 when the Burmese army shelled the Thai border town of [[Mae Sai town|Mae Sai]], south of [[Tachileik]], in an attempt to capture members of the [[Shan State Army|SSA]]'s [[Shan State Army - South|Southern Faction]] who had fled across the [[Nam Ruak]].<ref>"Mae Sai Evacuated as Shells Hit Town", ''Bangkok Post'', 12 May 2002</ref><ref>"Mortar Rounds Hit Thai Outpost, 2 Injured", ''Bangkok Post'', 20 June 2002, p.1</ref> While in July of that same year, in the Shan Township of [[Mong Yawng Township|Mong Yawng]], the killing of a member of an [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]] by the [[Tatmadaw|Burmese Tatmadaw]], and the subsequent closure of the border to Thailand, caused an evacuation of the surviving members across the [[Mekong River]] to [[Laos]].<ref>Desmond Ball. ''Security Developments in the Thailand-Burma Borderlands'', Australian Mekong Resource Centre, University of Sydney. October 2003</ref> This evacuation was aided by members of the Shan State Army, and in turn brought tighter measures restricting foreign aid in the area as violence increased.<br />
<br />
Due to the civil war, males typically find low-paid work in construction, while many Shan females fall in the hands of [[human trafficking]] gangs and end up in the prostitution business or bride trafficking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beyrer |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Beyrer |date=2001-08-01 |title=Shan women and girls and the sex industry in Southeast Asia; political causes and human rights implications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953600003580 |journal=[[Social Science & Medicine]] |publication-place=[[Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health]] |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=543–550 |doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00358-0 |pmid=11459403 |issn=0277-9536|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Beech|first=Hannah|date=2019-08-17|title=Teenage Brides Trafficked to China Reveal Ordeal: 'Ma, I've Been Sold'|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/17/world/asia/china-bride-trafficking.html|access-date=2020-08-28|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816135430/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/17/world/asia/china-bride-trafficking.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite the hardships, Shan people in Thailand are conscious of their culture and seek occasions to gather in cultural events.<ref>[http://wewomenfoundation.org/2012/shan-national-day-in-loi-tai-leng/ Celebration of Panglong Agreement Day in Loi Tai Leng] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205052715/http://wewomenfoundation.org/2012/shan-national-day-in-loi-tai-leng |date=2016-02-05 }}</ref><br />
<br />
A major Shan militia called the [[Mong Tai Army]] had fought the [[Tatmadaw]] as well as the [[United Wa State Army]] (UWSA) for a separate state up until their surrender in 1996. Since then, the UWSA has given support to [[Shan State Army – South]] and [[Shan State Army – North]] out of hope that the two serve as buffers against Tatmadaw encroachment on Wa territory.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 July 2013 |title=Myanmar: The United Wa State Army's Uncertain Future |url=https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/myanmar-united-wa-state-armys-uncertain-future |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221070100/https://worldview.stratfor.com/article/myanmar-united-wa-state-armys-uncertain-future |archive-date=21 December 2018 |access-date=24 March 2017 |work=[[Stratfor]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Communities in exile===<br />
[[File:Poi Sang Long Festiva04.JPG|thumb|231x231px|Traditional Poi Sang Long [[Śrāmaṇera|novice ordination]] festival celebrated by one of the Shan communities in exile in Thailand]]<br />
<br />
Following the arrest of [[Sao Shwe Thaik]] of [[Yawnghwe]] in the [[1962 Burmese coup d'état|Burmese coup d'état]] in March 1962 by the Revolutionary Council headed by General [[Ne Win]],<ref name=dms>{{cite book | title=Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar) | author=Donald M. Seekins | isbn=9780810854765 | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | year=2006 | pages=410–411}}</ref> his wife [[Sao Nang Hearn Kham]] fled with her family to [[Thailand]] in April 1962 and Sao Shwe Thaik died in prison in November the same year. In exile, his wife took up the cause of the independence struggle of the [[Shan State]]. In 1964 Sao Nang Hearn Kham with her son Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe helped to form the [[Shan State War Council]] (SSWC) and the [[Shan State Army|Shan State Army (SSA)]], becoming chair of the SSWC,<ref name=BFP>{{cite web|url=http://www.burmatoday.net/newsarchive_03/news_030121_burma_dvb.htm|title=Burma's first President's wife passed away ( DVB ) January 18, 2003|work=BurmaToday.net|access-date=24 March 2017|archive-date=11 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911121045/http://www.burmatoday.net/newsarchive_03/news_030121_burma_dvb.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> and taking the Shan rebellion that started in 1958 to a new phase.<ref name="ms">{{cite book|first=Martin|last= Smith|year=1991|title=Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location= London and New Jersey}}</ref><br />
Sao Nang Hearn Kham died on 17 January 2003 in exile in [[Canada]] at the age of 86.<ref name=BFP/><br />
<br />
The declaration of independence was rejected by most other [[ethnic minority]] groups, many Shan living inside Burma, and the country's leading opposition party, [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]'s [[National League for Democracy]]. Despite the domestic opposition to the declaration, the [[Myanmar Army|Burmese Army]] is rumoured to have used it as a reason to crack down on Shan civilians. Shan people have reported an increase in restrictions on their movements and an escalation in [[Myanmar Army|Burmese Army]] raids on Shan villages. The October 2015 Burmese military offensive in Central Shan State has displaced thousands of Shan people, as well as [[Palaung people|Palaung]], [[Lisu people|Lisu]] and [[Lahu people]], causing a new humanitarian crisis.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/741396/govt-invasion-of-shan-state-mocks-ceasefire-pact|title=Bangkok Post|first=Post Publishing|last=PCL.|date=24 October 2015 |access-date=24 March 2017|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022222715/https://www.bangkokpost.com/opinion/opinion/741396/govt-invasion-of-shan-state-mocks-ceasefire-pact|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://shanhumanrights.org/index.php/news-updates/233-naypyidaw-must-immediately-stop-its-attacks-in-central-shan-state-and-let-communities-return-home|title=Naypyidaw must immediately stop its attacks in central Shan State and let communities return home|last=SHRF|work=ShanHumanRights.org|access-date=24 March 2017|archive-date=28 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428065643/http://www.shanhumanrights.org/index.php/news-updates/233-naypyidaw-must-immediately-stop-its-attacks-in-central-shan-state-and-let-communities-return-home|url-status=dead}}</ref> Shan [[civil society organisation]]s are concerned about the lack of international response on the recent conflict.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/17869-shan-csos-blast-silence-over-conflict.html |title=Shan CSOs blast 'silence' over conflict |access-date=2015-12-01 |archive-date=2015-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130234359/http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/17869-shan-csos-blast-silence-over-conflict.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Notable people==<br />
<br />
* [[Sao Shwe Thaik]], first president of Myanmar<br />
<br />
* [[Sai Wan Leng Kham]], Shan politician<br />
<br />
* [[Sao Kya Seng]], Shan engineer and politician<br />
<br />
* [[Wutt Hmone Shwe Yi]], Burmese actress<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Poy Sang Long]]<br />
* [[Tai peoples]]<br />
* [[Shan Horse]]<br />
* [[Shan Hills]]<br />
* [[Saharat Thai Doem]]<br />
* [[The Story of a Fairy and a Prince (Shan folktale)]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
===Notes===<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
===Citations===<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|Shan}}<br />
* [http://www.shanstate.gov.mm Shan State Government Office] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150730142343/http://www.shanstate.gov.mm/ |date=2015-07-30 }}<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shan Shan People]<br />
<br />
{{Ethnic groups in China}}<br />
{{Ethnic groups in Burma}}<br />
{{Ethnic groups in Thailand}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Tai peoples]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Myanmar]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Thailand]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Northeast India]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]<br />
[[Category:Buddhist communities of Myanmar]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jamiul_Futuh&diff=505542Jamiul Futuh2026-02-24T21:57:07Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Starting some details w/ refs</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Grand mosque in Kerala, India}}<br />
{{AI-generated|date=December 2025|reason=[[Special:Diff/1218553865|this 2024 edit]]; see [[WP:AISIGNS]] promotional language, superficial analyses, AI vocab, undue emphasis on symbolism, etc}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2024}}<br />
{{for|similarly named mosques|List of grand mosques}}<br />
{{Infobox religious building<br />
| building_name = Jamiul Futuh<br />
| native_name = ഇന്ത്യൻ ഗ്രാൻഡ് മസ്ജിദ്<br />
| native_name_lang = ml<br />
| image = Markaz knowledge city.jpg<br />
| image_upright = 1.4<br />
| caption = The Jamiul Futuh at night<br />
| alt = <br />
| map_type = India Kerala<br />
| map_size = 250<br />
| map_relief = 1<br />
| map_caption = Location of the mosque in [[Kerala]]<br />
| location = [[Markaz Knowledge City]], [[Calicut]], [[Kozhikode district]], [[Kerala]]<br />
| country = [[India]]<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|11.472282|N|76.007563|E|region:IN-KR_type:landmark|format=dms|display=it}}<br />
| religious_affiliation = [[Sunni Islam]]<br />
| rite = [[Shafi‘i school|Shafi‘i]]<br />
| consecration_year = <br />
| status = [[Mosque]]<br />
| functional_status = Active<br />
| leadership = Dr. Muhammed Abdul Hakkim Azhari {{small|([[imam]])}}<br />
| website = {{url|jamiulfutuh.com}}<br />
| architect = {{ubl|Ar Darvish Kareem|Ar Ahammed Aflah}}<br />
| architecture_type = {{nowrap|[[Mosque architecture]]}}<br />
| architecture_style = {{nowrap|[[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture|Indo-Saracenic Revival]]}}<br />
| founded_by = {{ubl|{{nowrap|[[Sheikh Abubakr Ahmad]]}}|{{small|(the [[Grand Mufti of India]])}}}}<br />
| funded_by = <br />
| general_contractor =<br />
| facade_direction =<br />
| groundbreaking = 2011<br />
| year_completed = 2022<br />
| construction_cost = {{INR}}400&nbsp;million<br />
| specifications =<br />
| capacity = {{circa|25,000}} worshipers<br />
| length = {{cvt|420|m}}<br />
| width = {{cvt|290|m}}<br />
| width_nave =<br />
| height_max = <br />
| interior_area = {{cvt|655000|sqft|m2|order=flip}}<br />
| dome_quantity = {{nowrap|17 domes; 3 sizes}}<br />
| dome_height_outer = {{cvt|85|m}}<br />
| dome_height_inner =<br />
| dome_dia_outer = {{cvt|32.2|m}}<br />
| dome_dia_inner =<br />
| minaret_quantity = Five<br />
| minaret_height = {{cvt|107|m}}<br />
| spire_quantity =<br />
| spire_height =<br />
| site_area = {{cvt|13|acres|ha|order=flip}}<br />
| materials =<br />
| designated =<br />
| module = {{Infobox historic site<br />
| embed = yes <br />
| designation1 = | designation1_offname = | designation1_type = | designation1_criteria = | designation1_date = | delisted1_date = | designation1_partof = | designation1_number = | designation1_free1name = | designation1_free1value = | designation1_free2name = | designation1_free2value = | designation1_free3name = | designation1_free3value = }}<br />
}}<br />
The '''Jamiul Futuh''', officially known as the '''Jāmi'ul Futūh''', and also known as '''The Indian Grand Masjid''' and the '''Shahre Mubarak Grand Mosque''', is a [[Shafi‘i school|Shafi‘i]] [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[mosque]], located in [[Markaz Knowledge City]], in the [[Kozhikode district]] of the state of [[Kerala]], in the south of India. It is the largest mosque in Kerala and can accommodate up to 25,000 worshippers. It was founded by [[Sheikh Abubakr Ahmad]], the [[Grand Mufti of India]], and officially opened in September 2022. <br />
<br />
The congregation is led by [[Imam]] Dr. Muhammed Abdul Hakkim Azhari.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jamiul Futuh – The Indian Grand Masjid Calls For Urgent Action To Protect Minorities In Bangladesh |url=https://thecommunemag.com/jamiul-futuh-issues-statement-on-tensions-in-bangladesh-calls-for-urgent-action-to-protect-minorities-in-bangladesh |work=The Commune |date=4 December 2024 |access-date=18 January 2025 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
The mosque has influences of [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasid]], [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]], [[Moroccan architecture|Moroccan]], and [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman]] architectural elements, and it follows the green building concept. It consists of a research library, the Office of the Grand Mufti of India, and a cultural heritage museum.<ref name="ibn">{{cite news |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/indias-biggest-mosque-to-be-built-in-kerala/142847-3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110213073703/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/indias-biggest-mosque-to-be-built-in-kerala/142847-3.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 February 2011 |title=India's biggest mosque to be built in Kerala |date=9 February 2011 |work=[[CNN-IBN]] |access-date=22 June 2011}}</ref> The building site covers {{convert|9|acres|ha|order=flip|spell=on}} and is surrounded by a {{convert|4|acres|ha|order=flip|adj=on}} green belt and a {{convert|72000|sqft|m2|order=flip|adj=on}} [[roof garden|rooftop garden]].<br />
<br />
The mosque grounds contain a [[relic]], believed by Muslims to be a hair of the [[Prophets in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. The name of the mosque comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''shahre'', meaning hair, and ''mubarak,'' meaning blessed.<br />
<br />
== Founder ==<br />
[[Sheikh Abubakr Ahmad]] is an Islamic scholar and community leader, pivotal in the growth and development of the Muslim community in Kerala.<br />
His service includes holding the position of General Secretary of the All-India Muslim Scholars Association and serving as the Chancellor of [[Jamia Markazu Ssaquafathi Ssunniyya]].<br />
<br />
A core focus of his life has been promoting Islamic education and working to improve the socio-economic status of Muslims in India. He is also a vocal advocate for interfaith dialogue. He is an author, having written approximately 60 books on a variety of religious and social subjects.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Jamiul Futuh – Official Website<br />
|url=https://www.jamiulfutuh.com/<br />
|website=Jamiul Futuh - The Indian Grand Masjid<br />
|publisher=Jamiul Futuh<br />
|access-date=2025-10-07<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Architecture ==<br />
The mosque showcases the captivating [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture|Indo-Saracenic Revival]] architectural style. The grounds of the mosque also contain a [[madrasa]], that provides education and Islamic courses and classes.<br />
<br />
The architecture combines traditional and contemporary styles. The main entrance features white and gold artistic details. The mosque has four main large gates, named the Makkah Gate, Madinah Gate, Yamani Gate and Shami Gate. Additionally, there are nine entrance doors, known as Babu'l-Fath, Babu's-Salam, Babu't-Tawbah, Babu's-Safaa, Babu'l-Ihsan, Babu't-Taqwa and Babu'r-Rahma.<br />
<br />
The mosque also features Indo-Arabian domes. The interior features four pillars dedicated to the names of the four great Imams: Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik bin Anas, Imam Shafi'i, and Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal. The central dome's rotunda is adorned with Quranic verses, including passages from Surah Al-Muzzammil, Surah Al-Fath, Ayah Al-Kursi, and the ayah "Innallaha wa malaaikathahu".<br />
<br />
The Mihrab (Pulpit) is a masterpiece of design, featuring a depiction of a green plant with the 'Asmaul Husna' (the divine names of Allah) inscribed on its leaves. A distinct feature of the mosque is the raised Azan chamber positioned opposite the pulpit. Furthermore, calligraphy art featuring the names of Allah, Prophet Muhammad (s), Abubakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali, and Fatima graces the inner hall.<ref>{{cite web<br />
|title=Jamiul Futuh – Official Website<br />
|url=https://www.jamiulfutuh.com/<br />
|website=Jamiul Futuh - The Indian Grand Masjid<br />
|publisher=Jamiul Futuh<br />
|access-date=2025-10-07<br />
|language=en<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{stack|{{portal|India|Islam}}}}<br />
* [[Islam in India]]<br />
* [[List of mosques in India]]<br />
* [[List of mosques in Kerala]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{official website|https://www.jamiulfutuh.com}}<br />
<br />
{{Mosques in India}}<br />
{{Islam in Kerala}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:21st-century mosques in India]]<br />
[[Category:Grand mosques|Shahre Mubarak]]<br />
[[Category:Indo-Saracenic Revival mosques]]<br />
[[Category:Markaz]]<br />
[[Category:Mosques completed in 2022]]<br />
[[Category:Mosque buildings with domes in India]]<br />
[[Category:Mosque buildings with minarets in India]]<br />
[[Category:Mosques in Kerala]]<br />
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures in Kozhikode district]]<br />
[[Category:Shafi'i mosques]]<br />
[[Category:Sunni mosques in India]]<br />
[[Category:Sufi shrines in India]]<!-- Shrine to whom? --></div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jahangir_with_a_Portrait_of_Akbar&diff=505204Jahangir with a Portrait of Akbar2026-02-13T13:10:32Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Starting new details initial version</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Painting by Hashim and Abu'l-Hasan}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}<br />
{{infobox artwork<br />
| image = 15 Abu'l Hasan, Jahangir with a Potrait of Akbar. 1614г Musee Guimet, Paris - копия.jpg<br />
| artist = Hashim, [[Abu'l-Hasan (artist)|Abu'l-Hasan]]<br />
| year = {{circa|1599–1614}}<br />
| museum = [[Louvre]]<br />
| city = Paris<br />
}}<br />
'''''Jahangir with a Portrait of Akbar''''' is a [[Mughal painting]], by the artists Hashim and [[Abu'l-Hasan (artist)|Abu'l Hasan]]. It was commissioned by the Mughal emperor [[Jahangir]] in the early 17th century. It depicts Jahangir, holding a portrait of his father and predecessor [[Akbar]]. It is now in the [[Louvre]] in Paris within the Department of Islamic Art.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Goswamy |first=B. N. |author-link=B. N. Goswamy |date=27 October 2013 |title=The imperial image: Under the discerning eye of Mughal emperor Jahangir, master painters produced great paintings, besides portryaing him as an unusual man |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2013/20131027/spectrum/main2.htm |access-date=16 November 2025 |website=www.tribuneindia.com}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Citation |mode=cs1 |last=Hashim |first=Mir |title=Portrait de l'empereur Jahangir tenant dans ses mains celui de son père, l'empereur Akbar (page d'album) |date=1600 |url=https://collections.louvre.fr/ark:/53355/cl010327537 |access-date=3 February 2026 |last2=al-Hasan |first2=Abu}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
The Mughal emperor [[Jahangir]] succeeded his father [[Akbar]] in 1605. Prior to his accession, during the final years of the reign of Akbar, Jahangir rebelled against his father and set up an alternative court at [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> <br />
<br />
The year of the painting's completion is not exactly known, and various clues point to different dates. It is known from the inscriptions on the painting that the work was executed by two artists, [[Mir Hashim (artist)|Mir Hashim]] and [[Abu'l-Hasan (artist)|Abu'l Hasan]]. The latter is not referred to by name, but by his title, that is, "''Nadir al-Zaman''" (wonder of the age). Another inscription states that the portrait of Jahangir was made in his thirtieth year. This would be in 1599, before the accession of Jahangir, and during the reign of Akbar. Yet another inscription states that the depiction of Akbar (d. 1605) is posthumous. Furthermore, the depiction of Jahangir shows him wearing earrings, and he is known to have pierced his ears in 1614. Finally, the title of "''Nadir al-Zaman''" was conferred upon Abu'l-Hasan before 1614. [[Kavita Singh (scholar)|Kavita Singh]] therefore speculates that the painting was retouched, with the posthumous image of Akbar added later.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Das |first=Asok |date=1 January 1980 |title=Mughal Painting during Jahangir's Time |url=https://www.academia.edu/90891267/Mughal_Painting_during_Jahangirs_Time |journal=Artibus Asiae |pages=381–382}}</ref><br />
<br />
As for the inspiration behind its commissioning, Kavita Singh speculates that it might have been commissioned after a dream of Jahangir, as recounted in his autobiography the [[Tuzk-e-Jahangiri|Jahangirnama]], where his father Akbar appeared in his dream and asked him to forgive [[Mirza Aziz Koka]], a nobleman imprisoned by Jahangir for treason.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[File:Detail_of_"Jahangir_With_a_Portrait_of_Akbar",_Musee_Guimet.jpg|thumb|According to [[Kavita Singh (scholar)|Kavita Singh]], Jahangir appearing to be listening reverently, as the portrait of Akbar speaks to him.]]<br />
The principal subject, set against a blue-green background, is the emperor Jahangir. He is holding, with both hands, a portrait of his father and predecessor, the emperor Akbar.<ref name=":0" /> <br />
<br />
Both emperors have a [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] around them, that symbolizes the divine right to rule. Furthermore, Jahangir's familial resemblance to his father reinforces his legitimacy as his father's rightful successor. At the bottom of both portraits are textiles which indicate that both portraits are in the form of [[Jharokha Darshan|''jharokha''-''darshan'']], a practice where the emperor would appear in a window, so that their subjects might glimpse them. The fact that both emperors are the subject of a ''jharokha-darshan'' may symbolize that both emperors are reigning, Jahangir in the current world, and Akbar in the afterlife.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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=== Jahangir ===<br />
Jahangir is dressed in a ''[[Jama (coat)|jama]]'' made out of golden [[brocade]], with a matching turban. He wears strings of pearls studded with rubies and emeralds. Contrasting with other paintings of Jahangir where he is depicted looking down, here, he holds the painting up with respect, and is looking forward. His body is stiff. Kavita Singh interprets this as Jahangir appearing to be listening reverently, as the portrait of Akbar speaks to him.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
A cloth below him is wine-coloured, with an ogive in the middle, with a bird on either side. Two full and two partial human figures are also seen on the cloth. These figures appear central Asian, wearing brightly coloured tunics. This alludes to Jahangir's Central Asian ancestry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Houghteling |first=Sylvia |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Art_of_Cloth_in_Mughal_India/9VpDEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Emperor+Jahangir+holding+a+portrait+of+his+father%22&pg=PA91&printsec=frontcover |title=The Art of Cloth in Mughal India |date=15 March 2022 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-23213-3 |pages=90-91 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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=== Akbar ===<br />
In the portrait, Akbar is dressed in white. This contrasts with Jahangir's lavish attire and is reminiscent of the simple garb worn by [[Sufism|Sufi]] saints. It also symbolizes that the late emperor has transcended the material realm. In his hand, Akbar is holding an orb that is interpreted as a [[globe]], as if he is going to hand it over to Jahangir. The globe represents the right to rule, and is also an allusion to the meaning of "Jahangir", that is, "world-seizer". Upon the globe, an inscription reads, "The portrait of the venerable one who is nesting in [[Jannah|paradise]], the work of ''[[Abu'l-Hasan (artist)|Nadir al-Zaman]]''". This confirms that the depiction of Akbar is posthumous.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Kavita |date=18 July 2021 |title=As Jahangir contemplates a portrait of his father, a reversal of our ideas about dreams and reality |url=https://scroll.in/article/1000463/as-jahagir-contemplates-a-portrait-of-his-father-a-reversal-of-our-ideas-about-dreams-and-reality |access-date=16 November 2025 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goswamy |first=B. N. |author-link=B. N. Goswamy |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Spirit_of_Indian_Painting/1-rfrQEACAAJ?hl=en |title=The Spirit of Indian Painting: Close Encounters with 101 Great Works, 1100–1900 |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-08657-3 |pages=318−321 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Acquisition history and critical reception ==<br />
The Louvre purchased this painting from Elisa Haughton, along with several other Indian artworks, in 1894.<ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
[[B. N. Goswamy]] refers to the painting as "a dazzling work, highly accomplished and quite moving".<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Indian paintings]]<br />
[[Category:Paintings in the Louvre]]<br />
[[Category:Mughal art]]<br />
[[Category:Islamic art in the Louvre]]<br />
[[Category:Indian artefacts held abroad]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suresh_Unnithan&diff=473045Suresh Unnithan2026-02-12T03:05:36Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: quick corrected details and added references</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian film director}}<br />
{{BLP sources|date=August 2023}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = P. Suresh Unnithan<br />
| image = Suresh Unnithan.JPG<br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_date = <br />
| birth_place = [[Pandalam]], [[Pathanamthitta]], Kerala<br />
| other_names = Unni<br />
| occupation = {{Flatlist|<br />
* Film director<br />
* writer<br />
* film producer<br />
}}<br />
| spouse = Padmaja<br />
| children = 2<br />
| parents = Parameswaran Unnithan, Bharathi Amma<br />
| awards = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''P. Suresh Unnithan''' (born 30 July 1956) is an Indian film and television director who works in [[Malayalam films]]. His popular works are ''[[Mukha Chithram]]'' (1991), ''[[Utsavamelam]]'' (1992), ''[[Jaathakam]]'' (1989), ''[[Bhaagyavaan]]'' (1993) and ''[[Aardram]]'' (1992).<br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
<br />
His start in film was as an assistant director to [[Padmarajan]], from whom he learned the basics and craft of film making.<ref>{{cite interview |first=Suresh |last=Unnithan |interviewer=ജി ജ്യോതിലാല് |url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/363295/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317212925/www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/interview/363295/ |archive-date=2014-03-17 |website=www.mathrubhumi.com |language=ml |date=25 May 2013 |access-date=26 July 2023 |title=അയാള്ക്കൊപ്പം സുരേഷ് ഉണ്ണിത്താന് വീണ്ടും }}</ref> Later he debuted with ''[[Jaathakam]]''. The same film won the Best Newcomer Director award at the Kerala State Film Awards. Later he directed films like ''Radhamadhavam'', ''Aardram'', Mukha Chitram, Uthsava melam, ''Sathyaparatinja'', ''Bhagyavaan'', ''Thovalapookkal'', ''Rishya Sringan'' and others.<ref>{{IMDb name|1324517}}</ref> He entered the television industry and had some hit serials. His 2004 serial project ''Swamy Ayyappan'' was the most popular and top rated serial in Malayalam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/12/04/stories/2006120400130500.htm|title=The Hindu : Metro Plus Chennai / Cinema : Cablewala|date=13 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113061312/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/12/04/stories/2006120400130500.htm|archive-date=13 November 2007}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=August 2023}}<br />
<br />
After 12 years break Suresh Unnithan made a comeback with ''[[Ayaal]]'', with Lal and Iniya playing the leads.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/malayalamContentView.do?contentId=13363195&programId=1073752204&channelId=-1073750705&BV_ID=@@@&tabId=3 |title=Manorama Online {{!}} Movies {{!}} Interviews {{!}} |website=www.manoramaonline.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205064558/http://www.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/malayalamContentView.do?contentId=13363195&programId=1073752204&BV_ID=@@@&channelId=-1073750705&tabId=3 |archive-date=2013-02-05}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Awards==<br />
<br />
* [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Debut Director]] (1989) – Jaathakam<br />
* Kerala film critics award for Best Director (1991) – Radhamadhavam<br />
*Asianet TV awards for Best Director(2008) -Swami Ayyappan<br />
* [[Kerala State Film Award – Special Mention]] in Direction (2014)- [[Ayaal]]<br />
<br />
==Television==<br />
;Director<br />
*Verpadukalude Viralpadukal (DD)<br />
*Vegatha Pora Pora (DD)<br />
*Sthree Oru Santhwanam (Asianet) <br />
*Kadalinakkare (Asianet)<br />
*Krishna Kripa Sagaram (Asianet)<br />
*[[Swami Ayyappan (TV series)]] (Asianet)<br />
*Sreekrishnaleela (Asianet)<br />
*Sreemahabhagavatham (Asianet)<br />
*Sreepadmanabham (Amrita TV) <br />
*Thulabharam (Surya TV)<br />
*Bhadra (Surya TV)<br />
*Shivakami (Surya TV)<br />
<br />
;Producer banner- Rohini vision/ sree movies<br />
*Vasundhara medicals (Asianet)<br />
*Snehadooram (Asianet)<br />
*Nirmalyam ( Asianet)<br />
*Omanathinkal Pakshi (Asianet)<br />
*Samadooram (Asianet)<br />
*Sahadharmmini (Asianet)<br />
*Tadankalpalayam (Asianet)<br />
*Muhoortham (Asianet)<br />
*Chechiyamma (Asianet)<br />
*Sindhooracheppu (Amrita TV)<br />
*Kunjali marakkar (Asianet)<br />
*Lipstick (Asianet)<br />
* [[Amala (TV series)|Amala]] (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
*Viswaroopam (Flowers TV)<br />
* Manjurukum kaalam (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
* [[Krishnathulasi]] (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
* [[Sthreepadham]] (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
* [[Manjil Virinja Poovu]] (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
*[[Jeevitha Nouka (TV series)|Jeevithanouka]] (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
*Kalyani (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
*[[Swayamvaram (TV series)|Swayamvaram]] (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
*[[Gayathridevi Ente Amma]] (Mazhavil Manorama)<br />
<br />
== Filmography ==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+<br />
!Year<br />
!Title<br />
|-<br />
|1989<br />
|''[[Jaathakam]]''<br />
|-<br />
|1990<br />
|''[[Radha Madhavam]]''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |1991<br />
|''[[Sathyaprathinja]]''<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Mukha Chithram]]''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" |1992<br />
|''[[Utsavamelam]]''<br />
|-<br />
|''[[Aardram]]''<br />
|-<br />
|1993<br />
|''[[Bhaagyavaan]]''<br />
|-<br />
|1995<br />
|''Thovalapookkal''<br />
|-<br />
|1997<br />
|''[[Rishyasringan]]''<br />
|-<br />
|2013<br />
|''[[Ayaal]]''<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|''[[Kshanam (2021 film)|Kshanam]]''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Unnithan, Suresh}}<br />
[[Category:Indian television directors]]<br />
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:1956 births]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]<br />
[[Category:Indian television producers]]<br />
[[Category:People from Pathanamthitta district]]<br />
[[Category:People from Pandalam]]<br />
[[Category:Film directors from Pathanamthitta district]]<br />
[[Category:Television personalities from Kerala]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soumitro_Banerjee&diff=536770Soumitro Banerjee2026-02-12T02:50:30Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Creating some details v1</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian electrical engineer (born 1960)}}<br />
{{For|the actor|Soumitra Banerjee}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{Infobox scientist<br />
| name = Soumitro Banerjee<br />
| image = File:Soumitro Banerjee.jpg<br />
| alt =<br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1960|10|17}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Kolkata, West Bengal|Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], India<br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| fields = {{ublist | [[Bifurcation theory]] | [[Nonlinear dynamics]] }}<br />
| workplaces = {{ublist | [[IIT Kharagpur]] | [[IISER Kolkata]] }}<br />
| alma_mater = {{ublist | [[IIEST Shibpur]] | [[University of Calcutta]] | [[IIT Delhi]] }}<br />
| doctoral_advisor = <br />
| doctoral_students = <br />
| known_for = Studies on bifurcation phenomena in switched dynamical systems like <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Banerjee|first1=S|last2=Grebogi|first2=C|title=Border collision bifurcations in two-dimensional piecewise smooth maps|journal=Physical Review E|date=Apr 1999|volume=59|issue=4|pages=4052–4061|doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.59.4052|arxiv=chao-dyn/9808016|bibcode=1999PhRvE..59.4052B|s2cid=15798132}}</ref> power electronic circuits<br />
| awards = {{ublist|2003&nbsp;[[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]] | 2004&nbsp;Citation Laureate Award }} <br />
}}<br />
'''Soumitro Banerjee''' (born 17 October 1960) is an Indian electrical engineer and physicist and former acting [[Director (education)|Director]] of the [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata]].<ref name="Faculty profile">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iiserkol.ac.in/people/faculty/dps/soumitro |title=Faculty profile |date=2017 |publisher=Department of Physical Sciences, IISER Kolkata |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=8 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208075113/http://www.iiserkol.ac.in/people/faculty/dps/soumitro |url-status=live }}</ref> He is known for his studies on border collision bifurcations and nonlinear phenomena in power electronic circuits<ref name="Brief Profile of the Awardee">{{Cite web |url=http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/Detail.aspx?AID=392 |title=Brief Profile of the Awardee |date=2017 |publisher=Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202073025/http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/Detail.aspx?AID=392 |url-status=live }}</ref> and is an elected fellow of all three major Indian science academies: the [[National Academy of Sciences, India]],<ref name="NASI fellows">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=B |title=NASI fellows |date=2016 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences, India |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=17 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717005033/http://www.nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=B |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Indian Academy of Sciences]],<ref name="Fellow profile">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/describe/fellow/Banerjee,_Prof._Soumitro |title=Fellow profile |date=2016 |publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=20 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120144120/https://www.ias.ac.in/describe/fellow/Banerjee,_Prof._Soumitro |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Indian National Science Academy]].<ref name="Indian fellow">{{Cite web |url=http://insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=P08-1455 |title=Indian fellow |date=2016 |publisher=Indian National Science Academy |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303022110/https://www.insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=P08-1455 |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also a fellow of [[The World Academy of Sciences]],<ref name="TWAS fellow">{{Cite web |url=http://twas.org/member/banerjee-soumitro |title=TWAS fellow |date=2016 |publisher=The World Academy of Sciences |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621185632/http://twas.org/member/banerjee-soumitro |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]],<ref name="IEEE Fellows Directory">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ieee.org/membership/fellows/fellows-directory.html |title=IEEE Fellows Directory |date=2016 |publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=2 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202033655/https://www.ieee.org/membership_services/membership/fellows/fellowsDirectory.html |url-status=live }}</ref> West Bengal Academy of Sciences and the [[Indian National Academy of Engineering]].<ref name="INAE fellows">{{Cite web |url=https://inae.in/search-of-fellows/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403030936/http://inae.in/search-of-fellows/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 April 2015 |title=INAE fellows |date=2016 |publisher=Indian National Academy of Engineers }}</ref> The [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research, awarded him the [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology]], one of the highest Indian science awards for his contributions to Engineering Sciences in 2003.<ref name="View Bhatnagar Awardees">{{cite web | url=http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/AwardeeList.aspx | title=View Bhatnagar Awardees | publisher=Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize | date=2016 | access-date=12 November 2016 | archive-date=11 October 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011202627/http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/AwardeeList.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref>{{Refn|group=note|Long link - please select award year to see details}}<br />
<br />
== Biography ==<br />
<br />
Soumitro Banerjee, born on 17 October 1960 at [[Kolkata]] in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]], did his graduate studies at [[Bengal Engineering College]] of the [[University of Calcutta]] from where he earned a BE degree in electrical engineering in 1981 and moved to the [[Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi]] to gain an MTech in Energy Studies in 1983.<ref name="Profile on TWAS">{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Profile on TWAS |url=http://twas.org/sites/default/files/member/cv.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023010444/https://twas.org/sites/default/files/member/cv.pdf |archive-date=23 October 2017 |access-date=31 January 2017 |publisher=The World Academy of Sciences}}</ref> After enrolling for PhD at IIT Delhi, he took up the post of a lecturer at the [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur]] in 1985 and while serving there he received his doctoral degree in 1988 for his thesis, ''Magnetic Energy Storage Units for Improvement of Power System Stability''. He served IIT Kharagpur till 2009 during which period held the positions of an assistant professor (1990–98), associate professor (1998–2003) and a professor. In 2009, he moved to the [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata]] where he serves as a professor.<ref name="Soumitro Banerjee on IISER">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iiserkol.ac.in/component/sobipro/?pid=54&sid=135:Soumitro-Banerjee&Itemid=0 |title=Soumitro Banerjee on IISER |date=2017 |publisher=Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206100122/http://www.iiserkol.ac.in/component/sobipro/?pid=54&sid=135:Soumitro-Banerjee&Itemid=0 |archive-date=2016-12-06 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Legacy ==<br />
[[File:Stick-slip.svg|thumb|235px|An example of Stick-slip]]<br />
Banerjee's researches have been focused on [[nonlinear dynamics]] and [[bifurcation theory]] and his experiments and analyses widened the understanding of border collision bifurcations.<ref name="Brief Profile of the Awardee" /> He worked on hybrid dynamical systems such as switching electronic circuits and mechanical systems showing impacts or [[stick-slip phenomenon]] and demonstrated border-collision bifurcation, a mode of dynamical transition, occurring in those systems.<ref name="Indian fellow" /> He developed a mathematical theory for elucidating these bifurcations and his studies are known to be in use in various applications.<ref name="Soumitro Banerjee on IISER" /> He has also worked extensively on nonlinear phenomena in power electronics. He has documented his researches by way of several articles;<ref name="Browse by Fellow">{{Cite web |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/view/fellows/Banerjee=3ASoumitro=3A=3A.html |title=Browse by Fellow |date=2016 |publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=5 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205233123/http://repository.ias.ac.in/view/fellows/Banerjee=3ASoumitro=3A=3A.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Refn|group=note|Please see ''Articles'' section}} Google Scholar and ResearchGate, online article repositories of scientific articles, have listed many of them.<ref name="On Google Scholar">{{Cite web |url=https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=8R_8gjYAAAAJ&hl=en |title=On Google Scholar |date=2016 |publisher=Google Scholar |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202074831/https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=8R_8gjYAAAAJ&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="On ResearchGate">{{Cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/researcher/13561682_Soumitro_Banerjee |title=On ResearchGate |date=2016 }}</ref> Besides, he has made several presentations<ref name="Border Collision and Bifurcation: Theory and Applications">{{Cite web |url=http://iwcsn2006.irmacs.sfu.ca/pdf/soumitro.banerjee.pdf |title=Border Collision and Bifurcation: Theory and Applications |last=Soumitro Banerjee |date=2017 |publisher=International Workshop on Complex Systems and Networks 2006}}</ref><ref name="Qualitative Change in Dynamical Status Theory and Open Problems">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/public/Resources/Events/Mid_Year_Meetings/17_soumitrobanerjee.pdf |title=Qualitative Change in Dynamical Status Theory and Open Problems |last=Soumitro Banerjee |date=2017 |publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319203923/https://www.ias.ac.in/public/Resources/Events/Mid_Year_Meetings/17_soumitrobanerjee.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and has authored three books, ''Dynamics for Engineers'', which details modelling and analysis of [[dynamical systems]],<ref name="Dynamics for Engineers">{{Cite book |url=http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470868430.html |title=Dynamics for Engineers |last=Soumitro Banerjee |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-86843-0 |date=June 2005 |page=294 |language=English |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118082221/http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0470868430.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''Wind Electrical Systems'', the first Indian book on [[wind energy]] conversion,<ref name="BhadraKastha2005">{{cite book|author1=S. N. Bhadra|author2=D. Kastha|author3=Soumitro Banerjee|title=Wind Electrical Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vt4eAQAAIAAJ|date=17 November 2005|publisher=OUP India|isbn=978-0-19-567093-6}}</ref> and Research Methodology in Natural Sciences. He has also edited a book, ''Nonlinear Phenomena in Power Electronics: Bifurcations, Chaos, Control, and Applications'',<ref name="BanerjeeVerghese2001">{{cite book|author1=Soumitro Banerjee|author2=George C. Verghese|title=Nonlinear Phenomena in Power Electronics: Bifurcations, Chaos, Control, and Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnYeAQAAIAAJ|date=16 July 2001|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-7803-5383-1}}</ref> in which he has written a number of chapters.<ref name="Nonlinear Phenomena in Power Electronics: Bifurcations, Chaos, Control, and Applications">{{Cite web |url=http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0780353838,miniSiteCd-IEEE2.html |title=Nonlinear Phenomena in Power Electronics: Bifurcations, Chaos, Control, and Applications |date=2017 |publisher=Wiley |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213065208/http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0780353838,miniSiteCd-IEEE2.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
Banerjee was associated with three journals of the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]; he served as the associate editor of IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II (2003–05), the IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I (2006–07) and the IEEE Circuits & Systems Society Newsletter (2010-2020).<ref name="Indian fellow" /> He initiated the ''Conference on Nonlinear Systems and Dynamics'' (CNSD) and he served as the convenor of the inaugural conference held at IIT Kharagpur campus in December 2003.<ref name="Preface NCNSD">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncnsd.org/proceedings/proceeding03/html/pdf/preface.pdf |title=Preface NCNSD |date=2017 |publisher=National Conference on Nonlinear Systems and Dynamics}}</ref> he has also presented a number of papers at various editions of the conference.<ref name="Nonlinear Phenomena in Engineering and Social Sciences">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncnsd.org/proceedings/proceeding06/NPES.php |title=Nonlinear Phenomena in Engineering and Social Sciences |date=2017 |publisher=NCNSD-2006}}</ref><ref name="Bifurcation Theory">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncnsd.org/proceedings/proceeding06/BT.php |title=Bifurcation Theory |date=2017 |publisher=NCNSD-2006}}</ref><ref name="Dynamics of a mass on moving belt with dry friction">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncnsd.org/proceedings/proceeding05/bt.php |title=Dynamics of a mass on moving belt with dry friction |date=2017 |publisher=NCNSD-2005}}</ref> He is the general secretary of ''Breakthrough Science Society'', a non-governmental organization committed to the cultivation of a scientific bent of mind among people and sits in the editorial board of its journal.<ref name="All India Committee">{{Cite web |url=http://www.breakthrough-india.org/nec.html |title=All India Committee |date=2017 |publisher=Breakthrough Science Society |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=3 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403023747/http://www.breakthrough-india.org/nec.html |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also the editor of ''Prakriti'', a [[Bengali language]] science magazine.<ref name="Soumitro Banerjee on IISER" /> He has sat in the Sectional Committees on Electrical Engineering of such science academies as Indian National Academy of Engineering (2005–07 and 2013–15), Indian National Science Academy (2012–14) and Indian Academy of Sciences (2010–12.<ref name="Profile on TWAS" /> He has also been associated with several government agencies which included the Engineering Sciences Research Committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Programme Advisory Committee in Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering of the [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]] (DST), the National Commission on the History of Science, as well as the Board of Members of West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA), and a member of the Screening Committee on Engineering for ''Inspire Faculty Award'' of the DST.<ref name="Inspire Faculty Award">{{Cite web |url=http://www.inspire-dst.gov.in/List_of_Chairpersons_Members.pdf |title=Inspire Faculty Award |date=2017 |publisher=Department of Science and Technology |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=17 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117201025/http://www.inspire-dst.gov.in/List_of_Chairpersons_Members.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Awards and honors ==<br />
Banerjee received the Boyscast Fellowship of the Department of Science and Technology in 1996 which enabled him to carry out collaborative research at the [[University of Maryland]].<ref name="Faculty profile" /> The [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]] awarded him the [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]], one of the highest Indian science awards in 2003.<ref name="Engineering Sciences">{{Cite web |url=http://www.csir.res.in/external/heads/career/award/BPRIZE/Engineering_SCIENCES.htm |title=Engineering Sciences |date=2016 |publisher=Council of Scientific and Industrial Research |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923211647/http://www.csir.res.in/external/heads/career/award/BPRIZE/Engineering_SCIENCES.htm |archive-date=2015-09-23 }}</ref> The next year, [[Thomson Scientific]] included him in the list of top 250 scientists in the world with the highest citation count<ref name="Research Day and Citation Laureate India 2004 Awards">{{Cite web |url=http://ncsi.iisc.ernet.in/pipermail/lis-forum/2004-October/001318.html |title=Research Day and Citation Laureate India 2004 Awards |date=8 October 2004 |publisher=Indian Institute of Science |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=20 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120093847/http://ncsi.iisc.ernet.in/pipermail/lis-forum/2004-October/001318.html |url-status=live }}</ref> in the Engineering category and awarded him the 2004 Citation Laureate Award.<ref name="Thomson Citation Laureate award for 7 scientists ">{{Cite web |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/oct112004/c10.asp |title=Thomson Citation Laureate award for 7 scientists |date=11 October 2004 |publisher=Deccan Herald |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202035508/http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/oct112004/c10.asp |archive-date=2 February 2017 }}</ref> The same year, the Indian National Academy of Engineering elected him as a fellow<ref name="Banerjee on INAE">{{Cite web |url=https://inae.in/expert-search/index.php/soumitro-banerjee |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004013558/http://inae.in/expert-search/index.php/soumitro-banerjee |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-10-04 |title=Banerjee on INAE |date=2017 |publisher=Indian National Academy of Engineering }}</ref> and he became a fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences <ref name="Fellow profile" /> and the Indian National Science Academy in 2005 and 2007 respectively.<ref name="INSA Year Book 2016">{{Cite web |url=http://www.insaindia.res.in/pdf/YearBook_2016.pdf |title=INSA Year Book 2016 |date=2016 |publisher=Indian National Science Academy |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104001952/http://www.insaindia.res.in/pdf/YearBook_2016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> He featured in the 2011 fellowship list of the West Bengal Academy of Science and Technology and the elected fellowship of [[The World Academy of Sciences]] reached him in 2012,<ref name="TWAS fellow" /> followed by fellowships of the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] in 2013<ref name="IEEE Fellows Directory" /> and the National Academy of Sciences, India in 2014.<ref name="NASI Year Book 2015">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasi.org.in/Year%20Book%202015.pdf |title=NASI Year Book 2015 |date=2016 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences, India |access-date=31 January 2017 |archive-date=6 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150806211716/http://www.nasi.org.in/Year%20Book%202015.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Department of Science and Technology selected him for the J. C. Bose National fellowship for two terms, in 2015 and 2020.<ref name="Faculty profile" /><br />
<br />
== Selected work ==<br />
=== Books ===<br />
* {{cite book|author1=Soumitro Banerjee|author2=George C. Verghese|title=Nonlinear Phenomena in Power Electronics: Bifurcations, Chaos, Control, and Applications|date=16 July 2001|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-7803-5383-1}}<br />
* {{cite book|author=Soumitro Banerjee|title=Dynamics for engineers|date=22 August 2005|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-86843-0}}<br />
* {{cite book|author1=S. N. Bhadra|author2=D. Kastha|author3=Soumitro Banerjee|title=Wind Electrical Systems|date=17 November 2005|publisher=OUP India|isbn=978-0-19-567093-6}}<br />
* Soumitro Banerjee (August 2022). ''Research Methodology for Natural Sciences'', IISc Press, Bengaluru, India. {{ISBN|978-81-948351-7-2 }}<br />
<br />
=== Selected Articles ===<br />
* {{Cite journal |author1=Banerjee, S. |author2=Parui, S. |author3=Gupta, A. |title=Dynamical effects of missed switching in current-mode controlled DC-DC converters |journal=IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs |date=2005 |volume=51 |issue=12 |pages=649–654 |doi=10.1109/TCSII.2004.838438|s2cid=852566 }}<br />
* {{Cite journal |author1=Avrutin, Viktor |author2=Schanz, Michael |author3=Banerjee, Soumitro |title=Multi-parametric bifurcations in a piecewise-linear discontinuous map |journal=Nonlinearity |date=2006 |volume=19 |issue=8 |pages=1875–1906 |doi=10.1088/0951-7715/19/8/007|bibcode=2006Nonli..19.1875A |s2cid=53702500 }}<br />
* {{Cite journal |author1=Giaouris, D. |author2=Banerjee, S. |author3=Zahawi, B. |author4=Pickert, V. |title=Control of fast scale bifurcations in power-factor correction converters |journal=IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs |date=2007 |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=805–809 |doi=10.1109/TCSII.2007.900350|citeseerx=10.1.1.709.6610 |s2cid=6781365 }}<br />
* {{Cite journal |author1=Sharan, Rangoli |author2=Banerjee, S. |title=Character of the map for switched dynamical systems for observations on the switching manifold |journal=Physics Letters A |date=2008 |volume=372 |issue=23 |pages=4234–4240 |doi=10.1016/j.physleta.2008.03.050|bibcode=2008PhLA..372.4234S }}<br />
* {{Cite journal |author1=Rakshit, Biswambhar |author2=Banerjee, Soumitro |title=Existence of chaos in a piecewise smooth two-dimensional contractive map |journal=Physics Letters A |date=2009 |volume=373 |issue=33 |pages=2922–2926 |doi=10.1016/j.physleta.2009.06.025|bibcode=2009PhLA..373.2922R }}<br />
* {{Cite book |author1=Kapat, S. |author2=Banerjee, S. |author3=Patra, A. |title=Proceedings of 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems |chapter=Bifurcation behavior of a boost converter under voltage controlled pulse skipping modulation in the light of 1-D discontinuous map model |date=2010 |pages=2932–2935 |doi=10.1109/ISCAS.2010.5538032|isbn=978-1-4244-5308-5 |s2cid=22448262 }}<br />
* {{Cite journal |author1=Kapat, S. |author2=Patra, A. |author3=Banerjee, S. |title=Achieving monotonic variation of spectral composition in DC-DC converters using pulse skipping modulation |journal=IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems |date=2011 |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=1958–1966 |doi=10.1109/TCSI.2011.2106052|s2cid=5674834 }}<br />
<br />
=== Presentations ===<br />
* {{Cite web |url=http://iwcsn2006.irmacs.sfu.ca/pdf/soumitro.banerjee.pdf |title=Border Collision and Bifurcation: Theory and Applications |last=Soumitro Banerjee |date=2006 |publisher=International Workshop on Complex Systems and Networks 2006}}<br />
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/public/Resources/Events/Mid_Year_Meetings/17_soumitrobanerjee.pdf |title=Qualitative Change in Dynamical Status Theory and Open Problems |last=Soumitro Banerjee |date=2017 |publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences}}<br />
<br />
=== Outreach ===<br />
* [https://rss.com/podcasts/room-of-lives/675152/ Bringing Science to People], The Room of Lives Podcast<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* [[Newton's method]]<br />
* [[Lagrange multiplier]]<br />
* [[Hamiltonian path problem]]<br />
* [[Paul Glendinning]]<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
{{Reflist|group=note}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Cite web |url=https://iiserkol.academia.edu/SoumitroBanerjee |title=Soumitro Banerjee - Author profile |date=2017 |publisher=Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata |work=List of publications}}<br />
<br />
{{SSBPST recipients in Engineering Science}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Banerjee, Soumitro}}<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in Engineering Science]]<br />
[[Category:1960 births]]<br />
[[Category:People from Nadia district]]<br />
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]<br />
[[Category:IIT Delhi alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Academic staff of IIT Kharagpur]]<br />
[[Category:Indian electrical engineers]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the National Academy of Sciences, India]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of The World Academy of Sciences]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the IEEE]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Academy of Engineering]]<br />
[[Category:Scientists from Kolkata]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vasudhendra&diff=543794Vasudhendra2026-02-04T21:35:18Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Creating new entry initial version - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian Kannada short story writer}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox writer<br />
| image = Vasudhendra 1.jpg<br />
| caption = <br />
| name = Vasudhendra<br />
| birth_place = [[Sanduru|Sandur, Bellary, Karnataka]], India<br />
| occupation = Writer, and publisher and LGBT activist<br />
| alma_mater = [[National Institute of Technology Karnataka]]<br/>[[Indian Institute of Science]]<br />
| genre = Fiction<br />
| notableworks = [[Tejo - Tungabhadra (Book)|Tejo-Tungabhadra]], Mohanaswamy, Nammamma Andre Nangishta<br />
| spouse = <br />
| children = <br />
| website = {{url|https://vasudhendra.com}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Vasudhendra''' is an Indian author in [[Kannada language]] known for his short stories and personal essays.<br />
<br />
==Personal life==<br />
Vasudhendra was born at [[Sanduru|Sandur]] in the [[Bellary district]] of [[Karnataka]].{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} He graduated with a [[Bachelor of Engineering]] degree from the [[National Institute of Technology, Karnataka]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Only a good mind can produce good literature, says writer|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/Only-a-good-mind-can-produce-good-literature-says-writer/article14954665.ece|accessdate=2 April 2018|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=20 March 2011|language=en-IN}}</ref> He then did his [[Master of Engineering]] from [[Indian Institute of Science]].{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} He had been a software professional since 20 years.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} He was also the Vice President at Genisys Software.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}<br />
<br />
Vasudhendra came out as gay in the interviews with prajavani and other media houses.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/vasudhendra-is-easily-among-the-most-popular-writers-of-today-his-books-go-into-several-editions-and-young-readers-adore-him/article6986554.ece|title=Why must truths be closeted?|first=Deepa|last=Ganesh|newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 March 2015|publisher=|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prajavani.net/article/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF-%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B5-%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%82-%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%82|title=ಮೋಹನಸ್ವಾಮಿ ಎನ್ನುವ ಮಿಥ್ಯೆಯೂ ನಿಜವೂ...|date=17 January 2016|website=Prajavani|lang=kn}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Short stories==<br />
# Maneeshe (1998)<br />
# Ugadi (2004)<br />
# Chelu (2006)<br />
# Hampi Express (2008)<br />
# Mohanaswamy (2013)<br />
# Vishama Bhinnaraashi (2017)<br />
<br />
==Collection of Essays==<br />
# Kothigalu (2004)<br />
# Nammamma Andre Nangishta (2006)<br />
# Rakshaka Annatha (2010)<br />
# Varnamaya (2012)<br />
# Aidu Paise Vardakshine (2016)<br />
<br />
==Novel==<br />
<br />
# Harichitta Satya (2010)<br />
# [[Tejo - Tungabhadra (Book)|Tejo-Tungabhadra]] (2019)<br />
# Reshme Batte (Oct. 2024)<br />
<br />
==Translations==<br />
<br />
# Mithuna (2004) (Translation of Sri Ramana's Short Stories from [[Telugu language|Telugu]])<br />
# Everest (2015) (Translation of [[Jon Krakauer]]'s Everest Mountaineering Disaster [[Into Thin Air]])<br />
<br />
==Science==<br />
<br />
# E-Commerce<br />
<br />
==In Braille language==<br />
<br />
# Adrushya kaavya (2006) (collection of essays)<br />
<br />
==Books in English==<br />
<br />
# Mohanaswamy (Harper Perennial, Nov 2016)<br />
# The unforgiving city and other stories (Penguin India, Step 2021)<br />
<br />
==Awards and recognitions==<br />
<br />
# Karnataka Sahitya Academy Sahityasri Award<br />
# Karnataka Sahitya Academy Book Prize<br />
# Galaganaatha Award<br />
# [[Da Raa Bendre]] Story Award<br />
# Masti Katha Award<br />
# [[U. R. Ananthamurthy]] Award<br />
# Besagarahalli Ramanna Award<br />
# Vasudheva Bhoopalam Award<br />
# Vardhamana Udayonmukha Award<br />
# Amma Award from Sadem<br />
# Katharangam Award<br />
<br />
==Publication==<br />
<br />
He has started his own publication house called the Chanda Pustaka. Through this he has given encouragement to many upcoming writers of Kannada. It has published around 100 books till date and these books have won more than 100 prestigious awards. He has instituted an award 'Chanda Pustaka Bahumana', which will be given to a fresh and young short story writer every year by publishing his first anthology along with a cash prize. He publishes all his books through this publication house and he looks after sales and marketing of his publications.<br />
<br />
==Other interests==<br />
<br />
being a hiker, he has trekked across Western Ghats. He has climbed Mount Kilimanjaro of Tanzania and trekked to Kailash & Mansarovar of Tibet. He is a regular squash player. World Cinema, Mahabharata and Indian classical music are his other passions. He decided not to watch television 12 years back and he follows this till date.<br />
<br />
Vasudendra has also done a professional course in counseling and spends most of his time these days in counseling his clients [Ref:Hindu Article].<br />
<br />
He is also a visiting faculty in Dayanand Sagar College of Engineering where he is respected and revered by his students.<br />
<br />
==LGBT Activism ==<br />
Vasudhendra is also associated with a local support group for LGBT individuals, called [[GoodAsYou]]. He has been doing a lot of activism for gay rights in Karnataka and in his latest interview with vishwavani, he argued that most people do not have sex just for procreation but also for recreation and oppression against gays is similar to that against dalits and made references to early Hindu texts.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Yugādi|author=Vasudhēndra, E.|date=2004|publisher=Chanda Pustaka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ByIPHQAACAAJ|accessdate=2015-06-24}}</ref><br />
<ref>Vasudhendra (2008),"Hampi Express" p. Chanda Pustaka, I--4, Mantri Paradise, Bannerughatta Road, Bangalore-76</ref><br />
<ref name="hindu">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2010/10/01/stories/2010100150760200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030002232/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2010/10/01/stories/2010100150760200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-10-30|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Archive News|date=2010-10-01|accessdate=2015-06-24}}</ref><br />
<ref name="oneindia">{{cite web|url=https://kannada.oneindia.com/literature/people/2009/0410-vasudhendra-chanda-pustaka-publication.html|title=ನಮ್ಮ ನಡುವಿನ ಅಪರೂಪದ ಕತೆಗಾರ ವಸುಧೇಂದ್ರ &#124; Vasudhendra &#124; Short story writer &#124; Hampi Express &#124; Chanda - ನಮ್ಮ ನಡುವಿನ ಅಪರೂಪದ ಕತೆಗಾರ ವಸುಧೇಂದ್ರ - Kannada Oneindia|date=10 April 2009|publisher=Oneindia|access-date=2015-06-24}}</ref><br />
<ref name="deccanherald">{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/147199/content/216934/ipl-2012.html|title='Understand intricacies of issues before writing'|publisher=deccanherald.com|accessdate=2015-06-24}}</ref><br />
<ref>http://archive.deccanherald.com/Content/Mar22009/panorama20090301121453.asp {{Dead link|date=August 2022}}</ref><br />
<ref name="hindu2">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2010/04/23/stories/2010042350980400.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125055823/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2010/04/23/stories/2010042350980400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-01-25|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Fresh as a flower|date=2010-04-23|accessdate=2015-06-24}}</ref><br />
<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/vasudhendra-is-easily-among-the-most-popular-writers-of-today-his-books-go-into-several-editions-and-young-readers-adore-him/article6986554.ece|title=Why must truths be closeted? - The Hindu|newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 March 2015 |publisher=thehindu.com|accessdate=2015-06-24|last1=Ganesh |first1=Deepa }}</ref><br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Indian male short story writers]]<br />
[[Category:Kannada-language writers]]<br />
[[Category:Indian LGBTQ writers]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:People from Ballari district]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vadayar&diff=474377Vadayar2026-02-03T06:38:05Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: enhanced section per sources</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Vadayar<br />
| other_name = <br />
| nickname = <br />
| settlement_type = village<br />
| image_skyline = Vadayar_Ellamkavu_Temple.jpg<br />
| image_alt = <br />
| image_caption = <br />
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India<br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|9|46|30|N|76|25|45|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]]<br />
| established_title = <!-- Established --><br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = <br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = <br />
| governing_body = [[Gram panchayat]]<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <br />
| area_rank = <br />
| area_total_km2 = <br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = <br />
| population_total = 22571<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_rank = <br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| population_footnotes = <br />
| demographics_type1 = Languages<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 686605<br />
| area_code_type = Telephone code<br />
| area_code = 04829-<br />
| registration_plate = KL-36<br />
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city<br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = Kottaym, Ernakulam<br />
| website = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
'''Vadayar''' is a village in [[Kottayam district]] in the state of [[Kerala]], [[India]].<ref name="censusindia">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/Population_data/Population_5000_and_Above.aspx|title=Census of India : Villages with population 5000 & above|work=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|accessdate=2008-12-10}}</ref> Vadayar Ilamkavu Devi Temple dedicated to Goddess ''Bhagavathy'' or Devi in a fierce form is located here, which about 9&nbsp;km away from Vaikom on the bank of River Vadayar, a distributary of [[Muvattupuzha river]].<br />
<br />
Two main festivals are held here. One is the flag hosting festival held in the month of February that lasts for eight days (February). Other is the famous 2 day '''Elamkavu Attuvela''' '''Mahotsavam''' (water carnival ), observed in Malayalam Meenammonth (March–April) which is a unique festival celebration through the river water.<br />
<br />
The Infant Jesus Church Vadayar is one of the oldest religious institution, has a history of 1015 years. Which is situated 8 kilometers from Vaikom. During the [[Mysorean invasion of Malabar]], the Administrative headquarters was shifted from Kodungalloor to Vadayar. A small piece of wood from the remains of the holy cross in which Christ crucified was received from Pope Pius VI is placed on the altar of the Church. Nearest Railway stations are Vaikom Road and Piravom Road.<br />
<br />
==Demographics==<br />
{{As of|2011}} India [[census]], Vadayar had a population of 22571 with 11101 males and 11470 females.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vadayar Village Population - Vaikom - Kottayam, Kerala |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/628144-vadayar-kerala.html |access-date=2025-12-15 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref><ref name="censusindia" /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{Kottayam district}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Villages in Kottayam district]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Kottayam-geo-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yimkhiung_Naga&diff=448726Yimkhiung Naga2026-01-30T01:21:04Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Updated formatting and sections</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}<br />
{{Infobox ethnic group<br />
| group = Yimkhiung Naga <br />
| image = [[File:Naga female by retlaw snellac.jpg| none|200px]]<br />
| image_caption = A Yimkhiung Naga woman at the [[morung]] of Kutur village<br />
| region1 = [[Nagaland]]<br />
| pop1 = 74,647 (2011 census)<br />
| ref1 = &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/ST.html|title=A-11 Individual Scheduled Tribe Primary Census Abstract Data and its Appendix|publisher=Office of the Registrar General &amp; Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=2017-11-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
| languages = [[Yimchungrü language|Yimkhiungrü language]]<br />
| religions =<br />
| related = Other [[Naga people|Naga ethnic groups]]<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
{{Naga people}}<br />
The '''Yimkhiungs''' (formerly misspelled as '''Yimchunger''') are a [[Naga people|Naga]] [[ethnic group]] inhabiting the territories of [[Shamator district|Shamator]] and [[Kiphire district|Kiphire District]] in the [[Northeast India]]n state of [[Nagaland]] and western areas of [[Myanmar]].&lt;ref name="Ved_NE_Ency_5"&gt;{{cite book | title = Encyclopaedia Of North-east India Vol# 5 | author = Ved Prakash | year = 2007 | publisher = Atlantic | isbn = 978-81-269-0707-6 | pages = 2137–2138 }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
The word Yimkhiung means "the ones who have reached their place of choice".&lt;ref name="Aglaja_2003"&gt;{{cite book |author1=Aglaja Stirn |author2=Peter Van Ham |title=The hidden world of the Naga: living traditions in Northeast India and Burma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwpuAAAAMAAJ |year=2003 |publisher=Prestel |page=41 |isbn=9783791328782 }}&lt;/ref&gt; They are also known as the Yachumi (also Yatsumi or Yachimi), which is a [[Sümi Naga|Sümi]]-influenced name.&lt;ref name="Aglaja_2003"/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Coupe|first=Alexander R.|date=2020-08-28|title=Northern Sangtam phonetics, phonology and word list|url=http://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/ltba.19014.cou|journal=Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area|language=en|volume=43|issue=1|pages=147–189|doi=10.1075/ltba.19014.cou|s2cid=225201660 |issn=0731-3500|hdl=10356/146605|hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Khiamniungans call Mongtsohai. The Chang's call Yamshong. While the Sangtam call them as Yachungre.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
According to the Yimkhiung tradition, the ethnic group emerged at a village called Moru and then came to Jure (or Chiru) village.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | title = A brief historical account of Nagaland | author = M Alemchiba | year = 1970 | publisher = Naga Institute of Culture | page = 21 | oclc = 246670722 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The Yimkhiungs and the [[Khiamniungan people|Khiamniungan]]s are believed to have migrated to the present-day Nagaland from [[Upper Burma]] as one group, in one wave. They separated into two groups at the Moru village.&lt;ref name="Ved_NE_Ency_5"/&gt;<br />
<br />
=== Migration ===<br />
<br />
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2018}}<br />
<br />
Source: Archives of Arts and Culture Department. Government of Nagaland{{full citation needed|date=August 2018}}<br />
<br />
The Yimkhiungs, like any other Naga ethnic group has no written record of its origin or history. The people did not have any script of their own. Thus, the Yimkhiungs may have evolved from some lost ethnic groups, wandering from place to place and finally settled in present-day locations. However, on the basis of narrated historical accounts handed down from generation to generation, the origin of the Yimkhiungs is believed to be from Thailand. The present Yimkhiungs were not known by any name as an [[ethnic group]]. They lived mostly a nomadic life spending hardly one or two generation at a certain place of settlement as a village for want of more land for cultivation to meet the growing need of food and other means of sustenance. At other times, the entire population was compelled to abandon their village and shift to a safer place to avoid plague and epidemic diseases or as victims of constant head hunting amongst the neighboring villages etc.<br />
<br />
The route of migration of the Yimkhiungs from Thailand came through Burma (Myanmar), then from Burma to Moru (in India) and from Moru to Chiru, from Chiru to Longyang to Thunyim kiulong (literally Thunyim means fifty and Kiulong means village) - thus village of fifty (within the Indian territory). Thereafter from Thunyim kiulong to Tuphung kiulong (near Bokphur village) and from Tuphung kiulong to Thsunkioso village (presently Thonoknyu village). Then from Thsunkioso to Kemiphu - on the banks of Thurak ke or popularly known as the Zungki river. Thereafter, from Kemiphu to Tukhea Khup village (below the present Wapher/Wungphung village on the banks of the Zungki river). At each place of settlements only a portion of the group set out in search of a better place with more natural resources they needed in their day today life, leaving behind the remaining population at such places as permanent citizens of that village.<br />
<br />
While they were settled at Tukhea Khup, one day a group of these people while on fishing trip at the confluence of the Yayi river and the Zungki(Thurak ke) river, they discovered a burnt charcoal and partly burnt firewood floating down from the Yayi river. This discovery made them more curious of other human settlement towards the source of Yayi river. Accordingly, a large portion of the people set out on their expedition towards the farther upstream along the Yayi river in search of other human settlement. Finally, they arrived at a place where they found some signs of some other human activities, like clearing of jungle/forest for cultivation etc. Having now found signs of the existence of other human humans in and around this place, they named it Yimkhiungto - meaning "found it". With the passage of time this place got the name Yimkhiung or Yimchung and the residents were known as Yimkhiungrü and the village now stands as Yimchung Awun meaning Yimchung Old (popularly known as Y. Awun village till today). Prior to the establishment of this village there was no known name of the group as a community or as an ethnic group. At each place of the series of settlements not the entire population was on the move; it was only those strong and able people who dared to face any new adversary that might lay waiting as this nomads continued to move on from place to place after several years of residing at a place and even for two to three generations at certain place, in search of virgin soil to meet the needs of their ever growing population. At any place of their settlement, the duration of their settlement could be anywhere between 10 and 50 years at the most. Thus, it was at the Yimchung Awun village the settlers came to be called the Yimkhiungrüs.<br />
<br />
The name Yimkhiungrü literally means "the finders". The residents who were left behind at several places of earlier settlements called the Yimchung Awun settlers as the Yimkhiungrus or Yimchungrus. The name Yimkhiungrü later got diluted to Yimchungers, Yachongre, Yachumi and Yamshong as they are called by the neighboring [[ethnic group]]s, more particularly the early Chang Scouts and Dobashis who accompanied the British explorers.<br />
<br />
The Yimkhiungrüs thus settled here for a long period of time at Yimchung Awun. With the passage of time as the population exploded, a group of people started to venture out to establish a new village further North of the Yimchung Awun village at a place called 'Langa'village below the present Kuthur village. Some prominent people like Lakiumong, Zungyimkiu and Khushang from the Jangkhiunger clan. Pathong and Hemong from the Janger clan and Sangpun from the khiphur chan resided at Langa. The group of Yimkhiungrüs who were settled at Langa village were with well built physic and were fierce warriors who dared to fight with spirits and other natural elements and calamities like, floods, fire, storm etc. to test their might and endurance. However, equally brave and fierce warriors, the people started fighting for supremacy amongst them not willing to submit to each other. That being so, they could not live together in harmony and unity. Finally, they parted their ways leaving the village desolate and uninhabited as on date. The remains of Langa village still stands today bearing testimony to once inhabited by hardworking and fierce Yimkhiungrü warriors. It was from this village that the people got scattered and dispersed into almost all directions. A group of people moved towards the present Chang land, while some went to Sumi areas, Ao areas, Sangtams, Konyaks, Phoms and to Kheamniungan areas. However, a bigger portion moved downwards to establish various villages of the present Yimkhiungrü inhabited areas in addition to the residents those who chose to stay behind, stretching from the Heruppong to Mount Saramati and far beyond into the Myanmar areas, speaking different dialects like Langa, Tukhi, Mokhok, Chir, Longphur and Phunung.<br />
<br />
As it was once upon a time those days, each village had a distinct administrative entity not subjected to any other authority and each individual village having a sovereign entity under the governance of the 'Kiulongthsuru' (meaning the founder of the village who would be regarded as the Headman aided by village elders to assist him in the village administration. Each village, big or small had equal respect as far as their rights and privileges were concerned. There was hardly any concept of community as an ethnic group beyond one's village territory. Hence, headhunting for trophy and glory ruled the land and people. But, with the advent and coming of Christianity into the Yimkhiungrü land, modern civilization and the consciousness to live united and in harmony as one people, one community dawned upon the Yimkhiungrüs.<br />
<br />
== Culture ==<br />
Strong ties to cultural identity in the form of their love and passion for agriculture are reflected in the hymns and beats of songs devoted to the craft.&lt;ref&gt;G. Ashin Panmei, [http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/naga/record/r65012.html "Record R65012"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518080725/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/naga/record/r65012.html |date=18 May 2015 }}, ''University of Cambridge''.&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
The musical instruments of the Yimkhiungs include simple log drums, trumpets and flutes, similar to that of the [[Angami Naga|Angamis]].&lt;ref name="Ved_NE_Ency_5"/&gt;<br />
<br />
The traditional dress of the Yimkhiungs includes colorful [[Cane (grass)|cane]]-made headgear decorated with hair and bird feathers. The Yimkhiungs both male and female have numerous traditional dresses decorated with every hue and colours. Varieties of ornaments are worn.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}<br />
<br />
The [[Government of Nagaland]] has been instrumental in providing the proper tools and venues for the Yimkhiungs to properly showcase their traditions, culture, and craft with tourists. Over the last decade, an explosion of tourism in the region has catapulted attempts at preserving the culture of the relevant [[ethnic group]]s. The Yimkhiungs have been at the forefront of preserving culture in the region due to their dedicated festivals aided in part by the Naga State. The Yimkhiungs are one of the main contributors to the Hornbill Festival in the Naga State of India, the [[Hornbill festival]] showcases culture and customs from the different [[ethnic groups]]s of the Naga region. Highlights of the festival include: tribal dances across the many groups of the Naga region, spin top demonstrations by the Yimkhiung, and folk songs. Since most of the Yimkhiungs and other Naga people depend on agriculture as a main source of income: there are live harvesting demonstrations at the festival. Other demonstrations include harvest songs, cultural performances, and a very interesting traditional way of finding a bride.&lt;ref&gt;WildFilmsIndia, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_dEIR24fls "Traditional way of finding a bride showcase by Yimchunger Tribe"], ''WildFilmsIndia via YouTube'', 7 January 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
=== Metümnyo ===<br />
''Metümnyo'' is the traditional five-day harvest festival of the Yimkhiung Naga although regarded as a solemn festival. It is celebrated after the [[millet]] crop is harvested, usually in the second week of August.&lt;ref name="kiphire_nic_fest"&gt;{{cite web | url = http://kiphire.nic.in/festival/festival_yimchunger.htm | title = Festivals: Metemneo | publisher = District Administration, Kiphire District | access-date = 2011-10-24 }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br />
<br />
The ceremonies are inaugurated by the village elder ''khiungpu''. The five-day festivals include:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Day<br />
! Ceremony<br />
! Description<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| Shito<br />
| Communal cleaning of the village, repair of village roads<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| Zhihdo<br />
| Repair of the paths leading to the fields, clearing up of intrusive landslides<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| Zumdo<br />
| Repair of inter-village roads<br />
|-<br />
| 4<br />
| Khihresuk<br />
| Cleaning of water points and springs<br />
|-<br />
| 5<br />
| Shiresuk<br />
| Cleaning and worship of agricultural tools<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The Yimkhiungs pray for the souls of those who would die in the year. They invite friends home and exchange gifts. The festival is marked by [[engagements]] between the young boys and girls.&lt;ref name="kiphire_nic_fest"/&gt; The Yimkhiungs believe that males have six souls while females have five souls.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Yimkhiungrü language]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
<br />
* [http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ebhr/pdf/EBHR_45_02.pdf The Yimchunger Nagas: Local Histories and Changing Identity in Nagaland, Northeast India]<br />
* [https://yimkhiungrutruk.org/ Yimkhiungrutruk]<br />
<br />
{{Naga tribes}}<br />
{{Hill tribes of Northeast India}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Naga people]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulandshahr&diff=447495Bulandshahr2026-01-29T09:44:15Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: page edit</p>
<hr />
<div>{{For|the book by Frederic Growse|Bulandshahr: Or, Sketches of an Indian District}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| official_name = Bulandshahr<br />
| native_name = <!-- Please do not add any Indic script in this infobox, per WP:INDICSCRIPT policy. --><br />
| other_name = <br />
| settlement_type = City<br />
| image_skyline = {{multiple image<br />
| border = infobox<br />
| total_width = 250<br />
| image_style = <br />
| perrow = 1/2/2/2<br />
| image1 = Garden Gate, Bulandshahr 2023.tif<br />
| image2 = Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Malika park, Bulandshahr.tif<br />
| image3 = Bathing ghat, Bulandshahr 1.tif<br />
| image4 = Bulandshahr ki nahar.tif<br />
| image5 = Kaala Aam Chauraha.jpg<br />
| image6 = Bulandshahr exhibition grounds.tif<br />
| image7 = Bathing ghat, Bulandshahr 2.tif<br />
| image8 = Veteran's Air Force School Bulandshahr.png<br />
<br />
}}<br />
| image_alt = <br />
| image_caption = '''Left to right, top to bottom:''' Garden Gate, Mahatma Gandhi bust (Malika park), Bathing ghat, Nahar (Canal), Kala Aam, Exhibition grounds, Kali Nadi bridge and MiG-27 fighter aircraft at Veteran's Air Force School in Ganganagar<br />
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh#India3<br />
| pushpin_label_position = right<br />
| pushpin_map_alt = <br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|28|24|25|N|77|50|59|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bulandshahr district|Bulandshahr]]<br />
| established_title = <br />
| established_date = <br />
| founder = King [[Ahibaran]]<br />
| named_for = <br />
| government_type = <br />
| governing_body = <br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_footnotes = <br />
| area_rank = <br />
| area_total_km2 = 72<br />
| elevation_footnotes = <br />
| elevation_m = 195<br />
| population_total = 235310<ref name="CoI 2011" /><br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_rank = <br />
| population_density_km2 = 788<br />
| population_demonym = <br />
| population_footnotes = <br />
| demographics_type1 = [[Language]]<br />
| demographics1_title1 = Official<br />
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]<ref name="langoff">{{cite web |title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |website=nclm.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]] |access-date=21 December 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref><br />
| demographics1_title2 = Additional&nbsp;official<br />
| demographics1_info2 = [[Urdu]]<ref name="langoff"/><br />
| demographics1_title3 = Native<br />
| demographics1_info3 = {{hlist|[[Kauravi|Khariboli]] |[[Braj Bhasha]]}}<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 203001<br />
| area_code_type = Telephone code<br />
| area_code = 91 (5732)<br />
| registration_plate = UP-13<br />
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]<br />
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1.892 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]<br />
| website = {{URL|bulandshahar.nic.in}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Bulandshahr''', formerly '''Baran''', is a city and a [[municipal board]] in [[Bulandshahr district]] in the [[States and union territories of India|state]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]], India.<ref name="BulProfile">{{cite web |title=District-Profile {{!}} District Bulandshahr, Government of Uttar Pradesh {{!}} India |url=https://bulandshahar.nic.in/district-profile/ |access-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119145846/https://bulandshahar.nic.in/district-profile/ |archive-date=19 January 2021}}</ref><br />
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It is the administrative headquarters of Bulandshahr district and part of [[Delhi]] [[National Capital Region (India)|NCR]] region. According to the Government of India, district Bulandshahr is one of the Minority Concentrated Districts of India on the basis of the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]] data on population, socio-economic indicators and basic amenities indicators.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/default/files/MCDs_category.pdf |title=List of Minority Concentration Districts (Category 'A' & 'B') |publisher=minorityaffairs.gov.in |access-date=25 February 2019}}</ref><br />
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==Etymology==<br />
An early history of Bulandshahr and the origin of its name is given by British [[District magistrate|District magistrate and collector]] for the [[Indian Civil Service]], [[Frederic Salmon Growse]], in a paper titled "Bulandshahr Antiquities" published in the ''[[The Asiatic Society|Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal]]'' in 1879.<ref name=Growse1879>{{cite journal |last=Growse |first=F. S. |title=Bulandshahr Antiquities |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |date=1879 |pages=270–276 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofasiatic48asia/page/270/mode/2up?q=growse}}</ref> Bulandshahr was founded as 'Baran' by the king [[Ahibaran]].<ref name=Provinces>{{Cite book |last=Provinces (India) |first=North-Western |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rJ0IAAAAQAAJ&q=Ahibaran+Baran+bulandshahr&pg=PA78 |title=Statistical, Descriptive and Historical Account of the North-Western Provinces of India: Meerut division. v.2:pt.1. Saháranpur District. v.2:pt.2. Aligarh District. v.3:pt.1. Bulandshahr District. v.3:pt.2. Meerut (Mirath) District. v.3:pt.3. Muzaffarnagar District |date=1875 |publisher=Printed at the North-western Provinces' Government Press |pages=78 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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Since it was perched on a highland it came to be known as "high city",<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ig9uAAAAMAAJ&q=bulandshahr+high+land+persian |title=Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: Bulandshahr |date=1980 |publisher=Government of Uttar Pradesh |language=en}}</ref> ({{langx|fa|بلند شهر}}), which translates as Bulandshahr in Persian language during the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] era.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Everett-Heath |first=John |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191882913.001.0001/acref-9780191882913;jsessionid=2690413E8ADB04D203724A712F92F57E |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names |date=24 October 2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-188291-3 |language=en-US |doi=10.1093/acref/9780191882913.001.0001}}</ref><br />
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==History==<br />
===Early history===<br />
The history of Bulandshahr begins even before 1200 B.C. This region is nearer to the capital of [[Pandava]]s – [[Indraprasth]] and [[Hastinapur]]. After the decline of Hastinapur, Ahar which is situated in the north east of district Bulandshahr became an important place for [[Pandavas]]. With the passage of time, the king Parmal's descendant Maharaja Ahibaran<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Edwin T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CBTc7SPqr2kC&dq=ahibaran+family&pg=PA84 |title=Statistical descriptive and historical account of the North-Western provinces of India: Ed. ... by Edwin [Felix] Thomas Atkinson |date=1876 |publisher=North-Western Provinces' Government Press |language=en}}</ref> made a fort on this part of region and laid the foundation of a tower called Baran(Bulandshahr).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Kuar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttqwEAAAQBAJ&dq=ahibaran+family&pg=PA6 |title=Historical and Statistical Memoir of Zila Bulandshahar |date=2023-02-28 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-382-50031-3 |language=en}}</ref> Since it was perched on a highland it came to be known as high city which was translated into Persian language as Bulandshahr. At present this is called by this name.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About District {{!}} District Bulandshahr, Government of Uttar Pradesh {{!}} India |url=https://bulandshahar.nic.in/about-district/ |access-date=2024-04-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> All evidences point it to being Varnavat as described in Mahabharat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Bulandshahr, Bulandshahr Overview, Facts About Bulandshahr |url=https://www.bulandshahronline.in/city-guide/about-bulandshahr |access-date=2024-04-04 |website=www.bulandshahronline.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jaina |first=Sāgaramala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYsKAAAAIAAJ&q=varnavat+baran |title=Jaina dharma kāyāpanīya sampradāya |date=1996 |publisher=Pārśvanātha Vidyāpīṭha |language=hi}}</ref> <br />
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The ancient ruins found at places Bhatora Veerpur, Ghalibpur etc. are symbolic of antiquity of Bulandshahr. There are several other important places in the District from where statues of medieval age and objects of ancient temples had been founded. Even today several historical and ancients objects such as coins, inscriptions etc. are preserved in Lucknow State Museum .<ref name="Nevill1922">{{cite book |last1=Nevill |first1=H. R. |title=District Gazetteers Of The United Provinces Of Agra And Oudh Bulandshar Vol-V |date=1922 |publisher=Government Branch Press |location=Lucknow |pages=204–208 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.1369/page/n217/mode/2up?q=Growseganj+}}</ref><br />
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The kingdom of Baran came to an end probably during the 12th century. It was being ruled by Dod Rajputs who were tributaries of the royal family of Baran, Baranwals and ruled under the royal family's name, the family was considered a direct descendant of Pandavas. In 1192 CE when [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad Ghauri]] conquered parts of India, his general [[Qutb-ud-din Aibak|Qutubuddin Aibak]] conquered Fort Baran; Raja Chandrasen Baran died fighting but not before killing Khwaja, the commander of the Aibak army, in whose memory a maqbara was built.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}<br />
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The ancient ruins found at places in Bhatora Veerpur, Ghalibpur, etc. are indicative of the antiquity of Bulandshahr. There are several other important places in the District from where statues belonging to the medieval age and objects of ancient temples have been found. Even today, several of these historical and ancient objects such as coins, inscriptions etc. are preserved in the [[State Museum Lucknow]].{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}<br />
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===British rule===<br />
[[Kuar Lachman Singh|Raja Lachhman Singh]] (1826–1896), who served the government from 1847 and wrote a ''Statistical Memoir of the Bulandshahr District'', moved to Bulandshahr following retirement.<ref name="Buckland">{{cite book |last1=Buckland |first1=C. E. |title=Dictionary of Indian Biography |year=1971 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8AKI2nqPBQC&pg=PA60 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=GrowsePreface>{{Cite book |last=Growse |first=Frederic Salmon |url=http://archive.org/details/bulandshahrorsk00growgoog |title=Bulandshahr: Or, Sketches of an Indian District: Social, Historical and Architectural |date=1884 |publisher=Medical Hall Press |location=Benares |pages=10 |language=English}}</ref><br />
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The first collector of Bulandshahr was [[Robert Lowther (collector)|Robert Lowther]].<ref name=Atkinson1876>{{Cite book |last=Atkinson |first=Edwin Thomas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9jaXsOc-tEC&pg=PA127 |title=Statistical, Descriptive and Historical Account of the North-Western Provinces of India: 3.:Meerut division part 2 |date=1876 |publisher=North-Western Provinces Government |pages=127–128 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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====Indian Rebellion of 1857====<br />
A large number of [[Gurjar]] and [[Rajput]] rulers, called [[zamindar]]s, rebelled and attacked Bulandshahr itself on 21 May 1857.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tewari |first=J. P. |title=The Revolt of 1857 in Bulandshahr District |date=1966 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140455 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=28 |pages=365–376 |jstor=44140455 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> The Gurjars plundered multiple towns such as [[Sikandrabad]]. They burnt down Telegraph lines and Dak Bungalows. The rebelling [[Nawab]], Walidad Khan also belonged from Bulandshahr. The presence of Nawab Walidad Khan in Bulandshahr had completely paralysed the British about this time.<ref>{{Citation |last=Heehs |first=Peter |title=British Rule and Indian Revolt |date=29 August 1991 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195627985.003.0003 |work=India's Freedom Struggle 1857-1947 |pages=18–31 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195627985.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-562798-5 |access-date=9 November 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref><br />
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Walidad Khan recruited a large number of Indian Muslims who had been serving in the [[Silladar Cavalry|Irregular Cavalry]], such as Skinner's Horse.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Bengal, Past & Present: Journal of the Calcutta Historical Society |volume= 86 |year= 1967|publisher= Calcutta Historical Society|page= 47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxbjAAAAMAAJ&q=pathan+basti+irregular+cavalry |last=Stokes |first=Eric | title=Nawab Walidad Khan and the 1857 Struggle in the Bulandshahr District}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Fleetwood Williams |title= Narrative of Events Attending the Outbreak of Disturbances and the Restoration of Authority in the District of Meerut in 1857-58 |publisher= Government Press |page= 59 }}</ref><br />
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<gallery><br />
File:1st Regiment of Skinner's Horse returning from a General Review, 1828.jpg|Regiment of Skinner's Horse returning from a General Review<br />
File:Skinner's Horse at Exercise, 1840 (c).jpg|Skinner's Horse at Exercise, 1840<br />
</gallery><br />
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The [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] is generally associated with the surrounding areas, such as [[Meerut]], [[Delhi]] and [[Aligarh]].<ref name="Tewari1966">{{cite journal |last1=Tewari |first1=J. P. |title=The revolt of 1857 in Bulandshahr District |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1966 |volume=28 |pages=365–376 |jstor=44140455 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140455 |issn=2249-1937 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> On 20 May 1857, the 9th regiment of Bulandshahr looted the treasury at Bulandshahr. [[Alfred Comyn Lyall|Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall]] was subsequently appointed assistant magistrate of Bulandshahr, and [[Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts|Lord Roberts]] was also present in the district.<ref name="Tewari1966"/><ref name="Mukherjee1958">{{cite journal |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Paresh Nath |title=Bulandshahr in 1857 rising |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1958 |volume=21 |pages=496–500 |jstor=44145246 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145246 |issn=2249-1937 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India |series=Cambridge South Asian Studies, vol. 23 |date=1978 |pages=140–158 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/peasant-and-the-raj/nawab-walidad-khan-and-the-1857-struggle-in-the-bulandshahr-district/2F8D5DB84BACC27BAC95DF787504A08C |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511563416.008 |isbn=9780521216845 |chapter=Nawab Walidad Khan and the 1857 Struggle in the Bulandshahr district | last= Stokes | first= Eric}}</ref><br />
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===Park===<br />
Raja Babu Park had been constructed in Bulandshahr in 1837, and a statue of [[Queen Victoria]] was placed there in 1901, when the park was renamed ‘Maharani Victoria Park’.<ref name=2011CensusBulandshahr>[https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/09/0911_PART_A_DCHB_BULANDSHAHR.pdf "Census of India 2011: Bulandshahr village and town directory"]. Series 10, PART XII-A.</ref><br />
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===Development under Frederick Growse===<br />
Growse, [[district magistrate and collector]] of Bulandshahr from 1876 to 1884, resided at Collector's House.<ref name=today/> In 1884 he published ''Bulandshahr; or, Sketches of an Indian district; social, historical and architectural''.<ref name=JRAS1893>{{cite journal |title=Obituary Notice: Frederic Salmon Growse |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PKrsuYUrWg0C |date=July 1893 |volume=46|pages=650–652 |jstor=25197161 |doi= 10.1017/S0035869X0014359X |s2cid=250349621 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><br />
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"><br />
File:Garden Gate, Bulandshahr (1880s).jpg|[[Garden Gate, Bulandshahr|Garden Gate]]: entrance to Town Hall and Moti Bagh (1880s)<ref name=today>{{Cite web |title=Indian Architecture of To-day as Exemplified in the New Buildings of Bulandshahr District, Part II · Highlights from the Digital Content Library |url=https://dcl.dash.umn.edu/highlights/items/show/256 |access-date=17 April 2021 |website=dcl.dash.umn.edu |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416165147/https://dcl.dash.umn.edu/highlights/items/show/256 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
File:Town Hall Bulandshahr. North Verandah. Photograph by Chunni Lál.jpg|[[Town Hall, Bulandshahr|Town Hall]]. North Verandah (Chunni Lál)<ref name=today/><br />
File:Collector's House, Bulandshahr.jpg|Old Collector's House (1886)<ref name=today/><br />
File:Bathing ghat Bulandshahr 1880.png|[[Bathing Ghat, Bulandshahr|Bathing ghat]] at [[Kali River (Uttar Pradesh)|Kali Nadi]]<ref>Growse, F.[https://archive.org/details/bulandshahrorsk00growgoog/page/n118/mode/2up?q=ghat ''Bulandshahr; or, Sketches of an Indian district; social, historical and architectural'']. Benares: Medical Hall Press, 1884. p. 67</ref><br />
</gallery><br />
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==Post-independence==<br />
Following India's independence, ‘Maharani Victoria Park’ was renamed after Rajeshwar Dayal Saxena, president of the Civil Bar Association and later president of Municipal Board, Bulandshahar. Later it was renamed again back to 'Raja Babu Park'. In 1969 a bust of Mahatma Gandhi was established in the park.<ref name=2011CensusBulandshahr/><br />
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==Geography==<br />
The distance between Bulandshahr and [[New Delhi]] is 68&nbsp;km.<ref name="Map">{{Cite web |title=Bulandshahr, Uttar Pradesh to New Delhi, Delhi route by Road via NE 3 |url=https://www.google.com/maps/dir/bulandshahr/new+delhi/@28.5636216,77.2490911,10z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m14!4m13!1m5!1m1!1s0x390ca6b2622913b1:0x911a6113e90ec604!2m2!1d77.8498292!2d28.406963!1m5!1m1!1s0x390cfd5b347eb62d:0x52c2b7494e204dce!2m2!1d77.2090212!2d28.6139391!3e0 |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=maps.google.com}}</ref> It lies in the Bulandshahr district on the Agra to Delhi Road, and is surrounded by [[Delhi]], [[Meerut]], [[Moradabad]], [[Badaun]] and [[Aligarh]].<ref name="Tewari1966"/><br />
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==Demographics==<br />
As per provisional data of 2011 census, Bulandshahr urban agglomeration had a population of 235,310, out of which males were 125,549 and females were 111,761. Population in the age groups of 0 to 6 years was 30,886. The total number of literates were 160,203, of which 90,761 were males and 69,442 were females. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population was 78.37%.<ref name="CoI 2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |title=Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date= 7 July 2012}}</ref><br />
<!---hide uncited figures, not mentioned in the body. <br />
{{bar box<br />
|title=Religions in Bulandshahr<br />
|titlebar=#Fcd116<br />
|left1=Religion<br />
|right1=Percent<br />
|float=right<br />
|bars=<br />
{{bar percent|[[Hindus]]|orange|63.63}}<br />
{{bar percent|[[Muslims]]|green|35.53}}<br />
{{bar percent|[[Jainism|Jains]]|pink|0.13}}<br />
{{bar percent|Others†|black|0.72}}<br />
|caption=Distribution of religions<br /><br />
†<small>Includes [[Sikh]]s (0.35%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (<0.04%).</small><br />
}} end commenting out---><br />
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==Administration and politics==<br />
Bulandshahr is one of seven administrative sub-divisions of the [[Bulandshahr district|District of Bulandshahr]].<ref name="BulProfile"/><br />
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==Buildings==<br />
Bulandshahr has four gates; Bunford Club Gate, Fatehganj Gate, Growseganj Gate and Moti Bagh Gate.<ref name=2011CensusBulandshahr/>{{clarify|date=February 2023}}<br />
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==Events==<br />
The town hosts an annual exhibition known as '[[Exhibition, Bulandshahr|numaish]]'.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0QkNAQAAMAAJ&q=bulandshahr+numaish |title=The Geographer |date=1982 |publisher=Aligarh Muslim University Geographical Society. |language=en |page=70}}</ref><br />
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==Attractions==<br />
===Clock Tower===<br />
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The [[Clock Tower at Malka Park]] is a historical landmark from the [[Victorian era]] located at the centre of [[Bulandshahr district]] in Raja Babu Park or Malka Park which was constructed during the British period in 1837. In 1901, a statue of [[Queen Victoria]] was placed in this park and the park was named as 'Maharani Victoria Park'. After the independence of the country, it was renamed as 'Raja Babu Park'. In 1969, a statue of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] was established inside the tower.<ref name="District Bulandshahr">{{cite web |title=District Bulandshahr |url=https://bulandshahar.nic.in/tourist-place/clock-tower/ |website=bulandshahar.nic.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bulandshahr |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1192/download/3782/DH_2011_0911_PART_A_DCHB_BULANDSHAHR.pdf |website=CensusIndia}}</ref><br />
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"><br />
File:Statue of Mahatma Gandhi, Malika park, Bulandshahr.tif|Clock tower at Malka park<ref name="District Bulandshahr"/><br />
</gallery><br />
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===Kuchesar Fort===<br />
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[[Kuchesar Fort]] (alternatively known as 'Rao Raj Vilas Kuchesar Fort') is located at [[Kuchesar]], in Bulandshahr, [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]], approximately 84.3 kilometres (52.4 miles) east of [[Delhi]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kuchesarfort.com/|website=kuchesarfort.com |title=Rao Raj Vilas Kuchesar |access-date=5 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mud Fort |url=https://bulandshahar.nic.in/tourist-place/mud-fort/ |website=bulandshahar.nic.in}}</ref><br />
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The fort served as the erstwhile seat of the Jat Kingdom of Uttar Pradesh.<ref name="Rao Raj Vilas Kuchesar Fort">{{cite web |title=Mud Fort |url=http://kuchesarfort.com/<br />
|website=Rao Raj Vilas Kuchesar Fort |access-date=23 November 2020}}</ref><br />
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"><br />
File:Kuchesar Mud Fort.jpg|Mud Fort at Kuchesar<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-projects/cphn/kuchesar_mud_fort_as_a_heritage_hotel-project-pages.html|title=Kuchesar Mud Fort, as a Heritage Hotel|website=worldarchitecture.org|language=en|access-date=2018-06-06}}</ref><br />
</gallery><br />
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===MiG-27 Fighter Aircraft===<br />
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[[Mikoyan MiG-27]], a [[supersonic]] [[swing-wing]] fighter aircraft is placed on static display at Veteran's Air Force School in Ganganagar, Bulandshahr. This is the first [[MiG-27]] to be preserved and publicly displayed in [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name=promo>{{cite web |first1=PVS Jagan |last1=Mohan |title=MiG 27 ML [TS517] at Veteran's Air Force School Bulandshahr |url=https://www.warbirdsofindia.com/uttarpradesh/bulandshahr-vafs-mig27-ts517/ |website=Warbirds of India |date=29 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=AerialVisuals |url=https://www.aerialvisuals.ca/AirframeDossier.php?Serial=336111 |website=www.aerialvisuals.ca}}</ref><br />
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The [[Kargil War]] veteran has also featured on 'Warbirds of India' <br />
<ref name=promo /> by PVS Jagan Mohan, a military historian who authored [[The India-Pakistan Air War of 1965]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=MOHAN |first1=PVS JAGAN |last2=CHOPRA |first2=SAMIR |title=The India-Pakistan Air War of 1965 |publisher=Manohar Books}}</ref><br />
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"><br />
File:Veteran's Air Force School Bulandshahr.png|MiG-27 at Veteran's Air force School<ref name=promo /><br />
</gallery><br />
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==Notable people==<br />
<!---♦♦♦♦ Only add a person to this list if they already have their own article on the English Bharatpedia ♦♦♦♦---><br />
<!---♦♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦♦---><br />
*[[Capt. Abbas Ali]]<ref name="TH2014">{{cite news |title=Freedom fighter Abbas Ali to support Arvind Kejriwal |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/freedom-fighter-abbas-ali-to-support-arvind-kejriwal/article5854491.ece |access-date=12 April 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=31 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709063021/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/freedom-fighter-abbas-ali-to-support-arvind-kejriwal/article5854491.ece |archive-date=9 July 2014 |language=en-IN}}</ref><br />
*[[Ahibaran]], legendary founder of the city<br />
*[[Ziauddin Barani]], Indian historian<br />
*[[Kay Baxter (dramatist)|Kay Baxter]], dramatist, journalist and teacher<ref name="ODNBBaxter">{{cite ODNB |last1=Wilson |first1=Derek |title=Baxter [née fforde], Kathleen Mary Carver [Kay] |publisher=OUP |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/72210 |year=2004}}</ref><br />
*[[Amit Bhadana]], YouTuber and comedian<br />
*[[Ashiq Ilahi Bulandshahri]], Indian Islamic scholar<br />
*[[Sonal Chauhan]]<ref name="Chauhan">{{cite web |title=All you want to know about #SonalChauhan |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/celebs/sonal-chauhan.html#biography |website=FilmiBeat |access-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207031202/https://www.filmibeat.com/celebs/sonal-chauhan.html#biography |archive-date=7 February 2018 |language=en}}</ref><br />
*[[Banarasi Das]]<ref name="Das">{{cite book |last1=Brass |first1=Paul R. |title=An Indian Political Life: Charan Singh and Congress Politics, 1957 to 1967 |date=13 November 2012 |publisher=SAGE Publications India |isbn=978-81-321-1715-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bKICwAAQBAJ&pg=PT405 |page=405 |language=en}}</ref><br />
*[[Jaiprakash Gaur]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Damodaran |first=Harish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92F7DwAAQBAJ |title=INDIA'S NEW CAPITALISTS: Caste, Business, and Industry in a Modern Nation |date=2018 |publisher=Hachette India |isbn=978-93-5195-280-0 |language=en}}</ref><br />
*[[Saloni Gaur]]<br />
*[[Masroor Hosain]], Indian-Pakistani fighter pilot<ref>{{cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masroor_Hosain_Obituary_note.jpg|title=Shaheen|publisher=[[Pakistan Air Force]]|year=1967}}</ref><br />
*[[Arif Mohammad Khan]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Shri. Arif Mohammed Khan {{!}} Kerala Agricultural University |url=http://www.kau.edu/people/shri-arif-mohammed-khan |website=www.kau.edu |access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><br />
*[[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]], fast bowler in the Indian cricket team.<br />
*[[Satish Kumar (boxer)|Satish Kumar]]<ref name="Kumar">{{cite web |title=History-maker Satish Kumar at the nation's service |url=https://www.olympicchannel.com/en/stories/features/detail/indian-boxer-satish-kumar-tokyo-olympics-super-heavyweight-army/ |website=Olympic Channel |access-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126213035/https://www.olympicchannel.com/en/stories/features/detail/indian-boxer-satish-kumar-tokyo-olympics-super-heavyweight-army/ |archive-date=26 November 2020}}</ref><br />
*[[Hitesh Kumari]], former minister of UP irrigation department, and MLA from [[Debai (Assembly constituency)|Debai assembly constituency]].<br />
<!-- NOT *[[Vijay Singh Pathik]], he was from Guthawali village in Bulandshahr district, not Bulandshahr itself --><br />
*[[Gajendra Pal Singh Raghava]], scientist expert in bioinformatics, winner of awards including [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology]]<br />
*[[Arfa Khanum Sherwani]], Indian journalist<br />
*[[Kushal Pal Singh]], CEO of [[DLF Limited]], India's largest real estate developer.<br />
*[[Neera Yadav (civil servant)|Neera Yadav]], ex-officer of the [[Indian Administrative Service]].<br />
*[[Yogendra Singh Yadav]], youngest ever [[Param Vir Chakra]] winner.<br />
*[[Zafar H. Zaidi]], scientist <br />
<!---♦♦♦♦ Only add a person to this list if they already have their own article on the English Bharatpedia ♦♦♦♦---><br />
<!---♦♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦♦---><br />
<br />
==Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"><br />
File:Bulandshahr Railway Station.jpg|Bulandshahr Railway Station<br />
File:Bulandshahr street frontage.png|Bulandshahr street frontages 2012<br />
File:Sunaro wali gali, Bulandshahr.jpg|Sunaro wali galli<br />
File:Maman road, Bulandshahr .jpg|Maman road, Bulandshahr<br />
File:Bulandshahr vegetable market.jpg|Bulandshahr vegetable market<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Baranwal]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[https://archive.org/details/bulandshahrorsk00growgoog/page/n24 ''Bulandshahr: Or, Sketches of an Indian District: Social, Historical and Architectural'']. Frederic Salmon Growse, Benares (1884).<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bulandshahr| ]]<br />
[[Category:Cities in Uttar Pradesh]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meera_Dev_Burman&diff=517191Meera Dev Burman2026-01-21T14:42:37Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: starting first data added tags</p>
<hr />
<div>{{EngvarB|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{multi|<br />
{{more citations needed|date=January 2026}}<br />
{{no footnotes|date=January 2026}}<br />
}}<br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
| name = Meera Dev Burman<br />
| birth_date = 1 March 1912<br />
| birth_place = [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]<br />
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2007|10|15|1912|03|1}}<br />
| death_place = [[Bombay]] (now [[Mumbai]]), [[Maharashtra]], [[India]] <br />
| birth_name = Meera Dasgupta<br />
| spouse = [[S. D. Burman]]<br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* Lyricist<br />
* Musician<br />
* Composer<br />
}}<br />
| associated_acts = [[Sachin Dev Burman]], [[Rahul Dev Burman]], [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]]<br />
}}<br />
{{Listen<br />
| type = music<br />
| filename = আমি_টাকডুম_টাকডুম_বাজাই.mp3<br />
| title = Ami Takdum tadum bajai (I play the rhythm "takdum takdum")<br />
| description =Lyricist [[Meera Dev Burman]], composer and singer [[S. D. Burman]]<br />
| pos =<br />
}}<br />
'''Meera Dev Burman''' ({{nee|'''Dasgupta'''}}; 1912-2007) was an Indian Bengali lyricist and musician. She was the wife of music director [[Sachin Dev Burman]] and mother of [[Rahul Dev Burman]]. She wrote lyrics for several Bengali films and helped her husband as an assistant in Hindi films.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=111978 S.D.Burman live archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004025416/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=111978 |date=4 October 2015 }}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Burman, Meera Dev}}<br />
[[Category:1920s births]]<br />
[[Category:2007 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Indian lyricists]]<br />
[[Category:Indian musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Musicians from Kolkata]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{India-musician-stub}}<br />
{{songwriter-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anne_Ravi&diff=486831Anne Ravi2026-01-17T15:12:06Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Made new entry</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian film producer}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Anne Ravi<br />
| image = <br />
| image_size = 220px<br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_name = Anne Ravi<ref name="A">{{cite news|url=http://www.cinegoer.net/telugu-cinema/sunitas-reviews/amaravathi-movie-review-031209.html/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131008112402/http://www.cinegoer.net/telugu-cinema/sunitas-reviews/amaravathi-movie-review-031209.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-10-08 |title=Amaravathi Movie Review - Pearl Or Perversion? }}</ref><br />
| birth_place = <br />
| othername = <br />
| occupation = [[Film producer]]<br />
| yearsactive = 2008-present<br />
| spouse = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Anne Ravi''' is an Indian film producer. Started his career as an executive producer with films like ''[[Souryam]]'', ''[[Amaravathi (2009 film)|Amaravathi]]'', and ''[[Wanted (2011 film)|Wanted]]''.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ravi Started his career as an executive producer with [[Bhavya Creations]].<ref name="W">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/gopichands-next-titled-wanted-telugu-news-61736.html/|title=Gopichands next titled Wanted}}</ref> In year 2013, Anne Ravi produced a movie [[Race (2013 film)|''Race'']].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/anne-ravi-s-race-to-release-next-month-news-telugu-mkinNricjbjsi.html|title=Anne Ravi's Race to release next month}}{{dead link|date=September 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name="R">{{cite news|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/vikram-race.html|title=Interview - Vikram (Manasara & Race)}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"<br />
!scope="col"| Year<br />
!scope="col"| Title<br />
!scope="col"| Producer<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}<br />
|-<br />
| 2008|| ''[[Souryam]]''||{{partial|Executive}} ||<br />
|-<br />
| 2009 || ''[[Amaravathi (2009 film)|Amavarathi]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} || <ref name="A"/><br />
|-<br />
|| 2011 || ''[[Wanted (2011 film)|Wanted]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} || <ref name="W"/><br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
|| 2012 || ''[[Neeku Naaku Dash Dash]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} || <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/teja-nndd.html/ |title=Neeku Naku Dash Dash Interview |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028041537/http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/teja-nndd.html |archive-date=2015-10-28 }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2013|| ''[[Race (2013 film)|Race]]''|| {{yes}}<br />
|<ref name="R"/><br />
|-<br />
|| 2014 || ''[[Loukyam]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} ||<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|''[[Samanthakamani (film)|Shamantakamani]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} ||<br />
|-<br />
|2017<br />
|''[[Paisa Vasool (2017 film)|Paisa Vasool]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} ||<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|''[[O Pitta Katha]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} ||<br />
|-<br />
|2020<br />
|''[[Middle Class Melodies]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} ||<br />
|-<br />
|2021<br />
|''[[Check (film)|Check]]'' ||{{partial|Executive}} ||<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<!-- After listing your sources please cite them using inline citations and place them after the information they cite. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:REFB for instructions on how to add citations. --><br />
*<br />
*<br />
*<br />
*<br />
<br />
<!-- STOP! Be warned that by using this process instead of Articles for Creation, this article is subject to scrutiny. As an article in "mainspace", it will be DELETED if there are problems, not just declined. If you wish to use AfC, please return to the Wizard and continue from there. --><br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ravi, Anne}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Indian film producers]]<br />
[[Category:Film producers from Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Telugu film producers]]<br />
[[Category:Businesspeople from Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Glass_Palace&diff=456569The Glass Palace2026-01-15T06:23:09Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: minor cleanup</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Historical fiction novel by Amitav Ghosh}}<br />
{{Infobox book | <!-- See [[Bharatpedia:WikiProject Novels]] or [[Bharatpedia:WikiProject Books]] --><br />
| name = The Glass Palace<br />
| title_orig =<br />
| translator =<br />
| image = The Glass Palace.jpg<br />
| image_size = <br />
| caption = Hardback 1st edition cover<br />
| author = [[Amitav Ghosh]]<br />
| illustrator =<br />
| cover_artist =<br />
| country = US, India<br />
| language = [[English language|English]]<br />
| series =<br />
| genre = [[Historical Fiction]]<br />
| publisher = Ravi Dayal, Penguin India<br />
| pub_date = 2000<br />
| english_pub_date =<br />
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|hardback]])<br />
| pages =<br />
| isbn = 81-7530-0310<br />
| preceded_by = <br />
| followed_by = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''The Glass Palace''''' is a [[2000 in literature|2000]] [[Historical Fiction|historical novel]] by [[India]]n writer [[Amitav Ghosh]]. The novel is set in [[Burma]], [[Bengal]], [[India]], and [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]], spans a century from the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]] and the consequent fall of the [[Konbaung Dynasty]] in [[Mandalay]], through the [[World War II|Second World War]] to late 20th century. Through the stories of a small number of privileged families, it illuminates the struggles that have shaped [[Myanmar|Burma]], [[India]] and Malaya into the places they are today.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Amitav |title=The Glass Palace |date=2000 |isbn=0375758771 |page=Back cover |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_o4g1 }}</ref> It explores the various facets of the colonial period, including the economic fall of Burma, the rise of timber and rubber plantations, the moral dilemmas faced by Indians in the [[British Indian Army]], and the devastating effects of World War II. Focusing mainly on the early 20th Century, it explores a broad range of issues ranging from the changing economic landscape of Burma and India, to pertinent questions about what constitutes a [[nation]] and how these change as society is swept along by the tide of modernity.<ref name="NY Times- Review">{{citation | title =There'll Always Be an England in India| work=www.nytimes.com| url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/02/11/reviews/010211.11mishrat.html| access-date =2008-01-14}}</ref><br />
<br />
The name of the novel derives from the ''[[Glass Palace Chronicle]]'', which is an old Burmese historical work commissioned by King [[Bagyidaw]] in 1829.<br />
<br />
==Summary==<br />
<br />
===Part One - Mandalay===<br />
The novel starts with an 11-year-old boy called Rajkumar running through the city of [[Mandalay]] to find a woman called Ma Cho. He is the last surviving member of his family and comes to Burma from India with a bright entrepreneurial spirit and a hunger for success.<br />
<br />
Rajkumar's work as an assistant on Ma Cho's food stall takes place in the shadow of the Glass Palace, in which King [[Thibaw Min|Thibaw]] and his wife reside with their daughters, the princesses. As the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]] breaks out, everyday citizens of Mandalay are able to enter the enshrined building, and it is then that Rajkumar spots Dolly, one of the princesses' attendants, and instantly falls in love with her. However, the entire Royal Family and their entourage are quickly extradited by the British and sent into [[house arrest]] thousands of miles away on the West coast of India.<br />
<br />
===Part Two - Ratnagiri ===<br />
[[File:King Thebaw -Ratnagiri.jpg|thumb|Thibaw Palace, Residence of Burmese King exiled in Ratnagiri by British. ''[[King Thibaw]]'' is one of the few real characters in the novel.]]<br />
Whilst Rajkumar's quickly evolving career begins to take shape with the help of Saya John, a successful [[teak]] merchant (Ma Cho's sometime lover), we are given a glimpse into the awkward beginnings of a new life for King Thebaw and his family as they try to settle into the port town of [[Ratnagiri]], north of [[Goa]]. Events conspire to weave Outram House (the name of the residence the British provide to house the family and what remains of their assistants) more firmly into the life of Ratnagiri than had been expected. King Thebaw is revered by the local community, and in time the family come to feel secure and even happy in their new surroundings. The arrival of a new [[District collector|Collector]] stirs up feelings of resentment towards the colonial regime, but Uma, the Collector's headstrong wife, is able to help bridge the gap by befriending Dolly.<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, Rajkumar has been enduring the hardships of the teak trade, having witnessed man and beast working together on an epic scale as elephants transport large volumes of wood down from the forests for sale into the [[British Empire]]'s vastly expanding markets. Being the opportunist that he is, Rajkumar starts to make his own way in world after receiving advice from his new friend and colleague Doh Say. Borrowing cash from Saya John, he makes the journey to India to recruit poverty-stricken village-dwellers into the comparatively lucrative (yet undoubtedly perilous) world of early oil-mining in Burma. Having made enough money this way, Rajkumar does what has been his dream for some time: buy a timber-yard of his own, with Doh Say as business partner.<br />
<br />
Having built a more than modest commercial empire, Rajkumar had one piece of unfinished business: to track down the only girl he'd ever loved, Dolly. Through an Indian connection in Rangoon ([[Yangon]]), Rajkumar makes contact with Ratnagiri via Uma, and is accordingly granted an audience with the Collector and his wife over a meal that of course stiffly conforms to colonial best practice. To his surprise, Dolly is present, and after some drama, he finally persuades her to leave the family she has been exiled with, and return with him to Burma as his wife.<br />
<br />
===Part Three - The Money Tree===<br />
Saya John prides himself on being able to spot the next big commodity, and on their return to Rangoon, he hands Rajkumar and Dolly a small clump of odd elastic material rubber ...<br />
<br />
===Part Four - The Wedding===<br />
A joining of multi-ethnic families in Calcutta.<br />
<br />
===Part Five - Morningside===<br />
Life before World War II on a rubber plantation in Malaya, run by Rajkumar with help of Saya John.<br />
<br />
===Part Six - The Front===<br />
The story of the Japanese invasion of Malaya and Burma and the subsequent family losses of lives and properties.<br />
<br />
===Part Seven - The Glass Palace===<br />
Post WWII lives of the scattered families.<br />
<br />
==Characters==<br />
<br />
===Burmese Royal Family===<br />
*[[Thibaw Min]] (the last king of the [[Konbaung Dynasty|Konbaung kingdom of Burma]] who was exiled to [[Ratnagiri]], [[India]])<br />
*[[Supayalat]] (the last queen of [[Burma]])<br />
*Hteiksu [[Myat Phaya Gyi]]<br />
*Hteiksu [[Myat Phaya Lat]]<br />
*Hteiksu [[Myat Phaya]]<br />
*Hteiksu [[Myat Phaya Galay]]<br />
<br />
===Rajkumar's Family===<br />
*Rajkumar Raha (the central character, a Bengali orphan who finds himself in Burma)<br />
*Dolly Sein (lady-in-waiting to Queen [[Supayalat]], whom Rajkumar encounters as a child)<br />
*Neel Raha (Rajkumar and Dolly's elder son, who aspires to take over his father's business) <br />
*Dinu Raha (Rajkumar and Dolly's younger son, an aspiring photographer) <br />
*Jaya Raha (Neel and Manju's daughter)<br />
<br />
===Saya John's Family===<br />
*Saya John Martins (Rajkumar's mentor, an entrepreneur in Burma and Malaya)<br />
*Matthew Martins (Saya John's son)<br />
*Elsa Hoffman (Matthew's American wife)<br />
*Alison Martins (Matthew and Elsa's daughter) <br />
*Timmy Martins (Matthew and Elsa's son)<br />
<br />
===Uma Dey's Family===<br />
*Beni Prasad Dey (District Collector at [[Ratnagiri]])<br />
*Uma Dey (Collector Dey's wife)<br />
*Manju Roy (Uma's niece)<br />
*Arjun Roy (Uma's nephew, Manju's twin)<br />
*Bela Roy (Uma's younger niece)<br />
<br />
==Reception==<br />
Globally, ''[[Complete Review]]'' saying on the consensus "No consensus. Some very enthusiastic (especially critics in India), some quite disappointed."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-04 |title=The Glass Palace|url=https://www.complete-review.com/reviews/ghosha/gpalace.htm|access-date=2023-10-04 |website=Complete Review}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Awards and translations==<br />
''The Glass Palace'' was the Eurasian regional winner in the "Best Book" category of the 2001 [[Commonwealth Writers' Prize]],<ref>{{citation | title =Wild West at the London Book Fair| publisher=guardian.co.uk | url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/mar/24/theloafer.awardsandprizes| access-date =2001-03-24 | work=The Guardian | date=2001-03-24}}</ref> but [[Amitav Ghosh]] was not aware that his publishers had submitted his book, and he withdrew it upon learning that he had won the regional round.<ref name="The Writer of Truth ">{{citation| title=Amitav Ghosh - The Writer of Truth| publisher=Kavita Chhibber| url=http://www.kavitachhibber.com/main/main.jsp?id=amitavghosh| access-date=2009-12-14| archive-date=2017-10-23| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023064310/http://www.kavitachhibber.com/main/main.jsp?id=amitavghosh| url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also winner of ''Grand Prize for Fiction, Frankfurt eBook Award, 2001'' <ref>{{citation | title =Amitav Ghosh re-emerges with Sea of Poppies | url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/05/24/stories/2008052461680200.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628115148/http://www.hindu.com/2008/05/24/stories/2008052461680200.htm| url-status=dead| work =[[The Hindu]] | date =2008-05-24 | archive-date=2008-06-28}}</ref> and ''New York Times Notable Books of 2001''.<br />
<br />
''The Glass Palace'' was translated and published into over 25 languages. It was also translated into [[Burmese language|Burmese]] by writer ''[[Nay Win Myint]]'' and published serialized at one of Burma's leading literary magazines ''Shwe Amyutay''. Since the last part of novel is an extended elegy to ''[[Aung San Suu Kyi]]'', [[Press Scrutiny and Registration Division|Burmese Press Scrutiny Board]] asked for many cuts in the translation.<ref name="The Glass Palace into Burmese">{{citation| title=The Glass Palace - Now in Burmese| publisher=Amitav Ghosh| date=14 May 2009| url=http://indipepal.com/page/blogger/Amitav_Ghosh/95/890| access-date=2009-05-14| archive-date=2009-05-17| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517034849/http://indipepal.com/page/blogger/Amitav_Ghosh/95/890| url-status=dead}}</ref> The Burmese translation won the Myanmar National Literature Award in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.amitavghosh.com/awards.html|title = Amitav Ghosh : Awards}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
{{Amitav Ghosh}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Glass Palace}}<br />
[[Category:2000 Indian novels]]<br />
[[Category:Indian historical novels in English]]<br />
[[Category:Indian National Army in fiction]]<br />
[[Category:Novels by Amitav Ghosh]]<br />
[[Category:Novels set in Myanmar]]<br />
[[Category:Novels set in British India]]<br />
[[Category:Novels set in the 19th century]]<br />
[[Category:Novels set in the 20th century]]<br />
[[Category:Novels set in Malaysia]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deepak_Nehra&diff=495964Deepak Nehra2026-01-05T22:15:08Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: starting new info</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian freestyle wrestler}}<br />
{{BLP sources|date=September 2022}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox sportsperson<br />
| name = Deepak Nehra<br />
| image = Deepak Nehra.jpg<br />
| image_size = <!--Only for images narrower than 220 pixels.--><br />
| caption = Nehra in August 2022<br />
| headercolor = <br />
| birth_name = <br />
| fullname = <br />
| nickname = <br />
| nationality = Indian<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|1 January 2003}}<br />
| birth_place = <br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| occupation = Wrestler<br />
| height = 182 cm<br />
| weight = <br />
| spouse = <br />
| website = <br />
| country = India<br />
| sport = [[Wrestling]]<br />
| event = [[Freestyle wrestling|Freestyle]]<br />
| collegeteam = <br />
| club = <br />
| team = <br />
| turnedpro = <br />
| coach = <br />
| retired = <br />
| coaching = <br />
| regionals = <br />
| nationals = <br />
| olympics = <br />
| paralympics = <br />
| highestranking = <br />
| pb = <br />
| medaltemplates = <br />
{{MedalSport | Men's [[Freestyle Wrestling]]}}<br />
{{MedalCountry | {{IND}} }}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[Commonwealth Games]]}}<br />
{{MedalBronze| [[Wrestling at the 2022 Commonwealth Games|2022 Birmingham]] | [[Wrestling at the 2022 Commonwealth Games – Men's freestyle 97 kg|97 kg]]}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Deepak Nehra''' (born 1 January 2003)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.birmingham2022.com/athletes/deepak-nehra/529b21e1-3574-40fb-91b8-39cc53a23200 |title=Deepak Nehra |website=Birmingham2022.com |publisher=[[Birmingham Organising Committee for the 2022 Commonwealth Games Limited]] |access-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> is an Indian freestyle [[wrestler]], who competes in the 97&nbsp;kg category. He won a bronze medal in the [[2022 Commonwealth Games|2022 Birmingham Commonwealth Games]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=CWG 2022: Indian grappler Deepak Nehra defeats Pakistan's Tayab Raza to clinch bronze medal |url=https://theprint.in/sport/cwg-2022-indian-grappler-deepak-nehra-defeats-pakistans-tayab-raza-to-clinch-bronze-medal/1072657/ |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=ThePrint.in |date=6 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{UWW|deepak-deepak|Deepak Deepak|archive=20230925235058}}<br />
* {{IWD|name=Deepak Deepak}}<br />
* {{2022 Commonwealth Games profile|127379}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nehra, Deepak}}<br />
[[Category:2003 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Indian male sport wrestlers]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for India]]<br />
[[Category:Commonwealth Games bronze medallists in wrestling]]<br />
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2022 Commonwealth Games]]<br />
[[Category:Medallists at the 2022 Commonwealth Games]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{India-wrestling-bio-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suraj_Paliwal&diff=538481Suraj Paliwal2025-12-31T07:38:44Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Creating initial bio first draft - done</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Indian professor and author (born 1951)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}<br />
{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --> <br />
| name = Suraj Paliwal<br />
| image = Prof.SP.jpg <br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1951|11|8}}<br />
| imagesize = <br />
| alt = Suraj Paliwal<br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_place = [[Mathura]], Uttar Pradesh, India<br />
| occupation = Writer, Educator. <br />
| nationality = Indian<br />
| ethnicity = <br />
| citizenship = Indian<br />
<br />
| spouse = <br />
| partner = <br />
| children = <br />
| relatives = <br />
| influences = <br />
| influenced = <br />
| awards = Premchand Award, Panjub Art and Literary Academy Award, Dr. Ram Vilash Sharma Award for Criticism, Acharya Niranjan Nath Literary Award <br />
| signature = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Suraj Paliwal''' (born 8 November 1951) is an Indian professor and author who writes in Hindi.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Hindisamay.com :: हिदी समय :: समकालीन रचनाकार | url=http://www.hindisamay.com/writer/सूरज-पालीवाल.cspx?id=434&name=सूरज-पालीवाल | access-date=2025-03-18 | website=hindisamay.com}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Award ==<br />
* ''[[Premchand Award]], Panjub Academy Award for Art and Literature''<br />
* ''Dr. Ram Vilash Sharma Award for Criticism''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindivishwa.org/pdf/paliwal.pdf|title=प्रो.पालीवाल को वर्ष 2009 का डॉ. राम विलास शर्मा आलोचना सम्मान}}</ref> <br />
* ''[[Acharya Niranjan Nath Literary Award]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newsdeskindia.com/news/education/professor-suraj-paliwal-elected-specific-literature-award-11july2012.htm|title=विशिष्ट साहित्यकार सम्मान के लिए चुने गए प्रो. सूरज पालीवाल}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Works in Hindi==<br />
<br />
===Criticism===<br />
* ''Phanishwarnath Renu Ka Katha Sahitya''<br />
<br />
==Works in Hindi==<br />
* "Tika Pradhan"<br />
* "Jangal"<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Paliwal, Suraj}}<br />
[[Category:Writers from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Hindi-language Indian writers]]<br />
[[Category:Indian literary critics]]<br />
[[Category:People from Mathura]]<br />
[[Category:1951 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karachukar_Valley&diff=508448Karachukar Valley2025-12-20T07:25:58Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Starting initial stub w/ refs</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Valley in Xinjiang, China}}<br />
__NOTOC__<br />
{{Infobox valley<br />
| name = Karachukar Valley<br />
| other_name = Chalachigu Valley<br />
| photo = <br />
| photo_size = <br />
| photo_alt = <br />
| photo_caption = <br />
| map = China Xinjiang Southern#China<br />
| map_size = 200<br />
| map_alt = <br />
| map_caption = Location of Karachukar Valley in Xinjiang##Location of Karachukar Valley in China<br />
| location = [[Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County]], [[Kashgar Prefecture]], [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]<br />
| relief = 1<br />
| label =<br />
| label_position =<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|37|9|N|74|42|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| coordinates_ref =<br />
| elevation =<br />
| elevation_m = 4100 <br />
| elevation_ref =<br />
| direction =<br />
| length =<br />
| width =<br />
| area = <br />
| depth = <br />
| type = <br />
| age =<br />
| boundaries =<br />
| region = <br />
| source =<br />
| topo =<br />
| towns = <br />
| traversed = <br />
| watercourses = Karachukar River<br />
| footnotes =<br />
| embed =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Karachukar Valley'''<ref>{{citation |author=周连宽 |title=Dà táng xīyù jì shǐ dì yánjiū cóng gǎo |script-title=zh:大唐西域记史地研究丛稿 |trans-title=Datang Western Regions History and Geography Research Series |publisher=新华书店北京发行所发行 |year=1984 |page=192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QltAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Karachukar%22}}</ref>{{efn|Alternative spellings: '''Karachikar'''<ref>{{citation |last=Woodman |first=Dorothy |title=Himalayan Frontiers: A Political Review of British, Chinese, Indian, and Russian Rivalries |publisher=Praeger |year=1969 |url=https://archive.org/details/himalayanfrontie00wood/page/n385 |via=archive.org |url-access=registration |pages=366–367}}</ref> and '''Karachukur'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Travel & Sport in Turkestan |author=J. N. Price Wood |publisher=D. Appleton and Company |date=1910 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEwNAAAAYAAJ&dq=Karachukur&pg=PA33 |quote=Descending the Killik Pass we emerged into the Karachukur Valley, here about two miles wide ... forms a wedge of Chinese territory driven in between Russia and India, and joins at its western end a similar narrow tongue of Afghanistan.}}</ref>}}<br />
or '''Chalachigu Valley''' ({{zh|c=卡拉其古河谷}}) is a valley in [[Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County]], [[Xinjiang]], [[China]].<br />
It contains the basin of the '''Karachukar River''', a tributary of the [[Tashkurgan River]],<ref name="port_Natu">{{Cite book<br />
| title = Nature reserves of the Himalaya and the mountains of Central Asia<br />
| author = Green, Michael J. B.<br />
| year = 1993<br />
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]<br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-05<br />
| url = https://archive.org/stream/naturereservesof93gree#page/120/mode/2up<br />
| language = <br />
| page = 121<br />
| quote = The western part is drained by the Chalachigu River, a branch of the Taxkorgan River which meets the Yarkant River north of the reserve. <br />
| isbn = 0195629221<br />
}}</ref><br />
and is regarded as part of [[Taghdumbash Pamir]].{{sfn|Kreutzmann|2003|loc=p. 217, Figure 1}}<br />
The valley borders [[Afghanistan]] ([[Wakhan Corridor]] or [[Little Pamir]]) to the west and northwest, [[Tajikistan]] to the north, and [[Pakistan]] ([[Gojal]] or upper [[Hunza District|Hunza]]) to the south.<ref name="fws">{{Cite magazine<br />
| title = Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Threatened Status for Argali<br />
| author = USFWS<br />
| author-link = United States Fish and Wildlife Service<br />
| magazine = Federal Register<br />
| publisher = [[United States Department of the Interior|USDOI]]<br />
| date = 1990-10-05<br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-05<br />
| url = https://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/federal_register/fr1770.pdf<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170225182301/https://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/federal_register/fr1770.pdf<br />
| archive-date = 2017-02-25<br />
| language = <br />
| quote = consisting of fewer than 150 animals, was confined to the western part of the Chalachigu Valley, a finger of land extending between Afghanistan on the north and Pakistan to the south.<br />
}}</ref> The name of the valley is from [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], meaning "black cave".<ref name="photo81cn">{{Cite web<br />
| title = 坚守在帕米尔高原上的边防军人<br />
| author = 姬文志<br />
| author2 = 王宝福 <br />
| author3 = 王飞 <br />
| publisher = photo.81.cn<br />
| date = 2015-07-30<br />
| access-date = 23 December 2019<br />
| url = http://photo.81.cn/jrfc/2015-07/30/content_6606545.htm<br />
| language = zh<br />
| quote = 卡拉其古柯尔克孜语是“黑洞”的意思，是古丝绸之路的重要关卡，也是瓦罕走廊中国通向境外的第一站，环境恶劣，位置重要。<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
The valley is part of the [[Taxkorgan Nature Reserve]].<ref name="icimod">{{Cite web<br />
| title = Taxkorgan Nature Reserve<br />
| author = <br />
| publisher = [[International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development]]<br />
| website = icimod.org<br />
| date = <br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-05<br />
| url = http://www.icimod.org/hkhconservationportal/PA.aspx?ID=60<br />
| language = <br />
| quote = Basically flat and in places more than 5km wide, the Taxkorgan Valley (the Taghdumbash Pamir on old maps) was part of the ancient Silk Route known viable population of Marco Polo sheep in China was confined to the western part of Chalachigu Valley<br />
| archive-date = 2016-08-12<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160812180506/http://icimod.org/hkhconservationportal/PA.aspx?ID=60<br />
| url-status = dead<br />
}}</ref> The protected [[Marco Polo sheep]] is only found in the wild around this area.<ref name="fws"/> The region is often referred to by the Chinese as the Chinese portion of the [[Wakhan Corridor]].<ref name="ChineseWakhan">{{Cite web<br />
| title = 新疆边境行：记者抵达瓦罕走廊中方最西端(图)<br />
| trans-title = Xinjiang Border Tour: Reporter arrived at the Chinese westernmost point of Wakhan Corridor<br />
| author = <br />
| website = Sina News<br />
| publisher = [[Global Times]]<br />
| date = 2011-07-07<br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-05<br />
| url = http://news.sina.com.cn/c/p/2011-07-07/114022773076.shtml<br />
| language = zh<br />
| quote = <br />
}}</ref> There is an ethnic [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] village called '''Bayik''' ({{zh|排依克村}} or {{zh|阿特加依里村}}).<ref>{{Cite web<br />
| title = 穿越瓦罕走廊（且行且思）<br />
| trans-title = Through the Wakhan Corridor<br />
| author = 杨雪梅<br />
| work = people.gov.cn<br />
| publisher = [[People's Daily]]<br />
| date = 2016-09-09<br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-05<br />
| url = http://www.people.gov.cn/rmrb/html/2016-09/09/nw.D110000renmrb_20160909_4-15.htm<br />
| language = zh<br />
| quote = 这里是瓦罕走廊第一村——排依克村<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170205183210/http://www.people.gov.cn/rmrb/html/2016-09/09/nw.D110000renmrb_20160909_4-15.htm<br />
| archive-date = 2017-02-05<br />
| url-status = dead<br />
}}</ref><ref name="xinhuanet">{{Cite web<br />
| title = 瓦罕走廊转场日记<br />
| author = 赵戈<br />
| work = xj.xinhuanet.com<br />
| publisher = [[Xinhua News Agency]]<br />
| date = 2016-06-13<br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-05<br />
| url = http://www.xj.xinhuanet.com/2016-06/13/c_1119035207.htm<br />
| language = zh<br />
| quote = 瓦罕走廊中国境内唯一的村庄--阿特加依里村<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170205182401/http://www.xj.xinhuanet.com/2016-06/13/c_1119035207.htm<br />
| archive-date = 2017-02-05<br />
| url-status = dead<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
The entire Chalachigu Valley is closed to visitors. However, local residents and herders from the area are permitted access.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}<br />
<br />
In March 2017, [[CCTV-7]]'s ''Documentary for Military'' program<ref>{{Cite web<br />
| title = 军事纪实<br />
| trans-title = Documentary for Military<br />
| author = <br />
| publisher = CCTV-7<br />
| date = <br />
| access-date = 23 December 2019<br />
| url = http://tv.cctv.com/lm/jsjs/<br />
| language = <br />
| quote = <br />
}}</ref> produced a mini-series covering the numerous border outposts in Chalachigu Valley.<ref>{{Citation|title=The frontier in the eyes of a company commander|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BQuNjVfuv6w|language=en|access-date=2021-08-25}}</ref> In 2025, the border was found by an Austrian journalist to have been fenced over by China.<ref name="Fern 2025">{{cite web | title=The Taliban's Plan to Control Global Trade |publisher=Fern| website=YouTube | date=15 December 2025| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAPcW7OAv98 | access-date=20 December 2025<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Mountain Passes==<br />
[[File:Afghanistan-China Boundary. 4-69. LOC gm70003373 cropped.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The western section of the Karachukar Valley]]<br />
{{chinese |showflag=p<br />
|title=Chalachigu Valley<br />
|s=卡拉其古河谷<ref name="photo81cn"/><br />
|t=卡拉其古河谷<br />
|p=Kǎlāqígǔ xiágǔ<br />
|altname=Karachukur Valley<br />
|s2=喀拉其库尔河谷<br />
|t2=喀拉其庫爾河谷<br />
|p2=Kālāqíkùěr hégǔ<br />
|uig=قاراچۇقار جىلغىسى<br />
|lang1 = [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]<br />
|lang1_content= قاراچۇقار ۅرۅۅنۉ<br />
}}<br />
The valley was a significant thoroughfare of the [[Silk Road]] during ancient times.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} Around the valley are numerous passes connecting to other countries:<br />
<br />
* Tajikistan - [[Beyik Pass]]<br />
* Afghanistan - [[Wakhjir Pass]], [[Tegermansu Pass]]<br />
* Pakistan - [[Kilik Pass]], [[Mintaka Pass]]<br />
<br />
Of the above passes, it is believed that the famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] traveled through [[Wakhjir Pass]] on his return trip back to China around [[649 AD]].<ref name="book_Unit">{{Cite magazine<br />
| last = Stein<br />
| first = M. Aurel<br />
| authorlink = Aurel Stein<br />
| title = Exploration in Chinese Turkestan<br />
| magazine = [[United States Congressional Serial Set]]<br />
| number = 748<br />
| page = 752<br />
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Neg3AQAAIAAJ&dq=wakhjir+pass&pg=PA752<br />
| publisher = [[Smithsonian Institution]]<br />
| location = Washington, D.C.<br />
| date = 1903-06-30<br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-03<br />
| language = <br />
| quote = <br />
}}</ref> Some Chinese historians argue that he also used Beyik Pass on his way to India.<ref name="thepaper">{{Cite web<br />
| title = 访谈︱侯杨方：追寻玄奘，在帕米尔复原丝绸之路<br />
| author = 于淑娟<br />
| website = The Paper (thepaper.cn)<br />
| date = 2014-12-24<br />
| accessdate = 2017-02-02<br />
| url = http://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_1285744<br />
| language = zh<br />
| quote = 玄奘从这里东南行经过排依克山口到达羯盘陀国...他经过的这个山口就是符合以上这些条件的唯一路径<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Afghanistan–China border]]<br />
*[[China–Pakistan border]]<br />
*[[China–Tajikistan border]]<br />
*[[Dafdar]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
; Sources<br />
* {{citation |first=Hermann |last=Kreutzmann |title=Ethnic minorities and marginality in the Pamirian Knot: survival of Wakhi and Kirghiz in a harsh environment and global contexts |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=169 |number=3 |date=September 2003 |pages=215–235 |doi=10.1111/1475-4959.00086 |url=http://www.juldu.com/Pamir/HERMANN%20KREUTZMANN.pdf}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/14187735#map=9/37.1734/75.0421 Kalachukur river basin], OpenStreetMap, retrieved 27 May 2022.<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Valleys of Xinjiang]]<br />
[[Category:Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aalayam_Productions&diff=473819Aalayam Productions2025-12-16T18:58:00Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: quick adjust formatting after review and updated info</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Indian film production and distribution company}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}<br />
{{Infobox company<br />
| name = Aalayam Productions<br />
| image = <br />
| logo = <br />
| type = [[Film producer|Film production]]<br />[[Film distribution]]<br />
| genre = <br />
| foundation = 1990–2002<br />
| founder =<br />
| location_city = [[Chennai]]<br />
| location_country = [[India]]<br />
| location = <br />
| locations = <br />
| area_served = <br />
| key_people = [[S. Sriram]]<br />[[Mani Ratnam]]<br />
| industry = [[Entertainment industry|Entertainment]]<br />
| products = [[Motion picture]]s<br />([[Tamil language|Tamil]])<br />
| services = <br />
| market cap = <br />
| revenue = <br />
| operating_income = <br />
| net_income = <br />
| assets = <br />
| equity = <br />
| owner = <br />
| num_employees = <br />
| parent = <br />
| divisions = <br />
| subsid = <br />
| homepage =<br />
| footnotes = <br />
| intl = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Aalayam Productions''' was an Indian [[film producer|film production]] and [[film distributor|distribution]] company headed by [[S. Sriram]]. The firm had been a leading production studio in the Tamil film industry in the 1990s, with director [[Mani Ratnam]] also being a partner.<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
[[S. Sriram]] and [[Mani Ratnam]] set up Aalayam Productions in 1990 and produced [[K. Subash]]'s ''[[Chatriyan]]'' (1990) as their first venture. Featuring [[Vijayakanth]] and [[Bhanupriya]] in the lead roles, the film won critical acclaim and performed well at the box office.<ref name="bombay">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/bombay-producer-s-sriram-passes-away-108337|title='Bombay' producer S Sriram passes away|date=4 September 2019|website=The News Minute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/bombay-producer-s-sriram-passes-away-5967525/|title=Bombay producer S Sriram passes away|date=5 September 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
Following the release of ''[[Roja (film)|Roja]]'' (1992), director Mani Ratnam opted to stop making films for external production houses and chose to work solely for Aalayam Productions.<ref name="mani">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/with-kaatru-veliyidai-mani-ratnam-continues-to-explore-love-complex-identities/story-jlpIpy5moTVozIOgyUJyyK.html|title=With Kaatru Veliyidai, Mani Ratnam continues to explore love, complex identities|date=13 April 2017|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> The pair collaborated on Mani Ratnam's films including the heist comedy ''[[Thiruda Thiruda]]'' (1993) and the romantic drama ''[[Bombay (1995 film)|Bombay]]'' (1995).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/aalayam-sriram-producer-of-bombay-movie-dies-in-chennai/articleshow/70975323.cms|title=Aalayam Sriram, producer of 'Bombay' movie, dies in Chennai |website=The Times of India|date=4 September 2019 }}</ref> As ''Bombay'' had faced political trouble prior to release, Sriram had said that he hoped that the film's plight and clearance would make it easier for future filmmakers to make films on religious riots without leading to controversy. ''Bombay'' went on to become one of the highest-grossing films from the Tamil industry and was also screened at many international film festivals.<ref name="bombay"/> The studio also produced [[Vasanth]]'s ''[[Aasai]]'' (1995), which gave actor [[Ajith Kumar]] his career breakthrough in the Tamil film industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2019/sep/04/aalayam-sriram-producer-of-ajith-kumar-aasai-and-mani-ratnam-bombay-passes-away-14061.html|title='Aalayam' Sriram, producer of Aasai and Bombay, passes away|website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
Mani Ratnam later left the production house in the mid-1990s to prioritise work on his own studio, [[Madras Talkies]].<ref name="mani"/><br />
<br />
Sriram died following a heart attack on 4 September 2019. Sriram was survived by his wife [[Nalini Sriram]], a costume designer in the Indian film industry, and son, Nikhil Sriram.<ref name="bombay"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2019/sep/04/mani-ratnams-bombay-producer-aalayam-sriram-passes-away-2028829.html|title=Mani Ratnam's Bombay-producer 'Aalayam' Sriram passes away|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Filmography ==<br />
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="width: 82%; text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Title<br />
! scope="col" | Year<br />
! scope="col" | Language<br />
! scope="col" | Director<br />
! scope="col" | Cast<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Synopsis<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{tooltip|Ref.|References}}<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" |''[[Chatriyan]]''<br />
| 1990<br />
| rowspan="6" | Tamil<br />
| [[K. Subash]]<br />
| [[Vijayakanth]], [[Bhanupriya]], [[Revathi]]<br />
| Selvam, a former police officer is pressurized by Annachi, his enemy whom he had arrested to return to the police force.<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" |''[[Dasarathan]]''<br />
| rowspan="2" | 1993<br />
| [[Raja Krishnamoorthy]]<br />
| [[R. Sarathkumar|Sarathkumar]], [[Heera Rajagopal]], [[Sivakumar]]<br />
| Dasarathan who cannot tolerate injustice becomes a cop against his father's wishes their relationship worsens when he kills an innocent man during a riot.<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" |''[[Thiruda Thiruda]]''<br />
| rowspan="2" | [[Mani Ratnam]]<br />
| [[Prashanth]], [[Anand (actor)|Anand]], [[Heera Rajagopal]]<br />
| Two petty thieves stumble upon a secret related to an cash container.<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" |''[[Bombay (1995 film)|Bombay]]''<br />
| rowspan="2" | 1995<br />
| [[Arvind Swamy]], [[Manisha Koirala]], [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]]<br />
| Hindu boy and Muslim girl fall in love and get married after their parents object to their relationship, later they get embroiled in Bombay riots.<br />
| <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indolink.com/bollywood/Film/bombay.html |title=Bombay |last=Kannan |first=Anand |website=Planet Bollywood |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010711104534/http://www.indolink.com/bollywood/Film/bombay.html |archive-date=11 July 2001 |url-status=usurped |access-date=20 May 2019}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" |''[[Aasai]]''<br />
| [[Vasanth]]<br />
| [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Suvaluxmi]], [[Prakash Raj]]<br />
| An ex-service man who has an eye on his wife's sister kills his wife and separates her lover and tricks into marrying her.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" |''[[Samurai (2002 film)|Samurai]]''<br />
| 2002<br />
| [[Balaji Sakthivel]]<br />
| [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]], [[Anita Hassanandani]], [[Jaya Seal]]<br />
| A man along with group of people runs a rebel movement to expose corrupted politicians.<br />
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/samurai/article28571240.ece|title=Samurai|date=19 July 2002|website=The Hindu}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Mani Ratnam}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Film distributors of India]]<br />
[[Category:Film production companies based in Chennai]]<br />
[[Category:Indian film studios]]<br />
[[Category:1990 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]<br />
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1990]]<br />
[[Category:Mass media companies established in 1990]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pootharekulu&diff=457835Pootharekulu2025-11-19T15:44:35Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: </p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian sweet from the state of Andhra Pradesh}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox prepared food<br />
| name = Pootharekulu / పూతరేకులు<br />
| image = Pootharekulu dry fruits.jpg<br />
| caption = Pootharekulu stuffed with jaggery and dry fruits<br />
| alternate_name = Paper sweet <br />
| country = [[Atreyapuram]]<br />
| region = [[East Godavari]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]<br />
| creator = [[Atreyapuram]]<br />
| course = Snack<br />
| served = Room temperature<br />
| main_ingredient = [[Rice|Rice starch]]/black gram, [[powdered sugar]] or [[jaggery]], [[ghee]]<br />
| variations = Vegetable poothrekulu<br />
| calories = <br />
| other = <br />
}}<br />
'''Pootharekulu''' (plural) or '''poothareku''' (singular) is a popular [[Indian sweet]] from the [[Andhra Pradesh]] state of south [[India]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/2005/07/03/stories/2005070309080400.htm | archive-url=https://archive.today/20160407181207/http://www.thehindu.com/2005/07/03/stories/2005070309080400.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=7 April 2016 | title=Life, sweetened by 'pootarekulu' | newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | date=3 July 2005 | access-date=6 April 2016 | author=B.V.S. Bhaskar}}</ref> The sweet is wrapped in a wafer-thin rice starch layer resembling paper and is stuffed with sugar, dry fruits and nuts. The sweet is popular for festivals, religious occasions and weddings in the [[Telugu states]]. <br />
<br />
The name of the sweet literally means 'coated sheet' in the [[Telugu language]]—''pootha'' means 'coating' and ''reku'' (plural ''rekulu'') means 'sheet' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. The making of pootharekulu is a cottage industry in Atreyapuram, where around 400 families are dependent on the making and marketing of the sweet. {{asof|October 2018|post=,}} the state of Andhra Pradesh was said to be in the process of applying for [[Geographical indication|Geographic Indication]] (GI) tag for the sweet.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
Pootharekulu were created in [[Atreyapuram]], a village and mandal headquarters in the [[East Godavari]] district of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name="putareku" /><br />
<br />
The sweet has a history of a few centuries (three centuries by some accounts).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2016-09-28/Pootharekulu-makes-Atreyapuram-rich-famous/256049|title=Pootharekulu makes Atreyapuram rich & famous|last=India|first=The Hans|date=2016-09-28|website=www.thehansindia.com|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> It is said that a village woman first prepared the sweet by adding sugar and ghee to leftover rice starch.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2018/oct/06/pootharekulu-the-paperlike-sweet-from-andhra-1881593.html|title=Pootharekulu: The Paperlike Sweet from Andhra|website=The New Indian Express|date=6 October 2018 |access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> Atreyapuram villagers soon started making wrappers from rice flour, put sugar and ghee inside and folded them. They supplied the sweets to candy manufacturers all over the two Telugu states. <br />
<br />
Normally, women make pootharekulu in their free time while men are engaged in the marketing of the sweet. The annual turnover of the cottage industry is estimated to be Rs. 3 [[crore]] in 2016.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
In August 2018, a group of cooks from East Godavari prepared a 10.5-meter long poothareku, as part of an attempt by the Andhra Pradesh tourism department to popularize Andhra cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/food-and-recipes/100818/pootharekulu-in-record-books.html|title=Pootharekulu in record books|date=2018-08-10|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
<br />
Pootharekulu is made from a particular kind of rice batter called ''jaya biyyam'' ('biyyam' meaning rice), combined with powdered sugar and [[ghee]] (clarified butter). To make the edible film, a hot pot is prepared. To make the pot suitable, a hole is made in it, and to smoothen the surface for three days, the pot is alternately heated and wiped with a cloth dipped in oil. To make the films, coarse rice is ground for nearly two hours and made into a batter. This batter is then diluted; a thin cloth is dipped in the solution and put on the inverted pot with flame under it. The edible film forms on the pot instantly.<ref name="putareku">{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/putarekulu-making-set-to-get-simpler/article8439115.ece | title='Putarekulu' making set to get simpler | date=6 April 2016 | newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | access-date=6 April 2016 | author=G.V. PRASADA SARMA | location=VISAKHAPATNAM}}</ref> The edible film is then wrapped with sugar and/or jaggery and coated with ghee.<br />
<br />
==Varieties==<br />
[[File:Pootharekulu or Poothareku (singular) is a popular sweet from Atreyapuram, East Godavari District of Andhrapradesh.JPG|thumb|Pootharekulu filled with sugar (left) and jaggery (right)]]<br />
<br />
Pootharekulu can be stuffed with different fillings, including fine powdered sugar, jaggery, dry fruits, and chocolate powder. Hot and spicy pootharekulu are a relatively new variant.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of stuffed dishes]]<br />
* [[Kakinada Kaja]]<br />
* [[Ariselu]]<br />
* [[Sunnundallu]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Commons category|Pootharekulu}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Andhra cuisine]]<br />
[[Category:Indian desserts]]<br />
[[Category:Indian confectionery]]<br />
[[Category:Stuffed dishes]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raghuleela_Mall,_Vashi&diff=446973Raghuleela Mall, Vashi2025-11-06T14:18:16Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: small fix</p>
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<div>{{short description|Building in India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox shopping mall <br />
| name = Raghuleela Mall, Vashi<br />
| image = Raghuleela Mall in Vashi.jpg<br />
| image_width = 225px<br />
| caption = <br />
| location = [[Vashi, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra]]<br />
| coordinates = <br />
| address = <br />
| opening_date = <br />
| closing_date = <br />
| developer = Raghuleela Properties Pvt. Ltd.<br />
| manager = <br />
| owner = <br />
| architect = [[Reza Kabul]]<br />
| number_of_stores = <br />
| number_of_anchors = <br />
| floor_area = {{convert|375000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}}<br />
| parking = 400 cars<br />
| floors = 4 (Excluding commercial area)<br />
| website = {{url|www.raghuleela.co.in}}<br />
| belowstyle =<br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
[[File:Raghuleela Va pop 07 Small.jpg|thumb| Raghuleela Mall, [[Vashi, Navi Mumbai]]]]<br />
'''Raghuleela''' is a mall situated in [[Vashi, Navi Mumbai]], India.<ref>{{cite web|author=India |url=http://www.onyomo.com/mumbai/200158849-fame-raghuleela-vashi |title=Fame Raghuleela - Show Timings - Vashi - Mumbai - Cinema |publisher=Onyomo.com |access-date=2010-12-31}}</ref> Developed by Raghuleela Properties Pvt. Ltd., Raghuleela Mall is a 4-storeyed air-conditioned mall covering an area of approximately {{convert|375000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} on each floor with lifts, escalators and central staircase atrium to connect all the four levels.<ref name="raghuleela.co.in">{{cite web |url=http://www.raghuleela.co.in/html/about-us-future-plans.htm |title=Raghuleela |publisher=Raghuleela |access-date=2010-12-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203060637/http://www.raghuleela.co.in/html/about-us-future-plans.htm |archive-date=3 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The mall has daily footfall of up to 30,000 shoppers. <br />
<br />
The Wadhwa Group , which has office near to the mall has announced that it would redevelop the mall into a premium mixed use commercial development, which would incorporate retail , offices & residential areas. This has come at the time during which the mall is facing dwindling footfall due to lack of Common Area Maintenance (CAM).<br />
<br />
The mall is expected to be demolished by late 2025, subjected to approvals with regulatory authorities and design finalization.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Navi Mumbai News: Raghuleela Mall In Vashi To Be Demolished For Premium Mixed-Use Redevelopment By Wadhwa Group |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/mumbai/navi-mumbai-news-raghuleela-mall-in-vashi-to-be-demolished-for-premium-mixed-use-redevelopment-by-wadhwa-group |access-date=2025-11-06 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Anchor tenants==<br />
*Footin<br />
*Brand Factory<br />
*INOX – 6 screens Multiplex<br />
*Imperial Banquets<br />
*Food Courts & Theme Restaurants – KHPL( Village, Umrao Jaan, Coconut Groove)<br />
*Other tenants include – Kiah, Koutons, Woodlands, Peter England, Alen Paine, Cambridge etc.<br />
<br />
==Attached IT Park & Club House with Raghuleela Arcade==<br />
*Area – {{convert|500000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}}<br />
*KHPL - Cafeteria<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Shopping malls in India}}<br />
{{Navi Mumbai}}<br />
{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Shopping malls in Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Navi Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Navi Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Economy of Navi Mumbai]]<br />
[[Category:Year of establishment missing]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thangals&diff=540271Thangals2025-11-01T22:55:24Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Creating some pg needs work - done</p>
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<div>{{short description|Social group among the Muslims of Kerala}}<br />
{{distinguish|Thangal people}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}<br />
<br />
The '''Thangals''' (also spelled '''Tangals''') are a social group{{ref|a}} among the Muslims of [[Kerala]], south India.<ref name="KunhaliV">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref> The Thangals are often regarded as roughly equivalent to the more general [[Sayyid|Sayyids]] or [[Sharif|Sharifs]], or descendants of [[Muhammad]], of the wider [[Islamic world|Islamic culture]].<ref name=":0">Miller, Roland E., ''Mappila Muslim Culture''. New York, State University of New York Press, 2015. pp. 268-271.</ref><ref name="Thangals all set to test popularity in Malappuram">{{Cite web|last=Meethal|first=Amiya|date=2016-04-25|title=Thangals All Set to Test Popularity in Malappuram|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/250416/thangals-all-set-to-test-popularity-in-malappuram.html|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref> Most members of the community practice [[endogamy]] and rarely marry outside their community.<ref name="rick or treat? Muslim Thangals, psychologisation and pragmatic realism in Northern Kerala, India">{{Cite journal|last=Lang|first=Claudia|date=2014-12-01|title=Muslim Thangals, Psychologisation and Pragmatic Realism in Northern Kerala, India|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461514525221|journal=Transcultural Psychiatry|volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=904–923|language=en|doi=10.1177/1363461514525221|pmid=24637733 |s2cid=30638105 }}</ref><ref name="Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref><br />
<br />
The Thangal families are numerous in [[Kerala]], all receive recognition, but some are considered as saints.<ref name=":0" /> The Thangal identification brings much 'reverence and attention' in the Kerala Muslim community (which predominantly identifies with [[Shafi'i]] madhab).<ref name="Caste system exists among Muslims though not overtly">{{Cite web |title=Caste system exists among Muslims though not overtly |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/sep/01/caste-system-exists-among-muslims-though-not-overtly-2027243.html |access-date=2020-10-12 |website=The New Indian Express|date=31 August 2019 }}</ref> Some individuals take advice from the Thangals on crucial matters.<ref name="Thangals all set to test popularity in Malappuram" /> A number of thangals in Kerala 'treat' people for illness and to 'ward off evils'.<ref name="Thangals all set to test popularity in Malappuram" /><br />
<br />
Shihab, Mashoor, Hirdh, Bafaqi, Jifri, Jamalullayli are some of major Thangal families have many gradations of status on social and economic scale. Influential of the Thangals generally come from prominent business families. They usually exercise their influence through commerce and politics.<ref name=":0" />{{Verification needed|date=March 2024}}<br />
<br />
== Notable Thangal in north Kerala ==<br />
[[File:Shihab Thangal in July 2008.jpg|thumb|[[Syed Muhammedali Shihab Thangal]] (1936 - 2009)]] <br />
<br />
* [[Pukkoya family of Panakkad|Pukkoya family]] ([[Panakkad]]-Kodappanakkal House)<ref name=":0" /><br />
** [[P. M. S. A. Pukkoya Thangal]] (d. 1975)<br />
**[[Syed Muhammedali Shihab Thangal|Muhammedali Shihab Thangal]] (1936 - 2009)<br />
**[[Sayed Hyderali Shihab Thangal|Hyderali Shihab Thangal]] (1947 - 2022)<br />
**[[Sayed Abbas Ali Shihab Thangal]] (Born 31 May 1971)<br />
*Kondotty Thangal Family<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<br />
: 1.{{note|a}}Only some scholars consider the thangals as a 'community' among the Muslims of [[Kerala]].<ref name="KunhaliV" /> <br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Roland E. |url=https://sunypress.edu/Books/M/Mappila-Muslim-Culture |title=Mappila Muslim Culture: How a Historic Muslim Community in India Has Blended Tradition and Modernity |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2015}}<br />
* {{Cite journal |last=Dale |first=Stephen F. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/islamic-society-on-the-south-asian-frontier-the-mappilas-of-malabar-14981922-by-stephen-frederic-dale-clarendon-press-oxford-1980-pp-xvii-290-7-plates-8-maps/4579DEFFF56EC4F9123861504A8041E7 |title=Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar 1498–1922 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |publisher=Clarendon Press Oxford |year=1980|volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=157–161 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00011276 |url-access=subscription }}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{Cite web |last=Kunhali |first=V. |date=1986 |title=Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798 |url=http://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf |access-date= |website= |publisher=Aligarh Muslim University}}<br />
* {{Cite web |last=Claudia Lang |title=Muslim Thangals, Psychologisation and Pragmatic Realism in Northern Kerala, India |url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/59122/1/1363461514525221.pdf |website=SAGE |publisher=Transcultural Psychiatry 2014, Vol. 51(6) |pages=904–923}}<br />
<br />
{{coord missing|Kerala}}<br />
{{Indian Muslim}}<br />
{{Islam in Kerala}}<br />
[[Category:Muslim communities of Kerala]]<br />
[[Category:Islamic honorifics]]<br />
[[Category:Muslim communities of India]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Kerala]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anupama_Jain&diff=487011Anupama Jain2025-10-29T05:45:24Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Made article</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian writer and teacher}}<br />
{{BLP sources|date=December 2023}}<br />
{{Infobox writer<br />
| name = Anupama Jain<br />
| image = <br />
| imagesize = <br />
| caption =<br />
| birth_date = <br />
| birth_place = [[Gurgaon]], [[India]]<br />
| alma_mater = [[Savitribai Phule Pune University|Pune University]]<br />
| death_place =<br />
| birth_name =<br />
| website = <br />
}}<br />
'''Anupama Jain''' is a writer and teacher based out of [[Gurgaon]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://themommytale.com/2017/06/anupama-jain/|title=Anupama Jain A mom and an avid blogger, Who inspires from her writing.|date=2017-06-28|work=The Mommy Tale|access-date=2018-01-11|language=en-US}}</ref> She is the founding member of Senior School Moms and a [[blog]]ger.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://incrediblewomenofindia.wordpress.com/2015/08/23/anupama-jain/|title=ANUPAMA JAIN|date=2015-08-23|work=INCREDIBLE WOMEN OF INDIA|access-date=2018-01-11|language=en-US}}</ref> Anupama is the author of 4 well-received books and 12 anthologies across genres, one of which is a LIMCA record holder as India’s first Composite Novel. She is an acclaimed community builder, mentor, and multi-award-winning blogger who pens on the vagaries of the quirky world across various coveted forums.<br />
<br />
== Background ==<br />
Anupama holds a MCA degree from [[Savitribai Phule Pune University|Pune University]], [[Pune]], India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anupama Jain, Author at Women's Web: For Women Who Do |url=https://www.womensweb.in/author/anupama_jain/ |access-date=2018-01-11 |website=Women's Web: For Women Who Do |language=en-US}}</ref> She lives in Gurgaon with her husband, son and daughter. Anupama also runs classes for children in Gurgaon.<br />
<br />
== Writer ==<br />
<br />
Anupama is a Contributing Author to Chronicles of Urban Nomads.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawrence |date=2015-01-30 |title=Chronicles of Urban Nomads review |url=http://wingedpost.org/2015/01/chronicles-urban-nomads-literary-review/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612023655/http://wingedpost.org/2015/01/chronicles-urban-nomads-literary-review/ |archive-date=2019-06-12 |access-date=2018-01-11 |work=Winged Post |language=en-US }}</ref> She is the author of the novel, When Padma Bani Paula which was listed as one of five best books, fiction 2018 by readwriteinspire.com.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarat |first=Archana |date=2018-12-03 |title=The 5 Best Books of 2018: Fiction |url=https://readwriteinspire.com/the-5-best-fiction-books-of-2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925145440/https://readwriteinspire.com/the-5-best-fiction-books-of-2018/ |archive-date=2022-09-25 |access-date=2023-12-22 |website=Read Write Inspire |language=en-GB }}</ref><br />
<br />
She also contributed to Crossed & Knotted, India’s first Composite Novel, 2016 that entered the [[Limca Book of Records|LIMCA Book of Records]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bookworm/bookworms-trail/crossed-knotted-by-readomania-enters-limca-book-of-records_1891328.htm|title='Crossed & Knotted' by Readomania ENTERS Limca Book Of Records!|date=2016-06-03|work=Zee News|access-date=2018-01-11|language=en}}</ref> She also contributed to When They Spoke as well as Mock Stalk & Quarrel<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Serving satire with aplomb |url=http://booklink.in/index.php/news-events/88-latest-news/160-serving-satire-with-aplomb |access-date=2018-01-11 |website=Book Link |language=en-gb}}</ref> – all published by Readomania. In 2018, she contributed to ''When Women Speak Up'' an [[Ebook|e-book]] of inspiring stories published by Women’s Web.<br />
<br />
She has published multiple stories online, writes on parental forums and has won numerous prizes. She was the Runner-Up, Orange Flower 2017 Humour Award, and among the top 3, in 2016. Anupama was also the Finalist, Orange Flower 2017 Creative Writing Award.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2017-12-10 |title=Winners And Finalists At The Orange Flower Digital Summit And Awards 2017 |language=en-US |work=Women's Web: For Women Who Do |url=http://www.womensweb.in/2017/12/winners-finalists-orange-flower-digital-summit-awards-2017/ |access-date=2018-01-11}}</ref><br />
<br />
She was listed as one of the 10 Indian women bloggers, a feminist must follow, by Women’s Web in July 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |last=TheMoodyWriter |date=2017-07-13 |title=Are You A Feminist? Then Here Are 10 Indian Women Bloggers You Must Follow |language=en-US |work=Women's Web: For Women Who Do |url=http://www.womensweb.in/2017/07/10-indian-women-bloggers-you-must-follow/ |access-date=2018-01-11}}</ref> She was the winner of the Popular Choice Orange Flower Award for Humour, 2018, awarded by Women's Web. Her book was also listed as one of The Best books of 2018 by Read Write Inspire.<br />
<br />
She is A-Z Blogging Challenge 2017, 2016 survivor. Her short story on marital morass was one of the top 14 blogs of 2017 out of the 18,000+ blogs published annually at mycity4kids.com.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jain |first=Anumpama |date=2017-06-03 |title=An Indian woman's soliloquy |work=mycity4kids |url=https://www.mycity4kids.com/parenting/As-Everyday-is-Mothers-Day/article/an-indian-womans-soliloquy |url-status=dead |access-date=2018-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204075604/https://www.momspresso.com/parenting/As-Everyday-is-Mothers-Day/article/an-indian-womans-soliloquy |archive-date=2021-12-04 }}</ref><br />
<br />
She writes a regular piece at readomania.com – ‘AJ Wants to Know’ a satirical take on the quirky world around.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Author's Speak anupama_jain |url=http://www.readomania.com/author-speak-view/anupama_jain,97 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111165244/http://www.readomania.com/author-speak-view/anupama_jain,97 |archive-date=2018-01-11 |access-date=2018-01-11 |website=Readomania}}</ref><br />
<br />
Anupama is the Founder & Admin of ' SeniorSchoolMoms' which won the Orange Flower Award 2021,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=Orange Flower Awards & Festival 2021 |url=https://www.orangeflowerawards.in/awardees-2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205020805/https://www.orangeflowerawards.in/awardees-2021 |archive-date=2023-02-05 |access-date=2023-12-22 |website=Orange Flower Fest |language=en }}</ref> for Best [[Facebook]] Groups. SeniorSchoolMoms was one of the very few communities invited to join the first-ever WA cohort of Facebook Community Learning Labs for a super-exclusive program. She is also the Head (Content & Collaborations) at Incredible Women Of India.<br />
<br />
== Books ==<br />
<br />
===Author===<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Anupama |title=When Padma Bani Paula |date=2018-04-16 |publisher=Readomania |language=en |asin=B07C7RJCWQ}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wadhwa |first=Latika |date=2018-05-13 |title=Writing that started as a therapy for Anupama Jain made her launch "When Padma Bani Paula"-her first novel |url=https://www.mompreneurcircle.com/anupama-jain-author-padma-bani-paula/ |access-date=2021-12-13 |website=Mompreneur Circle |language=en}}</ref><br />
* {{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Anupama |title=Masala Mix: Potpourri of Shorts |date=2020-05-08 |publisher=Readomania |language=en |asin=B088DFQ74L}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dalmia |first=Anupama |date=2020-07-08 |title=Book Review: Masala Mix by Anupama Jain {{!}} Anupama Dalmia |url=http://anupamadalmia.com/2020/07/08/book-review-masala-mix-by-anupama-jain/ |access-date=2021-12-13 |website=anupamadalmia.com |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
* {{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Anupama |title=Kings, Saviours & Scoundrels: Timeless Tales from Katha Sarita Sagara |date=2021-12-28 |publisher=Readomania |language=en |asin=B09PF4K4LJ}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Anupama |title=When Padma Bani Wifey |date=2023-12-11 |publisher=Readomania |isbn=978-9391800697 |location=India}}<br />
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===Contributor===<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Anupama |title=Chronicles of Urban Nomads |last2=Menon |first2=Deepti |last3=Mukherjee |first3=Bhaswar |last4=Navalgund |first4=Niranjan |last5=Pal |first5=Ayan |publisher=Readomania |year=2014 |isbn=978-8192997506 |language=en}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Anupama |title=Crossed & Knotted: India's First Composite Novel |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Bhaswar |last3=Menon |first3=Deepti |last4=Pal |first4=Ayan |last5=Shankar |first5=Bhuvaneshwari |last6=Sopory |first6=Avanti |date=2015-02-09 |publisher=Readomania |editor-last=Basu |editor-first=Sutapa |language=en |asin=B00TFRO8M0}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Aashisha |title=Mock, Stalk & Quarrel: A collection of Satirical Tales |last2=Ghosh |first2=Tanushree |last3=Jain |first3=Anupama |last4=Tabrez |first4=Radhika Maira |date=2017-01-29 |publisher=Readomania |editor-last=Ganguly |editor-first=Indrani |language=en |asin=B01MRBGU4K}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Anupama |title=When They Spoke |last2=Menon |first2=Deepti |last3=Pal |first3=Ayan |last4=Shankar |first4=Bhuvaneshwari |last5=Tabrez |first5=Radhika Maira |publisher=Readomania |year=2016 |isbn=9789385854057 |editor-last=Banerjee |editor-first=Arpita |language=en}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Anumpana |title=When Women Speak Up: A Women's Web Collection of inspiring stories |last2=Lekhak |first2=Vartika Sharma |last3=Prabhakar |first3=Roopa |last4=Raj |first4=Rashmi |date=2017-12-27 |publisher=Amazon Digital Services |language=en |asin=B07896SH5L}}<br />
*{{Cite book |last1=Barua |first1=Proyashi |title=The Readomania Book of Horror |last2=Basu |first2=Ushasi Ben |last3=Ghosh |first3=Rituparna |last4=Menon |first4=Deepti |last5=Jain |first5=Anupama |last6=Mukherjee |first6=Bhaswar |last7=Mukherjee |first7=Sourabh |last8=Pal |first8=Ayan |last9=Saraf |first9=Mira |last10=Sarat |first10=Archana |last11=Singh |first11=Harshali |date=2020-05-31 |publisher=Readomania |language=en |asin=B089J9H4KX}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Menon |first1=Deepti |title=The Readomania Book of Folk Tales |last2=Gulati |first2=Vasudha Chandna |last3=Jain |first3=Anupama |last4=Sengupta |first4=Sinjini |last5=Shankar |first5=Bhuvaneshwari |last6=Singh |first6=Harshali |date=2020-07-20 |publisher=Readomania |language=en |asin=B08DDDR538}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Basu |first1=Usahsi Ben |title=The Readomania Book of Crime Thrillers |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Aashisha |last3=Ghosh |first3=Rituparna |last4=Ghosh |first4=Tanushree |last5=Gulati |first5=Vasudha Chandna |last6=Jain |first6=Anupama |last7=Mukherjee |first7=Bhaswar |last8=Narayanan |first8=Hari Ram |last9=Saraf |first9=Mira |date=2020-07-26 |publisher=Readomania |language=en |asin=B08DP6X3M6}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Chakraborty |first1=Aashisha |title=The Readomania Book of Romance |last2=Ghosh |first2=Rituparna |last3=Gulati |first3=Vasudha Chadna |last4=Jain |first4=Anupama |last5=Menon |first5=Deepti |last6=Mukherjee |first6=Bhaswar |last7=Pal |first7=Ayan |last8=Sengupta |first8=Sinjini |last9=Shankar |first9=Bhuvaneshwari |date=2020-08-17 |publisher=Readomania |language=en |asin=B08G4YMDN8}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=Gulati |first1=Vasudha Chandna |title=Better Parenting for the Children of Tomorrow: Secrets to Ace the Pandemic Times |last2=Jain |first2=Anupama |last3=Singh |first3=Harshali |last4=Tabrez |first4=Radhika Maira |date=2020-08-26 |publisher=Readomania |asin=B08GSSCBBS}}<br />
* {{Cite book |title=Remnants of Loss: Poems for Your Soul |date=2022-01-08 |publisher=Readomania |editor-last=Menon |editor-first=Deepti |language=en |asin=B09Q25NGY1 |editor-last2=Singh |editor-first2=Harshali}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last1=De nee Chatterjee |first1=Nandita |title=Songs of a Mermaid ( Tales of Urban Women) |last2=Jain |first2=Anupama |last3=Joshi |first3=Monalisa |last4=Menon |first4=Deepti |last5=Singh |first5=Harshali |date=2022-05-23 |publisher=Chrysanthemum Chronicles |isbn=978-8195430741 |editor-last=Choudhary |editor-first=Deepak K |location=New Delhi, India |language=en}}<br />
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== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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{{authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Jain, Anupama}}<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian short story writers]]<br />
[[Category:Indian women short story writers]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian women writers]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]<br />
[[Category:Indian women poets]]<br />
[[Category:Indian bloggers]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uma_Shankar_Pandey&diff=542484Uma Shankar Pandey2025-10-13T03:04:23Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Creating the article nd citations - done</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian social worker (born 1971)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Uma Shankar Pandey<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1971|02|05}}<br />
| birth_place = Jakhni village, [[Banda district, India|Banda district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India<br />
| occupation = Social worker, farmer<br />
| known_for = Groundwater conservation, Medbandi technique<br />
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] (2023)<br />
}}<br />
'''Uma Shankar Pandey''' (born 5 February 1971) is an Indian social worker who is known for his work and contributions to [[water conservation|groundwater conservation]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaiser |first=Ejaz |date=2024-10-06 |title=Experts, policymakers deliberate on water conservation strategies in Chhattisgarh |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2024/Oct/06/experts-policymakers-deliberate-on-water-conservation-strategies-in-chhattisgarh |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> He launched the 'Khet mein Med, Med Par Ped (Trees on weirs in farms)' campaign in 2005,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mishra |first1=Ashish |title=Bunds to abundance |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20210329-bunds-to-abundance-1781254-2021-03-21 |publisher=[[India Today]] |date=29 March 2021}}</ref> to conserve water by constructing bunds in the fields.<ref name=navbharat/><ref name=hindustan>{{cite news |title=Padma awardee to educate farmers about ancient techniques to save water |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/lucknow-news/padma-shri-uma-shankar-pandey-urges-farmers-to-save-water-by-making-boundary-mounds-and-planting-saplings-in-up-villages-waterconservation-jalandolan-climateconclave-101681240713000.html |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=12 April 2023}}</ref> He was awarded the [[Padma Shri]] by the [[Indian government]] in 2023 for his contributions to social work.<ref name=Padmaawards/><br />
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== Life and work ==<br />
Uma Shankar Pandey led a community-driven initiative to address the water problem in the village. Without government assistance, he advocated for traditional water conservation methods, encouraging residents of [[Bundelkhand]] to construct bunds in fields to capture rainwater and plant trees along them.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nigam |first1=Abhay |title=कौन हैं 'जल योद्धा' उमा शंकर पांडे जिन्हें पद्मश्री से नवाजा गया? बुंदेलखंड के हर गांव में चर्चा |url=https://www.abplive.com/states/up-uk/banda-uttar-pradesh-social-worker-uma-shankar-pandey-awarded-padma-shri-for-water-conservation-ann-2318539 |publisher=[[ABP Live]] |date=27 January 2023 |language=Hindi}}</ref> <br />
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In September 2020, Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] has also praised his campaign in the ''[[Mann Ki Baat]]'' program.<ref name="navbharat" /><br />
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He is from Jakhni village in the Bundelkhand region, situated in the [[Banda district, India|Banda district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name=navbharat/> In UP villages, he is referred to as the Pani Ke Pehredar (Guardian of Water).<ref name=hindustan/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Kumar Pandey |first1=Brihaspati |title=उमाशंकर पांडेय : पानी के पहरेदार को पद्मश्री- 'खेत पर मेड़ और मेंड़ पर पेड़' ने दिखायी राह |url=https://www.sarita.in/farm-n-food/umashankar-pandey-padmashree-to-the-watchman-of-the-water-the-ridge-on-the-field-and-the-tree-on-the-ridge-showed-the-way |publisher=Sarita, [[Delhi Press]] |date=12 April 2023 |language=Hindi}}</ref><br />
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In June 1995, he began working on water conservation in Jakhni village with the community. Pandey is known for his efforts to save water in Bundelkhand through Medbandi (bund making) technique.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chauhan |first1=Vivek SIngh |title=UP's water warrior to teach 'medbandi' model in Bundelkhand |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/ups-water-warrior-to-teach-medbandi-model-in-bundelkhand/articleshow/99419927.cms |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The Prime Minister has also called on the country to adopt Medbandi.<ref name=Padmaawards>{{cite news |title=Padma Shri Uma Shankar Oandey |url=https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/Content/CitationsForTickets/2023/202359.pdf |work=Padmaawards.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=जल पचाने के लिए जंगली जिल पाले जल योद्धा |url=https://www.jansatta.com/rajya/water-warrior-umashankar-pandey-had-a-wild-insistence-to-save-water-in-bundelkhand-by-medbandi/1991836/ |publisher=[[Jansatta]] |date=8 January 2022 |language=Hindi}}</ref><br />
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In 2015 and 2016, as part of the Jal Kranti Abhiyan, the [[Ministry of Jal Shakti]], [[Government of India]], established 1050 water villages based on the Jakhni Model developed by Umashankar Pandey. His innovative water conservation methods contributed to a notable rise in the water level in the Banda district, reaching 1 meter 34&nbsp;cm. He worked on water conservation in [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Gujarat]]. The [[NITI Aayog]] recognized Jakhani as a successful example of traditional community-based water conservation, achieved without government support.<ref name=Padmaawards/> <br />
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In April 2022, he was made a member of the Ground Water Conservation Committee of [[NITI Aayog]], which was constituted under the chairmanship of [[Narendra Modi]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Verma |first1=Abhishek |title=नीति आयोग की भू-जल संरक्षण समिति के सदस्य बने जलयोद्धा उमाशंकर, मिल चुके हैं कई सम्मान |url=https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/kanpur-city-niti-aayog-nominated-sarvodaya-activist-umashankar-pandey-as-a-member-of-the-ground-water-conservation-committee-jagran-special-22619581.html |publisher=[[Dainik Jagran]] |date=12 April 2022 |language=Hindi}}</ref><br />
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== Awards and recognition ==<br />
He received the [[Padma Shri]], the fourth-highest civilian award in India, for his contributions to social work.<ref name=Padmaawards/><br />
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In 2020, Umashankar Pandey received the Jal Yodha Samman, a national award from the [[Ministry of Jal Shakti]], Government of India, presented by Vice President [[Venkaiah Naidu|M. Venkaiah Naidu]] in the presence of Union Jal Shakti Minister [[Gajendra Singh Shekhawat]]. The same year brought recognition from the [[United Nations]] in the form of the Water Digester Award, presented by the Jal Shakti Minister. <br />
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In 2019, Union Jal Shakti Minister [[Gajendra Singh Shekhawat]] honored him with the Rashtriya Jal Prahari Samman. In 2015, Umashankar Pandey was awarded the Vidya Bhushan Award by the Director of the Sanskrit Research Institute.<ref name="navbharat">{{cite news |last1=Mishra |first1=Vivek |title=पद्मश्री से नवाजे गए बुंदेलखंड के भागीरथ उमा शंकर पांडेय, PM मोदी भी कर चुके हैं तारीफ |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/uttar-pradesh/banda/uma-shankar-pandey-of-bundelkhand-awarded-with-padma-shri-pm-modi-has-also-praised/articleshow/97336581.cms |newspaper=[[Navbharat Times]] |date=26 January 2023 |language=Hindi}}</ref><br />
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== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Social Work}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pandey, Umashankar}}<br />
[[Category:1971 births]]<br />
[[Category:Indian conservationists]]<br />
[[Category:Water conservation in India]]<br />
[[Category:People from Banda district, India]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in social work]]<br />
[[Category:Activists from Uttar Pradesh]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Port_of_Jakhau&diff=459038Port of Jakhau2025-09-26T18:38:22Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: enhance structure after review</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Port in Gujurat, India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}<br />
{{Coord|23|14|0|N|68|35|0|E|region:IN|display=title}}<br />
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The '''Port of Jakhau''' is a fair weather [[port]] on the [[Gulf of Kutch]], [[Kutch District]], in the state of [[Gujarat]], India situated on Godia Creek. It provides an anchorage port. The port boasts of entire Gujarat's fishing community{{Clarify|reason=what does this mean?|date=September 2025}} and almost all types of boats.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}<br />
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==Features==<br />
The port is partially sheltered from the direct sea-waves, but remains closed during the [[monsoon season]]. The port is operated by the [[Gujarat Maritime Board]] and renovated in 2001 in modern way.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gmbports.org/jakhau-port |title=Jakhau Port |access-date=24 February 2018 |archive-date=7 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032247/https://www.gmbports.org/jakhau-port |url-status=dead }}</ref> <br />
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==Location==<br />
The port is {{convert|8|km|mi}} from the village of [[Jakhau]] and 39&nbsp;km from [[Naliya]] town. The port is connected by [[National Highway 41 (India)|National Highway 41]] or NH 41. [[Naliya railway station]] is the nearest railway station but trains are available only from [[Bhuj]], 125&nbsp;km away. Rail line is being extended to Jakhau port. <br />
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[[Naliya Air Force Station]] is about 40&nbsp;km from the port. The nearest commercial airport is [[Bhuj Airport]].<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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{{Waters of South Asia}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Port Of Jakhau}}<br />
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Gujarat|Jakhau]]<br />
[[Category:Transport in Kutch district]]<br />
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{{Kachchh-geo-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lal_Bahadur_Shastri_Integrated_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology&diff=460366Lal Bahadur Shastri Integrated Institute of Science and Technology2025-09-25T02:39:42Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: further updated details for clarity and corrected details</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Institute in Kerala, India}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}<br />
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{{Coord|22.624123|75.795579|type:edu|display=title}} <br />
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{{Infobox university<br />
| name = Lal Bahadur Shastri Integrated Institute of Science and Technology Malappuram<br />
| image_name =<br />
| established = Approved in 2013<br />
| type = Science & Technology Schools<br />
| city = [[Malappuram]]<br />
| affiliations = [[AICTE]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Lal Bahadur Shastri Integrated Institute of Science and Technology (LBSIIST) Malappuram'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.keralacm.gov.in/images/stories/pr/pr221111.pdf |title=The Chief Minister met Shri Kapil Sibal, Union Minister for HRD & IT along with the following Cabinet Ministers |publisher=Keralacm.gov.in |access-date=2013-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211153216/http://www.keralacm.gov.in/images/stories/pr/pr221111.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is located at Pariyapuram in Parappanangadi Municipality of [[Malappuram]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/10-colleges-to-be-made-centres-of-excellence/article3013526.ece |title=10 colleges to be made centres of excellence |publisher=The Hindu |date=2012-03-20 |access-date=2013-12-08}}</ref> The then Union Human Resource Development Minister Mr.Kapil Sibal agreed to consider granting Rs.50 crore to this, in Nov 2011.<ref>{{cite web|author=J Balaji |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kapil-sibal-promises-iit-for-state/article2651039.ece |title=Kapil Sibal promises IIT for State |publisher=The Hindu |date=2011-11-23 |access-date=2013-12-08}}</ref> The proposal for the institute was in line with the Rajender Sachar Committee Report highlighting the need for new development strategies for educationally backward districts of the country.<br />
One entity of the Project- The Model Degree College, Started functioning in the year 2016 with three degree courses, B.Sc. Computer Science, B.com Computer Application, BCA Affiliated to University of Calicut. <br />
Presently the Model Degree College, functioning in a rented building 500 m from Parappanangadi Railway station, at Tanur Road<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
{{Educational Institutes in Malappuram}}<br />
{{Education in Kerala}}<br />
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[[Category:Memorials to Lal Bahadur Shastri]]<br />
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Malappuram district]]<br />
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{{Kerala-university-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khoro_(clan)&diff=509805Khoro (clan)2025-09-05T20:23:59Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: </p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}<br />
{{notability|date=February 2015}}<br />
'''Khoro''' is a clan of [[Ahirs]] of [[Haryana]] in India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sherring |first=Matthew Atmore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYnlAAAAMAAJ&dq=khoro+ahir&pg=PA333 |title=Hindu Tribes and Castes |date=1872 |publisher=[[Thacker, Spink & Company]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pradesh |first=India Director of Census Operations, Uttar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MmG8oN_-rTMC&q=khoro+ahir |title=District Census Handbook: Series 21, Uttar Pradesh |date=1900}}</ref><ref name="Shashi1977">{{cite book|author=Shyam Singh Shashi|title=The shepherds of India: a socio-cultural study of sheep and cattle-rearing communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_xwKAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=17 June 2011|year=1977|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan}}</ref> [[Rewari]] was once ruled by Khoro Ahirs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crooke|first=William|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hHM6baknNRIC&dq=khoro+ahirs&pg=PA53|title=The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh|date=1999|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1210-5|language=en}}</ref> Dr. Hameeda Khoro is a famous politician of [[Sindh]], Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TUW6AAAAIAAJ&q=khoro+|title=JPRS Report: Near East & South Asia|date=1990|publisher=Foreign Broadcast Information Service|language=en}}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
* [[Ahir clans]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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[[Category:Ahir]]<br />
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{{Ahir clans}}<br />
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{{India-ethno-stub}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apurbalal_Majumdar&diff=487190Apurbalal Majumdar2025-09-04T17:33:21Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Made a info</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian politician (1925–2001)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}<br />
'''Apurbalal Majumdar''' (1925–2001) was an Indian politician. Initially a member of the [[Scheduled Castes Federation]], he was later associated with the [[All India Forward Bloc]]. In the 1950s he emerged as a leader of [[Namasudra]] refugees from [[East Bengal]]. He was elected to the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] seven times.<ref name=tte23/> He served as Deputy Speaker of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly 1969-1970 and as its Speaker 1971–1977. He later became a leader of the [[Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress(I)]].<br />
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==Youth==<br />
Majumdar was born in Brahmaganj ([[Faridpur District]]) in 1925, son of Raimohan Majumdar.<ref name=tte23/><ref name=who/><ref name=who82>''[https://books.google.at/books?id=VFm4AAAAIAAJ Who's who in 1982 Assembly Election, West Bengal: Personalities and Party Manifesto]''. Merchants' Club, 1982. p. viii</ref><ref name=who89>''[https://books.google.at/books?id=qHFmAAAAMAAJ India Who's who]''. INFA Publications., 1989. p. 126</ref> He belonged to the [[Namasudra]] community.<ref name=sba>Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=UBpkEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PT176 Caste and Partition in Bengal: The Story of Dalit Refugees, 1946-1961]''. Oxford University Press, 2022. p. 186</ref><ref name=pkch>Prafulla K. Chakrabarti. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=WAscAAAAIAAJ The Marginal Men: The Refugees and the Left Political Syndrome in West Bengal]''. Lumière Books, 1990. p. 171</ref> Majumdar went to school at the Barisal Zilla School, then studied at [[Government P.C. College, Bagerhat|P.C. College]] in [[Bagerhat]], the [[Krishnagar Government College]] and the [[Department of Law, University of Calcutta|University Law College]].<ref name=who/><ref name=who82/> He obtained M.A. degree in economics and a LL.B. (Law degree) from the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref name=who/><br />
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Majumdar began his political career as a follower of [[B.R. Ambedkar]]<!-- ref says 'close' which seems to be a stretch --> and a disciple of [[Jogendra Nath Mandal|Jogendranath Mondal]], the leader of the [[Scheduled Castes Federation]] in Bengal.<ref name=tte23/><ref name=dse>Dwaipayan Sen. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=gORfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA262 The Decline of the Caste Question: Jogendranath Mandal and the Defeat of Dalit Politics in Bengal]''. Cambridge University Press, 2018. p. 262</ref><ref name=nbro>Nirode Behari Roy. ''[A People in Distress Being a Connected Account of the Names from 1812 A.D. Down to the Present Day Together with a Study of Their Antiquity, Vol. 2]''. Kadambini Roy, 1992. pp. 239-241</ref> Between 1945 and 1948 Majumdar was the president of the Bengal Scheduled Castes Students Federation, and between 1945 and 1946 he was the vice president of the All India Scheduled Castes Students Federation.<ref name=who/> In 1946 he became the editor of the weekly ''Jagaran''.<ref name=who/><ref name=who89/> He would go on to become an advocate (lawyer) at the [[Calcutta High Court]].<ref name=who/><ref name=who89/> In 1951 Majumdar became the president of the Progressive Backward People's Association.<ref name=who/><br />
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==1957 Bettiah satyagrah==<br />
Majumdar rose to prominence during the struggle of East Bengal refugees of the Bettiah camp in [[Champaran District]] of [[Bihar]] in 1957. In response to the appalling conditions at the Bettiah camp thousands of refugees deserted the camp and arrived in Howrah and Calcutta (estimates vary from 7,000 to 15,000).<ref name=sba/> The majority installed themselves as squatters at [[Howrah|Howrah Maidan]] whilst a smaller section squatted the platforms of the [[Sealdah railway station]].<ref name=sba/><ref name=pkch/> Conditions among the Bettiah refugees were very difficult, on average six people died every day.<ref name=sba/> The United Central Refugee Council, linked to the left-wing parties, sought to mobilize the refugees.<ref name=sba/> An Action Committee was formed. Majumdar did not have influence in the Calcutta-based refugee organisations but the refugees who trusted him as he was a Namasudra himself.<ref name=use/> Some 90% of the refugees at Howrah Maidan and Sealdah station were Namasudras, and it was Majumdar who emerged as their leader.<ref name=pkch/><ref name=use>Uditi Sen. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=vAtmDwAAQBAJ Citizen Refugee: Forging the Indian Nation after Partition]''. Cambridge University Press, 2018. p. 195</ref> Per Prafulla K. Chakrabarti (1990) Majumdar was "virtually a one-man group. He had enormous influence over the Bettiah refugees".<ref name=pkch/><br />
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In the Action Committee formed for the struggle of the Bettiah refugees there were different viewpoints regarding the tactics to be employed in the protest movement, Majumdar favoured a gradual escalation of protests.<ref name=pkch/> Majumdar had near total control over the refugees at Howrah Maidan.<ref name=pkch/> Prankrishna Chakrabarti attempted to mobilize the refugees at Sealdah station and bring them into the UCRC fold, a move that Majumdar resisted.<ref name=pkch/><br />
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On 17 April 1957, some of the leftist leaders met the West Bengal Chief Minister [[Bidhan Chandra Roy]] in a deputation to demand rehabilitation of the Bettiah deserters.<ref name=ssch/> Roy did not agree to the demands.<ref name=sba/> On 27 April 1957, the leftist leaders held a press conference, announcing the Action Committee for a protest movement in favour of the rehabilitation of the Bettiah deserters.<ref name=ssch/> The Action Committee was chaired by All India Forward Bloc leader {{ill|Hemanta Basu|bn|হেমন্তকুমার বসু}}. Other members included Suresh Chandra Banerjee ([[Praja Socialist Party]]), Jibonlal Chatterjee ([[Workers Party of India|Democratic Vanguard]]) and Apurbalal Majumdar<ref name=ssch>Dr Swati Sengupta Chatterjee. ''[https://www.wbnsou.ac.in/openjournals/Issue/1st-Issue/January2020/swati_final.pdf Insights on Camp Refugees of Bettiah and Bisnupur; an anti-dispersal satyagraha of 1956-57]''. ''NSOU-OPEN JOURNAL'', Vol.3 No.1 (January 2020)</ref> Majumdar represented the Namasudras on the Action Committee.<ref name=pkch/> A ''[[satyagrah]]'' protest movement was initiated at Subodh Mullick Square on 4 May 1957, calling on the national government in Delhi to intervene.<ref name=sba/><br />
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In the midst of the Bettiah ''satyagrah'' protest movement the [[1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] took place. Majumdar was elected to the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]], standing as an [[All India Forward Bloc]] candidate.<ref name=tte23/> He contested the seat reserved for Scheduled Castes in the [[Sankrail Assembly constituency|Sankrail constituency]]. Majumdar won the seat, obtaining 33,498 votes (59.79% of the votes cast for Scheduled Caste candidates in the constituency).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404201835/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_WB_1957.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1957 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref><br />
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The Bettiah Satyagrah protest movement lasted for about a month. Majumdar negotiated a deal with the government<!-- WB state govt or central govt??? -->, whereby the refugees would return to the Bettiah camp if paid two months arrear cash dole immediately, living conditions at the camp improved and arrangements for economic rehabilitation put in place.<ref name=sba/> The protest movement was formally withdrawn on 6 June 1957, and the refugees began returning to Bettiah camp.<ref name=sba/><br />
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==Legislator==<br />
Majumdar won the [[Panchla Assembly constituency]] in the [[1962 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]], obtaining 17,886 votes (48.33%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140714193601/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_WB_1962.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1962 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref><br />
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Majumdar contested both the [[Uluberia Uttar Assembly constituency|Uluberia North]] and [[Bagdah Assembly constituency|Bagdah]] seats in the [[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]], winning both.<ref name=who/> In Bagdah Majumdar obtained 32,263 votes (71.08%).<ref name=wb67>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404194327/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20report%20WB1967.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1967 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref> In Uluberia North he obtained 19,812 votes (36.35%).<ref name=wb67/> On 8 March 1967, Majumdar resigned from the Uluberia North seat, prompting a bye-election to be held in order to fill the seat.<ref>India. Election Commission. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=JWoFAAAAMAAJ Bye-election Brochure: House of the People & Legislative Assemblies (1-3-1967 to 31-12-1969), Council of States & Legislative Councils (1-3-1964 to 31-12-1969): An Analysis]''. Manager of Publications, 1971. p. 115</ref> The by-election was won by All India Forward Bloc candidate K. Mondal.<ref name="e">Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20120117074622/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ByeElection/Bye-ele-results%2052-95.xls Bye-election results 1952-95]''</ref><br />
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Ahead of the [[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] Majumdar's former political mentor Jogendranath Mondal entered in the fray to contest Majumdar's Bagdah seat.<ref name=dse/><ref name=nbro/> Mondal was starting his campaign early, in September 1968.<ref name=nbro/> Mondal was setting an office of his [[Republican Party of India]] in the area.<ref name=dse/> The situation in the constituency became tense, and reportedly Mondal received death threats from the Majumdar camp.<ref name=dse/> A few days after having reportedly received death threats, Mondal died.<ref name=dse/> It was rumoured that workers of the Majumdar had forced Mondal to drink tea with them at [[Bongaon]], and that he had been poisoned.<ref name=dse/> Majumdar retained the Bagdah seat in the 1969 election, obtaining 23,885 votes (53.06%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140718182429/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1969/StatReport_WB_69.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1969 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref> Majumdar was the Deputy Speaker of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly during the period of 1969–1970, having been elected by the Legislative Assembly to the post on 6 March 1969.<ref name=who/><ref name=who89/><ref name=akch>CHAUDHURI, AMIYA KUMAR. ''[http://www.jstor.org/stable/41855642< CONTROL, POLITICS AND PERSPECTIVE OF A STATE LEGISLATURE]''. The Indian Journal of Political Science, vol. 54, no. 1, 1993, pp. 86–107</ref><br />
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==Forward Bloc leader==<br />
In 1969 he became the secretary of the West Bengal State Committee of the All India Forward Bloc.<ref name=who/><ref name=who89/> He was also a member of the executive committee of the party.<ref name=who/><ref name=who89/> He was the vice president of the [[All India Youth League]], and the convenor of the AIYL in West Bengal.<ref name=who/> In 1968 Majumdar represented Indian youth at the [[9th World Festival of Youth and Students]], held in the Bulgarian capital [[Sofia, Bulgaria|Sofia]].<ref name=who/><br />
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Majumdar was active in several social and political organizations.<ref name=who82/> He served as the president of various [[trade union]]s, such as the Howrah District Engineering and Metal Workers' Union, the Gobardhan Das P.A. Workers' Union, the Ajanta Steel ( P. ) Ltd. Employees Union, the Indian Supercraft Industries Employees Union, the Sree Annapurna Dying Workers' Union, the Paul's Engineering Workers' Union, the Bharat Mineral Industries Workers' Union, the Associated Synthetic Industries Employees' Union and the Galamal Association in Howrah.<ref name=who/> In 1970 he became the president of the Sara Bangla Agragami Kisan Sabha - the West Bengal unit of the peasants front of the All India Forward Bloc, as well as becoming the chairman of the Central Refugee Council and St. John's Ambulance.<ref name=who/> Majumdar was the Deputy Speaker of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly 1969–1970.<ref name=who89/> In 1971 he became the founding secretary of the Netaji Vidyayatan in Howrah, the Indo-Bangladesh Saranarthi and the Mukti Sangram Sahayak Samiti.<ref name=who/> He edited the monthly ''Patheya''.<ref name=who/> In 1971 he became the president of the West Bengal Fishermen Association.<ref name=who/> He took part in the 19th Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference held in Malaysia in 1971.<ref name=who/><br />
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==Speaker==<br />
Majumdar again retained the Bagdah seat in the [[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]], obtaining 19,851 votes (48.89%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140718182727/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_WB_71.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1971 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref> On 3 May 1971, Majumdar was elected Speaker of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly.<ref name=who/><ref name=who82/><ref name=tte23/><ref>''[https://books.google.at/books?id=uv6BAAAAMAAJ The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 54]''. Indian Political Science Association, 1993. p. 102</ref><ref name=akch/> He obtained 140 votes in the election of Speaker, against 132 votes cast for [[Benoy Choudhury]] of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]].<ref>''[https://books.google.at/books?id=8hgP90l35MgC The Journal of Parliamentary Information, Vol. 17]''. Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1971. p. 133</ref><ref>''[https://books.google.at/books?id=v3biAAAAMAAJ Indian Recorder and Digest, Vol. 17]''. 1971. p. 27</ref><br />
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Ahead of the [[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] there were differences within the All India Forward Bloc leadership in West Bengal on which alliances the party should seek. The Congress(R)-CPI front Progressive Democratic Alliance invited the party to join their seat-sharing arrangement, but in the end the All India Forward Bloc decided to enter a seat-sharing arrangement with the CPI(M)-led front.<ref name=agh/> In protest, in February 1972 Majumdar resigned from the party and would contest the Bagdah seat in the 1972 election as an [[independent (politician)|independent candidate]].<ref name=who/><ref name=agh>Anjali Ghosh. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=s3EeAAAAMAAJ Peaceful Transition to Power: A Study of Marxist Political Strategies in West Bengal, 1967-1977]''. Firma KLM, 1981. p. 142</ref><ref name=him>''[https://books.google.at/books?id=m-UhAQAAIAAJ Himmat, Vol. 8]''. R.M. Lala, 1971. p. 9</ref><ref name=jpi72>''[https://books.google.at/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=_lQoeNqbvpcC The Journal of Parliamentary Information, Vol. 18]''. Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1972. p. 650</ref> The Congress(R) decided not to field any candidate in Bagdah, thus indirectly supporting Majumdar's candidacy.<ref name=him/> Majumdar was declared winner of the Bagdah seat, having obtained 24,769 votes (63.32%) per official records.<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404195120/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_WB_72.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1972 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref><br />
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Majumdar was unanimously re-elected as the Speaker of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly after the 1972 election, at its inaugural session on 24 March 1972.<ref name=jpi72/><ref name=tte23/><ref name=akch/><ref>Sir Stanley Reed. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=qWHVAAAAMAAJ The Times of India Directory and Year Book Including Who's who]''. Bennett, Coleman., 1976. p. 739</ref><br />
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He became the president of the West Bengal Adibasi Seva Sangha in 1972, president of the Manabik Adhikar Sanrakshan Samiti in 1973, president of the governing body of the [[Dinabandhu Mahavidyalay]] in [[Bongaon]] in 1973 and president of the Medico-Psychological Research Society in Calcutta in 1974.<ref name=who/> He served as the president of the West Bengal branch of the [[Commonwealth Parliamentary Association]].<ref name=who>''[https://books.google.at/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=I78yAAAAMAAJ Who's who 1972: General Election, March 1972]''. West Bengal Legislative Assembly Secretariat, 1974. pp. 42-44</ref><br />
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Majumdar lost the Bagdah seat in the [[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]], standing as an independent candidate. He finished in second place with 24,966 votes (44.70%), losing the seat to the All India Forward Bloc candidate [[Kamalakshi Biswas]].<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404203744/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportWestBengal77.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1977 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref><br />
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==Congress(I) politician==<br />
Majumdar later joined the Congress Party.<ref name=tte23/><ref>Annapurna Sanyal. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=f3HaAAAAMAAJ Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes in Indian Politics]''. Minerva Associates (Publications), 1991. p. 75</ref> As of the 1980s, Majumdar was part of the Executive of the [[West Bengal Pradesh Congress Committee|West Bengal Pradesh Congress Committee (I)]], becoming one of its vice presidents in August 1981.<ref>Ayub Mallick, Md. ''[https://books.google.at/books?id=KDRuAAAAMAAJ Congress (I) in Opposition During the First Two Left Front Government in West Bengal]''. Progressive Publishers, 2002. p. 240</ref><ref>''[https://books.google.at/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=V31DAAAAYAAJ Data India, Vol 1-52]''. Press Institute of India, 1981. p. 420</ref><br />
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He tried to regain the Bagdah seat in the [[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] standing as a Congress(I) candidate, again finishing in second place behind Biswas with 40,070 votes (48.53%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404201749/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1982/StatisticalReportWestBengal82.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1982 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref> Majumdar contested the [[Nabadwip Lok Sabha constituency|Nabadwip parliamentary seat]] in the [[1984 Indian general election]], coming in second place with 334,536 votes (48.99%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404203315/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1984/Vol_I_LS_84.pdf Statistical report on general elections, 1984 to the Eighth Lok Sabha]''</ref><br />
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Majumdar made a come-back to the West Bengal Legislative Assembly in the [[1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987 election]], winning the Bagdah seat and obtaining 44,517 votes (49.16%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404202041/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReportWestBengal87.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1987 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref><br />
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He contested the Nabadwip parliamentary seat again in the [[1991 Indian general election]], finishing in second place with 351,797 votes (39.24%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404202526/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1991/VOL_I_91.pdf Statistical report on general elections, 1984 to the Tenth Lok Sabha]''</ref> Majumdar did not contest the [[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]].<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140714231953/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1991 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref><br />
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==Later years==<br />
Majumdar would break ties with the Congress Party due to conflict with other leaders in the party.<ref name=tte23/> He stood as the [[All India Indira Congress (Tiwari)]] candidate in the Uluberia North seat in the [[1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]], merely obtaining 865 votes (0.69%).<ref>Election Commission of India. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140404201733/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-WB96.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1996 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF WEST BENGAL]''</ref> Reportedly he later joined the [[Trinamool Congress]] instead.<ref name=tte23/><!-- any chance the journalist confused Tiwari and Trinamool? --> Soon thereafter he retired from political activities due to health concerns.<ref name=tte23/> Majumdar died on 23 January 2001, at [[SSKM Hospital]] in Calcutta, following a cerebral attack and renal failure.<ref name=tte23>{{cite news|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/former-speaker-dies/cid/937154|title=Former Speaker Dies|date=23 January 2001}}</ref><br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Majumdar, Apurbalal}}<br />
[[Category:1925 births]]<br />
[[Category:2001 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:People from Faridpur District]]<br />
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Krishnagar Government College alumni]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]<br />
[[Category:Trade unionists from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:Scheduled Castes Federation politician]]<br />
[[Category:All India Forward Bloc politicians]]<br />
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from West Bengal]]<br />
[[Category:All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) politicians]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1957–1962]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1962–1967]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1967–1969]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1969–1971]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1971–1972]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1972–1977]]<br />
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1987–1991]]<br />
[[Category:Deputy speakers of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]<br />
[[Category:Speakers of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]<br />
[[Category:People from Bangaon subdivision]]<br />
[[Category:Politicians from North 24 Parganas district]]<br />
[[Category:Barishal Zilla School alumni]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aram_(2013_film)&diff=487233Aram (2013 film)2025-08-28T10:23:27Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Created a redirect</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Pattalam (2003 film)]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parveen_Talha&diff=524639Parveen Talha2025-08-10T21:28:57Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Started Info.</p>
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<div>{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Parveen Talha<br />
| image = <br />
| imagesize = <br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_date = <br />
| birth_place = [[Lucknow]], Uttar Pradesh, India<br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| restingplace = <br />
| restingplacecoordinates =<br />
| othername = <br />
| occupation = Civil servant<br />
| yearsactive =<br />
| spouse = <br />
| domesticpartner = <br />
| children = <br />
| parents = Mohammed Talha<br />
| relations = Osama Talha, Kulsum Talha, Uzma Talha, Faraz Talha<br />
| website = <br />
| awards = [[Padma Shri]]<br>[[President of India|President's Award]] for Distinguished Service<br />
}}<br />
'''Parveen Talha''' is an Indian civil servant, reported to be the first Muslim woman to serve in any Class I civil service in India, the first [[Indian Revenue Service]] officer to become a member of the [[Union Public Service Commission]] and the first woman to serve in Narcotics Department of India.<ref name="First Muslim woman to enter civil services awarded Padma Shri">{{cite web | url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/first-muslim-woman-to-enter-civil-services-awarded-padma-shri-114042700109_1.html | title=First Muslim woman to enter civil services awarded Padma Shri | publisher=Business Standard | date=4 September 2014 | accessdate=4 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="IAS Exam Portal">{{cite web | url=http://iasexamportal.com/civilservices/forum/profile-upsc-member-ms-parveen-talha | title=IAS Exam Portal | publisher=IAS Exam Portal | date=2006–2014 | accessdate=4 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Sen Times Profile">{{cite web | url=http://tkbsen.in/2014/01/upsc-member-p-kilemsungla-and-former-member-parveen-talha-get-padma-shri/ | title=Sen Times Profile | publisher=Sen Times Profile | date=26 January 2014 | accessdate=5 September 2014 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> She was honoured by the [[Government of India]], in 2014, by bestowing on her the [[Padma Shri]], the fourth highest civilian award, for her services to [[Indian Civil Service]].<ref name="Padma">{{cite web |url=http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=102735 |title=Padma Awards Announced |publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India |work=Circular |date=25 January 2014 |accessdate=23 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222101141/http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=102735 |archivedate=22 February 2014 }}</ref><br />
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==Biography==<br />
{{quotebox|align = right|qalign = center|width=21em|''I find there are stories in every nook and corner that are waiting to be told'', says Parveen Talha, about her career as a writer, ''So I will pursue my passion for writing now that I am a retired person''}}<br />
Parveen Talha was born in [[Lucknow]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] in India, as one of the two children (her brother, Osama Talha, who later became a leading journalist, died young in 1995<ref name="Wings of Education - Part 1 Parveen Talha with Adilmohd" />), in the famous Awadh family.<ref name="Fida-E-Lucknow: Tales of the City and Its People">{{cite book | url=https://www.amazon.in/Fida-E-Lucknow-Tales-City-Its-People/dp/9381523703 | title=Fida-E-Lucknow: Tales of the City and Its People | publisher=Niyogi Books | author=Parveen Talha | date=20 March 2013 | location=New Delhi | pages=198 | isbn=978-9381523704}}</ref> Her father, Mohammed Talha, was a freedom fighter and a known lawyer,<ref name="Wings of Education - Part 1 Parveen Talha with Adilmohd" /> a participant in the ''Jang-e-Azadi'' independence struggle<ref name="Jang e Azadi">{{cite web | url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/chandigarh/cm-to-lay-foundation-stone-of-jang-e-azadi-memorial-on-oct-12/article1-1251069.aspx | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812114145/http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/chandigarh/cm-to-lay-foundation-stone-of-jang-e-azadi-memorial-on-oct-12/article1-1251069.aspx | url-status=dead | archive-date=12 August 2014 | title=Jang e Azadi | publisher=Hindutan Times | date=12 August 2014 | accessdate=5 September 2014}}</ref> who chose to remain in India when his brother moved to Pakistan during the [[Partition of India|partition]].<ref name="Wings of Education - Part 1 Parveen Talha with Adilmohd" /> Parveen did her schooling at [[Loreto Convent Lucknow|Loreto Convent High School]] from where she passed [[Senior Cambridge]] in first division and continued the college studies at Loreto College.<ref name="Wings of Education - Part 1 Parveen Talha with Adilmohd">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7mPd-ADBHk | title="Wings of Education – Part 1" Parveen Talha with Adilmohd | publisher=HBDB ETV | date=16 November 2011 | accessdate=5 September 2014}}</ref> After passing MA in Economics from [[Lucknow University]], Parveen joined the University as a Lecturer in 1965.<ref name="IAS Exam Portal" /><br />
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==Career and achievements==<br />
{{quotebox|align = right|qalign = center|width=21em|''There was a large-scale leakage of opium going on in UP then'', Parveen Talha said about her campaign against drug traffickers, ''While I tried my best to play a stringent officer dealing with certain illegal channels, poppy cultivators were surprised too because they had never seen a woman at that level''<ref name="First Muslim woman to enter civil services awarded Padma Shri" /><ref name="India TV News">{{cite web | url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/parveen-talha-first-muslim-woman-to-enter-civil-services-awarde-35912.html | title=India TV News | publisher=India TV | date=2014 | accessdate=5 September 2014}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
Parveen Talha started her career as a lecturer of economics at the [[Lucknow University]] in 1965 where she worked till 1969,<ref name="IAS Exam Portal" /> the year she passed [[Indian Civil Service]] examination. She joined [[Indian Revenue Service]] in 1969, becoming the first Muslim woman to enter the Revenue Service.<ref name="Fida-E-Lucknow: Tales of the City and Its People" /> Later, she served at the Commissionerates at Mumbai and Kolkata and, also at the Central Excise Commissionerate.<ref name="IAS Exam Portal" /><br />
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The next move was to Narcotics Department as the Deputy Commissioner of Uttar Pradesh, fetching her another first as the only woman officer of the [[Central Bureau of Narcotics]], where she had the official authority to confiscate properties of smugglers and drug traffickers.<ref name="IAS Exam Portal" /><br />
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After the stint at the Central Bureau of Narcotics, Parveen Talha was appointed as the Director General of the [[National Academy of Customs, Excise and Narcotics]] (NACEN), at their training department. She is credited with making NACEN an accredited training institute of the [[World Customs Organization]]'s (WCO) for Asia-Pacific region. She is also reported to have introduced training modules for stopping the smuggling of ozone depleting substances. She was successful in signing a [[Memorandum of Understanding]] with [[United Nations Environment Program]], making NACEN, the only training academy for imparting training for the control of ozone depleting substmces and environmental crimes.<ref name="IAS Exam Portal" /><br />
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Parveen Talha retired from the Revenue Service in 2004 as the senior most woman officer of the Customs and Central Excise and on 30 September 2004, became a member of the [[Union Public Service Commission]]. Talha was the first IRS officer and Muslim woman to become a member of UPSC.<ref name="First Muslim woman to enter civil services awarded Padma Shri" /><ref name="Sen Times Profile" /><ref name="India TV News"/> She retired from Government service on 3 October 2009.<ref name="IAS Exam Portal" /><ref name="Sen Times Profile" /><ref name="Wings of Educationa Part 2 Parveen Talha Former Member UPSC with Adilmohd">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V99Sak2BErs | title="Wings of Educationa Part 2" Parveen Talha Former Member UPSC with Adilmohd | publisher=HBDB ETV | date=22 November 2011 | accessdate=5 September 2014}}</ref><br />
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After her retirement from public service, Parveen Talha took up writing. In 2013, she brought out her first book, ''Fida-e-Lucknow – Tales of the city and its people'', a collection of 22 short stories, placed in the landscape of Lucknow, telling the stories of its women. The book was formally released by the Vice-President of India, [[Hamid Ansari]].<ref name="A new book explores Lucknow">{{cite web | url=http://muslimstoday.in/tag/parveen-talha/ | title=A new book explores Lucknow | publisher=Muslims Today.in | date=6 May 2014 | accessdate=5 September 2014 | archive-date=7 September 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907004311/http://muslimstoday.in/tag/parveen-talha/ | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Vice-President Releases Book “Fida-e-Lucknow – Tales of the City and its People” ">{{cite web | url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=95400 | title=Vice President Releases Book "Fida-e-Lucknow – Tales of the City and its People" | publisher=Press Information Bureau – Government of India | date=1 May 2013 | accessdate=5 September 2014}}</ref><br />
* {{cite book | url=https://www.amazon.in/Fida-E-Lucknow-Tales-City-Its-People/dp/9381523703 | title=Fida-E-Lucknow: Tales of the City and Its People | publisher=Niyogi Books | author=Parveen Talha | date=20 March 2013 | location=New Delhi | pages=198 | isbn=978-9381523704}}<br />
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==Awards and recognitions==<br />
Parveen Talha is a recipient of [[President of India|President's Award]] for distinguished service, which she received in 2000.<ref name="IAS Exam Portal" /> Fourteen years later, in 2014, the [[Government of India]] honoured her services to the [[Indian Civil Service]] by awarding her [[Padma Shri]], the fourth among the highest Indian civilian awards.<ref name="Padma" /><br />
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==See also==<br />
{{portal|India}}<br />
* [[Indian Civil Service]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist|colwidth=50em}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
* {{cite book | url=https://www.amazon.in/Fida-E-Lucknow-Tales-City-Its-People/dp/9381523703 | title=Fida-E-Lucknow: Tales of the City and Its People | publisher=Niyogi Books | author=Parveen Talha | date=20 March 2013 | location=New Delhi | pages=198 | isbn=978-9381523704}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
* {{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7mPd-ADBHk | title="Wings of Education – Part 1" Parveen Talha with Adilmohd on HBDB Etv Urdu. Nov 16th 2011 | publisher=HBDB ETV | date=16 November 2011 | accessdate=5 September 2014}}<br />
* {{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V99Sak2BErs | title="Wings of Educationa Part 2" Parveen Talha Former Member UPSC with Adilmohd | publisher=HBDB ETV | date=22 November 2011 | accessdate=5 September 2014}}<br />
* {{cite web | url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/comment/khushwantsingh/desi-meemokrasee/article1-1039002.aspx | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025235615/http://www.hindustantimes.com/comment/khushwantsingh/desi-meemokrasee/article1-1039002.aspx | url-status=dead | archive-date=25 October 2013 | title=Kushwant Singh on Parveen Talha | publisher=Hindustan Times | work=Web article | date=8 April 2013 | accessdate=5 September 2014 | author=Kushwant Singh}}<br />
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{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Civil Service}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Talha, Parveen}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in civil service]]<br />
[[Category:Scientists from Lucknow]]<br />
[[Category:Indian Revenue Service officers]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian economists]]<br />
[[Category:Indian women economists]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century Indian women scientists]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian women scientists]]<br />
[[Category:Women scientists from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century Indian economists]]<br />
[[Category:Educators from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Women educators from Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tourism_in_Kaziranga_National_Park&diff=468872Tourism in Kaziranga National Park2025-07-31T23:56:44Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: reworked formatting and corrected details</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Kaziranga_National_Park#Visitor_activities]]{{Broken anchor|date=2025-07-31|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Kaziranga_National_Park#Visitor activities|reason= The anchor (Visitor activities) [[Special:Diff/1278536429|has been deleted]].|diff_id=1278536429}}<br />
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{{R to section}}</div>FlossiePolglazehttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rajnagar,_Bhiwandi&diff=528745Rajnagar, Bhiwandi2025-07-30T02:51:32Z<p>FlossiePolglaze: Started A Details.</p>
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<div>{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Rajnagar<br />
| native_name =<br />
| native_name_lang =<br />
| settlement_type = village<br />
| image_skyline =<br />
| image_alt =<br />
| image_caption =<br />
| etymology =<br />
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India<br />
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|19.2703003|N|73.0943887|E|display=inline,title}}<br />
| coordinates_footnotes =<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = [[India]]<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Thane district|Thane]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Taluka]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bhiwandi]]<br />
| established_title =<br />
| established_date =<br />
| founder =<br />
| seat_type = [[Panchayat]]<br />
| seat =<br />
| leader_party =<br />
| leader_title =<br />
| leader_name =<br />
| unit_pref = Metric<br />
| area_total_km2 =<br />
| elevation_m = 10<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| population_total = 831<br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| population_demonym =<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +5:30<br />
| postal_code_type = <!-- [[Postal Index Number|PIN]] --><br />
| postal_code =<br />
| area_code_type = <!-- [[Telephone numbers in India|STD Code]] --><br />
| area_code =<br />
| blank_name_sec1 = [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]] code<br />
| blank_info_sec1 = 552655<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Rajnagar ''' is a village in the [[Thane district]] of [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]. It is located in the [[Bhiwandi]] [[taluka]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |title=Maharashtra villages |publisher=Land Records Information Systems Division, NIC |accessdate=2015-08-17 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095320/http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
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== Demographics ==<br />
<br />
According to the [[2011 census of India]], Rajnagar has 170 households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 86.99%.<ref name="census_2011"/><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|+ Demographics (2011 Census)<ref name="census_2011">{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-2721-F-Census.xlsx |title=District census data |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |accessdate=2015-08-17 }}</ref><br />
! !! Total !! Male !! Female<br />
|-<br />
| Population || 831 || 474 || 357<br />
|-<br />
| Children aged below 6 years || 116 || 65 || 51<br />
|-<br />
| [[Scheduled caste]] || 5 || 3 || 2<br />
|-<br />
| [[Scheduled tribe]] || 13 || 8 || 5<br />
|-<br />
| Literates || 622 || 384 || 238<br />
|-<br />
| Workers (all) || 334 || 283 || 51<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers (total) || 233 || 214 || 19<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Cultivators || 28 || 25 || 3<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Agricultural labourers || 15 || 15 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Household industry workers || 12 || 10 || 2<br />
|-<br />
| Main workers: Other || 178 || 164 || 14<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers (total) || 101 || 69 || 32<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Cultivators || 46 || 29 || 17<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Agricultural labourers || 11 || 7 || 4<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Household industry workers || 7 || 3 || 4<br />
|-<br />
| Marginal workers: Others || 37 || 30 || 7<br />
|-<br />
| Non-workers || 497 || 191 || 306<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Bhiwandi taluka}}<br />
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[[Category:Villages in Bhiwandi taluka]]</div>FlossiePolglaze