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Buddhism and caste

2023-10-06T15:37:15Z

Firdaus singh en: start

{{orphan|date=October 2023}}

[[Buddhism]] arose in India in the 5th century BC, when the predominant religion in the region was [[Brahmanism]], a predecessor of modern-day [[Hinduism]]. Brahmanism supported a religiously and socially motivated [[Caste system in India|caste system]], which continues to play a significant role in the society of Hindu India today. Due to differing [[Buddhist cosmology|metaphysical]] and [[Buddhist ethics|ethical]] doctrines, '''Buddhist attitudes towards caste''' have historically diverged from and rejected those of Hinduism in several ways.<ref name=JS>{{cite journal|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/iij/63/2/article-p128_2.xml?language=en&ebody=pdf-63199|title=Indian Buddhist Attitudes toward Outcastes|first=Jonathan|last=Silk|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal|date=2020|volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=128–187 |doi=10.1163/15728536-06302003 |s2cid=225688259 }}</ref>{{rp|p=128}}

Buddhism is integrated into the [[Newar caste system]] among the [[Newar people]] of [[Nepal]], just north of India.

There has been much debate about the extent to which Buddhism has been ideologically opposed to the caste system in India. The teachings of the Buddha have been described as fundamentally anti-caste.<ref name=JS />{{rp|p=128}} However, there is also evidence of complacency towards caste discrimination in early Buddhist literature,<ref name=JS />{{rp|p=129}} and it is unclear whether members of "untouchable" castes were treated as having the same potential for enlightenment as others.<ref name=JS />{{rp|p=137}}

The Buddha himself was a prince born into the {{transliteration|pi|[[Kshatriya|Khattiya]]}} warrior caste of the {{transliteration|pi|[[Shakya|Sakaya]]}} clan.<ref name="University of Hawaii Press">{{cite book|last1=Hirakawa |first1=Akira |title=A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna |date=1990 |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145824/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030|page=21}}</ref>

==Background==
The Hindu catse system is structered around two key concepts through which members of society are categorized, {{transliteration|sa|[[varṇa]]}} ({{lang|sa|वर्ण}}) and {{transliteration|sa|[[jāti]]}} ({{lang|sa|जाति}}). Jati refers to countless [[endogamous]] groups defined by [[career|occupation]], social status, shared [[ancestry]], and locality, while varna divides society into a hierarchy of (usually four) broad social classes. The social hierarchy between jati is determined by their relationship to the more general hierarchy of varnas. From least to most privileged, the traditional varnas and their associated occupational classes are [[Shudras]] (manual laborers), [[Vaishyas]] (merchants), [[Kshatriyas]] (wariors and rulers), and [[Brahmins]] (the priestly class).<ref name=ST>{{cite book |last1=Tenhunen |first1=Sirpa |last2=Säävälä |first2=Minna |title=An Introduction to Changing India: Culture, Politics and Development |date=2012 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-0-85728-805-9 |pages=33–34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6hIHJEJxnVcC |access-date=20 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

As with jati, varnas are linked to occupation, endogamy, and inherited status. However, varna is also related to Hindu religion and myth, and concepts of relative spiritual purity. [[Vaivasvata Manu#Descendants|The myth of Manu]] describes the four varnas originating from different parts of the body of the original man. Unlike the European system of the [[estates of the realm]], varna was also defined by ritual purity. It was believed that ritual impurity could be transmitted to a member of a higher varna by direct or indirect contact with a member of a lower one.<ref name=ST /> According to some traditions, all varnas but shudra could claim [[dvija]] status, admitting the study of religious texts. It was also thought that the soul could move between varnas between rebirths, but that a person was stuck within their birth caste for life. Those who were not counted as members of any varna ({{transliteration|sa|avarṇa}}) were either so-called "tribal" or [[adivasi]] people, or untochables dalits given the most stigmatized work in the community. Though negative caste-based discrimination has been illegal in India since 1948,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-28/struggle-to-challenge-indias-caste-system/101185772 | title='I would tell the other girls at school that I was Brahmin': The struggle to challenge India's caste system | newspaper=ABC News | date=27 June 2022 }}</ref> it still has serious effects in parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616|title=What is India's caste system?|date=25 February 2016|work=BBC News|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Discussion of caste in Buddhist sources==
Buddhist sources contain discussion of the origins and nature of the Indian caste system, as well as some arguments against caste discrimination in both religious and everyday contexts. Hindu and Buddhist scriptures are both preoccupied by the four-varna system, while the distinctions between jati have held more importance in recent history. Further, the caste system was scarcely as pervasive or consistent in the Indian subcontinent as it is idealised to be in scriptural sources, due to varied geography, cultural differences between regions, and changing conditions throughout history.<ref name=ST /> In as much as Buddhist sources have less ideological investment in the caste system than Brahmanical sources, they may provide historians with a less exaggerated account of the role of caste in the economy and society of ancient India.<ref name=UC>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/21781975|title=Towards a Historical Sociology of Stratification in Ancient India: Evidence From Buddhist Sources|first=Uma|last=Chakravarti|year=1984|journal=Economic and Political Weekly}}</ref>{{rp|p=356}} Many Buddhist texts suggest that ancient Indian society was effectively operating on much vauger distinction between "high" ({{lang|pi|ukkaṭṭha}}) and "low" ({{lang|pi|hīna}}) occupations, as opposed to an idealised varna system.<ref name=UC />{{rp|p=357}}

===Social as opposed to intrinsic determination of caste===
A key difference from the Brahmanical understanding of caste has been observed in early Buddhist literature relating to the Buddhist distinction between the real and the [[nominalism|nominal]]. Two early Buddhist texts, the {{transliteration|sa|Kalpadrumāvadānamālā}} and the {{transliteration|sa|Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna}} refer to enforced social distinctions such as the four varnas as [[Samjna (concept)|{{transliteration|sa|sañjñā(māntra)}}]], {{lit|(mere) nominal designations}}. In general, early Buddhist philosophical sources conclude that caste distinctions are mainly imperceptible, and only the result of social conventions, determining nothing about the inner essence of the people they refer to.<ref name=EV>{{cite book|last1=Eltschinger|first1=Vincent|title=Caste and Buddhist Philosophy|date=2012}}</ref>{{rp|pp=1–3}}<ref name=JS />{{rp|p=129}} The {{transliteration|sa|Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna}} illustrates the nominality of the four varnas using the following allegory:<ref name=EV />{{rp|p=4}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Divyāvadānam|chapter=śārdūlakarṇāvadānam|url=https://suttacentral.net/divy33/san/vaidya?reference=none&highlight=false|language=sa}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Just as sand does not become food simply because a child says so when young children playing on a main road build sand pies and give them names, saying “This one is milk, this one is meat, and this one is curd,” so it is with the four classes [{{transliteration|sa|varṇās}}], as you, the Brahmin, describe them.}}
While Buddhist philosophy tends to deny the four varnas any inherent reality, the social processes behind their development are considered in some texts. For example, the {{transliteration|pi|[[Aggañña Sutta]]}} describes the first Kshatriya arising from a primordial, unstratified society due to the need for the community to enact punishment ({{transliteration|pi|daṇḍa}}) against the original crime of theft. It describes the origin of the other three varnas through similar myths focussed on human drama.<ref name=EV />{{rp|pp=6–8}}

In the {{transliteration|pi|Vasala Sutta}} of the {{transliteration|pi|[[Sutta Nipāta]]}}, the Buddha is on his alms round and encounters a Brahmin, who calls him an outcaste ({{transliteration|pi|vasalaka}}) and demands that he does not enter his home. The Buddha responds by reprimanding the Brahmin's understanding of caste and redefining {{transliteration|pi|vasala}} and {{transliteration|pi|brāhmaṇa}} respectively in terms of bad and good Buddhist conduct. He concludes that "not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahman. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes an brahman."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/snp/snp.1.07.piya.html|chapter=Vasala Sutta: Discourse on Outcasts|title=Sutta Nipāta}}</ref> The idea that Brahminhood is determined by actions rather than birth appears frequently in Buddhist literature. Though this position rejects the typical birth-based caste hierarchy in favour of a deed-based view of social status, it does not strictly deny the validity of caste distinctions. Its purpose may simply be to defend the central role of action ({{transliteration|sa|karma}}) in determining one's status, in line with Buddhist doctrine, rather than to advocate for a radical egalitarian restructuring of caste society.<ref name=JS />{{rp|p=140}}

==Caste and Buddhist practice==
===Varna in the {{transliteration|pi|saṅgha}}===
In the [[Divyavadana|{{transliteration|sa|Divyāvadāna}}]], the Buddhist king [[Asoka]] is questioned by one of his ministers for "bow[ing] down to renunciants who come from all castes." The king responds that "at the time of a wedding, a marriage, one [rightly] considers caste, but not at the time of teaching the Dharma. For the causes of the practice of the Teaching are good qualities; good qualities do not pay attention to caste."<ref name="JS" />{{rp|pp=133}} This is both a denial of the relevance of caste after ordination into the sangha,<ref name="JS" />{{rp|pp=131}} and an affirmation of its validity in the social affair of marriage.<ref name="JS" />{{rp|pp=135}} The same position is repeated in the [[Da zhidu lun|{{transliteration|sa|Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa}}]].<ref name="JS" />{{rp|pp=147}} In practice, the majority of the early Sangha came from the upper Brahmin and Kshyatriya castes.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://web.uni-frankfurt.de/irenik/relkultur50.pdf|title=Buddhism: An Atheistic and Anti-Caste Religion?|year=2001|journal=Journal of Religious Culture|first=Edmund|last=Weber}}</ref>

==The Buddha's own caste==
[[File:Great Departure - Schist - ca 2nd Century CE - Gandhara - Loriyan Tangai - ACCN 5043 - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2016-03-06 1480.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35 |Prince Siddhārtha leaving the palace on a horse during the [[Great Renunciation]].]]
The Buddha was born as Prince Siddhārtha into the {{transliteration|pi|[[Kshatriya|Khattiya]]}} warrior caste of the {{transliteration|pi|[[Shakya|Sakaya]]}} clan.<ref name="University of Hawaii Press"/> However, the Sakaya clan existed on the northern periphery of India, and they did not uphold the four-varna system common elsewhere in India, instead dividing society into and aristocratic caste of {{transliteration|pi|khattiya}}, and a slave caste of {{transliteration|pi|suddas}}.

==Buddhism and untouchability outside of India==
[[File:Hinin indou no kirikami talisman.png|thumb|Example of a talisman used in Sōtō Zen on the corpse and home of a deceased Buraku for "negating relations to parents, family, and other humans in all directions," as part of rites meant to sever karmic links to the community, who might otherwise be haunted for mistreating them.<ref name="WB" />]]
Far beyond the range of Hindu practice and the caste system of India, [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Buddhism eventually spread]] into east Asian regions including China, Korea, and Japan. Each of these regions has its own indigenous religions with which Buddhism iteracted. Some of these interactions relate to non-Indian forms of [[untouchability]].<ref name="HP" />

===Japan===
In Japan, the predominant religion of [[Shinto]]ism emphasised a system of [[harae|ritual purity]] and [[kegare|defilement]]. Though in India, Buddhism presented a form of rejection of Hindu ideas of irremediable defilement, Buddhist doctrines had different effects in the Japanese context. Various acts prohibited as immoral in Buddhism, particularly involving the slaughter of animals and consumption of meat, combined with pre-existing Shinto ideas, leading to a set of occupations being labelled as defiled or untouchable. This began with occupations relating to handling dirt and animal and human corpses, but spread to encompass a few other menial tasks including basket and sandal making. The people who performed these occupations became a segregated untouchable caste within Japanese society.<ref name="HP">{{cite journal|first=Herbert |last=Passin |title=Untouchability in the Far East |year=1955 |journal=Monumenta Nipponica|volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=247–267 |doi=10.2307/2382914 |jstor=2382914 }}</ref>{{rp|pp=32–33}} This group of people were originally referred to as the {{transliteration|ja|eta}} ({{lang|ja|穢多}}, {{lit|greatly defiled}}). An additional class of occupations that were considered outside social norms, including as travelling actors, prostitutes, and beggers, later formed a second outcaste group called the {{transliteration|ja|hinin}} ({{lang|ja|非人}} {{lit|inhuman}}).<ref name="HP" />{{rp|pp=33–34}} The specific membership of these groups has not been constant throughout history, but a generalised untouchable group called the {{transliteration|ja|Burakumin}} ({{lang|ja|部落民}}, {{lit|hamlet people}}) was enforced during the [[Tokugawa period]], discrimination relating to {{transliteration|ja|Buraku}} status continues to be an issue in present-day Japan.<ref name="LA">{{cite journal|title=The Burakumin: The Complicity of Japanese Buddhism in Oppression and an Opportunity for Liberation|url=http://kusala.online-dhamma.net/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99/%E5%8D%97%E5%82%B3%E4%BD%9B%E6%95%99%E5%9C%96%E6%9B%B8%E9%A4%A8%20Theravada%20Buddhism%20E-Library/054%20%E9%9B%9C%E8%AA%8C%20Magazine/Journal%20of%20Buddhist%20Ethics/JBE/www.jbe.gold.ac.uk/7/alldritt001.html#39|first=Leslie|last=Alldritt|journal=Journal of Buddhist Ethics|year=2000}}</ref><ref name="WB">{{cite journal|title=Zen and the Art of Religious Prejudice|url=http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-MAG/mag51762.pdf|first=William|last=Bodiford|journal=Japanese Journal of Religious Studies|year=1996|volume=23 |issue=1–2 |doi=10.18874/jjrs.23.1-2.1996.1-27 }}</ref>

==Newar caste system==
[[File:Vajracharya_priest.jpg|thumb|A Newar Buddhist priest of the Vajracharya caste]]
{{main article|Newar caste system}}
Among the Newar people of Nepal, [[Newar Buddhists]] are a minority, representing 10.74% of the Newar population in 2011, compared to majority of [[Newar Hindus]], representing 87.38%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/Population%20Monograph%20of%20Nepal%202014/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf |title=Population Monograph of Nepal|access-date=2020-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918043750/http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Population/Population%20Monograph%20of%20Nepal%202014/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf |archive-date=2017-09-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Despite this, the Newar caste system inteleves separate castes for Hindus and Buddhists, spanning all levels of the social hierarchy.

The existence and influence of [[Buddhist]] "ex-monks" from ancient times in the Kathmandu Valley added a "double-headed" element to the Newar caste system. While [[Rajopadhyaya|Rājopādhyāya]] Brahmins (or Déva-bhāju) occupied the highest social position in the Hindu side, the [[Vajracharya]] (or Guru/Gu-bhāju) formed the head among the Buddhists. For Hindu Newars, Brahmans had formal precedence with Kshatriyas, which included the royal family and the various groups now known as [[Shresthas|Srēṣṭha]] who ran the administration of the Malla courts. For Buddhist Newars, the non-celibate ([[Grihastha|gr̥hastha]]) priestly [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]] class [[Vajracharya]]s and [[Shakyas]] (who are collectively called "Bañdā" or "Baré") were provided with the highest position. In Kathmandu, they were followed by a lay patron Buddhist caste of [[Uray (caste group)|Urāy]], or [[Upāsaka and Upāsikā|Upasakas]], who specialized in the trade with Tibet.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Nepal|last1=Whelpton|first1=John|date=2005|p=31|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnepal00whel}}</ref> Therefore, the Hindu Rajopadhyaya [[Brahmins]] and Buddhist [[Vajracharya]]s occupy the highest position in Newar society.<ref name="Bista">People of Nepal - Dor Bahadur Bista</ref> This is followed by the Hindu [[Kshatriya]] nobility (Chatharīya Srēṣṭha) and the [[Vaishya]] merchant and traders castes. The Newar ''varna'' logic as stratified from the Hindu Brahmanic perspective place Shakya-Baré, [[Uray (caste group)|Urāy]] among the Buddhists, and [[Shresthas#Sr.C4.93.E1.B9.A3.E1.B9.ADha sub-caste groups|Pāncthariya Srēṣṭha]], and other groups above the Jyapus among the Hindus among the ''[[dvija|dwija]]'' twice-born status as the core [[Vaishya]] castes of Newars who are highly specialized in trade and commerce.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal|last1=Levy|first1=Robert I.|date=1990|url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6k4007rd/}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Uncategorized|date=October 2023}}

Ramita Jindal

2023-10-05T07:07:56Z

Firdaus singh en: Adding short description: "Indian sport shooter"

{{Short description|Indian sport shooter}}
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'''Ramita Jindal''' is an Indian [[Shooting sports|sport shooter]]. She won a silver medal in Women's 10 metre air rifle team and a bronze medal in the 10 m air rifle in the [[2022 Asian Games]].<ref name="Hussain 2023 a572">{{cite web | last=Hussain | first=Sabi | title=Ramita Jindal leads India’s silver, bronze charge in shooting at Asian Games — Asian Games 2023 News | website=The Times of India | date=24 Sep 2023 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/asian-games-2023/india-asian-games/ramita-jindal-leads-indias-silver-bronze-charge-in-shooting-at-asian-games/articleshow/103912737.cms?from=mdr | access-date=24 Sep 2023}}</ref><ref name="Olley 2023 v726">{{cite web | last=Olley | first=James | title=Asian Games: Ramita wins bronze in women's 10m air rifle; Mehuli fourth | website=ESPN | date=24 Sep 2023 | url=https://www.espn.in/espn/story/_/id/38475562/asian-games-ramita-jindal-wins-bronze-womens-10m-air-rifle-mehuli-fourth | access-date=24 Sep 2023}}</ref><ref name="Desk 2023 h426">{{cite web | last=Desk | first=Outlook Sports | title=Asian Games 2023: Who Is Bronze Medalist Ramita Jindal? | website=Outlook India | date=24 Sep 2023 | url=https://www.outlookindia.com/sports/asian-games-2023-who-is-bronze-medalist-ramita-jindal--news-320311 | access-date=24 Sep 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jindal, Ramita}}
[[Category:Indian female sport shooters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2004 births]]
[[Category:Shooters at the 2022 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games medalists in shooting]]
[[Category:Asian Games silver medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2022 Asian Games]]

{{India-sportshooting-bio-stub}}

The Doctrine of Awakening (book)

2023-10-02T10:36:58Z

Firdaus singh en: start

{{Infobox book
| name = {{lang|it|La dottrina del risveglio}}
| caption = The Doctrine of Awakening: The Attainment of Self-Mastery According to the Earliest Buddhist Texts
| image = The Doctrine of Awakening.jpg
| author = [[Julius Evola]]
| pages = 272 ''(Inner Traditions)''
}}
''The Doctrine of Awakening'' is a book by [[Julius Evola]], first published as {{lang|it|La dottrina del risveglio}} in 1943, and translated into English by [[Ñāṇavīra Thera|H. E. Musson]] in 1951. The book was based on translations from the Buddhist [[Pali Canon]] by [[Karl Eugen Neumann]] and {{ill|Giuseppe De Lorenzo|it}}. Evola was not a practicing Buddhist, but the topic had personal significance to him, since a passage from the [[Majjhima Nikaya]] had dissuaded him from committing suicide in 1922.<ref name="SB">{{cite journal|title=Existence, Enlightenment, and Suicide: The Dilemma of Nanavira Thera|first=Stephen|last=Batchelor|journal=The Buddhist Forum|volume=4|url=http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/bForum/v4/v4.pdf#page=14}}</ref> It was the first of Evola's works to be translated into English.<ref name="HEM">''Translator's Foreword''</ref>

==Contents==
{{Overly detailed|details=|date=October 2023}}
[[File:Evola.jpg|thumb|Julius Evola]]
''The Doctrine of Awakening'' is divided into two main parts. The first part covers the principles of Buddhism, while the second part follows successive stages of Buddhist monastic practice, and takes up the majority of the book's length. Both parts combine summaries of doctrines taken from the [[Pali Canon]] with Evola's own analysis.

===Part I===

Evola begins the book with a discussion of the notion of [[asceticism|ascesis]],<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|ascesi}}</ref> noting that its meaning has diverged from its etymology in the Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|άσλέω}} {{lit|training|discipline.}} In the West, ascesis has instead become associated with [[mortification of the flesh]] under the influence of Christianity. Evola compares the original meaning of ''ascesis'' with the Indian practice of {{transl|sa|[[Tapas_(Indian_religions)#Etymology_and_meaning|tapas]]}}. He argues that eastern forms of ascesis should not be seen with the negative connotations of Christian asceticism. Setting out to discuss an alternative to the prevailing Western view of ascesis, he selects Buddhism, particularly [[Early Buddhist texts|early Buddhism]], as an example of an ascetic system that is "in tune with the spirit of Aryan man and yet prevailing in the modern age."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|conformi allo spirito di un uomo ario, eppure aventi riguardo per le condizioni stabilizzatesi nei tempi più recenti}}</ref> He translates "Buddhism" as the "Doctrine of Awakening,"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|dottrina del risveglio}}</ref> stressing that {{transl|sa|[[Buddhahood|Buddha]]}} is a title referring to an "Awakened One," not merely the name of the founder of Buddhism.<ref>ch. 1 ''Sulle varietà dell’ascesi'' "Varieties of Ascesis"</ref>

Having set out his intention to discuss Buddhist ascesis in the first chapter, Evola dedicates the second chapter to arguing that Buddhism is [[Aryan]] in nature.<ref>ch. 2 ''Arianità della dottrina del risveglio'' "The Aryan-ness of the Doctrine of Awakening"</ref> He notes the appearance of [[Arya (Buddhism)|{{transl|pi|ariya}}]] in [[Pali]] Buddhist terms including [[Noble Eightfold Path|{{transl|pi|ariya magga}}]] and [[Four Noble Truths|{{transl|sa|ariya saccāni}}]]. Evola believes that this term has "spiritual, aristocratic, and racial significance" in Buddhism that cannot be translated. Evola further argues that Buddhism shares a common origin with other "Aryan"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|ario}}</ref> and "Olympian"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|olimpico}}</ref> forms of spirituality such as [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Meister Eckhart]]'s mysticism. According to Evola, the {{transl|sa|Ārya}} for whom Buddhism was intended were an aristocratic [[caste]] opposed both to the native "demoniacal"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|demoniche}}</ref> races conquered by the [[Indo-European migrations|Indo-Europeans]], and to the "plebeian masses"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|massa {{noitalic|[...]}} plebea}}</ref> within Indo-European societies. As further evidence, Evola takes the [[Buddha|Prince Siddhattha]]'s birth as a [[Kshatriya|Khattiya]] of the [[Shakya|Sakya]] clan, the [[Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha#The_32_Signs_of_a_Great_Man|32 attributes of a superior man]], comparisons between Buddhist practice and physical battle in Pali texts, and the royal funeral rites performed after the Buddha's death.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.16.1-6.vaji.html#para-5-25|title=Maha-parinibbana Sutta}}</ref>

The third chapter considers the historical context in which Buddhism arose.<ref>ch. 3 ''Luogo storico della dottrina del risveglio'' "The Historical Context of the Doctrine of Awakening"</ref> Evola begins by expressing his view that "objective" and valuable elements appear in all worthwhile spiritual traditions. He explains that no one tradition can be called original, but each arise from a combination of historical context and elements "rooted in a superindividual reality."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|radicato in una realtà superindividuale}}</ref> Evola divides "pre-Buddhist Indo-Aryan traditions" between the [[Vedas]] and the later [[Brahmana]] and [[Upanishads]]. He argues that the Vedas represent neither a religion nor a philosophy, but a "sacred science."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|scienza sacra}}</ref> They correspond to the "Olympian-Homeric phase" in Greek culture, when humanity saw itself as being in close contact with the Gods. The Vedas describe humanity entering communion with divinity through sacrificial rites. According to Evola, the Brahmana texts and Upanishads from around the 10th century BC represent developments in the tradition, the Brahmana demonstrating a turn from ritual as direct form of interaction with supersensible forces, to a theological and formalised rite performed by members of a priestly [[Brahmin]] caste; while the Upanishads philosophised the concept of the {{transl|pi|ātmā}}. By the time of the Buddha in the 6th century BC, speculative theology, [[pantheism]], and belief in [[reincarnation]] had become prominent, trends Evola identifies as "decedent." Evola states that a distinction did not originally exist between a sacerdotal Brahmin caste, and the warrior and royal castes, and that it was the warrior nobility of the [[Kshatriya]] caste who were responsible for reactions against speculative and sacredotal Brahmanism, through [[Jainism]], [[Samkhya]], and Buddhism. Evola considers Buddhism a revolt against the contemporary Brahamin caste, whose "representatives no longer preserved its dignity and had lost their qualifications."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|rappresentante ne conservasse sempre la dignità e la qualificazione}}</ref> Regarding the problem of caste, Evola stresses that the Buddha recognised the value of the caste system for the majority of society; only the "spiritual apex of the Aryan hierarchy"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|l’àpice spirituale della gerarchia aria}}</ref> needed to be revised on the merits of individual cases, so that the true ascetics could be found among the various castes. This is explained through a metaphor from the {{transl|pi|Assalāyana Sutta}}: "as one who desires fire does not ask the type of wood that in fact produces it, so from any caste may arise an ascetic or an Awakened One."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://suttacentral.net/mn93/en/sujato?lang=en&layout=plain&reference=none&notes=asterisk&highlight=false&script=latin|title=Assalāyanasutta}}</ref> Evola believes that Buddhism remains applicable in the modern day.

The remaining chapters of Part I comment on key doctrines contained in the Pali Canon. Evola describes the doctrine of the {{transl|pi|[[The unanswerable questions|acinteyya]]}} or "unanswerable questions" as a means against speculative thought and the "demon of [[dialectics]]"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|dèmone della dialettica}}</ref> in favour of a "superior type or criterion of certainty"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|superiore tipo o criterio di certezza}}</ref> acquired through "immediate vision."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|ad un vedere}}</ref> He likens the acinteyya to [[Kant's antinomies]] in Western philosophy.<ref>ch. 4 ''Distruzione del dèmone della dialettica'' "Destruction of the Demon of Dialectics"</ref> He contrasts the Brahmanical doctrine of {{transl|pi|ātma-samsāra}} with the Buddhist doctrines of {{transl|pi|[[anattā]]}} and [[impermanence]], and likens the Buddhist understanding of [[samsāra]] to the Hellenic ideas of the cycle of generation<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-grc|κύκλος της γενέσεως}}</ref> and the [[spindle of necessity|wheel of necessity]]. He then explains the ideas of {{transl|pi|[[khandha]]}}, {{transl|pi|[[Mindstream|santāna]]}}, {{transl|pi|[[nāmarūpa]]}}, {{transl|pi|[[dukkah]]}}, {{transl|pi|[[taṇhā]]}}, and {{transl|pi|[[upādāna]]}} with reference to the Pali Canon. According to Evola, Buddhism rejects belief in [[reincarnation]], but teaches the existence of an impersonal samsaric continuity in the form of craving. He distinguishes two degrees of "samsāric consciousness,"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|coscienza samsàrica}}</ref> one that is bound to belief in an individual "I," and another wherein awareness stretches out in time and space. He accuses Western commentators of confusing the second kind of samsaric consciousness with "what is really unconditioned and
extra-samsaric."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|ciò che è veramente incondizionato ed extrasamsàrico}}</ref><ref>ch. 5 ''La fiamma e la coscienza samsàrica '' "The Flame and Samsāric Consciousness"</ref> Next he explains {{transl|pi|[[paṭiccasamuppāda]]}}, and each of the [[paṭiccasamuppāda#The_twelve_nidanas|12 nidanas]], considering them as forming both a "samsaric, temporal, and horizontal chain",<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|concatenazione samsàrica, temporale, orizzontale}}</ref> and at the same time a "transcendental, vertical, and descending series".<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|serie trascendentale verticale e discendente}}</ref><ref>ch. 6 ''La genesi condizionata'' "Conditioned Genesis"</ref> He describes the conjoined role of [[Samatha-vipassana|{{transl|pi|samatha}} and {{transl|pi|vipassana}}]]–serenity and clear perception–in the Buddhist path. Since arousing {{transl|pi|vipassana}} is the beginning of the process of ascesis, Evola argues that original Buddhism is not universal, but aristocratic in nature. He justifies this view with reference to the {{transl|pi|[[Ayacana Sutta]]}}, in which the Buddha is reluctant to share his knowledge until he is shown the existence of "beings of a nobler kind" who have the capacity to understand it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn06/sn06.001.than.html|title=Ayacana Sutta}}</ref> In the last chapter of Part I, he reiterates the difference between Christian asceticism and Buddhist forms of renunciation, saying that the former is a painful practice born from resentment, while the latter is detachment brought about by awareness of the contingency of the world. One who follows this "Aryan" kind of renunciation rejects life not through self-mortification, but on the basis that life and death are "inadequate to his real nature."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|inadeguata alla sua vera natura}}</ref><ref>ch. 7 ''Determinazione delle vocazioni'' "Determination of the Vocations"</ref>

===Part II===
In Part II, starting from Chapter 8, Evola sets out to provide a practical guide to Buddhist ascesis. He first considers the necessary conditions for practice, the first of which is birth as a human being. According to Evola, another condition is being of male sex. He cites the Bahudhātuka Sutta:<ref>{{cite-web|url=https://suttacentral.net/mn115/en/sujato?lang=en&layout=plain&reference=none&notes=asterisk&highlight=false&script=latin#mn115:15.1|title=Bahudhātukasutta}}</ref> "It is impossible, it cannot be that a woman should arrive at the full enlightenment of a Buddha, or become a universal sovereign." He then explains the five qualities of the "combatant," taken from the Kaṇṇakatthala Sutta.<ref>{{cite-web|url=https://suttacentral.net/mn90/en/sujato?lang=en&layout=plain&reference=none&notes=asterisk&highlight=false&script=latin#mn90:10.6|title=Kaṇṇakatthalasutta}}</ref> It is also necessary to remove "vain imaginings" of the past and future and cultivate simplicity in the mind. The first stage of in the ascetic path is [[pabbajja]], "departure" in the literal sense, in which one abandons one's home and becomes a wandering ascetic. However, Evola argues that the core point is to abandon society, companions, and family in favour of solitude and freedom, and that in a internal and symbolical sense, departure might even be more easily achieved in the isolation of modern day cities than in traditional civilisation.<ref>ch. 8 ''Le qualità del combattente e la "partenza"'' "The Qualities of the Combatant and the 'Departure'"</ref>

Chapter 9 concerns harmful mental processes and the means to defend against them.<ref>ch. 9 ''Difesa e consolidamento '' "Defence and Consolidation"</ref> Evola describes modern civilisation as one in which control over the mind is overlooked, and the focus is on control over external things. Uncontrolled, thought "walks by itself," switching focus from object to object without purpose. This leads to a state of passivity both in idleness and when a person becomes agitated or emotional. This pattern of thought corresponds to samsāric consciousness and must be brought under control, which is only possible through earnestness and interior calm. Following the Evola likens this process to a battle. Evola then lists the methods described in the [[Vitakkasaṇṭhāna Sutta|Vitakka-Santhana Sutta]] for the removal of distracting thoughts.<ref>{{cite-web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wheel021.html|title=Vitakka-Santhana Sutta}}</ref> One must actively attack distractions that appear in the mind: "renounce a tendency or a thought, drive it away, root it out, suffocate it before it grows." Through this effort one gradually attains the four [[iddhipada]].

Chapter 10 covers {{transl|pi|[[sīla]]}}, or "rightness."<ref>ch. 10 ''Drittura'' "Rightness"</ref> Evola distinguishes sila from mere morality, arguing that it represents a virile "uprightness," that the virtues of sīla are to be understood as "duties to oneself," and that ethical precepts have purely instrumental value in Buddhism. He then comments in detail on each of the [[five precepts]], the [[five hindrances]], and the elements of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].

Chapter 11 covers {{transl|pi|[[Satipatthana|satipatthāna]]}},<ref>ch. 10 ''La presenza siderea. Le ferite si chiudono'' "Sidereal Awareness: The Wounds Close "</ref> whose purpose is "to begin to disengage the central principle of one's own being by means of an objective and detached consideration."<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|cominciar già a disimpegnare il principio centrale del proprio essere per mezzo di una considerazione oggettiva, distaccata}}</ref> Evola discusses the 4 groups of the satipatthāna and their substages in succession: the contemplation of breath, of the parts of the body, of the elements which form the body, and of the decay of the body after death; the contemplation of feelings; the contemplation of the mind; and the contemplation of Dhamma. Evola stresses that the habits of awareness developed through satipatthana should spread to encompass all elements of everyday life. Combined with sila, satipatthana leads to "intimate, unalloyed joy."

{{Quote box|quote="Through love the ascetic feels himself in all beings, noble or common, happy and unhappy, both of this world and of every other world; he feels their destiny as though it were his own, he takes upon himself the contingency of their life, he feels with their feeling or suffering (compassion)—but he then irradiates joy, as if the darkness in each being had dissolved, as if the feeling he irradiates were beneficial to the beings and were sustaining, clarifying, and liberating them"<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-it|Attraverso l’amore l’asceta si sente in tutti gli esseri, nobili e volgari, felici ed infelici, di questo mondo come d’ogni altro mondo, fa cone se il loro destino fosse il suo stesso destino, assume la contingenza della loro vita, si sente nel loro sentire o patire (com-passione) - ma successivamente irradia gioia, come se l’oscurità di ogni essere dovesse risolversi, come se il sentimento che s’irradia fosse propizio agli esseri, li sostenesse, li schiarisse, li liberasse.}}</ref>|align=right|width=245px}}
Chapter 12 concerns {{transl|pi|[[jhāna]]}}.<ref>ch. 12 {{lang|it|quattro jhàna. Le "contemplazioni irradianti"}} "The Four Jhāna: The 'Irradiant Contemplations'"</ref> Evola states that, if the Buddhist ascesis stopped at {{transl|pi|[[samadhi]]}}, it might be comparable to Western [[stoicism]], but due to the jhana it goes beyond {{transl|grc|[[apatheia]]}},<ref group="lower-alpha">{{lang-grc|ἀπάθεια}}</ref> which is the final goal and limit of Stoical practice. Even [[samatha]], the equivalent of apatheia, becomes a bond than must be transcended in the path of awakening. Evola comments on each of the [[Dhyana in Buddhism#The rūpa jhānas|four Jhāna]]. He then stresses the importance of a concentrated will and avoiding inclinations and distractions in the development of the jhana. Even feelings of satisfaction arising from the attainment of each jhana must be ignored. Evola says that, though Each of the Jhanas can vary in the intensity of it's realisation, they are not mere psychological states and must be understood as having ontological significance. Evola indicates that is an alternative "wet" counterpart to the "dry" path of the jhana with equivalent effects, in the form of the four {{transl|pi|[[brahmavihara|brahmavihara-bhavana]]}}, these being the irradiences of "love," "compassion," "sympathetic joy," and finaly "immutability." Evola spends the rest of the chapter discussing love, distinguishing between natural and supernatural forms thereof.

Chapter 13 concerns the {{transl|pi|[[jhāna#The arūpa āyatanas|arupa-jhāna]]}}, which correspond to the jhana, but within the realm of formlessness, and whcih lead to [[nirvana]].<ref>ch. 13 {{lang|it|Gli stati liberi da forma e l’estinzione}} "The States Free from Form and the Extinction"</ref> Before listing these jhana, Evola describes several auxillary techniques that may be used in preperation for the arupa-jhana, particularly focussing on a meditative method known as {{transl|pi|[[Kammaṭṭhāna#Kasiṇas_as_kammaṭṭhāna|kasina]]}}. He then exposits the five arupa-jhāna, as well as seperate path that, similarly to the brahmavihara-bhavana of the previous stage, leads to the same end through a series of visions.

Chapter 14 describes {{transl|pi|[[iddhi]]}}, psychic powers believed to be produced through advanced Buddhist practice. The iddhi are divided hierarchically between magical powers, powers of manifestation, and "powers that work in the miracle of the doctrine and of right discernment." Evola explains various iddhi in relation to Buddhist doctrines and stages of spiritual development.<ref>ch. 14 {{lang|it|Discriminazione dei "poteri"}} "Discrimination Between the 'Powers'"</ref>

Chapter 15 argues that Buddhism is "anti-evolutionist" and "vertical" in nature, having no place for "becoming." Evola also argues that Buddhism does not condemn [[suicide]] in the case of those who have already attained liberation, and gives the metaphore of burning chips to explain the [[four stages of awakening]]<ref>ch. 15 {{lang|it|Fenomenologia della Grande Liberazione}} "Phenomenology of the Great Liberation"</ref>

Chapter 16 concerns [[nibbāna]].<ref>ch. 16 {{lang|it|Tracce del Senza Simile}} "Signs of the Nonpareil"</ref> Evola lists several possible interpretations of the etymology of the term, defining it as the extinction of mania and craving. In this respect he compares it to the "negation of the negation" in the [[Hegelian dialectic]]. Evola argues that Buddhism developed a kind of [[negative theology]], in that it is seen as absurd to describe nibbana in terms of what it is. But it also goes beyond negative theology in that "it has refused to use the category of nonbeing and has understood that even to define the unconditioned by negation would, in fact, make it conditioned." Evola recalls the acinteyya from Part I: "When it is asked if the Awakened One exists after death, the answer is: No. Does not he, then, exist after death? The same answer." Evola critiques those who compare nibbana to the pre-Buddhist ātmā, saying that the latter characterised by its connection to [[Brahman]], "the root of cosmic life," while nibbana is characterised by its overcoming of this relation.

In Chapter 17,<ref>ch. 17 {{lang|it|Il "vuoto." "Se la mente non si spezza"}} "The Void: 'If the Mind Does Not Break'"</ref> Evola describes the trio of {{transl|pi|[[Śūnyatā|sunnatā]]}} "void," {{transl|pi|animitta}} "the signless," and {{transl|pi|appanihita}} "that without inclination or tendency" that characterise the "perfection of knowledge" or {{transl|pi|[[Prajnaparamita|prajnāpāramitā]]}}. On this basis, Evola introduces the core ideas of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, particularly [[Madhyamika]] and the [[Two truths doctrine]]. After early Buddhism became divided into the [[Hinayana]] and Mahayana schools, Evola considers these doctrines to have degraded in two unique ways: the ascesis of the Hinayana schools lost ground to rigid monastic ethics; Mahayana attempted to philosophise experiential ascetic states on an intellectual basis. Evola then discusses the Mahayana ideas of the [[Tathāgata]] and [[Bodhisattva]], and of non-duality between samsara and nirvana.

Chapter 18 concerns [[Zen]], a particular form of Mahayana Buddhism found today in Japan.<ref>ch. 18 {{lang|it|Fino allo Zen}} "Up to Zen"</ref> Evola explains that, as Mahayana Buddhism lost it's exclusively aristocratic status, it absorbed more local religious elements, leading Buddhas and Boddhisattvas to be deified and worshiped, and to an intensified belief in reincarnation. On the other hand, Mahayana became increasingly philosophical and speculative, leading to systems of thought, such as that of [[Nagarjuna]], that resemble Western Idealist philosophies that would emerge centuries later. Zen, Evola claims, was able to renew the "exigency" with which Buddhism originally opposed itself to "Brahmanic speculation and ritualism." Zen rejects "speculations, canonical writings, rites," and "religious aberrations." Evola repeats several Zen allegories and tales to illustrate this attitude. Zen insists on sudden spiritual awakening or {{nihongo||悟り|[[satori]]}}, which appears without any origin or "becoming". According to Evola, the preparatory methods of Zen are not essentially different from the original Aryan ascesis. After listing these methods, Evola describes the symbols of the [[Five Ranks]] and [[Ten Bulls]] in Zen practice. Decades after the publication of ''The Doctrine of Awakening,'' Evola would go on to write three more short works on Zen: {{transl|it|Che cosa è lo Zen}} "What is Zen?" in 1956, and {{transl|it|La via del samurai}} "The Way of the Samurai" and {{transl|it|Senso e clima dello Zen}} "The Meaning and Context of Zen" in the 1970s. A modified version of {{transl|it|Senso e clima dello Zen}} was used as an introduction to the Italian translation of [[D. T. Suzuki]]'s Essays in Zen Buddhism.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://arcjournal.library.mcgill.ca/article/download/293/309|title=Race and Zen: Julius Evola, Fascism, and D. T. Suzuki|first=Filippo|last=Pedretti|year=2021|journal=Arc – Journal of The School of Religious Studies, McGill University}}</ref>

Chapter 19 concludes the work by asking how the elements of ascesis gathered in the book might be applied in the modern day.<ref>ch. 19 {{lang|it|Gli ariya seggono ancora al Picco dell’Avvoltoio}} "The Ariya Are Still Gathered on the Vulture's Peak"</ref> Spengler states that modern world stands at the opposite spiritual extreme from an ascetic view of life. According to Evola this is typified by [[Activism]] and it's attendant philosophies, which exalt "force, impetus, becoming, struggle, transformation, perennial research, or ceaseless movement." "Being" is disregarded in favour of "becoming, life, movement, development, or history." Evola describes the modern world as one of "tumult," "agitation," "fever for speed," and "mechanization devoted to the shortening of all intervals of space and time," in which "the demon of collectivism" rules over restless beings. Evola sees this situation as a whole as unrectifiable, but hopes that a small elite of "qualified individuals" might be able to embrace strict ascetic values. Evola once again stresses that this refers to the Aryan form ascesis, as opposed to "renunciation, flight from the world, inaction, quiet-ism, or mortification." He also reminds us that this form of ascesis is not exclusive to Buddhism or Eastern traditions in general, also being present in authors such as [[Plotinus]] and [[Aristotle]], and in Roman [[Stoicism]]. Evola returns to Zen as an example of how Buddhist ascesis complements an "Olympian" "heroic" worldview among the [[Samurai]] nobility. Evola concludes the book by warning against erroneous forms of "spiritualism," and calling for return to the origins and reintegration of ancient traditions.

==Reception==
[[File:Nanavira Thera.jpg|thumb|Ñāṇavīra Thera]]
The translator of the work, H. E. Musson stated that "the author has, it seems to me, recaptured the spirit of Buddhism in its original form, and his schematic and uncompromising approach will have rendered an inestimable service even if it does no more than clear away some of the woolly ideas that have gathered round the central figure, Prince Siddhattha, and round the doctrine that he disclosed."<ref name="HEM" /> Musson was inspired to become a [[bhikkhu]] from reading ''The Doctrine of Awakening'' in 1945 while hospitalised in [[Sorrento]], and was later given the monastic name [[Ñāṇavīra Thera]].<ref name="SB" /> In {{lang|it|El Commino del Cinabro}} "The Path of Cinnabar" (1963) Evola refers to Musson's conversion: "The person who translated the work, a certain Mutton (sic), found in it an incitant to leave Europe and withdraw to the Orient in the hope of finding there a centre where one still cultivated the disciplines that I recommended; unfortunately, I have had no further news of him."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://juliusevola.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/14-juliusevolathepathofcinnabar.pdf#page=161|title=The Path of Cinnabar|first=Julius|last=Evola|chapter=My Work in Germany and the 'Doctrine of Awakening'}}</ref><ref name="SB" /> [[Harry Oldmeadow]] described Evola's work on Buddhism as exhibiting a Nietzschean influence,<ref>Harry Oldmeadow. ''Journeys East: 20th Century Western Encounters with Eastern Religious Traditions''. World Wisdom, Inc, 2004. p. 369.</ref> but Evola criticised Nietzsche's purported anti-ascetic prejudice. [[Arthur Versluis]] described Evola's book as "far from accurate, being more a vehicle for his own theory of personal immortality."<ref>{{cite book|title= Magic and Mysticism: An Introduction to Western Esoteric Traditions|last= Versluis|first= Arthur|date= 2007|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers}}</ref> Sandro Consolato has written a sympathetic overview of Evola's approach to Buddhism<ref>{{cite book|title=Julius Evola e il buddhismo|first=Sandro|last=Consolato|language=it|year=1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion|volume=5|edition=2|title=Evola, Julius|page=2907}}</ref> Evola wrote that his book "had the chrism of the Pali Society." Luciano Pirrotta believes that this claim is a fabrication; however, according to {{ill|Gianfranco De Turris|it}}, it merely refers to the fact that the English edition of the book was originally published by Luzac & Company, for whom the [[Pali Text Society]] acted as a editorial consultant on Buddhist topics.<ref>{{cite book|title=Julius Evola: The Philosopher and Magician in War: 1943-1945|first=Gianfranco|last=De Turris|year=2020|chapter=Julius Evola’s Activity during the Italian Social Republic}}</ref>

==Translations==
* ''The Doctrine of Awakening,'' [[Ñāṇavīra Thera|H. E. Musson]], 1951, English
* ''La doctrine de l'Éveil,'' [[Pierre Pascal]], 1956, French
* ''A felébredés doktrínája,'' Dávid Andre, 2003, Hungarian

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External Links==
* [https://archive.org/details/evola-julius-la-dottrina-del-risveglio/mode/2up ''La Dottrina Del Risveglio''] at Archive.org

Palau National Congress

2023-05-03T23:07:25Z

Firdaus singh en:

{{short description|Legislature of Palau}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Palau National Congress
| native_name = Olbiil era Kelulau
| native_name_lang =Palauan
| transcription_name =
| legislature = 11th Olbiil Era Kelulau
| coa_pic = Seal of Palau.svg
| coa_res = 100px
| coa_alt =
| foundation = 
First Government Est. 1955

Gained Independence on 1 October 1994
| house_type = Bicameral
| body =
| houses = [[Senate of Palau|Senate]]<br />[[House of Delegates of Palau|House of Delegates]]
| leader1_type = President of the Senate
| leader1 = [[Hokkons Baules]]
| party1 = [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| election1 =
| leader2_type =Speaker of the House
| leader2 =[[Sabino Anastacio]]
| party2 =[[Independent politician|Independent]]
| election2 =
| leader3_type =Chief of Staff
| leader3 =[[Landisang Kotaro]]
| party3 =
| election3 =
| members = 29 members (13 and 16)
| house1 = [[Senate of Palau|Senate]]
| house2 = [[House of Delegates of Palau|House of Delegates]]
| structure1 = Palau Senate.svg
| structure1_res = 250px
| structure1_alt =
| structure2 = Palau House of Delegates.svg
| structure2_res = 250px
| structure2_alt =
| political_groups1 = {{legend|#808080|Independent: 13 seats}}
| political_groups2 = {{legend|#808080|Independent: 16 seats}}
| committees1 =
| committees2 =
| joint_committees =
| voting_system1 = [[single-seat]] [[constituency]]
| voting_system2 = [[Voting systems#Multiple-winner methods|multi-seat]] [[constituency]]
| last_election1 = [[2020 Palauan general election|3 November 2020]]
| last_election2 =
| previous_election1 =
| previous_election2 =
| session_room = File:Capitol-complex-melekeok-palau20071220 crop.jpg
| session_res = 250px
| session_alt =
| meeting_place = Olbiil era Kelulau building in the capitol complex, [[Ngerulmud]]
| website = [http://www.palauoek.com www.palauoek.com] [obsolete]
| footnotes =
| motto =
}}
{{Politics of Palau}}
[[Palau]] has a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[legislature]], the '''Palau National Congress''' ({{lang-pau|Olbiil era Kelulau}}), consisting of the [[House of Delegates of Palau|House of Delegates]] and the [[Senate of Palau]], which both sit at the [[Capitol of Palau|capitol complex]] in [[Ngerulmud]], [[Melekeok|Melekeok State]]. The House of Delegates has 16 members, each serving four-year terms in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]. The Senate has 13 members, also serving four-year terms in multi-seat constituencies. In the last elections, held in 2020, only non-partisans were elected; no [[political parties]] exist.

The congress is called Olbiil Era Kelulau (OEK) in [[Palauan language|Palauan]] or “House of Whispered Decisions".<ref>{{Cite web|title=LibGuides: Laws of South Pacific Island Nations: Palau|url=https://law-hawaii.libguides.com/pacificislands/Palau|access-date=2020-11-04|website=law-hawaii.libguides.com|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi School of Law Library|language=en}}</ref> When it was founded, there were 18 senators. That number of them was changed in 1984 to 14. The number of senators changed again in 2000, when it was reduced drastically to 9. In 2008, it was raised once again, to 13.<ref name="Palau">[https://www.palauoek.com Welcome to the Palau National Congress Website!] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103033320/https://www.palauoek.com/ }}, [[Republic of Palau]]</ref>

In 2018, the Senate President was Hokkons Baules, and Speaker was Sabino Anastacio.<ref name="Times">July 31, 2018 [http://islandtimes.us/palaus-national-congress-leaders-vocal-about-their-support-for-china/ Palau's National Congress leaders vocal about their support for China], ''Island Times''</ref>

==List of elections==
* [[1980 Palauan general election]]
*[[1984 Palauan general election]]
*[[1988 Palauan general election]]
*[[1992 Palauan general election]]
*[[1996 Palauan general election]]
*[[2000 Palauan general election]]
*[[2004 Palauan general election]]
*[[2008 Palauan general election]]
*[[2012 Palauan general election]]
*[[2016 Palauan general election]]
*[[2020 Palauan general election]]

==Palau Congressional Library==
Housed at the Palau National Congress, the [[Palau Congressional Library]] was founded on August 18, 1981. Headed as of 1996 by Congressional Librarian Harry Besebes, it has a 3000 item collection, with annual accessions of 350. The library employs 2 staff members, both professional librarians.

==See also==
* [[Politics of Palau]]
*[[Congress of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]]
* [[List of legislatures by country]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20190330083046/https://www.palauoek.com/?page_id=80 Palau National Congress]

{{Palau topics}}
{{National bicameral legislatures}}
{{Legislatures of Oceania}}
[[Category:Palau National Congress| ]]
[[Category:National legislatures|Palau]]
[[Category:Politics of Palau]]
[[Category:Political organizations based in Palau]]
[[Category:Bicameral legislatures|Palau]]
[[Category:1980 establishments in Palau]]

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KL Rahul

2023-03-01T03:46:44Z

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Tenth Schedule to the Constitution of India

2022-12-16T20:54:48Z

Firdaus singh en: Created an influential manuscript.

#REDIRECT [[Anti-defection law (India)]]

Viking (publisher)

2022-10-09T07:52:34Z

Firdaus singh en: Created an informative piece.

#REDIRECT [[Viking Press]]