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NSEL case

2026-05-07T10:31:13Z

Felorox: creating a stub first draft

{{short description |Financial scandal in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}{{Use Indian English|date=January 2014}}
{{Cleanup|reason=update and copyedit|date=March 2020}}
'''National Spot Exchange Limited (NSEL) case''' relates to a payment default at the [[National Spot Exchange|National Spot Exchange Limited]] that occurred in 2013 involving [[Financial Technologies Group|Financial Technologies India Ltd]], when a payment default took place after a commodities market regulator, the [[Forward Markets Commission (FMC)]], directed NSEL to stop launching contracts. This led to the closure of the Exchange in July 2013.<ref name="dnaindia1">{{ cite news | url= http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report-nsel-did-forward-markets-commission-s-action-spook-the-market-2059598 | title= NSEL: Did Forward Markets Commission's action spook the market?}}</ref>

Three spot exchanges, [[National Spot Exchange|NSEL]], NSPOT and National APMC were exempted by the government under Section 27 of [[Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010|FCRA]] to conduct forward trading in one day contracts. This was done to boost volumes so that their economic viability improved. While Financial Technologies (India) promoted NSEL, it was granted general exemption on 5 June 2007, whereas, NSPOT and National APMC received exemptions under the same provisions on 23 July 2008, and 11 August 2010, respectively.<ref>{{ cite news | url= http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/columns/g-chandrashekhar/keep-spot-exchanges-in-the-spotlight/article5012876.ece | title= Keep spot exchanges in the spotlight}}</ref> On the flawed recommendations of the FMC, the [[Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution|Ministry of Consumer Affairs]] ordered NSEL to settle all existing contracts and not launch any fresh contracts, which led to the crisis.

Investigations led by the [[Enforcement Directorate]] and Economic Offences Wing (EOW) revealed the role of brokers and defaulters in the NSEL case. The brokers mis-sold NSEL products to their clients by assuring them fixed returns. The defaulters hypothecated stocks, produced fake warehouse receipts and siphoned the entire default money.<ref>{{ cite news | url= http://www.livemint.com/Industry/59vNtb95mZWAL6PKJvWH5O/EOW-attached-defaulters-assets-worth-Rs5000-crore-NSEL.html | title= EOW attached defaulters' assets worth Rs5,000 crore: NSEL}}</ref><ref>{{ cite news | url= http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/commodities/nsel-board-chairman-shankarlal-guru-quits/article5061055.ece | title= NSEL board Chairman Shankarlal Guru quits}}</ref>

Initially, it was projected that there were 13,000 trading clients affected by the NSEL crisis. The genuineness and entitlement of these 13,000 trading clients is questionable. The brokers have not shown the [[Know your customer|Know Your Customer]] details of any of the clients. The Mumbai High Court suggested that brokers should furnish this data to NSEL in order to protect interest of genuine claimants. Considering this aspect, SFIO which is also investigating the case, has recently asked brokers and trading clients to provide various information in a specific format which also includes KYC related information.<ref>{{cite news |date=15 May 2017 |title=SFIO sends 6-page questionnaire to NSEL investors, intensifies probe against brokers |url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/markets-business/sfio-sends-6-page-questionnaire-to-nsel-investors-intensifies-probe-against-brokers-2278899.html |access-date=17 December 2024 |work=[[Moneycontrol]]}}</ref>

On 30 July 2019, The [[Bombay High Court]] summoned [[P. Chidambaram]], the former Union Finance Minister and two other bureaucrats, K.P. Krishnan and Ramesh Abhishek, regarding the ₹10,000 [[crore]] damage suits filed by 63 moons technologies and their role in the NSEL payment default crisis.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/bombay-hc-summons-chidambaram-two-ias-officers-in-ftil-defamation-case-119073001573_1.html|title=Bombay HC summons Chidambaram, two IAS officers in 63 Moons defamation case}}</ref> The Bombay High Court has accepted the plea and allowed 63 Moons to sue Chidambaram and the others.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/nsel-case-hc-allows-63-moons-to-sue-pc-others/articleshow/70564645.cms|title= NSEL case: HC allows 63 Moons to sue PC, others}}</ref>

==History==
Pursuant to the then Prime Minister's vision to create a single market across the country for both manufactured and agricultural produce, NSEL (National Spot Exchange Limited) was conceptualized in the year 2004. According to the Economic Surveys of the government done in 2003–2006, 3 consecutive years of survey also recommended setting up a national-level, integrated market for agricultural products, as did the planning commission, which was aware of the benefits of the spot markets. This was followed by the Rangarajan Committee, which too sought a national spot market.<ref>{{ cite news | url= http://www.thehindu.com/2005/04/10/stories/2005041004690800.htm | work= [[The Hindu]] | date= 2005-04-10 | title= UPA committed to reversing neglect of agriculture sector: Manmohan}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Following the invitation from Ministry of Consumer Affairs (MCA), the Multi Commodities Exchange Ltd. (MCX) which was earlier a sister company of NSEL, submitted a project report for establishing a nationwide spot market for commodities. NSEL was set up as a company incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 on 18 May 2005 with its registered office in the State of [[Maharashtra]]. NSEL was incorporated by MCX and the nominees of FTIL.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}

Subsequently, in view of the regulatory concerns between regulated commodities exchanges holding equity shareholding in spot exchanges, the shareholding of MCX and nominees were transferred and consolidated later in 2005 with FTIL. On 5 June 2007, NSEL was approved as a Spot Exchange by [[Department of Consumer Affairs (India)|Department of Consumer Affairs]]. National Spot Exchange Limited (NSEL), commenced live trading on 15 October 2008, and was the first commodity spot exchange of the country. Within a few years, as many as six state governments issued licences under the model Agricultural Produce Market Committees (APMC) Act to NSEL, because their own APMCs mostly short-changed the poor farmers. NSEL turned out to be a boon for such farmers because they could now sell their produce at competitive rates and make better profits.

The Exchange was promoted by [[National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India]]. In August 2011, FMC was appointed as the ‘designated agency’ to fill the regulatory vacuum in the commodities market. A series of bizarre actions by the FMC spooked the market and as a result NSEL had to suspend the trading of all contracts on 31 July 2013<ref name="dnaindia1"/>

=== Investors' activisms ===
The investors of NSEL formed an organization by the name of NSEL Investor's Forum (NIF) in the month of August 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=21 August 2013 |title=Loser pays all |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/loser-pays-all-113082101062_1.html |access-date=17 December 2024 |work=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref> However investors who were dissatisfied with brokers' role in NIF formed a pure investors' organization by the name of NSEL Investors' Action Group (NIAG).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar Jha |first=Dilip |date=26 December 2013 |title=Split among NSEL investors |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/split-among-nsel-investors-113122600678_1.html |access-date=17 December 2024 |work=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref> Many writs, PILs, Suits have been filed in Mumbai HC against NSEL/FTIL and Jignesh Shah.

== Bankruptcy ==

=== Investigation by EOW Mumbai ===
As of 2019, the EOW (Economic Offences Wing) of Mumbai Police was investigating this crisis and the Mumbai police has conducted various raids.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Khushboo |last1=Narayan |first2=Ami |last2=Shah |first3=Anirudh |last3=Laskar |url=http://www.livemint.com/Companies/TqvjpRhV0kBDckHP7HhgoK/NSEL-crisis-Search-operations-at-Jignesh-Shahs-residence.html |title=NSEL crisis: FTIL chief Jignesh Shah's home, offices raided |publisher=Livemint.com |date= 30 September 2013|accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref> On 9 October 2013, Amit Mukherjee, the Assistant Vice-president (Business Development) of NSEL, was arrested by the EOW of the Mumbai police marking the first arrest in the payment crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/nsel-case-mumbai-police-makes-first-arrest/article5218258.ece |title=NSEL case: Mumbai police makes first arrest |publisher=The Hindu BusinessLine |date=2019-09-16 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref> Subsequently, a day later on 10 October 2013, the EOW of Mumbai Police arrested Jai Bahukhandi, the former Assistant Vice-president of NSEL. Former CEO and MD, Anjani Sinha, was arrested a week later on 17 October 2013. The EOW has since invoked the MPID (Maharashtra Protection of Investors Deposit) Act, under which it can attach properties and assets of the accused, for the interest of the investors. Nilesh Patel of NK Proteins Ltd., the biggest borrower from the NSEL, was arrested on 22 October 2013 who got out on bail subsequently. Surinder Gupta of PD Agroprocessors was arrested by EOW on 5 March 2014.

The EOW also arrested Rajesh Mehta of Swastik Overseas Ahmedabad who was one of the borrowers on 1 April 2014. On 6 January 2014, the EOW of Mumbai's crime branch submitted its first [[chargesheet]] in connection with NSEL payment crisis. The chargesheet mentions the names of the following five accused:
*Amit Mukherjee (Former VP, Business Development at NSEL)
*Jay Bahukhandi (former AVP at NSEL)
*Anjani Sinha (Former Chief Executive of NSEL)
*Nilesh Patel (MD of NK Proteins)
*Arunkumar Sharma (Promoter and Director of Lotus Refineries)

In October 2013, EOW registered a case under the MPID Act in the NSEL case. In the process, EOW attached defaulters' properties worth close to ₹4,500 crore across the country, and the MPID court initiated procedures to liquidate them so as to recover dues of depositors. The ED has attached properties of defaulters, worth around ₹800 crores in NSEL case.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.afternoondc.in/city-news/first-nsel-chargesheet-submitted/article_100106 |title=Not Available |access-date=8 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415055709/http://www.afternoondc.in/city-news/first-nsel-chargesheet-submitted/article_100106 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The EOW arrested defaulter borrowers Nilesh Patel (NK Proteins),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-10-23 |title=NSEL crisis: NK Proteins MD Nilesh Patel arrested |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/nsel-crisis-nk-proteins-md-nilesh-patel-arrested/ |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Arun Sharma (Lotus Refineries),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-11-11 |title=NSEL case: Lotus Refineries Director arrested |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/nsel-case-lotus-refineries-director-arrested/article20688050.ece1 |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref> Surinder Gupta (PD Agro)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Narayan |first=Khushboo |date=2014-03-05 |title=NSEL case: EOW arrests MD of PD Agroprocessors |url=https://www.livemint.com/Companies/1LXhiqEQuWMPR5w4NT3tAK/NSEL-case-EOW-arrests-MD-of-PD-Agroprocessors.html |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref> and Indrajit Namdhari (Namdhari Foods).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-05-06 |title=Mumbai EOW arrests ninth accused in the NSEL case |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-eow-arrests-ninth-accused-in-the-nsel-case/articleshow/34746056.cms |access-date=2024-04-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> On 11 August 2014, the EOW arrested the following officials from six defaulting companies on NSEL:
*Kailash Aggarwal (Ark Imports)
*Narayanam Nageswara Rao (NCS Sugar)
*B V H Prasad (Juggernaut Projects)
*Varun Gupta (Vimladevi Agrotech)
*Chandra Mohan Singhal (Vimladevi Agrotech)
*Ghantakameshwar Rao (Spin-cot Textiles)
*Prashant Boorugu (Metcore Steel and Alloys)

The EOW arrested Shah and Shreekant Javalgekar on 7 May 2014, on charges of non-cooperation <ref>''[http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/jignesh-shah-arrested-in-rs-5-600-crore-nsel-scam-114050701186_1.html NSEL case: Law Finally Catches up with Jignesh Shah ]'', Jignesh Shah's arrest</ref> Reports however suggested that Shah was fully cooperative with EOW and had gone to EOW office 21 times against being summoned 7 times. Not only that, in order to facilitate the probe, NSEL had also deployed server in EOW office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/business/curious-case-of-repeated-arrest-and-release-of-jignesh-shah-or-how-rs-5600-cr-lost-without-trace-3082368.html |title=Curious case of repeated arrest and release of Jignesh Shah (or how Rs 5,600 cr lost without trace?) |publisher=Firstpost |date=2016-11-01 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref>

He was released on bail on 22 August 2014, by the Bombay High Court. The court observed that "…the names of 25 different companies who are the defaulters have been mentioned in the FIR itself". Thus, though projected payment default of ₹5,600 Cr, the ill-gotten amount has not gone to the applicant (Jignesh Shah), or for that matter, to NSEL.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bombay High Court Grants Bail to Financial Tech's Jignesh Shah in NSEL Scam Case|url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/bombay-high-court-grants-bail-to-financial-techs-jignesh-shah-in-nsel-scam-case-652303|access-date=2020-11-09|website=NDTV.com|date=22 August 2014 }}</ref>

The Enforcement Directorate arrested him on 12 July 2016 for assisting NSEL defaulters in money laundering.<ref>''[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/nsel-scam-ed-arrests-jignesh-shah-for-assisting-defaulters-in-money-laundering/articleshow/53180.cms ED arrests Jignesh Shah ]{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'', ED arrests Jignesh Shah for assisting defaulters in money laundering</ref> A special PMLA court granted bail to Shah terming the arrest by ED was ‘illegal’.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/350882679/Pg-42-43-Jignesh-Shah-Case |title=Pg 42-43 Jignesh Shah Case | Arrest | Bail |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2017-06-10 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref> After hearing both sides, Judge P.R. Bhavake, Special PMLA Court, Mumbai, ruled: "The learned counsel for the ED failed to satisfy me that this arrest is for a separate crime… I do not find any force in the contention that the ED wanted to file a supplementary complaint against the applicant (Shah) in respect of the investigation made against him as Chairman of FTIL. The ED has come with specific averments that the applicant is not arrested in special PMLA case no 04/2015 but in other Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR). The ED has failed to satisfy the Court how the applicant’s arrest is legal in different ECIR....."

On 18 January 2021, the EOW arrested Anjani Sinha, former CEO of National Spot Exchange Ltd, for fictitious trading on the exchange and for creating false stocks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Former NSEL CEO Anjani Sinha held for fake trading|url=https://www.moneylife.in/article/former-nsel-ceo-anjani-sinha-held-for-fake-trading/62695.html|access-date=2021-01-24|website=Moneylife NEWS & VIEWS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=IANSLive|title=Former NSEL CEO Anjani Sinha held for fake trading|url=http://ianslive.in/index.php?param=news/Former_NSEL_CEO_Anjani_Sinha_held_for_fake_trading-753881/Top+Story/30|access-date=2021-01-24|website=IANS Live}}</ref>

==== Sucheta Dalal's knowledge of NSEL case ====
It was discovered that even 15 months before the NSEL case went public, India's financial journalist [[Sucheta Dalal]] knew all major aspects of the fraud. An email dated 8 May 2012 from Sucheta to Jignesh Shah, Anjani Shah etc. came in public domain which revealed that Sucheta knew about illegality and lack of safety of NSEL product.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mehta |first=Nirwa |date=2023-10-21 |title=Sucheta Dalal and NSEL Case: The Journalist Who Finds Herself In Middle Of Financial Scams |url=https://www.thepamphlet.in/english/sucheta-dalal-nsel-scam-mahua-moitra/ |access-date=2025-01-29 |website=The Pamphlet |language=en-US}}</ref> A complaint has been filed with Mumbai police by NSEL Investors' Action Group to investigate Sucheta Dalal's role. Sucheta knew about illegality of contracts, role of IBMA and the fact that the warehouses were in so called borrowers' own premises.<ref>[https://www.scribd.com/document/285183669/nsel-15-10-2015-pdf Role of Sucheta Dalal in NSEL Scam ]'NSEL Investors Letter to Mumbai police to investigate the role of Sucheta Dalal in scam'</ref>

=== Investigation by Central Bureau of Investigation ===
The [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] raided NSEL and borrowers' offices as well as the residence of Jignesh Shah. An FIR was booked under prevention of corruption act for the funds that MMTC and PEC, two public sector units, were made to invest in NSEL.<ref>''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140316082935/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-03-14/news/48222151_1_jignesh-shah-nsel-scam-ceo-anjani-sinha CBI books FIR in NSEL case ]'',</ref> Jignesh Shah and Joseph Massey have been booked in this FIR. The investors have argued that CBI has taken no action against politicians/bureaucrats involved in the case. The CBI has filed a charge sheet where they have charged 20 entities, including Jignesh Shah and FTIL, for cheating PSUs, PEC and MMTC in the NSEL case.<ref>''[http://www.livemint.com/Companies/tqpCgjzO75ndjk45SYnm3I/NSEL-scam-CBI-accuses-Jignesh-Shah-of-cheating-criminal-co.html CBI Charges Jignesh Shah and others in NSEL scam]'', CBI chargesheet on Jignesh Shahand others</ref>

=== Investigation by Serious Fraud Investigation Office ===
In 2016, the [[Government of India]] ordered [[Serious Fraud Investigation Office]] probe on FTIL and its 18 associates, brokers and defaulters pertaining to irregularities on NSEL.<ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2016-11-01 |title=Government orders SFIO investigation against FTIL, 18 associates |url=https://www.livemint.com/Companies/imWZmK36e3uMrn8TGB1rmI/Government-orders-SFIO-investigation-against-FTIL-18-associ.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126023732/https://www.livemint.com/Companies/imWZmK36e3uMrn8TGB1rmI/Government-orders-SFIO-investigation-against-FTIL-18-associ.html |archive-date=26 January 2021 |access-date=2025-01-29 |work=mint |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Forensic audits by Choksi and Choksi ===
After petition by certain investors who wanted to derail the Eseries settlement by NSEL, the Bombay High Court directed the FMC to appoint a [[forensic auditor]] for Eseries products of NSEL. An audit firm by the name of Choksi and Choksi was given this assignment and their audit report had given a clean chit regarding the Eseries contracts on NSEL, which made the FMC give a NOC for Eseries settlement and over 40,000 genuine claimants of Eseries benefitted eventually.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rukhaiyar |first=Ashish |date=26 June 2014 |title=NSEL completes financial closure of e-series gold contracts |url=http://www.livemint.com/Companies/JzIQrrj2xjKCcmmn7ioWNL/NSEL-completes-financial-closure-of-eseries-gold-contracts.html |accessdate=2019-11-02 |publisher=Livemint.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2018-03-12 |title=NSEL pays ₹44 crore as final settlement to e-silver investors |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/nsel-pays-44-crore-as-final-settlement-to-esilver-investors/article6357437.ece |accessdate=2019-11-02 |publisher=The Hindu BusinessLine}}</ref>

==Allegation on investigative agencies and the government==
The investors of NSEL formed an organization by the name of NIF in the month of August 2013. However investors who were dissatisfied with brokers’ role in NIF formed a pure investors’ organization by the name of NIAG (NSEL Investors Action Group). The NIAG has written multiple letters to Enforcement Directorate and CBI alleging lax and compromised investigation.

A Delhi PMLA Appellate Tribunal on 17 September 2019, directed that a provisional attachment by the Enforcement Directorate in 2016-2017 of over Rs 1,000 crore assets belonging to Jignesh Shah headed 63 moons technologies be quashed and the assets released. The action came in response to an appeal filed by the company. The order was passed by Justice [[Manmohan Singh]], Chairman of the tribunal along with member G C Mishra.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/pmla-appellate-tribunal-quashes-attachment-by-ed-of-63-moons-rs-1000-crore-assets-but-seeks-indemnity-from-founder-jignesh-shah/articleshow/71174037.cms?from=mdr|title=PMLA appellate tribunal quashes attachment by ED of 63 Moons' Rs 1000 crore assets, but seeks indemnity from founder Jignesh Shah}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/ed-to-release-63-moons-assets-against-indemnity-bond/articleshow/71171277.cms|title=ED to release 63 Moons' assets against indemnity bond}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/tribunal-asks-ed-to-release-assets-of-63-moons/articleshow/71175651.cms|title=Tribunal asks ED to release assets of 63 Moons}}</ref>

=== Suspected foul play in detecting NSEL-FTIL email data/servers ===
There are serious allegations on Mumbai Police EOW of tampering with NSEL-FTIL email servers. While earlier it was confirmed by Rajvardhan Sinha of Mumbai EOW that the mail server of NSEL/FTIL has crashed and has been sent to Bangalore for investigation. Ketan Shah, the man leading NSEL investors' association NIAG, has leveled charges on the investigating agencies of misleading the court. The EOW of Mumbai Police has appointed Mahindra Defence Arm as the digital [[forensic auditor]] to probe the NSEL crisis.<ref>{{cite news|first=N Sundaresha|last=Subramanian |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/mahindra-defence-arm-to-probe-rs-5-600-crore-nsel-payment-crisis-117060300738_1.html |title=Mahindra defence arm to probe Rs 5,600-crore NSEL payment crisis | Business Standard News |newspaper=Business Standard India |publisher=Business-standard.com |date= 3 June 2017|accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/mumbai-police-investigating-ketan-shahs-complaint-about-nsel-server/articleshow/53946651.cms |title=Mumbai police investigating Ketan Shah's complaint about NSEL server - The Economic Times |newspaper=The Economic Times |publisher=Economictimes.indiatimes.com |date=2016-08-31 |accessdate=2019-11-02|last1=Sahgal |first1=Ram }}</ref>

==The roles of involved parties==

=== The role of the brokers ===
SEBI has issued show-cause notices to the top five brokers namely Anand Rathi Commodities, [[India Infoline]] Commodities (IIFL), Geofin Comtrade, Motilal Oswal Commodities, and Phillip Commodities, on charges of mis-selling NSEL contracts by promising assured returns without ensuring delivery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/sebi-issues-fresh-showcause-notice-to-brokers-in-nsel-case/article9670170.ece |title=SEBI issues fresh showcause notice to brokers in NSEL case |publisher=The Hindu BusinessLine |date=2018-01-27 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref>

Since the brokers have also been accused of indulging in massive manipulation of client KYCs, large-scale modification of client codes for doing multiple deals and infusion of unaccounted money through their NBFCs, SEBI has asked them as to why they should not be declared not "fit and proper" since they were found to have violated securities regulations. In the notice, SEBI has conveyed to these errant brokers that ‘it is alleged that your continuance as a market intermediary in the securities market is detrimental to the interest of this market…’

In the first show-cause notice, the allegations include several irregularities/violations such as false assurances to investors, wrong and misleading statements, arbitrage products sold with assured returns and as risk-free products, funding of clients and client code modification for those trading on NSEL.<ref>{{cite web|first=Jayshree P. |last=Upadhyay |url=http://www.livemint.com/Money/CTVNyKXp11mSXVJuZV7g4M/NSEL-case-Sebi-serves-five-brokerages-showcause-notice-for.html |title=NSEL case: Sebi serves five brokerages showcause notice for misselling products |publisher=Livemint.com |date=2017-04-28 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref>

"For grant of certificate of registration, the application has to be a fit and proper person in terms of regulation of the Stock Brokers Regulations, read with Schedule II of the SEBI (Intermediaries) Regulations, 2008. Further, the conditions stipulate that the stock broker shall at all times abide by the rules, regulation, byelaws of the stock exchange and code of conduct as specified in Schedule II of the stock exchange regulations...it is alleged that your continuance as a market intermediary in the securities market is detrimental to the interest of this market," the SCN states. "Therefore, it is alleged that you are no longer a ‘fit and proper' person for holding the certificate of registration in the securities market."

In the second show-cause notice, media reports said, SEBI sent notices to five broker firms, as it was not satisfied with the explanation offered by them on allegations of mis-selling. The SEBI officers have formed an opinion that the brokers should not be granted licences for commodity business.<ref>{{cite news|first=Shrimi |last=Choudhary |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/sebi-s-nsel-audit-finds-lapses-at-five-brokers-117042701351_1.html |title=Sebi issues final show-cause notice in NSEL scam case to five big brokers | Business Standard News |newspaper=Business Standard India |publisher=Business-standard.com |date= 27 April 2017|accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref>

The Economic Offences Wing (EOW) of Mumbai Police also found evidence of large scale irregularities on the part of these brokers in the NSEL case. A forensic audit by the EOW also revealed hawala transactions, benami trades and client code modifications by these brokers. The NSEL Investors' Action Group (NIAG) – a forum of NSEL investors requested the EOW to take strict action against these brokers who "falsely sold NSEL as an 'arbitrage product.'" Several key brokers including Motilal Oswal undertook Power of Attorney to buy/sell/receive/deliver NSEL commodities on behalf of the investors and also opened DMAT (dematerialized) accounts to handle warehouse receipts of commodities in electronic form. "These brokers have also been accused of criminal breach of trust for parting with investors' monies without securing warehouse receipts as promised," the NSEL investors said in a letter to the Commissioner of Mumbai Police.

The Hon. Bombay High Court in its judgment dated 22 August 2014 also observed that "...brokers do have their own legal team and a full knowledge of how the market operates. The legalities of the transactions were quite expected to be known to the brokers ... the brokers being quite experienced, and the investors being informed persons, it is apparent that the issue of illegality of the transactions raised by them is not out of their concern to adhere to legalities, but in order to project the applicant (Jignesh Shah) as the main offender, rather than the defaulting parties.<ref name="bombayhighcourt1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/bombay-high-court-grants-bail-to-financial-techs-jignesh-shah-in-nsel-scam-case-652303|title = Bombay High Court Grants Bail to Financial Tech's Jignesh Shah in NSEL Scam Case| date=22 August 2014 }}</ref>

On 3 March 2015, the EOW, Mumbai arrested 3 top brokers in the NSEL case. Those arrested were Amit Rathi, managing director of Anand Rathi Financial Services Ltd; C P Krishnan of Geojit Comtrade Ltd; and Chintan Modi of India Infoline Ltd (IIFL). The three were charged with mis-selling NSEL products, cheating, forgery and criminal conspiracy, among other charges.

On 21 December 2018, SEBI issued supplementary notices to 300 brokers, which suggested cancellation of license if the broker found themselves unable to provide necessary explanation regarding any wrong-doing pointed out by the SFIO.<ref>{{cite web|first=Tarun|last=Sharma |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/markets/sebi-to-send-supplementary-notice-to-300-brokers-in-nsel-case-3317131.html |title=SEBI to send supplementary notice to 300 brokers in NSEL case |publisher=Moneycontrol.com |date=2018-12-21 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/sebi-submits-list-of-brokers-involved-in-nsel-scam-madurai/article25712142.ece |title=SEBI submits list of brokers involved in NSEL scam |newspaper=The Hindu |date=2018-12-10 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref> SEBI will be using EOW's report of 2015 to corner brokers. The detailed investigation report was shared by EOW in 2015 with the then market regulator, FMC, specifically highlighting the role of brokers.<ref name="thehindubusinessline1">{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/nsel-scam-2015-police-report-gives-sebi-fresh-ammo-against-brokers/article25926034.ece |title=NSEL scam: 2015 police report gives SEBI fresh ammo against brokers |publisher=The Hindu BusinessLine |date=2019-01-06 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref> Even, in the supplementary charge sheet filed by EOW, the top brokers have been named for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|first=Rajesh |last=Bhayani |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/mumbai-police-files-charge-sheet-against-brokers-in-nsel-default-case-118122800048_1.html |title=Mumbai police files charge sheet against brokers in NSEL default case | Business Standard News |newspaper=Business Standard India |publisher=Business-standard.com |date= 28 December 2018|accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Dilip Kumar|last=Jha |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/finance/sebi-issues-another-show-cause-notice-to-nsel-brokers-in-2013-scam-probe-119010301169_1.html |title=Sebi issues another show-cause notice to NSEL brokers in 2013 scam probe | Business Standard News |newspaper=Business Standard India |publisher=Business-standard.com |date= 3 January 2019|accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/5-brokers-issued-supplementary-notices/articleshow/67376051.cms |title=NSEL: 5 brokers issued supplementary notices - The Economic Times |newspaper=The Economic Times |publisher=Economictimes.indiatimes.com |date=2019-01-04 |accessdate=2019-11-02|last1=Sahgal |first1=Ram }}</ref><ref name="thehindubusinessline1"/>

In the last week of February 2019, SEBI declared 5 major brokerages ‘not fit and proper’ as commodity derivative brokers through several orders. In the first two separate orders, the markets regulator stated that the reputation of [[Motilal Oswal]] Commodities Broker and [[India Infoline]] Commodities has been "seriously eroded", which is indispensable in declaring them "not fit and proper" for commodity trading.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.businesstoday.in/markets/company-stock/nsel-scam-sebi-declares-motilal-oswal-iifl-not-fit-and-proper-commodity-derivatives/story/321560.html | title= NSEL Scam: SEBI declares Motilal Oswal, IIFL 'not fit and proper' as commodity derivative brokers}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.livemint.com/market/commodities/nsel-case-commodity-arms-of-motilal-oswal-iifl-not-fit-and-proper-says-sebi-1550903694516.html | title= NSEL case: Commodity arms of Motilal Oswal, IIFL not fit and proper, says Sebi| work= mint| date= 23 February 2019| last1= Upadhyay| first1= Jayshree P.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/sebi-declares-commodity-arms-of-motilal-iifl-as-not-fit-and-proper/articleshow/68123136.cms | title= Sebi rules Motilal Oswal, IIFL commodity arms 'not fit and proper'}}</ref>

Within a few days, Geofin Comtrade and Anand Rathi Commodities were also declared as ‘not fit and proper’ in the second set of orders.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/commodities/news/two-more-commodities-brokers-not-fit-proper/articleshow/68177417.cms?from=mdr | title= Two more commodities brokers 'not fit & proper'}}</ref> The same orders were issued against Phillip Commodities India. These firms have been found guilty for violating the erstwhile Forward Contract and Regulation Act (FCRA) 1972.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/sebi-declares-phillip-commodities-india-not-fit-and-proper-in-nsel-case-119022800067_1.html | title= Sebi declares Phillip Commodities India 'not fit and proper' in NSEL case}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/sebi-says-philips-commodities-not-fit-and-proper-to-be-commodities-derivatives-broker/articleshow/68190654.cms | title= Sebi says Philips Commodities not 'fit and proper' to be commodities derivatives broker}}</ref>

As a result, these firms are disallowed to act as brokers, indirectly or directly.

On 30 November 2022, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (Sebi) barred five brokerages involved in the National Spot Exchange (NSEL) fraud from registering as commodity brokers for the next six months. Anand Rathi Commodities, Motilal Oswal Commodity Broker, Phillip Commodities India, India Infoline Commodities, and Geofin Comtrade are those brokerages.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-11-30 |title=NSEL scam: Sebi bans 5 commodity brokers for up to 6 months |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/nsel-scam-sebi-bans-5-commodity-brokers-for-up-to-6-months/articleshow/95869587.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-08-01 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NSEL scam: Sebi bans five major commodity brokers for six months |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/nsel-case-sebi-slaps-six-months-ban-on-five-commodity-brokers-122112901304_1.html |access-date=2023-08-01}}</ref>

=== The role of the promoters ===
Jignesh Shah came on TV on 5 August 2013, and said that all defaulters have promised a financial settlement in front of the FMC and brokers. In case, the defaulters do not honor their commitment, the FMC would take necessary actions against them.<ref>{{cite web |date=2013-08-05 |title=Financial Tech promoter Jignesh Shah on NSEL payment crisis |url=http://www.ndtv.com/video/business/news/financial-tech-promoter-jignesh-shah-on-nsel-payment-crisis-285683 |accessdate=2019-11-02 |publisher=Ndtv.com}}</ref> He was arrested by EOW Mumbai Police on 7 May 2014 for his role in NSEL scam but was eventually granted bail by Bombay High Court on 22 August 2014 as there was no money trail to Jignesh Shah/NSEL/FTIL and the entire money was traced by EOW to 22 defaulters.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jignesh Shah arrested in NSEL scam |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/405059/jignesh-shah-arrested-nsel-scam.html}}</ref>

Anjani Sinha, the sacked CEO and the MD of the company, confessed and owned up the entire responsibility of the crisis in his first affidavit.<ref>{{cite news |title=I didn't flee to London, groundwork ready for refund to genuine NSEL claimants: Jignesh Shah |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/i-didnt-flee-to-london-groundwork-ready-for-refund-to-genuine-nsel-claimants-jignesh-shah/articleshow/71032357.cms}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=NSEL an 'employee fraud', could have been resolved within 6 weeks: Jignesh Shah |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/nsel-an-employee-fraud-could-have-been-resolved-within-6-weeks-jignesh-shah/articleshow/70962696.cms}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=NSEL an 'employee fraud', could be resolved in 6 weeks: Jignesh Shah |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/nsel-an-employee-fraud-could-be-resolved-in-6-weeks-jignesh-shah/articleshow/70965436.cms}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=NSEL an 'employee fraud', could have been resolved within 6 weeks: Jignesh Shah |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/people/nsel-an-employee-fraud-could-have-been-resolved-within-6-weeks-jignesh-shah-1567522432243.html}}</ref> However, after his arrest, he did a complete U-turn retracting his earlier affidavit. In his custodial statement to the EOW authorities, Anjani Sinha squarely blamed Jignesh Shah and even called him ‘mastermind’ of the entire crisis. Sinha also claimed that Shah forcibly took away the passports belonging to him and his wife and made them sign confessional statements which were allegedly drafted by FTIL.<ref>{{cite web |date=2017-06-08 |title=Affidavit - Mr. Anjani Sinha - 11.09.2013 |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/350720392/Affidavit-Mr-Anjani-Sinha-11-09-2013 |accessdate=2019-11-02 |publisher=Scribd.com}}</ref>

However, later on, in a statement to the Enforcement Directorate, Sinha disowned his custodial statement to the EOW and admitted to the contents of his first affidavit.<ref>{{cite web |date=2017-06-08 |title=Statement to ED | Clearing (Finance) | Cheque |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/350720467/Statement-to-ED |accessdate=2019-11-02 |publisher=Scribd.com}}</ref>

=== The role of auditor ===
Mukesh P Shah, who is a maternal uncle of Jignesh Shah, has been [[Internal auditor|internal]] as well as [[external auditor]] of NSEL from time to time. Mumbai police while opposing his anticipatory [[bail]] confirmed that he was doing insider-trading in FTIL shares and by virtue of possession of FTIL shares alone he should have been disqualified as an auditor. Besides, Mumbai police has confirmed that most companies of 'Rawal Group' where La Fin Financial Services P. Ltd. (promoter of FTIL) had a stake were registered at NSEL at the address of Mukesh Shah and Mukesh Shah was the auditor of all these companies which traded on NSEL to the tune of ₹1352 Crores and moved out in May–June 2013 without losing a penny showing their knowledge of the case.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/260985340/mukesh-shah-trading-in-ftil-shares |title=Mukesh Shah trading in FTIL shares |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2015-04-06 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref>

=== The role of the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, FMC and the UPA Government ===
In a show cause notice dated 27 April 2012, the Ministry of Consumer Affairs asked NSEL certain clarifications regarding the trades. NSEL promptly replied to this notice but for a year and half after the show cause notice, no action was taken by the Ministry. Instead, merely on the recommendation of the FMC, it ordered sudden and abrupt closure of NSEL on 12 July 2013. On 19 July 2013, the FMC revised its position and wrote to the DCA, stating that the exemption notification did not clarify whether it applied to all or only specific provisions of the FCR Act. Following the DCA's orders, NSEL suspended trading on 31 July 2013. This sudden and abrupt closure of the Exchange market led to the payment default of ₹5600 crore.<ref>{{cite web |date=10 February 2015 |title=NSEL: Did Forward Markets Commission's action spook the market? |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report-nsel-did-forward-markets-commission-s-action-spook-the-market-2059598 |accessdate=2019-11-02 |publisher=Dnaindia.com}}</ref>

==Judgements and orders==
On 21 October 2014, invoking Section 396 of the Companies Act, 1956, the Ministry of Corporate affairs announced a draft order for merger of NSEL, a subsidiary of FTIL. All stakeholders were given 60 days to report to MCA. FTIL challenged this merger in Bombay HC. Hearing an application filed by the government, the Bench comprising Justices SC Dharmadhikari and BP Colabawala granted the govt time till 15 February 2016.

On 12 February 2016, the MCA passed the final order of merger between FTIL and NSEL. The order was challenged by FTIL in Bombay High Court and it was upheld.

Based on MCA's own circular dated 20 April 2011, it is a known fact that for any merger to materialize, permission of 100% shareholders and 90% creditors needs to be obtained. By forcing the merger on 63,000 shareholders of FTIL without so much as giving them a chance to consent/object to the amalgamation, MCA not only went against its own circular but also against Article 14 of the Constitution. The forced merger violates the sacrosanct concept of ‘limited liability’ and is not in public interest. Third, the "corporate veil" between NSEL and FTIL cannot be lifted until the so-called "parental fraud" by FTIL is proven in a court of law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/financial-technologies-national-spot-exchange-merger-bad-in-law-and-policy/178737/ |title=FTIL-NSEL merger: Bad in law and policy? |publisher=The Financial Express |date= 15 December 2015|accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/et-editorials/why-the-nsel-ftil-merger-may-be-a-bad-precedent/ |title=Why the NSEL-FTIL merger may be a bad precedent |publisher=Blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com |date= 16 February 2016|accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref>

In a significant judgement, the apex court decided against the forced merger of NSEL and FTIL that was ordered by the [[Ministry of Corporate Affairs]],<ref>{{ cite news |url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/sc-quashes-centres-call-to-merge-nsel-ftil/articleshow/69122788.cms |title= Supreme Court quashes Centre's call to merge NSEL, FTIL }}</ref> which was the first ever instance of invocation of Section 396 of the Companies Act 1956.<ref name="livelaw1">{{ cite news |url= https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/sc-public-interest-forced-merger-set-aside-144706 | title= 'No Public Interest'-SC Sets Aside The First Forced Merger Of Two Companies Ordered By Central Govt }}</ref> The Union Ministry had ordered the compulsory amalgamation of National Spot Exchange Ltd (NSEL) and its parent company Financial Technologies India Ltd, currently known as 63 Moons Technology Limited.<ref name="livelaw1"/> Justice [[Rohinton Fali Nariman]] and Justice [[Vineet Saran]] set aside the Bombay High Court's judgment on amalgamating the two companies. The centre had issued a final order for the merger in the light of public interest.<ref>{{ cite news | url= https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/63-moons-rallies-21-in-two-days-as-sc-rules-against-nsel-merger-119050200367_1.html | title= 63 Moons rallies 21% in two days as SC rules against NSEL merger}}</ref> However, the Supreme Court reckoned that the merger doesn't satisfy the criteria of ‘public interest’ and laid down a set of guidelines on what ‘public interest’ would amount to.<ref>{{ cite news | url=https://premium.thehindubusinessline.com/portfolio/commodity-analysis/sc-nixes-nsel-merger-plan-what-next/article27045013.ece|title=SC nixes NSEL merger, what next?}}</ref><ref>{{ cite news | url= https://www.newindianexpress.com/business/2019/may/01/sc-shoots-down-order-for-nsel-63-moons-merger-1971105.html | title= SC shoots down order for NSEL, 63 Moons merger }}</ref>

=== MCA's move to take over FTIL board ===
On 28 February 2015, even as the MCA had gone ahead with its idea of forced merger, it moved a petition before the Company Law Board, now known as the [[National Company Law Tribunal]], to take over the board of FTIL and replace it with government nominated directors. FTIL challenged this, too. On 30 June 2015, the NCLT barred FTIL from selling its assets which was promptly stayed by the Madras High Court on appeal by FTIL. However, on 19 April, the Supreme Court reversed this stay and froze all assets of FTIL barring day to day expenses.<ref>{{cite web|first=Rama |last=Mundra |url=http://ramamundrablog.blogspot.in/p/imposing-section-397-on-ftil.html |title=Rama Mundra: Imposing Section 397 on FTIL |publisher=Ramamundrablog.blogspot.in |date= |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref>

=== Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU)'s Observation ===
In 2016, FIU (under Finance Ministry) held that NSEL came under the purview of Forward Contracts (Regulation) Act (FCRA) and therefore guilty of failing in several of these obligations under the law. The black money watchdog has slapped a penalty of ₹1.66 crore for several counts of violating the provisions of Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) on NSEL. The watch dog further held that failures is deliberate and willful and hence, invite penalties. NSEL is fined Rs.1 lac for each failure and the collective fine was Rs.1.66 crore.<ref>{{cite news |last=Subramanian |first=N Sundaresha |date=23 January 2016 |title=Watchdog penalty on NSEL raises investors' hopes | Business Standard News |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/investors-see-hope-in-fiu-order-on-nsel-116012300408_1.html |accessdate=2019-11-02 |newspaper=Business Standard India |publisher=Business-standard.com}}</ref>

=== Court quashes allegations against MCX ===
A Metropolitan Court quashed{{when|date=March 2020}} allegations of a ₹900 Cr case at MCX.<ref>{{cite web|first=nitish |last=kashyap |url=http://www.livelaw.in/magistrate-court-accepts-c-summary-report-rules-rs-900-cr-mcx-fraud-alleged-pwc/ |title=Magistrate Court Accepts C-Summary Report That Rules Out Rs. 900-Cr MCX Fraud Alleged By PWC |publisher=Livelaw.in |date=2017-04-29 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref> This is the latest update in response to an earlier FIR filed by Mumbai Police raising questions of insider trading at MCX.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/companies/mumbai-police-files-fresh-fir-against-jignesh-shah-1518741.html |title=Mumbai Police files fresh FIR against Jignesh Shah |publisher=Moneycontrol.com |date=2015-04-24 |accessdate=2019-11-02}}</ref> The court in its findings cited an audit report conducted by PWC, ruling that it was based on hearsay and dismissed the protest petition. It however accepted the C-summary report filed by the investigating officer.<ref>{{cite news| url= https://www.livelaw.in/magistrate-court-accepts-c-summary-report-rules-rs-900-cr-mcx-fraud-alleged-pwc/ | title= Magistrate Court Accepts C-Summary Report That Rules Out Rs. 900-Cr MCX Fraud Alleged By PWC}}</ref>

=== Charge sheets by agencies in NSEL case ===
The CBI has filed a [[chargesheet]] against FTIL, Jignesh Shah, NSEL and various shell companies in NSEL case matter.<ref>[http://indianexpress.com/article/india/cbi-finds-evidence-against-9-shell-companies-in-nsel-scam-4646223/ CBI files chargesheet in NSEL case on shell companies ]'CBI finds evidence against 9 shell companies in NSEL scam'</ref> The EOW of Mumbai police has also filed chargesheet against Jignesh Shah which lists out how he cooked the books of NSEL.<ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/west/story/how-nsel-jignesh-shah-cooked-the-books-202967-2014-07-22 EOW Files chargesheet on Jignesh Shah in NSEL scam ]'EOW chargesheet lists how NSEL's Jignesh Shah cooked the books'</ref> On 27 December 2018, the EOW-Mumbai filed a supplementary charge-sheet against 63 entities including top brokers for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/mumbai-police-files-charge-sheet-against-brokers-in-nsel-default-case-118122800048_1.html|title=Mumbai police files charge sheet against brokers in NSEL default case|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=28 December 2018|last1=Bhayani|first1=Rajesh}}</ref>

=== Supreme Court Declares MPID Act applicable ===
Under the MPID Act, NSEL officials and 24 defaulters were booked by the EOW of Mumbai police. The EOW had invoked the MPID Act mainly to recover the money of traders that was lost by attaching the promoter assets. In August 2019, the Bombay High Court held that NSEL is not a financial institution. Hence, under the MPID Act, all notifications for attachment of the company's assets including bank accounts and properties stand quashed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/committed-to-rise-like-post-world-war-japan-jignesh-shah-after-winning-asset-attachment-case/articleshow/70791300.cms|title=Committed to rise like post-World War Japan: Jignesh Shah after winning asset attachment case}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/nsel-not-a-financial-establishment-under-mpid-act-rules-bombay-hc-lifts-attachment-of-properties-worth-over-8000-cr-read-judgment-147421|title=NSEL Not A Financial Establishment Under MPID Act Rules Bombay HC, Lifts Attachment Of Properties}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://barandbench.com/nsel-case-63-moons-properties-cannot-be-attached-under-mpid-act-bombay-hc/|title=NSEL case: 63 Moons properties cannot be attached under MPID Act, Bombay HC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.moneylife.in/article/63-moons-assets-cannot-be-attached-under-mpid-act-in-nsel-case-rules-bombay-hc/58000.html|title=63 moons Assets Cannot be Attached under MPID Act in NSEL case, Rules Bombay HC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/63-moons-gets-relief-from-hc-on-assets-attachment/articleshow/70795517.cms|title=63 Moons gets relief from HC on assets' attachment}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=23 August 2019 |title=63 Moons shares hit upper circuit after company wins MPID case in Bombay HC |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/63-moons-shares-hit-upper-circuit-after-company-wins-mpid-case-in-bombay-hc/articleshow/70798533.cms |work=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref>{{Citekill|reason=citations are excessive and easily noticeable.|date=December 2024}}

Subsequently, petitions were filed challenging the Bombay High Court's order. The Supreme Court sought a response from 63 Moons Technologies regarding this. However, it asked the organization to maintain the status quo in regard to its assets.<ref>{{cite news |date=25 September 2019 |title=Supreme Court seeks response from 63 Moons on plea against Bombay HC order |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/supreme-court-seeks-response-from-63-moons-on-plea-against-bombay-hc-order/1716541/ |work=[[Financial Express (India)]]}}</ref>

Supreme Court vide Judgement dated 22 April 2022 rejected the Bombay High Court Judgement and held NSEL to be a financial establishment and upheld the attachment of assets under MPID Act.<ref>{{cite news |date=22 April 2022 |title=The State of Maharashtra Versus 63 Moons Technologies Ltd |url=https://www.livelaw.in/pdf_upload/400-state-of-maharashtra-v-63-moons-technologies-ltd-22-apr-2022-415584.pdf |access-date=17 December 2024 |work=LiveLaw.in}}</ref>

=== Attachment of Assets ===
A detailed table listing asset seizures by the ED in connection with the NSEL case from 2013 to 2025, specifying the year, entities involved, and the value of assets seized. As of May 2025, the total value of assets attached amounts to {{INRConvert|888.47|c|year=2025}}.
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!From Whom Seized
!Value of Assets Seized
|-
|2013
|Mohan India Group (Mohan India Pvt. Limited and Mohan India Delhi Pvt. Limited)
|₹75 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2013-12-01 |title=NSEL ED attaches Rs 75 crore assets in NSEL scam case |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-nsel-ed-attaches-rs-75-crore-assets-in-nsel-scam-case-1927883 |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2014
|ARK Imports Pvt Limited
|₹50 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2014-03-08 |title=NSEL scam: ED attaches Rs 50-cr assets of defaulter agro firm |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/nsel-scam-ed-attaches-rs-50-cr-assets-of-defaulter-agro-firm-198455 |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=Millennium Post |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2014
|PD Agroprocessors Pvt. Limited
|₹67 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2014-08-05 |title=Enforcement Directorate attaches assets worth Rs. 67 crore of accused firm in NSEL scam |url=https://www.afternoonvoice.com/enforcement-directorate-attaches-assets-worth-rs-67-crore-of-accused-firm-in-nsel-scam.html |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=Afternoon Voice |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2014
|NK Proteins Limited
|₹14.2 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2014-12-05 |title=NSEL: ED attaches property worth Rs 14.22 crore of NK Proteins |url=https://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/ed-attaches-property-worth-rs-14-22-crore-of-nk-proteins/45377943.html |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=Ahmedabad Mirror |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2017
|Multiple entities (not specified in detail)
|₹414 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2017-03-16 |title=ED attaches assets worth Rs. 414 crore in NSEL scam case |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/ed-attaches-assets-worth-rs-414-crore-in-nsel-scam-case/article17469220.ece |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2017
|Multiple entities (not specified in detail)
|₹177 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2017-12-27 |title=NSEL: ED attaches Rs 177cr assets in money laundering case |url=https://www.mangaloretoday.com/headlines/NSEL-ED-attaches-Rs-177cr-assets-in-money-laundering-case.html |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=Mangalore Today |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2022
|Pratap Sarnaik and related entities
|₹15.25 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-03-25 |title=ED attaches Shiv Sena MLA Pratap Sarnaik's assets in NSEL PMLA case |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/ed-attaches-shiv-sena-mla-pratap-sarnaik-s-assets-in-nsel-pmla-case-2022-03-25-765912 |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=[[India TV]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2025
|Swastik Overseas Corporation and related entities
|₹115.86 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Vijay |date=2025-04-02 |title=Enforcement Directorate attaches assets worth Rs 116 Crore in NSEL case |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/enforcement-directorate-attaches-assets-worth-rs-116-crore-in-nsel-case/articleshow/119915759.cms |access-date=2025-06-02 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2026
|LOIL Group
|₹19.12 Cr.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Ashish |date=2026-03-27 |title=ED Attaches ₹19.12 Crore Asset Linked To LOIL Group In NSEL Scam Probe |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/mumbai/mumbai-news-ed-attaches-1912-crore-asset-linked-to-loil-group-in-nsel-scam-probe |access-date=2026-05-07 |website=[[The Free Press Journal]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|'''Total'''
|
|'''₹907.59 Cr.'''
|}

== Settlement ==
The first settlement occurred in August 2013, when NSEL, with support from 63 Moons Technologies, paid approximately ₹179 crore to 7,053 traders with outstanding dues of less than ₹10 lakh each.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2025-05-20 |title=NSEL traders vote in favour of one-time settlement |url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/nsel-traders-vote-in-favour-of-one-time-settlement/article69598202.ece |access-date=2026-01-05 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In November 2024, brokers associated with the NSEL Investors Forum (NIF) proposed a one-time settlement of ₹1,950 crore to investors which had a consent from NSEL Investor Action Group (NIAG). This amount represents approximately 42% of the ₹4,650 crore principal owed to unpaid investors. According to the proposal, investors in the ₹10-20 lakh category had already recovered about 37%, with 6.6% from NSEL and 30.75% from the Competent Authority. If accepted, the settlement would increase their total recovery to approximately 79% of the outstanding amount.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Iyengar |first=K. Ram Kumar & Suresh P. |date=2024-11-09 |title=NSEL Investors Forum proposes ₹1,950-crore settlement plan |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/nsel-investors-forum-proposes-1950-crore-settlement-plan/article68849224.ece |access-date=2025-01-29 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref> However, in early December 2024, NIAG withdrew its support because it disagreed with FTIL's approach to the MIPD court, seeking access to ₹300 crore of attached assets to cover the operational expenses of the settlement, with the company offering ₹300 crore worth of securities as collateral. NSEL emphasized that the assets currently attached under the MPID Act, valued at approximately ₹2,500 crore, were more than adequate to cover the proposed settlement. At that time, NIAG's withdrawal of consent brought the settlement to a halt.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Joshi |first=Neha |date=2024-12-10 |title=Investor consent withdrawal puts NSEL settlement in jeopardy |url=https://www.livemint.com/market/nsel-settlement-offer-63-moons-technologies-nsel-investor-action-group-nsel-investors-forum-nsel-scam-11733817253439.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250108220502/https://www.livemint.com/market/nsel-settlement-offer-63-moons-technologies-nsel-investor-action-group-nsel-investors-forum-nsel-scam-11733817253439.html |archive-date=8 January 2025 |access-date=2025-01-29 |work=mint |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

Parallelly, by mid-December 2024, the settlement proposal received 65% approval from the members of the NSEL Investors Forum<ref>{{Cite web |last=Iyengar |first=Suresh P. |date=2024-12-10 |title=One-time settlement of NSEL gets 65% approval |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/commodities/one-time-settlement-of-nsel-gets-65-approval/article68969280.ece |access-date=2025-01-29 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref> and was finally approved by the FTIL board.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pant |first=Asmita |date=2024-12-15 |title=63 Moons approves ₹1,950 crore one-time settlement for NSEL investors - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/market/63-moons-approves-rs-1950-crore-one-time-settlement-for-nsel-investors-19524430.htm |access-date=2025-01-29 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mudgill |first=Amit |date=2024-12-16 |title=63 Moons Technologies shares in focus as board okays Rs 1,950 cr settlement; key details |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/markets/stocks/story/63-moons-technologies-shares-in-focus-as-board-okays-rs-1950-cr-settlement-key-details-457413-2024-12-16 |access-date=2025-01-29 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>

On 6 March 2025, 63 Moons Technologies reached a one-time settlement agreement with the claimants in the NSEL case, agreeing to pay ₹1,950 crore as a full and final resolution. A formal settlement application has been filed with the NCLT, Mumbai. To ensure transparency, an escrow agent and monitoring authority will oversee the disbursement of funds to the trading clients.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-03-06 |title=63 moons, NSEL Investors Forum to appoint settlement monitoring panel |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/63-moons-nsel-investors-forum-to-appoint-settlement-monitoring-panel/article69298000.ece |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref> This settlement will release the 63 moons group from ongoing legal proceedings, and the trading clients will assign their claims against defaulters in favour of the Company.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 March 2025 |title=63 Moons agrees to one-time settlement of Rs 1,950 crore in NSEL matter |url=https://www.business-standard.com/markets/news/63-moons-agrees-to-one-time-settlement-of-rs-1-950-crore-in-nsel-matter-125030600901_1.html |access-date=18 April 2025 |work=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref>

On 28 November 2025, the Mumbai-bench of NCLT approved the ₹1,950 crore one-time settlement scheme between NSEL and 5,682 specified creditors (claims exceeding ₹10 lakh).<ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=2025-11-28 |title=NCLT approves ₹1,950-crore settlement for NSEL traders |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/nclt-approves-1950-crore-settlement-for-nsel-traders/article70334176.ece |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharan |first=Abhishek |date=2025-11-29 |title=Curtains on ‘historic’ NSEL fraud case, NCLT okays 1,950-cr settlement |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/mumbai-news/curtains-on-historic-nsel-fraud-case-nclt-okays-1-950-cr-settlement-101764357284473.html |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> The scheme received creditor approval in e-voting (92.81% by number and 91.35% by value, covering ₹2,951.85 crore in claims). Managed by Universal Trusteeship Services Ltd. under retired Justice V. S. Gupte, it provides pro-rata payouts via escrow based on dues as of 31 July 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Bhavini |date=28 November 2025 |title=NCLT approves ₹1,950 crore one-time settlement for NSEL investors |url=https://www.business-standard.com/industry/news/nclt-approves-1-950-crore-one-time-settlement-for-nsel-investors-125112801064_1.html |access-date=10 December 2025 |work=Business Standard}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=MS |first=Sahyaja |date=2025-11-28 |title=NSEL Gets NCLT Nod For ₹1,950-Crore Settlement With 5,682 Traders Affected In 2013 Scam |url=https://www.livelaw.in/corporate-law/nsel-gets-nclt-nod-for-rs-1950-crore-settlement-with-5682-traders-in-2013-scam-311560 |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en}}</ref>

On 9 March 2026, the Supreme Court dismissed an appeal filed by creditor LJ Tanna Enterprises (holding 0.26 % of the voting share) against the NCLT and NCLAT approvals of the settlement scheme.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singhania |first=Kirit |date=2026-03-09 |title=Supreme Court Refuses To Interfere With ₹1,950 Crore NSEL Settlement For Traders Hit By 2013 Default |url=https://www.livelawbiz.com/top-stories/supreme-court-refuses-to-interfere-with-1950-crore-nsel-settlement-for-traders-hit-by-2013-default-525656 |access-date=2026-03-16 |website=www.livelawbiz.com |language=en}}</ref> The bench comprising Justices Pamidighantam Sri Narasimha and Alok Aradhe declined to interfere with the orders.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Bhavini |date=9 March 2026 |title=SC declines to interfere with ₹1,950 crore NSEL settlement scheme |url=https://www.business-standard.com/markets/news/sc-declines-to-interfere-with-1-950-crore-nsel-settlement-scheme-126030901098_1.html |access-date=16 March 2026 |work=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Commodity exchanges in India]]
[[Category:Finance fraud]]
[[Category:Pyramid and Ponzi schemes]]

White Rainbow (film)

2026-05-04T16:40:01Z

Felorox:

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Short description|2005 Indian film}}
{{Infobox film
| name = White Rainbow
| image = White Rainbow film poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Official poster
| director = Dharan Mandrayar
| writer = Dharan Mandrayar
| producer = Hannah Kirby Linda Mandrayar
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Sonali Kulkarni]]
*[[Amardeep Jha]]
*Shameem Shaikh
*[[Amruta Subhash]]
}}
| cinematography = [[B. Kannan]]
| editing = [[B. Lenin]]
| music = '''Score:''' [[Marc Bonilla]] Micheal Mason
| studio = Dharlin Entertainment
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2004|10|06|[[Mill Valley Film Festival]]|2005|08|05|India|2006|04|07|U.S.}}
| runtime = 92–94 minutes{{refn|While ''[[Half Moon Bay Review]]'' gave the runtime as 92 minutes,<ref name="h"/> ''[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]]'' gave the runtime as 94 minutes.<ref name="s"/>|group=Note}}
| country = India United States
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''White Rainbow''''' (also known as '''''Shwet''''') is a 2005 Indian Hindi-language film directed by Dharan Mandrayar and starring [[Sonali Kulkarni]], [[Amardeep Jha]], Shameem Shaikh, and [[Amruta Subhash]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bC85ZlQ9DsC&q=%22Dharan+Mandrayar%22+the+times+of+india&pg=PA98|title=White Skin, Dark Skin, Power, Dream|first=Francis|last=Jarman|date=1 June 2005|publisher=Wildside Press LLC|isbn=9780809511884|access-date=15 April 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531043716/https://books.google.com/books?id=1bC85ZlQ9DsC&q=%22Dharan+Mandrayar%22+the+times+of+india&pg=PA98|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="book">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVa2KtlPHocC&q=%22Dharan+Mandrayar&pg=PA69|title=Discovering World Religions at 24 Frames Per Second|first=Julien R.|last=Fielding|date=26 September 2008|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810862661|access-date=15 April 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531043716/https://books.google.com/books?id=UVa2KtlPHocC&q=%22Dharan+Mandrayar&pg=PA69|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="s">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-bonsall-filmmakers-tackle-ostracism-in-india-2005may29-story.html|title=Bonsall filmmakers tackle ostracism in India|date=29 May 2005|website=San Diego Union-Tribune|access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=29 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329192951/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-bonsall-filmmakers-tackle-ostracism-in-india-2005may29-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
The film is about the widows of [[Vrindavan]]: women who are married off at a young age, lost their husbands due to illness and wear white waiting to return with them in the afterlife. Several of these women are forced out of their house since they rejected a second marriage.<ref name="B">{{Cite web|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3611848.stm|title=Film highlights widows' plight|date=9 September 2004|work=[[BBC]]|access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=29 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329192951/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3611848.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The film follows four different widows.<ref name="W"/>

In 2013, Linda Mandrayar founded The White Rainbow Project that helps the widows of Vrindavan make handcrafted clothing and accessories from recycled saris.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dtnext.in/fashion/2016/03/20/dream-in-drape-to-empower-women-through-fashion|title=Dream in drape to empower women through fashion|work=[[Dina Thanthi|DT Next]]|date=20 March 2016}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=August 2024}}

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Sonali Kulkarni]] as Priya Giri
*[[Amardeep Jha]] as Roop
*Shameem Shaikh as Mala
*[[Amruta Subhash]] as Deepthi
*[[Gaurav Kapur|Gaurav Kapoor]] as Gaurav Kapoor<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/moving-ahead-with-zest/article28583092.ece|title=Moving ahead with zest|last=Rangajaran|first=Malathi|work=The Hindu|date=20 May 2005|access-date=7 April 2022|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407001914/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/moving-ahead-with-zest/article28583092.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Virendra Saxena]] as Pramod Panda
*Amitabh Srivastava as Lal
*[[Mohan Raman]] as Balaji Srinivasan
}}
The first assistant director and the post-production supervisor, [[Santhana Bharathi]] and [[R. S. Shivaji]], make a cameo appearance as a priest and peon, respectively.

== Production ==
Linda Mandrayar first learned about the widows of [[Vrindavan]] from her son's reading assignment ''[[Homeless Bird]]'' by [[Gloria Whelan]] and her husband Dharan Mandrayar decided to make a film about them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/white-rainbow-project-creates-fashion-while-helping-women-from-vrindavan-learn-sustainable-lifeskills/article7150834.ece|title=A colourful cause|first=Raveena|last=Joseph|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=28 April 2015|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329194121/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/white-rainbow-project-creates-fashion-while-helping-women-from-vrindavan-learn-sustainable-lifeskills/article7150834.ece|archive-date=29 March 2022}}</ref>

The film was named ''White Rainbow'' because Dharan Mandrayar felt that the widows still have lot of life in them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/aug/02white.htm|title='I could see anguish in their eyes'|work=[[Rediff]]|access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=5 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505170026/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/aug/02white.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The film began production after ''[[Water (2005 film)|Water]]'''s (a film also about the Vrindavan widows) shooting was halted in 1999.<ref name="B"/><ref name="W">{{Cite web|url=https://womensenews.org/2006/05/films-widow-abuse-survive-their-own-ordeals/|title=Films on Widow Abuse Survive Their Own Ordeals|date=14 May 2006|website=Women's eNews|access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416085453/https://womensenews.org/2006/05/films-widow-abuse-survive-their-own-ordeals/|url-status=live}}</ref> Mandrayar was inspired to make this film after he read about a 13-year-old widow who was forced to go to Vrindavan.<ref name="book"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sify.com/movies/bollywood/fullstory.php?id=13439827|title=Film on widows brings Vrindavan to boil|date=25 March 2004|work=[[Sify]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040507073546/http://sify.com/movies/bollywood/fullstory.php?id=13439827|archive-date=7 May 2004}}</ref>

==Reception==
A critic from ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote that "Making a film on the plight of widows in a part of our country calls for strong conviction. Creator Dharan Mandrayar and Prabhu Movies have it in plenty. Otherwise they couldn't have taken up the subject and laid bare the stigma, subjugation and disgrace the husbandless face in a so-called pious milieu".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/where-white-is-thrust-on-them/article3218680.ece|title=Where white is thrust on them|date=7 July 2006|work=The Hindu|access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=29 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329194121/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/where-white-is-thrust-on-them/article3218680.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Dennis Harvey of ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' opined that "But writer-helmer Dharan Mandrayar lets episodic pic flatline between excessively melodramatic peaks; fans of florid bad acting will find the ham cut thick here. Tech aspects are decent".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2004/film/reviews/white-rainbow-1200530372/|title=White Rainbow|work=Variety|last=Harvey|first=Dennis|date=11 October 2004|access-date=7 April 2022|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407000249/https://variety.com/2004/film/reviews/white-rainbow-1200530372/|url-status=live}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' opined that "On the whole, SHWET - WHITE RAINBOW is a poor fare. At the box-office, it's a loser all the way".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/shwet-white-rainbow/critic-review/shwet-white-rainbow-movie-review/|title=Shwet – White Rainbow Review 1/5|work=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=5 August 2005 |access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=29 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329192951/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/shwet-white-rainbow/critic-review/shwet-white-rainbow-movie-review/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A critic from the ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'' rated the film four out of five stars and wrote that "The writer/director Dharan Mandrayar should be commended for taking up such a controversial subject and portraying it effectively on screen".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indicanpictures.com/s/WRPress.doc|title=Powerful portrayals mark this film|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|date=16 July 2006}}</ref> A critic from ''[[The Economic Times]]'' wrote that "The film effectively attempts to highlight the plight of the widows in our society. Director Dharan Mandrayar, nephew of late Sivaji Ganesan should be applauded for the brave and sincere efforts".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indicanpictures.com/s/WRPress.doc|title=Serious attempt to portray the plight of widows|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=22 July 2006}}</ref>

==Accolades==
The film won Best Feature Film at the [[Sedona International Film Festival]].<ref name="h">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hmbreview.com/community/indias-widows-philosophy-mix-in-coastside-film-night/article_5ee93869-106b-5d12-b6d5-d9e02f653fc2.html|title=India's widows, philosophy mix in Coastside film night|first=Stacy|last=Trevenon|website=Half Moon Bay Review|date=23 May 2007 |access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=5 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405140720/https://www.hmbreview.com/community/indias-widows-philosophy-mix-in-coastside-film-night/article_5ee93869-106b-5d12-b6d5-d9e02f653fc2.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt0398390|White Rainbow}}

[[Category:2005 films]]
[[Category:2005 drama films]]
[[Category:2005 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Films about women in India]]
[[Category:Films about widowhood in India]]
[[Category:Films set in India]]

Lalitesh Pati Tripathi

2026-04-26T06:58:14Z

Felorox:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder|
| image = File:All India Trinamool Congress symbol 2021.svg
| caption = Symbol of Trinamool Congress
| name = Lalitesh Pati Tripathi
| office = [[Member of Legislative Assembly|Member]] of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2012
| term_end = 2017
| successor = [[Rama Shankar Singh]]
| constituency = [[Marihan Assembly constituency|Marihan]]
| relatives = [[Kamalapati Tripathi]] (grandfather)
| education = Graduate (B.Sc. Business and Management Studies)
| alma_mater = [[IILM Institute for Higher Education]]
}}

'''Lalitesh Pati Tripathi''' is an Indian politician. He is a member of [[National Working Committee of All India Trinamool Congress ]]. He was the candidate of INDIA Alliance from [[Bhadohi Lok Sabha constituency ]] of Uttar Pradesh in [[2024 Indian general election ]]. He was a member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from 2012 to 2017, elected from [[Marihan Assembly constituency|Marihan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.myneta.info/up2012/candidate.php?candidate_id=693|title=Lalitesh Pati Tripathi(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- MARIHAN (MIRZAPUR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate:|website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> He was a member of the Indian National Congress and vice-president of the [[Uttar Pradesh Congress Committee]]. He left Congress in 2021 and took up the symbol of [[Trinamool Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/up-congress-vice-president-lalitesh-tripathi-quits/article36641618.ece|title=U.P. Congress vice-president Lalitesh Tripathi quits| date=24 September 2021|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> He is the grandson of former Chief Minister [[Kamalpati Tripathi]] (1905–1990).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uptak.in/elections/lok-sabha-election-2024/story/grandfather-was-former-cm-know-about-tmc-candidate-lalitesh-pati-tripathi-from-bhadohi-lok-sabha-seat-933142-2024-03-16|title=दादा रहे पूर्व सीएम और…जानें ललितेश पति त्रिपाठी को? जिन्हें TMC ने बनाया है भदोही से उम्मीदवार|date=16 March 2024|website=UPTAK}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tripathi, Lalitesh Pati}}
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Mysore City Corporation

2026-04-24T03:15:55Z

Felorox: creating the location added tags.

{{Short description|Local civic body in Mysuru, Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Mysuru City Corporation
|native_name=ಮೈಸೂರು ಮಹಾನಗರ ಪಾಲಿಕೆ<hr/>{{small|''Maisūru Mahānagara Pālike''}}|native_name_lang=kn| coa_pic =
| coa_res =
| coa_alt =
| house_type = [[Municipal Corporation]]
| foundation ={{start date and age|1862|07|08|paren=y|df=y|br=y}}<ref name="150 years">{{cite news|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/262594/150-years-still-going-strong.html|newspaper=Deccan Herald|date=7 July 2012|title=150-years-still-going-strong|access-date=26 September 2020}}</ref>
| leader2_type = [[Municipal Commissioner]]
| leader2 = Lakshmikanth Reddy, IAS<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-06|title=Reddy takes charge as MCC Commissioner|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/reddy-takes-charge-as-mcc-commissioner-994378.html|access-date=2021-06-06|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref>
| leader3_type = [[Mayor]]
| leader3 = Shivakumar<ref>{{cite web
| title = BJP's Shivakumar new mayor of Mysuru
| url = https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bjps-shivakumar-new-mayor-of-mysuru-1142664.html
| website = Deccan Herald
| date =
| access-date = 2025-08-22
}}</ref> [[BJP]] since 06 September 2022
| party3 =
| leader4_type = [[Deputy Mayor]]
| leader4 = Dr Roopa G [[BJP]] since 6 September 2022<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/cities/bengaluru/story/rukmini-madegowda-jd-s-elected-mayor-of-mysuru-congress-anwar-baig-deputy-mayor-1773203-2021-02-26 | title=Rukmini Madegowda of JD(S) elected Mayor of Mysuru, Congress' Anwar Baig to be her deputy | website=www.indiatoday.in | date=2021-02-26}}</ref>
| party4 =
| leader5_type = [[Leader of the Opposition]]
| leader5 = ''Vacant''
| party5 =
| leader1_type = Administrator (In Absence of Mayor)
| leader1 =
| seats = 65
| structure1 =
| structure1_res = 300px
|political_groups1 =
| voting_system1 = [[First-past-the-post]]
| voting_system2 =
| last_election1 = 2018
| next_election1 = 2023
| session_room =Office of Mysore City Corporation.JPG
| session_res =
| meeting_place = Mysuru City Corporation Building, Sayyajirao Road, Agrahara, Chamarajapura, Mysuru, Karnataka, 570024
| motto = ಕನ್ನಡವೇ ಸತ್ಯ; ಕನ್ನಡವೇ ನಿತ್ಯ{{small|([[Kannada language|Kannada]])}} ''Kannada is truth; Kannada Forever''
| website = [http://www.mysurucity.mrc.gov.in/en MCC]
| footnotes = Governed by: '''Karnataka Municipal Corporation Act, 1976'''
}}

'''Mysore City Corporation''' ('''MCC'''), also known as '''Mysuru City Corporation''', is the administrative body responsible for civic amenities and infrastructural assets of [[Mysore|Mysuru]] in [[Karnataka]], India.<ref name=":2">[https://mysurucitycorporation.co.in/WebSiteMysuru/AboutUs.aspx Mysore City Corporation]. Official website. Retrieved 5 May 2015.</ref> It is the third-largest [[municipal corporation]] in Karnataka, serving a population of 1,000,000 in an area of {{Convert|235|km2|acres|abbr=in}}.<ref name="MYS2">{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_pca/RL-2900.xlsx|format=XLS|title=Religion PCA|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]|access-date=8 March 2020|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="MYS3">{{cite web|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/php/india-karnataka.php|title=Cities and Towns|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]|access-date=8 March 2020|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The city's boundaries have expanded more than twice between 2010 and 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://andolana.in/the-boundaries-of-mysore-city-limits-have-been-extended/|title=mysore-city-limits-have-been-extended|last=Prasad Idiculla|first=Andolana|date=5 December 2020|work=andolana.in|access-date=17 January 2021|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122014757/https://andolana.in/the-boundaries-of-mysore-city-limits-have-been-extended/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Expand section|date=April 2022}}
The MCC was created on 8 July 1862.<ref name="150 years" />

MCC was established as a municipality{{Clarify|reason=what does "established as a municipality" mean?|date=April 2022}} in 1888.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Civic Administration |url=https://www.inmysore.com/civic-administration |access-date=2022-04-15 |website=www.inmysore.com |language=en-gb}}</ref>

In 1977, MCC was converted into a corporation.<ref name=":3" />

In July 2012, MCC celebrated 150 years of existence in [[Amba Vilas Palace]], [[Mysore Palace]].<ref name="150 years" />

== Organization ==

MCC is the [[Municipal government|third level of government]] below the [[Government of India|national]] and [[Government of Karnataka|state]] governments. MCC is run by the city council, which consists of elected representatives called "corporators", one from each of the [[Council ward|ward]]s of the city. Elections to the council are held every five years, results being decided by [[Direct election|popular vote]]. Candidates for election to the council represent one or more of the state's [[List of political parties in India|political parties]]. A [[mayor]] is elected for a one-year term. Corporators hold their office for five years.<ref>{{cite web | title=One year term for mayor stays - Bengaluru News | website=The Times of India | date=2002-06-10 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/one-year-term-for-mayor-stays/articleshow/12598284.cms | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

==Roles==

MCC's duties include; the orderly development of the city, [[zoning]], building regulations, health, hygiene, licensing, trade and education, and [[quality of life]] issues.<ref name="MYS">{{cite web|url=http://mysorecity.gov.in/forms/SWM.pdf|title=City/Town Summary|publisher=Mysore City Corporation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821071200/http://mysorecity.gov.in/forms/SWM.pdf|access-date=8 March 2020|archive-date=21 August 2010}}</ref> It also oversees engineering works, and is responsible for health, sanitation, water supply, administration and taxation. The corporation has also implemented decentralized solid waste management practices, including door-to-door collection, segregation at source, and processing of waste through composting and recycling facilities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Functions of City Corporation |url=https://www.mysurucity.mrc.gov.in/en/functions |website=Mysuru City Corporation}}</ref> These initiatives align with national programs such as the Swachh Bharat Mission and have contributed to Mysore being recognized among the cleaner cities in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=India’s cleanest cities: Mysuru’s decentralised waste system |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/waste/india-s-cleanest-cities-mysuru-sophisticated-decentralised-wet-waste-to-compost-system-81307 |website=Down To Earth |date=2022}}</ref>.
The corporation is headed by a mayor, who is assisted by commissioners and councillors.<ref name="CDP 2031">{{Cite web|title=VOL 1_DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS & PROJECTIONS.pdf|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/16DOTwpQ5xkIg8p6d8SzrvSGzGcikEMbu/view?usp=embed_facebook|access-date=2020-12-30|website=Google Docs}}</ref> The annual budget of the corporation for the year 2011–2012 was {{INRConvert|4.27|b|year=2011}}.<ref name="budget">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/30/stories/2011033063220500.htm|date=30 March 2011|title=Rs. 3-crore surplus budget for MCC|access-date=3 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927195358/http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/30/stories/2011033063220500.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=27 September 2011}}</ref> Among 63 cities covered under the [[Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission]], Mysore City Corporation was adjudged the second-best city municipal corporation and was given the Nagara Ratna award in 2011.<ref name="awar">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/article2215146.ece|newspaper=The Hindu|date=10 July 2011|title=Mysore City Corporation gets award for better civic amenities|access-date=4 March 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909040722/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/article2215146.ece|archive-date=9 September 2011}}</ref>

In partnership with [[Susthira]], a non-governmental organization, MCC was due in 2020 to set up a plant to recycle construction waste and reserve {{Convert|5|acres|km2}} of land near [[Koppaluru]] village on H D Kote Road for the project.<ref>{{cite web | last=Ramesh | first=S | title=Mysuru City Corporation to set up plant to recycle construction waste - Mysuru News | website=The Times of India | date=2020-10-01 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/mysuru-city-corporation-to-set-up-plant-to-recycle-construction-waste/articleshow/78415117.cms | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

=== Solid waste management ===
Mysuru City Corporation has adopted a decentralized approach to solid waste management, emphasizing segregation at source, door-to-door collection, and processing of waste through composting and recycling systems. The city is often cited as a model for sustainable urban waste management in India due to its structured implementation and community participation.<ref>{{cite web |title=India’s cleanest cities: Mysuru’s decentralised waste system |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/waste/india-s-cleanest-cities-mysuru-sophisticated-decentralised-wet-waste-to-compost-system-81307 |website=Down To Earth |date=2022}}</ref>

===Response to the COVID-19 pandemic===
The mayor and deputy mayor flagged off a mobile, doorstep [[greengrocer]] service that goes around the city throughout the day. The technicalities that earlier prohibited farmers from selling vegetables to the district [[Horticulture Producers Marketing and Processing]] Ltd (HOPCOMS) were resolved and MCC expanded the service to all 65 wards.<ref>{{cite web | title=Markets on the move | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-04-01 | url=https://starofmysore.com/markets-on-the-move/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

In a bid to prevent a rush at the vegetable market at MG Road, MCC moved it to [[Dasara Exhibition Grounds]]. To prevent the further spreading of [[SARS-Cov2]], MCC decentralized the vegetable market to seven locations in the city and appointed officials to administer them.<ref>{{cite web | title=Seven markets at various places in Mysuru from today | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-03-31 | url=https://starofmysore.com/seven-markets-at-various-places-in-mysuru-from-today/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

COVID-19 brought more challenges in waste disposal and MCC took action to collect and dispose of waste. Waste collected from houses under quarantine was considered [[biomedical waste]] and the Corporation deployed nine vehicles to collect it. Waste was taken to the Common Bio-Medical Waste Processing Unit. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) kits were provided to cleaning workers and vehicle drivers. Vehicles that were transporting waste were sprayed with hypochlorite solution and cleaned daily. The waste collected from quarantined houses was buried in a deep pit as per the instructions from the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Waste collected from houses under quarantine scientifically disposed of | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-04-10 | url=https://starofmysore.com/waste-collected-from-houses-under-quarantine-scientifically-disposed-of/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

MCC, under Pradhan Mantri Street Vendor's AtmaNirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi Scheme), organized a "Small Loan Mela", a special micro-credit facility for street vendors. Participants in the Small Loan Mela compulsorily carry their mobile number-linked [[Aadhaar card]] and bank passbook.<ref>{{cite web | title=MCC to hold Small Loan Mela for street vendors | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-11-27 | url=https://starofmysore.com/mcc-to-hold-small-loan-mela-for-street-vendors/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> Of the total 11 corporations in the State, MCC was in the first place in receiving applications and disbursing loans to eligible vendors. The schemes included a seven-percent subsidy in interest and a micro-credit facility without security. The vendors receive a cashback of {{INR|1,200}} annually in case they do business using digital applications. They are entitled to more loan facilities in case of prompt repayment.<ref>{{cite web | title=MCC tops among 11 Corporations in loan disbursement for Street Vendors | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-12-03 | url=https://starofmysore.com/mcc-tops-among-11-corporations-in-loan-disbursement-for-street-vendors/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

The corporation also operates dry waste collection centres (DWCCs) across the city to facilitate segregation and recycling of recyclable materials, contributing to decentralized waste management and reduction of landfill dependency.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dry Waste Collection Centres |url=https://mysurucity.mrc.gov.in/en/solid-waste-management |website=Mysuru City Corporation}}</ref>

==Urban development==
Urban growth and expansion are managed by the [[Mysore Urban Development Authority]] (MUDA), which is headed by a commissioner. Its activities include developing new layouts and roads, town planning, and land acquisition. One of the major projects undertaken by MUDA is the creation of an Outer Ring Road to ease traffic congestion.<ref name="orr">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/14/stories/2004021409890300.htm|date=14 February 2004|title=Outer Ring Road may ease traffic woes in Mysore|access-date=26 September 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017032542/http://hindu.com/2004/02/14/stories/2004021409890300.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref> Residents of Mysore have criticized MUDA for its inability to prevent [[Mafia Raj#Land mafias|land mafias]] and ensure lawful distribution of housing land among city residents.<ref>{{Cite web|last=www.ETGovernment.com|title=Karnataka: Mysore Corporation to go online for property tax collection - ET Government|url=https://government.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/digital-india/karnataka-mysore-corporation-to-go-online-for-property-tax-collection/73703278|access-date=2021-04-14|website=ETGovernment.com|language=en}}</ref><ref name="domi">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/02/stories/2006050212260500.htm|date=2 May 2006|title=Forum says land mafia is thriving in Mysore|access-date=26 September 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706165051/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/02/stories/2006050212260500.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=6 July 2006}}</ref> The [[CESCOM|Chamundeshwari Electricity Supply Corporation]] is responsible for the city's electricity supply to the city.<ref name="cescom">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/29/stories/2005012905600400.htm|title=Council passes amendment bill|date=29 January 2005|access-date=13 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050210052954/http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/29/stories/2005012905600400.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=10 February 2005}}</ref>

A section of the MCC-owned Heritage [[Lansdowne Building]], which was constructed on November 19, 1892, collapsed due to heavy rain in August 2012, killing four people. The vendors who had occupied the building were accommodated by MCC on the front side of the structure as a temporary arrangement.<ref>{{cite web | title=Lansdowne Building fenced with iron mesh | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-08-30 | url=https://starofmysore.com/lansdowne-building-fenced-with-iron-mesh/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

A portion of the century-old [[Devaraja market]] in the city centre collapsed due to a lack of maintenance. A [[Soil Bearing Capacity]] (SBC) test was conducted; the report suggested strengthening the loose soil spot and constructing a drain to remove underground water, which required more time because of the varieties of soil and the large volume of water beneath the building. A proposal to rebuild the market at a budget of {{INR|70 crore}} was sent to the State Government for approval. Upon consent, the Corporation planned to test soil in other places. Members of the Heritage Committee gave permission to rebuild the market. A detailed report, including SBC report and a revised estimate, will be submitted to the State Government.<ref>{{cite web | title=Rs. 70 crore needed to re-build Devaraja Market | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-11-17 | url=https://starofmysore.com/rs-70-crore-needed-to-re-build-devaraja-market/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> In December 2020, Karnataka High Court stayed the demolition of Heritage buildings<ref>{{cite web | title=HC stay on demolition of buildings welcomed | website=The Hindu | date=2020-12-22 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/hc-stay-on-demolition-of-heritage-buildings-welcomed/article33397297.ece | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

MCC expanded its jurisdiction to include several villages on the city's outskirts such as [[Alanahalli]], [[Srirampura]], [[Chamundi Hill]], [[Hootagalli]] and [[Hinkal]] due to presence of many industrial and commercial establishments in the erstwhile villages.<ref>{{cite web | title=MP writes letter to MCC on including villages within Ring Road in the Council agenda | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-10-24 | url=https://starofmysore.com/mp-writes-letter-to-mcc-on-including-villages-within-ring-road-in-the-council-agenda/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=CM gives nod for merger of four GPs into MCC fold | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-11-08 | url=https://starofmysore.com/cm-gives-nod-for-merger-of-four-gps-into-mcc-fold/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Creation of new TPs, CMC may help push development without burdening the MCC | website=The Hindu | date=2020-11-16 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/creation-of-new-tps-cmc-may-help-push-development-without-burdening-the-mcc/article33104495.ece | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> 77 revenue layouts are planned to be included to MCC under the Akrama Sakrama Scheme, which will also increase the corporation's revenue.<ref>{{cite web | title=MP appeals Ministers to regularise all Revenue Layouts in MCC limits | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-10-15 | url=https://starofmysore.com/mp-appeals-ministers-to-regularise-all-revenue-layouts-in-mcc-limits/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Aravind | first=H M | title=Mysore City Corporation: Akrama-Sakrama may help Mysore City Corporation with revenue - Mysuru News | website=The Times of India | date=2013-07-10 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/akrama-sakrama-may-help-mysore-city-corporation-with-revenue/articleshow/20994286.cms | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Akrama-Sakrama: forms can be downloaded from website | website=The Hindu | date=2015-03-24 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/akramasakrama-forms-can-be-downloaded-from-website/article7026596.ece | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

Several areas outside the Outer Ring Road in Mysore have witnessed growth in the 2020s. There is a long-pending proposal to expand the jurisdiction of MCC to include eight-gram panchayats on the outskirts of Mysore in the expanded civic body into a "Bruhat Mysuru Mahanagara Palike" or "Greater Mysore’ in line with Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike.<ref>{{cite news | title='Bruhat Mysuru Mahanagara Palike' plan gets a new push | website=The Hindu | date=3 October 2020 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/bruhat-mysuru-mahanagara-palike-plan-gets-a-new-push/article32756158.ece | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

The localities of Vijayanagar Third Stage, Fourth Stage (First Phase), Garudachar Layout, Cauvery Layout, Wild Grass, Chennegowda Layout, Subramanyanagar and some of the areas adjoining the Ring Road, which was handed over to the MCC maintenance, but [[Khata]] was not yet issued. Both localities are now planned to be included in the newly formed [[Hootagalli City Municipal Council]] (HCMC).<ref>{{cite web | title=Clamour grows for inclusion of Layouts within MCC purview | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-12-15 | url=https://starofmysore.com/clamour-grows-for-inclusion-of-layouts-within-mcc-purview/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Vijayanagar Third Stage will be maintained by MCC, clarifies MLA | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-11-14 | url=https://starofmysore.com/vijayanagar-third-stage-will-be-maintained-by-mcc-clarifies-mla/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/hootagalli-cmc-to-be-formed/|title=Hootagalli CMC to be formed - Star of Mysore|date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Hootagalli CMC and four Town Panchayats formed: Govt. issues Gazette notification | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-11-26 | url=https://starofmysore.com/hootagalli-cmc-and-four-town-panchayats-formed-govt-issues-gazette-notification/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

As a result of urbanization, the area of water bodies in Mysore declined from {{Convert|12.84|km2|acres|abbr=in}}2 (2.53%) to {{Convert|9.42|km2|acres|abbr=in}} (1.86%) from 2000 to 2016. The net decrease was {{Convert|3.42|km2|acres|abbr=in}}, with an annual rate {{Convert|0.21|km2|acres|abbr=in}}. The forests declined from {{Convert|11.25|km2|acres|abbr=in}} to {{Convert|10|km2|acres|abbr=in}} and net decrease was {{Convert|1.25|km2|acres|abbr=in}}, with an annual rate of {{Convert|0.08|km2|acres|abbr=in}}. Mysore, which was popular as a [[Pensioners’ Paradise]], is evolving into another metropolitan city.<ref>{{cite web | title='Pensioners' Paradise' evolving into another metropolitan city | website=Deccan Herald | date=2020-11-07 | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/karnataka-districts/pensioners-paradise-evolving-into-another-metropolitan-city-912700.html | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

===Smart city initiative===
MCC is proposing Mysore to be considered for a [[smart city]] project, which [[Davanagere]], [[Belagavi]], [[Tumakuru]], [[Hubballi-Dharwad]], [[Shivamogga]], [[Mangalore]], and [[Bengaluru]] are already a part of. Under the scheme, the selected cities will receive {{INR|500 crore}} each from the central government and a matching grant from the state for several initiatives. MCC had provided all of the details of its smart city mission parameters needed for inclusion in the scheme, including its mobilization of resources, internal resources gathering, service capabilities management, number of individual toilets per household, public participation in the development of the city, audited account details, use of government funds and self-financing capacity.<ref>{{cite web | last=Ramesh | first=S | title=Mysuru could make it to Smarty City Mission this year - Mysuru News | website=The Times of India | date=2020-06-06 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/mysuru-could-make-it-to-smarty-city-mission-this-year/articleshow/76223616.cms | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref>

==Cleanliness, drinking water and sanitation==
Drinking water for Mysore is sourced from the [[Kaveri]] and [[Kabini]] rivers.<ref name="cdp">{{cite web|url=http://jnnurm.nic.in/toolkit/MysoreCdp/MysoreCDP.pdf|publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Government of India|title=Mysore City Development Plan|access-date=25 September 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927013603/http://jnnurm.nic.in/toolkit/MysoreCdp/MysoreCDP.pdf|archive-date =27 September 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city got its first piped water supply when the Belagola project was commissioned in 1896.<ref name="bela">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/05/07/stories/2007050713220300.htm|date=7 May 2007|title=Second stage of Melapura water project inaugurated|access-date=25 September 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017032654/http://hindu.com/2007/05/07/stories/2007050713220300.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref> {{As of|2011}}, Mysore gets {{convert|42.5|e6impgal|m3|abbr=off|order=flip}} of water per day. Mysore sometimes faces water crises, mainly from March to June, and in years of low rainfall.<ref name="cris">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/12/stories/2007061213630300.htm|date=12 June 2007|first=R. Krishna|last=Kumar|title=Is Mysore city heading for a water crisis?|access-date=25 September 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017032700/http://hindu.com/2007/06/12/stories/2007061213630300.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref> The city has had an underground drainage system since 1904. The city's [[sewerage]] drains into the Kesare, Malalavadi, Dalavai and Belavatha valleys.<ref name="cdp" />{{rp|56}} In an exercise carried out by the [[Ministry of Urban Development (India)|Urban Development Ministry]] under the national urban sanitation policy, Mysore was rated the second-cleanest city in India in 2010 and the cleanest in Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/68796/mysore-comes-clean-over-blore.html|date=10 May 2010|title=Mysore comes clean over B'lore|last=Athrady|first=Ajith|access-date=12 May 2010|newspaper=Deccan Herald|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514084621/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/68796/mysore-comes-clean-over-blore.html|archive-date=14 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Online | first=FE | title=India's cleanest cities 2020 list: Madhya Pradesh's Indore emerges as cleanest city; check top 10 | website=The Financial Express | date=2020-08-20 | url=https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/india-cleanest-cities-2020-list-indore-surat-mysore-ahmedabad-full-list-of-cleanest-cities/2060538/ | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref>

Under the 14th Finance Scheme, MCC installed [[e-toilet]]s that cost a {{INR|5}} coin to use around the city. These were prominently established near busy places, including the Central Business District (CBD). At many places, thieves have stolen pipes, taps and other accessories from these e-toilets due to absence of security.<ref>{{cite web | title=MCC plans to shift e-toilets to Govt. Offices | website=Star of Mysore | date=2020-12-07 | url=https://starofmysore.com/mcc-plans-to-shift-e-toilets-to-govt-offices/ | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref> To publicize the ''[[Swachh Bharat Mission|Swach Bharat]]'' ("A Cleanliness awareness drive"), MCC chose former cricketer and match referee [[Javagal Srinath]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Javagal Srinath is MCC's Swachh Bharat Ambassador | website=Star of Mysore | date=2017-06-05 | url=https://starofmysore.com/javagal-srinath-mccs-swachh-bharat-ambassador/ | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref>

Mysore was judged [[List of cleanest cities in India|the cleanest city of India]] in 2015 and 2016 by Swachh Bharat Mission, and emerged as second-cleanest in 2010. Mysore was declared the cleanest among medium-sized cities in 2018 and 2020, and was second in the same category in 2019.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mysuru cleanest among medium-sized cities | website=Deccan Herald | date=2020-08-20 | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/karnataka-districts/mysuru-cleanest-among-medium-sized-cities-875600.html | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref>

==Politics==
Mysore city is divided into 65 wards and the council members, also known as ''corporators'', are elected by residents of Mysore every five years.<ref name="corpo">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/28/stories/2007062858650300.htm|date=28 June 2007|title=NGOs welcome formation of ward panels|access-date=26 September 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017032704/http://hindu.com/2007/06/28/stories/2007062858650300.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref> The council members, in turn, elect the mayor. Residents of Mysore elect four representatives to the [[Karnataka legislature|Legislative assembly of Karnataka]] through the constituencies of [[Chamaraja (Vidhana Sabha constituency)|Chamaraja]], [[Krishnaraja (Vidhana Sabha constituency)|Krishnaraja]], [[Narasimharaja (Vidhana Sabha constituency)|Narasimharaja]] and [[Chamundeshwari (Vidhana Sabha constituency)|Chamundeshwari]].<ref name="assem">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/03/04/stories/2004030409380300.htm|date=4 March 2004|title=Triangular contest likely in four Assembly seats|access-date=26 September 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041031011845/http://www.hindu.com/2004/03/04/stories/2004030409380300.htm|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=31 October 2004}}</ref> Mysore city, being part of the larger [[Mysore (Lok Sabha constituency)|Mysore Lok Sabha constituency]], also elects one member to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]]. Politics in the city is dominated by three political parties; the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC), the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) and the [[Janata Dal (Secular)]] (JDS).<ref name="assem" />

== Revenue sources ==

The following are the Income sources for the corporation from the Central and State Government.<ref name="My11">{{cite news |last1=Jadhav |first1=Radheshyam |title=Why civic bodies in India need municipal bonds |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/why-civic-bodies-in-india-need-municipal-bonds/article33237962.ece |access-date=18 May 2022 |publisher=www.thehindubusinessline.com |date=3 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="My12">{{cite news |title=Municipal corporations under severe strain as revenues sink: RBI Report |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/municipal-corporations-under-severe-strain-as-revenues-sink-rbi-report-314215-2021-12-02 |access-date=18 May 2022 |publisher=Business Today |date=2 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="My13">{{cite news |title=If cities are to deliver better quality life, need to have business models which are sustainable |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/if-cities-are-to-deliver-better-quality-life-need-to-have-business-models-which-are-sustainable/642276/ |access-date=18 May 2022 |publisher=Financialexpress |date=17 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Revenue from taxes ===
Following is the Tax related revenue for the corporation.

* Property tax.
* Profession tax.
* Entertainment tax.
* Grants from Central and State Government like Goods and Services Tax.
* Advertisement tax.

=== Revenue from non-tax sources ===

Following is the Non Tax related revenue for the corporation.

* Water usage charges.
* Fees from Documentation services.
* Rent received from municipal property.
* Funds from municipal bonds.

=== Revenue from taxes ===
Following is the Tax related revenue for the corporation.

* Property tax.
* Profession tax.
* Entertainment tax.
* Grants from Central and State Government like Goods and Services Tax.
* Advertisement tax.

=== Revenue from non-tax sources ===

Following is the Non Tax related revenue for the corporation.

* Water usage charges.
* Fees from Documentation services.
* Rent received from municipal property.
* Funds from municipal bonds.

===List of mayors and deputy mayors===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Mayors
|-
!Sl
! Name !! Party !! Tenure !! Ward number !! Ward name!! Reservation category
|-
|1
|P. Vishwanath<ref name=":2" />|| || 1983-1984 || || ||
|-
|2
|R. J. Narasimha Iyengar<ref name=":2" />|| || 1985-1986|| || ||
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|5
|H. S. Shankaralinge Gowda<ref>https://kla.kar.nic.in/assembly/member/13mem/217.pdf{{Dead link | date=July 2025 | fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>
|[[Janata Party]]
|1988-1989
|
|
|General
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|16
|T. B Chikkanna
|
|2001-2002
|
|
|
|-
|19
|
|
|2004-2005
|
|
|
|-
|20
|Bharathi<ref>[https://thehinduimages.com/details-page.php?id=8069741&highlights=MUNICIPAL%20CORPORATION%20MAYOR MAYOR Bharathi entering the Council hall of Mysore City CORPORATION for a meeting on June 09, 2006 only to find the members' chairs empty. CORPORATION Commissioner K.N. Chandrashekar accompanies her. Photo: M.A. Sriram]</ref> ||[[Indian National Congress]] || 2005-2006|| || ||
|-
|21
| H. N. Srikantaiah<ref name=":0">{{Cite web | title=MYSORE, 30/09./2007; Former Mayor H.N.Srikantaiah receving an endorsement letter from the Returning Officer after being... {{!}} The Hindu Images | url=https://thehinduimages.com/details-page.php?id=14488726&highlights=LETTER | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903063753/https://thehinduimages.com/details-page.php?id=14488726&highlights=LETTER | access-date=2025-07-18 | archive-date=2021-09-03}}</ref>|| || 30 September 2007- 29 September 2008 || || ||
|-
|22
||Ayub Khan ||Indian National Congress|||2008-2009 || ||
|-
|23
| || || 2009-2010 || || ||
|-
|24
|[[Sandesh Swamy]]|| [[Janata Dal (Secular)]] ||22 April 2010 -21 May 2011<ref>{{cite web | title=ಜೆಡಿಎಸ್ ನ ಸಂದೇಶ ಸ್ವಾಮಿ ಮೈಸೂರು ಮೇಯರ್ | website=kannada.oneindia.com | date=2010-04-22 | url=https://kannada.oneindia.com/news/2010/04/22/sandesh-swamy-is-the-new-mayor-of-mysore-city.html | language=kn | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> || || ||
|-
|25
|Pushpalatha T. B. Chikkanna<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-04-29|title=Wife follows better half to power|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/157743/wife-follows-better-half-power.html|access-date=2021-09-03|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref>|| [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]|| 29 April 2011- 28 April 2012 || 24|| ||
|-
|26
|Rajeshwari M C || [[Indian National Congress]]||30 April 2012 – 29 April 2013<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/246049/mysore-gets-first-dalit-woman.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924003002/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/246049/mysore-gets-first-dalit-woman.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 September 2015 |title=Mysore gets first dalit woman mayor |date=30 April 2012 |website=www.deccanherald.com/|access-date=2021-04-13}} Mysore-gets-first-dalit-woman</ref> || || ||
|-
|27
|N. M. Rajeshwari Somu|| [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]|| 5 September 2013 - 4 September 2014<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/districts/will-bjp-have-its-first-mayor-in-mysore-city-corporation-344604.html |title=Will BJP have its first Mayor in Mysore City Corporation?|date=2 September 2013 |website=www.deccanherald.com|access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> ||33 || || General (Women)
|-
|28
|R. Lingappa<ref>{{cite news | last=Bennur | first=Shankar | title=Mysuru remembers Gandhiji | website=The Hindu | date=2015-10-03 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/mysuru-remembers-gandhiji/article7718356.ece | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> || ||9 October 2014 - 8 October 2015<ref>{{cite web | title=Mysore Mayoral polls:?Once again JD(S), BJP join hands together | website=coastaldigest.com - The Trusted News Portal of India | url=http://www.coastaldigest.com/mysore-mayoral-pollsonce-again-jds-bjp-join-hands-together | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> || || ||
|-
|29
| || ||2015-2016 || || ||
|-
|30
| [[M. J. Ravikumar]]<ref>{{cite web | title=M J Ravi Kumar of JD(S) elected as Mysuru Mayor | website=NewsKarnataka | date=2016-12-07 | url=https://www.newskarnataka.com/mysore/m-j-ravi-kumar-of-jds-elected-as-mysuru-mayor | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref>||[[Janata Dal (Secular)]] || 7 December 2016 - 6 December 2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/29th-mayor-m-j-ravikumars-term-ends-today-new-mayor-soon/|title=29th Mayor M.J. Ravikumar's term ends today: New Mayor soon|date=6 December 2017}}</ref> ||35 || ||
|-
|31
|[[S. Bhagyavathi]]|| [[Indian National Congress]] (Later [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]) ||24 January 2018 - 17 November 2018<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/mayor-bhagya-s-bhagyavathi/|title=Mayor 'Bhagya' for S. Bhagyavathi|date=24 January 2018}}</ref> ||23 ||Jayalakshmipuram || [[Scheduled Caste]] (Women)<ref>{{cite web | title=Mysuru Mayor post reserved for Scheduled Caste (women) – Mysuru Today | website=Mysore news | date=2018-01-02 | url=https://citytoday.news/mysuru-mayor-post-reserved-for-scheduled-caste-women/ | access-date=2021-04-13 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
|32
| [[Pushpalatha Jagannath]]|| [[Indian National Congress]] || 17 November 2018 - 17 November 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/city-mayor-and-deputy-mayors-tenure-to-end-on-nov-17/|title=City Mayor and Deputy Mayor's tenure to end on Nov. 17|date=27 October 2019}}</ref> || 11||Shanthinagar (Mahadevapura Road) ||
|-
|33
|[[Tasneem Bano]] ||[[Janata Dal (Secular)]] || 18 January 2020 - 17 January 2021<ref>{{cite news | title=Tasneem of JD(S) elected Mayor of Mysuru | website=The Hindu | date=18 January 2020 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/tasneem-of-jds-elected-mayor-of-mysuru/article30595976.ece | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> ||26 ||Meena Bazaar || Backward Class A (Women)
|-
|34
|[[Rukmini Madegowda]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Kumar|first=K Shiva|date=2021-02-24|title=Rukmini Made Gowda elected mayor of Mysuru as JD(S) ties up with Congress to keep out BJP|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2021/feb/24/rukmini-made-gowda-elected-mayor-of-mysuru-as-jds-ties-up-with-congress-to-keep-out-bjp-2268437.html|access-date=2021-04-13|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>||[[Janata Dal (Secular)]] || 24 February 2021 – 26 May 2021 ''(disqualified)''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-27|title=High Court annuls election of Mayor Rukmini Madegowda as Corporator|url=https://starofmysore.com/high-court-annuls-election-of-mayor-rukmini-madegowda-as-corporator/|access-date=2021-09-02|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref>||36 ||Yeraganahalli (Ambedkar Colony) || General (Women)<ref>{{cite web | title=Mysuru mayoral polls today – All you need to know - India News | website=Latest News India | date=2021-02-24 | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/mysuru-mayoral-polls-today-all-you-need-to-know/724203 | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref>
|-
| -
|[[Anwar Baig (politician)|Anwar Baig]]
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|3 June 2021 – 25 August 2021 ''(acting)''<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2021-06-03|title=Anwar Baig is Acting Mayor|url=https://starofmysore.com/anwar-baig-is-acting-mayor/|access-date=2021-09-02|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref>
|10
|Rajiv Nagar
|''Deputy Mayor [[Anwar Baig (politician)|Anwar Baig]] was an acting Mayor till Mayoral election necessitated after 2018 corporator election of incumbent Mayor [[Rukmini Madegowda]] was disqualified by [[Karnataka High Court|High Court]] on 26 May 2021''
|-
|35<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mysuru gets its 35th mayor and BJP its first in 38 years|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2021/08/25/mysuru-gets-its-35th-mayor-and-bjp-its-first-in-38-years.html|access-date=2021-09-03|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref>
|[[Sunanda Palanetra]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-25|title=Sunanda Palanetra to resign as Mysuru Corporator|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/mysuru/sunanda-palanetra-to-resign-as-mysuru-corporator-955132.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref>
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|25 August 2021 – 23 February 2022
|59
|Kuvempunagar ‘M’ Block
|General (Women)<ref>{{Cite web|agency=PTI|date=Aug 25, 2021|title=Sunanda Palanethra: BJP councilor Sunanda Palanethra becomes Mysuru mayor for first time {{!}} Mysuru News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/bjp-councilor-sunanda-palanethra-becomes-mysuru-mayor-for-the-first-time/articleshow/85625169.cms|access-date=2021-09-02|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|60<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raj, DHNS |first=Gayathri V. |title=BJP's Shivakumar new Mayor of Mysuru |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bjps-shivakumar-new-mayor-of-mysuru-1142664.html |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>
|Shivakumar<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-05 |title=Mayor's term ends today but uncertainty continues |url=https://starofmysore.com/mayors-term-ends-today-but-uncertainty-continues/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=Star of Mysore |language=en-US}}</ref>
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|6 September 2022 - 5 September 2023
|47
|Kuvempunagar
|Backward Class A
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Deputy mayors
|-
! Name !! Party !! Tenure !! Ward number !! Ward name!! Reservation category
|-
| || || 2005-2006|| || ||
|-
| || || 2006-2007|| || ||
|-
| H. M. Shanthakumari<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-04|title=All in the... Family|url=https://starofmysore.com/all-in-the-family/|access-date=2021-09-03|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref>|| || 30 September 2007- 29 September 2008 || || ||
|-
| || || 2008-2009 || || ||
|-
| || || 2009-2010 || || ||
|-
| [[Pushpalatha Jagannath]]|| [[Indian National Congress]]||22 April 2010 -21 May 2011 || || ||
|-
| [[M. J. Ravikumar]]<ref>{{Cite web|agency=TNN|date=Apr 29, 2011|title=First husband, now wife becomes mayor {{!}} Mysuru News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/first-husband-now-wife-becomes-mayor/articleshow/8121036.cms|access-date=2021-09-03|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>|| [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]|| 2011-2012 || || ||
|-
|Mahadevappa ||[[Janata Dal (Secular)]] ||30 April 2012 – 29 April 2013 || || ||
|-
|V. Shailendra || [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]|| 5 September 2013 - 4 September 2014||9 || || [[Scheduled Caste]]
|-
| || ||9 October 2014 - 8 October 2015 || || ||
|-
| || ||2015-2016 || || ||
|-
| Rathna Lakshman||[[Bharatiya Janata Party]] || 7 December 2016 - 6 December 2017<ref>{{cite news | title=Ravi Kumar is the new Mayor of Mysuru | website=The Hindu | date=2016-12-07 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/Ravi-Kumar-is-the-new-Mayor-of-Mysuru/article16771833.ece | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> || || ||
|-
|Indira Mahesh || [[Janata Dal (Secular)]] ||24 January 2018 - 17 November 2018 ||61 ||Kyathamaranahalli || [[Scheduled Tribe]] (Women)
|-
|Shafi Ahmed<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/will-seek-co-operation-of-everyone-for-better-governance-mayor/|title=Will seek co-operation of everyone for better Governance: Mayor|date=18 November 2018}}</ref> ||[[Janata Dal (Secular)]] || 18 November 2018 - 17 November 2019 ||31 || Kanteerava Narasimharaja Pura (Ghousianagar)|| Backward Class A<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/who-will-be-our-mayor-deputy/|title=Who will be our Mayor, Deputy ?|date=4 September 2018}}</ref>
|-
|[[C. Sridhar]]||[[Indian National Congress]] || 18 January 2020 - 17 January 2021 ||38 ||Giriyabovipalya || [[Scheduled Caste]]
|-
|[[Anwar Baig (politician)|Anwar Baig]]||[[Indian National Congress]] || 24 February 2021 – Present<ref>{{cite web | title=Mysuru Mayoral Election Results 2021: Rukmini Madegowda of JD(S) Elected as Mayor, Congress's Anwar Baig Becomes Deputy Mayor | website=Yahoo News India | url=https://in.news.yahoo.com/mysuru-mayoral-election-results-2021-085946321.html | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> ||10 ||Rajiv Nagar || General
|-
|Dr. G. Roopa
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|6 September 2022 - 5 September 2023
|53
|Kurubarahalli
|Backward Class A
|}

===List of commissioners===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Commissioners of Mysore City Corporation
|-
! Name !! Tenure !! Remarks
|-
|P. Manivannan
| - 14 November 2007
|
|-
|K. H. Jagadeesha<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-02-17|title=Shilpa Nag is new MCC Commissioner|url=https://starofmysore.com/shilpa-nag-is-new-mcc-commissioner/|access-date=2021-06-06|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref>|| - February 17, 2019||
|-
|Shilpa Nag<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shilpa Nag takes charge as MCC commissioner; Anuradha as ADC – Mysuru Today|url=https://citytoday.news/shilpa-nag-takes-charge-as-mcc-commissioner-anuradha-as-adc/|access-date=2021-06-06|language=en-US|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606120529/https://citytoday.news/shilpa-nag-takes-charge-as-mcc-commissioner-anuradha-as-adc/|url-status=dead}}</ref>|| February 17, 2019 - July 2019||
|-
|P. S. Kantharaju<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-17|title=Gurudatta Hegde is new MCC Commissioner|url=https://starofmysore.com/gurudatta-hegde-is-new-mcc-commissioner/|access-date=2021-06-06|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref>|| July 2019 - August 2019 || Additional charge along with MUDA Commissioner role
|-
|Gurudatta Hegde<ref>{{Cite web|last=mysoorunews|date=2019-08-17|title=Gurudatta Hegde MCC new commissioner|url=https://www.mysoorunews.com/gurudatta-hegde-mcc-new-commissioner/|access-date=2021-06-06|website=Welcome to Mysooru News|language=en-US}}</ref>|| August 17, 2019 - February 16, 2021||
|-
|Shilpa Nag<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shilpa Nag is new MCC Commissioner – Mysuru Today|url=https://citytoday.news/shilpa-nag-is-new-mcc-commissioner/|access-date=2021-06-06|language=en-US|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606120530/https://citytoday.news/shilpa-nag-is-new-mcc-commissioner/|url-status=dead}}</ref>|| February 16, 2021 - 6 June 2021||
|-
|G. Lakshmikanth Reddy<ref>{{Cite web|title=IAS feud: Rohini Sindhuri, Shilpa Nag shunted from Mysuru|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2021/jun/06/ias-feud-rohini-sindhuri-shilpa-nag-shunted-from-mysuru-2312406.html|access-date=2021-06-06|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-27|title=Puri Jagannath Temple to open in Mysuru on Aug. 30|url=https://starofmysore.com/puri-jagannath-temple-to-open-in-mysuru-on-aug-30/|access-date=2021-09-03|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref>|| 6 June 2021 – Present||
|}

===List of corporators===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Councilors of Mysore<ref>{{cite web | title=Ward quota list out | website=Deccan Herald | date=2018-07-21 | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/ward-quota-list-out-682733.html | access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://starofmysore.com/mcc-ward-wise-reservation/|title=MCC Ward-wise reservation|date=21 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vijaykarnataka.com/news/mysuru/mysore-ward-new-members/articleshow/64343093.cms|title=ವಾರ್ಡ್‌ಗಳ ಪುನರ್‌ ವಿಂಗಡನೆ: ಹಾಲಿ ಸದಸ್ಯರಿಗೆ ಹೊಸ ಸವಾಲು|website=Vijaya Karnataka}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://karsec.gov.in/CommonHandler.ashx?id=453 |title=Info |website=karsec.gov.in|access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://karsec.gov.in/CommonHandler.ashx?id=386 |title=Info |website=karsec.gov.in|access-date=2021-04-13}}
|-</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://karsec.gov.in/CommonHandler.ashx?id=384 |title=Info |website=karsec.gov.in|access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref>
|-
!Zone
! Ward number !! Ward name
!Areas Covered
!Assembly Constituency!! Reservation category !! Corporator name
!Party
!Remarks
|-
|
| 1 || Hebbal, Lakshmikanthanagar
|
| || Backward Class A Woman ||B. Lakshmi
|
|
|-
|
| 2 || Manchegowdanakoppalu
|
| || General ||Prema
|
|
|-
|
| 3 || Mahadeswara Extension
|
| || Backward Class B Woman ||K.V.Sridhar
|
|
|-
|
| 4 || Hebbal, Loknayaknagar
|
| || General ||Pailavan Srinivas
|
|
|-
|
| 5 || Kumbarakoppalu
|
| || Backward Class A ||Usha
|
|
|-
|
| 6 || Gokulam
|
| || General Woman ||SBM Manju
|
|
|-
|
| 7 || Metagalli
|
| || Scheduled Caste ||V. Ramesh
|
|
|-
|
| 8 || Bannimantap HUDCO Layout
|
| || General ||Akmal Pasha
|
|
|-
|
| 9 || Kesare
|
| || Backward Class B ||Samiulla Khan
|
|
|-
|
| 10 || Rajiv Nagar
|
| || Backward Class B Woman ||Anwar Baig
|
|
|-
|
| 11 || Shantinagar (Mahadevapura Road)
|
| || General ||Pushpalatha
|
|
|-
|
| 12 || Shantinagar (Indira Gandhi Road)
|
| || General Woman ||Ayaj Pasha
|
|
|-
|
| 13 || Udayagiri
|
| || Backward Class B ||Ayub Khan
|
|
|-
|
| 14 || Satyanagar
|
| || Backward Class A Woman ||Savud Khan
|
|
|-
|
| 15 || Rajendranagar
|
| || Scheduled Caste ||Pradeep Chandra
|
|
|-
|
| 16 || Subashnagar
|
| || Backward Class A ||Arif Husen
|
|
|-
|
| 17 || Bannimantap
|
| || General ||Reshma Bhanu
|
|
|-
|
| 18 || Yadavagiri
|
| || Scheduled Tribe ||Guru Vinayak
|
|
|-
|
| 19 || Jayalakshmipuram (V.V. Mohalla)
|
| || Backward Class A Woman ||Bhagya Madesh
|
|
|-
|
| 20 || Vijayanagar
|
| || General ||M.U.Subaiah
|
|
|-
|
| 21 || Gangothri
|
| || General Woman ||C. Vedavathi
|
|
|-
|
| 22 || Paduvarahalli
|
| || Scheduled Caste Woman ||Namratha
|
|
|-
|
| 23 || Subbarayanakere
|
| || Backward Class A ||M. Pramila
|
|
|-
|
| 24 || Mandi Mohalla
|
| || General ||C.Ramesh
|
|
|-
|
| 25 || Tilak Nagar
|
| || General ||R.Rangaswamy
|
|
|-
|
| 26 || Meena Bazar
|
| || General Woman ||[[Tasneem Bano]]
|
|
|-
|
| 27 || Veeranagere
|
| || Backward Class A Woman ||Mohamad RaPhik
|
|
|-
|
| 28 || Gandhinagar
|
| || Backward Class A ||Dr. Ashwini
|
|
|-
|
| 29 || N.R. Mohalla
|
| || General ||Syad Hasarathulla
|
|
|-
|
| 30 || Kyathmaranahalli
|
| || Backward Class A Woman ||Usha
|
|
|-
|
| 31 || Kanteerava Narasimharajapura (Ghousianagar)
|
| || General ||Shaphi Ahamed
|
|
|-
|
| 32 || Ghousianagar ‘A’ Block (Osmania)
|
| || General ||Shanthakumari
|
|
|-
|
| 33 || Azeez Sait Nagar
|
| || General ||Bashir Ahamed
|
|
|-
|
| 34 || Kalyanagiri
|
| || General ||Hajeera Seema
|
|
|-
|
| 35 || Sathagalli Layout First Stage
|
| || Backward Class A ||Sathvik
|
|
|-
|
| rowspan="2" | 36
|rowspan="2" | Yeraganahalli (Ambedkar Colony)
|
|
| rowspan="2" | Backward Class A Woman ||[[Rukmini Madegowda]]
|[[Janata Dal (Secular)]]
|''Became Mayor on 24 February 2021. Disqualified as Mayor and Corporator on 26 May 2021 by [[Karnataka High Court|High Court]]<ref name=":1" />''
|-
|
|
|
|Rajani Annaiah<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajani Annaiah of Congress wins MCC Ward 36 by-election – Mysuru Today|url=https://citytoday.news/rajani-annaiah-of-congress-wins-mcc-ward-36-by-election/|access-date=2021-09-06|language=en-US|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906081556/https://citytoday.news/rajani-annaiah-of-congress-wins-mcc-ward-36-by-election/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|''Wins By-Poll on 6 September 2021, necessitated after disqualification of [[Rukmini Madegowda]] as a Corporator on 26 May 2021 by [[Karnataka High Court|High Court]]<ref name=":1" />''
|-
|
| 37 || Raghavendranagar
|
| || Backward Class A ||Ashwini
|
|
|-
|
| 38 || Giriyabovipalya
|
| || Scheduled Caste ||C.Sridhar
|
|
|-
|
| 39 || Gayatripuram First Stage
|
| || Scheduled Caste Woman ||Sathyaraj
|
|
|-
|
| 40 || Lashkar Mohalla
|
| || Backward Class A Woman ||M.Sathish
|
|
|-
|
| 41 || Devaraja Mohalla
|
| || General ||R.Nagaraj
|
|
|-
|
| 42 || K.G. Koppalu
|
| || General Woman ||M.Shivakumar
|
|
|-
|
| 43 || T.K. Layout
|
| || General Woman ||Gopi
|
|
|-
|
| 44 || Janathanagar
|
| || General Woman ||Savitha
|
|
|-
|
| 45 || Sharadadevinagar
|
| || General ||K.Nirmala
|
|
|-
|
| 46 || Dattagalli
|
| || General ||M.Lakshmi
|
|
|-
|
| 47 || Kuvempunagar
|
| || Backward Class A ||Shivakumar
|
|
|-
|
| 48 || Jayanagar
|
| || Scheduled Tribe Woman ||M.S.Shobha
|
|
|-
|
| 49 || Lakshmipuram
|
| || Backward Class A Woman ||N.Sowmya
|
|
|-
|
| 50 || Sunnadakeri
|
| || Scheduled Tribe ||V.Lokesh
|
|
|-
|
| 51 || Agrahara
|
| || Backward Class A ||B.V.Manjunath
|
|
|-
|
| 52 || Ittigegud
|
| || General ||Chayadevi
|
|
|-
|
| 53 || Kurubarahalli
|
| || Backward Class A ||Roopa
|
|
|-
|
| 54 || Gundu Rao Nagar
|
| || General Woman ||Puttanigamma
|
|
|-
|
| 55 || Chamundipuram
|
| || General Woman ||M.V.Ramaprasad
|
|
|-
|
| 56 || Krishnamurthypuram
|
| || General Woman ||Begum (Palavi)
|
|
|-
|
| 57 || Kuvempunagar-CITB
|
| || General Woman ||M.C.Ramesh
|
|
|-
|
| 58 || Ramakrishnagar
|
| || General Woman ||Sharath Kumar
|
|
|-
|
| 59 || Kuvempunagar ‘M’ Block
|
| || General Woman ||Sunanda Palanetra
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|
|-
|
| 60 || Ashokapuram
|
| || General Woman ||Bhuvaneshwari
|
|
|-
|
| 61 || Vidyaranyapuram
|
| || General Woman ||Shobha
|
|
|-
|
| 62 || Vishweshwaranagar
|
| || Scheduled Caste Woman ||Shanthamma
|
|
|-
|
| 63 || J.P. Nagar
|
| || Scheduled Caste Woman ||Sharadamma
|
|
|-
|
| 64 || Aravindnagar
|
| || General Woman ||Champaka
|
|
|-
|
| 65 || Srirampura
|
| || Scheduled Caste ||Geetha
|
|
|}

== See also ==
* [[Karnataka]]
* [[Mysore]]
* [[Municipal corporation]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://mysore.nic.in/en/ Mysore district portal]

{{Mysore topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Municipal corporations in Karnataka]]
[[Category:1862 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Government of Mysore]]

Yogendra Singh Kushwaha

2026-04-23T01:10:59Z

Felorox: New Biography

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office1 = Member of [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]] (2000-05)
| constituency1 = [[Khagaria Assembly constituency]]
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| occupation = Politics
}}
'''Yogendra Singh''' is an Indian politician from Bihar, who served as member of Bihar Legislative Assembly from [[Khagaria Assembly constituency]]. Singh is a veteran leader of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]. He represented Khagaria Assembly constituency in Bihar Legislative Assembly from 2000 to 2005 by winning the assembly elections of 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/bihar-red-land-cpm-lok-sabha-poll-race-nda-muslim-mp-9298133/|title=In Bihar's 'Red land', CPM back in LS poll race after 30 years, NDA's lone Muslim MP now with it|date=30 April 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/khagaria-left-party-cpi-m-made-sanjay-kumar-its-candidate-from-khagaria-for-lok-sabha-elections2024-23684492.html|title=Bihar Politics: वाम दलों की दिल्ली से दूरी कम कर पाएगी बिहार की ये सीट? अग्निपरीक्षा से कम नहीं यह लोकसभा चुनाव|website=Dainik Jagran|accessdate=26 April 2024|archive-date=3 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403123433/https://www.jagran.com/bihar/khagaria-left-party-cpi-m-made-sanjay-kumar-its-candidate-from-khagaria-for-lok-sabha-elections2024-23684492.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Life and career==
Singh represented Khagaria in Bihar Assembly in between 2000 and 2005. His elder son Sanjay Kumar Kushwaha served as district unit president of Communist Party of India (Marxist) for Khagaria district, while his younger son [[Ajay Kumar Kushwaha]] won the election to Bihar Legislative Assembly in 2020 from [[Bibhutipur Assembly constituency]]. His elder son Sanjay Kumar Kushwaha was made the candidate of CPI (M) for the [[2024 Indian general election in Bihar]] from [[Khagaria Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hi/!state/cpim-candidate-sanjay-kumar-filed-nomination-in-khagaria-lok-sabha-seat-brs24041504230|title=खगड़िया में CPIM प्रत्याशी संजय कुमार ने किया नामांकन, बोले- 'पलायन रोकने सहित और भी कई मुद्दे' - Lok Sabha Election 2024|website=etvBharat|date=15 April 2024 |accessdate=26 April 2024|archive-date=25 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425194329/https://www.etvbharat.com/hi/!state/cpim-candidate-sanjay-kumar-filed-nomination-in-khagaria-lok-sabha-seat-brs24041504230|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/lok-sabha/parties-stick-to-tested-formulae-as-north-bihar-gears-up-to-vote-on-may-7/article68114482.ece|title= Parties stick to tested formulas as 5 seats of north Bihar gear up for polls |newspaper=The Hindu|first=Amarnath|last=Tewary|date=27 April 2024|accessdate=3 August 2024}}</ref> As MLA he always participated in welfare activities in his constituency which included distribution of amount sanctioned by the government for the beneficiaries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/khagaria-mla-distributes-ex-gratia/articleshow/6305140.cms|title=MLA distributed ex gratia amount|newspaper=The Times of India |date=9 April 2002 |access-date=2024-04-25|archive-date=2024-04-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240425194312/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/khagaria-mla-distributes-ex-gratia/articleshow/6305140.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2000–2005]]
[[Category:People from Khagaria district]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Khoj - Parchaiyo Ke Uss Paar

2026-04-22T10:26:32Z

Felorox: started a stub

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Khoj - Parchaiyo Ke Uss Paar.jpeg
| caption = Official
poster of the series
| genre = [[Mystery film|Mystery]], [[Thriller (genre)|Thriller]]
| creator = Prabal Baruah
| director = Prabal Baruah
| cinematography = Shanu Singh Rajput
| editor = Rajkumar Chaturvedi
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 7
| producer = Samar Khan
| network =
| first_aired = {{Start date|2024|12|27|df=y}}
| last_aired =
}}

'''''Khoj – Parchaiyo Ke Uss Paar''''' is a [[Hindi]] mystery thriller web series, directed by Prabal Baruah and produced by Juggernaut. and Editor by Prakash Kumar <ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-16 |title=ZEE5 unveils thriller series Khoj – Parchaiyon Ke Uss Paar, starring Sharib Hashmi, Anupriya Goenka, and Aamir Dalvi : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/zee5-unveils-thriller-series-khoj-parchaiyon-ke-uss-paar-starring-sharib-hashmi-anupriya-goenka-aamir-dalvi/ |access-date=2024-12-27 |language=en}}</ref> The series stars [[Sharib Hashmi]], [[Anupriya Goenka]], and [[Aladdin – Naam Toh Suna Hoga|Aamir Dalvi]] in key roles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khoj – Parchaiyon Ke Uss Paar, Starring Sharib Hashmi And Anupriya Goenka, Gets Lost In Its Own Shadows |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/khoj-parchaiyon-ke-uss-paar-starring-sharib-hashmi-and-anupriya-goenka-gets-lost-in-its-own-shadows |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref> It debuted on [[ZEE5]] on 27 December 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 December 2024 |title=Khoj Parchaiyon Ke Uss Paar: When and where to watch the Hindi mystery thriller web series |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/trends/khoj-parchaiyon-ke-uss-paar-when-and-where-to-watch-the-hindi-mystery-thriller-web-series-11735038983225.html |website=Mint}}</ref>

== Plot summary ==
Ved ([[Sharib Hashmi]]) is searching for his wife, Meera, who has gone missing. As he investigates her disappearance, he encounters strange events and clues that make him question what is real. A police officer doubts Ved’s story, and Ved begins to question his own sanity. Throughout the series, he tries to prove that the woman claiming to be Meera is not really his wife. The show explores themes of identity, truth, and mental distress.

== Cast and characters ==

* [[Sharib Hashmi]] as Ved
* [[Anupriya Goenka]] as Meera
* [[Dabangii – Mulgii Aayi Re Aayi|Aamir Dalvi]] as Inspector Anmol Sathe
*Hasnain Siddiqui as Ram Singh
* Kriti Garg as Aditi
* Himakshi Borah as real Meera

== Episodes ==
{{Episode table |background=##9C958E |overall= |title= |director= |airdate= |directorR= |writerR= |airdateR= |episodes={{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Woh Kaun Thi
|DirectedBy = Prabal Baruah|
|cinematographer = Shanu Singh Rajput
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|12|27}}
|ShortSummary = On his birthday, Ved’s life takes a dramatic turn when his wife, Meera, suddenly disappears. As he searches for her, he encounters a skeptical police officer and uncovers a startling truth about his wife’s true identity.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Kaun Hai Meera
|DirectedBy = Prabal Baruah
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|12|27}}
|ShortSummary = Ved rejects Meera's assertion that she is his wife, despite her revealing personal details about their relationship. Meera’s motives come under suspicion when she is seen secretly adding a mysterious powder to Ved’s coffee.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Aar Ya Paar
|DirectedBy = Prabal Baruah
|Cinematographer = Shanu Singh Rajput
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|12|27}}
|ShortSummary = Ved uncovers a shocking mark on Meera and brings Tia to help identify her. After a confrontation with Mrs. Fernandes, he eventually accepts Meera. Meanwhile, Ved confronts Amol at his door, interrupting him in the process.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|Title = Chupa Pehlu
|DirectedBy = Prabal Baruah
|cinematographer = Shanu Singh Rajput
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|12|27}}
|ShortSummary = Suspicious of Meera, Ved takes matters into his own hands and arranges a DNA test. He also recruits Devraj to keep an eye on her. As he digs deeper, Ved uncovers secret codes and learns about her cryptic meetings at a café.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|Title = Nehle Pe Dehla
|DirectedBy = Prabal Baruah
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|12|27}}
|ShortSummary = Devraj steals Meera’s purse and hands it over to Ved, who uncovers unsettling information about himself. Concerned, Meera takes Ved to a doctor, who recommends tests to uncover the cause of his memory loss.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|Title = Aakhri Raasta
|DirectedBy = Prabal Baruah
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|12|27}}
|ShortSummary = After the MRI, Ved begins to experience troubling flashes. His medical reports reveal significant mental health concerns. Meera sends a divorce lawyer to him, and in the midst of it all, Ved discovers that Tia has gone missing from the hostel.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 7
|Title = Kahaani Uss Raat Ki
|DirectedBy = Prabal Baruah
|cinematographer = Shanu Singh Rajput

|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|12|27}}
|ShortSummary = An enraged Ved confronts Meera after discovering that she is the one who took Tia. However, his violent reaction leads to his arrest by Amol. The charges against Ved include kidnapping and assault.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
}}

== Critical reception ==
Sreeparna Sengupta of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the series 3.0 out of 5 stars, stating, "Overall as a suspense thriller, 'Khoj - Parchaiyo ke Uss Paar' makes a sincere effort to keep the intrigue going. And makes for a decent one-time watch."<ref>{{Cite news |title=Khoj – Parchaiyon Ke Uss Paar Season 1 Review : A sincere thriller |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/hindi/khoj-parchaiyon-ke-uss-paar/khoj-parchaiyon-ke-uss-paar-season-1/seasonreview/116671477.cms |access-date=2024-12-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

Sonal Verma of ''[[Times Now]]'' also rated 3.0 stars, commenting on the narrative's focus on Ved’s attempts to prove that the woman claiming to be Meera is not his wife. Verma further noted that the series addresses themes such as women’s rights, the consequences of domestic violence, and the impact of childhood traumas.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-27 |title=Khoj - Parchaiyon Ke Uss Paar Review: Sharib Hashmi, Anupriya Goenka-Starrer Mystery Thriller Will Keep You Hooked |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/khoj-parchaiyon-ke-uss-paar-review-sharib-hashmi-anupriya-goenka-starrer-mystery-thriller-will-keep-you-hooked-review-116692235 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>

Jyotsna Rawat of ''[[Punjab Kesari]]'' awarded 3.5, noting "Khoj - Parchaiyo ke Uss Paar is an interesting psychological thriller, full of mind-blowing incidents."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-27 |title=Review: दिमाग को झकझोर देने वाली कहानी है खोज: परछाइयों के उस पार, दिलचस्प ट्विस्ट ने लगाया तड़का - mobile |url=https://m.punjabkesari.in/entertainment/news/khoj-parchaiyon-ke-uss-paar-review-in-hindi-2080975 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=punjabkesari}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=35049431}}
* ''[https://www.zee5.com/web-series/details/khoj-parchaiyo-ke-uss-paar/0-6-4z5673981 Khoj – Parchaiyo Ke Uss Paar]'' on [[ZEE5]]

[[Category:2024 web series debuts]]
[[Category:Hindi-language web series]]
[[Category:Indian mystery television series]]
[[Category:Indian thriller television series]]

The Railway Men

2026-04-21T13:21:44Z

Felorox:

{{Short description|Indian streaming television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = The Railway Men Poster.jpg
| genre = {{Plainlist|
* [[Historical film|Historical]]
* [[Disaster film|Disaster]]
* [[Thriller film|Thriller]]
}}
| creator = Shiv Rawail
| based_on =
| writer = Aayush Gupta
| screenplay =
| story =
| director = Shiv Rawail
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[R. Madhavan]]
* [[Kay Kay Menon]]
* [[Divyenndu]]
* [[Babil Khan]]}}
| narrated =
| music = Sam Slater
| country =
| language = Hindi
| num_series =
| num_episodes = 4
| executive_producer = {{Plainlist|
* [[Aditya Chopra]]
* [[Uday Chopra]]
* Yogendra Mogre
* Akshaye Widhani
}}
| producer =
| editor = Yasha Jaidev Ramchandani
| cinematography = Rubais
| runtime = 51–65 minutes
| company = {{Plainlist|
* [[Yash Raj Films#YRF Entertainment|YRF Entertainment]]
}}
| budget =
| network = [[Netflix]]
| released = {{Start date|2023|11|18|df=y}}
}}
'''''The Railway Men: The Untold Story of Bhopal 1984''''' is a 2023 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[Historical film|historical]] [[Disaster film|disaster]] [[Thriller film|thriller]] television miniseries about railway workers who saved many lives during the [[1984 Bhopal disaster|1984 toxic gas leak]] at the chemical company [[Union Carbide India Limited]]'s plant in [[Bhopal]]. It is produced by [[Yash Raj Films#YRF Entertainment|YRF Entertainment]] (the streaming division of [[Yash Raj Films]]) and stars [[R. Madhavan]], [[Kay Kay Menon]], [[Divyenndu]] and [[Babil Khan]].<ref name="variety1">{{cite news|url=https://variety.com/2023/tv/asia/netflix-the-railway-men-aditya-chopra-1235798668/|title=Netflix's 'The Railway Men' Was Handpicked by Producer Aditya Chopra to be YRF's First Series, Director Reveals (EXCLUSIVE)|work=Variety|access-date=18 November 2023|archive-date=18 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118045356/https://variety.com/2023/tv/asia/netflix-the-railway-men-aditya-chopra-1235798668/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The Railway Men: YRF's First OTT Series, Starring R Madhavan, Is Based on Bhopal Gas Tragedy |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/the-railway-men-yrfs-first-ott-series-based-on-bhopal-gas-tragedy-stars-r-madhavan-babil-khan-4509791.html |access-date=23 April 2022 |work=News18 |date=2 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423131152/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/the-railway-men-yrfs-first-ott-series-based-on-bhopal-gas-tragedy-stars-r-madhavan-babil-khan-4509791.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sunny Hinduja]] and [[Juhi Chawla]] play supporting roles.

Filmed from December 2021 to May 2022, all four episodes of the miniseries were released on [[Netflix]] on 18 November 2023.

==Premise==
''The Railway Men'' is based on railway workers who saved many lives during the [[Bhopal disaster|1984 gas tragedy]] at the chemical company [[Union Carbide India Limited]]'s plant in [[Bhopal]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Suhani |title=Netflix's 'The Railway Men': A few good men |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/leisure/story/20231127-netflixs-the-railway-men-a-few-good-men-2464304-2023-11-17 |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=India Today |date=18 November 2023}}</ref> The series is inspired by the efforts of station master Ghulam Dastagir and his team at the [[Bhopal Junction railway station]] on the night of the tragedy.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-04 |title=Bhopal gas tragedy: An unsung hero who saved many lives |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/an-unsung-hero-who-saved-many-lives/articleshow/72355810.cms |access-date=2023-11-27 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006191308/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/an-unsung-hero-who-saved-many-lives/articleshow/72355810.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Cast==
===Main===
* [[R. Madhavan]] as Rati Pandey, the general manager of the [[Central Railway zone]] of the [[Indian Railways]]<ref name="main cast">{{cite news |last1=Menon |first1=Dishya |title=The Railway Men: From R Madhavan to Babil Khan, Meet The Cast and The Characters They Play |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/the-railway-men-from-r-madhavan-to-babil-khan-meet-the-cast-and-the-characters-they-play-8662951.html |access-date=18 November 2023 |website=News18 |date=15 November 2023 |archive-date=17 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117151806/https://www.news18.com/movies/the-railway-men-from-r-madhavan-to-babil-khan-meet-the-cast-and-the-characters-they-play-8662951.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Kay Kay Menon]] as Iftekaar Siddiqui, the station master of the [[Bhopal Junction railway station]]<ref name="main cast"/>
* [[Divyenndu]] as Balwant Yadav, a robber masquerading as a [[police constable]]
* [[Babil Khan]] as Imad Riaz, an inexperienced [[Railway crew management in India#Classification of Loco Pilots and Train Managers|loco pilot]]<ref name="main cast"/>

===Recurring===
{{castlist|
* [[Sunny Hinduja]] as Jagmohan Kumawat, a journalist
* [[Juhi Chawla|Juhi Chawla Mehta]] as Rajeshwari Janglay, a principled Railways Ministry bureaucrat, DG Personnel of Railways
* [[Dibyendu Bhattacharya]] as Kamruddin, a manager at Union Carbide
* Philip Rosch as Madsen, the American head of the plant
* [[Denzil Smith]] as railway minister
* [[Raghubir Yadav]] as a train guard
* [[Mandira Bedi]] as Rajbir Kaur, a [[Sikh]] woman
* Connor Keene as Alex Braun, a German scientist
* [[Sunita Rajwar]] as Vijaya, a cleaning woman
* [[Manish Wadhwa]] as Mirza
* Shrikant Verma as Ishwar Prasad
* Nivedita Bhargava as Imad's mother
* Annapurna Soni as Shazia, Ansari's widow
* Bhumika Dube as Nafisa, Kamruddin’s wife
* Thanu Khan as Markhand
* Aditya Shukla as Ratlu
* Priya Yadav as Sohini, Vijaya’s daughter
* Rahul Tewari as Benedict
* [[Mushtaq Khan]] as Railway Yard Man
* Abhinav Grover as Adil
}}

==Episodes==
{{Episode table |background=#000000 |overall= |title= |director= |directorR= |writer= |airdate= |airdateR= |episodes=
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 1
| Title = Episode 1
| DirectedBy = Shiv Rawail
| WrittenBy = Aayush Gupta
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2023|11|18|df=yes}}
| ShortSummary = Employees at the [[Union Carbide India Limited]] work under negligible safety protocols. Imad Riaz, a former employee, talks to a journalist, Kumawat, about the death of his friend at the plant due to toxic gas inhalation. He says that the management took no action and fired him instead for complaining. A manager at the plant, Kamruddin, also tries to give information to Kumawat about the lack of safety at the crumbling plant. Meanwhile, Iftekaar Siddiqui is an idealistic station master of the [[Bhopal Junction railway station]]. A dacoit named Balwant Yadav intent on looting the station safe-house introduces himself to Iftekaar as a cop in pursuit of the dacoit. On the night of 2 December 1984, due to malfunctioning instruments and untrained workers at the plant, a highly toxic gas [[Methyl isocyanate]] (MIC) leaks into the atmosphere, instantly killing many workers, including Kamruddin.
| LineColor = 000000
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 2
| Title = Episode 2
| DirectedBy = Shiv Rawail
| WrittenBy = Aayush Gupta
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2023|11|18|df=yes}}
| ShortSummary = As the gas starts spreading into the highly populated [[Bhopal]] city, hordes of people begin to collapse in the streets, many of whom die. At Bhopal Junction station, Iftekaar and Balwant are initially confused by the chaos. They soon realise that people who were indoors were seemingly unharmed. They try to gather the crowds into the station waiting room. Due to incomplete cable repair work, communication systems are down, and Iftekaar has no way to reach nearby stations and warn them. Imad, who had begun a new job as a [[loco pilot]], becomes aware of the gas leak due to his past history. He goes to the station to warn Iftekaar. Meanwhile, at Itarsi Junction, Rati Pandey, a general manager for the Indian Railways, becomes aware of the situation.
| LineColor = 000000
}}{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 3
| Title = Episode 3
| DirectedBy = Shiv Rawail
| WrittenBy = Aayush Gupta
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2023|11|18|df=yes}}
| ShortSummary = Rati tries to persuade DG (Personnel) Rajeshwari Janglay to take action and send help to the people stranded in Bhopal. However, her pleas are neglected by her superiors. Rajeshwari entrusts Rati to disobey the orders and help them anyway. Rati inspires several railway workers to help him in the cause, and they set off towards Bhopal. At Bhopal Junction, Iftekaar, Imad, and Balwant find their own way to rescue people trapped at the station by putting them in a goods train. Meanwhile, Madsen, the American head of the plant, refuses to provide any help. A German scientist, Alex Brau, who seemingly has an antidote to MIC is thwarted in his effort by both the Indian Government and Union Carbide.
| LineColor = 000000
}}{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 4
| Title = Episode 4
| DirectedBy = Shiv Rawail
| WrittenBy = Aayush Gupta
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2023|11|18|df=yes}}
| ShortSummary = Unable to warn them, a train with 1000 passengers makes its way towards Bhopal Junction. The train is delayed due to [[1984 anti-Sikh riots|anti-Sikh rioters]]. Meanwhile, Rati and his workers make their way towards the junction as well. Iftekaar and Imad find a way to avoid a collision, but Imad dies due to inhalation. After helping the people board the rescue train, Iftekaar too seemingly dies. Balwant retrieves his key to steal money from the vault. Rati helps the survivors with medical supplies, and it is revealed that Rajeshwari and he are married. Meanwhile, Kumawat, appalled at the disaster, begins documenting the event through photographs. On the next day, rescue trains carry many survivors away from the city. At a makeshift graveyard, thousands of bodies are seen to be buried and burnt. Iftekaar, like a few others who were pronounced dead, wakes up. Balwant has a change of heart, and returns the money. In 1996, twelve years after the tragedy, Kumawat revisits Bhopal, and sees that long-term effects of the disaster are still being felt.
| LineColor = 000000
}}
}}

==Production==
''The Railway Men'' marked the directorial debut of Shiv Rawail, who was an assistant director at [[Yash Raj Films]].<ref name="variety1"/> It also marked the first streaming fiction series of the company, under their subdivision YRF Entertainment.<ref name="variety1"/>

The series began filming on 1 December 2021 and wrapped on 11 May 2022.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shackleton |first=Liz |title=India's Yash Raj Films enters streaming production with 'The Railway Men' |url=https://www.screendaily.com/news/indias-yash-raj-films-enters-streaming-production-with-the-railway-men/5165669.article |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=Screen Daily |date=2 December 2021 |archive-date=29 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240629074854/https://www.screendaily.com/news/indias-yash-raj-films-enters-streaming-production-with-the-railway-men/5165669.article |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Babil Khan wraps shooting for web series 'The Railway Men' |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/babil-khan-wraps-shooting-for-web-series-the-railway-men/articleshow/91507036.cms |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=The Economic Times |date=11 May 2022 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118092953/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/babil-khan-wraps-shooting-for-web-series-the-railway-men/articleshow/91507036.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Nindiya
| length1 = 3:47
| lyrics1 = [[Kausar Munir]]
| music1 = [[Sanchit and Ankit Balhara]]
| extra1 = Supriya Pathak, Atharv Bakshi
| title2 = Nindiya
| note2 = Reprise
| length2 = 3:50
| lyrics2 = Kausar Munir
| music2 = Sanchit and Ankit Balhara
| extra2 = [[Ayushmann Khurrana]]
}}

== Release ==
Two former employees of Union Carbide India Limited, convicted in the gas leak case, filed a plea to prevent the release of the series; the [[Bombay High Court]] rejected their case.<ref>{{cite news |title=HC rejects stay on OTT release of web series based on Bhopal gas tragedy |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/hc-rejects-stay-on-ott-release-of-web-series-based-on-bhopal-gas-tragedy-101700248963803.html |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=Hindustan Times |date=18 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118072228/https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/hc-rejects-stay-on-ott-release-of-web-series-based-on-bhopal-gas-tragedy-101700248963803.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The series was released on [[Netflix]] on 18 November 2023.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Whittock |first1=Jesse |title=Netflix & Yash Raj Films On Track To Launch 'The Railway Men' In November |url=https://deadline.com/2023/10/netflix-yash-raj-films-the-railway-men-launch-date-november-18-1235583766/ |access-date=26 October 2023 |work=Deadline |date=26 October 2023 |archive-date=29 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240629074851/https://deadline.com/2023/10/netflix-yash-raj-films-the-railway-men-launch-date-november-18-1235583766/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Reception ==
Nandini Ramnath of ''[[Scroll.in]]'' found ''The Railway Men'' to be a "compelling saga of ordinary heroism"; she particularly praised the production design by Rajat Poddar for his "remarkably faithful recreations" of the era.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ramnath |first=Nandini |title='The Railway Men' review: A compelling saga of ordinary heroism |url=https://scroll.in/reel/1059168/the-railway-men-review-a-compelling-saga-of-ordinary-heroism |access-date=18 November 2023 |website=Scroll.in |date=18 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118081020/https://scroll.in/reel/1059168/the-railway-men-review-a-compelling-saga-of-ordinary-heroism |url-status=live }}</ref> Sonil Dedhia of ''[[News18]]'' considered it a "passionate, emotionally resonant, and incredibly moving" tale of under-appreciated heroes, but felt that too many subplots and backstories prevented it from being a "taut thriller".<ref>{{cite web |last=Dedhia |first=Sonil |title=The Railway Men Review: Kay Kay Menon, R Madhavan's Show Is Hard-Hitting But Brings Too Many Sub-Plots |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/the-railway-men-review-kay-kay-menon-r-madhavans-show-is-hard-hitting-but-brings-too-many-sub-plots-8666967.html |access-date=18 November 2023 |website=News18 |date=18 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118081531/https://www.news18.com/movies/the-railway-men-review-kay-kay-menon-r-madhavans-show-is-hard-hitting-but-brings-too-many-sub-plots-8666967.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mayur Sanap of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' commended Rawail for handling the tragic event with "seriousness and respect without going overboard with the dramatic impact".<ref>{{cite web |last=Sanap |first=Mayur |title=The Railway Men Review: Compelling Watch |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/the-railway-men-review/20231118.htm |access-date=18 November 2023 |website=Rediff.com |date=18 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118084723/https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/the-railway-men-review/20231118.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[The Indian Express]]''{{'s}} [[Shubhra Gupta]] termed it "a worthy effort, which brings back an expansive, old-fashioned style of storytelling to a still-relevant event", and particularly praised the performances of Kay Kay Menon and Babil Khan.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gupta |first=Shubhra |title=The Railway Men review: Kay Kay Menon, Babil Khan give terrific performances in a worthy show |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/the-railway-men-review-kay-kay-menon-babil-khan-give-terrific-performances-in-a-worthy-show-9032061/ |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=The Indian Express |date=18 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118083000/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/the-railway-men-review-kay-kay-menon-babil-khan-give-terrific-performances-in-a-worthy-show-9032061/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[India Today]]''{{'s}} Zinia Bandyopadhyay considered Khan to be the "real star of the show".<ref>{{cite news |last=Bandyopadhyay |first=Zinia |title=The Railway Men Review: Great performances, good script elevate this gripping drama |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/the-railway-men-review-kay-kay-menon-r-madhavan-babil-khan-divyenndu-sharma-juhi-chawla-2464526-2023-11-18 |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=India Today |date=18 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118090713/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/the-railway-men-review-kay-kay-menon-r-madhavan-babil-khan-divyenndu-sharma-juhi-chawla-2464526-2023-11-18 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Saibal Chatterjee]] of ''[[NDTV]]'' wrote, "''The Railway Men'' is buoyed by a clutch of laudable performances and storytelling that does not slide below a certain level of competence. But it could have been much, much more."<ref>{{cite web|last=Chatterjee|first=Saibal|title=The Railway Men Review: Buoyed By Laudable Performances But Could Have Been Much More|url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/the-railway-men-review-buoyed-by-laudable-performances-but-could-have-been-much-more-2-5-stars-4584727|access-date=18 November 2023|website=NDTV|date=18 November 2023|archive-date=18 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118085221/https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/the-railway-men-review-buoyed-by-laudable-performances-but-could-have-been-much-more-2-5-stars-4584727|url-status=live}}</ref> Santanu Das of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' believed that the series' handling of the tragedy was not at par with the handling of the [[Chernobyl disaster]] by the [[HBO]] miniseries ''[[Chernobyl (miniseries)|Chernobyl]]'' (2019).<ref>{{cite news |last=Das |first=Santanu |title=The Railway Men review: Real life tragedy of the Bhopal gas leak feels too manufactured |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/web-series/the-railway-men-review-bhopal-gas-leak-kay-kay-menon-r-madhavan-babil-khan-netflix-india-101700322890852.html |access-date=18 November 2023 |work=Hindustan Times |date=18 November 2023 |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118163320/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/web-series/the-railway-men-review-bhopal-gas-leak-kay-kay-menon-r-madhavan-babil-khan-netflix-india-101700322890852.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|id=16296870}}
* [https://www.netflix.com/in/title/81711003 ''The Railway Men''] at [[Netflix]]

{{Netflix original current series}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Railway Men}}
[[Category:2023 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Netflix television dramas]]
[[Category:Indian historical television series]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Television series based on actual events]]
[[Category:Disaster television series]]
[[Category:Television series set in 1984]]
[[Category:Bhopal disaster]]

Firouzophrynus hololius

2026-04-21T05:48:31Z

Felorox: Creating Info!

{{Short description|Species of amphibian}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Duttaphrynus hololius.jpg
| status = DD
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite journal | author = S.D. Biju | author2 = Sushil Dutta | author3 = Karthikeyan Vasudevan | author4 = S.P. Vijayakumar | author5 = Chelmala Srinivasulu | author6 = Gajanan Dasaramji Bhuddhe | title = ''Duttaphrynus hololius'' | journal = [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume= 2004 | page = e.T54665A11171073 | publisher = [[IUCN]] | year = 2004 | doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54665A11171073.en| doi-access = free }}</ref>
| genus = Firouzophrynus
| species = hololius
| authority = ([[Albert Günther|Günther]], 1876)
| range_map = Duttaphrynus hololius map-fr.svg
| synonyms = ''Bufo holoius'' ''Duttaphrynus holoius''
}}

'''''Firouzophrynus hololius''''', known as '''Günther's toad''',<ref name="frost" /> '''Malabar toad''',<ref name="frost" /> or '''rock toad''',<ref name="aw" /> is an uncommon, rock-dwelling [[toad]] found in the [[Eastern Ghats]] and [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] plateau of peninsular [[India]].<ref name="IUCN" /><ref>Srinivasulu, B., Ganesh, S. R., & Srinivasulu, C. (2013). New regional record and notes on historical specimens of Gunther Toad Duttaphrynus hololius with comments on other southeastern Indian congeners. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 5(13), 4784-4790.</ref><ref>Pillai, R. S., & Ravichandran, M. S. (1991). On a rare toad Bufo hololius Günther from Nagarjunsagar, Andhra Pradesh. Rec. Zool. Sur. Ind, 88(1), 11–14.</ref>

==Description==
The crown of this toad lacks bony ridges and has a short, prominent snout. Its inter-orbital space as broad and the upper eyelid; tympanum very distinct, nearly as large as the eye and close to it. Fingers short, first extending a little beyond second; toes short, webbed at the base only; subarticular tubercles single, not very prominent; two small metatarsal tubercles; no tarsal fold. The tarso-metatarsal articulation reaches the eye. Skin smooth, the back with very flat, smooth, distinctly porous glandular patches; parotoids flat. Olive above, marbled with brown: beneath immaculate.<ref>Boulenger, G. A. (1890) Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Batrachia.</ref>
From snout to vent about 2 inches.

==Distribution==
This toad is known from rocky hillocks and outcrops of [[Bangalore]] in [[Karnataka]], [[Hosur]], [[Gingee]] and [[Javadi Hills]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Chittoor]], [[Nellore]], [[Visakhapatnam]] and [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]]. (It was previously mistaken to be found in the [[Western Ghats]]).<ref>Chandramouli, S. R., Ganesh, S. R., & Baskaran, N. (2011). On recent sightings of a little-known south Indian toad, Duttaphrynus hololius (Günther, 1876) with notes on its morphological characterization and ecology. Herpetology Notes, 4, 271–274.</ref><ref>Ganesh, S. R., & Asokan, J. R. (2010). Catalogue of Indian herpetological specimens in the collection of the Government Museum Chennai, India. Hamadryad, 35, 46–63.</ref>

==Natural history==
This uncommon species of toad is very partial to rocky habitats; being only found in places with predominantly rocky substrate and boulder formations. Thought to be [[nocturnal]] and [[insectivorous]]; and to become active during the rains. Breeds by laying eggs in stagnant ephemeral [[Stream pool|pools]] and [[pond]]s formed only on rocky surfaces, but not on soil layers. Tadpoles develop in ephemeral pools on rock scapes.<ref>Ganesh, S. R., Kalaimani, A., Nath, A., & Kumar, R. B. (2013). First observations on the larval characteristics of Günther's toad Duttaphrynus hololius (Günther, 1876). Herpetotropicos, 9(1-2), 5–8.</ref><ref>Chandramouli, S. R., & Kalaimani, A. (2014). Description of the larvae of Günther's toad Duttaphrynus hololius (Günther, 1876)(Anura: Bufonidae) with notes on development and oral ultra-structure. Alytes, 31(1/2), 3.</ref> Young ones are very bright replicas of the adults; sporting vivid scarlet red spots on body. Its depressed body form may indicate a life suited for rock-dwelling habits.

The threats are not exactly known but habitat loss is possible; it also occurs in [[Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve]] and possibly but needing verification [[Bannerghatta National Park]]. It has a fragmented and declining population and there were no recent records until 2009,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asiannature.org/sites/default/files/2011%20Little%20known%20South%20Indian%20Toad%20Herpetology.pdf|title=On recent sightings of a little-known south Indian toad, ''Duttaphyrnus hololius'' (Günter, 1876) with notes on its morphological characterization and ecology|date=2011|publisher=asiannature.org|access-date=June 29, 2015}}</ref> when it was re-sighted in the Hosur Forest Division. Following this work more sightings turned out subsequently from Thommaguddai, Ambur Range, [[Tiruppattur, Vellore]] and it was seen three more times in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|author1=A. Kalaimani |author2=Anukul Nath |author3=R. Brawin Kumar |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.academia.edu/3754258|title=A note on records of rare and endemic ''Duttaphrynus hololius'' (Günther, 1876) from Tamil Nadu, Eastern Ghats, India|date=2012|publisher=academia.edu|access-date=June 29, 2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=aw>{{cite web |title=''Duttaphrynus hololius'' |url=https://amphibiaweb.org/species/196 |website=amphibiaweb.org |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref>
<ref name=frost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-hololius |title=''Duttaphrynus hololius'' (Günther, 1876) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2016 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |access-date=1 March 2016}}</ref>
}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q28031345}}

[[Category:True toads]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 1876]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Albert Günther]]
[[Category:Frogs of India]]
[[Category:Endemic amphibians of India]]
{{Bufonidae-stub}}

Manchuru

2026-04-20T19:50:40Z

Felorox: creating a details and citations.

{{Orphan|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Manchuru
| native_name = Manchur
| image_map =
| settlement_type = Village
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Annamayya district|Annamayya]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of mandals in Andhra Pradesh|Mandal]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Vayalpadu mandal|Vayalpadu]]
| governing_body = Gram panchayat
| leader_title = [[Sarpanch]]
| area_total_km2 = 15.73
| area_total_sq_mi = 6.07
| population_total = 2447
| population_density_km2 = 173
}}
'''Manchuru''' is a village in [[Vayalpadu mandal]], [[Annamayya district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] state, located in [[India]]. It is administered by a village panchayat. In the [[2011 census of India|2011 Census]] it had a population of 2,245.<ref>{{cite web |title=Manchuru(596083) |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=676450 |accessdate=9 March 2022}}</ref>

==Traditions==
The temples of Ananthapuramma with Her image in human form, Anjaneya, Someswara Swamy and Sri Rama are the places of worship in the village.
Ananthapuramma Dhinnemeeda Tirunala is celebrated for two days on Phalguna Suddha Sapthami and Ashtami (February - March). Animals are
sacrificed to the deity. Devotees liquidate their vows. For the past 10 years it is being celebrated and is limited to this village. Kamma community patronize the festival. All local communities participate.<ref>[http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2779/1/41477_1961_CHI.pdf 1961 CHI] lsi.gov.in {{dead link|date=December 2023}}</ref>

==History==
The village was historically a feudal fiefdom, and, was a [[Zamindari Estate]] during the rule of the [[British Raj]].<ref>[https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/70965.pdf Chittoor] ignca.gov.in</ref> The village was ruled by [[Reddy]] chieftains from the Kalikiri-Reddy Clan. The head of the ruling family bore the hereditary title of [[Raja]]. The last ruling [[Raja of Manchuru]] (styled title) was Venkataswamy Kalikiri-Reddy.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Annamayya district]]

{{Improve categories|date=December 2023}}

Pulakeshinagar Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:33:12Z

Felorox: Starting new stub.

{{Short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Pulakeshinagar
|type= SLA
| constituency_no = 159
| map_image = 159-Pulakeshinagar constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|state = [[Karnataka]]
|district = [[Bangalore Urban district|Bangalore Urban]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Bangalore North Lok Sabha constituency|Bangalore North]]
|established = 2008
|electors = {{formatnum:239090}} (2023)<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/15163-karnataka-2023/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in |access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|7}}
|reservation = SC
|mla = A. C. Srinivasa
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|party = [[Indian National Congress]]
|preceded_by = [[Akhanda Srinivas Murthy]]
}}
'''Pulakeshinagar Assembly constituency''' is one of the 224 constituencies in the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]] of [[Karnataka]], a southern state of [[India]]. It is also part of [[Bangalore North Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite news |title=DELIMITATION OF PARLIAMENTARY AND ASSEMBLY CONSTITUENCIES ORDER, 2008 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |work=Election commission of India |access-date= October 9, 2017}}</ref> Muslims are the majority community in the constituency, with 54% of the electorate, while Dalits are a significant minority.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kava, Jahnavi |first=Shivani |date=2023-05-02 |title=Civic issues and riots on voters’ minds in Bengaluru's Pulakeshinagar constituency |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/karnataka/civic-issues-and-riots-voters-minds-bengalurus-pulakeshinagar-constituency-176688 |access-date=2024-07-06 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>

[[A. C. Srinivasa]] is the current MLA from this constituency winning the [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]].

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || [[B. Prasanna Kumar]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2013]] || rowspan="2" | [[Akhanda Srinivas Murthy]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (Secular)}}
|-
| [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]] || [[A. C. Srinivasa]]
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2023 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Pulakeshinagar }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[A. C. Srinivasa]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 87,316 |percentage = 66.72% |change = {{decrease}}10.46 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Akhanda Srinivas Murthy]] |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 25,106 |percentage = 19.18% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. Murali |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 10,624 |percentage = 8.12% |change = {{increase}}0.62 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. R. Bhaskar Prasad |party = Social Democratic Party of India |votes = 4,102 |percentage = 3.13% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,190 |percentage = 0.91% |change = {{decrease}}0.20 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Anuradha. V |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 844 |percentage = 0.64% |change = {{decrease}}11.97 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 62,210 |percentage = 47.54% |change = {{decrease}}17.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 130,901 |percentage = 54.75% |change = {{increase}}1.46 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 130,869}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 239,090 |ref = |change = {{increase}}0.76 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}10.46 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2018 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Pulakeshinagar }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Akhanda Srinivas Murthy]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 97,574 |percentage = 77.18% |change = {{increase}}49.60 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Prasanna Kumar]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 15,948 |percentage = 12.61% |change = {{decrease}}22.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Susheela Devaraj |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 9,479 |percentage = 7.50% |change = {{increase}}4.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,402 |percentage = 1.11% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 81,626 |percentage = 64.56% |change = {{increase}}57.31 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 126,452 |percentage = 53.29% |change = {{decrease}}3.08 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 126,432}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 237,288 |ref = |change = {{increase}}33.09 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Dal (Secular) |swing = {{increase}}42.35 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2013 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Pulakeshinagar <ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 : To the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=2014-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220034253/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Akhanda Srinivas Murthy]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 48,995 |percentage = 34.83% |change = {{increase}}6.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Prasanna Kumar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 38,796 |percentage = 27.58% |change = {{decrease}}22.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. Hemalatha |party = Social Democratic Party of India |votes = 5,431 |percentage = 3.86% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Palani Velu. K |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 4,589 |percentage = 3.26% |change = {{decrease}}10.92 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,199 |percentage = 7.25% |change = {{decrease}}15.25 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 100,505 |percentage = 56.37% |change = {{increase}}14.07 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 140,672}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 178,292 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}3.95 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Dal (Secular) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}15.58 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2008 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Pulakeshinagar <ref>{{cite web |title=General Election Karnataka Legislative Assembly 2008 Election Statistics |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |publisher=Government of Karnataka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201232433/https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Prasanna Kumar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 39,577 |percentage = 50.41% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. Srinivasa Murthy |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 21,908 |percentage = 27.90% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dr. Chikka Melurappa Alias Prof. Mylarappa |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 11,131 |percentage = 14.18% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = V. Sreenivasan |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 2,408 |percentage = 3.07% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = D. Anbarasan |party = All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes = 1,537 |percentage = 1.96% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. Saravanan |party = Independent politician |votes = 888 |percentage = 1.13% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 17,669 |percentage = 22.50% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 78,515 |percentage = 42.30% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 78,514}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 185,617 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Bangalore Urban district]]
* [[List of constituencies of Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Karnataka}}
{{coord|12.997|77.614|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Bengaluru Urban district]]
[[Category:Politics of Bengaluru]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Taliha Assembly constituency

2026-04-18T23:41:58Z

Felorox: New New Biography

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Arunachal Pradesh State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Taliha
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 23
| map_image = Taliha Assembly constituency map.svg
| state = [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| district = [[Upper Subansiri district|Upper Subansiri]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Arunachal West (Lok Sabha constituency)|Arunachal West]]
| established = 1990
| reservation = ST
| electors = 11,397
| mla = [[Nyato Rigia]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}
'''Taliha''' is one of the 60 [[Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] state in [[India]].<ref name=ceoarunachal-ACs>{{cite web |url=http://ceoarunachal.nic.in/gismaps.html |title=GIS Maps of State, Districts & ACs|website=ceoarunachal.nic.in |accessdate= 27 June 2020 |archive-date=2020-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627145610/http://ceoarunachal.nic.in/gismaps.html}}</ref>

It is part of [[Upper Subansiri district]], and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]]. As of 2019, its representative is [[Nyato Rigia]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].{{update after|2024|7}}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1990 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]] || Tara Payeng || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[1995 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1995]] || [[Punji Mara]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1999 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]] || rowspan=2 | [[Nyato Rigia]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[2004 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|-
| [[2009 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]] || rowspan=2 | [[Punji Mara]]
|-
| [[2014 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|-
| [[2019 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2019]] ||rowspan=2|[[Nyato Rigia]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2024 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2024 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2024 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref name="Taliha (ST) Constituency Election Results 2024">{{cite news |title=Taliha (ST) Constituency Election Results 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/arunachal-pradesh/constituency-show/taliha |accessdate=22 May 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=2 June 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522115423/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/arunachal-pradesh/constituency-show/taliha |archivedate=22 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2024 - Taliha">{{cite news |title=Arunachal Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2024 - Taliha |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGen2ndJune2024/candidateswise-S0223.htm |accessdate=22 May 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=2 June 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522115436/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGen2ndJune2024/candidateswise-S0223.htm |archivedate=22 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Tahila Assembly Election Result 2024: BJP's Nyato Dukam wins election">{{cite news |title=Tahila Assembly Election Result 2024: BJP's Nyato Dukam wins election |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/itanagar/tahila-assembly-election-results-2024-tahila-arunachal-pradesh-elections-poll-result-winner/articleshow/110631659.cms |accessdate=22 May 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=2 June 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522115442/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/itanagar/tahila-assembly-election-results-2024-tahila-arunachal-pradesh-elections-poll-result-winner/articleshow/110631659.cms |archivedate=22 May 2025}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate unopposed with party link| |candidate=[[Nyato Rigia]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=11,397 |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 11,397 |ref = |change= {{increase}}9.83 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2019 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2019 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11675-arunachal-pradesh-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Arunachal Pradesh General Legislative Election 2019 - Arunachal Pradesh - Election Commission of India |website=eci.gov.in |date= |author= |accessdate= 24 January 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Nyato Rigia]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=5,024 |percentage=55.93% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rudham Sindhu |party=National People's Party (India) |votes=3,821 |percentage=42.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gamto Nayam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=110 |percentage=1.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=28 |percentage=0.31% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,203 |percentage=13.39% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=8,983 |percentage=86.57% |change= {{increase}}86.57 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 10,377 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.06 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2009 to the Legislative Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh |url=https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2014/Stat_Rep_Arunachal_Pradesh_2014.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813080618/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2014/Stat_Rep_Arunachal_Pradesh_2014.pdf|archive-date=13 August 2021|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate unopposed with party link| |candidate=[[Punji Mara]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=9,603 |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 9,603 |ref = |change= {{increase}}19.69 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2009 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2009 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2009 to the Legislative Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2009/stat_AR_Aug2009.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404184244/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2009/stat_AR_Aug2009.pdf|archive-date=4 April 2017|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Punji Mara]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=3,570 |percentage=53.01% |change={{decrease}}4.47 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Nyato Rigia]] |party=All India Trinamool Congress |votes=3,164 |percentage=46.99% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=406 |percentage=6.03% |change= {{decrease}}10.87 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,734 |percentage=83.93% |change= {{increase}}10.68 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 8,023 |ref = |change= {{increase}}17.26 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2004 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2004 to the Legislative Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_AR_2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324145008/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_AR_2004.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2018|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Nyato Rigia]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,881 |percentage=57.48% |change={{increase}}19.12 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Taning Tasiring |party=Independent politician |votes=2,034 |percentage=40.58% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tara Payeng |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=97 |percentage=1.94% |change={{decrease}}23.42 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=847 |percentage=16.90% |change= {{increase}}7.61 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=5,012 |percentage=69.67% |change= {{increase}}2.18 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 6,842 |ref = |change= {{increase}}1.98 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1999 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-AR99.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324144934/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-AR99.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2018|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Nyato Rigia]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,829 |percentage=38.36% |change={{increase}}13.56 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Punji Mara]] |party=Arunachal Congress |votes=1,386 |percentage=29.07% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mage Kamda |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,209 |percentage=25.36% |change={{increase}}12.30 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tara Payeng |party=Independent politician |votes=344 |percentage=7.21% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=443 |percentage=9.29% |change= {{decrease}}6.25 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=4,768 |percentage=72.96% |change= {{decrease}}7.43 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 6,709 |ref = |change= {{increase}}26.66 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician |swing= {{decrease}}1.97 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1995 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1995 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1995 to the Legislative Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-AR95.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324144239/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-AR95.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2018|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Punji Mara]] |party=Independent politician |votes=1,677 |percentage=40.33% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tara Payeng |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,031 |percentage=24.80% |change={{decrease}}24.34 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Nyato Rigia]] |party=Janata Dal |votes=907 |percentage=21.81% |change={{decrease}}29.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mage Kamda |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=543 |percentage=13.06% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=646 |percentage=15.54% |change= {{increase}}13.80 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=4,158 |percentage=82.37% |change= {{increase}}19.19 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 5,297 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}42.60 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Janata Dal |swing= {{decrease}}10.54 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1990 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1990 Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] : Taliha<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statistical%20Report%20Arunachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324144123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statistical%20Report%20Arunachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-date=24 March 2018|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Tara Payeng |party=Janata Dal |votes=2,784 |percentage=50.87% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Punji Mara]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,689 |percentage=49.13% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=95 |percentage=1.74% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=5,473 |percentage=60.72% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 9,228 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Janata Dal |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Upper Subansiri district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Arunachal Pradesh}}

{{coord|28.23|94.15|display=title}}

[[Category:Upper Subansiri district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1990]]
[[Category:1990 establishments in Arunachal Pradesh]]

Anand Singh (Karnataka politician)

2026-04-18T03:19:39Z

Felorox: Done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{for|other Anand Singh|Anand Singh (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image =
| office = Minister of Tourism, Ecology and Environment of Karnataka
| term_start = 4 August 2021
| term_end = 13 May 2023
| predecessor = [[C. P. Yogeeshwara]]
| office9 = Minister of Infrastructure development, Hajj & Waqf Department of Karnataka
| term_start9 = 10 February 2021
| term_end9 = 26 July 2021
| office2 = Minister of Tourism, Ecology and Environment Department of Karnataka
| 1blankname2 = Chief Minister
| 1namedata2 = [[B. S. Yediyurappa]]
| term_start2 = 6 February 2020
| term_end2 = 21 January 2021
| predecessor2 = [[C. C. Patil]], [[BJP]]
| successor2 = [[C. P. Yogeeshwara]], [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| office3 = Minister of State for Tourism of Karnataka
| term_start4 = 10 February 2020
| term_end4 = 21 January 2021
| successor4 = [[C. P. Yogeeshwara]], [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| predecessor4 = [[C. T. Ravi]]
| term_start3 = 2010
| term_end3 = 2013
| predecessor3 = [[G. Janardhana Reddy]]
| successor3 = [[R. V. Deshpande]]

| office5 = Member of the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start5 = 2008
| term_end5 = 2023
| successor5 = [[H. R. Gaviyappa]]
| predecessor5 = [[H. R. Gaviyappa]]''(As [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] for [[Hospet Assembly constituency|Hospet]]''
| constituency5 = [[Vijayanagara (Karnataka Assembly constituency)|Vijayanagara]]

| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1966|10|03|df=y}} <ref>myneta</ref><ref>dehalivaarte</ref><ref>Kar.nic</ref>
| birth_place = [[Hosapete]],<ref>myneta</ref><ref>dehalivaarte</ref><ref>Kar.nic</ref>[[Ballari district]], [[Mysore State]] (present-day [[Vijayanagara district]], Karnataka)
| occupation = Politician
| children = 3
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]] {{small|(2018-2019)}}
| alma_mater =
| profession =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata party]] {{small|(2019–present)}}
| sibling =
| website =
}}

'''Anand Prithviraj Singh''' is an Indian politician who earlier served as Minister of Tourism, Ecology and Environment of Karnataka from 4 August 2021 to 13 May 2023. He was the Minister of Infrastructure development, [[Hajj]] & [[Waqf]] Department of [[Government of Karnataka|Karnataka]] from 10 February 2021 to 26 July 2021. He is a Member of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly from [[Vijayanagara (Karnataka Assembly constituency)|Vijayanagara]] constituency from 16 May 2018.

He was the Tourism minister in the [[Government of Karnataka]] and for the fourth time he was elected as a member of the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://myneta.info/karnataka2013/candidate.php?candidate_id=101 | title=Karnataka 2013 Anand Singh (Winner) Vijayanagara | work=myneta.info | access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref> He was one of the 17 members to resign and the reason for the downfall of the coalition government of Karnataka in 2019. He then joined the BJP and contested the by-elections. He has been elected for the Fourth consecutive time as MLA from Vijayanagara (Hospet) constituency in 2019 state by-elections. He was then inducted into the [[Third B. S. Yeddyurappa ministry]].

==Background==
Singh comes from the [[Rajput]] family <ref>[https://www.deccanherald.com/state/karnataka-politics/its-not-going-to-be-easy-for-anand-singh-this-time-781383.html Deccan Herald]</ref>

==Career==
He represents the [[Vijayanagara]] constituency as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.elections.in/karnataka/assembly-constituencies/vijayanagara.html | title=Sitting and previous MLAs from Vijayanagara Assembly Constituency | work=elections.in | access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref>

In 2015, Singh was arrested in the [[Belekeri]] iron ore scam. He was later released on bail.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/bjp-mla-anand-singh-arrested-over-illegal-ore-shipping-charge-in-the-ballari-mining-scam/articleshow/46872979.cms?from=mdr | title=BJP MLA Anand Singh arrested over illegal ore shipping charge in the Ballari mining scam | work=economictimes.indiatimes.com | date=10 April 2015 | access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/lokayukta-sit-arrests-former-karnataka-minister-anand-singh-for-illegal-mining/ | title=Karnataka: Lokayukta SIT arrests former minister Anand Singh in illegal mining case | work=indianexpress.com | date=9 April 2015 | access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/anand-singh-arrested/article5243328.ece | title=Anand Singh arrested | work=thehindu.com | access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=The 15 MLAs who brought down Kumaraswamy government|newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]]|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2019/jul/24/the-15-mlas-who-brought-down-kumaraswamy-government-102416.html|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>

==Controversies==

===Accused of forest encroachment and illegal mining===
Anand Singh has 15 criminal cases against him, and is facing 3 CBI trials about encroachment and illegal mining. After joining the BJP and forming the government he was given the forest department portfolio to serve as a cabinet minister. This was criticized by the opposition and the media, calling it an act to hush up the criminal cases by means of his cabinet powers. They also insisted on changing his portfolio so that the enquiry is not affected.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2020/Feb/16/congress-threatens-to-disrupt-guvs-address-demand-removal-of-anand-singh-from-ministry-2104106.html |title=Congress threatens to disrupt Guv's address, demand removal of Anand Singh from ministry|date=16 February 2020|work=New Indian Express|access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://kla.kar.nic.in/assembly/member/members.htm Karnataka Legislative Assembly]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Anand}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2008–2013]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2013–2018]]

Mukesh Sharma (Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council member)

2026-04-11T09:44:54Z

Felorox: creating new biography added tags.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{distinguish|Mukesh Sharma (Haryana politician)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mukesh Sharma
| office = [[Legislative council|Member]] of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
| constituency = ''elected by Legislative assembly members''
| term_start = 6 July 2022
| term_end =
| office1 = President of [[Lucknow]] [[List of municipal corporations in India|Maha Nagar]]<ref name="BJP"/>
| term_start1 = 2019
| term_end1 = 2023
| processor1 =
| successor1 =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| alma_mater =
| profession = [[Politician]]
}}

'''Mukesh Sharma ''' is an Indian politician currently serving as the [[Legislative council|Member]] of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]] since 2022 and affiliated with [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/lucknow/news/bjp-mlc-candidate-7-ministers-of-yogi-cabinet-including-lucknow-metropolitan-president-mukesh-sharma-keshav-prasad-maurya-also-named-129908400.html|title=MLC चुनाव में भाजपा के 9 प्रत्याशियों का ऐलान: केशव मौर्य जाएंगे विधान परिषद, लखनऊ महानगर अध्यक्ष मुकेश शर्मा को मौका; 7 मंत्री शामिल - Lucknow News|date=8 June 2022|website=Dainik Bhaskar|access-date=7 June 2024|archive-date=1 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701200535/https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/lucknow/news/bjp-mlc-candidate-7-ministers-of-yogi-cabinet-including-lucknow-metropolitan-president-mukesh-sharma-keshav-prasad-maurya-also-named-129908400.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="MS2022"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/uttar-pradesh/lucknow/story-welcome-to-mlc-mukesh-sharma-6813315.html|title=एमएलसी मुकेश शर्मा का स्वागत|website=Hindustan|access-date=2024-06-07|archive-date=2022-07-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722025724/https://www.livehindustan.com/uttar-pradesh/lucknow/story-welcome-to-mlc-mukesh-sharma-6813315.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rajdhaniupdate.com/bjp-k-varisth-neta-diwaron-par-khud/|title=भाजपा के वरिष्‍ठ नेता दीवारों पर 'खुद लिख रहें एक बार फिर से मोदी सरकार'|date=17 January 2024}}</ref>

==Political career==
Mukesh Sharma was declared the president of [[Lucknow]] Mahanagar in [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref name="BJP">{{cite web|url=https://www.patrika.com/lucknow-news/mukesh-sharma-became-metropolitan-president-5431595|title=मुकेश शर्मा महानगर अध्यक्ष बने,रक्षामंत्री ने दी बधाई|date=28 November 2019 |publisher=patrika.com|access-date=2024-06-07|archive-date=2019-12-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229211058/https://www.patrika.com/lucknow-news/mukesh-sharma-became-metropolitan-president-5431595/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Mukesh Sharma is the second president after Jaipal Singh in BJP's tenure in 39's rules.<ref name="BJP"/>

== Positions held ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Description
!
|-
| 6 July 2022
| Elected to by legislative member from [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
|<ref name="MS2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/uttar-pradesh/state/lucknow/mukesh-sharma-has-given-ticket-by-bjp-for-mlc-election-in-lucknow/up20220608150310537537286/|title=रक्षामंत्री की पैरोकारी पर मुकेश शर्मा को मिला लखनऊ में भाजपा की दो सीटों की हार का पुरस्कार|date=8 June 2022 |publisher=etvbhart.com|access-date=2024-06-07|archive-date=2022-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812093753/https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/uttar-pradesh/state/lucknow/mukesh-sharma-has-given-ticket-by-bjp-for-mlc-election-in-lucknow/up20220608150310537537286|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2019 - 2023
|President of [[Lucknow]] [[List of municipal corporations in India|Maha Nagar]]
|<ref name="BJP"/>
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharma, Mukesh}}
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Lucknow]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Members of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Kangujam Ranjit Singh

2026-04-10T04:04:13Z

Felorox: started bio

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox Indian politician
| name = Kangujam Ranjit Singh
| native_name =
| image =
| caption =
| office = Deputy Leader, [[Manipur Pradesh Congress Committee|Congress Legislative Party, Manipur]]
| term_start = {{Start date|df=y|2026|2|05}}
| term_end =
| leader = [[Keisham Meghachandra Singh]]
| successor =
| office2 = Member of the [[Manipur Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency2 = [[Sugnu Assembly constituency|Sugnu]]
| term_start2 = 2000
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 = Mayanglambam Babu Singh
| successor2 =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1962|03|01}}
| birth_place = [[Manipur]], India
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse =
| parents =
| children =
| profession = Politician
| education =
}}
'''Kangujam Ranjit Singh''' (born 1 March 1962) is an Indian politician from [[Manipur]]. He is serving as a Member of [[Manipur Legislative Assembly]] from [[Sugnu Assembly constituency|Sugnu]], representing the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sugnu Assembly constituency election 2022 |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/sugnoo-manipur-assembly-election-results-2022-live-winner-runner-up-candidates-7810030/lite/ |website=Indian Express }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipur unrest congress mla Ranjit's house set ablaze |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/manipur-unrest-congress-mla-ranjits-house-set-ablaze |website=www.ifp.co.in |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Manipur]]
[[Category:Manipur MLAs 2000–2002]]
[[Category:Manipur MLAs 2002–2007]]
[[Category:Manipur MLAs 2007–2012]]
[[Category:Manipur MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Manipur MLAs 2017–2022]]
[[Category:Manipur MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
{{Manipur-INC-politician-stub}}

Tamil grammar

2026-04-06T16:46:55Z

Felorox: New A Info

{{Short description|Grammar of the Tamil language}}
{{Original research|date=June 2025}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Tamil palm-leaf manuscript of Tolkāppiyam.jpg|upright=2|thumb|Palm leaf manuscript of Tolkappiyam]]
Much of '''Tamil grammar''' is extensively described in the oldest available grammar book for [[Tamil language|Tamil]], the ''[[Tolkaappiyam|Tolkāppiyam]]'' (dated between 300 BCE and 300 CE). Modern Tamil writing is largely based on the 13th century grammar ''[[Naṉṉūl]]'', which restated and clarified the rules of the Tolkāppiyam with some modifications.

==Parts of Tamil grammar==
Traditional Tamil grammar consists of five parts, namely eḻuttu, sol, poruḷ, yāppu and aṇi. Of these, the last two are mostly applicable in poetry.<ref name="five_parts_grammar">{{cite web
| url = http://www.southasia.upenn.edu/tamil/lit.html
| title = Five-fold grammar of Tamil
| access-date = 2007-06-01
| archive-date = 9 June 2007
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070609115617/http://www.southasia.upenn.edu/tamil/lit.html
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> The following table gives additional information about these parts.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! Tamil name
! Meaning
! Main grammar books
|-
|''eḻuttu''
|letter
|''Tolkāppiyam'', ''Nannūl''
|-
|''sol''
|word
|''Tolkāppiyam'', ''Nannūl''
|-
|''poruḷ''
|content
|''Tolkāppiyam''
|-
|''yāppu''
|compilation
|''Yāpparuṅkalakkārikai''
|-
|''aṇi''
|decoration
|''Taṇṭiyalaṅkāram''
|}

''Eḻuttu'' (writing) defines and describes the letters of the Tamil alphabet and their classification. It describes the nature of [[phoneme]]s and their changes with respect to different conditions and locations in the text.

''Sol'' defines the types of the words based on their meaning and the origin. It defines the gender, number, cases, [[Grammatical tense|tenses]], classes, harmony etc. This chapter also provides rules for compounding the words.

''Porul'' defines the contents of poetry. It gives guidance on which topic to choose for poetry based on certain conditions like the nature of the land or time or the people. It gives a distinction between ''Agam'' (internal / love life) and ''Puram'' (external / worldly life).

''Yāppu'' defines rules for composing Traditional poetry. It defines the basic building block ''Asai'' and describes how ''asai'' should be joined to form a ''sīr'', joining ''sīr'' for an ''adi''.

''Aṇi'' defines techniques used for comparing, praising and criticizing the taken topics.

==Letters==

The script of Tamil Language consists of 247 letters. The script falls under the category [[Abugida]], in which consonant-vowel sequences are written as a unit. The grammar classifies the letters into two major categories.
*Prime Letters – {{lang|ta|முதலெழுத்து}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|mutaleḻuttu}}
*Dependent Letters – {{lang|ta|சார்பெழுத்து}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|sārpeḻuttu}}

===Prime letters===
12 vowels and 18 consonants are classified as the prime letters.
*The vowels ({{lang|ta|உயிரெழுத்துகள்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|uyireḻuttukaḷ}}): அ (a), ஆ (ā), இ (i), ஈ( ī), உ (u), ஊ (ū), எ (e), ஏ (ē), ஐ (ai), ஒ (o), ஓ (ō), ஔ (au)
*The consonants ({{lang|ta|மெய்யெழுத்துகள்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|meyyeḻuttukaḷ}}): க், ங், ச், ஞ், ட், ண், த், ந், ப், ம், ய், ர், ல், வ், ழ், ள், ற், ன்

The vowels are called ''uyir'', meaning soul, in Tamil. The consonants are known as ''mey'', meaning body. When the alphasyllabary is formed, the letter shall be taking the form of the consonants, that is the body, and the sound shall be that of the corresponding vowel, that is the soul.

The vowels are categorized based on the length, as short (''kuril'') and long(''nedil''). The short vowels are pronounced for a duration 1 unit, while the long vowels take two units. Based on the duration of the sound, the vowels form 5 pairs. The other two vowels ஐ(''ai'') and ஔ(''au'') are diphthongs formed by joining the letters அ(a)+இ(i) and அ(a)+உ(u). Since these two are a combination two short letters, their pronunciation takes 2 units of time, that is they fall under ''nedil'' category. ஐ(ai) and ஔ(au) can also be spelt அய் and அவ். This form is known as ''eḻuttuppōli'' and is generally not recommended.

The consonants are categorised into three groups, {{lang|ta|வல்லினம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|valliṉam}} (hard), {{lang|ta|மெல்லினம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|melliṉam}} (soft) and {{lang|ta|இடையினம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|iṭaiyiṉam}} (medium), based on the nature of the sound. வல்லினம் are various non-nasal consonants, மெல்லினம் are the nasal versions of the corresponding வல்லினம் consonant, and இடையினம் are other non-nasal consonants. Most often, when there is a nasal sound preceding a வல்லினம் consonant, it is the corresponding மெல்லினம் consonant of the said வல்லினம் consonant.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! valliṉam
! melliṉam
! iṭaiyiṉam
|-
| க் k
| ங் ṅ
| ய் y
|-
| ச் s
| ஞ் ñ
| ர் r
|-
| ட் ṭ
| ண் ṇ
| ல் l
|-
| த் t
| ந் n
| வ் v
|-
| ப் p
| ம் m
| ழ் ḻ
|-
| ற் ṟ<ref name="தொல்19">வல்லெழுத் தென்ப க ச ட த ப ற. -தொல்காப்பியம் 19</ref>
| ன் ṉ<ref name="தொல்20">மெல்லெழுத் தென்ப ங ஞ ண ந ம ன. -தொல்காப்பியம் 20</ref>
| ள் ḷ<ref name="தொல்21">இடையெழுத் தென்ப ய ர ல வ ழ ள. -தொல்காப்பியம் 21</ref>
|}

From the 30 prime letters, the dependent letters are formed.

===Dependent letters===

Tamil grammar defines 10 categories of Dependent letters.

*Alphasyllabic letters {{lang|ta|உயிர்மெய் எழுத்து}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|uyirmey eḻuttu}}
*''Aidam'' {{lang|ta|ஆய்த எழுத்து}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|āyta eḻuttu}}
*Elongated vowel {{lang|ta|உயிரளபெடை}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|uyiraḷapeṭai}}
*Elongated consonant {{lang|ta|ஒற்றளபெடை}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|oṟṟaḷapeṭai}}
*Shortened ''u'' {{lang|ta|குற்றியலுகரம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kuṟṟiyalukaram}}
*Shortened ''i'' {{lang|ta|குற்றியலிகரம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kuṟṟiyalikaram}}
*Shortened ''ai'' {{lang|ta|ஐகாரக் குறுக்கம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|aikārak kuṟukkam}}
*Shortened ''au'' {{lang|ta|ஔகாரக் குறுக்கம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|aukārak kuṟukkam}}
*Shortened ''m'' {{lang|ta|மகரக்குறுக்கம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|makarakkuṟukkam}}
*Shortened ''Aidam'' {{lang|ta|ஆய்தக்குறுக்கம்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|āytakkuṟukkam}}

The alphasyllabic letters – 216 in total – are formed by combining the consonants and the vowels. The duration of the sound is that of the vowel attached to the consonant (or the inherent vowel, in case of the pure consonants). For example, the table below shows the formation of க் based letters.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Combination !! ''Uyirmei'' form !! [[ISO 15919]] !! IPA
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + அ || lang="ta"| க || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ka}} || {{IPA|[kʌ]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஆ || lang="ta"| கா || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kā}} || {{IPA|[kɑː]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + இ || lang="ta"| கி || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ki}} || {{IPA|[ki]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஈ || lang="ta"| கீ || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kī}} || {{IPA|[kiː]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + உ || lang="ta"| கு || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ku}} || {{IPA|[ku]}}, {{IPA|[kɯ]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஊ || lang="ta"| கூ || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kū}} || {{IPA|[kuː]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + எ || lang="ta"| கெ || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ke}} || {{IPA|[ke]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஏ || lang="ta"| கே|| {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kē}} || {{IPA|[keː]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஐ || lang="ta"| கை || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kai}} || {{IPA|[kʌj]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஒ || lang="ta"| கொ || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ko}} || {{IPA|[ko]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஓ || lang="ta"| கோ|| {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kō}} || {{IPA|[koː]}}
|-
| lang="ta"| க் + ஔ || lang="ta"| கௌ || {{transliteration|ta|ISO|kau}} || {{IPA|[kʌʋ]}}
|}

''Aidam'' is also known as {{lang|ta|தனிநிலை}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|taṉinilai}} (stand alone). The ''aidam'' is always preceded by a single short letter ({{lang|ta|தனிக்குறில்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|taṉikkuṟil}}) and followed by a hard alphasyllabic letter ({{lang|ta|வல்லின உயிர்மெய்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|valliṉa uyirmey}}). It takes half unit time for pronunciation.

{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Uyiraḷapeṭai}} ({{lang|ta|உயிரளபெடை}}) and {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Oṟṟaḷapeṭai}} ({{lang|ta|ஒற்றளபெடை}}) are formed by elongating the duration of pronunciation of a letter to satisfy certain grammatical rules while composing poetry. In ''Uyiralapetai'', the intrinsic vowel of the letter that is elongated is written next to it, to indicate that the letter now is pronounced for 3 units of time.

In ''Kutriyalukaram'', the duration of the short 'u' letters of ''vallinam'' category (கு, சு, டு, து, பு, று) is reduced to half units, when the letter is found at the end of the word, preceded by multiple letters or a single ''nedil''(long) letter.

If a word with ''kutriyalikaram'' is followed by a word with 'ய'(ya) as the first letter, the ''u'' sound is corrupted to ''i'' sound and takes a half unit of time for pronunciation.

In ''Aikarakurukkam'' and ''Aukarakurukkam'', the duration of the letters ஐ and ஔ are reduced to 1 1/2 units if they are the first letters of the word. If situated elsewhere it is reduced to 1 unit.

==Vanjiyar==

In Tamil, a single letter standing alone or multiple letters combined form a word. Tamil is an [[agglutinative language]] – words consist of a [[lexeme|lexical root]] to which one or more [[affix]]es are attached.

Most Tamil affixes are [[suffix]]es. These can be ''[[Derivation (linguistics)|derivational]] suffixes'', which either change the part of speech of the word or its meaning, or ''[[inflection]]al suffixes'', which mark categories such as [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], [[Grammatical mood|mood]], [[Grammatical tense|tense]], etc. There is no absolute limit on the length and extent of [[agglutination]], which can lead to long words with a large number of suffixes, which would require several words or a sentence in English. To give an example, the word {{transliteration|ta|ISO|pōkamuṭiyātavarkaḷukkāka}} ({{lang|ta|போகமுடியாதவர்களுக்காக}}) means "for the sake of those who cannot go", and consists of the following [[morpheme]]s:
{| style="margin:0 auto;text-align:center"
|-
!go
!be possible (impersonal)
!epenthetic approximant letter ''breaks illegal diphthongs''
!negation (impersonal)
!nominalizer ''he/she who does''
!plural marker
!to
!for
|-
|''pōka''
|''muṭi''
|''y''
|''āta''
|''var''
|''kaḷ''
|''ukku''
|''āka''
|}

Words formed as a result of the agglutinative process are often difficult to translate. ''Today Translations'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.todaytranslations.com/index.php/fuseaction/home.content/page/press |title=Translation company UK, UK translation agency, translation company london, translation services, translation agency, translation jobs, translators, trade transcription |access-date=14 April 2005 |archive-date=12 October 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041012031017/http://www.todaytranslations.com/index.php/fuseaction/home.content/page/press |url-status=dead }}</ref> a [[United Kingdom|British]] translation service, ranks the Tamil word {{lang|ta|செல்லாதிருப்பவர்}} ({{transliteration|ta|ISO|sellātiruppavar}}, meaning a certain type of [[truancy]]) as number 8 in their ''[[Words hardest to translate|The Most Untranslatable Word In The World]]'' list.

In Tamil, words are classified into four categories namely,
*Nouns ''Peyarsol''
*Verbs ''Vinaisol''
*Particles and Pre-/Postpositions ''Idaisol''
*Adjective and Adverbs ''Urisol''

All categories of nouns are declinable. Verbs are conjugated to indicate person, tense, gender, number and mood. The other two classes are indeclinable.

==Nouns==

===Noun===

Nouns are inflected based on number and grammatical case, of which there are 9: [[nominative case]], [[accusative case]], [[dative case]], [[instrumental case]], [[sociative case]], [[locative case]], [[ablative case]], [[genitive case]], and [[vocative case]]. If the plural is used, the noun is inflected by suffixing the noun stem with first the plural marker ''-kaḷ'', and then with the case suffix, if any. Otherwise, if the singular is used, the noun is instead inflected by suffixing either the noun stem with the case suffix, or the oblique stem with the case suffix. An optional euphonic increment ''-iṉ'' or ''-aṉ'' can occur before the case suffix.
{| class="wikitable"
!case
!suffix
|-
|'''nominative'''
| -∅
|-
|'''accusative'''
|''-ai''
|-
|'''instrumental'''
|''-āl'', ''-(aik) koṇṭu''
|-
|'''sociative'''
|''-ōṭu'', ''-uṭaṉ''
|-
|'''dative'''
|''-(uk)ku'', ''-iṉ poruṭṭu'', ''-iṉ nimittam''
|-
|'''benefactive'''
|''-(u)kkāka''
|-
|'''ablative'''
|''-il(ē) iruntu'' [irrational], ''-iṭam iruntu'' [rational], ''-iṉiṉṟu''
|-
|'''genitive'''
|''-atu'', ''-uṭaiya''
|-
|'''locative'''
|''-il(ē)'' [irrational], ''-iṭam'' [rational], -kkul [deeper sense, within]
|-
|'''vocative'''
|''-ē, -ā''
|}
{{notelist}}

====Nominative case====
The nominative case is used for the subject of an intransitive verb, the agent of a transitive verb, the predicate of a nominal sentence, and subject and object complements. It is the base form of the noun with [[Zero (linguistics)|no suffix]].

{|
|-
| ''Kumār māṇavaṉ.''
| "Kumar (is) (a) student."
|-
| ''Kumār māṇavaṉāka ākiṉṟāṉ.''
| "Kumar becomes (a) student."
|-
| ''Katavu tiṟantatu.''
| "The door opened."
|}

It can also be used to mark the direct object when it is indefinite and irrational.

====Accusative case====
The accusative case marks the direct object of a transitive verb. It is marked by the suffix ''-ai''. It is required when the direct object is rational. When used with irrational nouns, the accusative must be used when the direct object is definite. When an irrational direct object is indefinite, the nominative is used instead, unless there is an explicit indefinite determiner present, in which case either the nominative or accusative may be used.

{|
|-
| ''Kumār paiyan'''ai''' pārttāṉ.''
| "Kumar saw '''a/the boy.'''" || (rational direct object, the accusative must be used regardless of definiteness)
|-
| ''Nāṉ eṉ cāviy'''ai''' tolaittēṉ.''
| "I lost '''my key'''." || (irrational direct object, the possessive pronoun ''eṉ'' makes the noun definite, the accusative must be used)
|-
| ''Nāṉ cāviy'''ai''' tolaittēṉ.''
| "I lost '''the key'''." || (irrational direct object, the accusative shows the noun is definite)
|-
| ''Nāṉ cāvi tolaittēṉ.''
| "I lost '''a key'''." || (irrational direct object, the nominative shows the noun is indefinite)
|-
| ''Nāṉ oru cāvi(y'''ai''') tolaittēṉ.''
| "I lost '''a key'''." || (irrational direct object, the determiner ''oru'' makes the noun explicitly indefinite, accusative is optional)
|}

====Dative case====
The dative case is marked with ''-ukku'', ''-kku'', or ''-ku''. It expresses an indirect object, a goal of motion, a purpose, or an experiencer.

{|
|-
| ''Kumār appāv'''ukku''' oru paṭattai kāṭṭiṉāṉ.''
| "Kumar showed '''father''' a picture." || (indirect object)
|-
| ''Kumār ūr'''ukku''' pōṉāṉ''
! "Kumar went '''to a town'''."
| (goal of motion, in this sense restricted to inanimate nouns)
|-
| ''Kumār taṉ uṭampu'''kku''' ṭāṉik uṭkoḷkiṟāṉ.''
| "Kumar takes tonic '''for his health'''." || (purpose)
|-
| ''Kumār'''ukku''' oru vīṭu vēnṭum.''
| "'''Kumar''' wants a house." || (experiencer)
|}

====Instrumental case====
The instrumental case is shown with ''-āl''. It marks the instrument, means, source, or reason by which an action occurs.

{|
|-
| ''Kumār kattiy'''āl''' paḻattai veṭṭiṉāṉ.''
| "Kumar cut the fruit '''with a knife'''."
|}

It also marks the agent in passive constructions.

{|
|-
| ''Kumār appāv'''āl''' aṭikkappaṭṭāṉ.''
| "Kumar was beaten '''by father'''."
|-
|}

====Sociative case====
The sociative case is marked with either ''-ōṭu'' or ''-uṭaṉ''. The latter is almost only used in poetic and written Tamil. It shows that the noun it modifies is involved in the action of the sentence.

{|
|-
| ''Kumār taṉ maṉaiviy'''ōṭu''' vantāṉ. ''Kumār taṉ maṉaiviy'''uṭaṉ''' vantāṉ.
| "Kumar came '''with his wife'''."
|}

====Locative case====
The locative case is marked with either ''-il'' or ''-iṭam''. ''-il'' occurs with inanimate nouns and plural animate nouns, while ''iṭam'' occurs with animate nouns in both numbers. It shows location. The locative also has -kkul, which is a deeper sense of being within something.

{|
|-
| ''Kuruvi maratt'''il''' uṭkārkiṟatu.''
| "The sparrow is sitting '''on the tree'''."
|-
! Athu viitu'''kkul''' irukkirathu.
| "That is within the house."
|}

==== Vocative case ====
The vocative case is marked with multiple suffixes. The two main ones are ''ē'' and ''ā''<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/public/h_sch_9a.pdf | title=The Tamil Case System | author=Harold F. Schiffman | website=ccat.sas.upenn.edu}}</ref>. The ''ē'' ending can be used for any word. The ''ā'' ending can only be used for words ending with ''-an'' or ''-am'' (keep in mind that these words that can use ''the ā'' ending can still use the ''ē'' ending). Along with this, many times, people use other rules to turn words into the vocative case. The word often stays the same or gets stress or an elongated vowel at the end of the word. In colloquial speech and slang, the vocative is often paired with ''Ey!''

{|
|-
| ''Ey! Murug'''ā'''!''
| "Hey! Murugan!"
|-
|''Naaykal'''ē''', kadikkaathe.''
|"Dogs, don't bite."
|-
|''Aasiriyar'''ē''', enne ceyye pōkirōm?''
|"Teacher, what are we going to do?"
|-
|''Lakshmi'''yē''', ingae pāru.''
|"Lakshmi, look here."
|-
|''Thambi! Engae irukkukiraay!?''
|"Little brother! Where are you!?"
|}

====Ablative case====
The ablative case is expressed through the suffix ''-iliruntu'' added onto the locative of a noun. This directly translates to, "after being in/at". It marks motion away from something or getting something from somewhere. This case loosely translates to "from" in English.

{|
|-
| ''Kumār maratt'''iliruntu''' viḻuntāṉ.''
| "Kumar fell '''from the tree'''."
|-
|}

===Oblique stems===
The oblique stem of a noun is used before adding case suffixes, as a modifier in genitive function before a head noun, as the first element of a compound, and before postpositions.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Oblique Stem Formation<ref>{{cite book| last=Lehmann|first=Thomas|date=1989|pages=14–19|title=A Grammar of Modern Tamil}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" | Rule
! rowspan="2" |Rule Application
! colspan="2" | Tamil
! rowspan="2" | English
! rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! Nominative
! Oblique
|-
! 0
|general (doesn't apply to other rules)
| ''peyar''
| ''peyar-''
| name
| No change. The nominative is identical to the oblique stem. Most Tamil words belong to this group.
|-
! 1
|ends with ''-am''
| ''maram''
| ''maratt(u)-''
| tree
| Final ''-am'' is replaced with ''-att(u)''.
|-
! 2
|adjective turned into a noun (people who are..., things that are..., etc.)
| ''pala''
| ''palavaṟṟ(u)-''
| many
| Consists of only five words. The suffix ''-aṟṟ(u)'' is added to the end of the word.
|-
! 3
|ends with -''ṭ''u or -''ṟu''
| ''vīṭu''
| ''vīṭṭ(u)-''
| house
| The consonant in the last syllable ''-ṭu'' or ''-ṟu'' is doubled, yielding ''-ṭṭ(u)'' or ''-ṟṟ(u)''. This applies to all words that end in ''-ṭu'' or ''-ṟu'', except those consisting of two short syllables.

|}

===Genders and number===
The grammatical gender of Tamil nouns corresponds to their natural sex. Nouns in Tamil have two numbers, singular and plural.

Grammatical gender, known as {{lang|ta|பா}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|pā}} in Tamil, encompasses both the concepts of gender and number, thus is highly predictable. Masculine and feminine genders are only applicable to "higher class" nouns. Even though the genders of animals are marked in a sentence (e.g.: {{lang|ta|பெண் நாய்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|peṇ nāy}} "female, dog"), grammatically they are handled as a neuter noun. Thus there are five genders in Tamil, namely, masculine singular ({{lang|ta|ஆண்பால்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|āṇpāl}}), feminine singular ({{lang|ta|பெண்பால்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|peṇpāl}}), high-class plural ({{lang|ta|பலர்பால்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|palarpāl}}), lower-class singular ({{lang|ta|ஒன்றன்பால்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|oṉṟaṉpāl}}), lower-class plural ({{lang|ta|பலவின்பால்}} {{transliteration|ta|ISO|palaviṉpāl}}). These are summarized in the table below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ peyarccol (Name-words/Nouns)
|-
!
! colspan="3" |rational
! colspan="2" |irrational
|-
| Class
| Male
| Female
| Collective
| One
| Many
|-
| Example: "doer"
| {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ceytavaṉ}} He who did
| {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ceytavaḷ}} She who did
| {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ceytavar}} They who did
| {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ceytatu}} That which did
| {{transliteration|ta|ISO|ceytavai}} Those which did
|}

==Pronouns==

===Demonstratives and interrogatives===

{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-

!இவன் ''ivan''
|he, who is near to the 1st person
|near deixis, demonstrative particle
|-
!உவன் ''uvan''
|he, who is near to the 2nd person
|distant deixis, demonstrative particle
|-
!அவன் ''avan''
|he, who is near to the 3rd person or someone not present
|distant deixis, demonstrative particle
|-
!எவன் ''evan''
|who? (male singular)
|interrogative particle
|}

In Tamil, the demonstrative particles are ''a''- (அ), ''i''- (இ), and ''u''- (உ) (archaic and has fallen out of use, except in Sri Lankan dialects). These demonstrative particles display deictic properties. ''i''- (இ) is a near deixis form, which demonstrates the objects around/near the first person, while ''a''- (அ) has distant deixis form, which demonstrates things near the 3rd person. ''u''- (உ) was used to indicate objects near the second person, but has gradually fallen out of use. In modern Tamil ''i''- (இ) indicates objects nearer and ''a''- (அ) indicates objects in a distance. Using these particles demonstrative pronouns are derived. The same set of pronouns is also used as personal pronouns in 3rd person. e.g. ''avan'' (he), ''atu'' (that object/being), ''anta'' (that)

''e''- (எ) and ''yā-'' யா are the two important interrogative particles in Tamil. ''e''- (எ) is used for deriving the interrogative pronouns. e.g. ''evaṉ'' (which one, 3rd person singular masculine), ''enta'' (which), ''etaṟku'' (for what?)

===Personal pronouns===
First person plural pronouns in Tamil distinguish between [[Clusivity|inclusive and exclusive we]]. In Tamil, plural terminators are used for honorific addressing. It could be noted in both 2nd and 3rd persons. There are unique personal pronouns available for first and second persons while demonstrative pronouns are used in place of personal pronouns as well.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|-
! colspan="2" | Pronoun
! rowspan="2" | English Translation
! rowspan="2" | Person / Gender / Number
|-
! Nominative
! Oblique
|-
|நான் ''nāṉ''
|என் ''eṉ''
|I
|1st / neutral / singular
|-
|நாம் ''nām''
|நம் ''nam''
|Inclusive we
|1st / neutral / plural
|-
|நாங்கள் ''nāṅkaḷ''
|எங்கள் ''eṅkaḷ''
|Exclusive we
|1st / neutral / plural
|-
|நீ ''nī''
|உன் ''uṉ''
|you
|2nd / neutral / singular
|-
|நீர்
''nīr''
|உம் ''um''
| rowspan="2" |Honorific singular you
|2nd / neutral / singular
|-
| rowspan="2" | நீங்கள் ''nīṅkaḷ''
| rowspan="2" | உங்கள் ''uṅkaḷ''
|2nd / neutral / singular
|-
|Plural you
|2nd / neutral / plural
|-
| colspan="2" | அவன் / இவன் ''avaṉ / ivaṉ''
|He (that/this)
|3rd / masculine / singular
|-
| colspan="2" |அவள் / இவள் ''avaḷ / ivaḷ''
|She (that/this)
|3rd / feminine / singular
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |அவர் / இவர் ''avar / ivar''
|Honorific he/she (that/this)
|3rd / neutral / singular
|-
|They (low class) (that/this)
|3rd / neutral / plural
|-
| colspan="2" |அவர்கள் / இவர்கள் ''avarkaḷ/ivarkaḷ''
|They (high class) (that/this)
|3rd / neutral / plural
|-
| colspan="2" |அது / இது ''atu / itu''
|It (animals and objects) (that/this)
|3rd / neuter / singular
|-
|அவை / இவை ''avai / ivai''
|அவற்று / இவற்று ''avaṟṟu / ivaṟṟu''
|They (animals and objects) (that/this)
|3rd / neuter / plural
|-
|தான்
''tāṉ''
|தன்
''taṉ''
| -self (himself, myself, etc)
|Reflexive / neutral / singular
|-
|தாம்
''tām''
|தம்
''tam''
|Honorific -self (himself, myself, etc)
|Reflexive / neutral / singular
|-
| colspan="2" |தாங்கள் ''tāṅkaḷ''
| -selves (themselves, ourselves, etc)
|Reflexive / neutral / plural<ref name=":0" />
|}

==Verbs==
Like Tamil nouns, Tamil [[verb]]s are also inflected through the use of suffixes. A typical Tamil verb form will have a number of [[suffix]]es, which show [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], [[Grammatical mood|mood]], [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical voice|voice]], as is shown by the following example ''aḻintukkoṇṭiruntēṉ'' (அழிந்துக்கொண்டிருந்தேன்) "(I) was being destroyed":

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! scope="row" | Morphemes
| ''aḻi''
| ''-ntu''
| ''(k)koṇṭiru''
| ''-nt-''
| ''-ēn''
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | Functions
| root (base)
| tense-voice marker
| aspect marker
| tense marker
| person-number-gender marker
|-
| "to be destroyed"
| affective voice; past (absolutive)
| progressive aspect
| past tense
| first person, singular
|}

Person and number are indicated by [[suffix]]ing the [[oblique case]] of the relevant [[pronoun]] (''ēṉ'' in the above example). The suffixes to indicate tenses and voice are formed from [[grammatical particle]]s, which are added to the stem. The chart below outlines the most common set of suffixes used to conjugate for person and tense, but different groups of Tamil verbs may use other sets of suffixes or have irregularities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Tamil.html |title=Tamil |publisher=Languagesgulper.com |date= |accessdate=2022-04-14}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tamil Verb Classes
|-
! Class !! Root (Example) !! Past !! Present !! Future
|-
| I || cey "to do" || -t- (ceyt-) || -kiṟ1- (ceykiṟ-) || -v- (ceyv-)
|-
| II || mīḷ "to be redeemed" || -ṇṭ- (mīṇṭ-) || -kiṟ- (mīḷkiṟ-) || -v- (mīḷv-)
|-
| III || kol "to kill" || -ṉṟ- (koṉṟ-) || -kiṟ- (kolkiṟ-) || -v- (kolv-)
|-
| IV || vaḷar "to grow (intr.)" || -nt- (vaḷarnt-) || -kiṟ- (vaḷarkiṟ-) || -v- (vaḷarv-)
|-
| V || pāṭu "to sing" || -i[ṉ]- (pāṭi[ṉ]-) || -kiṟ- (pāṭukiṟ-) || -v- (pāṭuv-)
|-
| VI || pōṭu "to put" || -ṭṭ- (pōṭṭ-) || -kiṟ- (pōṭukiṟ-) || -v- (pōṭuv-)
|-
| VII || uṇ "to eat" || -ṭ- (uṇṭ-) || -kiṟ- (uṇkiṟ-) || -p- (uṇp-)
|-
| VIII || eṉ "to say" || -ṟ- (eṉṟ-) || -kiṟ- (eṉkiṟ-) || -p- (eṉp-)
|-
| IX || kēḷ "to hear, listen, ask" || -ṭṭ- (kēṭṭ-) || -ṭkiṟ- (kēṭkiṟ-) || -ṭp- (kēṭp-)
|-
| X || vil "to sell" || -ṟṟ- (viṟṟ-) || -ṟkiṟ- (viṟkiṟ-) || -ṟp- (viṟp-)
|-
| XI || vaḷar "to grow (tr.)" || -tt- (vaḷartt-) || -kkiṟ- (vaḷarkkiṟ-) || -pp- (vaḷarpp-)
|-
| XII || iru "to be" || -nt- (irunt-) || -kkiṟ- (irukkiṟ-) || -pp- (irupp-)
|-
| XIII (irregular) || cā "to die" || – (cett-) || – (cākiṟ-) || – (cāv-)
|}
1The infix -kiṟ- is a shortening of the infix -kiṉṟ-, which is also sometimes used.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tamil personal terminations<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Graul |first=Karl Friedrich Leberecht |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.CiXIV93/mode/2up |title=Outline Of Tamil Grammar |year=1855 |pages=}}</ref>
|-
! Person !! Singular
!Honorary
Singular
! Plural
|-
| 1st || colspan="2" | -ēṉ || -ōm
|-
| 2nd || -āy
| -īr/-īrkaḷ
| -īrkaḷ
|-
| 3rd masc. || -āṉ
| rowspan="2" | -ār|| rowspan="2" | -ār/-ārkaḷ/-aṉar
|-
| 3rd fem. || -āḷ
|-
| 3rd neu. || colspan="2" | -atu1 || -aṉa2
|}

1Class X verbs take -iṟṟu added directly to the root (-iṉ + -tu). In the future, -um is added directly to the root of verbs in Classes I through VIII, whereas -um replaces the -iṟ- in the present stem to form the future of verbs in Classes IX through XIII (and no termination is added afterwards).

2This suffix takes an irregular present in -kiṉṟ-/-kkiṉṟ- before it. The -um future (see directly above) can be used in the plural, as well.

Tamil has three simple [[Grammatical tense|tenses]] – past, present, and future – indicated by simple suffixes, and a series of perfects, indicated by compound suffixes. Mood is implicit in Tamil, and is normally reflected by the same [[morpheme]]s which mark tense categories. These signal whether the happening spoken of in the verb is unreal, possible, potential, or real. Tamil verbs also mark [[evidentiality]], through the addition of the hearsay [[clitic]] ''{{IAST|ām}}.''<ref name="steeverevidentiality">{{Cite book |first=Sanford B. |last=Steever | editor-last=Güldemann | editor-first=Tom | editor2-last=von Roncador | editor2-first=Manfred | contribution=Direct and indirect discourse in Tamil |title=Reported Discourse: A Meeting Ground for Different Linguistic Domains |year=2002 |pages=91–108 | place=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=90-272-2958-9}} at p. 105.</ref>

Tamil has two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]. The first - used in the example above - indicates that the subject of the sentence ''undergoes'' or ''is the object of'' the action named by the verb stem, and the second indicates that the subject of the sentence ''directs'' the action referred to by the verb stem. These voices are not equivalent to the notions of ''[[transitivity (grammatical category)|transitivity]]'' or ''[[Causality|causation]]'', or to the [[active voice|active]]-[[passive voice|passive]] or reflexive-nonreflexive division of voices found in [[Indo-European language family|Indo-European languages]].

===Auxiliaries===
Tamil has no [[article (grammar)|article]]s. Definiteness and indefiniteness are indicated either by context or by special grammatical devices, such as using the number "one" as an indefinite article. In the first person plural, Tamil makes a distinction between [[Clusivity|inclusive]] pronouns that include the listener and exclusive pronouns that do not. Tamil does not distinguish between [[adjective]]s and [[adverb]]s – both fall under the category ''uriccol''. [[Grammatical conjunction|Conjunction]]s are called ''iṭaiccol''.

[[Auxiliary verb|Verb auxiliaries]] are used to indicate ''[[attitude (psychology)|attitude]]'', a [[grammatical category]] which shows the state of mind of the speaker, and his attitude about the event spoken of in the verb. Common attitudes include [[pejorative]] opinion, [[antipathy]], relief felt at the conclusion of an unpleasant event or period, and unhappiness at or apprehension about the eventual result of a past or continuing event.

==Sentence structure==
Except in poetry, the subject precedes the object, and the verb concludes the sentence. In a standard sentence, therefore, the order is usually [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV), but [[object–subject–verb]] is also common.

Tamil is a [[null-subject language]]. Not all Tamil sentences have subjects, verbs, and objects. It is possible to construct valid sentences that have only a verb, such as ''muṭintuviṭṭatu'' (முடிந்துவிட்டது, "It is completed"), or only a subject and object, such as ''atu eṉ vīṭu'' (அது என் வீடு, "That is my house").

The elements that are present, however, must follow the SOV order. Tamil does not have an equivalent for the existential verb ''to be''; it is included in the translations only to convey the meaning. The negative existential verb, ''to be not'', however, does exist in the form of ''illai'' (இல்லை) and goes at the end of the sentence (and does not change with number, gender, or tense). The verb ''to have'' in the meaning "to possess" is not translated directly, either. To say "I have a horse" in Tamil, a construction equivalent to "There is a horse to me" or "There exists a horse to me", is used.

Tamil lacks [[relative pronoun]]s, but their meaning is conveyed by relative participle constructions, built using agglutination. For example, the English sentence "Call the boy who learned the lesson" is said in Tamil like "That-lesson-learned-boy call".

==Example==
A sample passage in Tamil script with transliteration.

{{fs interlinear|lang=tam|indent=2
|ஆசிரியர் வகுப்புக்குள் நுழைந்தார்.
|Āciriyar vakuppukkuḷ nuḻaintār.
|The teacher entered the classroom.}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=tam|indent=2
|அவர் உள்ளே நுழைந்தவுடன் மாணவர்கள் எழுந்தனர்.
|Avar uḷḷē nuḻaintavuṭaṉ māṇavarkaḷ eḻuntaṉar.
|As soon as he entered, the students got up.}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=tam|indent=2
|வளவன் மட்டும் தன் அருகில் நின்று கொண்டிருந்த மாணவி கனிமொழியுடன் பேசிக் கொண்டிருந்தான்.
|Vaḷavaṉ maṭṭum taṉ arukil niṉṟu koṇṭirunta māṇavi Kaṉimoḻiyuṭaṉ pēcik koṇṭiruntāṉ.
|Only Vaḷavaṉ was talking to Kaṉimoḻi who was standing next to him.}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=tam|indent=2
|நான் அவனை எச்சரித்தேன்.
|Nāṉ avaṉai eccarittēṉ.
|I warned him.}}

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! Word (romanised)
!Word (in Tamil Script)
! Translation !! Morphemes !! Part of speech
! Person, Gender, Tense !! Case !! Number
! Remarks
|-
| ''āciriyar''
| ஆசிரியர்|| teacher ||''āciriyar'' || noun
| n/a, gender-neutral, n/a || nominative || [[honorific]] plural indicated by suffix '''ar'''
| The feminine gender ''āciriyai'' can be used here too; the masculine gender ''āciriyaṉ'' is rarely used, considering the honored position of the teacher
|-
| ''vakuppukkuḷ ''
| வகுப்புக்குள்|| inside the class room || vakuppu+-kk- +uL || adverb
| n/a || locative || n/a
| [[Sandhi]] (called ''puṇarcci'' in Tamil) rules in Tamil require euphonic changes during [[agglutination]] (such as the introduction of ''y'' in this case)
|-
| ''nuḻaintār''
| நுழைந்தார்|| entered || ''nuḻaintār'' || verb
| third, gender-neutral, past || || honorific plural
| In an honorific context, the masculine and feminine equivalents nuḻaint'''āṉ''' and nuḻaint'''āḷ''' are replaced by the collective nuḻaint'''ār'''
|-
| ''avar''
| அவர்|| He || ''avar'' || pronoun
| third, gender-neutral, n/a || nominative || honorific plural indicated by suffix '''ar'''
| In honorific contexts, the masculine and feminine forms ''avaṉ'' and ''avaḷ'' are not used
|-
| ''uḷḷē''
| உள்ளே|| inside || ''uḷḷē'' || adverb
| n/a || || n/a
|
|-
| ''nuḻaintavuṭaṉ''
| நுழைந்தவுடன்|| upon entering || ''nuḻainta'' + ''uṭaṉ'' || adverb
| n/a || || n/a
| Sandhi rules require a ''v'' to be inserted between an end-vowel and a beginning-''u'' during [[agglutination]].
|-
| ''māṇavarkaḷ''
| மாணவர்கள்|| students || ''māṇavarkaḷ'' || collective noun
| n/a, masculine, often used with gender-neutral connotation, n/a || nominative || plural indicated by suffix '''kaḷ'''
|
|-
| ''eḻuntaṉar''
| எழுந்தனார்|| got up || ''eḻuntaṉar'' || verb
| third, gender-neutral, past || || plural
|
|-
| ''Vaḷavaṉ''
| வாளவன்|| VaLavan (name) || ''Vaḷavaṉ'' || proper noun
| n/a, masculine, usually indicated by suffix '''aṉ''', n/a || nominative || singular
|
|-
| ''maṭṭum''
| மற்றும்|| only || ''maṭṭum'' || adverb
| n/a || || n/a
|
|-
| ''taṉ''
| தன்|| his (self) own || ''taṉ'' || pronoun
| n/a, gender-neutral, n/a || || singular
|
|-
| ''arukil''
| அருகில்|| near (lit. "in nearness") || ''aruku'' + ''il'' || adverb
| n/a || locative || n/a
|The [[postposition]] ''il'' indicates the locative case
|-
| ''niṉṟu koṇṭirunta''
| நின்று கொண்டிருந்த|| standing || ''niṉṟu'' + ''koṇṭu'' + ''irunta'' || adverb
| n/a || || n/a
| The verb has been morphed into an adverb by the incompleteness due to the terminal '''a'''
|-
| ''māṇavi''
| மாணவி|| student || ''māṇavi'' || pronoun
| n/a, feminine, n/a || || singular
|
|-
| ''Kaṉimoḻiyuṭaṉ''
| கனிமொழியுடன்|| with Kaṉimoḻi (name of a person) || ''Kaṉimoḻi'' + ''uṭaṉ'' || Proper noun
| n/a || comitative || n/a
| The name ''Kaṉimoḻi'' literally means ''sweet language''
|-
| ''pēcik koṇṭiruntāṉ''
| பேசிக் கொண்டிருந்தான்|| was talking || ''pēci'' + ''koṇṭu'' +''iruntāṉ'' || verb
| third, masculine, past continuous || || singular
| Continuousness indicated by the incompleteness brought by ''koṇṭu''
|-
| ''nāṉ''
| நான்|| I || ''nāṉ'' || pronoun
| first person, gender-neutral, n/a || nominative || singular
|
|-
| ''avaṉai''
| அவனை|| him || ''avanai'' || pronoun
| third, masculine, n/a || accusative || singular
| The postposition ''ai'' indicates accusative case
|-
| ''eccarittēṉ''
| எச்சரிட்டேன்|| cautioned || ''eccarittēṉ'' || verb
| first, indicated by suffix '''-ēn''', gender-neutral, past || || singular, plural would be indicated by substituting ''-ēn'' with ''-ōm''
|
|}

==Bibliography==
* A. H. Arden, ''A progressive grammar of the Tamil language'', 5th edition, 1942.
{{Cite book |last=Schiffman |first=Harold F. |url=https://theswissbay.ch/pdf/Books/Linguistics/Mega%20linguistics%20pack/Dravidian/Tamil%2C%20A%20Reference%20Grammar%20of%20Spoken%20%28Schiffman%29.pdf |title=A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-64074-9 |pages=20–21 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240411095759/https://theswissbay.ch/pdf/Books/Linguistics/Mega%20linguistics%20pack/Dravidian/Tamil%2C%20A%20Reference%20Grammar%20of%20Spoken%20%28Schiffman%29.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2024 |url-status=live}}
*Lehmann, Thomas. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211127080250/https://www.sai.uni-heidelberg.de/tamil/pdf/modgram.pdf ''A Grammar of Modern Tamil'']. Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture, 1989.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Tamil}}
{{Commons|Tamil language}}
* [https://omniglot.com/writing/tamil.htm The online encyclopedia of writing systems and languages]

{{Tamil language}}
{{Grammars of South Asian languages}}
{{Language grammars}}

[[Category:Tamil language|Grammar, Tamil]]
[[Category:Dravidian grammars]]
[[Category:Grammar]]

Sayyid Mubarak

2026-03-31T23:34:11Z

Felorox: New Article

{{one source|date=February 2023}}

{{Short description|Sultan of Kashmir in 1579}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Sayyid Mubarak Baihaqi سيد مبارک بیهقی
| title =
| titletext =
| image =
| caption =
| succession = 23rd [[Kashmir Sultanate|Sultan of Kashmir]]
| reign = February 1579 – November 1579
| reign-type =
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Yousuf Shah Chak]]
| regent =
| successor = [[Lohar Khan| Lohar Khan Chak]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Kashmir division|Kashmir]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| spouse =
| spouse-type =
| issue = Sayyid Abu'l-Ma'ali Baihaqi Sayyid Jalal Baihaqi Sayyid Husain Baihaqi Sayyid Ibrahim Baihaqi
| full name = Sayyid Mubarak Baihaqi
| house = Baihaqi dynasty
| father =
| mother =
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
}}

'''Sayyid Mubarak Baihaqi''' ([[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]: سيد مبارک بیهقی) was the 23rd [[Sultan]] of [[Kashmir]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Hasan |first=Mohibbul |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/844529832 |title=... Kashmir under the Sultans, by M. Hasan. |date= |publisher= |pages=164 |oclc=844529832}}</ref> who ascended the throne in February 1579, replacing [[Yousuf Shah Chak]].<ref name=":0" /> He was dethroned in November 1579 by [[Lohar Khan|Lohar Khan Chak]], restoring the [[Chak dynasty]] in the monarchy of Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hasan |first=Mohibbul |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/844529832 |title=... Kashmir under the Sultans, by M. Hasan. |date= |publisher= |pages=165 |oclc=844529832}}</ref> He also served [[Ali Shah Chak]] as his [[Grand vizier|Wazīr]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hasan |first=Mohibbul |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/844529832 |title=... Kashmir under the Sultans, by M. Hasan. |date= |publisher= |pages=158 |oclc=844529832}}</ref> which was, after the Sultan, the highest civil office in the Kashmiri government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hasan |first=Mohibbul |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/844529832 |title=... Kashmir under the Sultans, by M. Hasan. |date= |publisher= |pages=198 |oclc=844529832}}</ref> Sayyid belonged to the Baihaqi family which settled in Kashmir after migrating from [[Sabzevar|Baihaq]], in Iran.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hasan |first=Mohibbul |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/844529832 |title=... Kashmir under the Sultans, by M. Hasan. |date= |publisher= |pages=220 |oclc=844529832}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Sultans of Kashmir]]
[[Category:Chak dynasty]]

{{royalty-stub}}

Mother (2025 film)

2026-03-30T04:50:18Z

Felorox:

{{Short description|2025 film by Teona Strugar Mitevska}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mother
| image = Mother 2025 film poster.jpg
| caption = Promotional poster
| native_name = {{Infobox name module|Mk|Мајка}}
| director = [[Teona Strugar Mitevska]]
| producer = {{Plainlist|
* [[Labina Mitevska]]
* Sebastien Delloye
}}
| writer = {{Plainlist|
* [[Goce Smilevski]]
* Teona Strugar Mitevska
* Elma Tataragić
}}
| based_on = {{Based on|''Teresa and I''|Teona Strugar Mitevska}}
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Noomi Rapace]]
* [[Sylvia Hoeks]]
* [[Nikola Ristanovski]]
*Ekin Corapci
* [[Marijke Pinoy]]
* Labina Mitevska
}}
| music = Magali Gruselle Flemming Nordkrog
| cinematography = Virginie Saint-Martin
| editing = Per K. Kirkegaard
| studio = {{Plainlist|
* Sisters and Brother Mitevski
* Frau Film
* Entre Chien et Loup
* [[Film i Väst]]
* Rainy Days Productions
* SCCA/pro.ba
* Raging Films
}}
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2025|08|27|[[82nd Venice International Film Festival|Venice]]|df=yes}}
| runtime = 103 minutes
| country = {{Plainlist|
* North Macedonia
* Belgium
* Sweden
* Denmark
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* India
}}
| language = English
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Mother''''' ([[Macedonian language|North Macedonian]]: Мајка) is a 2025 [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] directed by [[Teona Strugar Mitevska]], in her English-language feature debut, co-written by Mitevska, [[Goce Smilevski]] and Elma Tataragić. It is based on Mitevska's four-part miniseries ''Teresa and I'' (2015). Starring [[Noomi Rapace]], it follows the North Macedonian-Albanian [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[nun]] [[Mother Teresa]] establishment of the [[Missionaries of Charity]] in [[Kolkata]], [[India]].

The film had its world premiere in the ''[[Orizzonti]]'' section of the [[82nd Venice International Film Festival]] on 27 August 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-11 |title=Biennale Cinema 2025 {{!}} Mother |url=https://www.labiennale.org/en/cinema/2025/orizzonti/mother |access-date=2025-08-24 |website=La Biennale di Venezia |language=en}}</ref>

==Premise==
''Mother'' is a fictional account that follows seven days in [[Mother Teresa]]'s life when she decides to leave her convent in [[Kolkata]], India, to establish her own religious order.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmneweurope.com/news/macedonia-news/item/123153-production-teona-strugar-mitevska-develops-mother-a-possible-story-of-mother-teresa|title=PRODUCTION: Teona Strugar Mitevska Develops Mother (a Possible Story of Mother Teresa)|work=Film New Europe|date=6 April 2022|accessdate=25 July 2025|first=Marina|last=Lazarevska}}</ref>

==Cast==
[[File:Mother (2025).png|thumb|Teona Strugar Mitevska and Marijke Pinoy]]
* [[Noomi Rapace]] as [[Mother Teresa|Anjezë Bojaxhiu / Mother Teresa]]
* [[Sylvia Hoeks]] as Sister Agnieszka
* [[Nikola Ristanovski]] as Father Friedrich, Mother Teresa's [[confidant]]
* Ekin Corapci as Novice Agatha
* [[Marijke Pinoy]] as Sister Katarina
* [[Labina Mitevska]] as Sister Mercedes
* Akshay Kapoor as Doctor Kumar
* [[Adam-Anu Devarajan]] as Indian boy
* [[Diksha-Anu Devarajan]] as school girl

==Production==
In February 2022, it was reported that Teona Strugar Mitevska would direct her seventh film, ''Mother'' about [[Mother Teresa]]. It marks her English-language feature directorial debut.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.screendaily.com/news/teona-strugar-mitevska-sets-mother-teresa-story-mother-as-next-project-exclusive/5167650.article|title=Teona Strugar Mitevska sets Mother Teresa story 'Mother' as next project (exclusive)|work=[[Screen International]]|date=14 February 2022|accessdate=25 July 2025|first=Ben|last=Dalton}}</ref> The project was presented at the [[Berlinale]] Co-Production Market during the [[European Film Market]] in February 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cineuropa.org/en/newsdetail/420309/|title=The Berlinale Co-Production Market announces its selection for 2022|work=[[Cineuropa]]|date=14 January 2022|accessdate=25 July 2025|first=Vassilis|last=Economou}}</ref>

In May 2024, [[Noomi Rapace]] joined the cast as Mother Teresa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/noomi-rapace-mother-teresa-film-cannes-1235903257/|title=Noomi Rapace to Play Mother Teresa in Biopic|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date=18 May 2024|accessdate=25 July 2025|first=Scott|last=Roxborough}}</ref> Rapace revealed that she was drawn to the film due to its off beat portrayal of Mother Teresa. She further described it as "punk rock".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2024/film/global/noomi-rapace-mother-teresa-teona-strugar-mitevska-1236113498/|title=Noomi Rapace Teases 'Punk Rock' Portrayal of Mother Teresa in Upcoming Film 'Mother': 'She Was No Saint' (EXCLUSIVE)|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=21 August 2025|accessdate=25 July 2025|first=Christopher|last=Vourlias}}</ref>

[[Principal photography]] took place in [[Brussels]], Belgium and [[Kolkata]], India and wrapped in November 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cineuropa.org/en/newsdetail/471525/|title=Teona Strugar Mitevska's ''Mother'', starring Noomi Rapace, wraps principal photography|work=Cineuropa|date=17 December 2024|accessdate=25 July 2025|first=Aurore|last=Engelen}}</ref>

==Release==
''Mother'' had its world premiere at the [[82nd Venice International Film Festival]] at the ''[[Orizzonti]]'' section on 27 August 2025.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2025/film/festivals/venice-film-festival-2025-lineup-1236465664/|title=Venice Film Festival Lineup: Guillermo del Toro's 'Frankenstein,' Yorgos Lanthimos' 'Bugonia' With Emma Stone, Benny Safdie's 'Smashing Machine,' Luca Guadagnino's 'After the Hunt' and More|work=Variety|date=22 July 2025|accessdate=25 July 2025|first1=Nick|last1=Vivarelli|first2=Ellise|last2=Shafer}}</ref>

== Reception ==

=== Accolades ===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" |Award
! scope="col" |Date of ceremony
! scope="col" |Category
! scope="col" |Recipient(s)
!Result
! class="unsortable" scope="col" |{{Refh}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[Camerimage]]
|[[33rd International Film Festival of the Art of Cinematography Camerimage|November 22, 2025]]
|Golden Frog
|Virginie Saint-Martin
|{{nom}}
| align="center" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-29 |title=AwardsWatch - 33rd Camerimage Lineup: 'Hamnet,' F1,' 'Sinners,' 'Sound of Falling' and More |url=https://awardswatch.com/33rd-camerimage-lineup-hamnet-f1-sinners-sound-of-falling-and-more/ |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=AwardsWatch |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EnergaCAMERIMAGE 2025 Awards |url=https://camerimage.pl/en/news/-energacamerimage-2025-awards |access-date=2025-11-23 |website=camerimage.pl |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt32399285}}

[[Category:2025 drama films]]
[[Category:Macedonian drama films]]
[[Category:Belgian drama films]]
[[Category:Swedish drama films]]
[[Category:Danish drama films]]
[[Category:Bosnia and Herzegovina drama films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:2025 English-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Teona Strugar Mitevska]]
[[Category:Films set in 1948]]
[[Category:Films shot in Brussels]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Films about Catholicism]]
[[Category:Films about Catholic nuns]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Mother Teresa]]
[[Category:English-language drama films]]
[[Category:2020s Macedonian films]]
[[Category:2025 Belgian films]]
[[Category:2025 Swedish films]]
[[Category:2025 Danish films]]
[[Category:2020s Bosnia and Herzegovina films]]
[[Category:2025 Indian films]]

Hinduism

2026-03-28T16:25:49Z

Felorox: cleanup page and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Range of Indian religious traditions}}
{{Pp-semi-indef | small=yes}}
{{Pp-move|small=no}}
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
{{Hinduism}}

'''Hinduism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɪ|n|d|u|ˌ|ɪ|z|əm}})<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Hinduism |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref> is an [[Hypernymy and hyponymy|umbrella term]]{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a}}{{sfn|Flood|2022|p=339}}{{efn|name="umbrella-term"}} for a range of [[Indian religions|Indian]] [[List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions|religious and spiritual traditions]] ([[Sampradaya|''sampradaya''s]]){{Sfnmp|Holberg|2000|1p=316|Nicholson|2013|2pp=2–5|McDaniel|2007|3pp=52–53|Michaels|2004|4p=21}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} that are unified by adherence to the concept of ''[[dharma]]'', a [[Ṛta|cosmic order]] maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living,{{Sfnmp|Flood|2003a|1p=9|Thomas|2012|2p=175|Bhattacharya|2006}}{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"}} as expounded in the [[Vedas]].{{efn|name="vedas_dharma"|{{harvtxt|Flood|2003a|p=4}}: "This revelation of the Veda[s], verses believed to have been revealed to and heard by (sruti) the ancient sages (rsi), as symbol and legitimizing reference if not actual text, is central as a constraining influence on later traditions, providing the authority for tradition (Oberhammer 1997: 21–31). Some would argue that this is a defining feature of Hinduism.}} The word ''Hindu'' is an [[exonym]],{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}} and while Hinduism has been called the oldest surviving religion in the world,{{refn|name="oldest religion"|group=note}} it is also described by the 19th century term ''[[Sanātana Dharma]]'' ({{lit|eternal dharma}}).{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"}} ''[[Hinduism#Vaidika Dharma|Vaidika Dharma]]'' ({{lit|Vedic dharma}}){{Sfnmp|Wimberley|2009|1p=99|Klostermaier|1989|2p=16|Chung|2022|3p=183|Lipner|1998|4p=2}} and ''[[Arya]] Dharma'' are historical [[Endonym and exonym|endonyms]] for Hinduism.{{Sfnmp|Olivelle|2009|1p=489|Sharma|2011|2p=124|Varghese|2008|3p=743|Monier-Williams|1891|4p=20|Raju|1989|5p=147}}

Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared [[Glossary of Hinduism terms|concepts]] that discuss [[God in Hinduism|theology]], [[Hindu mythology|mythology]], and other topics in [[Hindu texts|textual sources]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Hindu texts have been classified into [[Śruti]] ({{Literal translation|heard}}) and [[Smṛti]] ({{Literal translation|remembered}}). The major Hindu scriptures are the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], the [[Puranas]], the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (including the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''), the ''[[Ramayana]]'', and the [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]].{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1992|pp=1–7}} Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include ''[[karma]]'' (action, intent and consequences),{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} [[Saṃsāra#In Hinduism|''saṃsāra'']] (the cycle of death and rebirth) and the four [[Puruṣārtha]]s, proper goals or aims of human life, namely: ''[[dharma]]'' (ethics/duties), ''[[artha]]'' (prosperity/work), ''[[kama]]'' (desires/passions) and ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation/emancipation from passions and ultimately ''saṃsāra'').{{sfn|Bilimoria|Prabhu|Sharma|2007}}{{sfn|Koller|1968}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=7}} Hindu religious practices include devotion (''[[bhakti]]''), worship ([[Puja (Hinduism)|''puja'']]), sacrificial rites (''[[yajna]]''), and meditation ([[Dhyana in Hinduism|''dhyana'']]) and [[Yoga]].<ref name="ellinger70" /> Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many Hindus do not claim to belong to any denomination.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} However, scholarly studies recognise four major denominations: [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Smartism]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} The six [[Āstika and nāstika|Āstika]] schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] that recognise the authority of the Vedas are: [[Samkhya|Sankhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta]].{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}}

While the traditional [[Itihasa-Purana]] and its derived [[Epic-Puranic chronology]] present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} or synthesis{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"}} of [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical orthopraxy]]{{refn|group=note|name="Brahmanism"}} with various Indian cultures,{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} having diverse roots{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} and no specific founder.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}} This [[Hindu synthesis]] emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} to 200{{Sfn|Larson|2009}} [[Common Era|BCE]], and {{Circa|300 CE}},{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} in the period of the [[second urbanisation]] and the early [[History of Hinduism#Hindu synthesis and Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE)|classical period of Hinduism]] when the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]] and the first Purānas were composed.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} It flourished in the [[Medieval India|medieval period]], with the [[Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|decline of Buddhism in India]].{{sfn|Larson|1995|pp=109–111}} Since the 19th century, [[Neo-Vedanta|modern Hinduism]], influenced by [[Western culture]], has acquired a great appeal in [[Western world|the West]], notably reflected in the popularisation of [[Yoga]] and various sects such as [[Transcendental Meditation]] and the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON's]] [[ISKCON|Hare Krishna movement]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Is ISKCON » Home - ISKCON - The Hare Krishna Movement |url=https://www.iskcon.org/about-us/what-is-iskcon.php |access-date=2025-10-05 |website=www.iskcon.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

Hinduism is the [[major religious groups|world's third-largest]] religion, with approximately 1.17 billion followers, or around 14.7% of the global population,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Fahmy|first=Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia|date=2025-06-09|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/|access-date=2025-06-24|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hackett|first=Conrad|date=2025-06-09|title=Hindu Population Change|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/hindu-population-change/|access-date=2025-11-22|website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> known as [[Hindus]], centered mainly in [[religion in India|India]],{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}} [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Religion in Mauritius|Mauritius]], and in [[Hinduism in Bali|Bali]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]].{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} [[Hinduism by country|Significant numbers]] of Hindu communities are found in the countries of [[Hinduism in South Asia|South Asia]], in [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], in the [[Hinduism in the West Indies|Caribbean]], [[Hinduism in the Middle East|Middle East]], [[Hinduism in the United States|North America]], [[Hinduism in Europe|Europe]], [[Hinduism in Oceania|Oceania]] and [[Hinduism in Africa|Africa]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vertovec |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |title=The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-36705-2 |pages=1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143 |access-date=18 July 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155539/https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Hindus|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|archive-date=9 February 2020|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers (2010)|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201224548/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-date=1 February 2013|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref group="web" name="pewforum_Hinduism" /><ref name="gordonconwell.edu" group="web" />
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== Etymology ==
{{further|Hindu}}
The word ''Hindū'' is an [[Endonym and exonym|exonym]],<ref>{{harvnb|Siemens|Roodt|2009|p=546}}; {{harvnb|Leaf|2014|p=36}}</ref> derived from [[Sanskrit]] word ''Sindhu'',<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 1"}}</ref> the name of the [[Indus River]] as well as the country of the lower Indus basin ([[Sindh]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Singh|2008|p=433}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Eggermont |first=Pierre Herman Leonard |title=Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nG0_xoDS3hUC&pg=PA145 |year=1975 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-6186-037-2 |page=145 |quote=''Sindhu'' means a stream, a river, and in particular the Indus river, but likewise it denotes the territory of the lower Indus valley, or modern Sind... It denotes a geographical unit to which different tribes may belong. |access-date=25 December 2024 |archive-date=23 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123010456/https://books.google.com/books?id=nG0_xoDS3hUC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn |group=note |The Indo-Aryan word ''Sindhu'' means "river", "ocean".{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=3}} It is frequently being used in the [[Rigveda]]. The Sindhu-area is part of [[Āryāvarta]], "the land of the Aryans".}}
The [[Proto-Iranian language|Proto-Iranian]] sound change ''*s'' > ''h'' occurred between 850 and 600 BCE.<ref>{{harvp|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 9"}}: "In Iranian languages, Proto-Iranian *s became h before a following vowel at a relatively late period, perhaps around 850–600 BCE."</ref>
"Hindu" occurs in [[Avesta]] as ''heptahindu'', equivalent to Rigvedic ''sapta sindhu''.<ref name="Thapar p.38">{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |title=Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap |publisher=University of California Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/38 38]}}</ref>
The 6th-century BCE inscription of [[Darius I]] mentions [[Hindush]] (referring to Sindh) among his provinces.{{sfn|Sharma|2002}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|loc=p. 6: "The actual term ''Hindu'' first occurs as a [[Persian language|Persian]] geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')."}}
''Hindustan'' (spelt "''hndstn''") is found in a [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] inscription from the 3rd century CE.<ref name="Thapar p.38" />
The term ''Hindu'' in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} In Arabic texts, "Hind", a derivative of Persian "Hindu", was used to refer to the land beyond the Indus<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|2004|p=38}}: "...in Arab sources, ''al-Hind'' (the land beyond the Indus)."</ref> and therefore, all the people in that land were "Hindus", according to historian [[Romila Thapar]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|1989|p=222}}: "Al-Hind was therefore a geographical identity and the Hindus were all the people who lived on this land." {{harvnb|Thapar|1993|p=77}}</ref>
By the 13th century, ''[[Hindustan]]'' emerged as a popular [[Names of India|alternative name]] of India.{{sfn|Thompson Platts|1884}}

Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text ''Record of the Western Regions'' by [[Xuanzang]].{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} In the 14th century, 'Hindu' appeared in several texts in Persian, Sanskrit and Prakrit within India, and subsequently in vernacular languages, often in comparative contexts to contrast them with Muslims or "Turks". Examples include the 14th-century Persian text ''Futuhu's-salatin'' by 'Abd al-Malik [[Isami (historian)|Isami]],{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}}
Jain texts such as ''[[Vividha Tirtha Kalpa]]'' and ''Vidyatilaka'',{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=251–252}}
circa 1400 [[Apabhramsa]] text ''Kīrttilatā'' by [[Vidyapati]],{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=253–254}} 16–18th century [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] texts,<ref name="O'Connell">{{Cite journal |last=O'Conell |first=Joseph T. |year=1973 |title=The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts |volume=93 |pages=340–344 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/599467 |jstor=599467| issn=0003-0279 }}</ref> etc.
These native usages of "Hindu" were borrowed from Persian, and they did not always have a religious connotation, but they often did.<ref>{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=252}}: "Christine Chojnacki has argued that ''hinduka'' and related terms mark a combination of religious, linguistic, and cultural affinities in early Jain sources."
{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=253}}: "Writing for the Bahmani court in the Deccan in 1350, Isami paired ''hindū'' and ''musalmān'', elsewhere using ''hindī'' to mean Indian."
{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=254}}: "[Vidyapati] equates Hindu and Muslim religious and cultural practices, positing comparable differences between their respective ''dhamme'' (Sanskrit ''dharma'')."
{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=260}}: "Most passages identified a mix of religious and cultural norms. For instance, the texts refer to the “Hindu god” (''hindura īśvara'') and “Hindu treatise” (''hindu-śāstre''), on the one hand, and to “hindu clothes” (''hindu-beśa''), on the other."</ref>
In Indian texts, ''Hindu Dharma'' ("Hindu religion") was often used to refer to Hinduism.<ref name="O'Connell" />{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=254}}

Starting in the 17th century, European merchants and colonists adopted "Hindu" (often with the English spelling "Hindoo") to refer to residents of India as a religious community.{{sfn|Truschke|2023|p=261}}{{Refn|In the contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practising or ''[[Laissez-faire]]''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Bryan |last=Turner |year=2010 |title=The New Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Religion |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-8852-4 |pages=424–425}}</ref> The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such as ''Sarnaism''.<ref>{{cite book |first=James |last=Minahan |year=2012 |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 |pages=97–99 |publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, states [[Julius J. Lipner|Julius Lipner]], to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=8}}|group=note}}
The term got increasingly associated with the practices of Brahmins, who were also referred to as "Gentiles" and "Gentoos".{{sfn|Truschke|2023|p=261}}
Terms such as "Hindoo faith" and "Hindoo religion" were often used, eventually leading to the appearance of "Hindooism" in a letter of [[Charles Grant (British East India Company)|Charles Grant]] in 1787, who used it along with "Hindu religion".{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=261–262}}
The first Indian to use "Hinduism" may have been [[Raja Ram Mohun Roy|Raja Ram Mohan Roy]] in 1816–17.<ref>{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=262}}; {{harvnb|Singh|2008|p=433}}</ref> By the 1840s, the term "Hinduism" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2010|p=17}}; {{harvnb|Doniger|2014|p=5}}; {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|p=5}}</ref>
Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language, [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]], [[jāti]], occupation, and sect.{{sfn |Doniger |2014 |p=3}}{{refn|group=note |In [[D. N. Jha]]'s essay ''Looking for a Hindu identity'', he writes: "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century" and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity."<ref name="Mukul Dube">{{Cite web |first=Mukul |last=Dube |title=A short note on the short history of Hinduism |website=Scroll.in |date=10 January 2016 |url=http://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |archive-date=28 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128182331/https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |url-status=live}}</ref> He further wrote "The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, [and] reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Short note on the short history of Hinduism |date=10 January 2016 |url=https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |access-date=13 November 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113220512/https://scroll.in/article/801580/a-short-note-on-the-short-history-of-hinduism |url-status=live}}</ref>}}

== Definitions ==
"Hinduism" is an umbrella-term,<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002a}}; {{harvnb|Flood|2022|p=339}}</ref>
referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Holberg|2000|p=316}}; {{harvnb|Nicholson|2013|pp=2–5}}; {{harvnb|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=21}}</ref>
In Western ethnography, the term refers to the fusion,{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} or synthesis,{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"|{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads ({{Circa|500 BCE}}) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."}}{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=193}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,<ref name="various cultures">{{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} with diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} and no founder.{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=1, 7}} This [[Hindu synthesis]] emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}–200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE and {{Circa|300 CE}},{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} in the period of the [[Second Urbanisation]] and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the [[Indian epic poetry|epics]] and the first Puranas were composed.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}} It flourished in the [[Medieval India|medieval period]], with the [[Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|decline of Buddhism in India]].{{sfn|Larson|1995|pp=109–111}} Hinduism's variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.{{sfn|Turner|1996a|p=275}}

Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on [[Spirituality#Hinduism|spirituality]] and traditions; Hindus can be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], [[Pantheism|pantheistic]], [[Panentheism|panentheistic]], [[Pandeism|pandeistic]], [[Henotheism|henotheistic]], [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Monism|monistic]], [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], [[Atheism|atheistic]] or [[Humanism|humanist]].<ref name="Lipner2009p8">{{harvnb|Lipner|2009|p=8}} Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, henotheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict |publisher=Academic Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-12-369503-1 |editor-last=Kurtz |editor-first=Lester}}</ref> According to [[Mahatma Gandhi]], "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu".<ref>MK Gandhi, ''[http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724045756/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf |date=24 July 2015 }}, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3</ref> According to [[Wendy Doniger]], "ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, even [[Caste system in India|caste]] – are subjects of debate, not [[dogma]]."{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=3}}

Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=117}} Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life".{{sfn|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the term ''(Hindu) dharma'' is used, which is broader than the Western term "religion," and refers to the religious attitudes and behaviours, the 'right way to live', as preserved and transmitted in the various traditions collectively referred to as "Hinduism."{{sfn|Flood|2003a|p=9}}{{sfn|Thomas|2012|p=175}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006}}{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"}}

The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{sfn|King|1999}} Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,{{sfn|Sweetman|2004}}{{Refn|group=note|Sweetman mentions:
* {{harvnb|Halbfass|1988}}, ''India and Europe''
* {{harvnb|Sontheimer|1989}}, ''Hinduism Reconsidered''
* [[Ronald Inden]], ''Imagining India''
* [[Carol Breckenridge]] and [[Peter van der Veer]], ''Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament''
* [[Vasudha Dalmia]] and [[Heinrich von Stietencron]], ''Representing Hinduism''
* [[S.N. Balagangadhara]], ''The Heathen in his Blindness...''
* [[Thomas Trautmann]], ''Aryans and British India''
* {{harvnb|King|1999}}, ''Orientalism and religion''}} and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.{{sfn|Nussbaum|2009}}{{refn|group=note|See [[Rajiv Malhotra]] and [[Being Different]] for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, [[Invading the Sacred]], and [[Hindu studies]].}}

=== Typology ===
[[File:Aum Om navy blue circle coral.svg|thumb|upright|[[Om]], a stylised letter of the [[Devanagari]] script, used as a religious symbol in Hinduism]]
{{Main|Hindu denominations}}

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six [[darsanas]] (philosophies), two schools, [[Vedanta]] and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], are currently the most prominent.{{sfn|Clarke|2011|p=28}}
The six [[āstika]] schools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas are: [[Samkhya|Sānkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Nyāya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimāmsā]], and [[Vedānta]].{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}}

Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are [[Vaishnavism]] ([[Vishnu|God Vishnu)]], [[Shaivism]] ([[Shiva|God Shiva]]), [[Shaktism]] ([[Shakti|Goddess Adi Shakti]]) and [[Smarta Tradition|Smartism]] (five deities treated as equals).{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or [[Supreme God (Hinduism)|Supreme God]], while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=14}} Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]] (self), [[reincarnation]] of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs.

June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus.{{sfn|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}} The major kinds, according to McDaniel are [[Folk Hinduism]], based on local traditions and cults of local [[deities]] and is the oldest, non-literate system; [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic Hinduism]] based on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of the [[Upanishad]]s, including [[Advaita Vedanta]], emphasising knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text of [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]] emphasising introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; and [[bhakti]] or devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.{{sfn|McDaniel|2007|pp=52–53}}

Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=21}} The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=22}} The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} [[Jnana yoga|jnana-marga]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} [[bhakti yoga|bhakti-marga]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} and "heroism", which is rooted in [[Sannyasa#Warrior ascetics|militaristic traditions]]. These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature, [[Rama]], believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of RAMAISM|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ramaism|access-date=28 October 2020|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174144/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ramaism|url-status=live}}</ref> and parts of [[Hindu nationalism|political Hinduism]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=23}} "Heroism" is also called [[Vīrya (Hinduism)|virya-marga]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=24}} According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practising or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasise [[Brahmin|Brahman]] (Brahmin) priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=21–22}} He includes among "founded religions" [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], Sikhism that are now distinct religions, [[Syncretism|syncretic]] movements such as [[Brahmo Samaj]] and the [[Theosophical Society]], as well as various "[[Guru]]-isms" and new religious movements such as [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]],
[[BAPS]] and [[ISKCON]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=22–23}}

Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests.<ref name=ronaldinden127 /> Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.<ref name=ronaldinden127 /> From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation of [[Indology]]. Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.<ref name="ronaldinden127">Ronald Inden (2001), ''Imagining India'', Indiana University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-253-21358-7}}, pp. 117–122, 127–130</ref>

Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea [[Gabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi]] has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferro-Luzzi |title=Hinduism Reconsidered |publisher=Manohar |year=1991 |editor-last=Sontheimer |editor-first=G.D. |location=Delhi |pages=187–195 |chapter=The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism |editor-last2=Kulke |editor-first2=H.}}</ref>

=== {{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}} ===
{{See also|Sanātanī}}

[[File:Srirangam-Rajagopuram-1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple]], dedicated to the [[Hindu]] deity [[Vishnu]], is said to be worshiped by [[Ikshvaku]] (and the descendants of [[Solar dynasty|Ikshvaku Vamsam]]).<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, Ayodhya kanda, sarga 6, sloka 1, 2 and 3</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Srirangam-temple-rich-with-elaborate-details/article59829979.ece|title=Srirangam temple rich with elaborate details|newspaper=The Hindu|date=3 April 2014|access-date=28 August 2023|via=www.thehindu.com|archive-date=16 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816200421/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Srirangam-temple-rich-with-elaborate-details/article59829979.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/was-ram-born-in-ayodhya/articleshow/77380259.cms|title=Was Ram born in Ayodhya?|website=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=28 August 2023|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814150318/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/news/india/was-ram-born-in-ayodhya/articleshow/77380259.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Insoll |first=Timothy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35 |title=Archaeology and world religion |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-22155-9 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174124/https://books.google.com/books?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35 |url-status=live }}</ref> Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox" form of Hinduism as ''[[Sanātana Dharma|{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}]]'', "the eternal law" or the "eternal way".<ref>{{harvnb|Bowker|2000}}; {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}</ref>{{sfn|Vivekjivandas|2010|p=1}} Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. The [[Puranic chronology]], as narrated in the [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], and the [[Puranas]], envisions a timeline of events related to Hinduism starting well before 3000 BCE. The word ''dharma'' is used here to mean ''[[religion]]'' similar to modern [[Indo-Aryan languages]], rather than with its original Sanskrit meaning. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (''artha''), fulfilment of desires (''kama''), and attaining liberation (''moksha''), are viewed here as part of "dharma", which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfilment.{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=111}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hacker |first=Paul |title=Dharma in Hinduism |journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |year=2006 |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=479–496 |doi=10.1007/s10781-006-9002-4|s2cid=170922678 }}</ref> The use of the term ''Sanātana Dharma'' for Hinduism is a modern usage, based on the belief that the origins of Hinduism lie beyond human history, as revealed in the [[Hindu texts]].{{sfn|Knott|1998|pp=3, 5, 117}}{{sfn|Bowker|2000}}{{sfn|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=3}}{{Clarify|reason=Not clear what is revaalex in Hindu texts.|date=February 2024}}

''Sanātana Dharma'' refers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and traditions with origins beyond human history– truths divinely revealed ([[Shruti]]) in the [[Vedas]], the most ancient of the world's scriptures.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Knott|1998|p=3}} To many Hindus, Hinduism is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era. The Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}{{refn|group=note|The term ''sanatana dharma'' and its Vedic roots had another context in the colonial era, particularly the early 19th-century through movements such as the [[Brahmo Samaj]] and the [[Arya Samaj]]. These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that vis-à-vis Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of 1895.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOyYCgAAQBAJ |title=The Encyclopedia of Caribbean Religions: Volume 1: A – L; Volume 2: M – Z |last2=Case |first2=Frederick I. |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-252-09433-0 |pages=902–903 |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155559/https://books.google.com/books?id=XOyYCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}'' historically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (''[[ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]''), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted with [[svadharma]], one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (''varṇa'') and stage in life ([[puruṣārtha]]).<ref name="EB-sanatana dharma" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sanatana dharma {{!}} Hinduism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503143650/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/665848/sanatana-dharma |url-status=live }}</ref> In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".<ref name="EB-sanatana dharma" group="web" />

=== ''Vaidika Dharma'' ===
{{See also|Historical Vedic religion|Vedic period}}
Some have referred to Hinduism as the ''Vaidika dharma'',{{sfn|Sharma|Sharma|2004|pp=1–2}} bypassing the [[Tantra#Tantrika|Tantric revelations]]. The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'.<ref name="MW_Vaidika dharma" group="web">{{Cite web|last=Monier-Williams|first=Monier|author-link=Monier Monier-Williams|year=1988|title=Sanskrit English Dictionary|url=http://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/http://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|archive-date=29 December 2020|access-date=24 July 2018|website=sanskritdictionary.com}}</ref> Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Charvaka]]. According to [[Klaus Klostermaier]], the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2014|p=2}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007b|p=7}} According to [[Arvind Sharma]], the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the term ''vaidika dharma'' or a variant thereof" by the 4th-century CE.<ref name="Sharma1985a">{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=A|author-link=Arvind Sharma|year=1985|title=Did the Hindus have a name for their own religion?|url=https://josa-publications.sydney.edu.au/chronological-index-1960-2002/|journal=The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia|volume=17|issue=1|pages=94–98 [95]|access-date=17 March 2021|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304042137/https://josa-publications.sydney.edu.au/chronological-index-1960-2002/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Brian K. Smith]], "[i]t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the term ''Vaidika Dharma'' cannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'."{{sfn|Smith|1998}}

Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedic [[Varnasrama Dharma|varṇāśrama]] – 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa). For example, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana|Bhāgavata Purāṇa]]'' considers Buddhists, Jains as well as some [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] groups like the [[Pashupata Shaivism|Paśupatas]] and [[Kapalika|Kāpālins]] to be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics).<ref>Valpey, Kenneth Russell; Gupta, Ravi Mohan (2013). ''The Bhāgavata Purāṇa, sacred text and living tradition'', p. 146. Columbia University Press.</ref>

According to [[Alexis Sanderson]], the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms of [[Antinomianism|antinomian]] Shakta-Shaiva" from its fold.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> Some in the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hindu philosophy considered the ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]]'' such as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma.<ref group=web name="sandersonpart1">{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=March 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part One |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174134/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=May 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Two |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-two-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174151/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-two-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref> The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas.<ref group=web name="sandersonpart3">{{Cite web |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |date=July 2016 |title=Tolerance, Exclusivity, Inclusivity, and Persecution in Indian Religion During the Early Mediaeval Period – Part Three |url=http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-three-by-alexis-sanderson |website=Sutra Journal |access-date=13 March 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174219/http://www.sutrajournal.com/tolerance-exclusivity-inclusivity-and-persecution-part-three-by-alexis-sanderson |url-status=live }}</ref> However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, [...] and that as such they [Vedas] are man's sole means of valid knowledge [...]".<ref group=web name="sandersonpart3" />

The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}} The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}} To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their [Hindus] whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=16}}{{refn|group=note|Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), ''The sacred tread'', p. 5.}} and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<ref>{{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=18}}; see also {{harvnb|Lipner|2009|p=77}}; and {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Brian K. |title=Sacred Texts and Authority |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2008 |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |page=101 |chapter=Hinduism}}</ref> Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=15–17}}

=== Legal definition ===
[[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] gave the following definition in ''Gita Rahasya'' (1915): "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".<ref name=Tilak2>Kohli Hari Dev (2010), ''Supreme Court On Hindu Law'', p.251</ref><ref name=Tilak>Ved P. Nanda (ed.)(2016), ''Compassion in the 4 Dharmic Traditions'', p.71</ref> It was quoted by the [[Supreme Court of India|Indian Supreme Court]] in 1966,<ref name=Tilak2 /><ref name=Tilak /> and again in 1995, "as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition,"<ref>Peter Beyer, ''Religions in Global Society''</ref> and is still the legal definition of a Hindu today.{{sfn|Doniger|2014|p=20}}

== Diversity and unity ==
[[File:Angkor Wat Temple, Cambodia in 2013.JPG|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]] temple in Cambodia, the largest Hindu temple in the world]]

=== Diversity ===
{{See also|Hindu denominations}}Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a "family of religions" rather than a single religion.<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Hinduism |url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism |access-date=23 April 2020 |website=History.com |date=30 September 2019 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174138/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism |url-status=live }}</ref> Within each tradition in Hinduism, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts, often including unique interpretations, commentaries, and derivative works that build upon shared foundational scriptures.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Surendranath |title=A history of Indian philosophy (part 1) |last2=Banarsidass |first2=Motilall |year=1992 |page=70}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chande |first=M.B. |title=Indian Philosophy in Modern Times |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist. |year=2000 |page=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Culp |first=John |date= 2008 |entry=Panentheism |editor=Edward N. Zalta |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Summer 2017 |entry-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/ |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174122/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a [[creed]]",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.{{efn|name="umbrella-term"|{{harvtxt|Smith|1963|loc=pp. 65–66}}: "My point, and I think that this is the first step that one must take towards understanding something of the vision of Hindus, is that the mass of religious phenomena that we shelter under the umbrella of that term, is not a unity and does not aspire to be." {{harvtxt|Brodd|Little|Nystrom|Platzner|2018|loc=p. 92}}: "Hinduism has neither a single founder nor a single sacred book. There is no single historical event that marks its birth. The history of Hinduism embodies both continuity and change. Having never had a sole central authority, Hinduism's fluid character has always allowed it to adapt to a variety of social and cultural contexts. This diversity has led many scholars to argue that Hinduism is not one religion at all but a constellation of many religious sects that share some common aspects. Others see enough by way of common beliefs and practices to regard Hinduism as a single religious tradition."}}{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|pp=1–22}} According to the [[Supreme Court of India]],

{{blockquote|Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more".{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}}}

Part of the problem with a single definition of the term ''Hinduism'' is the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=1, 7}} It is a synthesis of various traditions,<ref>{{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}</ref> the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}

[[Theism]] is also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic [[ontology]] of creation, other [[Hindu atheism|Hindus are or have been atheists]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Quack |first1=Johannes |last2=Binder |first2=Stefan |date=22 February 2018 |title=Atheism and Rationalism in Hinduism |journal=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0196}}</ref>

=== Sense of unity ===
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or [[sastra|sacred literature]], the Vedas,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} although there are exceptions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=35}} These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus,<ref name=andreapinkney /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haines |first=Jeffrey |title=Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-60029-3 |page=80}}</ref> though [[Louis Renou]] stated that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".<ref name="andreapinkney">{{Cite book |last=Pinkney |first=Andrea |title=Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-63503-5 |editor-last=Turner |editor-first=Bryan |pages=31–32 |editor-last2=Salemink |editor-first2=Oscar}}</ref>{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=1}}

Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}}

==== Classical Hinduism ====
[[Brahmin]]s played an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=99–100}} In the post-[[Gupta empire|Gupta period]] Vedanta developed in southern India, where [[Brahmanism|orthodox Brahmanic culture]] and the Hindu culture were preserved,{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=100–101}} building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda[ting] the multiple demands of Hinduism."{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=101}}

==== Medieval developments ====
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|pp=1–36}}</ref> Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=36}} Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other".{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=648}} According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other"{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=648}} is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|pp=648, 655}}

[[File:Pashupatinath Temple-2020.jpg|thumb|227x227px|[[Pashupatinath Temple]] in [[Nepal]], dedicated to the [[Hindu]] deity [[Shiva]] as the lord of all beings]]

According to the Indologist [[Alexis Sanderson]], before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certain [[antinomian]] tantric movements.<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 /> Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism".<ref group=web name=sandersonpart1 />

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by [[Mikel Burley]].{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Hacker called this "inclusivism"{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|pp=24–33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}}{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|pp=26–27}} Michaels notes:
{{blockquote|As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism ... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=44}}}}

==== Colonial views ====
The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"{{sfn|King|1999|pp=100–102}} were also popularised by 19th-century proselytising missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.{{sfn|King|1999|pp=100–102}}<ref name=ronaldinden127 />{{sfn|Sweetman|2004|pp=14–15}} These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils,{{refn|group=note|Pennington{{sfn|Pennington|2005|pp=76–77}} describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings [impoverished, famine-prone Bengal – now West Bengal and Bangladesh]. Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."}} while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the ''Vedas'', ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', ''[[Manusmriti]]'' and such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature".{{sfn|King|1999|p=169}}{{refn|group=note|name="Sweetman"}} Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.{{sfn|Pennington|2005|loc=pp. 4–5 and Chapter 6}} He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.{{sfn|Pennington|2005|loc=pp. 4–5 and Chapter 6}}{{refn|group=note|Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times:
* Klaus Witz<ref>{{Cite book |last=Witz |first=Klaus G |title=The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1573-5 |pages=10–11|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}</ref> states that Hindu [[Bhakti movement]] ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
* John Henderson<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henderson |first=John |title=Scripture, Canon and Commentary |url=https://archive.org/details/scripturecanonco0000hend |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-691-60172-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/scripturecanonco0000hend/page/120 120]}}</ref> states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognised attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.
* Patrick Olivelle<ref name=Olivelle2014p3q>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |author-link=Patrick Olivelle |title=The Early Upanisads |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-535242-9 |page=3 |quote=Even though theoretically the whole of Vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the [[Upanishad]]s that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.}}</ref> and others<ref>{{harvnb|Doniger|1990|pp=2–3}}: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref name=McDowell>{{Cite book |last1=McDowell |first1=Michael |title=World Religions |last2=Brown |first2=Nathan |publisher=Penguin |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-59257-846-7 |pages=208–210}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dissanayake |first=Wiman |title=Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1080-6 |editor-last=Kasulis |editor-first=Thomas P. |page=39 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.}}

==== Hindu modernism and neo-Vedanta ====
[[File:Swami Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg|thumb|[[Swami Vivekananda]] was a key figure in introducing [[Vedanta]] and Yoga in Europe and the United States,{{sfn|Feuerstein|2002|p=600}} raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.{{sfn|Clarke|2006|p=209}}]]
{{Quote box
|quote = All of religion is contained in the Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism.
|author = — [[Swami Vivekananda]]<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=https://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_5/epistles_first_series/039_alasinga.htm|title=Complete-Works/Volume 5/Epistles – First Series|access-date=2024-01-27|website=ramakrishnavivekananda.info|archive-date=27 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127095409/https://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_5/epistles_first_series/039_alasinga.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|width = 30%
|align = right|salign=right
}}
{{See also|Hindu reform movements}}

{{See also|Orientalism|Neo-Vedanta}}
This inclusivism<ref>Hackel in {{harvnb|Nicholson|2010}}.</ref> was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by [[Hindu reform movements]] and Neo-Vedanta,{{sfn|King|2001}} and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}

Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,{{sfn|King|1999}} meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements{{sfn|Lorenzen|2002|p=33}} and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasising the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.{{sfn|King|1999}} This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.{{sfn|King|1999}} Major representatives of [[Neo-Vedanta|"Hindu modernism"]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} are [[Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=256–261}}

Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the [[Hindu Renaissance]].<ref name="hindu1">{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Serinity |title=Hinduism |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-2116-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hinduism0000youn/page/87 87] |quote=Rammohun Roy Father of Hindu Renaissance. |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduism0000youn |access-date=19 February 2015 |url-access=registration}}</ref> He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=257}} Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=258}} According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=259}} Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=249}}

This "Global Hinduism"{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} It emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=265}} It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation",{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} or the [[pizza effect]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=267}} This globalisation of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=267–268}}

==== Modern India and the world ====
[[File:Hare Krishna in Helsinki H1118 C.JPG|thumb|The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] group at the [[Esplanadi Park]] in [[Helsinki, Finland]]]]
The [[Hindutva]] movement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hansen|first=Thomas Blom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|title=The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India|year=1999|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-1-4008-2305-5|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C&q=hindutva+in+modern+india 77]|language=en|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180224/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|url-status=live}}</ref> And there are assumptions of political dominance of [[Hindu nationalism]] in [[India]], also known as '<nowiki/>''Neo-Hindutva''<nowiki/>'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Edward|last2=Longkumer|first2=Arkotong|date=2 October 2018|title='Neo-Hindutva': evolving forms, spaces, and expressions of Hindu nationalism|journal=Contemporary South Asia|volume=26|issue=4|pages=371–377|doi=10.1080/09584935.2018.1548576|issn=0958-4935|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/8da58c02-ac36-46f1-a4f6-71ad6be1be09|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chacko|first=Priya|date=2019c|title=Marketizing Hindutva: The state, society, and markets in Hindu nationalism|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/marketizing-hindutva-the-state-society-and-markets-in-hindu-nationalism/92243742C585CD73910BA63030F6A655|journal=Modern Asian Studies|language=en|volume=53|issue=2|pages=377–410|doi=10.1017/S0026749X17000051|hdl=2440/117274|s2cid=149588748|issn=0026-749X|hdl-access=free|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307235100/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/marketizing-hindutva-the-state-society-and-markets-in-hindu-nationalism/92243742C585CD73910BA63030F6A655|url-status=live}}</ref> There have also been increase in pre-dominance of [[Hindutva]] in [[Nepal]], similar to that of [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?|url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/24085/will-an-incident-of-anti-muslim-violence-upend-nepals-bid-for-inclusivity|access-date=2 March 2021|website=www.worldpoliticsreview.com|date=30 January 2018|language=en|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413000033/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/insights/24085/will-an-incident-of-anti-muslim-violence-upend-nepals-bid-for-inclusivity|url-status=live}}</ref> The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to the cultural influences such as [[Yoga]] and [[Hare Krishna movement]] by many missionaries organisations, especially by [[ISKCON]] and this is also due to the migration of [[Indian Hindus]] to the other nations of the world.{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|p=239}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berg|first1=Travis Vande|last2=Kniss|first2=Fred|date=2008|title=ISKCON and Immigrants: The Rise, Decline, and Rise Again of a New Religious Movement|journal=[[The Sociological Quarterly]]|volume=49|issue=1|pages=79–104|doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00107.x|issn=0038-0253|jstor=40220058|s2cid=146169730}}</ref> Hinduism is growing fast in many [[Hinduism in the West|western nations]] and in some [[Hinduism in Africa|African nations]].{{Refn|* Hinduism is the fastest growing religion in [[Hinduism in Russia|Russia]], [[Hinduism in Ghana|Ghana]] and [[Hinduism in the United States|United States]]. This was due to the influence of the [[ISKCON]] and the migration of [[Hindus]] in these nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/700557/how-iskcon-took-hinduism-to-the-us-heartland|title=How ISKCON took Hinduism to the US heartland|access-date=9 April 2021|website=scroll.in|date=17 January 2015|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511101216/https://scroll.in/article/700557/how-iskcon-took-hinduism-to-the-us-heartland|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Hinduism in the West|In western nations]], the ''growth of Hinduism'' has been very fast and is the second fastest growing religion in [[Europe]], after [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.erg.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.329209.1492613166!/menu/standard/file/Hinduism%20in%20Europe_Abstracts.pdf|title=Hinduism in Europe|website=[[Microsoft Word]]|date=28 April 2017|access-date=9 April 2021|archive-date=23 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523082912/https://www.erg.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.329209.1492613166!/menu/standard/file/Hinduism%20in%20Europe_Abstracts.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=ty78|group=note}}

== Main traditions ==

=== Denominations ===
{{Further|Hindu denominations}}
[[File:Ganesha pachayatana.jpg|thumb|A Ganesha-centric [[Panchayatana puja|Panchayatana]] ("five deities", from the Smarta tradition): [[Ganesha]] (centre) with [[Shiva]] (top left), [[Parvati]] (top right), [[Vishnu]] (bottom left) and [[Surya]] (bottom right). All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them.]]

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies: ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'', ''Smartism'', and ''Vaishnavism''.{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and the [[soteriology|soteriological]] outlook.<ref name="sskumar">SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref> The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=371–375}}

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ The global religious landscape: Hindus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ |date=9 February 2020}}, Pew Research (2012)</ref> Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University's Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 399 million Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 385 million Hindus, Shaktism with 305 million Hindus and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million Hindus.<ref name="preston">{{Cite web |last=Preston |first=Charles |title=List of religious populations {{!}} Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations |access-date=2025-02-01 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=14 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114131904/https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations |url-status=live }}</ref>    In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{refn|group=note|According to {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}{{dubious|date=February 2022}}}}

Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu{{Refn|group=note|sometimes with [[Lakshmi]], the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri;{{sfn|Beck|2005|p=65 and Chapter 5}}}} and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=15–17}} The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful" ''Krishna'' and other Vishnu avatars.<ref name=sskumar /> These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing of [[Kirtan]]s and [[Bhajan]]s, with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nettl |first1=Bruno |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia: the Indian subcontinent |last2=Stone |first2=Ruth M. |last3=Porter |first3=James |last4=Rice |first4=Timothy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1 |pages=246–247 |access-date=21 February 2016 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011163910/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.<ref>{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|pp=1441, 376}}</ref>

Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.<ref name=sskumar /> Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.<ref name="lancenelson">{{harv|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|year=2007|pp=562–563}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=38–43}} Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasise yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=209}} Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualise god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles ([[Ardhanarishvara]]). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.<ref name=lancenelson /> Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as the [[Kumbh Mela]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2010), ''God's Gateway: Identity and Meaning in a Hindu Pilgrimage Place'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-538614-1}}</ref> Shaivism has been more commonly practised in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.{{sfn|Isaeva|1995|pp=141–145}}

Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother,<ref name=sskumar /> and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such as [[Assam]] and [[West Bengal|Bengal]]. Devi is depicted as in gentler forms like [[Parvati]], the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses like [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]. Followers of Shaktism recognise Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated with [[Tantra]] practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scaligero |first=Massimo |year=1955 |title=The Tantra and the Spirit of the West |journal=East and West |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=291–296 |jstor=29753633}}</ref> Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.<ref>'''History:''' Hans Koester (1929), The Indian Religion of the Goddess Shakti, Journal of the Siam Society, Vol 23, Part 1, pp. 1–18; '''Modern practices:''' June McDaniel (2010), ''Goddesses in World Culture'', Volume 1 (Editor: Patricia Monaghan), {{ISBN|978-0-313-35465-6}}, Chapter 2</ref>

[[Smartism]] centers its worship simultaneously on all the major [[Hindu deities]]: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha, [[Surya]] and [[Kartikeya|Skanda]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Flood|1996}} The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regards [[Adi Shankara]] as its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes ([[Saguna Brahman]]) as a journey towards ultimately realising God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).<ref name="williamw">{{Cite book |last=Wainwright |first=William |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |publisher=Stanford University |year=2012 |chapter=Concepts of God |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323084508/http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Murthy |first=U |title=Samskara |url=https://archive.org/details/samskarariteford0000anan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-19-561079-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/samskarariteford0000anan/page/n150 150]}}</ref> The term ''Smartism'' is derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref name="williamsonp89">{{cite book|first=L |last=Williamson |year=2010 |title=Transcendent in America: Hindu-inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9450-0 |page=89}}</ref> This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.<ref name=lancenelson /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Murray |title=Status and Sacredness |url=https://archive.org/details/statussacredness00miln |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-508489-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statussacredness00miln/page/194 194]–197}}</ref>

=== Ethnicities ===
[[File:Prambanan Java245.jpg|thumb|[[Prambanan]] Hindu temple complex built in the 9th century, [[Java]], Indonesia]]
[[File:Salah Satu Upacara Besar Di Pura Agung Besakih.jpg|thumb|[[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] at [[Pura Besakih]], one of the most significant [[Balinese Hinduism]] temples]]
{{See also|Hinduism in South Asia|Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism in Java|Hinduism in Vietnam|Hinduism in the West|label 2=Southeast Asia|label 3=Bali|l4=Java|l5=Vietnam|l6=West}}

Hinduism is traditionally a multi- or [[Polyethnicity|polyethnic]] religion. On the [[Indian subcontinent]], it is widespread among many [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]], [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] and other [[South Asian ethnic groups]],{{sfn|West|2010}} for example, the [[Meitei people]] ([[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] ethnicity in the northeastern Indian state [[Manipur]]).{{sfn|Singh|2004}}

In addition, in antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], Hinduism was the [[state religion]] in many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, the ''[[Greater India]]''{{snd}}from Afghanistan ([[Kabul]]) in the West and including almost all of [[Southeast Asia]] in the East ([[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], partly [[Philippines]]){{snd}}and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam,{{sfnm|1a1=Cœdès|1y=1968|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=|3a1=Acri|3a2=Creese|3a3=Griffiths|3y=2011|3p=}}<ref name="spread">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116205245/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/The-spread-of-Hinduism-in-Southeast-Asia-and-the-Pacific|url-status=live}}</ref> except several still Hindu minor [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] ethnic groups, such as the [[Balinese people|Balinese]]{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} and [[Tenggerese people]]{{sfnm|1a1=Hefner|1y=1989|1p=|2a1=Kinney|2a2=Klokke|2a3=Kieven |2y=2003|2p=}} in Indonesia, and the [[Chams]] in Vietnam.{{sfnm|1a1=Phuong|1a2=Lockhart|1y=2011|1p=|2a1=Pande|2y=2006|2p=231}} Also, a small community of the Afghan [[Pashtuns]] who migrated to India after [[partition of India|partition]] remain committed to Hinduism.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |title=Tattooed 'blue-skinned' Hindu Pushtuns look back at their roots |author=Haider, Suhasini |date=3 February 2018 |website=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=9 February 2020 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822082221/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tattooed-blue-skinned-hindu-pushtuns-look-back-at-their-roots/article22645932.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Indo-Aryan [[Kalash people]] in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which is closely related to ancient Indo-Iranian religion, and resembles the ancient Vedic religion.{{sfn|Michael|2004}} While it has been related to Greek religion, due to an origin-narrative which says that the Kalash descend from Alexander the Great's Greek soldiers, the Kalash speak an Indo-Aryan language, and their religion is closer to Hinduism than to the religion of Alexander's army.{{sfn|West|2010|p=[{{Google books|id=pCiNqFj3MQsC|plainurl=y|page=357|keywords=|text=}} 357]|loc=quote: "The Kalasha [...] religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash [...] However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies."}}

There are many new ethnic [[Hinduism in Ghana|Ghanaian Hindus]] in Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works of [[Swami Ghanananda Saraswati]] and [[Hindu Monastery of Africa]]<ref name="Joshi">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/10401741.stm |title=Ghana's unique African-Hindu temple |author=Rajesh Joshi |website=BBC News |date= |access-date= |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231013628/https://www.bbc.com/news/10401741 |url-status=live }}</ref> From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914), [[Swami Vivekananda]], [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] and other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.{{sfn|Carney|2020}}

== Scriptures ==
{{Main|List of Hindu texts}}

{{See also|Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism}}
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Rigveda]]'' is the first among four Vedas<ref group="note">Rigveda is not only the oldest among the Vedas, but is one of the earliest [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] texts.</ref> and is one of the oldest [[religious texts]]. This Rigveda [[manuscript]] is in [[Sanskrit]].]]
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are initially in [[Vedic Sanskrit]] and later in classical Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two: [[Śruti|Shruti]] and [[Smriti]]. Shruti is ''[[apauruṣeyā]]'', ({{literal translation|not made of a man}}) but revealed by the ''[[rishis]]'' ({{literal translation|seers}}), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=202}} They are the two highest [[sources of dharma]], the other two being ''[[Ācāra|Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara]]'' ({{literal translation|conduct of noble people}}) and finally ''[[Atmatusti|Ātma tuṣṭi]]'' ({{literal translation|what is pleasing to oneself}}).{{refn|group=note|According to [[Bhavishya Purana]], Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7, there are four [[sources of dharma]]: ''[[Śruti]]'' (Vedas), ''[[Smṛti]]'' (Dharmaśāstras, Puranas), ''[[Ācāra|Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara]]'' (conduct of noble people) and finally ''[[Atmatusti|Ātma tuṣṭi]]'' (Self satisfaction). From the sloka:
: {{lang|sa|वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedagyana.info/maha-puranas-telugu/bhavishya-purana/brahma-parva/?chapter=7 |script-title=te:ఏడవ అధ్యాయము – 7. వివాహ ధర్మ వర్ణనము |trans-title=Chapter 7 – 7. Description of Marriage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610234713/http://www.vedagyana.info/maha-puranas-telugu/bhavishya-purana/brahma-parva/?chapter=7 |archive-date=10 June 2020}}</ref>
:''{{IAST|vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam}}''
:– Bhavishya Purāṇa, Brahmaparva, Adhyāya 7
The meaning is ''vedas, smritis, good (approved) tradition and what is agreeable to one's Self (conscience), the wise have declared to be the four direct evidences of dharma''.}}

Hindu scriptures were composed, memorised and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.{{sfn|Flood|2003|loc=See [[Michael Witzel]] quote|pp=68–69}}{{sfn|Sargeant|Chapple|1984|p=3}}

''Shruti'' ({{literal translation|that which is heard}}){{sfn|Rinehart|2004|p=68}} primarily refers to the ''Vedas'', which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (''rishis'').{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=4}} There are four ''Vedas'' – ''[[Rigveda]]'', ''[[Samaveda]]'', ''[[Yajurveda]]'' and ''[[Atharvaveda]]''. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the [[Samhita]]s (mantras and benedictions), the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the [[Upanishads]] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=35–39}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|pp=8–14}}<ref>George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-533261-2}}, p. 285</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1975), ''Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas)'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}</ref> The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the ''{{IAST|Karmakāṇḍa}}'' (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ''{{IAST|Jñānakāṇḍa}}'' (knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).<ref>{{harvnb|Roer|1908|pp=1–5}}; "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) {{IAST|pūrva-kāṇḍa}}, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the {{IAST|jñāna-kāṇḍa}}, the part which contains knowledge, also named {{IAST|uttarra-kāṇḍa}} or posterior part and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal Self."</ref>{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=10, 58, 66}}{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=25–41}}<ref name="Olivelle1998Introduction">{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |year=1998 |title=Upaniṣads |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-282292-5 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions.<ref name="wendydoniger" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dissanayake |first=Wiman |title=Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1080-6 |editor-last=Kasulis |editor-first=Thomas P. |page=39 |quote=The Upanishads form the '''foundations of Hindu philosophical thought''' and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self |display-editors=etal}}</ref><ref name="McDowell" /> Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.<ref name="wendydoniger">{{harvnb|Doniger|1990|pp=2–3}}: "The Upanishads supply the '''basis of later Hindu philosophy'''; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref name="Olivelle2014p3q" /> Indian philosopher [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |year=1969|orig-date=1953 |title=The Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/PrincipalUpanishads/129481965-The-Principal-Upanishads-by-S-Radhakrishnan#page/n19/mode/2up |publisher=George Allen & Co. |isbn=978-81-7223-124-8 |edition=reprint |pages=17–19}}</ref> There are 108 [[Muktikā]] Upanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as [[Mukhya Upanishads|Principal Upanishads]].<ref name="Olivelle1998Introduction" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Thirteen Principal Upanishads |year=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |translator-last=Hume |translator-first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n1/mode/2up}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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The most notable of the Smritis ({{literal translation|that which is remembered}}) are the Hindu epics and the ''[[Puranas]]'' ({{literal translation|that which is ancient}}). The epics consist of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''. The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' is an integral part of the ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism.<ref>''Sarvopaniṣado gāvo'', etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', cited in {{cite book |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/introduction/ |title=Bhagavad-gītā |trans-title=As It Is |via=Bhaktivedanta VedaBase |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174201/https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/introduction/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is sometimes called ''Gitopanishad'', then placed in the Shruti ("heard") category, being Upanishadic in content.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coburn |first=Thomas B. |date=September 1984 |title="Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]] |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=435–459 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/52.3.435 }}</ref> The ''Puranas'', which started to be composed of {{Circa|300 CE}} onward,{{sfn|Lorenzen|1999|p=655}} contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. The ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'' is a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained renewed popularity in the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michelis |first=Elizabeth De |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHBBDq_Ul3sC |title=A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism |date=2005 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-8772-8 |access-date=14 October 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155602/https://books.google.com/books?id=sHBBDq_Ul3sC |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since the 19th century, Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements{{sfn|Lorenzen|2002|p=33}} and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.{{sfn|Vivekananda|1987|loc=Volume I|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Harshananda|1989}}

[[Tantra]] are the religious scriptures that give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form. In Tantric tradition, [[Radha]], [[Parvati]], [[Durga]], and [[Kali]] are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balfour |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3U0OAAAAQAAJ&dq=worship+radha&pg=PA62 |title=The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures |date=1885 |publisher=B. Quaritch |pages=60 |language=en |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-date=20 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320150436/https://books.google.com/books?id=3U0OAAAAQAAJ&dq=worship+radha&pg=PA62 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''[[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]]'' in Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti,{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=13}} while ''Nigamas'' refers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=13}} In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhavamony |first=Mariasusai |title=Hindu Spirituality |publisher=Gregorian University and Biblical Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |pages=31–34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=David |title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India |url=https://archive.org/details/danceofsivarelig0000smit |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-48234-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/danceofsivarelig0000smit/page/116 116]}}</ref>

== Beliefs ==
[[File:Halebid3.JPG|thumb|right|Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the [[Hoysaleswara Temple]] in [[Halebidu]], representing the [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]]]]
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to) [[Dharma]] (ethics/duties), [[samsara|{{IAST|Saṃsāra}}]] (the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices).{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterised by a belief in an [[Afterlife]], with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such as [[Śrāddha]]. [[Ancestor worship]] once formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.<ref name="A.M. Boyer 1901">A.M. Boyer: ''Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara.'' Journal Asiatique, (1901), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451–453, 459–468</ref><ref name="Yuvraj Krishan 1997">Yuvraj Krishan: ''Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan'', 1997, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref><ref name="Laumakis">{{Cite book |last=Laumakis |first=Stephen J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC |title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46966-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155520/https://books.google.co.ma/books?id=_29ZDAcUEwYC&redir_esc=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hayakawa 2014">{{Cite book |last=Hayakawa |first=Atsushi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7LtAgAAQBAJ |title=Circulation of Fire in the Veda |date=2014 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-90472-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sayers">{{Cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor Worship in Ancient India |year=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="repositories.lib.utexas.edu">{{Cite thesis |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |date=May 2008 |degree=Thesis |first=Matthew R. |last=Sayers |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sayers 182–197">{{Cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=June 2015 |title=The Śrāddha : The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism: The Śrāddha |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |journal=Religion Compass |language=en |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=182–197 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12155 |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119210615/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12155 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Purusharthas ===
{{Main|Puruṣārtha}}

{{See also|Diksha|l1=Diksha|Dharma|l2=Dharma|Artha|l3=Artha|Kama|l4=Kāma|Moksha#Hinduism|l5=Mokṣa}}
Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas – [[Dharma]], [[Artha]], [[Kama]] and [[Moksha]].<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103">{{harvnb|Bilimoria|Prabhu|Sharma|2007}}; see also {{harvnb|Koller|1968}}.</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1997|p=11}}

==== Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics) ====
{{Main|Dharma}}

Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=The Fruits of Our Desiring |year=1996a |isbn=978-1-896209-30-2 |editor-last=Lipner |editor-first=Julius |pages=16–21 |chapter=The meaning and context of the Purusarthas |publisher=Bayeux |author-link=Gavin Flood}}</ref> The concept of dharma includes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with [[rta]], the order that makes life and universe possible,<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 "Dharma"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926234045/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 |date=26 September 2016 }}, The ''[[Oxford Dictionary of World Religions]]'': "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order."</ref> and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".<ref name="tce">{{Cite book |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5 |edition=6th |chapter=Dharma}}</ref> Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.<ref name=tce /> Dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.<ref name="vanbuitenen">{{Cite journal |last=Van Buitenen |first=J. A. B. |date=April–July 1957 |title=Dharma and Moksa |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=7 |issue=1/2 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.2307/1396832 |jstor=1396832}}</ref> The [[Brihadaranyaka]] Upanishad states it as:

{{blockquote|Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (''Satya''); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.|[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]|1.4.xiv<ref>[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Charles Johnston]], The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, Kshetra, {{ISBN|978-1-4959-4653-0}}, p. 481, for discussion: pp. 478–505</ref><ref>Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker), "From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'', Vol 32, pp. 423–448, (2004)</ref>}}

In the [[Mahabharata]], [[Krishna]] defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word ''Sanātana'' means ''eternal'', ''perennial'', or ''forever''; thus, ''Sanātana Dharma'' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Prabhupādā |first=A. C. Bhaktivedanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither%20beginning%20nor%20end%22&pg=PA16 |title=Bhagavad-gītā as it is |publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-89213-268-3 |page=16 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174159/https://books.google.com/books?id=dSA3hsIq5dsC&q=%22neither+beginning+nor+end%22&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life) ====
{{Main|Artha}}

Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.{{sfn|Koller|1968}} The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|pp=55–56}}<ref name="bruces">Bruce Sullivan (1997), ''Historical Dictionary of Hinduism'', {{ISBN|978-0-8108-3327-2}}, pp. 29–30</ref>

A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.<ref>John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct. 1968), pp. 315–319</ref>

==== Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure) ====
{{Main|Kama}}

Kāma (Sanskrit, [[Pali]]: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, and pleasure of the [[senses]], the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Macy |first=Joanna |year=1975 |title=The Dialectics of Desire |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.2307/3269765 |jstor=3269765}}</ref><ref name="mmwse">Monier Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html काम, kāma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019211540/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0304.html |date=19 October 2017 }} ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary'', p. 271, see 3rd column</ref>
[[File:Khajuraho couple kissing.jpg|thumb|493x493px|[[Tantra|Tantric]] depiction of loving embrace at a temple relief of [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India – a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]]

In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|Epic]] the [[Mahabharata]] describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).<ref>R. Prasad (2008), ''History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization'', Volume 12, Part 1, {{ISBN|978-8180695445}}, Chapter 10, particularly pp. 252–255</ref>

In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.<ref>See:
*"The Hindu Kama Shastra Society" (1925), ''[https://archive.org/stream/kamasutraofvatsy00vatsuoft#page/8/mode/2up The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana]'', University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8;
*A. Sharma (1982), ''The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology'', Michigan State University, {{ISBN|978-99936-24-31-8}}, pp. 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (July 1984), pp. 140–142;
*A. Sharma (1999), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 "The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174154/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 |date=29 December 2020 }}, ''The Journal of Religious Ethics'', Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256;
*Chris Bartley (2001), ''Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy'', Editor: Oliver Learman, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, Routledge, Article on Purushartha, p. 443</ref>

==== Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering) ====
{{Main|Moksha}}

Moksha ({{Langx|sa|मोक्ष|translit=mokṣa}}) or mukti ({{Langx|sa|मुक्ति|links=no}}) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation from [[samsara]] (a birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.<ref name="vanbuitenen" />{{sfn|Rinehart|2004|pp=19–21}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Long|first=J. Bruce|title=The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata|publisher=University of California Press|year=1980|isbn=978-0-520-03923-0|editor-last=O'Flaherty|editor-first=Wendy D.|chapter=2 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions}}</ref>

[[File:The Muktinath Temple.jpg|thumb|217x217px|[[Muktinath]] temple in [[Mustang District|Mustang]], [[Nepal]], considered one of the focal pilgrimage places for liberation ([[moksha]] or [[nirvana]])]]

Due to the belief in Hinduism that the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is eternal, and the concept of [[Purusha]] (the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness),<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Far East and Australasia, 2003 – Regional surveys of the world |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85743-133-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |page=39 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174155/https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39 |url-status=live }}</ref> death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal Atman or Purusha.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |title=Hindu spirituality – Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia |publisher=Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana |year=1999 |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |page=1 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229001010/https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Differing views on the nature of moksha =====
The meaning of ''moksha'' differs among the various Hindu schools of thought.

[[Advaita Vedanta]] holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical to [[Brahman]].<ref name=karlpotter /><ref name=klausklost />

More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter">{{Cite journal|last=Potter|first=Karl H.|date=1958|title=Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=8|issue=1/2|pages=49–63|doi=10.2307/1397421|jstor=1397421|issn=0031-8221}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ingalls|first=Daniel H. H.|date=1957d|title=Dharma and Moksha|url=https://cup.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Philosophies-of-Happiness-Supplementary-Notes.pdf|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=7|issue=2|pages=41–48|doi=10.2307/1396833|jstor=1396833}}{{dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="danielingails">{{Cite book|last=Pal|first=Jagat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|title=Karma, Dharma and Moksha: Conceptual Essays on Indian Ethics|date=2004|publisher=Abhijeet Publications|isbn=978-81-88683-23-9|language=en|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164240/https://books.google.com/books?id=y48QAQAAIAAJ&q=Dharma+and+Moksha|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="klausklost">{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|title=Philosophy East & West|date=1985|publisher=[[University Press of Hawaii]]|pages=61–71|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=x6gvAAAAIAAJ&q=Mok%E1%B9%A3a+and+Critical+Theory|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".{{sfn|Deutsch|2001}}<ref name="karlpotter" /><ref name="danielingails" /> ''Moksha'' when viewed as a psychological concept, suggests [[Klaus Klostermaier]],<ref name="klausklost" /> implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.<ref name="klausklost" />

Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, the [[vedanta|Vedantic school]] separates this into two views – ''[[jivanmukta|Jivanmukti]]'' (liberation in this life) and ''[[videha mukti|Videhamukti]]'' (liberation after death).<ref name="klausklost" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Brück |first=M. |year=1986 |title=Imitation or Identification? |journal=Indian Theological Studies |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=95–105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fort|first=Andrew O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation|title=Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta|date=1998|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-0-7914-3904-3|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164245/https://books.google.com/books?id=iG_J96ALMZYC&q=Jivanmukti+in+Transformation#v=snippet&q=Jivanmukti%20in%20Transformation&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Karma and saṃsāra ===
{{Main|Karma}}

''Karma'' translates literally as ''action'', ''work'', or ''deed'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman S |url=https://archive.org/details/studentsenglishs00apte_271 |title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |year=1997 |isbn=978-81-208-0300-8 |edition=New |location=Delhi}}</ref> and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |year=1991 |title=The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions |location=San Francisco |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0-06-250799-0 |page=64 |author-link=Huston Smith |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsreligions000smit}}</ref><ref>Karl Potter (1964), "The Naturalistic Principle of Karma", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (April 1964), pp. 39–49</ref> The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicisation, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.<ref name="wdointro">Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'', University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. xi–xxv (Introduction) and 3–37</ref> Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to their actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives.<ref name=wdointro /><ref>Karl Potter (1980), in ''Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions'' (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-03923-0}}, pp. 241–267</ref> This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called ''[[saṃsāra]]''. Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting [[Ānanda (Hindu philosophy)|happiness]] and [[Peace#Hinduism|peace]].{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1996|p=254}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |title=Jnana Yoga |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4254-8288-6 |author-link=Swami Vivekananda |pages=301–302}} (8th Printing 1993)</ref> Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chapple|first=Christopher Key|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity|title=Karma and Creativity|date=1986|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=978-0-88706-250-6|pages=60–64|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164244/https://books.google.com/books?id=QSrzLfyHvxYC&q=Karma+and+Creativity#v=snippet&q=Karma%20and%20Creativity&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The idea of [[reincarnation]], or [[saṃsāra]], is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Boyer |first=A. M. |year=1901 |title=Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara |journal=Journal Asiatique |volume=9 |issue=18 |pages=451–453, 459–468}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Krishan |first=Yuvraj |title=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1997 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref> The later layers of the ''Rigveda'' do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.{{sfn|Laumakis|2008|pp=90–99}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ranade |first=R. D. |url=https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926#page/n181/mode/2up |title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1926 |pages=147–148 |quote=... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.}}</ref> According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as ''sraddha'' (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the ''Aranyakas'' and the ''Upanisads'' show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |pages=1–9 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |first=Matthew Rae |last=Sayers |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Texas |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |page=12 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sayers |first=Matthew R. |date=1 November 2015 |editor-last=McGovern |editor-first=Nathan |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=336–338 |doi=10.1093/jhs/hiv034 |issn=1756-4255 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204170604/https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the [[Upanishads]] of the late [[Vedic period]], predating the [[Buddha]] and the [[Mahavira]].<ref name="damienkeown32">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |title=Buddhism: A very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966383-5 |pages=28, 32–38 |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164154/https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Laumakis|2008}}

=== Concept of God ===
{{Main|Ishvara|God in Hinduism}}

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs<ref name="Lipner2009p8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chakravarti |first=Sitansu |title=Hinduism, a way of life |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1991 |isbn=978-81-208-0899-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |page=71 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413105302/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Smart |first=Ninian |year=2007 |title=Polytheism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism |access-date=5 July 2007 |archive-date=5 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805040843/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469156/polytheism |url-status=live }}</ref> its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]] followed. It is sometimes referred to as [[God in Hinduism|henotheistic]] (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralisation.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=xiv}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gill |first=N.S |title=Henotheism |work=About.com Education |url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317151629/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm |archive-date=17 March 2007 |access-date=5 July 2007 |publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]]}}</ref>

{{Rquote|left|"Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen?"|[[Nasadiya Sukta]], concerns the [[origin of the universe]], [[Rigveda]], ''10:129–6''{{sfn|Kramer|1986|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34 34–]}}{{sfn|Christian|2011|pp=[https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n46 18–]}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA206 206–]}}}}
The ''[[Nasadiya Sukta]]'' (''Creation Hymn'') of the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' is one of the earliest texts{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=226}} which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=226}}; {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|pp=20–21}}</ref><ref name="3translations">* Original Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९ Rigveda 10.129] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525145645/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%3A_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF |date=25 May 2017 }} Wikisource;
* '''Translation 1''': {{harvnb|Muller|1859|pp=559–565}}
* '''Translation 2''': {{harvnb|Kramer|1986|p=[https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram/page/21 21]}}
* '''Translation 3''': {{harvnb|Christian|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA17 17]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18 18]}}</ref> The ''Rig Veda'' praises various [[Hindu deities|deities]], none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.<ref>{{cite book |last=Muller |first=Max |author-link=Max Muller |year=1878 |title=Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India |publisher=Longmans Green & Co |pages=260–271}} {{cite book |last=Wilkins |first=William Joseph |year=1882 |title=Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic |publisher=London Missionary Society |location=Calcutta |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8 |access-date=19 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328164250/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBUHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The hymns repeatedly refer to [[Brahman|One Truth and One Ultimate Reality]]. The "One Truth" of [[Vedas|Vedic literature]], in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raghavendrachar |first=H.N. |year=1944 |title=Monism in the Vedas |journal=The Half-yearly Journal of the Mysore University |department=Section A – Arts |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=137–152 |url=http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206070146/http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2015}} {{cite journal |last=Werner |first=K. |year=1982 |title=Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=14–24|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00158575 |s2cid=163754819 }} {{cite journal |last=Coward |first=H. |year=1995 |department=Book Review |title=The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas |journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=45–47 |doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1116 |quote=There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{multiple image
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 300
| perrow = 2
| title = [[Hindu deities|Gods and Goddesses]] in Hinduism
| image1 = The Hindu God Vishnu LACMA M.70.5.1 (1 of 12).jpg
| alt1 = Vishnu
| caption1 = [[Vishnu]]
| image2 = Brahma on hamsa.jpg
| alt2 = Brahma
| caption2 = [[Brahma]]
| image3 = MurudeshwarStatue.JPG
| alt3 = Shiva
| caption3 = [[Shiva]]
| image4 = Durga idol 2011 Burdwan.jpg
| alt4 = Shakti
| caption4 = [[Shakti]]
}}

Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called the ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|ātman]]''. The Self is believed to be eternal.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974|pp=20–37}} According to the monistic/pantheistic ([[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualist]]) theologies of Hinduism (such as [[Advaita Vedanta]] school), this [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is indistinct from [[Brahman]], the supreme spirit or [[Ultimate reality|the Ultimate Reality]].<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvnb | Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> The goal of life, according to the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita school]], is to realise that [[Jiva|one's Self]] is identical to [[Paramatman|supreme Self]], that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.{{sfn|Vivekananda|1987}}<ref>John Koller (2012), ''Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'' (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pp. 99–107</ref><ref>Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in ''Living Liberation in Hindu Thought'' (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pp. 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref> [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|Dualistic]] schools ([[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]] and [[Bhakti]]) understand [[Brahman]] as a Supreme Being separate from [[Ātman (Hinduism)|individual Selfs]].<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">R Prasad (2009), ''A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals'', Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pp. 345–347</ref> They worship the Supreme Being variously as [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], or [[Shakti]], depending upon the sect. God is called ''[[Ishvara]]'', ''[[Bhagavan]]'', ''[[Parameshwara (god)|Parameshwara]]'', ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]'' or ''[[Devi]]'', and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.{{sfn|Eliade|2009|pp=73–76}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|pp=37–39, 401–403, 498–503}}{{sfn|Monier-Williams|2001}}

Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berntsen |first=Maxine |url=https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell |title=The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-88706-662-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell/page/n45 18]–19 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n301/mode/2up Taittiriya Upanishad] Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Robert Hume (Translator), pp. 281–282; Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp. 229–231</ref> It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes the [[Vedas|Vedic]] foundations of Hinduism quite distinct from [[animism]], in which all things are themselves divine.<ref name="Wallin1999p64" /> The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal, [[man and nature]], etc. The [[Vedas|Vedic]] view does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.<ref name="Wallin1999p64">{{Cite book |last1=Buttimer |first1=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |title=Nature and Identity in Cross-Cultural Perspective |last2=Wallin |first2=L. |publisher=Springer |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7923-5651-6 |pages=64–68 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162533/https://books.google.com/books?id=zUHFyGQcJxgC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mabry |first=John R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |title=Noticing the Divine: An Introduction to Interfaith Spiritual Guidance |publisher=Morehouse |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8192-2238-1 |pages=32–33 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160602/https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVsNYQ5Gh4C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Samovar |first1=Larry A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |title=Communication Between Cultures |last2=Porter |first2=Richard E. |last3=McDaniel |first3=Edwin R. |publisher=Cengage |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-305-88806-7 |pages=140–144 |display-authors=etal |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=lsYaCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]] name celestial entities called ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (or ''{{IAST|[[Devi]]}}'' in feminine form), which may be translated into English as ''gods'' or ''heavenly beings''.{{refn|group=note|For translation of ''deva'' in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=492}}. For translation of ''{{IAST|devatā}}'' as "godhead, divinity", see: {{harvnb|Monier-Williams|2001|p=495}}.}} The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, [[Hindu architecture|architecture]] and through [[Hindu iconography|icons]], and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the [[Puranas]]. They are, however, often distinguished from [[Ishvara]], a personal god, with many Hindus worshipping [[Ishvara]] in one of its particular manifestations as their ''{{IAST|[[iṣṭa devatā]]}}'', or chosen ideal.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=9, 15, 49, 54, 86}}{{sfn|Renou|1964|p=55}} The choice is a matter of individual preference,<ref name="harman1">{{harvnb|Harman|2004|pp=104–106}}</ref> and of regional and family traditions.<ref name=harman1 />{{refn|group=note|Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are called ''[[Kuladevata|Kuldevis]]'' or ''[[Kuladevata|Kuldevata]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harlan |first=Lindsey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives |publisher=University of California Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-07339-5 |pages=19–20, 48 with footnotes |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817160746/https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The multitude of Devas is considered manifestations of Brahman.<ref name=avatars>* {{harvnb|Hark|DeLisser|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "Three gods or [[Trimurti]], [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva]], and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of [[Brahman]]."
* {{harvnb|Toropov|Buckles|2011|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities is understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality."
* {{harvnb|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}}. "The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas."</ref>

[[File:Vishnu Avatars.jpg|thumb|Hindu god [[Vishnu]] (centre) surrounded by his [[Dashavatara|ten major avatars]], namely [[Matsya]]; [[Kurma]]; [[Varaha]]; [[Narasimha]]; [[Vamana]]; [[Parashurama]]; [[Rama]]; [[Krishna]]; [[Buddha in Hinduism|Buddha]], and [[Kalki]]]]
The word ''[[avatar]]'' does not appear in the [[Vedas|Vedic literature]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bassuk |first=Daniel E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1987 |isbn=978-1-349-08642-9 |pages=2–4 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160747/https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> It appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hacker |first=Paul |title=Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=1978 |isbn=978-3-447-04860-6 |editor-last=Schmithausen |editor-first=Lambert |pages=424, also 405–409, 414–417 |language=de}}</ref> Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with the ''avatars'' of Hindu god [[Vishnu]], though the idea has been applied to other deities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865735-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |edition=Second |volume=2 |pages=707–708}}</ref> Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten [[Dashavatara]] of the ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' and the twenty-two avatars in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=18}} The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-based [[Shaktism]] tradition, avatars of the [[Devi]] are found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the same [[Brahman|metaphysical Brahman]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDaniel |first=June |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC&pg=PA90 |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-534713-5 |pages=90–91}}</ref> and [[Shakti]] ''(energy)''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawley |first1=John Stratton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |title=The life of Hinduism |last2=Narayanan |first2=Vasudha |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24914-1 |page=174 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174125/https://books.google.com/books?id=7DLj1tYmoTQC&pg=PA174 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=David R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |title=Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-1522-3 |pages=115–119 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160534/https://books.google.com/books?id=gkCsrfghkZ4C |url-status=live }}</ref> While avatars of other deities such as [[Ganesha]] and Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.<ref>"Shiva" in {{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002b|p=635}}</ref>

Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The early [[Nyaya]] school of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist,<ref>John Clayton (2010), ''Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, page 150</ref> but later [[Nyaya]] school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic.<ref>Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0365-7}}, pp. 209–210</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reichenbach |first=Bruce R. |date=April 1989 |title=Karma, causation, and divine intervention |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=135–149 [145] |doi=10.2307/1399374 |jstor=1399374 |url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |access-date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027070413/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/reiche2.htm |archive-date=27 October 2009|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. [[Samkhya]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajadhyaksha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |title=The six systems of Indian philosophy |year=1959 |page=95 |quote=Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ihkRAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mimamsa<ref name=Coward2008p114>{{harvnb|Coward|2008|p=114}}: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."</ref> and [[Carvaka]] schools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption".<ref group="web">[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft_djvu.txt Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra] I.92.</ref>{{sfn|Sen Gupta|1986|p=viii}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neville |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |title=Religious truth |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7914-4778-9 |page=51 |publisher=SUNY Press |quote=Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals. |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |url-status=live }}</ref> Its [[Vaisheshika]] school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.<ref>A Goel (1984), ''Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and modern science'', Sterling, {{ISBN|978-0-86590-278-7}}, pp. 149–151</ref><ref>Collins, Randall (2000), ''The sociology of philosophies'', Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-00187-9}}, p. 836</ref>{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=337–338}} The [[Raja yoga|Yoga]] school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define their god.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-64887-5 |pages=39–41 |author-link=Mikel Burley}}; {{Cite book |last=Pflueger |first=Lloyd |title=Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-208-3232-9 |editor-last=Knut Jacobsen |pages=38–39}}; {{Cite book |last=Behanan |first=K. T. |title=Yoga: Its Scientific Basis |publisher=Dover |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-486-41792-9 |pages=56–58 |author-link1=K. T. Behanan}}</ref> Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious".<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), ''Theory and Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-3232-9}}, pp. 77–78</ref> Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347" />

[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|[[Ardhanarishvara]], showing both feminine and masculine aspect of god in Hinduism]]
God in Hinduism is often represented having both the [[God and gender in Hinduism|feminine and masculine]] aspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati ([[Ardhanarishvara]]), [[Vishnu]] accompanied by Lakshmi, [[Radha]] with [[Krishna]] and [[Sita]] with [[Rama]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rankin|first=John|date=1 June 1984|title=Teaching Hinduism: Some Key Ideas|journal=British Journal of Religious Education|volume=6|issue=3|pages=133–160|doi=10.1080/0141620840060306|issn=0141-6200}}</ref>

According to [[Graham Schweig]], Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=441}} The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esoteric [[Shaivism|Saiva traditions]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=200–203}}

=== Authority ===
{{Anchor|Questioning authority}}
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism.<ref name="frazier1415">{{Cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies |date=2011 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/14 14]–15, 321–325 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars.<ref name=frazier1415 /> But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason."<ref name=frazier1415 /> Narratives in the [[Upanishads]] present characters questioning persons of authority.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The [[Kena Upanishad]] repeatedly asks ''kena'', 'by what' power something is the case.<ref name=frazier1415 /> The [[Katha Upanishad]] and Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticises the teacher's inferior answers.<ref name=frazier1415 /> In the [[Shiva Purana]], Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.<ref name=frazier1415 /> Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.<ref name=frazier1415 /> [[Jayadeva]]'s [[Gita Govinda]] presents criticism via [[Radha]].<ref name=frazier1415 />

Titles such as [[Guru]], [[Acharya]], or [[Mahacharya]] may be used to remark authority in Hindu and yogic traditions.

== Practices ==
Practices in Hinduism include worship at home, at temples, and at sacred places such as rivers, mountains, etc. The underpinning of Hindu worship is ''bhakti'', or loving devotion to God. Worship includes practices such as ''puja, arti,'' and ''havan''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Different forms of worship - Practices in Hinduism - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - AQA |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zvrsv9q/revision/4 |access-date=2025-11-05 |website=BBC Bitesize |language=en-GB}}</ref>{{Main|Puja (Hinduism)|Arti (Hinduism)|Abhisheka|Japa|Havan|Yajna|Hindu wedding}}

=== Rituals at home ===
[[File:(A) Hindu wedding, Saptapadi ritual before Agni Yajna.jpg|right|thumb|A wedding is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in their life. A typical [[Hindu wedding]] is solemnised before Vedic [[Yajna|fire]] ritual (shown).{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=427}}]]
Most Hindus observe [[Puja (Hinduism)|religious rituals at home]].<ref>{{harvnb|Muesse|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/hindutraditionsc00mues/page/216 216]}}. "rituals daily prescribe routine"</ref> The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga, [[meditation]], chanting mantras and others.{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=145–146}}

=== Yajna ===
Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (''[[yajna]]'') and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=A |year=1985 |title=Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition |journal=Journal of Ecumenical Studies |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=69–80}}</ref> Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic [[mantra]]s.<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 |url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm |access-date=25 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605133731/http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm |archive-date=5 June 2007}}</ref>

The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=346–347}} and "do not constitute [[Speech act|linguistic utterances]]."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become [[Magic (supernatural)|magical]] sounds, "means to an end."{{refn|group=note|Klostermaier: "''Brahman'', derived from the root ''bŗh'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified [[Speech act|speech-act]]" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}} quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), [https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds ''Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds''], p.4.}} In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the ''mantras'' will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}}<ref name="Coward2008p114" />

=== ''Sādhanā'' ===
{{Main|Sādhanā}}

Sādhanā is derived from the root "sādh-", meaning "to accomplish", and denotes a means for the realisation of spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage. They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=36–37}}<ref>NK Brahma, Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā, {{ISBN|978-8120333062}}, pp. ix–x</ref>

=== Life-cycle rites of passage ===
{{Main|Saṃskāra}}

Major life stage milestones are celebrated as ''sanskara'' (''saṃskāra'', [[rites of passage]]) in Hinduism.<ref name="pandey">{{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=R |title=Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1969 |isbn=978-81-208-0434-0 |edition=2nd |location=Delhi}}</ref><ref name="knipe">{{Cite book |last=Knipe |first=David |title=Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-939769-3 |page=52}}</ref> The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally.<ref name="pvkanesamsk">{{Cite book |last=Kane |first=PV |title=History of Dharmasastras |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |series=Part I |volume=II |pages=190–417 |chapter=Saṁskāra |year=1941 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofdharmas029210mbp#page/n248/mode/2up}}</ref> Gautama [[Dharmasutra]]s composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras,<ref name="patrick" /> while [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Gryhasutra]] and other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras.<ref name="pandey" /><ref name="carlolson">{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=Carl |title=The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9 |pages=93–94}}</ref> The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as [[Compassion#Hinduism|compassion]] towards all living beings and positive attitude.<ref name="patrick">{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=Dharmasutras – The Law Codes of Ancient India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009b |isbn=978-0-19-955537-6 |pages=90–91}}</ref>

The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include<ref name="pvkanesamsk" /> [[Garbhadhana]] (pregnancy), [[Pumsavana]] (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb), [[Simantonnayana]] (parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower), ''Jatakarman'' (rite celebrating the new born baby), ''Namakarana'' (naming the child), ''Nishkramana'' (baby's first outing from home into the world), ''Annaprashana'' (baby's first feeding of solid food), ''Chudakarana'' (baby's first haircut, tonsure), ''Karnavedha'' (ear piercing), ''Vidyarambha'' (baby's start with knowledge), [[Upanayana]] (entry into a school rite),<ref>For Vedic school, see: {{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Brian K. |year=1986 |title=Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India |journal=Numen |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=65–89 |doi=10.2307/3270127 |jstor=3270127}}</ref><ref>For music school, see: {{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=Alison |title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8240-4946-1 |volume=5 |page=459 |display-authors=etal}} For sculpture, crafts and other professions, see: {{cite book|first=Heather |last=Elgood |year=2000 |title=Hinduism and the religious arts |isbn=978-0-304-70739-3 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |pages=32–134}}</ref> ''Keshanta'' and ''Ritusuddhi'' (first shave for boys, menarche for girls), [[Samavartana]] (graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding), ''Vratas'' (fasting, spiritual studies) and [[Antyeshti]] (cremation for an adult, burial for a child).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Siqueira |first=Thomas N. |date=March 1935 |title=The Vedic Sacraments |journal=Thought |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=598–609 |doi=10.5840/thought1935945}}</ref> In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these [[Saṃskāra|sanskaras]] are observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such as ''[[Śrāddha]]'' (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practised.<ref name="pvkanesamsk" />{{sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=146–148}}

=== Bhakti (worship) ===
{{Main|Bhakti|Puja (Hinduism)|Japa|Mantra|Bhajan}}

{{multiple image
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| footer = A home shrine with offerings at a regional [[Vishu]] festival (left); a priest in a temple (right)
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''Bhakti'' refers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.<ref name="encyclopediabrit" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Bhakti |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174330/https://www.britannica.com/topic/bhakti |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="karen">{{Cite book |last=Pechelis |first=Karen |title=The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0 |editor-last=Frazier |editor-first=Jessica |pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/107 107]–121 |chapter=Bhakti Traditions |editor-last2=Flood |editor-first2=Gavin}}</ref> ''Bhakti-marga'' is considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha.<ref>{{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2002a|pp=98–100}}; also see articles on karmamārga and jnanamārga</ref> The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, are ''Jnana-marga'' (path of knowledge), ''Karma-marga'' (path of works), ''Rāja-marga'' (path of contemplation and meditation).<ref name="johnmartin">{{Cite book |last=Sahajananda |first=John Martin |year=2014 |title=Fully Human Fully Divine |publisher=Partridge India |isbn=978-1-4828-1955-7 |page=60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tiwari |first=Kedar Nath |title=Comparative Religion |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-208-0293-3 |page=31}}</ref>

Bhakti is practised in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras, [[japa]]s (incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Huyler |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cnNcDn36VHcC |title=Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devotion |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-08905-9 |pages=10–11, 71 |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161119/https://books.google.com/books?id=cnNcDn36VHcC |url-status=live }}</ref> or in a temple before a [[murti]] or sacred image of a deity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gonda |first=Jan |year=1963 |title=The Indian Mantra |journal=Oriens |volume=16 |pages=244–297 |doi=10.1163/18778372-01601016}}</ref>{{sfn|Fowler|1997|pp=41–50}} [[Hindu temple]]s and domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism.<ref name="Foulston2012p20">{{Cite book|last=Foulston|first=Lynn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3N4mGlbutbgC|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-1-135-18978-5|editor-last=Cush|editor-first=Denise|pages=21–22, 868|display-editors=etal|access-date=10 November 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161120/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N4mGlbutbgC|url-status=live}}</ref> While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.<ref name="Foulston2012p20" />

One form of daily worship is [[arti (Hinduism)|aarati]], or "supplication", a ritual in which a flame is offered and "accompanied by a song of praise".<ref name="lutgendorf-2007">{{Cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman's+tale|title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804220-4|page=401|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174158/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman%27s+tale|url-status=live}}</ref> Notable aaratis include [[Om Jai Jagdish Hare]], a [[Hindi]] prayer to [[Vishnu]], and [[Sukhakarta Dukhaharta]], a [[Marathi language|Marathi]] prayer to [[Ganesha]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ganesh, the benevolent|date=1995|publisher=Marg Publications|editor=Pal, Pratapaditya |isbn=81-85026-31-9|location=Bombay|oclc=34752006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Raj|first=Dhooleka S.|title=Where Are You From?: Middle-Class Migrants in the Modern World|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23382-9 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1pn917}}</ref> Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to "human exemplar[s]".<ref name="lutgendorf-2007" /> For instance, Aarti is offered to [[Hanuman]], a devotee of God, in many temples, including [[Balaji Mandir (disambiguation)|Balaji temples]], where the primary deity is an incarnation of [[Venkateswara|Vishnu]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman's+tale|title=Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804220-4|pages=23, 262|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174126/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=hanuman%27s+tale|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya|Swaminarayan]] temples and home shrines, aarati is offered to [[Swaminarayan]], considered by followers to be [[Supreme God (Hinduism)|Supreme God]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond Brady|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdqDwAAQBAJ&q=an+introduction+to+swaminarayan+hinduism|title=Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism|year= 2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-42114-0|pages=84, 153–154|language=en|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174204/https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdqDwAAQBAJ&q=an+introduction+to+swaminarayan+hinduism|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarati,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=51}} kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees.<ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title=Puja |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174151/https://www.britannica.com/topic/puja |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=DeNapoli |first=Antoinette |title=Real Sadhus Sing to God |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-994003-5 |pages=19–24}}</ref> While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reinhart |first=Robin |title=Contemporary Hinduism: ritual, culture, and practice |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryhind0000unse_x1k0 |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryhind0000unse_x1k0/page/35 35]–47|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman.{{sfn|Prentiss|2014}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=72–75}}<ref name="avatars" /> Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalising god.{{sfn|Prentiss|2014|pp=22–29}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865735-6 |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |volume=2 |pages=856–857}}</ref> While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (''saguna Brahman'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Bob |title=Hindus meeting Christians |publisher=OCMS |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-870345-39-2 |pages=288–295 |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Vroom |first=Hendrick |title=No Other Gods |url=https://archive.org/details/noothergodschris0000vroo |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-4097-4 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/noothergodschris0000vroo/page/68 68]–69}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smart |first=Ninian |title=The Yogi and the Devotee |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-68499-6 |pages=52–80}}</ref> Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes (''[[nirguna Brahman]]''), and god within oneself.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ardley |first=Jane |title=Spirituality and Politics: Gandhian and Tibetan cases, in The Tibetan Independence Movement |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-138-86264-7 |pages=ix, 98–99, 112–113 |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Helen |title=Roots of Wisdom: A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-285-19712-8 |pages=188–189|publisher=Cengage Learning }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhavasar |first=SN |title=Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-208-1937-5 |editor-last=Sundararajan |editor-first=K. R. |pages=28–29 |editor-last2=Mukerji |editor-first2=Bithika}}</ref>

=== Festivals ===
{{Main|List of Hindu festivals}}

[[File:Deepawali-festival.jpg|thumb|right|The festival of lights, [[Diwali]], is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.]]
[[File:Holi Festival of Colors Utah, United States 2013.jpg|thumb|[[Holi]] being celebrated at the [[Sri Sri Radha Krishna Temple]] in [[Utah]], United States]]
[[File:Ganesh mimarjanam EDITED.jpg|thumb|Hindus celebrating [[Ganesh Chaturthi|Ganesh Chaturti]] in [[Hyderabad]], India]]
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: ''Utsava''; literally: "to lift higher") are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma.<ref name="sandrarobinson" /><ref name="yustf">{{Cite book |last=Yust |first=Karen-Marie |title=Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-4463-5 |page=234 |chapter=Sacred Celebrations, see also Chapter 18.}}</ref> Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolar [[Hindu calendar]], many coinciding with either the full moon (''Holi'') or the new moon (''Diwali''), often with seasonal changes.<ref name="denisecushf">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Sandra |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |editor-last=Cush |editor-first=Denise |page=907 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such as ''Holi'' and ''Diwali'' are pan-Hindu.<ref name="denisecushf" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Foulston |first1=Lynn |title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul |last2=Abbott |first2=Stuart |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-902210-43-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesbe0000foul/page/155 155]}}</ref>
The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over the ''Raksha Bandhan'' (or [[Bhau-beej|Bhai Dooj]]) festival.<ref name="yustf" /><ref>{{harvnb|Holberg|2000|loc=''Festival calendar of India'', p. 120}}: "Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection."</ref> The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers, [[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] rituals and feasts.<ref name="sandrarobinson">{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Sandra |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |editor-last=Cush |editor-first=Denise |pages=908–912 |display-editors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4725-1151-5 |pages=255, 271–273}}</ref>

Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
{{div col start|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Ashadhi Ekadashi]]
* [[Bonalu]]
* [[Chhath]]
* [[Dashain]]
* [[Diwali]] or [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]] or [[Deepawali]]
* [[Durga Puja]]
* [[Dussehra]]
* [[Ganesh Chaturthi]]
* [[Gowri Habba]]
* [[Gudi Padwa]]
* [[Holi]]
* [[Karva Chauth]]
* [[Kartika Purnima]]
* [[Krishna Janmashtami]]
* [[Maha Shivaratri]]
* [[Makar Sankranti]]
* [[Navaratri]]
* [[Onam]]
* [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]]
* [[Radhashtami]]
* [[Raksha Bandhan]]
* [[Rama Navami]]
* [[Ratha Yatra]]
* [[Sharad Purnima]]
* [[Shigmo]]
* [[Thaipusam]]
* [[Ugadi]]
* [[Vasant Panchami]]
* [[Vishu]]
{{div col end}}

=== Pilgrimage ===
{{See also|Tirtha (Hinduism)|Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India|l2=Tirtha locations|Yatra}}
Many adherents undertake [[pilgrimage]]s, which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today.{{Sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=204–05}} Pilgrimage sites are called ''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'', ''Kshetra'', ''Gopitha'' or ''Mahalaya''.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|pp=698–699}}{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013|pp=4, 22, 27, 140–148, 157–158}} The process or journey associated with ''Tirtha'' is called ''Tirtha-yatra''.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=2}} According to the Hindu text ''[[Skanda Purana]]'', Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of a [[sadhu]], a [[rishi]], a [[guru]]; Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Krishan |last2=Sinha |first2=Anil Kishore |last3=Banerjee |first3=Bijon Gopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC |title=Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-89091-09-5 |pages=3–5 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161616/https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maw |first=Geoffrey Waring |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ |title=Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas |publisher=Sessions Book Trust |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-85072-190-1 |page=7 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=16 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216202914/https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Tīrtha-yatra'' is, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013|pp=157–158}}{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=288–289}}

Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and the [[Puranas]].{{Sfn|Kane|1953|p=561}}{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=7–9}} Most Puranas include large sections on ''Tirtha Mahatmya'' along with tourist guides,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC |title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-971825-2 |page=146 |quote=The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas'' [in Puranas]. |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161546/https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC |url-status=live }}</ref> which describe sacred sites and places to visit.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|pp=559–560}}{{sfn|Holm|Bowker|2001|p=68}}{{sfn|Rocher|1986|p={{page needed|date=October 2020}}}} In these texts, [[Varanasi]] (Benares, Kashi), [[Rameswaram]], [[Kanchipuram]], [[Dwarka]], [[Puri]], [[Haridwar]], [[Sri Rangam]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Ayodhya]], [[Tirupati]], [[Mayapur]], [[Nathdwara]], twelve [[Jyotirlinga]] and [[Shakti Pitha]] have been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (''sangam'') or join the sea.{{Sfn|Kane|1953 |pp=553–556, 560–561}}{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=7–9}} [[Kumbh Mela]] is another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festival [[Makar Sankranti]]. This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites: [[Prayagraj]] at the confluence of the [[Ganges]] and [[Yamuna]] rivers, [[Haridwar]] near source of the [[Ganges]], [[Ujjain]] on the [[Shipra]] river and [[Nashik]] on the bank of the [[Godavari]] river.{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}} This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event.{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}}{{Sfn|Klostermaier |2010|p=553, note 55}}<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last=Taylor |first=Alan |date=14 January 2013 |title=Kumbh Mela: The Largest Gathering on Earth |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/01/kumbh-mela-the-largest-gathering-on-earth/100438/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174128/https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/01/kumbh-mela-the-largest-gathering-on-earth/100438/ |url-status=live }} {{Cite news |last=Memmott |first=Mark |date=14 January 2013 |title=Biggest Gathering On Earth' Begins In India; Kumbh Mela May Draw 100 Million |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/01/14/169313222/biggest-gathering-on-earth-begins-in-india-kumbh-mela-may-draw-100-million |website=NPR |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174326/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/01/14/169313222/biggest-gathering-on-earth-begins-in-india-kumbh-mela-may-draw-100-million |url-status=live }}</ref> At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river,{{sfn|Eck|2013|pp=152–154}} a tradition attributed to [[Adi Shankara]].{{Sfn|Dalal|2010|loc=chapter Kumbh Mela}}
[[File:Kedar Ghat in Varanasi.jpg|right|thumb|Kedar Ghat, a bathing place for pilgrims on the Ganges at Varanasi]]
Some pilgrimages are part of a ''Vrata'' (vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|pp=9–11}}{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=6}} It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of a [[sanskara (rite of passage)|rite of passage]] such as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bharati |first=Agehananda |year=1963 |title=Pilgrimage in the Indian Tradition |journal=History of Religions |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=135–167 |doi=10.1086/462476|s2cid=162220544 }}</ref> It may also be the result of prayers answered.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}} An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after their death.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}} This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honour the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.{{Sfn|Eck|2012|p=9}}{{refn|group=note|The cremation ashes are called ''phool'' (flowers). These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage called ''asthi sanchayana'', then dispersed during ''asthi visarjana''. This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living. Tirtha locations offer these services.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maclean |first=Kama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HznRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228 |title=Pilgrimage and Power: The Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, 1765–1954 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-971335-6 |pages=228–229 |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161603/https://books.google.com/books?id=HznRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=68}}}}

Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by travelling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|pp=3–5}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amazzone |first=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |title=Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7618-5314-5 |pages=43–45 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111153836/https://books.google.com/books?id=PM_TNDu8NHUC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Holm|Bowker|2001|pp=69–77}} Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition.{{Sfn|Lingat|1973|pp=98–99}}{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|p=4}} The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|p=573}} The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from travelling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.{{Sfn|Kane|1953|pp=576–577}}

== Culture ==
The term "Hindu culture" refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as [[festivals]] and dress codes followed by the [[Hindus]] which is mainly can be inspired from the [[culture of India]] and [[Culture of Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]].

=== Architecture ===
Hindu architecture is the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described in [[Hindu texts]].{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx}}<ref name="Sinha 1998 pp. 27–41">{{harvnb|Sinha|1998|pages=27–41}}</ref> The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include the [[Vastu shastra]]s, [[Shilpa Shastras]], the ''Brihat Samhita'', architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as the [[Manasara]] among others.{{sfn|Acharya|1927|p=xviii-xx, Appendix I lists hundreds of Hindu architectural texts}}{{sfn|Shukla|1993|p=}}

By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture are [[Hindu temple]]s, with an [[Hindu temple architecture|architectural tradition]] that has left surviving examples in stone, brick, and [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut architecture]] dating back to the [[Gupta Empire]]. These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian and [[Hellenistic influence on Indian art|Hellenistic]] architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Vincent Arthur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPstAAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+Hellenistic+is+not+the+only+foreign+element+in+ancient+Indian+art+.+The+influence+of+Persia+is+apparent+,+and+the+columnar+architecture+of+the+Achaemenian+monarchy+supplied+the+models+for+Asoka's+monolithic+pillars+and+many%22|title=Research Articles in Epigraphy, Archaeology, and Numismatics of India|date=1977|publisher=Sheikh Mubarak Ali|language=en}}</ref> Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.<ref name="Murthy1987">{{cite book|author=K. Krishna Murthy|title=Early Indian Secular Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gsNAQAAIAAJ|year=1987|isbn=978-81-85067-01-8|pages=5–16|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan }}</ref>

Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas.<ref name="Branfoot 2008 pp. 171–194">{{cite journal | last=Branfoot | first=Crispin | title=Imperial Frontiers: Building Sacred Space in Sixteenth-Century South India | journal=The Art Bulletin | publisher=Taylor & Francis| volume=90 | issue=2 | year=2008 | doi=10.1080/00043079.2008.10786389 | pages=171–194| s2cid=154135978 }}</ref><ref name=harle331>{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=330–331}}</ref> The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.<ref name="Harle1994">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=43–47, 67–68, 467–480}}</ref>

=== Art ===
{{Main|Hindu art}}

[[File:Krishna with flute.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Krishna with cows, herdsmen, and [[Gopi]]s]]

[[Hindu art]] encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

=== Calendar ===
{{See also|Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar}}
{{Main|Hindu calendar}}

The Hindu calendar, Panchanga ({{Langx|sa|पञ्चाङ्ग}}) or Panjika is one of various [[lunisolar calendar]]s that are traditionally used in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asia]], with further regional variations for social and [[Hindu]] religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on [[sidereal year]] for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.<ref name="richmond80">{{Cite book |author=B. Richmond |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wwEVAAAAIAAJ |title=Time Measurement and Calendar Construction |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1956 |pages=80–82 |access-date=18 September 2011 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328165207/https://books.google.com/books?id=wwEVAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the [[Shaka era|Shalivahana Shaka]] (Based on the [[Shalivahana|King Shalivahana]], also the [[Indian national calendar]]) found in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan region]] of Southern India and the [[Vikram Samvat]] (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of [[India]] – both of which emphasise the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasised and this is called the [[Tamil calendar]] (though Tamil calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and [[Malayalam calendar]] and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="richmond80" /><ref name="Fuller2004p109">{{cite book |author=Christopher John Fuller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |pages=109–110 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162536/https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |url-status=live }}</ref> A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as [[Panchangam]] (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as [[Panjika]] in Eastern India.<ref>{{cite book |author=Klaus K. Klostermaier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490 |title=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |page=490 |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161801/https://books.google.co.in/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C&pg=PA490&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the [[Hebrew calendar]], the [[Chinese calendar]], and the [[Babylonian calendar]], but different from the Gregorian calendar.<ref name="nesbittbc">{{cite book |author=Eleanor Nesbitt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |title=Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-874557-0 |pages=122–123 |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415073742/https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)<ref>{{cite book |author=Orazio Marucchi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoBjBYdzrkQC&pg=PA289 |title=Christian Epigraphy: An Elementary Treatise with a Collection of Ancient Christian Inscriptions Mainly of Roman Origin |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-23594-5 |page=289}}, Quote: "the lunar year consists of 354 days".</ref> and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.<ref name="nesbittbc" /><ref name="Fuller2004p109" />

The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the [[Hindu]]s all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local [[Buddhist calendar]]s. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anita Ganeri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-EawToG-6YC&pg=PT11 |title=Buddhist Festivals Through the Year |publisher=BRB |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-58340-375-4 |pages=11–12}}</ref> The [[Buddhist calendar]] and the traditional lunisolar calendars of [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Thailand]] are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient [[Jain]] traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.{{Sfn|Long|2013|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{cite book |author=John E. Cort |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ip7mCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513234-2 |pages=142–146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8 |page=156}}</ref>

The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as [[Ekadashi]].<ref>{{cite web |date=22 May 2017 |title=Ekadasi: Why Ekadasi is celebrated in Hinduism?-by Dr Bharti Raizada |url=https://www.newsgram.com/ekadasi-importance-hinduism/ |website=NewsGram }}{{dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Physical culture ===
{{Main|Hindu physical culture|Hindu martial arts}}

== Person and society ==

=== Varnas ===
{{Main|Varna (Hinduism)}}

[[File:12BCM11.jpg|thumb|Priests performing ''Kalyanam'' (marriage) of the holy deities at [[Bhadrachalam Temple]], in [[Telangana]].|left]]
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, called [[Varna (Hinduism)|''varṇas'']]. They are the ''[[Brahmin]]s'': [[Vedas|Vedic]] teachers and priests; the ''[[Kshatriya]]s'': warriors and kings; the ''[[Vaishya]]s'': farmers and merchants; and the ''[[Shudra]]s'': servants and labourers.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=132–180}}
The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gītā]]'' links the varṇa to an individual's duty (''svadharma''), inborn nature (''svabhāva''), and natural tendencies (''[[guṇa]]'').{{sfn|Halbfass|1995|p=264}} The ''[[Manusmriti]]'' categorises the different [[Caste system in India|castes]].<ref group="web">{{Cite web |title=Manu Smriti Laws of Manu |at=1.87–1.91 |url=http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528064608/http://www.bergen.edu/phr/121/ManuGC.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2010}}</ref>
Some mobility and flexibility within the [[Varna (Hinduism)|varṇas]] challenge allegations of social discrimination in the [[Caste system in India|caste system]], as has been pointed out by several sociologists,<ref name="Silverberg Paper">{{Harvnb|Silverberg|1969|pp=442–443}}</ref>{{sfn|Smelser|Lipset|2005}} although some other scholars disagree.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld00smit_1 |title=The Illustrated World's Religions |publisher=Harper Collins |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067440-3 |location=New York |chapter=Hinduism: The Stations of Life |author-link=Huston Smith |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld00smit_1 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Scholars debate whether the so-called ''[[Caste system in India|caste system]]'' is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=188–197}}<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last=V |first=Jayaram |title=The Hindu Caste System |url=http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_caste.asp |access-date=28 November 2012 |website=Hinduwebsite |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902004553/https://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_caste.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of [[Hindu texts|Hindu sacred texts]] that divinity is inherent in all beings."<ref group="web">{{Cite web |last1=Venkataraman |first1=Swaminathan |last2=Deshpande |first2=Pawan |title=Hinduism: Not Cast In Caste |url=http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/hinduism-not-cast-caste-full-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202101032/http://www.hafsite.org/media/pr/hinduism-not-cast-caste-full-report |archive-date=2 December 2012 |access-date=28 November 2012 |publisher=Hindu American Foundation}}</ref>}} And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was introduced by the [[British Raj|British colonial regime]]; which is indeed false as it existed even before the westerners came to India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pattanaik |first=Devdutt |date=2025-09-27 |title=How caste manifested before the British |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/how-caste-manifested-before-the-british/articleshow/124168630.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-10-05 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

A [[sannyasa|renunciant]] man of knowledge is usually called ''Varṇatita'' or "beyond all varṇas" in [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] works. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars like [[Adi Shankara|Adi Sankara]] affirm that not only is [[Brahman]] beyond all [[Varna (Hinduism)|varṇas]], the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jhingran |first=Saral |title=Aspects of Hindu Morality |url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsofhindumo0000jhin |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-208-0574-3 |location=Delhi |page=[https://archive.org/details/aspectsofhindumo0000jhin/page/143 143] |oclc=905765957}}</ref>

=== Yoga ===
[[File:Shiva Bangalore .jpg|thumb|right|A statue of [[Shiva]] in yogic meditation]]
{{Main|Yoga}}

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that [[Rishi|sages]] have taught for reaching that goal. [[Yoga]] is a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health, [[Ātman (Hinduism)|tranquility]], and spiritual insight.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chandra |first=Suresh |title=Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-7625-039-9 |edition=1st |location=New Delhi |page=178 |oclc=40479929}}</ref> Texts dedicated to [[yoga]] include the ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'', the ''[[Hatha Yoga Pradipika]]'', the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the [[Upanishads]]. [[Yoga]] is means, and the four major ''marga'' (paths) of Hinduism are: [[Bhakti Yoga]] (the path of love and devotion), [[Karma Yoga]] (the path of right action), [[Rāja Yoga]] (the path of meditation), and [[Jñāna Yoga]] (the path of wisdom)<ref name="bhaskaressentgeneral">{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to their inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice of [[yoga as exercise]] (traditionally [[Hatha yoga]]) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.{{sfn|Jain|2015|pp=130–157}}

=== Symbolism ===
[[File:Hindu Symbols2.png|thumb|Some of the most prominent Hindu symbols: [[Om]] (left) and the [[Swastika]] (right)]]
Hinduism has a developed system of [[Hindu iconography|symbolism and iconography]] to represent the sacred in art, architecture, [[Hindu texts|literature]] and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllable ''[[Om]]'' (which represents the ''[[Brahman]]'' and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as the [[Swastika#Hinduism|Swastika]] (from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: स्वस्तिक, [[Romanization of Sanskrit|romanized]]: ''svastika) a'' sign that represents auspiciousness,{{sfn|Doniger|2000|p=1041}} and ''[[Tilaka]]'' (literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location of [[Third eye|spiritual third eye]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Napier |first=A David |title=Masks, Transformation, and Paradox |publisher=University of California Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-520-04533-0 |pages=186–187}}</ref> marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in a [[Puja (Hinduism)|ritual or rite of passage]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=SD |title=Rice: Origin, Antiquity and History |publisher=CRC Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-57808-680-1 |pages=68–70}}</ref> Elaborate ''Tilaka'' with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetric [[mandala]] drawings, objects, [[lingam]], idols are all part of [[Hindu iconography|symbolic iconography]] in Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao |first=TA Gopinath |title=Elements of Hindu iconography |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2 |pages=1–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerjea |first=JN |title=The Development of Hindu Iconography |date=September 2004 |publisher=Kessinger |isbn=978-1-4179-5008-9 |pages=247–248, 472–508}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Babary, Abrar |author2=Zeeshan, Mahwish |title=Reminiscent of Hinduism: An Insight of Katas Raj Mandir |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37458369/EJSS__30_REMINISCENT_OF_HINDUISM_AN_INSIGHT_OF_KATAS_RAJ_MANDIR_Aftab_Chaudhrys_conflicted_copy_2015-04-29-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1669503265&Signature=I~TyyMPSWigzUm~PSf6wtc9ZkJonPeGFd9TNfh3RWD7xfeNBXX1oBsuba0VIRR~yn4TbjllmNc2EIdjmc3PRPv5UXKaUNSrbjs4HA6ULwg6FInDXfVjOdSAkAk62Yp06Q7S~dRr52ao1euNu8YUNY8tp-KUkJzlOJxwQSgZhJz78Ql388BwiXHmrRf1ApJE87J98awqVlzRfo9wufG-xeDfCzQ4jkrpXpKeYFup0mFlcJg9phn5YF35CrQ2rnVxuuN3xRBKwbkGR3iSR1wLrjoyJxKqrQNDyM6upOiddLPRHDVZd2YiwfC5Ep4F3l77KUzicDuavMds6JhUdFSLQbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |journal=The Explorer: Journal of Social Sciences |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=122 |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=26 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126215653/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37458369/EJSS__30_REMINISCENT_OF_HINDUISM_AN_INSIGHT_OF_KATAS_RAJ_MANDIR_Aftab_Chaudhrys_conflicted_copy_2015-04-29-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1669503265&Signature=I~TyyMPSWigzUm~PSf6wtc9ZkJonPeGFd9TNfh3RWD7xfeNBXX1oBsuba0VIRR~yn4TbjllmNc2EIdjmc3PRPv5UXKaUNSrbjs4HA6ULwg6FInDXfVjOdSAkAk62Yp06Q7S~dRr52ao1euNu8YUNY8tp-KUkJzlOJxwQSgZhJz78Ql388BwiXHmrRf1ApJE87J98awqVlzRfo9wufG-xeDfCzQ4jkrpXpKeYFup0mFlcJg9phn5YF35CrQ2rnVxuuN3xRBKwbkGR3iSR1wLrjoyJxKqrQNDyM6upOiddLPRHDVZd2YiwfC5Ep4F3l77KUzicDuavMds6JhUdFSLQbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Clear left|left}}

=== Ahiṃsā and food customs ===
{{Main|Ahimsa|Diet in Hinduism|Sattvic diet|Mitahara|Jhatka}}

{{Multiple image
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| image1 = Gosala in Guntur, India.jpg
| caption1 = A [[goshala]] or cow shelter at [[Guntur]]
| image2 = '8' A Thali, a traditional style of serving meal in India.jpg
| caption2 = A vegetarian ''[[thali]]''
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Hindus advocate the practice of {{IAST|[[Ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]}} ([[nonviolence]]) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1974}} The term ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' appears in the [[Upanishads]],<ref name="Radhakrishnan">{{Cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |title=Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 |publisher=George Allen and Unwin Ltd. |year=1929 |edition=2nd |series=Muirhead library of philosophy |location=London |page=148 |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan}}</ref> the epic [[Mahabharata]]<ref>For ''{{IAST|ahiṃsā}}'' as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the {{IAST|[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]}} see: {{Cite book |last=Brockington |first=John |title=Flood |year=2003 |page=125 |chapter=The Sanskrit Epics}}</ref> and {{IAST|ahiṃsā}} is the first of the five [[Yamas]] (vows of self-restraint) in [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Patanjali's Yoga Sutras]].<ref>For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of ''{{IAST|yama}}'' as "vow of self-restraint", see: {{Cite book |last=Taimni |first=I. K. |title=The Science of Yoga |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |year=1961 |isbn=978-81-7059-212-9 |location=Adyar, India |page=206 |author-link=I. K. Taimni}}</ref> Hindu texts such as [[Shandilya Upanishad|Śāṇḍilya Upanishad]]<ref name="KN Aiyar 1914 pages 173-176">{{Cite book |last=Aiyar |first=KN |title=Thirty Minor Upanishads |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=1914 |isbn=978-1-164-02641-9 |pages=173–176 |chapter=22}}</ref> and [[Hatha Yoga Pradipika|Svātmārāma]]<ref name="svatmaram">{{Cite book |last1=Svatmarama |url=https://archive.org/stream/hathayogapradipika/hatha_yoga_pradipika#page/n219/mode/2up |title=The Hathayogapradīpikā of Svātmārāma |last2=Brahmananda |year=2014 |at=verse 1.58–63, pp. 19–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/kapalikaskalamuk0000lore/page/186 |title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas |date=1972 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01842-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kapalikaskalamuk0000lore/page/186 186–190]}}</ref> recommend [[Mitahara]] (eating in moderation) as one of the [[Yamas]] (virtuous Self restraints). According to Hindu beliefs, food affects the body, mind, and spirit.<ref name="Vasudha">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=Vasudha |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseintroduct00oxto |title=A Concise Introduction to World Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-542207-8 |editor-last=Oxtoby |editor-first=Willard G. |location=New York |chapter=The Hindu Tradition |editor-last2=Segal |editor-first2=Alan F.}}</ref><ref name="Rosen">{{Cite book |last=Rosen |first=Steven |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialhinduis00stev |title=Essential Hinduism |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2006 |edition=1st |location=Westport |page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialhinduis00stev/page/n211 188]}}</ref> The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.<ref name="ckc">{{Cite book |last=Chapple |first=Christopher Key |url=https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgitatwen00sarg |title=The Bhagavad Gita |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4384-2842-0 |edition=25th Anniversary |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bhagavadgitatwen00sarg/page/641 641]–643}}</ref>

In accordance with {{IAST|[[Ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]}}, many Hindus embrace [[vegetarianism]] to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strict [[lacto vegetarian]]s in [[India]] (includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.<ref name="veg">Surveys studying food habits of Indians include:
* {{Cite web |ref=none |last1=Delgado |first1=Christopher L. |last2=Narrod |first2=Claire A. |last3=Tiongco |first3=Marites |date=24 July 2003 |title=Growth and Concentration in India |website=Policy, Technical, and Environmental Determinants and Implications of the Scaling-Up of Livestock Production in Four Fast-Growing Developing Countries: A Synthesis |url=http://www.fao.org/3/x6170e09.htm |quote=An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) shows that 42 percent of households are vegetarian, in that they never eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174129/http://www.fao.org/3/x6170e09.htm |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |ref=none |last=Goldammer |first=Ted |title=Passage to India |publisher=USDA Foreign Agricultural Service |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619160055/http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/india.pdf |archive-date=19 June 2009 }}
* {{cite web |ref=none |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/February04/Features/ElephantJogs.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061228214808/http://www.ers.usda.gov/amberwaves/february04/features/elephantjogs.htm |archive-date=28 December 2006 |title=The Elephant Is Jogging: New Pressures for Agricultural Reform in India |last=Landes |first=Maurice R. |date=February 2004 |website=Amber Waves |quote=Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. }}</ref> Those who eat meat seek [[Jhatka]] (quick death) method of meat production, and dislike [[Halal]] (slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Neville |title=Animal Welfare and Meat Production |last2=Grandin |first2=Temple |publisher=CABI |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84593-215-2 |pages=206–208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Veena |title=The Oxford India companion to sociology and social anthropology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-564582-8 |volume=1 |pages=151–152}}</ref> The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living in [[Himalayas|Himalayan regions]], or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Grover |first1=Neelam |title=Cultural Geography, Form and Process, Concept |last2=Singh |first2=Kashi N. |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-8069-074-7 |page=366|publisher=Concept Publishing Company }}</ref> Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jagannathan |first=Maithily |title=South Indian Hindu Festivals and Traditions |publisher=Abhinav |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-7017-415-8 |pages=53, 69 |postscript=;}} {{cite book|first=Pyong Gap |last=Min |year=2010 |title=Preserving Ethnicity through Religion in America |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9586-6 |page=1}}</ref> Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. Hinduism specifically considers [[Zebu|''Bos indicus'']] to be sacred.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3390/ani8050064|title=The Sheltering of Unwanted Cattle, Experiences in India and Implications for Cattle Industries Elsewhere|author1=Uttara Kennedy|author2=Arvind Sharma|author3=Clive J.C. Philips|journal=Animals|year=2018|volume=8|issue=5|page=64|pmid=29701646|pmc=5981275|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=India's scared cow|url=http://spraakdata.gu.se/taraka/SacredCow.pdf|author=Marvin Harris|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907031005/http://spraakdata.gu.se/taraka/SacredCow.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/preliminary_literature_review_on_sacred_species__3_.pdf|title=Preliminary Literature Review On Scared Species|author1=Gloria Pungetti|author2=Anna Maclvor|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724135557/https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/preliminary_literature_review_on_sacred_species__3_.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[cow]] in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,{{sfn|Walker|1968|p=257}} and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving,{{sfn|Richman|1988|p=272}} selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance.<ref name="ajai16P pg62">{{cite journal|title=Stewards of Creation Covenant: Hinduism and the Environment|last=Mansingh|first=Ajai|journal=Caribbean Quarterly|year=2016|volume=41|issue=1|publisher=A Journal of Caribbean Culture|page=62|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|doi=10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907185105/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00086495.1995.11672075|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict [[vegetarian]] diet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |title=An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |edition=1st |location=Cambridge |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontosw0000will/page/159 159]|isbn=978-0-521-65279-7 }}</ref>

Some Hindus such as those belonging to the [[Shaktism]] tradition,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Harold F. |title=Outline of Hinduism |date=2007 |publisher=Read Books |isbn=978-1-4067-8944-7 |chapter=12}}</ref> and Hindus in regions such as [[Bali]] and [[Nepal]]{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=83|loc="Chapter 4"}}<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Gouyon |editor-first=Anne |title=The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference |first=Bumi Kita |last=Yayasan |year= 2005 |publisher=Equinox Publishing (Asia) |isbn=978-979-3780-00-9 |page=51 |chapter=The Hidden Life of Bali |access-date=12 August 2010 |chapter-url=http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/welcome.jsp?action=search&type=isbn&term=9793780002 |archive-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726113644/http://bookshop.blackwell.co.uk/jsp/welcome.jsp?action=search&type=isbn&term=9793780002 |url-status=live }}</ref> practise [[Animal sacrifice in Hinduism|animal sacrifice]].{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=83|loc="Chapter 4"}} The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gwynne |first=Paul |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT75 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9 |page=5 footnote 16}}</ref> In contrast, the [[Vaishnava]] Hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olcott |first=H.S. |title=The Theosophist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jKBVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146 |publisher=Theosophical Publishing House |year=1906 |volume=XXVII |pages=146 with footnote |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162108/https://books.google.com/books?id=jKBVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA146#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}, Quote: "It is well known that Vaishnavas abhor animal sacrifice. In this province, like nearly all Bengalis, they celebrate [[Durga Puja]], but their ceremonies are bloodless".</ref>{{sfn|Fuller|2004|pp=101–102, Quote: "Blood sacrifice was a clear case in point, (,,,) sacrifice was a barbarity inconsistent with Hinduism's central tenet of non-violence. [...] Contemporary opposition to animal sacrifice rests on an old foundation, although it also stems from the very widespread influence of reformism, whose antipathy to ritual killing has spread well beyond the self-consciously nationalist political classes".}} The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholson|2010|p=169}}, Quote: "The acceptance of the principle of non-violence has been so through that animal sacrifice among Hindus today is uncommon, and many Indians are of the opinion that such things as cow slaughter were never practiced in [[History of India|ancient India]]".</ref> and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bekoff |first=Marc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AmgYIBQ-XKkC&pg=PA482 |title=Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare |edition=2nd |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-313-35256-0 |page=482 |access-date=11 October 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162252/https://books.google.com/books?id=AmgYIBQ-XKkC&pg=PA482 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Institutions ==

=== Temple ===
{{Main|Hindu temple|Murti|Hindu iconography|Hindu architecture}}

{{For|list of temples|List of Hindu temples}}
{{multipleimage
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 335
| footer = Clockwise from top-left: [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]; [[Chennakeshava Temple, Somanathapura|Chennakeshava Temple]], [[Karnataka]]; [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], [[Odisha]]; [[Padmanabhaswamy temple]], [[Kerala]]; [[Swaminarayan Mandir, Vadtal|Swaminarayan Mandir]], [[Vadtal]], [[Gujarat]].
| image1 = Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg
| image2 = Somanathapura Keshava temple altered.JPG
| image3 = Shri Jagannatha Temple.jpg
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| image5 = Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple Thiruvananthapuram, kerala.jpg
| image6 = Vadtal-temple.jpg
| header = Illustration of [[Hindu temple]]s in Asia
}}

A [[Hindu temple]] is a house of god(s).{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=61–65}} It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.<ref name="stellakvol1">{{harvnb|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=1–16}}</ref> A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representing [[Mount Meru]] – reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe,{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=161–169}} the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting [[dharma]], [[kama]], [[artha]], [[moksha]] and [[karma]].{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976b|pp=346–357, 423–424}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007a|pp=268–277}} The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.<ref name="stellakvol1" /> Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals, [[sanskara (rite of passage)|rite of passage]] rituals, and community celebrations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stein |first=Burton |date=February 1960 |title=The Economic Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=163–176 |doi=10.2307/2943547 |jstor=2943547|s2cid=162283012 }}</ref>{{sfn|Michell|1988|pp=58–65}}

Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boner |first=Alice |title=Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period |year=1990 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0705-1 |at=Introduction and pp. 36–37}}</ref> Two major styles of Hindu temples include the [[Gopuram]] style found in south India, and [[Nagara architecture|Nagara]] style found in north India.<ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Gopura |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037402/gopura |access-date=16 June 2015 |date= |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819003114/https://www.britannica.com/technology/gopura |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nagara |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-Indian-temple-architecture |access-date=16 June 2015 |date= |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174235/https://www.britannica.com/topic/North-Indian-temple-architecture |url-status=live }}</ref> Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |year=1981 |title=Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhāgā and Kansuān |journal=Archives of Asian Art |volume=34 |pages=56–73 |jstor=20111117}}</ref> Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.<ref name="stellakvol1" />

Many temples feature one or more idols ([[murti]]s). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (''darsana'', a sight) in a Hindu temple.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1976a|pp=8–9}} In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the [[Purusha|Purusa]] ([[Brahman]]), the universal essence.<ref name="stellakvol1" />

=== Asrama ===
[[File:Iraivan Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Saiva Siddhanta Church|Kauai Hindu monastery]] on [[Kauaʻi Island]] in Hawaii is the only Hindu monastery in North America.]]
{{Main|Āśrama (stage)}}

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution |url=https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/asramasystemhist00oliv/page/n1 1]–29, 84–111 |isbn=978-0-19-508327-9 |oclc=466428084}}</ref> The four ashramas are: [[Brahmacharya]] (student), [[Grihastha]] (householder), [[Vānaprastha]] (retired) and [[Sannyasa]] (renunciation).<ref name="rks">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=RK |title=Indian Society, Institutions and Change |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-7156-665-5 |page=28|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist }}</ref>
Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.<ref name="rks" /> Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.<ref name="alnu">{{Cite book |last=Nugteren |first=Albertina |title=Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India |publisher=Brill Academic |year=2005 |isbn=978-90-04-14601-3 |pages=13–21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Saraswathi |title=Bridging Cultural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-538343-0 |editor-last=Jensen |editor-first=Lene Arnett |pages=280–286 |chapter=Reconceptualizing Lifespan Development through a Hindu Perspective |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1922}}<ref name="DP Bhawuk 2011 pages 93-110">{{Cite book |last=Bhawuk |first=DP |title=Spirituality and Indian Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/spiritualityindi00bhaw |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4419-8109-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/spiritualityindi00bhaw/page/93 93]–110 |chapter=The Paths of Bondage and Liberation}}</ref>

The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} Combined with four proper goals of human life ([[Purusartha]]), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation.{{sfn|Widgery|1930}} While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara |title=The Hindu World |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduworld00mitt |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-21527-5 |editor-last=Mittal |editor-first=Sushil |page=[https://archive.org/details/hinduworld00mitt/page/231 231] |chapter=Dharma |editor-last2=Thursby |editor-first2=Gene}}</ref> Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |title=The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-534478-3}}</ref>

=== Monasticism ===
[[File:Indian sadhu performing namaste.jpg|thumb|A sadhu in [[Madurai]], India]]
{{Main|Sannyasa}}

Some Hindus choose to live a [[monastic]] life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection.<ref name="ellinger70">{{Cite book |last=Ellinger |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ |title=Hinduism |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-56338-161-4 |pages=69–70 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162258/https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation.<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential112">{{Harvnb|Bhaskarananda|1994|p=112}}</ref> A Hindu monk is called a ''[[Sannyasa|Sanyāsī]]'', ''Sādhu'', or ''Swāmi''. A female renunciate is called a ''Sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simple [[ahimsa|ahiṃsā]]-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism.<ref name="DP Bhawuk 2011 pages 93-110" /> Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=316}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of Hinduism}}

[[File:Goddess Kali.jpg|thumb|A [[Tamil language|Tamil]] depiction of Kali from the 12th century]]

Hinduism's varied history{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]], with some of its traditions tracing back to [[prehistoric religion]]s such as those of the Bronze Age [[Indus Valley Civilisation]]. While the traditional [[Itihasa-Purana]] and the [[Epic-Puranic chronology]] derived from it present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a [[Hindu synthesis|synthesis]]{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} with diverse roots{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}} and no single founder,{{sfn|Osborne|2005|p=9}}{{refn|group=note| Among its roots are the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of the late [[Vedic period]] and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–53}} but also the religions of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]],{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}} the śramaṇa{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of [[Maurya Empire|east India]],{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}}} which emerged after the Vedic period, between {{Circa|500}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}–200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} [[Common Era|BCE]] and {{Circa|300 CE}}.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}

The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the [[historical Vedic religion]] with the [[Indo-Aryan migrations]], starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=32–36}}{{refn|group=note|There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|1995|pp=3–4}} Flood mentions 1500 BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=21}}}} The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} and a formative period for Hinduism, [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from {{Circa|200 BCE}} to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism ({{Circa|320–650 CE}}), which coincides with the [[Gupta Empire]]. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta]]. Monotheistic sects like [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] developed during this same period through the [[Bhakti movement]]. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and [[Adi Shankara]]'s influential consolidation of [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=J. J. Navone|first=S. J.|date=1956|title=Sankara and the Vedic Tradition|journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research|volume=17|issue=2|pages=248–255|doi=10.2307/2104222|issn=0031-8205|jstor=2104222}}</ref>

[[File:Shore temple, mahabalipuram.jpg|thumb|The Hindu [[Shore Temple]] at [[Mahabalipuram]] was built by [[Narasimhavarman II]].|left]]
Hinduism under both Hindu and [[Islamic rulers in South Asia|Islamic]] rulers from {{Circa|{{CE|1250–1750}}}},<ref>Blackwell's History of India; Stein 2010, page 107</ref><ref>Some Aspects of Muslim Administration, R.P.Tripathi, 1956, p. 24</ref> saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. Historic persecutions of [[Hindus]] happened under [[Muslim conquest of India|Muslim rulers]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Lal|first=Kishori Saran|title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|year=1999|isbn=978-81-86471-72-2|pages=90–145|author-link=K. S. Lal}}</ref> and also by [[Christian Missionaries]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Priolkar|first=Anand Kakba|title=The Goa Inquisition|year=1992|publisher=South Asia Books|pages=2–67, 184|author-link=Anant Priolkar|isbn=978-0-8364-2753-0}}</ref> In [[Goa]], the [[Goa Inquisition|1560 inquisition]] by [[Portuguese India|Portuguese colonists]] is also considered one of the most brutal [[Persecution of Hindus|persecutions of Hindus]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Souza|first=Teotonio R. De|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtf1eRE8FC8C&q=persecution|title=Discoveries, Missionary Expansion, and Asian Cultures|date=1994|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-497-6|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vtf1eRE8FC8C&q=persecution 80]|language=en}}</ref> The [[Colonial India|colonial period]] saw the emergence of various [[Hindu reform movements]] partly inspired by western movements, such as [[Unitarianism]] and [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]].{{sfn|Sharma|2002|p=27}} In the [[Kingdom of Nepal]], the [[Unification of Nepal]] by [[Shah dynasty]] was accompanied by the Hinduization of the [[Nepal|state]] and continued till the {{Circa|1950s}}.<ref name="Vir 1988 https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56">{{Cite book|last=Vir|first=Dharam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56|title=Education and Polity in Nepal: An Asian Experiment|date=1988|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-85119-39-7|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56]|language=en}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=June 2022}} [[Indian people|Indians]] were hired as plantation labourers in [[British colonial|British colonies]] such as [[Fiji]], [[Mauritius]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Younger |first1=Paul |title=New homelands: Hindu communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-539164-0 |pages=3–17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oI8DwAAQBAJ |access-date=4 June 2022}}</ref> The [[Partition of India]] in 1947 was along religious lines, with the [[India|Republic of India]] emerging with a Hindu majority.{{sfnm|1a1=Sharma|1y=2003|1pp=176–189|2a1=Thapar|2y=1993|2pp=239–241}} Between 200,000 and one million people, including both Muslims and Hindus, were killed during the [[Partition of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls and Casualty Statistics for Wars, Dictatorships and Genocides|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c300k.htm|access-date=5 March 2021|website=necrometrics.com}}</ref> During the 20th century, due to the [[Indian diaspora]], Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in the [[Hinduism in the United States|United States]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The remarkable political influence of the Indian diaspora in the US|url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/remarkable-political-influence-indian-diaspora-us|access-date=17 March 2021|website=www.lowyinstitute.org}}</ref> and the [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 March 2006|title=UK Hindu population to be studied|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/uk-hindu-population-to-be-studied/story-QBEF77yew4tdgiEEICZgHM.html|access-date=17 March 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

Although religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial and debated subject in India, Nepal,{{sfn|Kim, Sebastian|2005|pp=1–29}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Masud|first=Muhammad Khalid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPzXAAAAMAAJ|title=Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-597911-4|pages=193–203|jstor=846021|jstor-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Barua|2015|loc=Ch. 2 and 8}} and in Indonesia,{{sfn|Ramstedt|2004|pp=93–108|loc=Robert Hefner. ''Hindu Reform in an Islamising Java: Pluralism and Peril''}}{{refn|group=note|According to Sharma, the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.<ref name="arvindmr">{{harvnb|Sharma|2011|pp=31–53}}</ref>}} in the 20th–21st century, many missionary organisations such as [[ISKCON]], [[Sathya Sai Organization]], [[Vedanta Society]] have been influential in spreading the core culture of Hinduism outside India.{{Refn||name=ty78|group=note}} Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as the [[Arya Samaj]] launched ''[[Shuddhi (Hinduism)|Shuddhi]]'' movement to proselytise and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism,<ref name="csadcock">{{Cite book |last=Adcock |first=CS |title=The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom |url=https://archive.org/details/limitsoftoleranc0000adco |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-999544-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/limitsoftoleranc0000adco/page/n1 1]–35, 115–168}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold |title=Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-88706-572-9 |pages=49–60}}</ref> while those such as the [[Brahmo Samaj]] suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion.<ref name=arvindmr /> All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytisation activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.<ref name=arvindmr /><ref name=csadcock /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Viswanathan |first=Gauri |title=Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-691-05899-3 |pages=153–176}}</ref> There have also been an increase of [[Hindu identity]] in politics, mostly in [[India]], [[Nepal]] and [[Bangladesh]] in the form of [[Hindutva]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elst |first=Koenraad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_ltAAAAMAAJ |title=Decolonizing the Hindu Mind: Ideological Development of Hindu Revivalism |year=2001 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=978-81-7167-519-7 |author-link=Koenraad Elst}}</ref> The revivalist movement was mainly started and encouraged by many organisations like [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh|RSS]], [[BJP]] and other organisations of [[Sangh Parivar]] in India, while there are also many [[Hindu nationalist parties]] and organisations such as [[Shivsena Nepal]] and [[Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal|RPP]] in [[Nepal]], [[HINDRAF]] in [[Malaysia]], etc.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pradhan|first=K. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PP1yElRzIUC|title=Thapa Politics in Nepal: With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839|date=2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-813-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Vir 1988 https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHODCDK-8kC&pg=PA56 56" />

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Hinduism by country}}
According to the 2020 population estimate by [[Pew Research Center]], 95% of the global Hindu population of 1,177,860,000 is concentrated in [[India]], the only country with a Hindu population exceeding one billion. Hindus constitute 14.9% of the [[world's population]]. Outside of India, the countries with the largest Hindu populations are [[Nepal]] (more than 20,000,000), [[Bangladesh]] (more than 10,000,000), and [[Pakistan]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Sri Lanka]]—each of which is home to between three to six million Hindus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/hindu-population-change/|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020: 5. Hindu population change|date=9 June 2025|access-date=11 February 2026|website=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> The majority of the Indonesian [[Tenggerese people]]{{sfnm|1a1=Hefner|1y=1989|1p=|2a1=Kinney|2a2=Klokke|2a3=Kieven |2y=2003|2p=}} in [[Java]] and the Vietnamese [[Cham people]] also follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of the Chams in [[Ninh Thuận Province]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2002 |title=Vietnam |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35433.htm |access-date=17 June 2014 |website=State.gov}}</ref>[[File:2020+ Proportion of people in world religions.svg |thumb |Global percentage of adherents by religion. Hindus comprise about 14.9% of the world's population, comprising the third largest by percentage.<ref name=Pew_20250609>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Stonawski |first2=Marcin |last3=Tong |first3=Yunping |last4=Kramer |first4=Stephanie |last5=Shi |first5=Anne |last6=Fahmy |first6=Dalia |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260222070137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |archive-date=22 February 2026 |date=9 June 2025 |url-status=live |quote=Source: Pew Research Center estimates based on more than 2,700 censuses and surveys. "How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"}}</ref>]]

Demographically, Hinduism is the [[Major religious groups|world's third largest religion]], after [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2015 |title=The Future of World Religions |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506113049/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2015 |website=Pew Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwarz |first=John |title=What's Christianity All About? |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4982-2537-3 |page=176}}</ref> Hinduism is the [[Growth of religion|third fastest-growing religion]] in the world after Islam and Christianity, with a predicted growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wormald|first=Benjamin|date=2 April 2015|title=The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/|access-date=4 March 2021|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US}}</ref>

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:

{{div col start|colwidth=20em}}
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Nepal}}{{Spaced en dash}}81.19%<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Nepali Census data 2011 |date=2014 |title=Nepali Census data 2011 Go to page 56 to see Buddhist and Kirat percentages |url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf |website=Population Monograph |access-date=2024-04-29 |archive-date=2023-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328111829/https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|India}}{{Spaced en dash}}79.8%<ref name="Census2011religion">{{cite web|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=C −1 Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=[[Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner]] |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Mauritius}}{{Spaced en dash}}47.9%<ref name="2011 Census Religion">{{cite web| url=https://statsmauritius.govmu.org/Documents/Census_and_Surveys/HPC/2011/HPC_TR_Vol2_Demography_Yr11.pdf| website=Statistics Mauritius| page=68| title=Resident population by religion and sex| access-date=19 November 2023| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221006195313/https://statsmauritius.govmu.org/Documents/Census_and_Surveys/HPC/2011/HPC_TR_Vol2_Demography_Yr11.pdf| archive-date = 6 October 2022}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Guyana}}{{Spaced en dash}}31%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?REGION=0&u=102c&u=100c&u=96c|title=National Profiles | World Religion|website=www.thearda.com}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Fiji}}{{Spaced en dash}}27.9%<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Fiji |access-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Trinidad and Tobago}}{{Spaced en dash}}24.3%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?REGION=0&u=224c&u=23r|title=National Profiles; World Religion|website=www.thearda.com}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bhutan}}{{Spaced en dash}}22.6%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhutan |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127364.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031858/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127364.htm |archive-date=30 November 2009 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Suriname}}{{Spaced en dash}}22.3%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suriname |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127405.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031911/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127405.htm |archive-date=30 November 2009 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Qatar}}{{Spaced en dash}}15.9%<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Qatar|date=1 May 2024}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Sri Lanka}}{{Spaced en dash}}12.6%<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |website=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211239/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bahrain}}{{Spaced en dash}}9.8%<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Marsh|2015|pp=67–94}}.</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Bangladesh}}{{Spaced en dash}}7.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=SVRS 2010 |url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SVRS/SVRS-10.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113153533/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SVRS/SVRS-10.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2012 |access-date=2 September 2012 |publisher=Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics |page=176 (Table P–14)}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Réunion}}{{spaced en dash}}6.8%{{refn|group=note|[[Réunion]] is not a country, but an [[Overseas departments and regions of France|overseas department and region of France]].}}
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in the|United Arab Emirates}}{{Spaced en dash}}6.6%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90223.htm|title=United Arab Emirates|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Malaysia}}{{Spaced en dash}}6.3%<ref name="cia.gov">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Malaysia|access-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Kuwait}}{{Spaced en dash}}6%<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pew-Templeton: Global Religious Futures Project|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/|access-date=18 March 2021|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|archive-date=3 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503083508/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Oman}}{{Spaced en dash}}5.5%<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Oman|date= 22 September 2021}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Seychelles}}{{Spaced en dash}}5.4% <ref name=2022Census>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2024 |title=Seychelles Population and Housing Census 2022 |url=https://www.nbs.gov.sc/downloads/1555-seychelles-population-and-housing-census-2022 |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles |language=en-gb}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Singapore}}{{Spaced en dash}}5%<ref name="2010 census Full report">{{Cite web |last=Singapore Department of Statistics |date=12 January 2011 |title=Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion |url=http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303155259/http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2011 |access-date=16 January 2011}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Indonesia}}{{Spaced en dash}}3.9%<ref>{{cite web|date=2011|title=Indonesia: Religious Freedoms Report 2010|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168356.htm|access-date=4 March 2021|publisher=[[US State Department]]|quote=The Ministry of Religious Affairs estimates that 10 million Hindus live in the country and account for approximately 90 percent of the population in Bali. Hindu minorities also reside in Central and East Kalimantan, the city of Medan (North Sumatra), South and Central Sulawesi, and Lombok (West Nusa Tenggara). Hindu groups such as Hare Krishna and followers of the Indian spiritual leader Sai Baba are present in small numbers. Some indigenous religious groups, including the "Naurus" on Seram Island in Maluku Province, incorporate Hindu and animist beliefs, and many have also adopted some Protestant teachings.}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|New Zealand}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Table 26, 2018 Census Data – Tables |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |format=xlsx |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413185957/https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Australia}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.7%<ref>{{Cite web |author=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=18 January 2018 |title=Media Release – Census reveals Australia's religious diversity on World Religion Day |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/8497F7A8E7DB5BEFCA25821800203DA4?OpenDocument |access-date=4 June 2023 |website=www.abs.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>
# {{flagg|pspew|al=c|pref=Hinduism in|Pakistan}}{{Spaced en dash}}2.2%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf|title=Wayback Machine|website=www.pbs.gov.pk}}</ref>
{{div col end}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, {{As of|2020|lc=y}})<ref name="preston" />{{Disputed inline|date=January 2024}}
|-
! cyrus="col" | Tradition
! scope="col" | Followers
! scope="col" | Follower dynamics
! scope="col" | World dynamics
|-
| align="center" | [[Vaishnavism]]
| align="center" | 399,526,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" | [[Shaivism]]
| align="center" | 385,423,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |[[Shaktism]]
| align="center" | 305,643,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |[[Neo-Vedanta|Neo-Hinduism]]
| align="center" | 20,300,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
| align="center" |[[Hindu reform movements|Reform Hinduism]]
| align="center" | 5,200,000
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
| align="center" | {{increase}} Growing
|-
! Cumulative
! 1,116,092,000
! {{increase}} Growing
! {{increase}} Growing
|}

== See also ==
{{For outline|Outline of Hinduism}}
; Hinduism
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Hindu atheism]]
* [[Crypto-Hinduism]]
* [[Gautama Buddha in Hinduism]]
* [[Anti-Hindu sentiment]]
* [[Hindu eschatology]]
* [[Hinduism by country]]
* [[Indomania]]
* [[Jagran]]
* [[Lists of Hindus]]
* [[Encyclopedia of Hinduism]]
*[[Vegetarianism]]
* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]{{div col end}}

; Related systems and religions
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Adivasi religion]]
* [[Ayyavazhi]]
* [[Bathouism]]
* [[Donyi-Polo]]
* [[Dravidian folk religion]]
* [[Eastern religions]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Gurung shamanism]]
* [[Bon]]
* [[Hinduism and other religions]]
** [[Hinduism and Judaism]]
** [[Hinduism and Sikhism]]
** [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
** [[Hinduism and Theosophy]]
** [[Hinduism and other religions#Zoroastrianism|Hinduism and Zoroastrianism]]
* [[Indian religions]]
* [[Kalash people|Kalash religion]]
* [[Kiratism]]
* [[Sarna sthal]]
* [[Manichaeism]]
* [[Peterburgian Vedism]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]]
* [[Relationship between religion and science|Hinduism and science]]
* [[Sanamahism]]
* [[Sarnaism]]
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Tribal religions in India]]
* [[Zoroastrianism]]
* [[Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
* [[Ancient Iranian religion]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note|30em|refs=


{{refn|group=note|name="Brahmanism"|See:
* {{harvnb|Samuel|2008|p=194}}: "The Brahmanical pattern"
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative{{'"}}
* {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=12}}: "Brahmanical synthesis"
According to {{harvnb|Heesterman|2005}}, Brahmanism developed out of the [[Historical Vedic religion]]; "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." According to {{harvnb|Witzel|1995}}, this development started around 1000 BCE in the [[Kuru kingdom]], with the Brahmins providing elaborate rituals to enhance the status of the Kuru kings.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="definition"|Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "way of life" {{harv|Sharma|2003|pp=12–13}}, etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in {{harvnb|Flood|2003|pp=1–17}}.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"|See also:
* {{harvnb|Ghurye|1980|pp=3–4}}: "He [J. H. Hutton, the Commissioner of the Census of 1931] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. 'The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism'."
* {{harvnb|Zimmer|1951|pp=218–219}}.
* {{harvnb|Sjoberg|1990|p=43}}. Quote: [{{cite book|ref=none |last=Tyler |year=1973 |title=India: An Anthropological Perspective |page=68 }}]; "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."
* {{harvnb|Sjoberg|1990}}.
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}: "Contemporary Hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin [...] The many traditions which feed into contemporary Hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings: the tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. The tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative', transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time, and defining the conditions of orthopraxy, such as adherence to ''varnasramadharma''."
* {{harvnb|Nath|2001}}.
* {{harvnb|Werner|1998}}.
* {{harvnb|Werner|2005|pp=8–9}}.
* {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}.
* {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002}}.
* {{harvnb|Hopfe|Woodward|2008|p=79}}: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
* {{harvnb|Samuel|2010}}.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"|There are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:
* {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}} states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain, or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century."
* {{harvnb|Sharma|2002}} and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholar [[Xuanzang]], whose 17-year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in the Chinese language, uses the transliterated term ''In-tu'' whose "connotation overflows in the religious".{{harv|Sharma|2002}} Xuanzang describes [[Hindu temple|Hindu Deva-temples]] of the early 7th century CE, worship of [[Surya|Sun]] deity and [[Shiva]], his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at [[Nalanda]]. See also {{harvnb|Gosch|Stearns|2007|pp=88–99}}, {{harvnb|Sharma|2011|pp=5–12}}, {{harvnb|Smith|Van De Mieroop|von Glahn|Lane|2012|pp=321–324}}.
* {{harvnb|Sharma|2002}} also mentions the use of the word ''Hindu'' in Islamic texts such as those relating to the 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text ''Tarikh Al-Hind'', and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term ''Hindu'' retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006}} states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, ''Futuhu's-Salatin'', composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".{{harv|Lorenzen|2006|p=33}}
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|pp=32–33}} also mentions other non-Persian texts such as ''Prithvíráj Ráso'' by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.
* {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2006|p=15}} states that one of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"|Sanatāna Dharma:
* {{harvnb|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}: "In modern Indian usage, sanātana dharma is often equated with 'Hinduism' as a name, stressing the eternal foundation of it."
* {{harvnb|Knott|1998|p=5}}: "Many describe Hinduism as ''sanatana dharma'', the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history."
* {{harvnb|Knott|1998|p=117}}: " The phrase sanatana dharma, eternal tradition, used often by Hindus to describe their religion, implies antiquity, but its usage is modern."
* {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|p=3}}: "Some Indians object to having a foreign term for their religion, preferring the Sanskrit expression ''sanātana dharma'', "eternal law or truth," despite the fact that this expression was not applied to any religious system in ancient texts."}}


{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"|{{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=50}}: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."}}


{{refn|group=note|name="oldest religion"|See:
* {{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=1}}: "probably the oldest religion in the world."
* {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=1}}: The "oldest living major religion" in the world.
* {{harvnb|Kurien|2006}}: "There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..."
* {{harvnb|Bakker|1997}}: "it [Hinduism] is the oldest religion".
* {{harvnb|Noble|1998}}: "Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."
{{harvnb|Smart|1993|p=1}}, on the other hand, calls it also one of the youngest religions: "Hinduism could be seen to be much more recent, though with various ancient roots: in a sense it was formed in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century." 
Animism has also been called "the oldest religion."({{harvnb|Sponsel|2012}}: "Animism is by far the oldest religion in the world. Its antiquity seems to go back at least as far as the period of the Neanderthals some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago.") 
Australian [[Linguistics|linguist]], [[R. M. W. Dixon]] discovered that [[Australian Aboriginal mythology|Aboriginal myths]] regarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago ({{harvnb|Dixon|1996}}). {{harvp|David|Mullett|Wright|Stephenson|2024}} found archaeological evidence that the mulla-mullung ritual, described in the 19th century, dates back at least 12,000 years. 
See also:
* [[Urreligion]], [[Shamanism#Hypotheses on origins|shamanism]], [[animism]], [[ancestor worship]] for some of the oldest forms of religion
* Indian tribal religions such as [[Sarnaism]], [[Sari Dharam]], [[Donyi-Polo]] and [[Sanamahism]], connected to the earliest migrations into India}}


{{refn|group=note|name="roots"|Among its roots are the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] of the late [[Vedic period]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans ({{harvnb|Samuel|2008|pp=48–53}}), but also the religions of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] ({{harvnb|Narayanan| 2009|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Lockard|2007|p=52}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}}; {{harvnb|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=xviii}}) the [[śramaṇa]] or renouncer traditions of [[Maurya Empire|northeastern India]] ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Gomez|2013|p=42}}), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture ({{harvnb|Bronkhorst|2007}}); and "popular or [[Adivasi|local traditions]]" ({{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=16}}) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence."{{harvnb|Doniger|2010|p=66}})}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Sweetman"|{{harvtxt|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":
* The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism", akin to the Protestant culture,{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
* The influence of [[Brahmin]]s on European conceptions of Hinduism.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}}
* [T]he identification of Vedanta, more specifically [[Advaita Vedanta]], as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=13}} (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|King|1999|p=128}}.) Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=13–14}}
** According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favoured because British feared French influence, especially the impact of the [[French Revolution]]; and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=13–14}}
** "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=14}}
* The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=14–16}} According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action. (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|Dirks|2001|p=xxvii}}.)
* "[T]he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity"{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=15}}
* Anti-colonial Hindus{{harv|Sweetman|2004|pp=15–16}} "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre-colonial, national identity".{{harv|Sweetman|2004|p=15}} (Sweetman cites {{harvnb|Viswanathan|2003|p=26}}.)}}
}}
{{Notelist|30em|refs=


{{efn|name="Hindu_dharma"|There is [[Untranslatability|no single-word translation]] for ''dharma'' in Western languages ({{harvnb|Widgery|1930}}, {{harvnb|Rocher|2003}}). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, [http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dharma.aspx#1 ''Dharma''], defines dharma as follows: "the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." See [[#Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics)|Dharma (righteousness, ethics)]]. 
'Hindu dharma' refers to the religious behaviours and attitudes of the various traditions collectively referred to as Hinduism:
* {{harvtxt|Flood|2003a|p=9}}: "V. D. Savarkar [...] in his highly influential book Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923) distinguishes between “Hindu Dharma,” the various traditions subsumed under the term “Hinduism,” and “Hindutva” or “Hinduness,” a sociopolitical force to unite all Hindus against “threatening Others”
* {{harvtxt|Thomas|2012|p=175}}: "Some 'Hindus' refer to this agglomeration of religious forms as 'Hindu dharma' (dharma here standing loosely for' religion'), but that is only to enable them to communicate to westerners some of their own religious attitudes."
* {{harvtxt|Bhattacharya|2006|p=1}}: "Dharma, therefore, is just not a belief but righteous living."}}
}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
For references on specific authors or topics, please see the relevant article.


=== Printed sources ===

{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |first=P. K. |last=Acharya |year=1927 |title=Indian Architecture according to the Manasara Shilpa Shastra |url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press (Republ. by Motilal Banarsidass) |location=London |isbn=0-300-06217-6 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname1=Acri |editor-given1=Andrea |editor-surname2=Creese |editor-given2=Helen |editor-surname3=Griffiths |editor-given3=Arlo |year=2011 |title=From Lanka Eastwards: The Ramayaṇa in the Literature and Visual Arts of Indonesia |location=Leiden |publisher=KITLV Press}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Bakker |first=F.L. |year=1997 |title=Balinese Hinduism and the Indonesian State: Recent Developments |journal=Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia |volume=153 |issue=1 |pages=15–41 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003943 |jstor=27864809 |s2cid=162277591|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Barua |first=Ankur |url={{Google books|id=iZmsBwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Debating 'Conversion' in Hinduism and Christianity |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-138-84701-9 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname=Beck |editor-given=Guy L. |title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url={{Google books|id=0SJ73GHSCF8C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |location=Albany, NY |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6415-1 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhardwaj |first=Surinder Mohan |url={{Google books|id=D6XJFokSJzEC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography |publisher=University of California Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-520-04951-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhaskarananda |first=Swami |title=Essentials of Hinduism |publisher=Viveka Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-884852-02-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781884852022 }}
* {{cite book | last =Bhattacharya | first =A | year =2006 | title =Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology| publisher =iUniverse | isbn =978-0-595-38455-6}}
* {{Citation |title=Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last1=Bilimoria |editor-first1=Purushottama |editor-last2= Prabhu |editor-first2=Joseph |editor-last3= Sharma |editor-first3=Renuka |isbn=978-1-138-06269-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |author-link=John Bowker (theologian) |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |surname=Bhandarkar |given=R. G. |author-link=R. G. Bhandarkar |year=1913 |title=Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism and Minor Religious Systems |series=Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, 3.6 |publisher=Trübner |location=Strassburg |url=https://archive.org/details/VaishnavismShaivismAndOtherMinorReligiousSystemsR.G.Bhandarkar/page/n1/mode/1up?view=theater }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brodd |first=Jeffrey |title=World Religions |publisher=Saint Mary's Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-88489-725-5 |location=Winona, MN}}
* {{Citation |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India |year=2007 |publisher=Brill}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |title=Krishna: A Sourcebook |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |author-link=Edwin Bryant (author)}}
* {{Cite book |editor-surname1=Bryant |editor-given1=Edwin F. |editor-link1=Edwin Bryant (author) |editor-surname2=Ekstrand |editor-given2=Maria |url={{Google books |mBMxPdgrBhoC |page= |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-231-12256-X }}
* {{Cite book |last=Burley |first=Mikel |title=Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2007}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=David |first1=Bruno |last2=Mullett |first2=Russell |last3=Wright |first3=Nathan |last4=Stephenson |first4=Birgitta |last5=Ash |first5=Jeremy |last6=Fresløv |first6=Joanna |last7=Delannoy |first7=Jean-Jacques |last8=McDowell |first8=Matthew C. |last9=Mialanes |first9=Jerome |last10=Petchey |first10=Fiona |last11=Arnold |first11=Lee J. |last12=Rogers |first12=Ashleigh J. |last13=Crouch |first13=Joe |last14=Green |first14=Helen |last15=Urwin |first15=Chris |last16=Matheson |first16=Carney D. |title=Archaeological evidence of an ethnographically documented Australian Aboriginal ritual dated to the last ice age |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=1 July 2024 |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=1481–1492 |doi=10.1038/s41562-024-01912-w |language=en |issn=2397-3374|doi-access=free |pmid=38951612 |pmc=11343701 }}
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{{refend}}
=== Web sources ===
{{Reflist|group=web|30em|refs=


<ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{Cite web |date=January 2015 |title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact |url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141543/http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=29 May 2015 |website=gordonconwell.edu}}</ref>


<ref name="pewforum_Hinduism" group="web">{{Cite web |date=18 December 2012 |title=The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism |url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx |access-date=31 March 2013 |website=A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups  |publisher=Pew Research Foundation |archive-date=6 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506104814/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>


}}

== Further reading ==

{{refbegin|30em}}
; Encyclopedias
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Dalal |given=Roshen |author-link=Roshen Dalal |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |year=2010b |url={{Google books|id=DH0vmD8ghdMC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |location=New Delhi |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2009–2015 |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism |editor-surname=Jacobsen |editor-given=Knut A. |editor-link=Knut A. Jacobsen |display-editors=etal |volume=1–6 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |url=https://brill.com/view/package/9789004271289?language=en&packages=about |isbn=978-9004271289 |url-access=registration |ref=none}}
** Vol. 1: ''Regions, Pilgrimage, Deities'' (2009).
** Vol. 2: ''Sacred Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts'' (2010).
** Vol. 3: ''Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies'' (2011).
** Vol. 4: ''Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues'' (2012).
** Vol. 5: ''Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers'' (2013).
** Vol. 6: ''Indices'' (2015).
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2018 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Pankaj |title=Hinduism and Tribal Religions |editor-link1=Pankaj Jain |editor2-last=Sherma |editor2-first=Rita |editor3-last=Khanna |editor3-first=Madhu |editor-link3=Madhu Khanna |entry=Hinduism and Tribal Religions |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions |location=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_541-1 |isbn=978-94-024-1036-5 |pages=1–6}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Johnson |given=W. J. |title=A Dictionary of Hinduism |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-19-861025-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Jones |given=Constance A. |surname2=Ryan |given2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=OgMmceadQ3gC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |year=2007 |location=New York |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions. [[J. Gordon Melton]], Series Editor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PR17 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |url-status=live |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1998 |surname=Klostermaier |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism |location=London |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-672-2 |url={{Google books|id=DB29DwAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Potter |editor-given=Karl H. |editor-link=Karl Harrington Potter |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |location=Delhi |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1970–2019 |volume=1–25 |ref=none |archive-date=1 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201160007/https://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |url-status=dead}} Ongoing [[monographic series]] project.
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |surname=Sullivan |given=Bruce M. |title=The A to Z of Hinduism |edition=Rev. |place=Lanham, Md; London |publisher=Scarecrow Press |url=https://archive.org/details/atozofhinduism2001sull |url-access=registration |isbn=0-8108-4070-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Werner |given=Karel |author-link=Karel Werner |title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism |location=Surrey |publisher=Curzon Press |year=1997 |edition=Rev. |isbn=0-7007-1049-3 |url={{Google books|id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}

; Introductory
* {{cite book |surname=Flood |given=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood |year=1996 |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129185620/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C |archive-date=29 November 2016 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |ref=none |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |editor-surname=Flood |editor-given=Gavin |editor-link=Gavin Flood |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |year=2003 |place=Oxford |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing|Blackwell]] |isbn=0-631-21535-2 |url={{Google books|id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329144114/https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C |archive-date=29 March 2024 |url-status=live |ref=none |access-date=29 May 2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |year=1997 |title=Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-60-8 |url={{Google books|id=RmGKHu20hA0C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}{{dead link|date=January 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}
* {{cite book |surname=Hiltebeitel |given=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |year=2002 |orig-year=1987 |chapter=Hinduism |editor-surname=Kitagawa |editor-given=Joseph M. |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture |place=London |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |pages=3–40 |chapter-url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=3|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |year=2007 |surname=Klostermaier |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-026-3 |url={{Google books|id=P0VCO1900dMC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174233/https://books.google.com/books?id=P0VCO1900dMC |url-status=live |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Knott |given=Kim |year=1998 |url={{Google books|id=p4kzNzII3zAC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |title=Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-160645-8 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174324/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live |ref=none}}

; History
* {{cite book |editor-surname=Chattopadhyaya |editor-given=D. P. |editor-link=D. P. Chattopadhyaya |title=[[Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture|History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization]] |volume=1–15 |location=Delhi |publisher=[[Centre for Studies in Civilizations]] |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |surname=Basham |given=Arthur Llewellyn |author-link=Arthur Llewellyn Basham |title=[[The Wonder That was India|The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of the Muslims]] |location=London |publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson |year=1954 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |author-link=Asko Parpola |title=The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-022693-0 |url={{Google books|id=DagXCgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |ref=none}}

; Philosophy and theology
* {{cite book |surname=Dasgupta |given=Surendranath |year=1922–1955 |author-link=Surendranath Dasgupta |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=1–5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/reports-proceedings/history-indian-philosophy-vol-i |ref=none}} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.96713 Vol. 1] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57593 Vol. 2] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57392 Vol. 3] | [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.231099 Vol. 4] | [https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfIndianPhilosophyVol5/page/n1/mode/2up Vol. 5.]
* {{cite book |year=1923–1927 |surname=Radhakrishnan |given=Sarvepalli |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |volume=1–2 |url=https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2 |ref=none}}

; Texts
* {{cite book |year=2010 |surname=Klostermaier |edition=3rd |given=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |title=A Survey of Hinduism |location=New York |publisher=SUNY Press |url={{Google books|id=8CVviRghVtIC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Richards |editor-first=Glyn |year=1985 |title=A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism |location=Surrey |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0173-5 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}


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Indian Councils Act 1909

2026-03-27T04:30:35Z

Felorox: fix section as per guidelines and added references

{{Short description|Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title = Indian Councils Act 1909{{efn|Section 8(1).}}
| type = Act
| parliament = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title = An Act to amend the Indian Councils Acts, 1861 and 1892, and the Government of India Act, 1833.
| year = 1909
| citation = [[9 Edw. 7]]. c. 4{{sfn|Ilbert|1911|p=243}}
| introduced_commons =
| introduced_lords =
| territorial_extent = [[United Kingdom]]
| royal_assent = 25 May 1909
| commencement = 15 November 1909{{efn|Section 8(2).}}{{sfn|Ilbert|1911|p=245}}
| repeal_date = 22 December 1927
| amends = {{ubli|[[Government of India Act 1833]]|[[Indian Councils Act 1861]]|[[Indian Councils Act 1892]]}}
| amendments =
| repealing_legislation = {{ubli|[[Government of India Act 1915]]}}
| related_legislation = {{ubli|[[Indian Councils Act 1871]]|[[Indian Councils Act1874]]}}
| status = Repealed
| original_text = https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Edw7/9/4/enacted
}}

The '''Indian Councils Act 1909''' ([[9 Edw. 7]]. c. 4), commonly known as the '''Morley–Minto''' or '''Minto–Morley Reforms''', was an [[Act of Parliament (United Kingdom)|act]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] that brought about a limited increase in the involvement of Indians in the governance of [[British India]]. Named after [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]] and [[Secretary of State for India|Secretary of State]] [[John Morley]], the act introduced elections to legislative councils and admitted Indians to councils of the Secretary of State for India, the viceroy, and to the executive councils of [[Mumbai|Bombay]] and [[Madras]] states. Muslims were granted separate electorates according to the demands of the [[All-India Muslim League]].

== Background ==
[[File:LordMelgund1885.jpg|thumb|In 1906, [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]] met with the [[Simla Deputation]].]]

In 1885, the [[Indian National Congress]] was founded at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay, gathering a small group of colonial India's educated elite.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian National Congress |url=https://inc.in/ |access-date=2022-10-07 |website=Indian National Congress |language=en}}</ref> One of their main grievances was the difficulty Indians faced when trying to enter the civil service and administrative roles. [[Queen Victoria]] had promised racial equality in the selection of civil servants for the government of India in the [[Government of India Act 1858]], but in practice Indians remained largely outside spheres of power.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=India - Government of India Act of 1858 {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858 |access-date=2022-10-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Examinations for the services were exclusively held in [[Great Britain]] and were open only to male applicants between the ages of 17 and 22 (this was later changed to a range of 17 to 19 in 1878).{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=278-279}} British administrators' reluctance to accept Indians into the civil service only further closed administrative positions to Indians.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=278-279}}

In the face of growing Indian demands, the [[Indian Councils Act 1892]] introduced several reforms to the legislative councils in British India; it expanded the number of members in the central and provincial councils, and permitted universities and other bodies in India to recommend and elect representatives. However, the government continued to approve many bills despite strong Indian opposition; additionally, it did not give members control over the budget, as they were only allowed to debate it, not vote on it. Unhappy with such minor concessions, many Indian National Congress members blamed the lack of progress on the Congress's moderate strategy and agitated for a more assertive strategy against the British.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

After the Liberal Party's victory in the 1906 general election, liberal philosopher John Morley became the Secretary of State for India; Morley strove to implement the equality of opportunity promised in 1892,<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Indian Councils Act of 1909 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-Councils-Act-of-1909 |access-date=2021-04-26 |date=4 February 2013}}</ref> but also wished to 'rally the moderates' against a rising wave of radical nationalists and political terrorism.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=279-280}} In May and June 1906, Morley and the moderate Congress leader Gokhale discussed the Congress's demands for reforming the Secretary of State's Council, the executive councils of the viceroy and governors, and the legislative councils.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Hardy |first=Peter |title=The Muslims of British India |date=May 25, 1973 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521097833 |pages=153–154 |language=English}}</ref> In July 1906, during a speech on the Indian Budget in the House of Commons, Morley announced that he would consider proposals on reform.<ref name=":5" /> This spurred leaders of the Muslim League to send the [[Simla Deputation]] to advocate for Muslim interests.<ref name=":5" />

== Advocation of separate Muslim electorates ==
On 1 October 1906 Minto received the deputation from the newly founded Muslim League, which comprised numerous Muslims from all Indian provinces except for the [[North-West Frontier Province|Northwest Frontier]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Simla Deputation - Banglapedia |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Simla_Deputation |access-date=2022-10-07 |website=en.banglapedia.org |language=en}}</ref> The Muslim League was founded to prevent the rise of an emergence of a Hindu dominated political system,{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=280–281}} and made a number of demands to Minto. They argued that the special interests of Muslims must be maintained, and pushed for the separate election of Muslims to the provincial councils and requiring the election of a sufficient number of Muslims to the Imperial Legislative Council to avoid reducing Muslims to an insignificant minority<ref name=":6" /> Minto encouraged the foundation of the League as a rival organization to the Indian National Congress,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th earl of Minto {{!}} British official {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gilbert-John-Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound-4th-earl-of-Minto |access-date=2022-10-07 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> and promised to the deputation that they would give consideration to Muslim demands.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=280–281}}

Like the Muslim League, British administrators also sought to prevent the rise of an Indian majority in the legislature,{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=280–281}} and persuaded Minto of the danger of Muslim discontent to British rule and that the League's demands were representative of most Indian Muslims' wishes.<ref name=":5" />

Morley expressed a desire for reconciliation between territorial representation and Muslim demands, but with the support of [[Herbert Hope Risley|Herbert Risley]], the Home Secretary, separate Muslim electorates were successfully implemented in the final plan.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=280–281}} This sympathy to the Muslim League led to the false suspicion that the 1906 deputation had been invited by the viceroy, rather than simply received.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=280–281}}

==Morley–Minto Reforms==
The act itself conferred some political reforms. Both central and provincial legislative councils increased in size and expanded their memberships. Local bodies would elect an electoral college, which in turn would elect the members of provincial legislatures, who in turn would elect members of the central legislature. Under the act, Muslim members were to be elected by only Muslim voters, dividing the electorate.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Previously, provincial councils had a majority of their members appointed by civil service officials, referred to as an "Official Majority"; this system was lifted with the act's passage. However, an official majority was retained on the Central Legislative Council.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

The elected Indians were allowed to table resolutions, debate budgetary matters, and ask supplementary questions, which they were previously prevented from doing so.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} Nevertheless, they were not permitted to discuss foreign policy or relations with the princely states were.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} The British executive also retained an absolute veto over all legislation.<ref name="britannica" />

== Reaction and legacy ==
After the passage of the act, Morley appointed two Indian members to his council [[Whitehall]],<ref name="britannica" /> and also persuaded the viceroy Lord Minto to appoint the first Indian member to the viceroy's Executive Council, [[Satyendra Prasanna Sinha, 1st Baron Sinha|Satyendra P. Sinha]].<ref name="britannica" /> Though the act did increase Indian participation in the legislative councils, the act did nothing to address the Indian National Congress's demands for colonial self-government.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} The introduction of separate electorates for Muslims was viewed by the Congress as an imperial attempt at control through an elective policy of divide-and-rule.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Morley-Minto Reforms - Banglapedia |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Morley-Minto_Reforms |access-date=2022-10-07 |website=en.banglapedia.org}}</ref>

The [[First World War]] substantially changed Indian expectations for representation, with India providing substantial support for the British war effort in men, material, and money. India's sacrifice led to stronger demands, which would result in Indian Secretary [[Edwin Montagu]] announcing further constitutional reforms towards responsible government in 1917,{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=280–281}} eventually leading to the [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]] and the [[Government of India Act 1919]].

The whole act was repealed by the [[Government of India Act 1915]] ([[5 & 6 Geo. 5]]. c. 61).

== Significance ==
The Indian Councils Act 1909, commonly known as the '''Morley-Minto Reforms''', is a landmark in the constitutional history of British India:

* It introduced, for the first time, the '''elective principle''' in the composition of legislative councils in India — allowing Indians to vote for members of provincial and central legislative councils, albeit indirectly and on a restricted franchise based on property and education.
* The size of the '''Central Legislative Council''' was significantly expanded from 16 to '''60 members''', while provincial councils in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, and the United Provinces were each increased to 50 members — substantially widening the scope of Indian participation in governance.
* For the first time, '''non-official members were given a majority''' in the provincial legislative councils, though the official majority was retained in the Central Legislative Council.
* The deliberative powers of legislative councils were meaningfully expanded — members could now '''ask supplementary questions''', move resolutions on the budget, vote on separate budget items, and discuss matters of public interest — going significantly beyond the limited rights granted by the [[Indian Councils Act 1892]].
* '''Satyendra Prasad Sinha''' was appointed as the first Indian member of the Viceroy's Executive Council in 1909 — a historic milestone marking the first association of an Indian with the highest executive body of British India. He was appointed as Law Member.
* Two Indians were nominated to the '''Council of the Secretary of State''' for India in London — [[Sayyid Husain Bilgrami]], a Muslim, and Krishna G. Gupta, a senior member of the Indian Civil Service — implementing, to a limited extent, Queen Victoria's promise of equality of opportunity.
* The Act provided for '''separate representation''' of presidency corporations, chambers of commerce, universities, and zamindars — introducing the concept of functional constituencies into Indian legislative politics for the first time.
* The reforms were a direct response to the growing demands of the [[Indian National Congress]] and the moderate nationalist leadership, particularly [[Gopal Krishna Gokhale]], who had personally met Secretary of State Morley in England to advocate for constitutional reforms.
* The Act set the stage for future, more expansive constitutional reforms — including the [[Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms]] of 1919 and the [[Government of India Act 1935]] — by firmly establishing the principle of Indian representation in governance.

== Limitations ==
Despite its historic significance, the Indian Councils Act 1909 had profound and far-reaching limitations:

* The most controversial provision of the Act was the introduction of '''separate electorates for Muslims''' — under which Muslim members of legislative councils were to be elected exclusively by Muslim voters. This institutionalised communal representation in Indian politics for the first time, leading Lord Minto to be called the '''Father of Communal Electorate'''. The [[Indian National Congress]] strongly condemned this provision as a deliberate strategy of divide and rule.
* The Act made '''absolutely no provision for colonial self-government''' or responsible government — the core demand of the Indian National Congress. Lord Morley himself told the House of Lords that if the reforms led to a parliamentary system in India, he would have nothing to do with them.
* Despite the expansion of council membership, the '''official majority was retained at the centre''', ensuring that British officials could always outvote Indian members on critical matters.
* The electorate was confined to a '''tiny minority of Indians''' — only those with significant property holdings or educational qualifications could vote, leaving the vast majority of the Indian population entirely disenfranchised.
* '''No discussions were permitted''' on foreign policy or on the relations between the British government and the Indian princely states — placing crucial matters of governance entirely beyond the reach of the legislative councils.
* The executive remained '''entirely unaccountable''' to the legislative councils — Indian members could debate and ask questions, but had no power to enforce accountability or remove executive officials.
* The Act was widely criticised by Indian nationalists as offering a shadow rather than substance of representative governance. The growing disconnect between Indian political aspirations and British constitutional concessions contributed significantly to the rise of [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak|Tilak]]'s assertive nationalist politics and the eventual split between Moderates and Extremists at the [[Surat Split|Surat session of the Congress in 1907]].
* The communal electorate system introduced by the Act deepened religious divisions in Indian society and laid the ideological groundwork for the [[two-nation theory]] — with lasting and tragic consequences for the subcontinent.

==See also==
*[[Government of India Act (disambiguation)]]
*[[Indian Councils Act 1861]]
*[[Indian Councils Act 1892]]
*[[Government of India Act 1919]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book|last=Hardy |first=Thomas Hardy |title=The Muslims of British India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw4AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09783-3}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Ilbert|first=Courtenay|date=1911|title=The Indian Councils Act, 1909|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/752520|journal=Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation|volume=11|issue=2|pages=243–254|jstor=752520|issn=1479-5973}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermanne |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |title=A History of India|url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/A%20History%20of%20India_Kulke.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226092618/http://ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/A%20History%20of%20India_Kulke.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 February 2015|edition=4th|publisher=Routledge |year=2004}}
* {{cite book |last1=Metcalf |first1=Barbara |last2=Metcalf |first2=Thomas |title=A Concise History of Modern India|url=http://apnaorg.com/books/english/concise-history-india/concise-history-india.pdf|edition=2nd |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Robb |first=Peter |title=A History of India|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete|url-access=registration|edition=1st |year=2002 |publisher=Palgrave}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Francis |url=https://archive.org/details/separatismamongi0000robi |title=Separatism Among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces' Muslims, 1860–1923 |year=1974 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=A History of India|edition=1st|year=1998|publisher=Blackwell publishers|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-631-17899-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-13aHAAACAAJ|date=23 July 2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85661-4}}

==External links==
*{{UK-LEG|asmade=yes}}
*[http://www.houseofdavid.ca/Ind_uni.htm#gon1909 Bibliography]
*[https://cadindia.clpr.org.in/historical_constitutions/indian_councils_act__1909_1st%20January%201909 CADIndia Original Text of the Indian Councils Act with brief summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027060032/http://cadindia.clpr.org.in/historical_constitutions/indian_councils_act__1909_1st%20January%201909 |date=27 October 2018 }}

{{India topics}}
{{United Kingdom topics}}
{{UK legislation}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1909]]
[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning India]]
[[Category:Repealed United Kingdom Acts of Parliament]]

De jure

2026-03-24T06:28:36Z

Felorox: enhance layout further and corrected details after review

{{Short description|Latin expression meaning 'from law'}}
{{Distinguish|Dejure Foundation|Glossary of French words and expressions in English#Du jour{{!}}du jour}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Italics title}}
In [[law]] and [[government]], '''''de jure''''' ({{IPAc-en|d|eɪ|_|ˈ|dʒ|ʊər|i|,_|d|i|_|-|,_|-|_|ˈ|jʊər|-}}; {{IPA|la|deː ˈjuːre|lang}}; {{literal translation|from law}}) describes practices that are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. The phrase is often used in contrast with ''[[de facto]]'' ('from fact'), which describes situations that exist in reality, even if not formally recognized.<ref name="OxfordDF2">{{cite web|title=Definition of 'de facto' adjective from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary|url=http://www.OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com/definition/english/de-facto_2|publisher=Oxford University Press|website=OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com|access-date=11 July 2016}}</ref>

==Definition==
''De jure'' is a [[Latin]] expression composed of the words ''de'' ("from, of") and ''jure'' ("law", adjectival form of ''[[wikt:jus|jus]]''). Thus, it is descriptive of a structural argument or position derived "from law".<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), JUS |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=jus-cn |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.Dictionary.com/browse/de-jure|title=de jure|publisher=Dictionary.com, LLC.|work=dictionary.com|access-date=11 July 2016}}</ref>

==Usage==
===Jurisprudence and ''de jure'' law===
{{see also|Unenforced law}}

In [[Law of the United States|U.S. law]], particularly after ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954), the difference between ''de facto'' [[Racial segregation in the United States|segregation]] (that existed because of voluntary associations and neighborhoods) and ''de jure'' segregation (that existed because of local laws) became important distinctions for court-mandated remedial purposes.<ref name="AndersonByrne2004">{{cite book|author1=James Anderson|author2=Dara N. Byrne|title=The Unfinished Agenda of Brown V. Board of Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DQSryuTGxCcC&pg=PA55|date=29 April 2004|publisher=Diverse: Issues In Higher Education|isbn=978-0-471-64926-7|pages=55–}}</ref>{{clarify|date=July 2025}}

===Government and culture===
Between 1805 and 1914, the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]] of [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]] were ''de jure'' subject to the rulers of the [[Ottoman Empire]], meaning they were formally considered to be under the rule of the Ottomans. However, in practice, they acted as ''de facto'' rulers, as they were able to maintain a large degree of independence in their governance of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mak |first=Lanver |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfJC1zLvBhQC&q=veiled%20protectorate&pg=PA10 |title=The British in Egypt: Community, Crime and Crises 1882–1922 |date=2012-03-15 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=9781848857094 |language=en}}</ref>

===Borders===
The ''de jure'' borders of a country are defined by the area its government claims, but not necessarily controls. Modern examples include [[Taiwan]] (claimed but not controlled by [[China]])<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fabry |first1=Mikulas |title=The Effect of 'One China' Policies of Foreign States on the International Status of Taiwan |journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft |date=2 January 2024 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=90–115 |doi=10.1080/09592296.2024.2303855}}</ref> and [[Kashmir]] (claimed by [[Kashmir conflict|multiple countries]]).<ref>{{citation|last1=Osmańczyk|first1=Edmund Jan|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93922-5 |pages=1191–|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Portal|Law}}
*[[Implied repeal]]
*[[List of Latin phrases (D)]]
*[[Obrogation]]
*[[Unenforced law]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Latin legal terminology]]
[[Category:Latin words and phrases]]

Punjabi Tamba and Kurta

2026-03-19T21:02:54Z

Felorox: Added first stub nd citations

{{short description|Type of sarong and shirt, traditional costume in Punjab}}
[[File:Punjabi boys in their traditional dress.jpg|thumb|Punjabi Kurta and chaadra]]
{{Punjabis}}
[[File:Bhangra Dance punjab.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Bhangra (dance)|Bhangra]] Dance performers in Punjab wearing Kurta and Tehmed. ]]
'''Punjabi Kurta and Tamba''' are traditional costume for men of [[Punjab]].

==Punjabi Tamba==

===Tamba/Tehmed/Lungi===
[[File:Punjabi Nachey-6.JPG|thumb|right|Punjabi kurta and tehmed]]
[[File:Milk vender with typical traditional brass containers , Gagar ,used in Majha Region of Punjab 01.jpg|thumb|left|Milk vendor with typical traditional brass containers, Gagar, used in Majha Region of Punjab wearing traditional clothes]]
The tamba, which is also called tehmed<ref>Development: A Saga of Two Worlds: Vismambhor Nath 2002 (Ashok Mukar Mittal Publishers)</ref><ref>Lahore: A Sentimental Journey Pran Neville Penguin Books</ref> is the Punjabi version of the [[lungi]] which has folds at the front and is the traditional dress for Punjabi men. The tamba is worn by [[Bhangra (dance)|Bhangra]] dancers. Although the use of the Punjabi tehmed in [[Punjab, India|East Punjab]] has declined in recent years, being replaced by the pyjama, men can be seen wearing the tehmed and its use has not completely stopped.<ref>Harkesh Singh Kehal (2009) Alop Ho Reha Punjabi Virsa.Lokgeet Parkashan. {{ISBN|81-7142-869-X}}</ref> The tamba or the lungi can also be seen on Punjabi men in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] province<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQTABKAGaVgC&dq=kurta+new+style+punjab&pg=PA119 Malik, Iftikhar Haider (2006) Culture and Customs of Pakistan]</ref><ref>West Pakistan. Public Relations Department(1961) West Pakistan Year Book [https://books.google.com/books?id=FVq2AAAAIAAJ&q=bahawalpur+shalwar]</ref> and adjoining [[Hazara region|Hazara]] region of [[Pakistan]].<ref>Aziz, Khursheed Kamal (1993) The murder of history: a critique of history textbooks used in Pakistan [https://books.google.com/books?id=IXyfAAAAMAAJ&q=punjabi+speaking]</ref> A tehmed is of one colour and has no border. The tehmed or laacha can be long reaching to the heels. It can also be short to just below the knees.<ref>Punjab District Gazetteers - Ferozepur Year Published 1915</ref>

===Laacha===
A laacha differs from the tehmed in that it has a border and is variegated so that it has more than one colour.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hsNFAQAAIAAJ&q=variegated Punjab District Gazetteers - Gujranwala District Year Published 1935]</ref> The laacha is popular in [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GQTABKAGaVgC&dq=kurta+new+style+punjab&pg=PA119 Malik, Iftikhar Haider (2006) Culture and Customs of Pakistan]</ref> The laacha is worn in a like manner to the tehmed except it has more folds. Women in some parts of Punjab wear the tehmed and the laacha, especially the districts of Gujarat, Gujranwala, Shahpur and Muzzafargarh.<ref>Saini, B.S. (1975) The Social & Economic History of the Punjab, 1901-1939, Including Haryana & Himachal Pradesh [https://books.google.com/books?id=zPkEAAAAMAAJ&q=shahpur+district+shalwar]</ref>
{{clear}}

==Punjabi Kurta==
The Punjabi kurta<ref>Panjab University Research Bulletin: Arts, Volume 13, Issue 1 - Volume 14, Issue 1 (1982)[https://books.google.com/books?id=nvE7AQAAIAAJ&q=+punjabi]</ref> is made of two rectangular pieces with side slits, and a front opening<ref>Population Census of Pakistan, 1961: Dacca. 2.Chittagong. 3.Sylhet. 4.Rajshahi. 5.Khulna. 6.Rangpur. 7.Mymensingh. 8.Comilla. 9.Bakerganj. 10.Noakhali. 11.Bogra. 12.Dinajpur. 13.Jessore. 14.Pabna. 15.Kushtia. 16.Faridpur. 17.Chittagong Hill tracts [https://books.google.com/books?id=SqkZAAAAMAAJ&q=sialkot+++suthan]</ref> below the neck. In the past, it was traditional for men to wear a gold or silver chain (zanjiri) woven around the buttons.<ref>Kehal, Harkesh Singh (2011) Alop ho riha Punjabi virsa bhag dooja. Lokgeet Parkashan. {{ISBN|978-93-5017-532-3}}</ref>

This form of kurta gradually began to replace the older angarkha worn in the [[Punjab region]] which fell to the knees,<ref>Smith, Ronald Vivian (2008) Capital Vignettes: A Peep Into Delhi's Ethos [https://books.google.com/books?id=i6-mKS8IwrcC&dq=punjab+angarkha&pg=PT97]</ref> opened to either the left or the right,<ref>[http://revenueharyana.gov.in/html/gazeteers/karnal%20Gazeetter%201892.pdf Haryana Gazeteer 1892] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501200322/http://revenueharyana.gov.in/html/gazeteers/karnal%20Gazeetter%201892.pdf |date=2014-05-01 }}</ref> and was sometimes known as the anga, the older form of the angarkha and is similar to a gown<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vf4InPH0STQC&q=peshwaj+known+as+anga Rajaram Narayan Saletore (1974) Sex Life Under Indian Rulers]</ref><ref>Panjab University Research Bulletin: Arts, Volume 13, Issue 1 - Volume 14, Issue 1 (1982) [https://books.google.com/books?id=nvE7AQAAIAAJ&q=peshwaj+known+as+anga]</ref> or a loose coat and wadded with cotton.<ref>Punjab District Gazetteers - District Attock Year Published 1930 BK-000211-0160 [https://books.google.com/books?id=3MNFAQAAIAAJ&q=+anga]</ref> By the 1960s the Punjabi kurta had almost replaced the angarkha but it was still popular in present-day [[Haryana]].<ref>Mohinder Singh Randhawa.(1960) Punjab: Itihas, Kala, Sahit, te Sabiachar aad.Bhasha Vibhag, Punjab, Patiala.</ref>

The Punjabi form of kurta is popular throughout the sub-continent. It is for this reason that, in [[Bhojpuri region|Bhojpur]], [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Bangladesh]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indianmirror.com/culture/clothing/dhoti.html|title = Indian clothes - Traditional Indian Dhoti, Dhoti Kurta, How to Wear a Dhoti, How to Tie Dhoti}}</ref> the kurta is known as 'Panjabi' as the kurta is associated with the Punjab<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zW30rV_UAskC&dq=why+is+kurta+called+panjabi+in+bengal&pg=PA617 Fraser, Bashabi (2008) Bengal Partition Stories: An Unclosed Chapter]</ref> and considered an article of Punjabi dress.<ref>
Arabinda Biswas, India. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publications Division (1985) Indian Costumes [https://books.google.com/books?id=vdyBAAAAMAAJ&q=why+is+kurta+called+panjabi+in+bengal]</ref> The Punjabi kurta was introduced to [[Assam]] by King Garib Niwaj of [[Manipur]] during his reign sometime between 1709 A.D. and 1749 <ref>Sen, Sirpa ( 1992) Tribes and Castes of Manipur: Description and Select Bibliography [https://books.google.com/books?id=bQQNCU-QWBAC&dq=king+garib+niwaj+reign&pg=PA13]</ref> A.D. where it is also known as Panjabi.<ref>Narendra S. Bisht, T. S. Bankoti (2004) Encyclopaedic Ethnography of the Himalayan Tribes: A-D [https://books.google.com/books?id=JIsjAQAAIAAJ&q=king+garib+niwaj+panjabi]</ref> It is also worn in [[Uttar Pradesh]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6QVuAAAAMAAJ&q=punjabi+kurta Kumar Suresh Singh (2005) People of India: Uttar Pradesh (3 pts.)]</ref> and since the 1960s has been replacing the traditional saluka (short shirt) worn in [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HLRhAAAAIAAJ&q=saluka+ Madhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Raisen (1965)]</ref>
<gallery>
File:Punjabi kurta Ferozepur 1845.jpg|Punjabi straight cut kurta Ferozepur 1845
File:Kurta pajamas for men Indian Dress.jpg|kurta pajama for wedding
File:A punjabi guy in Jeans & Kurta.jpg|Kurta Jeans
File:SikhsInFrancePostcard.jpg|[[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] 15th Sikh Regiment, wearing kurtas, arrives in [[Marseille, France]] on their way to fight the Germans during the [[First World War]]
File:Folk singers in multan.JPG|Folk singers in Multan
</gallery>

===History===
The term [[kurta]] is a generic term to cover different types of upper garments worn by men. Kurta refers to the upper garments worn in [[South Asia]] inspired from garments worn by [[Central Asian]] [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] who spread their use beyond their region, reaching the Indian sub-continent.<ref>Rahman, Abdur (2002) India's Interaction with China, Central and West Asia [https://books.google.com/books?id=NZvpAAAAMAAJ&q=achkan+]</ref>

The traditional male attire for men in India consisted of the [[dhoti]] and an unstitched<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8wyM5heEc9gC&dq=kurta+angarkha+punjab&pg=PA28 Tarlo, Emma (1996) Clothing Matters: Dress and Identity in India]</ref> cloth draped around the shoulders extended to cover the upper body.<ref>Vaidya, Chintaman Vinayak (2001) Epic India, Or, India as Described in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana [https://books.google.com/books?id=dmOUq73LZLgC&dq=punjab+angarkha&pg=PA141]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HuQ2AQAAMAAJ&q=kurta Punjab District Gazetteers: Ibbetson series, 1883-1884 (pub 1883)]</ref><ref>Punjab District Gazetteers - District Attock Year Published 1930 BK-000211-0160</ref>

However, men in [[North India]] especially [[Rajasthan]] and the [[Punjab region]]<ref>Cohn, Bernard S. (1996) Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India [https://books.google.com/books?id=uIalYaenrTkC&q=jama+dress]</ref> wore the [[Jama costume|jama]] of the Rajput type, the chola (robe)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=UjZuAAAAMAAJ&q=blue+robes Proceedings - Punjab History Conference (2006)]</ref> (which in the [[Punjab region]] remained popular in some parts as recent as the 1980s),<ref>Survey Report on Village: [[Chandigarh]]. [[Kaimbwala]] (1988) https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PHIkAQAAMAAJ&q=chola+gown+sikh&dq=chola+gown+sikh&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEUQ6AEwCGoVChMI0_-WwNjqxgIVYSrbCh0pfwkn</ref> the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Jama costume|jama]] and the [[angarkha]] as upper garments, which eventually led to different versions of the kurta being developed, such as the Punjabi [[angarkha]], Punjabi kurta, the Gujarati angarkha and the Rajasthani angarkha, also termed ‘[[kurta]]’.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=KHVGgyIVnOkC&q=rajasthan&pg=PA35 S. And Sahgal, Malik Gettingahead In Social Studies:, Book 3]</ref> A non region specific angarkha is also worn in various areas such as in [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttrakhand]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].

The Punjabi kurta also draws inspiration from the Mughal kurta,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AqdJ7LlfVWUC&dq=islamic+influence+on+hindu+dress&pg=PA141 Impact Of Hindu Culture On Muslims Mohsen Saeidi Madani]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AqdJ7LlfVWUC&q=kurta Mohsen Saeidi Madani (1993) Impact Of Hindu Culture On Muslims]</ref> which was in common use in the region.<ref>Thesis by Renu Bala http://www.apnaorg.com/research-papers-pdf/thesis-8.pdf</ref> However, The Mughal kurta was much looser than the Punjabi kurta, had no side slits and the upper part of the Mughal kurta was also very loose.

The other inspiration for the Punjabi kurta is the [[Angarkha|Punjabi angarkha]] which was called the old kurta in the early 20th century A.D.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fRhuAAAAMAAJ&q=angrakha+punjabi+kurta Punjab District Gazetteers, Volume 4, Part 1 Gurgaon 1911]</ref> and is a loose tunic<ref>Punjab District Gazetteers: Ibbetson series, 1883-1884]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=D-Q2AQAAMAAJ&q=punjabi+angrakha]</ref> which falls to below the knees.<ref>Punjab gazetteers, 1883, bound in 10 vols., without title-leaves (1883) [https://books.google.com/books?id=YacIAAAAQAAJ&q=punjabi+angarkha]</ref>

During the 11th century C.E., AL Biruni noted<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=irh9dvlLz3MC&dq=kurtaka+dress&pg=PA118 Ghurye, Govind Sadashiv (1966) Indian Costume]</ref> women in north India wore the kurtaka which was a short shirt, with sleeves extending to the shoulders, to the middle of the body, and had slashes on the left and the right sides.<ref>Yadava, Ganga Prasad (1982) Dhanapāla and His Times: A Socio-cultural Study Based Upon His Works [https://books.google.com/books?id=aY_I3zgxfpsC&dq=kurtaka+dress&pg=PA107]</ref> Thiis similar to the modern Punjabi kurta worn by women<ref>Sharma, Brij Narain (1966) Social life in Northern India, A.D. 600-1000 [https://books.google.com/books?id=G0oiAAAAMAAJ&q=kurtaka+punjab]</ref> and men which has side slits rather than slashes. The use of shirts and trousers was earlier observed in the [[Punjab region]] in the 7th century by Hsuan Tsang and I-Tsing.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&dq=punjabi+clothing+central+asian+influences&pg=PA427 Abraham Eraly (2011) The First Spring: The Golden Age of India]</ref>

In modern usage, a short kurta is referred to as the kurti. However, traditionally, the kurti is a short cotton coat<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7SdGAQAAIAAJ&q=kurti+is+punjabi+dress Punjab District Gazetteers: Rawalpindi District (v. 28A) (1909)]</ref><ref>Compiled and published under the authority of the Punjab government, (1939) [https://books.google.com/books?id=6eY2AQAAMAAJ&q=punjab++kurti Punjab District and State Gazetteers: Part A]</ref> (without side slits) and is believed to have descended from the tunic of the Shunga period (2nd century B.C.).<ref>Panjab University Research Bulletin: Arts, Volume 13, Issue 1 - Volume 14, Issue (1982) [https://books.google.com/books?id=nvE7AQAAIAAJ&q=sunga]</ref> The kurti is front opening and is buttoned. Traditionally, a chain of gold or silver called zanjiri is woven into the buttons.<ref>Kehal, Harkesh Singh (2011) Alop ho riha Punjabi virsa bhag dooja. Lokgeet Parkashan. {{ISBN|978-93-5017-532-3}}</ref> The use of the kurti by women has been noted during the 1600s<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6-jZAAAAMAAJ&q=+kurti Dr Daljit Singh (2004) Punjab Socio-Economic Condition (1501-1700 A.D.)]</ref><ref>Sanjeev Prasad Srivastava, R. P. Srivastava (2001) Studies in Panjab Sculpture [https://books.google.com/books?id=W0SIptlc5rQC&dq=punjab+dress+central+asian&pg=PA6]</ref> to the present day. The kurti can be front opening from below the neck to the waist, or cover the back but leave the stomach exposed. Some styles fasten at the back or are worn as pullovers with no side slits and font opening.

The kurti also forms part of male dress as a waist coat worn over the kurta.<ref>Sir George Casson Walker (2006) Gazetteer of the Lahore District, 1893-94 [https://books.google.com/books?id=A0duAAAAMAAJ&q=+++kurti]</ref>

Before the use of the kurta, people in Jammu traditionally wore the peshwaj<ref>Textiles, Costumes and Ornaments of the Western Himalayas O Handa</ref> which flowed to the ankles. However, the traditional attire now is the kurta and Dogri pajamma. The use of the kurta was very rare in [[Kashmir]] until [[Kashyap Bandhu]] encouraged its use in the 1930s cultural revolution.<ref>Cultural Heritage of India- Kashmiri Pandit Contribution. The Publication of Kashmir Sabha, Calcutta (1999-2000) [http://koausa.org/vitasta/pdf/Vitasta1999-2000.pdf]</ref>

==Muktsari Kurta Pajama==
[[File:Punjabi Traditional Fashion - Cultural Night - Wiki Conference India - CGC - Mohali 2016-08-05 7370.JPG|thumb|200px|Muktsari kurta pajama]]
The Muktsari kurta pajama is the modern Punjabi version of the traditional kurta pajama outfit which is very popular on the sub-continent.<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120105/ldh1.htm] Puneevnft Pal Singh Gill Article The Tribune 04 01 2012</ref>

Muktsari kurta pajamas were initially worn by youngsters in the [[Muktsar district|Muktsar]] area. However, they are now popular all over Punjab. The Muktsari kurtas are snug with lapels on either side and the pyjamas are similar to well-fitted slim pants.<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120105/ldh1.htm] Puneet Pal Singh Gill Article The Tribune 04 01 2012</ref> The kurta length is short and there's no pleating anywhere.<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120105/ldh1.htm] Puneet Pal Singh Gill Article The Tribune 04 01 2012</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Kurta]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Punjabi clothing}}
{{Clothing in South Asia}}
{{Punjab, India}}
{{Pakistani clothing}}

[[Category:Folk costumes]]
[[Category:Indian clothing]]
[[Category:Pakistani clothing]]
[[Category:Punjabi culture]]
[[Category:Punjabi clothing]]

Badan Singh

2026-03-16T07:56:16Z

Felorox: minor rework structure for clarity and added references

{{Short description|Raja of Bharatpur from 1722 to 1755}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Badan Singh
| title = [[Raja]]
| image = Detail of Raja Badan Singh from a painting from an illustrated 'Sujan Charitra' series, by Ramji, Jaipur School, circa mid-to-late 18th century (cropped).jpg
| caption = Portrait of Raja Badan Singh
| succession = [[Bharatpur State|Raja of Bharatpur]]
| reign = 18 November 1722 – 21 May 1755
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Muhkam Singh]]
| successor = [[Maharaja Suraj Mal]]
| spouse =
| issue =
| royal house = [[Sinsinwar|Sinsinwar Dynasty]]
| father = Roop Singh
| mother =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date = 21 May 1755
| death_place = [[Deeg]]
| burial_place =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
}}

'''Maharaja Badan Singh''' (reigned 18 November 1722 – 21 May 1755) was the formal founder and first [[Maharaja]] of the [[Bharatpur State|Bharatpur state]] from 1722 to 1755. He was a nephew of [[Churaman]] Singh. After Churaman's death on 20 September 1721 there were family disputes between Badan Singh and Churaman's son [[Muhkam Singh]]. Badan Singh aligned with [[Jai Singh II]] of [[Jaipur]] to avoid the wrath of Muhkam Singh. In this family feud, Jai Singh supported Badan Singh.

== Early life ==
Badan Singh was born to a [[Hindu Jat]] family to Roop Singh who was the jagirdar of [[Deeg]], Rajasthan. He was the nephew of [[Churaman|Rao Churaman Singh]], then the chief of Thun stronghold.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhanu |first=Dharma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CctFMm9HSH8C&q=nephew+Churaman+badan+singh |title=The Province of Agra: Its History and Administration |date=1979 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |language=en}}</ref>

== Ancestors ==
The Hindu Jat rulers of Bharatpur kingdom and Braj claim descent from Lord Shri Krishna. One of their ancestor was Shobha Singh who held his sway over Bayana, he attacked the modern-day Sinsini region and defeated the native tribe of Kalal Chandars.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dwivedi |first1=Girish Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AR5uAAAAMAAJ |title=The Jats, Their Role in the Mughal Empire |last2=Prasad |first2=Ishwari |date=1989 |publisher=Arnold Publishers |isbn=978-81-7031-150-8 |language=en}}</ref>

==Architecture==

G.C. Dwivedi writes:
Badan Singh [[Jats|Jat]] had some aesthetic sense and a taste for architecture too, which is testified by the remains of his numerous buildings and garden-palaces. He beautified the fort of [[Deeg]] with handsome palaces, which are known as the Purana Mahal.

At [[Weir, Rajasthan|Weir]] in the [[Bayana]] district, he planted within the fort a large garden with a beautiful house and reservoirs in the centre, now called Phul-bari.

He also built palaces at Kamar as well as at Sahar, which are now in ruin, and dedicated a temple at [[Brindaban]], known by the poetic name of Dhir Samir.

Badan Singh lived to a ripe old age, which he spent in happy retirement at Sahar, leaving the management of his State to his most capable son [[Suraj Mal]]. He died on 21 May 1755 with the usual suspicion of him being poisoned, though there were no imaginable grounds for this.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
[[File:Deeg_palace_1.jpg|thumb|Gopal Bhawan palace, Deeg fort built by Raja Badan Singh]]
[[File:Deeg_Palace_-_Gopal_Bhawan.jpg|thumb|Inside view of Deeg fort]]
[[File:Drone_shot_of_deeg_palace.jpg|thumb|Deeg fort]]

==Raja Muhkam Singh's downfall==
After the death of Rao Churaman Singh, his successor Raja Muhkam Singh became unpopular among the Sinsinwar clan. In 1722, he was challenged by Badan Singh(cousin), the chief of Deeg. A joint military campaign led by Jai Singh II of Jaipur and Badan Singh forced Muhkam Singh to abandon the fort of Thun in November 1722. Muhkam fled to Jodhpur, where he secured the protection of the Maharaja of Jodhpur by paying for his defense. Although the Mughals sent a force to capture him, the Maharaja of Jodhpur intervened and safeguarded Muhkam. Following this, Jai Singh II formally recognized Badan Singh as the 'Thakur of Bharatpur'.

— Jadunath Sarkar and Raghubir Sinh, A History of Jaipur: c. 1503–1938, Orient Longman, 1984, pp. 170–171.

==Military career==
Battle of Mandu (1729)

Raja Badan Singh was an ally of Jai Singh II of Jaipur. Jai Singh was given the Subedari of Malwa in October 1729, then he attacked Marathas at Mandu. Jai Singh asked for Raja Badan Singh's help and the Jat army proceeded towards Mandu town under the leadership of prince Sujan Singh (later known as Maharaja Surajmal) and helped the Jaipur forces to capture Mandu.<ref>{{cite web | title=Maharaja Surajmal Jaat | date=1986 | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.443996 }}</ref>

Battle of Bhopal (1737)

Jai Singh II sent his army against Peshwa Bajirao and Raja Badan Singh also sent an army for Jai Singh's help under his son and the Raja of [[Wair, Bharatpur district|Weir]]- Pratap Singh.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=upendar Nath |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.443996 |title=Maharaja Surajmal Jaat |date=1986}}</ref> In an engagement Jat army of Raja Pratap Singh defeated [[Bajirao I|Bajirao]], mentioned by contemporary poet Sudan<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=upendar Nath |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.443996 |title=Maharaja Surajmal Jaat |date=1986}}</ref>

Battle of Gangwana (1741)

Jat forces under the leadership of Raja Badan Singh defeated Rajputs under Bakht Singh Rathore of Jodhpur with Jai Singh II.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sahai |first=Jwala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H19OAQAAMAAJ&q=gangwana+surajmal |title=History of Bhurtpore |date=1898 |publisher=Patrika Press |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Badan}}
[[Category:Rulers of Bharatpur State]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:1755 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian monarchs]]

Vijay Crishna

2026-03-14T05:39:14Z

Felorox: New New Details

{{Short description|Indian actor (1944–2026)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}'''Vijay Mohan Crishna''' (c. 1944 – 3 March 2026) was an Indian actor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-04 |title=Veteran actor Vijay Crishna, who played Shah Rukh Khan's father in Devdas, dies at 81 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/veteran-actor-vijay-crishna-who-played-shah-rukh-khans-father-in-devdas-dies-at-81-101772621121114.html |access-date=2026-03-05 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Crishna was from Shimla. He was married to Smita Crishna-Godrej, and together they had two daughters, Nyrika Holkar and Freyan Crishna Bieri.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-03-04 |title=Vijay Crishna cause of death: Shah Rukh Khan's co-actor dies. All you need to know about his wife Smita Crishna Godrej and family |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/vijay-crishna-cause-of-death-shah-rukh-khans-co-actor-dies-all-you-need-to-know-about-his-wife-smita-crishna-godrej-and-family/articleshow/129013202.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-03-05 |work=The Economic Times}}</ref> Trekking was his hobby and he climbed 20,000 feet peak in Ladakh and went on trekking trips to Antarctica and South America. He served Godrej Enterprise Group for 45 years till 2021.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2026-03-04 |title=Vijay Crishna, theatre & film stalwart, passes away at 80 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/129042440.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst |access-date=2026-03-05 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Career ==
Crishna started his acting career on a Delhi stage in sixties. By 1971, he moved to Mumbai theatre scene. One of his first plays was Pearl Padamsee's play ''Orphans'' and then he starred in Alyque Padamsee's tantric-inflected ''Macbeth'' in the titular role, and directed Shaw's ''Saint Joan''. However, it was Dattani's ''Dance Like a Man'', where in the role of a Bharatanatyam dancer, Jairaj, he performed the play for 25 years on stage.<ref name=":0" /> Then his cinema life began with Richard Attenborough's Gandhi in 1982. He is remembered most for his role in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's ''Devdas'', where he played the role of Shah Rukh Khan's father. He also starred in the 2004 film ''[[Dance Like a Man]]'', a theatre adaptation.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-04 |title=Vijay Crishna, SRK's Devdas co-actor, dies at 81; Anupam Kher pays tribute |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/vijay-crishna-srks-devdas-co-actor-dies-at-81-anupam-kher-pays-tribute-2877340-2026-03-04 |access-date=2026-03-05 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Death ==
Crishna died on 3 March 2026, at the age of 81.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2026 |title=Vijay Crishna, Who Played Shah Rukh Khan's Father In Devdas, Dies At 81 |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/vijay-crishna-who-played-shah-rukh-khans-father-in-devdas-dies-at-81-11167783 |access-date=5 March 2026 |website=NDTV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-04 |title=Vijay Crishna, who played Shah Rukh Khan’s father in Devdas, dies at 81; Lillete Dubey pays tribute |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/vijay-crishna-who-played-shah-rukh-khans-father-in-devdas-dies-at-81-lillete-dubey-pays-tribute-10564524/ |access-date=2026-03-05 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Films ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Film
!Role
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''
|chauffeur
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Devdas (2002 Hindi film)|Devdas]]''
|Mr. Narayan Mukherjee
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Dance Like a Man]]''
|Jairaj Parekh
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Chain Kulii Ki Main Kulii]]''
|Indian cricket team coach
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Guzaarish (film)|Guzaarish]]''
|Rajhansmoni
|-
| 2014 || ''[[PK (film)|PK]]''
|entrepreneur
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|0187960}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Crishna, Vijay}}
[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:2026 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian actors]]
[[Category:People from Shimla]]

Judgementall Hai Kya

2026-03-13T03:41:31Z

Felorox: refine references further and updated info

{{short description|2019 Indian Hindi-language black comedy film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Judgementall Hai Kya
| image = Judgementall Hai Kya poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Prakash Kovelamudi]]
| producer = [[Ekta Kapoor]] [[Shobha Kapoor]] [[Shailesh R Singh]]
| screenplay = [[Kanika Dhillon]]
| starring = [[Kangana Ranaut]] [[Rajkummar Rao]]
| music = '''Songs:''' [[Arjuna Harjai]] [[Rachita Arora]] [[Tanishk Bagchi]] Daniel B. George '''Score:''' Daniel B. George
| cinematography = [[Pankaj Kumar (cinematographer)|Pankaj Kumar]]
| editing = Shweta Venkat Matthew Sheeba Sehgal Prashanth Ramachandran
| studio = [[Balaji Motion Pictures]] Karma Media and Entertainment ALT Entertainment
| distributor = [[Pen India Limited|Pen Marudhar Cine Entertainment]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://boxofficeindia.co.in/pen-marudhar-entertainment-acquires-india-distribution-rights-these-balaji-films|title=Pen Marudhar Entertainment acquires the India Distribution rights of these Balaji films|date=17 June 2019|work=Box office India|access-date=17 June 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617143119/https://boxofficeindia.co.in/pen-marudhar-entertainment-acquires-india-distribution-rights-these-balaji-films|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|2019|07|26|df=y|ref1=<ref name=":9" />}}
| runtime = 116 minutes<ref name=BBFC>{{cite web | url=https://bbfc.co.uk/releases/judgementall-hai-kya-2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723050818/https://bbfc.co.uk/releases/judgementall-hai-kya-2019 | url-status=dead | archive-date=23 July 2019 | title=Judgementall Hai Kya | website=[[British Board of Film Classification]] | access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}29–50 crore <ref>{{cite news |title=Judgementall Hai Kya box office collection Day 1: New film struggles to fight The Lion King |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/judgementall-hai-kya-box-office-collection-day-1-new-film-struggles-to-fight-the-lion-king-1574113-2019-07-27 |access-date=27 July 2019 |work=India Today |date=27 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Judgementall Hai Kya box office collection Day 7: Kangana Ranaut, Rajkummar Rao's film slows down, earns Rs 31 crore |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/box-office/story/judgementall-hai-kya-box-office-collection-day-7-kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-rao-film-tumbles-earns-rs-30-crore-220635-2019-08-02 |access-date=29 July 2023 |work=Business Today |date=2 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="budget">{{cite news |title=Box Office Report: 'Arjun Patiala' struggles for Rs 5 crore, 'Judgementall Hai Kya' fails to mint Rs 20 crore on weekend|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/photo-gallery-box-office-report-arjun-patiala-struggles-for-rs-5-crore-judgementall-hai-kya-fails-to-mint-rs-20-crore-on-weekend-2777053|access-date=29 July 2019 |work=DNA |date=29 July 2019}}</ref>
| gross = {{estimation}} {{INR}}44.92 crore<ref name="boxoff">{{cite news |title=Judgementall Hai Kya Box Office Collection |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/judgementall-hai-kya/box-office/ |access-date=29 July 2023 |work=Bollywood Hungama |date=26 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="topg"/>
}}
'''''Judgementall Hai Kya''''' ({{translation|Are you judgmental?}}) is a 2019 Indian Hindi-language [[black comedy]]<ref>See:
*{{cite news |title=Judgementall Hai Kya box office collection Day 7: Kangana Ranaut, Rajkummar Rao's film slows down, earns Rs 31 crore |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/box-office/story/judgementall-hai-kya-box-office-collection-day-7-kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-rao-film-tumbles-earns-rs-30-crore-220635-2019-08-02 |access-date=29 July 2023 |work=Business Today |date=2 August 2019}}
* {{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/judgementall-hai-kya-box-office-collection-day-7-new-film-crosses-rs-30-crore-mark-1576303-2019-08-02|title=Judgementall Hai Kya box office collection Day 7: New film crosses Rs 30-crore mark|date=2 August 2019|newspaper=India Today |access-date=14 February 2020}}
* {{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/judgementall-hai-kya-box-office-collection-kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-raos-film-earns-rs-31-cr-7099651.html|title=Judgementall Hai Kya box office collection: Kangana Ranaut, Rajkummar Rao's film earns Rs 31 cr in opening week|date=2 August 2019|website=Firstpost}}</ref> film directed by [[Prakash Kovelamudi]], with screenplay by [[Kanika Dhillon]] starring [[Kangana Ranaut]] and [[Rajkummar Rao]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/kangana-ranaut-kanika-dhillon-mental-kya-hai-writer-5360921/|title=People warned me not to work with Kangana Ranaut: Kanika Dhillon|date=18 September 2018|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2 December 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/mental-hai-kya-rajkummar-rao-kangana-ranaut-shooting-photos-5180284/|title=Mental Hai Kya: Rajkummar Rao, Kangana Ranaut start shooting|date=17 May 2018|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2 December 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> produced by [[Ekta Kapoor]], the film was theatrically released in India on 26 July 2019.<ref name=":9">{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/kangana-ranaut-to-clash-with-hrithik-roshan-at-box-office-as-mental-hai-kya-release-gets-shifted-2131137.html|title=It's Kangana Ranaut Versus Hrithik Roshan on July 26|date=7 May 2019|work=News18|access-date=7 May 2019|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/mental-hai-kya-new-motion-posters-suggest-no-change-in-title-of-kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-rao-s-film-see-pics/story-whpbeyqAdBR7s0CeOWnxPI.html|title=Mental Hai Kya: New motion posters suggest no change in title of Kangana Ranaut-Rajkummar Rao's film |date=23 June 2019|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=23 June 2019|language=en-US}}</ref> The movie received positive reviews for the performances (especially Ranaut's and Rao's), story, direction, dialogues, production values, and cinematography.

==Plot==

Bobby is a strange wealthy young woman living alone in [[Mumbai]] and working as a dubbing artist. In childhood, she had interfered in a fight between her parents, causing them to fall off the terrace to their deaths. When a producer touches her at work, she reacts by slicing his nose with a knife. She is then sent to an [[Lunatic asylum|asylum]]. Her uncle manages her property and offers her house as a rental to a young married couple. Keshav is the husband to Reema. Bobby is obsessed with the couple and spies and stalks them constantly. Reema dies in a fire in the kitchen when a bottle of pesticide explodes. Bobby suspects Keshav and tries to get the police to investigate him but they find no evidence. She [[hallucinates]] Keshav threatening her and hits him with a chair in front of the police. She is put back in the asylum. It is revealed that she is imagining things; during electric shock treatment, she remembers that she threw the pesticide on the wife because she hallucinated a cockroach on her.

Two years later, Bobby is taking her meds but not leaving her house. Her cousin in [[London]] arranges for Bobby to be an understudy in a re-imagining of the [[Ramayana]] that she is helping design. When Bobby meets her cousin's new husband, it turns out to be Keshav. Keshav warns his wife that Bobby is not stable but his wife does not believe him. Bobby starts to lose herself in the character of [[Sita]] that she is understudying. She believes Keshav is [[Ravana|Raavan]] and it is up to her to defeat him. Keshav panics and reaches out to her old boyfriend, Varun, who confirms that she obsesses over things and had imagined him to be a criminal. He breaks into her house and finds boxes of photos with Bobby photoshopped in instead of Keshav's wife. A photo of Keshav's wedding to her cousin proves that Bobby knew beforehand that they were married.

Keshav confronts Bobby. The next morning, he tells his wife that Bobby tried to kiss him, and she in turn tells his wife that he tried to rape her. When she later sees Keshav backstage, she grabs an axe and chases him, cutting a rope that sends a light falling. Afraid she has hurt someone, she goes on the run and gains three hallucinatory friends. They take her to a library, where she researches Keshav and thinks she has found evidence that he is a serial killer who takes on new identities and kills his wives. She returns to the house to confront him, dressed as Sita, ties up her pregnant cousin and when Keshav arrives, threatens him. Keshav tries to reason with her before revealing that he is indeed a serial killer. He even killed his first wife, throwing the match on her after Bobby covered her in pesticide. Bobby fights him and she and her cousin are both saved when Keshav is burnt alive in the same manner in which his victims burned to death. At the end, she strides down the street in London surrounded by her hallucinations proudly declaring that she is what she is and will not change.

==Cast==
*[[Rajkummar Rao]] as Keshav Kumar
*[[Kangana Ranaut]] as Bobby Batliwala Garewal
*[[Jimmy Shergill]] as Shridhar Awasthi<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/jimmy-shergill-joins-kangana-ranauts-mental-hai-kya/articleshow/64753487.cms|title=Jimmy Shergill joins Kangana Ranaut's Mental Hai Kya|work=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=2 December 2018}}</ref>
* [[Amyra Dastur]] as Reema Kumar (née Agnihotri)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/amyra-dastur-joins-rajkummar-rao-kangana-ranaut-in-mental-hai-kya/story-wTgJscKrXiNCfpGzpN0BzI.html|title=Amyra Dastur joins Rajkummar Rao, Kangana Ranaut in Mental Hai Kya|date=23 May 2018|website=hindustan times|access-date=2 December 2018|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Amrita Puri]] as Megha Kumar
*[[Kanika Dhillon]] as Sita
* [[Brijendra Kala]] as Officer Ram Pandey
* [[Satish Kaushik]] as Officer Durjan Deshmukh<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/satish-kaushik-joins-kangana-ranaut-and-rajkummar-rao-in-mental-hai-kya/articleshow/64392199.cms|title=Satish Kaushik joins Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao in Mental Hai Kya|work=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=2 December 2018}}</ref>
*[[Lalit Behl]] as Uncle
*[[Hussain Dalal]] as Varun Bahl


== Production ==

=== Filming ===
Principal photography of the film began on 16 May 2018, in Mumbai.<ref name=":0"/> After completing the shooting in Mumbai, the production team went to London for next schedule. The film [[Wrap (filmmaking)|wrapped]] on 9 July 2018 in London.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-rao-mental-hai-kya-5252220/|title=Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao wrap up Mental Hai Kya|date=9 July 2018|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2 December 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Judgementall Hai Kya
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Arjuna Harjai]], [[Rachita Arora]], [[Tanishk Bagchi]] and Daniel B. George
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 20 July 2019 <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/judgementall-hai-kya/Y0P1rL-PNck|title= Judgementall Hai Kya - Original Motion Picture Soundtrack |date= 20 July 2019 |publisher=Jio Saavn}}</ref>
| recorded = 2018–2019
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 14:44
| language = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| label = [[Zee Music Company]]
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{External media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|8mxdk-cloz4|Official Audio Jukebox}}
}}
}}

The music of the film is composed by [[Arjuna Harjai]], [[Rachita Arora]], [[Tanishk Bagchi]] and Daniel B. George while lyrics are written by Prakhar Varunendra, [[Kumaar]], Tanishk Bagchi, Raja Kumari and Prakahar Vihaan. Background music scored by Daniel B George.

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 14:44
| title1 = The Wakhra Swag
| extra1 = [[Navv Inder]], [[Lisa Mishra]] '''Rap:''' [[Raja Kumari]]
| music1 = [[Tanishk Bagchi]]
| lyrics1 = Tanishk Bagchi, Raja Kumari
| length1 = 3:16
| title2 = Para Para
| extra2 = Arun Dev Yadav
| music2 = [[Rachita Arora]]
| lyrics2 = Prakhar Varunendra
| length2 = 3:51
| title3 = Judgementall Hai Kya
| extra3 = Jaspreet Jasz, Rachita Arora, Nivedita Padmanabhan
| music3 = Rachita Arora
| lyrics3 = Prakhar Varunendra
| length3 = 2:46
| title4 = Kis Raste Hai Jana
| extra4 = Surabhi Dashputra, [[Arjuna Harjai]]
| music4 = Arjuna Harjai
| lyrics4 = [[Kumaar]]
| length4 = 3:31
| title5 = Kar Samna
| extra5 = Amir Khan, [[Brijesh Shandilya]], Protijyoti Ghosh, Daniel B. George
| music5 = Daniel B. George
| lyrics5 = Prakhar Vihaan
| length5 = 1:20
}}

==Marketing and release==

On 4 March 2018, producer Ekta Kapoor revealed the first two posters of the film on Twitter, each depicting the two leads - a cross-eyed Ranaut and Rao holding up his middle fingers to his eyes; Kapoor hinted at the theme of mental instability by captioning, "It's time to bring out the crazy in you... Because Sanity is overrated!"<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/mental-hai-kya-ekta-kapoor-unveils-first-look-of-upcoming-film-starring-kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-rao-4376863.html|title=Mental Hai Kya: Ekta Kapoor unveils first-look of upcoming film starring Kangana Ranaut, Rajkummar Rao|work=Firstpost|access-date=2 December 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> In an interview, writer Kanika Dhillon called the film a "quirky thriller" <ref>{{cite web | title = Judgemental Hai Kya is quirky! - Kanika Dhillon |publisher=Kovid Gupta Films| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ryCuVv99C8&t=1s|date=2019| access-date = 25 June 2019 }}</ref>

On 5 March, Balaji Motion Pictures released two more first look posters, depicting both lead characters at crime scenes. The following day, 6 March, another two posters for the film were released, with leads Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao posing in "quirky" and dangerous positions- a knife-wielding Ranaut in a water-filled bathtub surrounded by electronic gadgets at its edge, and Rao holding a butcher knife and cutting an apple, with blood seeping from his hand.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/mental-hai-kya-rajkummar-rao-kangana-ranaut-first-look-5086654/|title=Mental Hai Kya third look: Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao are killing it|date=7 March 2018|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2 December 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

On 11 October 2018, the producers released a new poster, a composite of the original two posters of a cross-eyed Ranaut and Rao holding up his middle fingers, to reveal the film's release date.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/mental-hai-kya-release-date-kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-rao-5398015/|title=Mental Hai Kya: Kangana Ranaut, Rajkummar Rao starrer to release on March 29, 2019|date=11 October 2018|work=The Indian Express|access-date=12 October 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> Release date of the film is changed to 21 June 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-rao-starrer-mental-hai-kya-release-june-21-2019/|title=Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao starrer Mental Hai Kya to release on June 21, 2019|date=17 April 2019|website=Bollywood Hungama|language=en|access-date=17 April 2019}}</ref> Rao announced the new date on his Twitter account along with new poster of the film.<ref name=":2"/> The release date was further extended to 26 July 2019 on 7 May 2019 by [[Balaji Motion Pictures]].<ref name=":9"/>

The film promotions were also wrapped in controversy as the lead actress, Kangana Ranaut, apparently questioned a journalist<ref>{{cite news |title=Kangana Ranaut gets into an ugly fight with a journalist during 'Judgementall Hai Kya' song launch |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/kangana-ranaut-gets-into-an-ugly-fight-with-a-journalist-during-judgementall-hai-kya-song-launch/articleshow/70122135.cms |access-date=29 July 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=8 July 2019}}</ref> for his personal remarks about her and also Rani of Jhansi. The incident took an uglier turn as the Entertainment Journalists' Guild of India decided to boycott<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/entertainment-journalists-to-boycott-kangana-ranaut-after-spat-with-reporter-at-judgemental-hai-kya-event-1565647-2019-07-10|title=Entertainment journalists to boycott Kangana Ranaut after spat with reporter at Judgemental Hai Kya event|agency=Press Trust of India |date=10 July 2019 |magazine=India Today|language=en|access-date=27 July 2019}}</ref> Kangana Ranaut until she issued an unconditional apology. The producer of the film Ekta Kapoor issued an unconditional apology on behalf of her.

In June 2019, the film's title was changed to ''Judgementall Hai Kya'' due to objections from [[Indian Psychiatric Society]] (IPS) which filed a complaint to the [[Central Board of Film Certification]] (CBFC) claiming that the original title, ''Mental Hai Kya'', trivialises mental health issues.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao's 'Mental Hai Kya' is now 'Judgemental Hai Kya' {{!}} Hindi Movie News - Bollywood - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/hindi/kangana-ranaut-and-rajkummar-raos-mental-hai-kya-is-now-judgemental-hai-kya/videoshow/70000891.cms |access-date=29 June 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Panchal |first1=Komal RJ |title=Kangana-Rajkummar starrer Mental Hai Kya is now Judgementall Hai Kya |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/kangana-ranaut-starrer-now-titled-judgemental-hai-kya-mental-hai-kya-5806140/ |access-date=29 June 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=29 June 2019 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Judgementall Hai Kya: Kangana Ranaut's film gets new title after criticism from mental health experts |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/judgemental-hai-kya-kangana-ranauts-film-gets-new-title-after-criticism-from-mental-health-experts-6901931.html |access-date=29 June 2019 |work=[[Firstpost]] |date=29 June 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

The film has been certified with a runtime of 116 minutes by [[British Board of Film Classification]] and was released on 26 July 2019.<ref name=BBFC />

== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
Upon release, ''Judgementall Hai Kya'' received highly positive reviews from film critics, who praised the performances of Ranaut and Rao.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sarkar|first=Suparno|date=25 July 2019|title=Judgemental Hai Kya movie review: Critics' verdict on Kangana Ranaut-Rajkummar Rao's film out|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/judgemental-hai-kya-movie-review-rating-critics-verdict-kangana-ranaut-rajkummar-raos-film-out-802331|access-date=16 September 2021|website=www.ibtimes.co.in|language=en}}</ref> On the Indian film review aggregator website The Review Monk, the film received an average score of 6.5/10 based on 28 reviews and 86% critics being in the favour.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://thereviewmonk.com/movie/judgementall-hai-kya/ | title=Judgementall Hai Kya: Reviews}}</ref> On [[review aggregator]] website [[Rotten Tomatoes]], the film holds a rating of {{RT data|score}} based on {{RT data|count}} reviews, with an average rating of {{RT data|average}}.<ref name=":cr1">{{cite web|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/judgementall_hai_kya|title=Judgemental Hai Kya|website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|publisher=[[Fandango Media|Fandango]]|access-date={{RT data|access date}}}}</ref>

[[File:Kangana Ranaut (2016).jpg|thumb|Kangana Ranaut's performance was widely acclaimed by the critics.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 July 2019|title=Judgementall Hai Kya movie review: Kangana Ranaut shines on like a crazy diamond in this sharp satire|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-kangana-ranaut-dazzles-in-a-film-about-mind-games/story-yFXyYBru3CmqFlELhKznkL.html|access-date=17 September 2021|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>]]

Stutee Ghosh of ''[[The Quint]]'' gave 4/5 stars states "The movie is a deliciously addictive ride, showing the world through the eyes of someone who feels like a misfit", praising lead performances by saying “Kangana and Rajkummar Rao are right up there giving us a rare understanding of their characters emotional and physical state. They ensure you don’t take your eyes off the screen for even a moment “.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Stutee|date=2019-07-26|title=Review: Kangana, Rao Make 'Judgementall Hai Kya' an Addictive Film|url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review|access-date=2021-09-16|website=TheQuint|language=en}}</ref> Raja Sen of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' gave 4/5 stars and felt that the slick, snappy looking comedy has more to offer, as a 'smart, significant satire'. Praising the performances he said, "This is a finely acted film, with superb performances from Amrita Puri, Satish Kaushik and Jimmy Sheirgill, not to mention Rao, but it rests entirely on Ranaut’s shoulders and she delivers both vitality and credibility." Concluding he recommended to watch the film as 'carrying homilies on placards' and opined, "It is a film about malicious misdirection, and the validity of our narratives — especially those labelled incorrect. It’s okay to jump at a cockroach even if you’re the only one who sees it. A bug can be a feature."<ref>{{cite news|first=Raja|last=Sen|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-kangana-ranaut-dazzles-in-a-film-about-mind-games/story-yFXyYBru3CmqFlELhKznkL_amp.html|title=Judgementall Hai Kya movie review: Kangana Ranaut dazzles in a film about mind games|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=26 July 2019 |access-date=26 July 2019}}</ref> Vickey Lalwani of ''[[SpotboyE]]'' gave the film 4/5 stars stating "How can two actors complement each other so well! They almost take alternate turns to look crazy, vulnerable, innocent and menacing in their respective scenes, which in turns keeps you at the edge of your seat", lauding kangana's performance by saying "This is clearly Kangana Ranaut's best performance till date. Her body language is insanely amazing- the way she walks in several scenes constantly looking behind her shoulder. Her dialogue delivery is flawless- she out-pours just what her character requires. You can make out there's so much of improvisation which she has done beyond what the director demanded".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Judgementall Hai Kya, Movie Review: Judgement On This Kangana Film? Just What The Doctor Ordered For A Thrilling Evening!|url=https://www.spotboye.com/bollywood/reviews/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-judgement-on-this-kangana-film-just-what-the-doctor-ordered-for-a-thrilling-evening/5d38b028aa64ef2a1959408e|access-date=16 September 2021|website=www.spotboye.com|language=en}}</ref>

Sreeparna Sengupta of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film 3.5/5 stars, found Kovelamudi's narrative style as 'quirky and edgy'. Praising performance of Ranaut, she termed it as "brilliant", as for Rao she felt that he fitted into 'his slightly macho, edgy persona like a glove'. Concluding she opines, "''Judgementall Hai Kya'' keeps the element of suspense alive all the way till the end, as it pushes the envelope as a dark, psychological whodunit, with a social message weaved in that can’t be ignored."<ref>{{cite news|last=Sengupta|first=Sreeparna|date=25 July 2019|title=Judgementall Hai Kya|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-details/mental-hai-kya/movieshow/63166514.cms|access-date=25 July 2019}}</ref> Charu Thakur of ''[[India Today]]'' gave 3.5/5 stars, praises director kovelamudi by stating "Prakash Kovelamudi deserves applause for pushing the envelope with a quirky thriller that goes beyond the basic realms of a whodunnit, and makes people think and absorb. It treads into a zone Bollywood rarely ventures into", praising the lead actors saying "Kangana is a firecracker in Judgementall Hai Kya. She plays the character to perfection, getting the nuances and quirks right. She brings in a certain childlike vulnerability to Bobby and that's what makes her stand out. Rajkummar holds his ground as an edgy and macho Keshav, and delivers one of his best performances".<ref>{{Cite magazine|author=Charu Thakur |date=28 July 2019 |title=Judgementall Hai Kya Movie Review: Kangana Ranaut steals the show in trippy black comedy|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-kangana-ranaut-steals-the-show-in-trippy-black-comedy-1573697-2019-07-26|access-date=16 September 2021|magazine=India Today|language=en}}</ref> ''Koimoi'' gave 3.5/5 stars stated "All said and done, this isn’t a normal movie. From its treatment to the narrative, everything screams madness. On a brighter side, the story is strong enough to back the wacky side of it. Kangana Ranaut is definitely the queen, but this deck of cards have multiple aces to offer".

Gaurang Chauhan of ''[[Times Now]]'' rating the film with 3/5 stars terms it as 'one of its kind film', praising the performances of lead actors Ranaut and Rao and the supporting cast he wrote, "This movie belongs to Ranaut and she simply nails it." In conclusion, he opines, "Do give this one a try for its uniqueness, eccentricity, jaw-dropping moments, technical brilliance and Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao's phenomenal performances. Watch it."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/reviews/movies/article/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-kangana-ranaut-and-rajkummar-rao-starrer-is-one-of-its-kind-bizarre-fun/458999|title=Judgementall Hai Kya Movie Review: Kangana Ranaut and Rajkummar Rao starrer is one of its kind, bizarre fun|website=Times Now News|date=26 July 2019|access-date=26 July 2019}}</ref> Shubhra Gupta of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave 3/5 stars and stated "This is the kind of movie which will sharply divide audiences. And that’s as it should be. Once I began seeing it as the murmurings of a different mind, I bought it as a caper, as burlesque, where nothing is as it is. I had problems with some of it, but I really liked the rest of it", praising lead performances saying "Rao plays his part with brio, and Ranaut hits all the notes perfectly".<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 July 2019|title=Judgementall Hai Kya movie review: Kangana hits all the notes perfectly|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-rating-kangana-rajkummar-5853085/|access-date=16 September 2021|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> [[Saibal Chatterjee]] of ''[[NDTV]]'' gave 3/5 stars stated “Kangana is a livewire. There are moments in the film where she appears to be striving too hard to make an impression. But when she is more reined-in, she is in total control. Rajkummar Rao is the exact opposite: baring himself little by little with exceptional control. He is the ideal foil for the out-on-a-limb Kangana. Together, they command total absorption. And that helps the film tide over its less convincing bits and add up in the end to a strong, meaningful statement on the mental distress engendered by abusive relationships”.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Judgementall Hai Kya Movie Review: Rajkummar Rao Is Ideal Foil To Livewire Kangana Ranaut In Zany Psychological Drama|url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-rajkummar-rao-is-ideal-foil-to-livewire-kangana-ranaut-in-zany-psy-2075749|access-date=16 September 2021|website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

[[Rajeev Masand]] of ''[[CNN-IBN]]'' stated, "While you admire the attempt at originality, you can’t help feeling frustrated at just how it all comes apart in the end." He praised the performances, and termed Ranaut as solid. But, he felt that the film fell short of greatness because of a muddled script and gave 2.5/5 stars.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajeev Masand's Review of Judgementall Hai Kya|url=https://in.bookmyshow.com/buzz/blog/Movies/rajeev-masands-review-of-judgementall-hai-kya|access-date=16 September 2021|website=BookMyShow|language=en}}</ref>[[Anna M. M. Vetticad]] of ''[[Firstpost]]'' gave the film 2.5/5 stars, found the plot to be confusing and stated that the makers have done very poor research on mental health. The movie, at certain points, makes fun of issues that require serious attention. Psychological disorders are a concern and such toxic take can only push people back. The performances are great, especially that of Rajkumar Rao, who unfortunately is caught in between a poor script. Kangana's performance is also decent but she could have done better.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 July 2019|title=Judgementall Hai Kya movie review: Kangana, Rajkummar's unfettered performances suffer a confusing plot and poor research on mental health|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/judgementall-hai-kya-movie-review-kangana-rajkummars-unfettered-performances-suffer-a-confusing-plot-and-poor-research-on-mental-health-7059841.html|access-date=27 July 2019|website=Firstpost|language=en}}</ref>

Publications like [[The Indian Express]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2019|title=Best Bollywood Actresses of 2019: Vidya, Kangana and Priyanka find a place in the list|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/best-bollywood-actresses-2019-priyanka-chopra-vidya-balan-alia-bhatt-6163330/|access-date=15 September 2021|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> [[The Times of India]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 December 2019|title=From Alia Bhatt's Safeena to Kangana Ranaut's eccentric Bobby Grewal - here's looking at the best female performances of 2019|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/from-alia-bhatts-safeena-to-kangana-ranauts-eccentric-bobby-grewal-heres-looking-at-the-best-female-performances-of-2019/photostory/72980576.cms|access-date=15 September 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> named kangana ranaut's performance in judgementall hai kya as one of the best performances by female actresses in 2019. Rahul Desai of [[Film Companion]] named kangana's performance as one of his favourite Hindi film performances of 2019 <ref>{{Cite web|last=Desai|first=Rahul|date=15 December 2019|title=The 10 Best Hindi Film Performances of 2019|url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/features/bollywood-features/the-10-best-hindi-film-performances-of-2019/|access-date=15 September 2021|website=Film Companion|language=en-US}}</ref>

===Box office===
According to the ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' opening day collection of the film is {{INR}}4.20 crore and the second day collection is {{INR}}7 crore, whereas third day collection is {{INR}}7.70 crore. The opening weekend gross is {{INR}}26.97 crore worldwide.<ref name="boxoff"/>

{{As of|2019|08|16}}, with a gross of {{INR}}39.42 crore in India and {{INR}}5.50 crore overseas, the film has a worldwide gross collection of {{INR}}44.92 crore.<ref name="topg">{{Cite web |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/box-office-collections/worldwide/2019/ |title=Bollywood Top Grossers Worldwide |website=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref>

== Awards and nominations ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Award
!scope="col"| Category
!scope="col"| Nominee(s)
!scope="col"| Result
!scope="col"| Ref
|-
! rowspan="6" | [[65th Filmfare Awards|2020]]
| rowspan="6" | [[Filmfare Awards]]
| [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor|Best Actor (Critics)]]
| [[Rajkummar Rao]]
| rowspan="6"{{nom}}
| rowspan="6" | <ref>{{Cite news|date= 26 January 2020|title=NOMINATIONS FOR FILMFARE AWARDS 2020 |url=https://www.filmfare.com/awards/filmfare-awards-2020/nominations|website=[[Filmfare]]}}</ref>
|-
| [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Best Actress (Critics)]]
| [[Kangana Ranaut]]
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Art Direction|Best Production Design]]
| Ravi Shrivastav
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]
| [[Pankaj Kumar (cinematographer)|Pankaj Kumar]]
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Background Score|Best Background Score]]
| Daniel B George
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]
| [[Sheetal Sharma]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt8108196}}
* [https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/judgementall-hai-kya/ Judgementall Hai Kya] on [[Bollywood Hungama]]
* {{Rotten Tomatoes|judgementall_hai_kya}}

{{Balaji Telefilms}}

[[Category:2019 films]]
[[Category:Balaji Motion Pictures films]]
[[Category:2019 masala films]]
[[Category:Indian black comedy films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Tanishk Bagchi]]
[[Category:Films scored by Arjuna Harjai]]
[[Category:Films scored by Daniel B. George]]
[[Category:2019 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2019 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Rachita Arora]]
[[Category:Films about psychiatry]]
[[Category:Films directed by Prakash Kovelamudi]]
[[Category:Films about mental disorders]]
[[Category:Films about mental health]]
[[Category:Films about schizophrenia]]
[[Category:Medical-themed films]]
[[Category:Obscenity controversies in film]]
[[Category:2019 controversies]]
[[Category:Films shot in London]]
[[Category:Films set in London]]
[[Category:British Indian films]]
[[Category:Films based on the Ramayana]]
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]

Sowmya Narayana Perumal temple

2026-03-06T13:18:45Z

Felorox: New Location

{{Short description|Perumal temple in Sivaganga district, Tamil Nadu, India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Sowmyanarayana Perumal Temple
| image = Sowmyanarayana Perumal (7).jpg
| alt =
| caption = Image of the temple gopuram
| map_type = India Tamil Nadu
| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu
| coordinates = {{coord|10|03|39|N|78|33|36|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Sivaganga district]]
| location = [[Thirukoshtiyur]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = {{Plainlist|
* Sowmyanarayana Perumal ([[Vishnu]])
* Thirumaamagal Thayar ([[Lakshmi]])
}}
| facade_direction =
| temple_tank =
| tower = Ashtanga Vimanam
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Dravidian architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator =
| website =
}}
'''Sowmyanarayana Perumal Temple''' is an ancient temple located in [[Thirukoshtiyur]], a village in the South Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]], dedicated to the [[Hindu god]] [[Vishnu]]. Constructed in the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style of architecture]], the temple is glorified in the ''[[Divya Prabandha|Nalayira Divya Prabandham]]'', the early medieval [[Tamil literature|Tamil]] canon of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 ''[[Divyadesam|Divya Desams]]'' dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Sowmyanarayana Perumal and his consort [[Lakshmi]] as Thirumamagal.<ref>{{cite book|title=108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams: Divya desams in Pandya Nadu|last= M. S. |first=Ramesh|publisher= Tirumalai-Tirupati Devasthanam|year=1993}}</ref> The temple is known as the place where [[Ramanuja]], the expounder of Vishishtadvaita philosophy preached the holy ashtakshara "[[Om Namo Narayanaya]]" to all people, irrespective of their varna.

A granite wall surrounds the temple, enclosing all its shrines. The temple features a five-tiered raja[[gopuram|gopuram or]], the gateway tower and an impressive Ashtanga Vimana, which is even taller than the gopuram itself.The temple tank is located opposite to the temple, outside the main entrance.

Sowmyanarayana Perumal is believed to have appeared as [[Narasimha]] avatar to the [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]], the celestial deities. The temple follows [[Thenkalai|Tenkalai]] tradition of worship. Six daily rituals and many yearly festivals are held at the temple, of which the float festival during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil]] month of ''Masi'' (February–March), [[Navrathri]] during September–October and [[Vaikunta Ekadasi]] during ''Margali'' (December–January) being the most prominent. The temple is maintained and administered by Sivaganga Devasthanam.

==Legend==
[[File:Sowmyanarayana Perumal (3).jpg|thumb|left|Shrines in the temple]]
[[Hiranyakshipu]], the [[asura]] king, got arrogant after he got boons from [[Brahma]], which nearly made him invincible. He troubled the [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] (celestial deities) and they prayed to Vishnu for rescue. Vishnu was ready to take the [[Narasimha]] avatar to slay the asura king. The devas pleaded with Vishnu to assume the form before he could take it. Vishnu showed them the avatar, but not satisfied merely one vision, the devas and sages pleaded with him to show it again. Vishnu appeared in three forms of himself standing, sitting, and resting posture at Thirukoshtiur. Since, Vishnu showed his form after hardship (called ''Thirukkai'' in Tamil) of Devas, the place came to be known as Thirukoshtiur.<ref name="dinamalar"/>

==Architecture==
[[File:Thirukkottiyoor.jpg|left|thumb|[[Pushkarni|Temple tank]] outside the temple]]
Sowmyanarayana Perumal temple covers an area of about {{convert|2|acre|hectare|abbr=on}} and has a five-tiered ''[[gopuram]]'' (gateway tower). The temple in enclosed in a rectangular enclosure with huge granite walls. The central shrine houses the image of the presiding deity, Uragamellayan Perumal in reclining posture on a snake bed similar to that of [[Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple]]. The images of Sridevi and [[Bhudevi]] are also housed in the sanctum. There two life size images of [[Narasimha]], the avatar of Vishnu. One of them is shown holding the asura Hiranyakshipu and other slaying him. Though it is a Vishnu temple, the temple has image of [[Shiva]] in the form of [[Lingam]], [[Vinayaka]] and [[Murugan|Subramanya]].<ref name=Rao>{{cite book|title=Temples of Tamil Nadu|last=Rao|first=A.V.Shankaranarayana|publisher=Vasan Publications|isbn=978-81-8468-112-3|year=2012|page=229–31|ref=Rao}}</ref> The festival deity is named Sowmya Narayana Perumal made of [[panchaloha]].

The [[vimana (tower)|vimana]], the shrine over the sanctum is Ashtanga in architecture, which has eight parts, namely, ''Adhistana'' (base), three ''Pada''s (struct), Prashthana (limb), Griva (leading struct), [[Shikhara|Shikara]] (cylindrical holder) and Stupi (top portion). The outer parts of the vimana has various stucco images of Narasimha, sages, [[Dasavatara]] and other mythical stories. The Ashtanga Vimana is found in only three places, namely, the [[Uthiramerur]], [[Koodal Azhagar Temple|Koodal alagar Temple]] and [[Cheranmadevi]] temples.<ref name=M>{{cite book|title=15 Vaishnava Temples of Tamil Nadu|last=M.|first=Rajagopalan|pages=119–128|publisher=Govindaswamy Printers|location=Chennai, India|year=1993}}</ref> The ashtanga vimana raising to a height of {{convert|25|m|ft|abbr=on}}, is taller than the gopuram of the temple, which is not a common feature in Dravidian temples.<ref name="dinamalar"/>

The shrine of the consort of Sowmyanarayana Perumal, Thirumamagal, is located to the south of the main shrine. There are smaller shrines of Lakshmi Narasimha, [[Rama]], Lakshmi Narayana and [[Krishna]] located close to the sanctum. The shrines of [[Andal]], Narasimha and [[Manavala Mamunigal]] are found in separate shrines around the first precinct. The shrines of [[Garuda]], [[Anjaneya]], [[Ramanuja]], [[Vedanta Desika]] and [[Azhwars|Alvars]] are found in the second precinct.<ref name="dinamalar"/> According to historian K.V. Soundararajan, the Rangantha temples in South India built during the 9th and 10th centuries have a systematic arrangement of subsidiary deities as seen in this temple along with the [[Appakkudathaan Perumal Temple]] at Koviladi, [[Veeraraghava Swami Temple (Thiruevvul)|Veeraraghava Perumal temple]] at [[Thiruvallur]], [[Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi|Rajagopalaswamy temple]] at [[Mannargudi]] and [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangapatna|Rangantha temple]] at [[Srirangapatna]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Typology of the Anantaśayī Icon|page=80|jstor=3250291|last=K. V. |first=Soundara Rajan|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=29|issue=1|year=1967|doi=10.2307/3250291}}</ref>

==Religious significance==
Sowmyanarayana Perumal temple is revered in ''[[Nalayira Divya Prabhandam|Naalayira Divya Prabhandam]]'', the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by [[Periazhwar|Perialvar]], [[Thirumalisai Alvar]], [[Bhoothathazhwar|Bhoothathalvar]], and [[Peyazhwar|Peyalvar]]. The temple is classified as a ''[[Divyadesam|Divya Desam]]'', one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in the book. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the temple finds mention in several works like ''108 Tirupathi Anthathi'' by Divya Kavi Pillai Perumal Aiyangar.<ref name=M/>

The temple is known as the place where [[Ramanuja]], the expounder of Vaishnavadatta philosophy preached the holy ashtakshara "Om Namo Narayana" to all people. The place was the birthplace of Thirukoshtiyur Nambigal, the teacher of Ramanuja and who taught him the gospel and instructed him not to reveal it to anyone.<ref name=Meena>{{cite book|title=Temples in South India|last=V.|first=Meena|publisher=Harikumar Arts|location=Kanniyakumari|page=18}}</ref> Taking the risk of his life, Ramanuja climbed up the temple and revealed the verse to the whole world. Nambigal was pleased by the spirit of Ramanuja and named him Emperumanar (meaning my superior). Following the event, a life-size image of Ramanuja was housed in the Ashtanga Mandapam of the temple.<ref name=Rao/>

==Religious practices and festival==
The temple follows the traditions of the [[Thenkalai|Tenkalai]] sect of Vaishnavite tradition and follows ''Vaikanasa aagama''. In modern times, the temple priests perform the ''[[puja (Hinduism)|pooja]]'' (rituals) during festivals and on a daily basis. As at other Vishnu temples of Tamil Nadu, the priests belong to the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavaite]] community, of the Brahmin varna. Six daily rituals are held at various times of the day and many yearly festivals are held at the temple, of which the float festival during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil]] month of ''Masi'' (February–March), [[Navrathri|Navaratri]] during September–October and [[Vaikunta Ekadasi|Vaikuntha Ekadashi]] during ''Margali'' (December–January) being the most prominent. There are weekly, monthly and fortnightly rituals performed in the temple.<ref name="dinamalar">{{cite web|title=Sowmyanarayana Perumal temple|url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=421|publisher=Dinamalar|access-date=31 May 2014|year=2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}{{Famous Vishnu temples}}
{{commons|Category:Sowmya Narayana Perumal Temple}}
[[Category:Divya Desams| ]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Sivaganga district]]

St. Mary's Higher Secondary School, Dindigul

2026-03-04T20:07:14Z

Felorox: new redirect

#REDIRECT [[List of Jesuit educational institutions#Tamil Nadu 2]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

Pallotty 90's Kids

2026-03-03T09:47:30Z

Felorox: Starting new post

{{Short description|Indian film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Pallotty 90's Kids
| image = File:Pallotty_90's_Kids.jpeg
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = [[Jithin Raj (film director)|Jithin Raj]]
| writer = Deepak Vasan
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = [[Sajid Yahiya]]
| starring = [[Davinchi Santhosh]] Neeraj Krishna [[Balu Varghese]] [[Arjun Ashokan]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = Sharon Sreenivas
| editing = Rohit V.S. Variyath
| music = Manikandan Ayyappa
| studio = CP Film Productions
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2024|10|25|df=yes}}<ref>
{{cite news
|title = Pallotty 90's Kids: Kerala State Film Award winner film to have a theatrical release on this date
|url = https://www.ottplay.com/news/pallotty-90s-kids-release-date-kerala-state-film-award-winner-arjun-ashokan-balu-varghese/9ea5e2915a412
|publisher =ottplay
|date =5 October 2024
|accessdate = 5 October 2024
|language = English
}}
</ref>
| runtime = 126 minutes
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Pallotty 90's Kids''''' is a 2024 Indian Malayalam [[children's film]], which marks the directorial debut of [[Jithin Raj (film director)|Jithin Raj]]. The film is presented by [[Lijo Jose Pellissery]] and is produced by [[Sajid Yahiya]]. [[Davinchi Santhosh]] and Neeraj Krishna play the lead roles in the film which also features actors [[Arjun Ashokan]], [[Balu Varghese]], [[Saiju Kurup]], [[Niranjana Anoop]] and [[Dinesh Prabhakar]].
Pallotty won the [[53rd Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala State Film awards]] for 2023 under Best Children's Film, Best Child Artist and Best Singer.<ref>
{{cite news
|title = പല്ലൊട്ടി' കുട്ടികളുടെ മാത്രം സിനിമയല്ല: സംവിധായകൻ പറയുന്നു...

|url = https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/2023/07/21/pallotty-90s-kids-movie-director-jithin-raj-response.html

|publisher = manoramaonline
|date = 21 July 2023
|accessdate = 1 September 2024
|language = Malayalam
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite news
|title = Lijo Jose Pellissery presents 'Pallotty 90's Kids', a nostalgic drama
|url = https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2023/01/26/lijo-jose-pellissery-pallotty-90s-kids-movie-release.amp.html
|publisher = onmanorama
|date = 26 January 2023
|accessdate = 1 September 2024
|language = Malayalam
}}
</ref>
<ref>
{{cite news
|title =Kerala State Award Triumph for 'Pallotty 90's Kids'
|url = https://cinemapranthan.com/cpnews-cinemapranthan-kerala-state-award-triumph-for-pallotty-90s-kids
|publisher = cinemapranthan
|date =21 July 2023
|accessdate = 1 September 2024
|language = English
}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Unveiling the best of Malayalam cinema: Jury report of Kerala State Film Awards out |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2023/07/23/jury-report-kerala-state-film-awards-malayalam-cinema.html |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Onmanorama}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Unni is shown buying a brand-new [[Harley-Davidson|Harley Davison]] bike and riding it to his hometown. From there, the movie switches to the flashback mode to Unni and his Friend Kannan’s childhood.

Unni and Kannan are neighbours, Kannan slightly elder to Unni. Both are close friends and are always together in their adventures. Kannan’s father committed suicide sometime back and his mother runs the household with great difficulty. The movie goes through the different anecdotes in their school life like Unni’s first love, Science festival at school, annual sports day and the time when Unni accidentally swallowed a bubble gum amongst the others. Kannan cuts open his new rubber slippers to make Unni a new toy for his birthday which greatly moves him emotionally. On a parallel track is Manjulan an NRI and his friend Biju, who are friends with the 2 kids. Biju marries the school’s new teacher while Manjulan has trouble re-connecting to his mother, since she hides about his father’s death from him, when he initially goes abroad on borrowed money due to their hardships. Manjulan finally realizes his mistake and makes up with his mother.

Back in the present towards the climax, a grown up Unni comes back to his village and gifts the new bike to his childhood friend Kannan, who lives a humble life in the village running a repair shop.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|*[[Balu Varghese]] as Kannan
**[[Davinchi Santhosh]] as young Kannan
*[[Arjun Ashokan]] as Unni
**Neeraj Krishna as young Unni
* Nirupama Rajeev as Rema
* Anulekshmi as Paathu
*[[Saiju Kurup]] as Manjulan
*[[Niranjana Anoop]] as Unnis Friend
*[[Dinesh Prabhakar]] as Dasan
*[[Sudhi Koppa]] as Biju
* Vineeth Thattil as Suresh
*[[Adish Praveen]] as Bubblegum Subhish
* Mariya Prince as Devi Teacher
* Ajeesha as Mother of Kannan
* Anuprabha as Mother of Unni
* Thanka Subramanian as Naaniyamma
* Uma as Manjulan's mother
* Abu valayamkulam as Unnis's father
* Faisal Ali as Johnson Mash
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title| tt22017632}}

[[Category:2024 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian children's films]]
[[Category:2024 films]]

{{2020s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

1952 Delhi Legislative Assembly election

2026-02-27T22:29:20Z

Felorox: content update

{{Short description|1952 state assembly election in Delhi}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1952 Delhi Legislative Assembly election
| country = India
| type = parliamentary
| ongoing = no
| previous_election =
| previous_year =
| election_date = 27 March 1952
| next_election = 1993 Delhi Legislative Assembly election
| next_year = 1993
| seats_for_election = All 48 seats to the [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
| majority_seats = 25
| opinion_polls =
| turnout = 58.52%
| image1 = File:Chaudhary Brahm Parkash.jpg
| leader1 = '''[[Brahm Prakash (politician)|Brahm Prakash]]'''
| party1 = Indian National Congress
| leader_since1 =
| leaders_seat1 = [[Nangloi Jat (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Nangloi Jat]]
| last_election1 =
| seats_before1 = N/A
| seats1 = '''39'''
| seat_change1 = N/A
| popular_vote1 = '''2,71,812'''
| percentage1 = '''52.09%'''
| swing1 = 
| image2 = Oil lamp.svg
| leader2 =
| party2 = Bharatiya Jana Sangh
| leader_since2 =
| leaders_seat2 = -
| last_election2 =
| seats_before2 = N/A
| seats2 = 5
| seat_change2 = N/A
| popular_vote2 = 1,14,207
| percentage2 = 21.89%
| swing2 = 
| title = Chief Minister
| posttitle = [[Chief Minister of Delhi|Chief Minister]]
| before_election =
| before_party =
| after_election = [[Brahm Prakash (politician)|Brahm Prakash]]
| after_party = Indian National Congress
}}

[[File:India Administrative Divisions 1951.svg|thumb|Indian administrative divisions, as of 1951]]

The first '''Delhi Legislative Assembly election''' to the [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]] was held on 27 March 1952.<ref name="DelhiECI1951"/><ref name="a1">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XzZAIcOc52gC&pg=PA65 | title=Modern Governments and Political Systems. Vol. 3 | publisher=Mittal Publications |author1=Kaushik, S. L. |author2=Rama Patnayak | year=1995 | location=New Delhi | pages=65}}</ref> Forty-eight seats were up for election.<ref name="a1"/> Six of the constituencies elected two assembly members, the remaining 36 constituencies elected a single member.<ref name="DelhiECI1951"/>

==Results==
Congress emerged as the single largest party in the first legislative elections held in Delhi.<ref name= DelhiECI1951/> [[Chaudhary Brahm Prakash]] of [[Indian National Congress]] was elected [[Chief Minister of Delhi|Chief Minister]].
<section begin=Results />{{election table|title=Summary of results of the 1952 Delhi Legislative Assembly election<ref name="DelhiECI1951">{{cite web |url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_DELHI.pdf |title= Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Delhi |format= PDF |publisher= Election Commission of India |access-date= 2014-03-11}}</ref> |sortable=yes}}
!colspan=10|[[File:India Delhi Legislative Assembly 1952.svg]]
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2|Party !! Seats Contested !! Won !! % of Seats !! Votes !! Vote %
|- style="background: #90EE90;"
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Indian National Congress]]
| 47 || 39 || 81.25 || 271,812 || 52.09
|-
| {{party color cell|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]]
| 31 || 5 || 10.42 || 114,207 || 21.89
|-
| {{party color cell|Scheduled Castes Federation}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Scheduled Castes Federation]]
| 5 || 0 || 0 || 15,592 || 2.99
|-
| {{party color cell|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party]]
| 7 || 0 || 0 || 13,646 || 2.62
|-
| {{party color cell|Socialist Party (India, 1948)}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Socialist Party (India, 1948)|Socialist Party]]
| 6 || 2 || 4.17 || 12,396 || 2.38
|-
| {{party color cell|Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha]]
| 5 || 1 || 2.08 || 6,891 || 1.32
|-
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Communist Party of India]]
| 1 || 0 || 0 || 2,591 || 0.50
|-
| {{party color cell|Akhil Bharatiya Ram Rajya Parishad}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Akhil Bharatiya Ram Rajya Parishad]]
| 4 || 0 || 0 || 849 || 0.16
|-
| {{party color cell|All India Forward Bloc}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[All India Forward Bloc|Forward Bloc (Marxist Group)]]
| 1 || 0 || 0 || 503 || 0.10
|-
| {{party color cell|Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Revolutionary Socialist Party (India)|Revolutionary Socialist Party]]
| 1 || 0 || 0 || 307 || 0.06
|-
| {{Party name with colour|Independent politician}}
| 78 || 1 || 2.08 || 82,972 || 15.90
|- class="unsortable" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"
! colspan = 2| Total Seats
! 48 !! style="text-align:center;" |Voters !! 744,668 !! style="text-align:center;" |Turnout !! 521,766 (58.52%)
|}<section end=Results />

==Elected members==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!S.No.
!Constituency
!Member
!colspan=2|Party
|-
||1|| Kotla Feroze Shah || Shanta Vasisht || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||2|| Parliament Street || Kaushaleshwar Prasad Shankara || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||3|| Safdar Jang || Daljit Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||4|| Lodhi Road || Shiva Nandan Rishi || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||5|| Puran Qilla Viney Nagar || Pushpa Devi || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||6|| [[Delhi Cantt Assembly constituency|Delhi Cantt]] || Raghvendra Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||7||rowspan="2" | Reading Road || Amin Chand || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
||8|| Prafulla Ranjan Chakravarty || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||9|| Chittar Gupta || Kartar Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||10|| Mantola || Mushtaq Rai || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||11|| Ram Nagar || Shankar Lal || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||12|| Jhanday Walan || Ghardhari Lal Salwan || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
||13|| Kashmere Gate || Bhagwan Dass || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||14|| [[Chandni Chowk Assembly constituency|Chandni Chowk]] || Yudhvir Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||15|| Phatak Habash Khan || Harkishan Lal || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||16|| Maliwara || Anand Raj || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||17|| [[Ballimaran Assembly constituency|Ballimaran]] || Sultan Yar Khan || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||18|| Chawri Bazar || Nuruddin Ahmad || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||19|| Ajmeri Gate || Shafiq Ur Rehman Kidwai || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||20||rowspan="2" | Sita Ram Bazar Turkman Gate || Shiv Charan Dass || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||21|| Sudershan Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||22|| Kucha Chelan || Mushtaq Ahmad || {{Full party name with color|Socialist Party}}
|-
||23|| Darya Ganj || [[Gurmukh Nihal Singh]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||24|| Chandrawal || Hukam Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||25|| Roshanara || Jagan Nath || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||26|| Arya Pura || Mangal Dass || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||27|| Tokriwalan || Gopinath || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||28|| Deputy Ganj || Sham Charan || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
||29||rowspan="2" | Pahari Dhiraj Basti Jullahan || Hem Chand Jain || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||30|| Dhanpat Rai || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||31|| Manak Pura || B.D. Joshi || {{Full party name with color|Socialist Party}}
|-
||32|| Tibbia College || Ram Singh || {{Full party name with color|Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha}}
|-
||33|| Naiwala || Dilawar Singh || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
||34||rowspan="2" | Rehgar Pura Dev Nagar || Daya Ram || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||35|| [[Sushila Nayar]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||36|| Kishan Ganj Anad Parbat || Jag Pravesh Chandra || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||37|| Civil Lines || Krishna || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||38|| Kingsway Camp || Jang bahadur Singh || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
||39|| Wazirabad || Fateh Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||40|| [[Shahdara Assembly constituency|Shahdara]] || Chinta Mani || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||41||rowspan="2" | [[Nerela Assembly constituency|Narela]] || Mange Ram || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||42|| Prabhu Dayal || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||43|| [[Nangloi Jat Assembly constituency|Nangloi]] || [[Brahm Prakash (politician)|Chaudhary Brahm Prakash]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||44|| Khanjhawla || Bhup Singh || {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
||45|| Isa Pur || Subedat Hati Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||46|| [[Najafgarh Assembly constituency|Najaf Garh]] || Ajit Singh || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||47||rowspan="2" | [[Mehrauli Assembly constituency|Mehrauli]] || Mitter Sen || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
||48|| Sukh Dev || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|}

==State Reorganization==
On 1 November 1956, under [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]], Delhi was made a [[Union Territory]] under the direct administration of the President of India and the [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]] was abolished simultaneously.<ref name="1955ReorgStates">{{cite web | url=http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1955_7/42/reorganisation_of_statesthe_approach_and_arrangements.pdf | title=Reorganisation of States, 1955 | publisher=The Economic Weekly | date=15 October 1955 | accessdate=25 July 2015}}</ref> Next legislative assembly elections in Delhi were held in [[1993 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|1993]], when Union Territory of Delhi was formally declared as [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]] by the Sixty-ninth Amendment to the [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]].<ref name=" Sixty-ninth amendment ">{{cite news|title=Sixty-ninth amendment|publisher=[[Delhi Assembly]] official website|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend69.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821020032/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend69.htm#|archive-date=21 August 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[1951–52 elections in India]]
* [[1993 Delhi Legislative Assembly election]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Delhi elections}}
{{Indian elections}}

[[Category:State Assembly elections in Delhi|1952]]
[[Category:1952 State Assembly elections in India|Delhi]]
[[Category:1950s in Delhi]]
[[Category:March 1952 in Asia]]

Battle of Kaliabor

2026-02-27T08:48:21Z

Felorox: Done

{{Short description|Mughal-Ahom battle in 1662}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Kaliabor
| place = [[Kaliabor]], [[Assam]]
| partof = [[Mir Jumla's invasion of Assam]]
| image = India Assam location map.svg
| caption = Assam and the river flowing through it
| date = 3rd March 1662
| coordinates = {{Coor|26.32|92.53|display=inline,title}}
| result = Mughal victory
| combatant1 = [[File:Ahom insignia plain.svg|25px]] [[Ahom kingdom]]
| combatant2 = [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Mughal Empire]]
| commander1 = [[File:Ahom insignia plain.svg|25px]] [[Borgohain]]{{POW}}
| commander2 = [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Mir Jumla II]]
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
}}

The '''Battle of Kaliabor''', also known as '''Battle of Kaliabar''', was a riverine naval battle fought between the [[Mughal Empire]], under the command of its general [[Mir Jumla II]], and the Ahom Kingdom, under the command of [[Borgohain|Bargohain]]. The battle was fought on March 3, 1662 near [[Kaliabor]], on the [[Brahmaputra River]] situated in modern-day [[Assam]] state.

== Background==
{{See also|Mughal war of succession (1658–1659)|Ahom–Mughal wars}}

Many wars raged between the Ahom Kingdom and During the [[Mughal war of succession (1658–1659)|Mughal war of succession]], the Ahoms seized the opportunity of the civil war to seize [[Kamarupa|Kamrup]]. After the new Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] ascended to the Mughal throne, he appointed Mir Jumla II, one of the Mughal generals from the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] who had supported him in the civil war as the [[Bengal Subah|Governor of Bengal]].{{sfn|Sarkar|1951|p=208}}
[[File:Koch Bihar Sketch Map.jpg|thumb|The Map connecting Koch Bihar, Bengal and the Assam]]By November 1661, Mir Jumla was ready to begin the campaign, described as "a holy war with the infidels of Assam," as reported by his official news correspondent.{{Sfn|Richards|1993|p=167}}

== Preparations and initial conflicts ==
=== The Ahom forces ===
The exact number of war-boats carried by the Ahoms is uncertain as is information on the exact construction of many of them as well as their and manning.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}
===The Mughal forces ===

The Mughal governor Mir Jumla gathered a force consisting of 12,000 cavalry, 30,000 foot soldiers, and a flotilla comprising hundreds of vessels. Among these vessels were ten ghurabs, or floating batteries, each carrying fourteen guns and towed by four rowing boats.{{Sfn|Richards|1993|p=167}}

=== Capturing Ahom forts ===
The Mughals invasion force upriver slowly investing strategic forts such as at [[Jogighopa|Jogigopa]]. These were subdued before they proceeded on.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}

== The Battle ==
The [[Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal army]] reached [[Kaliabor|Kaliabar]] in the Nowgong district,. Due to the presence of hills along the Brahmaputra River from this point onward, the Mughal army had to move away from the riverbank, and they became disconnected from the fleet. This temporary separation of the invading army from the navy gave the Ahoms with the opportunity they desired to launch an attack. The isolation of the Mughal fleet, along with the unexpected absence of its admiral Ibn Husain (along with some ships) from the main fleet, created favourable conditions for the Ahoms to attack the Mughal fleet.{{Sfn|Sarkar|1951|pp=238-239}}

However the attack proved unsuccessful with the differing construction of Mughal warships as well as a contingent of European ships giving them an advantage.

== Aftermath==
{{Main|Mir Jumla's invasion of Assam|Treaty of Ghilajharighat}}
Many escaping Ahoms were killed by the pursuing Mughal soldiers, who were instructed not to show mercy. The 50 Ahoms who managed to escape were sentenced by their king to undergo severe punishment. Although the Ahom admiral was captured despite his disguise, he was released at the request of some of Mir Jumla's senior officers. The remaining 300 Ahom vessels anchored about a mile away from Mir Jumla's camp, where they were sunk the following day by artillery fire. The Ahom soldiers that fled to the other bank were pursued and some were captured. The effectiveness of the Assamese navy was completely annihilated as a result. This was the most decisive victory of Mir Jumla in his [[Mir Jumla's invasion of Assam|campaign against Ahoms]].{{Sfn|Sarkar|1951|p=240}}

Following the battle the Ahom's decided it was not possible to defeat the invasion and abandoned their capital at Gharaghat. Mir Jumla's army would plunder it before being subjected to harsh conditions with the coming of the monsoon season. The war would end the following year with the [[Treaty of Ghilajharighat]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Atul Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oJUBAAAAMAAJ |title=A History of Mughal Navy and Naval Warfares |date=1972 |publisher=World Press |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jagadish Narayan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4UY_AAAAMAAJ |title=The Life of Mir Jumla, the General of Aurangzab |date=1951 |publisher=Thacker, Spink |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Anjali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58orAAAAIAAJ |title=Bengal in the Reign of Aurangzib, 1658-1707 |date=1967 |publisher=Progressive Publishers |isbn=978-0-8426-1193-0 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |language=en}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Battles involving the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1662]]
[[Category:1662 in India]]
[[Category:17th century in the Ahom kingdom]]
[[Category:1660s in the Mughal Empire]]

3D printing in India

2026-02-25T17:47:59Z

Felorox: New

{{short description|none}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{essay-like|date=September 2024}}
{{refimprove|date=May 2024}}
{{Notability|date=September 2024}}
}}
The first [[3D printing]] (additive manufacturing) was used in 1983 by an American inventor, [[Chuck Hull|Charles (Chuck) W. Hull]], to make industrial components.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OpenAthens / Sign in |url=https://login.openathens.net/auth/sydney.edu.au/o/80525388?t=%2Fsaml%2F2%2Fsso%2Fsydney.edu.au%2Fo%2F80525388%2Fc%2Foafed%3FSAMLRequest%3DjZLNTsMwEIRfJfI9sZs0bWQ1lUJ7oFKBqC0cuCAn3jaWEjtkHaBvT36AwqXi4svM7ufZ3QWKqqx50tpC7%252BC1BbTOR1Vq5IMQk7bR3AhUyLWoALnN%252BT6523LfY7xujDW5KYmTIEJjldEro7GtoNlD86ZyeNxtY1JYWyOnFAuVZaYEW7hYe12x7J%252BB6eWmovsf3UM0tMf4NH3YH4iz7jxKi55w6Veak9KeqaETCtDoabC0%252Fzb1ad8Az1LD2QPZeqKlhkYs9MMgimhOjTiCJM5mHZMXkFl0DOQ8jGZyEkE4m0kJ03x%252BjNgkkizrbIgtbDRaoW1MfOaHLpu6LDiwgIdTzubPxEm%252FZnGjtFT6dH1w2WhCfns4pO4Y8QkaHOJ1BrJc9Dn4AG5%252BLeR6W%252FG9BbL878wv%252BoL%252BQo78mt93jM06NaXKz05SluZ91YCwEJMJocux5O%252F1LD8B%26RelayState%3Dss%253Amem%253A22220d41bc5ddf39c08b11d2b6de81ec4613ace7623d93043f16a48df55c3177&ctx=sd&redirect=true |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=login.openathens.net |language=en}}</ref> It is unknown when 3D printing technology entered [[India]], but the earliest reference to 3D printing in India is when Imaginarium company started making jewellery via 3D printing technology. 3D printing has been rapidly used in many industries in India, like the medical, automotive, jewellery, and construction areas. Industries are using this technology to save time, material, and money.

== 3D policy ==

=== Weapons ===
[[File:The Solid Concepts 3D printed 1911 pistol.jpg|thumb|3D printed gun]]
India has no rules or regulations imposed on owning or operating 3D printing technology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khanna |first=Ambika |date=December 2020 |title=Regulations for 3D Printing |url=https://www.gatewayhouse.in/regulations-3d-printing/ |website=Gateway House |language=en}}</ref> People around the world have tried to use 3D printing machines to produce dangerous weapons. The Indian government has not made laws to stop crimes that could happen using 3D printing technology.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Khan |first1=MohdZihabUllah |last2=Yoga |first2=Mule Jaykumar |title=2015 International Conference on Pervasive Computing (ICPC) |chapter=Governing policies & strategy for 3D Printing/Additive manufacturing |date=2015-04-16 |publisher=IEEE |pages=1–4 |doi=10.1109/PERVASIVE.2015.7087195 |isbn=978-1-4799-6272-3|s2cid=36476211 }}</ref>

=== Copyright ===
The [[CAD file]] is a design and blueprint of a 2D and 3D item; the 3D machine uses the CAD file to produce 3D products.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Iqbal |first=Kashif |title=Learn about CAD File Formats and APIs that can open and create CAD files |url=https://docs.fileformat.com/cad/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=docs.fileformat.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Indian Copyright Act]] of 1957 protects these CAD files as artistic work.{{Cn|date=May 2024}} However, any CAD file generated by scanning a product is not copyrighted.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barooah |first=Swaraj Paul |date=2014-01-27 |title=Guest Post: 3D Printing and Indian Copyright Law |url=https://spicyip.com/2014/01/guest-post-3d-printing-and-indian-copyright-law.html |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=Spicyip |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Industrial changes ==
The 3D printer revolutionized the [[Manufacturing in India|Indian manufacturing industry]]. Industries like construction, jewelry, medical, automobiles, and aerospace have been utilizing 3D printing to save time, money, and resources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OpenAthens / Sign in |url=https://login.openathens.net/auth/sydney.edu.au/o/80525388?t=%2Fsaml%2F2%2Fsso%2Fsydney.edu.au%2Fo%2F80525388%2Fc%2Foafed%3FSAMLRequest%3DjZJPT4NAEMW%252FCtl7WaClpZtCgu3BJlWJoAcvZoGhbAK7yCxqv738UVsvjZe9vDfz2zczG%252BR11bCw06V8hLcOUBufdSWRjYJPulYyxVEgk7wGZDpjcXh3YI5psaZVWmWqIkaICK0WSm6VxK6GNob2XWTw9HjwSal1g4xSLEWaqgp0OcPG7Ivz4RmZZqZqGv%252FqJqKiA8ah0UOcEGPXe4TkA%252BHcr1JHIU3VQC%252BUINGUoOnwberQoQGecgknE%252FLO5B1V1LNcx517Hs2o4gXkxNjvfPKaQ26tFqvcTW1vsVzzIk2XRbFy17a3zDzP7m2IHewlai61TxzLcWfWYmbNE8tlls1s94UY0fcsboTMhTxeH1w6mZDdJkk0myI%252BQ4tjvN5Ags2Qg43g9mIh19vyny2Q4L8zP%252BsbeoGc%252BA277xn7XaQqkZ2MsKrUx7YFrsEnNqHBVPL3eoIv%26RelayState%3Dss%253Amem%253Ab0056c6e4ac3a3874f596bf57021e60e793261a91cf32e06430ffbc646fc8f9e&ctx=sd&redirect=true |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=login.openathens.net |language=en}}</ref> The Indian government plans to increase 100 new startups in 3D printing by 2025.<ref name=":0" /> India aims to create 50 new technologies to advance 3D printing in the industry. India has predicted that this new technology will generate 100,000 new jobs in India. The Indian government targeted to produce 500 new products using 3D printing technology by 2025.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-02-25 |title=3D manufacturing policy: Target of 500 items by '25 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/business/commodities/3d-manufacturing-policy-target-of-500-items-by-2025-7789876/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Timelapse of 3D-printer construction of the clay house "Tecla" v1.0 (cropped).gif|thumb|3D printing of a house]]
Businesses in India are modernizing. India has transformed itself from buying foreign 3D printers to making high-technology 3D printing domestically. Now, industries in India are selling 3D printers to foreign nations and collaborating with some companies to share their technology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Camdir |first=John |date=2016-05-30 |title=3D Printing Industry in India: The Current Scenario |url=https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/3d-printing-industry-in-india-the-current-scenario-79537/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=3D Printing Industry |language=en-US}}</ref> India has over 1,000 domestic 3D printing companies valued at $100 million.{{Cn|date=May 2024}} Housing companies in India are developing technology to construct houses with 3D printers, which will help lower costs and be more sustainable.{{Cn|date=May 2024}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jbarah |first=Yara Abu |date=July 2024 |title=Advancing Sustainable Housing: The Impact of 3d Printing Technologies |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/3043236843 |access-date=3 April 2025 |website=ProQuest|id={{ProQuest|3043236843}} }}</ref> India's medical industry uses 3D printing technology to make products like organs and tissue to help doctors with studies and training. The medical industry is estimated to take up 20% of the 3D printing industry worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-22 |title=The market for 3-D printing in healthcare is growing. What is India's position? |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/healthcare/medicaldevices/the-market-for-3-d-printing-in-healthcare-is-growing-what-is-indias-position/2956535/ |access-date=2023-09-21 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:3D printing]]
[[Category:Manufacturing in India]]

Panchayat samiti

2026-02-22T19:44:13Z

Felorox: updated layout for accuracy

{{Short description|Rural local government body in India}}
{{other uses|Panchayat (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Politics of India}}
'''Panchayat samiti''' or '''block panchayat''' is a rural [[local government]] ([[Panchayati raj (India)|panchayat]]) body at the intermediate [[Community development block|block]] level or [[tehsil]] (taluka/mandal) level in [[India]]. It works for the [[village]]s of the block that together are called a development block. It has been said to be the "panchayat of panchayats".<ref>A textbook: {{cite book|author=Sudeshna Sengupta|title=History & Civics 9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XJL5Rk6aHYUC&pg=PA51|year=2008|publisher=Ratna Sagar|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-8332-364-2|page=51|quote= The Panchayat Samiti [...] is also referred to as the Community Block and is in fact the Panchayat of Panchayats.}}</ref>
{{Infobox political system
| name = Block Panchayat
| native_name = पंचायत समिति
| native_name_lang = hi
| government = [[Local self-government]],
| type = Intermediate-level administrative body
| legislature = Block-level council (elected members)
| part_of = [[Panchayati raj in India|Panchayati Raj System]] (along with Gram Panchayat and Zilla Parishad)
| background_color = LightGreen
| formation = 1959 (formal system strengthened after 73rd Amendment, 1992)
| title_leader = President ({{small|''Chairperson''}})
| cabinet_appointer = District Panchayat Officer (varies state to state)
| courts = Nyaya Panchayat (under certain states)
}}

The [[Amendment of the Constitution of India|73rd Amendment]] defines the levels of panchayati raj institution as :<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncert.nic.in/ncerts/textbook/textbook.htm?keps2=8-10|title=National Council Of Educational Research And Training :: Home}}</ref>

* District level
* Intermediate level
* Base level

The panchayat samiti is the link between the [[Gram Panchayat|gram panchayat]] (village council) and the [[District Councils of India|zila parishad]] (district council).<ref name="Sarkar">{{Cite book|last=Sarkar |first=Siuli|year=2010|chapter=7.3.3 Panchayat Samiti|title=Public Administration In India|location=New Delhi|publisher=PHI Learning Private Ltd.|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=smahlYxg-8YC|page=178}}|pages= 178–180|isbn=978-81-203-3979-8}}</ref> The name varies across states: ''mandal parishad'' in [[Andhra Pradesh]], ''taluka panchayat'' in [[Gujarat]], and ''mandal panchayat or taluk panchayat'' in [[Karnataka]], ''block panchayat'' in [[Local government in Kerala|Kerala]], ''panchayat union'' in [[Tamil Nadu|Tamilnadu]], ''janpad panchayat'' in [[Madhya Pradesh]], ''Panchayat Samiti'' in [[Rajasthan]], ''anchalik panchayat'' in [[Assam]].

In India, local self-government bodies exist at intermediary level and are known by different names in different states. For example, in Kerala, they are called "block panchayats," while in other states, they may be referred to as "panchayat samiti," "mandal parishad," "taluka panchayat," "janpad panchayat," "panchayat union", or "anchalik panchayat." These bodies are responsible for providing various services to the people in their respective areas, such as sanitation, healthcare, education, and infrastructure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Block Panchayaths {{!}} CRD |url=https://rdd.lsgkerala.gov.in/en/blocks/58 |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=rdd.lsgkerala.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Panchayat institutions in Tamilnadu |url=https://www.tnrd.tn.gov.in/pract/chapter_III.htm#15 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Panchayati Raj {{!}} Panchayat & Rural Development {{!}} Government Of Assam, India |url=https://pnrd.assam.gov.in/information-services/panchayati-raj-0 |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=pnrd.assam.gov.in |archive-date=4 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504073628/https://pnrd.assam.gov.in/information-services/panchayati-raj-0 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Panchayat Samiti in Maharashtra |url=https://rdd.maharashtra.gov.in/en/Panchayat-Samiti-And-Zilla-Parishad |access-date=4 May 2023 |archive-date=5 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705121816/https://rdd.maharashtra.gov.in/en/Panchayat-Samiti-And-Zilla-Parishad |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Composition ==
The Panchayat Samiti is divided into territorial constituencies, each represented by a directly elected member, who collectively form the Panchayat Samiti council. The samiti is elected for five years and is headed by a chairperson/president and deputy chairperson/vice president elected by the members of the panchayat samiti.<ref name="Singh-265" />

The [[Block Development Officer|Block Development Officer / Secretary]] is the executive officer of the Panchayat Samiti, appointed by the state government, and is assisted by sectoral development officers.<ref name=":0" />

It acts as a coordinating body between district panchayat and gram panchayat.

=== Elected Members ===

* Chairperson / [[Block pramukh|President of the Panchayat Samiti]] (directly or indirectly elected)
* Vice Chairperson / Vice President of the Panchayat Samiti
* Chairpersons of the various standing committee
* Elected members from constituencies

=== Ex-Officio Members ===
Typically, a block panchayat is composed of elected members of the area: the [[Community development block|block development officer]], [[MLA (India)|members of the state's legislative assembly]], members of parliament belonging to that area, otherwise unrepresented groups ([[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes]] and women), associate members (such as a farmer, a representative of the cooperative societies and one from the agricultural marketing services sector) and the elected members of that panchayat block (tehsil) on the [[District Councils of India|zila parishad]] (district board), chairpersons/presidents of gram panchayats in the block.<ref name="Singh-265">{{Cite book|last=Singh |first=Singh Vipul|year=2010|chapter=Section II Civics: Chapter 8 Rural Local Self-Government|title=Longman History & Civics ICSE 9|location=Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India|publisher=Dorling Kindersley (India) Private Ltd.|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=EXPouL4BYTMC|page=265}}|page= 265]|isbn=978-81-317-2041-7}}</ref>

One [[sarpanch]] samiti supervises the other gram panchayats.

=== Composition of mandal parishads in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana ===
A coterminous mandal parishad is constituted for each revenue mandal. A mandal parishad is composed of:

* Mandal parishad territorial constituency members
* Members of the [[state legislative assembly (India)|state legislative assembly]] having jurisdiction over the mandal
* Members of the [[House of the People (India)|House of the People]] having jurisdiction over the mandal
* Members of the [[Rajya Sabha|Council of States]] who are voters in the mandal
* One co-opted member, belonging to minorities

Mandal Parishad Territorial Constituency (MPTC) members are directly elected by the voters, whereas the mandal president is elected by the MPTC members. The members are elected for a term of five years. The election to MPTCs is done on a party basis. The elections are conducted by the state election commission.

The ''[[sarpanch]]'' are permanent invitees to the mandal parishad meetings.

== Departments ==
The most common departments found in a panchayat samiti are:<ref name="Sarkar" />
{{div col}}
* Administration
* Finance
* Public works (especially water and roads)
* Agriculture
* Health
* Education teacher list
* Social welfare
* Information technology
* Women & child development
* ''Panchayat raj'' (''mandal praja parishad'')
{{div col end}}

Each department in a panchayat samiti has its own officer. Most often these are state government employees acting as extension officers, but occasionally in more revenue-rich panchayat samiti, they may be local employees. A government-appointed [[Community development block|Block Development Officer]] (BDO) is the supervisor of the extension officers and executive officer to the panchayat samiti and becomes, in effect, its administrative chief.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Arora |first1= Ramesh Kumar |last2=Goyal |first2=Rajni |author-link2=Rajni Goyal|year=1995|chapter=Chapter 17 Panchayat Raj: Struggle For Effectiveness |title=Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues|edition=second|location=New Delhi|publisher=Wishwa Prakashan|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=nvzcy7o4sgAC|page=298}}|pages=298–300|isbn=978-81-7328-068-9}}</ref>

== Functions ==
The panchayat samiti collects all the prospective plans prepared at [[Gram Panchayat|gram panchayat]] level and processes them for funding and implementation by evaluating them from the angles of financial constraints, social welfare, and area development. It also identifies and prioritizes the issues that should be addressed at the block level.

== Sources of income ==
The income of the panchayat samiti comes from:<ref name="Singh-264">{{harvnb|Singh|2010|page={{google books |plainurl=y |id=EXPouL4BYTMC|page=264}}|p= 264}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|year=2011|chapter=Section A Civics: Chapter 7 Local Self-Government|title=History & Civics IX|edition=eighth|location=New Delhi|publisher=Rachna Sagar Private Ltd.|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=LI8TT1gK5DAC|page=67}}page=67|isbn=978-81-8137-083-9}}</ref><ref name="Madan">{{Cite book|author=Madan, G. R.|year=1990|chapter=Chapter 16 Panchayati Raj|title=India's Developing Villages|edition=second|location=New Delhi|publisher=Allied Publishers|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=FQbujJdepwkC|page=343}}|page= 343]|isbn=978-81-7023-281-0}}</ref>
* Land and water use taxes, professional taxes, liquor taxes and others
* Income-generating programmes
* Grants-in-aid and loans from the state government and the local zila parishad
* Voluntary contributions

For many panchayat samiti, the main source of income is [[State-Aid|state-aid]]. For others, the traditional taxing function provides the bulk of revenues. Tax revenues are often shared between the gram panchayats and the panchayat samiti.<ref name="Singh-264" /><ref name="Madan" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{-}}

{{Local government in India}}

[[Category:Panchayati raj (India)]]

List of dams and reservoirs in Maharashtra

2026-02-18T19:37:35Z

Felorox: updated page

{{Short description|None}}
There are around 1821 notable large [[dam]]s in state of [[Maharashtra]] in India.<ref>[http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/National%20Register%20of%20Large%20dams%202009.pdf Statewise dams in India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721165130/http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/National%20Register%20of%20Large%20Dams%202009.pdf |date=2011-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kolhapurtourism.org/our-destination/kalammawadi-dam/ |title=Kalammawadi Dam |publisher=Kolhapur Tourism |access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref>

==Dams in Maharashtra by specification==
The table below list dams of state of [[Maharashtra]] by their specifications which has gross storage capacity more than 10,000 103m3.<ref>{{cite web|title=Specifications of large dams in India |url=http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/National%20Register%20of%20Large%20Dams%202009.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721165130/http://www.cwc.nic.in/main/downloads/National%20Register%20of%20Large%20Dams%202009.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-21 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; width:100%;"
|-
!Name of dam !! Year completed !! River !! District !! Type !! Height (m) !! Length (m) !! Volume content (103m3) !! Gross storage capacity (103m3) !! Reservoir area (103m2) !! Effective storage capacity (103m3) !! Purpose !! Designed spillway capacity (m3/s)
|-
| [[Dhamapur Dam|Dhamapur]] || 1600 || Malvan || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 11 || 217 || 2687 || || || || Irrigation || 9.85 ||

|-
| [[Vihar Dam|Vihar]] || 1860 || Vihar || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 25.6 || 817 || 353 || 41459.00 || 7270 || 41410.00 || Water Supply ||

|-
| [[Ekrukh Dam|Ekrukh]] || 1871 || Adela || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.45 || 2360 || 130 || 61170.00 || || 61170.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 1239
|-
| [[Shirsufal Dam|Shirsufal]] || 1879 || local || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20.11 || 741 || || 10100.00 || 1601 || 9520.00 || Irrigation || 112
|-
| [[Tulshi Dam|Tulshi]] || 1879 || Tulshi || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 26 || 186 || || 10429.00 || 1350 || 10273.00 || Water supply || 640
|-
| [[Khadakwasla Dam|Khadakwasla]] || 1880 || [[Mutha River|Mutha]]|| || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 32.9 || 1539 || 1170 || 86000.00 || 14800 || 560000.00 || Irrigation Water supply || 2755
|-
|[[Ashti Dam, Mohol|Ashti]] || 1883 || Ashti || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.6 || 3871 || || 40000.00 || || 23000.00 || Irrigation || 1359
|-
| [[Mhaswad Dam|Mhaswad]] || 1887 || Man || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24 || 2473 || || 47880.00 || 16251 || 46210.00 || Irrigation || 4321.41
|-
| [[Tansa Dam|Tansa]] || 1892 || Tansa || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 41 || 2804 || 2670 || 208700.00 || 19.1 || 184600.00 || Water supply || 1188.6
|-
| [[Shetfal Dam|Shetfal]] || 1901 || Shetfal Nalla || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20.11 || 3211 || 173 || 17360.00 || 3498 || 1693.00 || Irrigation ||
|-
| [[Khairbandha Dam|Khairbandha]] || 1903 || Fattepur || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.16 || 2205 || 243.52 || 16798.00 || 4147 || 15953.00 || Irrigation || 363.3
|-
| [[Pathari Dam|Pathari]] || 1905 || local || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.43 || 2070 || || 11880.00 || || 11620.00 || Irrigation || 512
|-
| [[Chankapur Dam|Chankapur]] || 1911 || [[Girna River|Girna]] || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 41 || 3705 || 2123 || 79690.00 || 10320 || 76850.00 || Irrigation || 2237
|-
| [[Ramtek Dam|Ramtek]] || 1913 || Sur || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.2 || 229 || 1300 || 105130.00 || 21270 || 103000.00 || Irrigation || 515
|-
| [[Chandpur Dam|Chandpur]] || 1915 || Chandpur || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19 || 1051 || 80.36 || 29025.00 || 9072 || 28879.00 || Irrigation || 339.25
|-
| [[Walwan Dam|Walwan]] || 1916 || [[Indrayani River|Indrayani]]|| || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 26.36 || 1356 || 182 || 72500.00 || 14250 || 72122.00 || Hydroelectricity || 171
|-
| [[Darna Dam|Darna]] || 1916 || Darna || || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 28 || 1634 || 1886.1 || 226870.00 || 34750 || 209820.00 || Irrigation || 3336
|-
| [[Bodalkasa Dam|Bodalkasa]] || 1917 || Bhagdeogoti || || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.2 || 510 || 107.62 || 17392.00 || 6450 || 16454.00 || Irrigation || 206.63
|-
| [[Asolamendha Dam|Asolamendha]] || 1918 || local || Chandrapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.08 || 1376.52 || 350 || 67015.00 || 1880 || 56375.00 || Irrigation || 758
|-
| [[Shirvata Dam|Shirvata]] || 1920 || Indrayani || Pune || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 38.71 || 2212 || 460 || 185980.00 || 13.08 || 185110.00 || Hydroelectricity || 593
|-
| [[Thokarwadi Dam|Thokarwadi]] || 1922 || Indrayani || Pune || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 59.44 || 741 || 212 || 363700.00 || 24.3 || 321200.00 || Hydroelectricity || 546
|-
| [[Chorkhamara Dam|Chorkhamara]] || 1923 || Sasanda || Gadchiroli || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.05 || 1178 || 300 || 21051.00 || 5235 || 20800.00 || Irrigation || 264.94
|-
| [[Ghorazari Dam|Ghorazari]] || 1923 || Gorazari || Chandrapur|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.55 || 731.7 || 90 || 45080.00 || 976 || 38000.00 || Irrigation || 320
|-
| [[Bhandardara Dam|Bhandardara]] || 1926 || Paravara || Ahmednagar || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 82.35 || 2717 || 335 || 312400.00 || 743.18 || 307310.00 || Irrigation || 1503
|-
| [[Bhatghar Dam|Bhatghar]] || 1927 || Velvandi || Pune || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 57.92 || 1625 || 650 || 670650.00 || 31900 || 666000.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 1599
|-
| [[Mulshi Dam|Mulshi]] || 1927 || [[Mula River (India)|Mula]]|| Pune || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 48.8 || 1533.38 || || 52230.00 || 3802 || || Hydroelectricity || 1892
|-
| [[Mas Dam|Mas]] || 1932 || Mas || Buldhana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.71 || 663 || 399 || 17500.00 || 4810 || 15040.00 || Irrigation || 1753
|-
| [[Ghanewadi Dam|Ghanewadi]] || 1935 || Kundlika || Jalna || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15 || 836 || || 14440.00 || || || Water Supply ||
|-
| [[Visapur Dam|Visapur]] || 1936 || Hanga || Ahmednagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 26 || 2692 || 130 || 33320.00 || || 33320.00 || Irrigation || 2627
|-
| [[Radhanagari Dam|Radhanagari]] || 1954 || Bhogawati || Kolhapur || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 42.68 || 1143 || || 236810.00 || 18218 || 220000.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 1133
|-
| [[Lower Vaitarna Dam|Vaitarna (Modaksagar)]] || 1954 || Vaitarna || Mumbai || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 82 || 567.07 || 0.06 || 204980.00 || 8.39 || 174790.00 || Water supply || 5660
|-
| [[Purmepeda Dam|Purmepeda]] || 1955 || Bori || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24.7 || 1500 || 525 || 13550.00 || 303 || 12960.00 || Irrigation || 2141
|-
| [[Khasapur Dam|Khasapur]] || 1956 || local || Dharashiv || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.78 || 1882 || || 19830.00 || 430 || 15830.00 || Irrigation || 2863
|-
| [[Dheku Dam|Dheku]] || 1960 || Dheku || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20 || 2421 || 137 || 14000.00 || 447 || 12160.00 || Irrigation || 1945
|-
| [[Sindphana Dam|Sindphana]] || 1963 || Sindphana || Patoda || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.05 || 1937 || 12593 || 12600.00 || 5068 || 10810.00 || Irrigation || 1857
|-
| [[Ekburji Dam|Ekburji]] || 1964 || Chandrabhaga || Washim || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.7 || 830 || 566 || 14100.00 || 218 || 11960.00 || Irrigation || 1001
|-
| [[Khelocala Dam|Khelocala]] || 1964 || Khelocala || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21 || 759 || 588 || 13000.00 || 3678 || 11070.00 || Irrigation || 1518
|-
| [[Upper Dudhana Dam|Upper Dudhana]] || 1964 || Dudhana || Jalna || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18 || 2750 || 965 || 15000.00 || 445 || 13010.00 || Irrigation || 1912
|-
| [[Koyna Dam|Koyna]] || 1964 || Koyna || Satara || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 103 || 805 || 1555 || 2797400.00 || 11535 || 2640000.00 || Hydroelectricity || 3883
|-|-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.55 || 3059 || || 13580.00 || 317 || 11180.00 || Irrigation || 1647
|-
| [[Gangapur Dam|Gangapur]] || 1965 || [[Godavari River|Godavari]]|| Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 36.59 || 3902 || 4612 || 215880.00 || 22860 || 203880.00 || Irrigation || 2293
|-
| [[Chandani Dam|Chandani]] || 1965 || Chandani || Dharashiv || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.18 || 1920 || 289 || 20700.00 || 813 || 15220.00 || Irrigation || 3030
|-
| [[Bor Dam|Bor]] || 1965 || Bor || Bori || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 36.28 || 1158 || 2474 || 138750.00 || 13506 || 127420.00 || Irrigation || 3058
|-
| [[Ghod Dam|Ghod]] || 1965 || Ghod || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.6 || 3300 || 1020 || 216300.00 || 30992 || 154800.00 || Irrigation || 7419
|-
| [[Tisangi Dam|Tisangi]] || 1966 || local || Solapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20.82 || 2866 || || 24460.00 || || 22760.00 || Irrigation || 410
|-
| [[Wunna Dam|Wunna]] || 1966 || Wunna || Nagpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.18 || 2525 || 390 || 23560.00 || 569 || 21640.00 || Irrigation || 1326.64
|-
| [[Galhati Dam|Galhati]] || 1966 || Galhati || Jalna || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 13.1 || 2987 || || 13840.00 || || || Irrigation || 2152
|-
| [[Mangi Dam, India|Mangi]] || 1966 || Kanola || Solapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.95 || 1475 || || 32720.00 || || 32720.00 || Irrigation || 2232
|-
| [[Mehakari Dam|Mehakari]] || 1966 || Mehakari || Ashti || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 27.63 || 1308 || 163.5 || 16130.00 || 38 || 13000.00 || Irrigation || 2233
|-
| [[Wan Dam, Ambejogai|Wan]] || 1966 || Wan || Beed || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19 || 2798 || 1358 || 25180.00 || || 2190.00 || Irrigation || 2340
|-
| [[Bhudihal Dam|Bhudihal]] || 1966 || Belwan || Solapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.5 || 2975 || || 32050.00 || || 27950.00 || Irrigation || 2350
|-
| [[Nawegaonbandh Dam|Nawegaonbandh]] || 1967 || local || Gondia || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 11.58 || 625 || || 45943.00 || 10344 || 29590.00 || Irrigation || 124.2
|-
| [[Pandherbodi Dam|Pandherbodi]] || 1967 || local || Umrer || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15.24 || 1769 || 284 || 13860.00 || 425 || 13120.00 || Irrigation || 432
|-
| [[Kurje Dam|Kurje (Dhapcheri)]] || 1967 || local || Palghar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.96 || 2507.76 || 846.12 || 39050.00 || 5620 || 38085.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 598
|-
| [[Nalganga Dam|Nalganga]] || 1967 || Nalganga || Buldhana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.8 || 2516 || 1500 || 71860.00 || 10980 || 70540.00 || Irrigation || 2158
|-
| [[Sukhana Dam|Sukhana]] || 1968 || Sukhana || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.92 ||3536|| 68 || 21340.00 || 6782 || 18480.00 || Irrigation || 2101
|-
| [[Kurnur Dam|Kurnur]] || 1968 || Bori || Dharashiv || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.7 || 1206 || 45 || 35240.00 || 570 || 32670.00 || Irrigation || 2190
|-
| [[Manar Dam|Manar]] || 1968 || Manar || Nanded || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 27 || 2592 || 1557 || 139000.00 || 2559 || 128700.00 || Irrigation || 8778
|-
| [[Yeldari Dam|Yeldari]] || 1968 || Purna || Parbhani || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 51.2 || 4232 || || 934310.00 || 101540 || 809660.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 10477
|-
| [[Anjani]] || 1970 || [[Anjani]] || Jalgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15.06 || 4216 || 213 || 61170.00 || || 61170.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 888
|-
|[[Siddheshwar Dam|Siddheshwar]] || 1968 || Purna || Hingoli || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 38.26 || 6353.2 || 907.2 || 250850.00 || 40580 || 80940.00 || Irrigation || 10789
|-
| [[Kundrala Dam|Kundrala]] || 1969 || local || Nanded || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.5 || 999 || 370 || 14680.00 || 253 || 12990.00 || Irrigation || 811
|-
| [[Gharni Dam|Gharni]] || 1969 || Gharni || Sirur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15.24 || 956 || || 25080.00 || || 22460.00 || Irrigation || 1882
|-
| [[Dolwahal Dam|Dolwahal (Weir)]] || 1969 || Kundlika || Raigad || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 12.5 || 543 || 1943 || 10070.00 || 3230 || 1840.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 3030
|-
| [[Girna Dam|Girna]] || 1969 || [[Girna River|Girna]] || Nandgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 54.56 || 963.17 || 2042 || 608980.00 || 60040 || 525920.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 8433
|-
| [[Malangaon Dam|Malangaon]] || 1970 || Kan || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.78 || 1141 || 500 || 13023.00 || 248 || 11325.00 || Irrigation || 1075
|-
| [[Karwand Dam|Karwand]] || 1970 || Arunanadi || Sirpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 39.3 || 2966 || 1191 || 33840.00 || || 31500.00 || Irrigation || 2461
|-
| [[Itiadoh Dam|Itiadoh]] || 1970 || Garvi || Arjuni || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 29.85 || 505 || 911 || 288830.00 || 46910 || 225120.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 3230
|-
| [[Sirpur Dam|Sirpur]] || 1970 || Bagh || Deori || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 24.69 || 2840 || 1195 || 203840.00 || 32970 || 192520.00 || Irrigation || 3633
|-
| [[Pujaritola Dam|Pujaritola]] || 1970 || Bagh || Gondia || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 19.2 || 2661 || 664 || 65110.00 || 17650 || 48690.00 || Irrigation || 4246.88
|-
| [[Terna Dam|Terna]] || 1970 || Terna || Dharashiv || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15 || 2651 || 186 || 22910.00 || 380 || 18630.00 || Irrigation ||
|-
| [[Morna Gureghar Dam|Morna]] || 1971 || local || Parbhani || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 28.65 || 600 || 1109 || 44740.00 || 4930 || 41460.00 || Irrigation || 1631
|-
| [[Dyanganga Dam|Dyanganga]] || 1971 || Dyanganga || Buldhana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 35.73 || 639 || 1380 || 36270.00 || 4151 || 33930.00 || Irrigation || 1742
|-
| [[Upper Pus Dam|Upper Pus (Pus)]] || 1971 || Pus || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 42 || 744 || 1980 || 113920.00 || 8953 || 91260.00 || Irrigation || 4007
|-
| [[Malkhed Dam|Malkhed]] || 1972 || Kholad || Amravati || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.05 || 1422 || 481 || 10900.00 || 6717 || 8960.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 1108
|-
| [[Panshet Dam|Tanajisagar (Panshet)]] || 1972 || Ambi || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 63.56 || 1039 || 4190 || 303000.00 || 15645 || 294000.00 || Irrigation Water supply || 1162.4
|-
| [[Pawana Dam|Pawana]] || 1972 || [[Pavana River|Pawana]]|| Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 42.37 || 1329 || 1989 || 30500.00 || 2365 || 241000.00 || Hydroelectricity Water supply || 1250
|-
| [[Kalyangirija Dam|Kalyangirija]] || 1972 || Kalyangirija || Jalna || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.07 || 1183 || 520 || 10160.00 || 568 || 8469.00 || Irrigation || 1310
|-
| [[Bhojapur Dam|Bhojapur]] || 1972 || Mahalungi || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 32.41 || 733 || 449 || 13730.00 || 3352 || 10700.00 || Irrigation || 1488
|-
| [[Saikheda Dam|Saikheda]] || 1972 || Khuni || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.77 || 1740 || 909 || 38511.00 || 836 || 27184.00 || Irrigation || 2671
|-
| [[Mula Dam|Mula]] || 1972 || Mula || Ahmadnagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 48.17 || 2856 || 7594 || 736320.00 || 53600 || 608890.00 || Irrigation || 5947
|-
| [[Upper Vaitarna Dam|Upper Vaitarana]] || 1973 || Vaitarna || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 41 || 2531 || 1520 || 331630.00 || 37130 || 331000.00 || Irrigation || 1440
|-
| [[Panzara Dam|Panzara]] || 1973 || Panzara || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 33.5 || 1430 || 1597 || 43500.00 || 5590 || 35800.00 || Irrigation || 1768
|-
| [[Yeralwadi Dam|Yeralwadi]] || 1973 || Yerala || Satara || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.5 || 2115 || 663 || 33020.00 || || 18060.00 || Irrigation || 2083
|-
| [[Manyad Dam|Manyad]] || 1973 || Manyad || Jalgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 45 || 1677 || 896.5 || 53980.00 || 8710 || 40257.00 || Irrigation || 3755
|-
| [[Chulbandh Dam|Chulbandh]] || 1974 || Chulbandh || Gondia || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.08 || 465 || 130 || 21458.00 || 3750 || 16540.00 || Irrigation || 846.11
|-
| [[Dhamna Dam|Dhamna]] || 1974 || local || Jalna || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 13 || 2560 || 443 || 10730.00 || 433 || 8490.00 || Irrigation || 1414
|-
| [[Dina Dam|Dina]] || 1974 || Dina || Charmoshi || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.49 || 3137 || 957 || 61150.00 || 13765 || 55940.00 || Irrigation || 1671
|-
| [[Kanoli Dam|Kanoli]] || 1974 || Bori || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24.5 || 459 || 290 || 11900.00 || 217 || 8450.00 || Irrigation || 1840
|-
| [[Nazare Dam|Nazare]] || 1974 || Karha || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.54 || 2021 || 1010 || 22316.00 || 3890 || 16650.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 2425
|-
| [[Karanjwan Dam|Karanjwan]] || 1974 || Kadwa || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 39.31 || 2483 || 1960 || 175580.00 || 18420 || 166220.00 || Irrigation || 2724
|-
| [[Katepurna Dam|Katepurna]] || 1974 || Katepurna || Akola || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.5 || 2000 || 693 || 97670.00 || 12430 || 86350.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 2783
|-
| [[Kolkewadi Dam|Kolkewadi]] || 1975 || Local Nallah || Ratnagiri || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 64 || 497 || 576 || 36220.00 || 167 || 11220.00 || Hydroelectricity || 1081
|-
| [[Nirguna Dam|Nirguna]] || 1975 || Nirguna || Akola || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 25.7 || 1800 || 124 || 32290.00 || 4760 || 28840.00 || Irrigation || 1678
|-
| [[Karpara Dam|Karpara]] || 1975 || Karpara || Parbhani || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.66 || 1046 || 344 || 27320.00 || 778 || 24700.00 || Irrigation || 2033
|-
| [[Palkhed Dam|Palkhed]] || 1975 || Kadva || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 34.75 || 4110 || 1228 || 230100.00 || 5760 || 212400.00 || Irrigation || 4592
|-
| [[Kanholibara Dam|Kanholibara]] || 1976 || [[Krishna River|Krishna]]|| Nagpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.05 || 1365 || 115.3 || 22213.00 || 333 || 19820.00 || Irrigation || 1141
|-
| [[Vir Baji Pasalkar Dam|Vir Baji Pasalkar(Varasgaon)]] || 1976 || Mosi || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 63.4 || 785 || 10550 || 374000.00 || 24200 || 275000.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 1416
|-
| [[Alwandi Dam|Alwandi]] || 1976 || Vaitarna || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 37.8 || 2548 || 930 || 353750.00 || 37130 || 331110.00 || Irrigation || 1420
|-
| [[Adhala Dam|Adhala]] || 1976 || Adhala || Akola || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 40 || 623 || 1437 || 30000.00 || 2306 || 27600.00 || Irrigation || 1582
|-
| [[Tiru Dam|Tiru]] || 1976 || Tiru || Dharashiv || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21 || 1851 || 311 || 23320.00 || 690 || 15401.00 || Irrigation || 1985
|-
| [[Kamthikhairy Dam|Kamthikhairy (Pench)]] || 1976 || Pench || Nagpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 32 || 1876 || 4928 || 230000.00 || 23653 || 180000.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 12000
|-
| [[Jayakwadi Dam|Jayakwadi]] || 1976 || [[Godavari River|Godavari]]|| Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 41.3 || 10415 || 13410 || 2909000.00 || 39800 || 2170000.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 18153
|-
| [[Jakapur Dam|Jakapur]] || 1977 || local || Latur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 14.8 || 2257 || 322 || 10176.00 || || || Irrigation || 1305
|-
| [[Pargaon Ghatshil Dam|Pargaon Ghatshil]] || 1977 || Kinha || Pargaon Ghatshil || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.46 || 911.65 || 297 || 12450.00 || 3740 || || Irrigation || 1467
|-
| [[Dhom Dam|Dhom]] || 1977 || [[Krishna River|Krishna]]|| Satara || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 50 || 2478 || 6335 || 382270.00 || 2498 || 331100.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 1778.29
|-
| [[Suki Dam|Suki]] || 1977 || Suki || Khiroda || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 42 || 716 || 1430 || 50170.00 || 366 || 39860.00 || Irrigation || 2336
|-
| [[Hingani Dam|Hingani (Pangaon)]] || 1977 || Bhogawati || Solapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.87 || 2193 || 74 || 45510.00 || || 31970.00 || Irrigation || 2435
|-
| [[Yedgaon Dam|Yedgaon]] || 1977 || Kukadi || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 29.74 || 4511 || 1004 || 93430.00 || 1700 || 79270.00 || Irrigation || 3844
|-
| [[Bori Dam|Bori]] || 1977 || Bori || Parola || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20 || 3365 || 5534 || 40960.00 || 8460 || 25020.00 || Irrigation || 4206
|-
| [[Adan Dam|Adan]] || 1977 || Aran || Washim || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Rock-fill dam|Rockfill]] || 30.13 || 755 || 1428 || 78320.00 || 10520 || 67250.00 || Irrigation || 4623
|-
| [[Januna Dam|Januna]] || 1978 || local || Akola || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 11.95 || 390 || 150 || 11310.00 || 404 || 1180.00 || Irrigation || 260
|-
| [[Makardhokada Dam|Makardhokada]] || 1978 || Amb || Umrer || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.81 || 1645 || 652.87 || 21356.00 || 322 || 19931.00 || Irrigation || 450
|-
| [[Matoba Dam|Matoba]] || 1978 || Bhima|| Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.5 || 1662 || 45.6 || 45200.00 || 1900 || 37100.00 || Irrigation || 476
|-
| [[Tulshi Dam|Tulshi]] || 1978 || Tulshi || Kolhapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 48.68 || 1512 || 25 || 98290.00 || 533 || 89910.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 640
|-
| [[Khandeshar Dam|Khandeshar]] || 1978 || Vali || Dharashiv || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.14 || 1257 || 305 || 10840.00 || 3000 || 8820.00 || Irrigation || 800
|-
| [[Karadkhed Dam|Karadkhed]] || 1978 || local || Nanded || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19 || 1454 || 498 || 12000.00 || 289 || 10980.00 || Irrigation || 1148
|-
| [[Ambadi Dam|Ambadi]] || 1978 || Sivana || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20 || 2210 || 707 || 12000.00 || || 9420.00 || Irrigation || 1412
|-
| [[Barvi Dam|Barvi]] || 1978 || Kalyanthane || Thane || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 48.78 || 746 || || 178580.00 || 0.04 || 176940.00 || Water Supply || 1585
|-
| [[Waghadi Dam|Waghadi]] || 1978 || Waghadi || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 26 || 960 || 773 || 41110.00 || 6580 || 35360.00 || Irrigation || 1815
|-
| [[Aner Dam|Aner]] || 1978 || Aner || Shivpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 47 || 2275 || 3162 || 103270.00 || || 58914.00 || Irrigation || 4318
|-
| [[Waghad Dam|Waghad]] || 1979 || Kalwan || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 45.6 || 952 || 1783 || 76480.00 || 526 || 70000.00 || Irrigation || 1610
|-
| [[Koradi Dam|Koradi]] || 1979 || Koradi || Buldhana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.31 || 900 || 1193 || 22500.00 || 6465 || 15120.00 || Irrigation || 2446
|-
| [[Kawadas Dam|Kawadas (Pickup)]] || 1979 || local || Palghar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 28.08 || 630 || 180 || 13700.00 || 5480 || 9970.00 || Irrigation || 3700
|-
| [[Mandohol Dam|Mandohol]] || 1979 || Mandohol || Ahilya Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 27.07 || 739 || 426 || 11300.00 || 199.51 || 8780.00 || Irrigation || 11420
|-
| [[Pethwadaj Dam|Pethwadaj]] || 1980 || local || Nanded || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.5 || 1260 || 495 || 11600.00 || 2970 || 9040.00 || Irrigation || 1185
|-
| [[Haranbari Dam|Haranbari]] || 1980 || [[Mosam River|Mosam]] || Satana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 34 || 1419 || 2375 || 34780.00 || 5540 || 33020.00 || Irrigation || 1312
|-
| [[Kelzar Dam|Kelzar]] || 1981 || Aram || Satana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 32.5 || 1236 || 1622 || 17100.00 || 1660 || 16210.00 || Irrigation || 832.4
|-
| [[Uma Dam|Uma]] || 1981 || Uma || Akola || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20.42 || 2140 || 434 || 14010.00 || 2600 || 11690.00 || Irrigation || 1340
|-
| [[Sonal Dam|Sonal]] || 1981 || Aran || M Pir || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.6 || 1114 || 698 || 20270.00 || || 16920.00 || Irrigation || 1368
|-
| [[Masoli Dam|Masoli]] || 1981 || Masoli || Gangakhed || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24.84 || 1086 || 626 || 34080.00 || 6970 || 27390.00 || Irrigation || 2028
|-
| [[Goki Dam|Goki]] || 1981 || Goki || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 23.06 || 1572 || 658 || 50220.00 || 11360 || 42710.00 || Irrigation Water supply || 2066
|-
| [[Yelavi Dam|Yelavi]] || 1982 || local || Sangli || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15.25 || 764 || 111 || 22260.00 || || 2180.00 || Irrigation || 557
|-
| [[Rangawali Dam|Rangawali]] || 1982 || Rangawali || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 25.63 || 1878 || 1289 || 15020.00 || 329 || 12890.00 || Irrigation || 1168
|-
| [[Ozarkhed Dam|Ozarkhed]] || 1982 || Unanda || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 35.3 || 3266 || 2052 || 67950.00 || 6880 || 60320.00 || Irrigation || 1610
|-
| [[Tawarja Dam|Tawarja]] || 1982 || Tawarja || Latur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 14.3 || 2222 || 361 || 20520.00 || 741 || 16950.00 || Irrigation || 1903
|-
| [[Tillari Dam (disambiguation)|Tillari (Proj.)]] || 1982 || Tillari || Sindhudurg || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 73 || 943 || 9274 || 462170.00 || 16250 || 447290.00 || Irrigation Water supply || 2465
|-
| [[Manjara Dam|Manjara]] || 1982 || Manjara || Beed || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 25 || 4203 || 2213 || 250700.00 || || 173320.00 || Irrigation || 6000
|-
| [[Isapur Dam|Isapur]] || 1982 || Penganga || Nanded || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 57 || 4120.1 || 11216 || 1254000.00 || || 951000.00 || Irrigation || 10480
|-
| [[Hatnur Dam|Hatnur]] || 1982 || Tapi || Jalgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 25.5 || 2580 || 3850 || 388000.00 || 48160 || 255000.00 || Irrigation || 26415
|-
| [[Chandai Dam|Chandai]] || 1983 || Chandai Nalla || Chandrapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 11.91 || 1830 || 181 || 13200.00 || 523 || 10690.00 || Irrigation || 842.85
|-
| [[Alandi Dam|Alandi]] || 1983 || Alandi || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.3 || 1690 || 2782 || 29600.00 || 55900 || 27820.00 || Irrigation || 1002
|-
| [[Borna Dam|Borna]] || 1983 || Borna || Beed || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.3 || 866 || 460 || 10908.00 || 2191 || 9060.00 || Irrigation || 1249
|-
| [[Wadaj Dam|Wadaj]] || 1983 || Meena || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 30.7 || 1875 || 1009 || 36000.00 || 467 || 33200.00 || Irrigation || 1426
|-
| [[Chargaon Dam|Chargaon]] || 1983 || Chargaon || Varora || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 14.4 || 3065 || 428 || 21700.00 || 12921.9 || 19866.00 || Irrigation || 1450.5
|-
| [[Pothara Dam|Pothara]] || 1983 || Pothara || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 14.21 || 2220 || 318 || 38400.00 || 13900 || 34720.00 || Irrigation || 1732
|-
| [[Burai Dam|Burai]] || 1983 || Burai || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 30.6 || 1013 || 168 || 21330.00 || 31440 || 14210.00 || Irrigation || 2149
|-
| [[Erai Dam|Erai]] || 1983 || Erai || Chandrapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 30 || 1620 || 985 || 226500.00 || 58000 || 193000.00 || Water supply || 2610
|-
| [[Bhatsa Dam|Bhatsa]] || 1983 || Bhatsa || Thane || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 88.5 || 959 || 18250 || 976150.00 || 2725 || 942115.00 || Irrigation Water supply || 5342
|-
| [[Lower Pus Dam|Lower Pus]] || 1983 || Pus || Mahagaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 28 || 3346 || 6167 || 81160.00 || 15890 || 59630.00 || Irrigation || 5437
|-
| [[Natuwadi Dam|Natuwadi]] || 1984 || Tr.of Charti || Pube || [[Dam#Eaxzgfjhfghams|Earthfill]] || 45.25 || 900 || 22.3 || 28080.00 || 2000 || 27230.00 || Irrigation || 690.73
|-
| [[Manikdoh Dam|Manikdoh]] || 1984 || Kukadi || Pune || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 51.8 || 930 || 596 || 308060.00 || 18434 || 283070.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 1439
|-
| [[Kolar Dam|Kolar]] || 1984 || Kolar || Nagpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 30.11 || 2910 || 1084 || 35380.00 || 6430 || 31320.00 || Irrigation || 1598.2
|-
| [[Kordi Dam|Kordi]] || 1985 || Kordi || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 27.75 || 1952 || 923 || 11690.00 || 1677 || 10300.00 || Irrigation || 735
|-
| [[Amalocalalla Dam|Amalocalalla]] || 1985 || Amalocalalla || Chandrapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 37.75 || 1607 || 133.4 || 22700.00 || 3703 || 21200.00 || Irrigation || 1067
|-
| [[Morna Dam, Shirala|Morna (Shirala)]] || 1985 || Morna || Kolhapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 31.2 || 1115 || 793 || 21160.00 || 3203 || 15150.00 || Irrigation || 1075
|-
| [[Tillari (Main) Dam|Tillari (Main)]] || 1986 || Tillari || Kolhapur || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 38.05 || 485 || 250 || 113266.00 || 9290 || 92020.00 || Hydroelectricity || 1028
|-
| [[Kalyan Dam|Kalyan]] || 1986 || Kalyan || Jalna || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.49 || 1554 || 492 || 15360.00 || 533 || 10360.00 || Irrigation || 1315
|-
| [[Girija Dam|Girija]] || 1986 || Girija || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.1 || 3060 || 70 || 24500.00 || 775 || 21230.00 || Irrigation || 1649
|-
| [[Ujani Dam|Ujani]] || 1980 || Bhima|| Solapur|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] ||56.4 ||2534 || ||3140000.00 ||337000.00 ||1440000.00 || Irrigation || 15717
|-
| [[Kundlika Dam|Kundlika]] || 1986 || Kundlika || Beed || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 28.45 || 1403 || || 46350.00 || 6850 || || Irrigation || 2751
|-
| [[Kanher Dam|Kanher]] || 1986 || Wenna || Satara || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 50.34 || 1954 || 6308 || 286000.00 || 18.63 || 271680.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 3203
|-
| [[Sina Dam|Sina]] || 1986 || Sina || Ahmadnagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 28.5 || 1580 || 681.5 || 67950.00 || 12834 || || Irrigation || 4450
|-
| [[Dham Dam|Dham]] || 1986 || Dham || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 33.35 || 1728 || 2737 || 72460.00 || 7780 || 62510.00 || Irrigation || 5416.6
|-
| [[Wandri Dam|Wandri]] || 1987 || Wandri || Palghar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.6 || 1336 || 1206 || 36510.00 || 4438 || 34710.00 || Irrigation || 567
|-
| [[Raigavan Dam|Raigavan]] || 1987 || local || Beed || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.74 || 2090 || || 12703.00 || 4920 || 11259.00 || Irrigation || 1411
|-
| [[Dhamni Dam|Dhamni (Surya)]] || 1987 || Surya || Dhamni || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 59 || 1563 || 1270 || 285310.00 || 16130 || 273350.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 2696
|-
| [[Majalgaon Dam|Majalgaon]] || 1987 || Sindphana || Beed|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 31.19 || 6488 || 5759 || 453640.00 || 78130 || 311300.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 14500
|-
| [[Khekaranalla Dam|Khekaranalla]] || 1988 || KhekaraNalla || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24.5 || 330 || 306 || 26325.00 || 5566 || 23810.00 || Irrigation || 1343
|-
| [[Kalisarar Dam|Kalisarar]] || 1988 || Kalisarar || Salekasa || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 25.52 || 830 || 697 || 30460.00 || 6500 || 27750.00 || Irrigation || 1402
|-
| [[Khairi Dam|Khairi]] || 1989 || Kar || Ahmadnagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.91 || 1210 || 54 || 15110.00 || 492 || 13743.00 || Irrigation || 1962
|-
| [[Totladoh Dam|Totladoh]] || 1989 || Pench || Nagpur || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 74.5 || 680 || 972 || 1241109.00 || 77710 || 1091000.00 || Hydroelectricity || 12072
|-
| [[Adol Dam|Adol]] || 1990 || Adola || Borala || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.47 || 1725 || 479 || 15270.00 || 3141 || || Irrigation || 1274
|-
| [[Shahanoor Dam|Shahanoor]] || 1990 || Shahanoor || AnjangaonSurji || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 57.81 || 828 || 3446 || 47850.00 || 2970 || 46040.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 2406
|-
| [[Lower Wunna Dam|Lower Wunna (Nand)]] || 1990 || Nand || Nagpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 16.25 || 2513 || 1833 || 62182.00 || 21642 || 53182.00 || Irrigation || 5238
|-
| [[Nagyasakya Dam|Nagyasakya]] || 1992 || Panzan || Nandgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.09 || 1440 || 292 || 15620.00 || 4050 || 11240.00 || Irrigation || 51.55
|-
| [[Sakol Dam|Sakol]] || 1992 || local || Latur, Udgir || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.65 || 1425 || 371 || 12689.00 || 4256 || 10950.00 || Irrigation || 1178
|-
| [[Borgaon Dam|Borgaon]] || 1993 || local || Yavatmal || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20 || 830 || 1404 || 14040.00 || 288 || 12224.00 || Irrigation || 686
|-
| [[Pakadiguddam Dam|Pakadiguddam]] || 1993 || Deogad || Chandrapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19 || 1814 || 1067 || 13307.00 || 2579 || 11800.00 || Irrigation || 803
|-
|[[Devargan Dam|Devarjan]]|| 1993 || Devari || Latur, Udgir || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15.58 || 1715 || || 13410.00 || 4010 || 10670.00 || Irrigation || 1136
|-
| [[Upper Wardha Dam|Upper Wardha]] || 1993 || Wardha || Amrawati || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 46.2 || 5920 || 6500 || 786480.00 || 93122 || 614800.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity Water supply || 19457
|-
| [[Bokani Dam|Bokani]] || 1994 || local || Latur, Udgir || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.03 || 1440 || || 13460.00 || 3170 || 8590.00 || Irrigation || 1258.8
|-
| [[Benitura Dam|Benitura]] || 1994 || local || Latur, Omerga || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 13.48 || 1780 || || 12810.00 || || || Irrigation || 1614
|-
| [[Sakat Dam|Sakat]] || 1994 || Dudhana || Osmanabad, Paranda || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.8 || 2775 || || 14430.00 || 4340 || 13440.00 || Irrigation || 1686
|-
| [[Tembhapuri Dam|Tembhapuri]] || 1994 || Nagzari || Aurangabad || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.42 || 5300 || 809 || 21260.00 || 8495 || 19000.00 || Irrigation || 2038
|-
| [[Arunawati Dam|Arunawati]] || 1994 || Arunawati || Yavatmal, Digras || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 29.5 || 5170 || 4412 || 198395.00 || 39290 || 169675.00 || Irrigation || 8525
|-
| [[Waldevi Dam|Waldevi]] || 1995 || Waldevi || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 36.4 || 1890 || 1304 || 33720.00 || 3437 || 32050.00 || Irrigation || 809
|-
| [[Tisgaon Dam|Tisgaon]] || 1995 || Parashri || Nashik, Dindori || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24.9 || 1674 || 1080 || 15140.00 || 292 || 12440.00 || Irrigation || 1744
|-
| [[Mukane Dam|Mukane]] || 1995 || Aaundha || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 26.93 || 1530 || 2271 || 214160.00 || 3018 || 203970.00 || Irrigation || 1938
|-
| [[Masalga Dam|Masalga]] || 1996 || local || Latur, Nilanga || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 10.26 || 2023 || || 14670.00 || 3696 || || Irrigation || 996
|-
| [[Vishwamitri Dam|Vishwamitri]] || 1996 || Vishwamitri || Patur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.06 || 1275 || 565 || 10116.00 || 1766 || || Irrigation || 1332
|-
| [[Jam Dam|Jam]] || 1996 || Jam || Nagpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24 || 3460 || 107 || 28050.00 || 7565 || 23550.00 || Irrigation || 1564
|-
| [[Kadwa Dam|Kadwa]] || 1997 || Kadwa || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 31.84 || 1660 || 1245 || 59590.00 || 6705 || 52910.00 || Irrigation || 2821
|-
| [[Bahula Dam|Bahula]] || 1997 || Bahula || Bhandara || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17 || 5280 || 847 || 20030.00 || 581 || 16330.00 || Irrigation || 3802
|-
| [[Lower Wunna Dam|Lower Wunna (Wadgaon)]] || 1997 || Wadgaon || Nagpur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 23.65 || 5330 || 2998 || 152600.00 || 36138 || 136000.00 || Irrigation || 10877
|-
| [[Kashypi Dam|Kashypi]] || 1998 || Kashyapi || Rajapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 41.75 || 1291 || 2761 || 52690.00 || 2867 || 52430.00 || Irrigation || 799
|-
| [[Purnaneopur Dam|Purnaneopur]] || 1998 || Purna || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.6 || 2725 || 506 || 11380.00 || 3848 || 9340.00 || Irrigation || 1184
|-
| [[Punegaon Dam|Punegaon]] || 1998 || Unanda || Sangli, Tasgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24.14 || 1803 || 991 || 20399.00 || 3646 || 17750.00 || Irrigation || 1332
|-
| [[Sonwad Dam|Sonwad]] || 1998 || Sonwad || Sindkheda || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 18.58 || 4699 || 614 || 12690.00 || 3434 || 9530.00 || Irrigation || 1349
|-
| [[Narangi Dam|Narangi]] || 1998 || local || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.5 || || || 13290.00 || || || Irrigation || 2296
|-
| [[Bor Dahegaon Dam|Bor Dahegaon]] || 1998 || local || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.7 || || || 13400.00 || || || Irrigation || 2510
|-
| [[Mun Dam|Mun]] || 1998 || Mun || Buldhana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 30.2 || 1466 || 1362 || 42480.00 || 4527 || 36830.00 || Irrigation || 3623
|-
| [[Awashi Dam|Awashi]] || 1999 || local || Ratnagiri || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 36.51 || 350 || 894 || 11151.00 || 831 || 10440.00 || Irrigation || 221.18
|-
| [[Vadiwale Dam|Vadiwale]] || 1999 || Kundali || Pune|| [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29 || 485.64 || 8.73 || 40870.00 || 3558 || 30390.00 || Irrigation || 746.82
|-
| [[Anjanapalshi Dam|Anjanapalshi]] || 1999 || Anjana || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 19.4 || 1952 || 937 || 15550.00 || 3887 || 13740.00 || Irrigation || 1167
|-
| [[Pimpalgaon Joge Dam|Pimpalgaon Joge]] || 1999 || AR Pushpawati || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 28.6 || 1560 || 2010 || 235520.00 || 263000 || 110240.00 || Irrigation || 1943.7
|-
| [[Savatri Dam|Savatri]] || 1999 || Savatri || Ratnagiri || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 33.62 || 320 || 196 || 29450.00 || 2700 || 26360.00 || Water supply || 3919.79
|-
| [[Temghar Dam|Temghar]] || 2000 || [[Mutha River|Mutha]]|| Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 42.5 || 1075 || 1188 || 107900.00 || 55512 || 101010.00 || Irrigation || 626.5
|-
| [[Dongargaon Dam|Dongargaon]] || 2000 || local || Rajura || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23 || 572 || 285 || 14180.00 || 3757 || 12440.00 || Irrigation || 840
|-
| [[Hetwane Dam|Hetwane]] || 2000 || Bhogeshwari || Raigad || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 48.2 || 675 || 144980 || 147490.00 || 6740 || 137625.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 1084
|-
| [[Gunjwani Dam|Gunjwani]] || 2000 || Kanand || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 52.82 || 1730 || 6871 || 104690.00 || 6410 || 104480.00 || Irrigation || 1175
|-
| [[Chilewadi Dam|Chilewadi]] || 2000 || Mandvi || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 62.56 || 440 || 36.23 || 27170.00 || 67410 || 24610.00 || Irrigation || 1680
|-
| [[Niradevghar Dam|Nira Devghar]] || 2000 || Nira || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 58.53 || 2430 || 99.38 || 337390.00 || 14307 || 332130.00 || Irrigation || 1852
|-
| [[Kar Dam|Kar]] || 2000 || Kar || Wardha || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 25.13 || 1067 || 265.06 || 25960.00 || 4480 || 21060.00 || Irrigation || 2314
|-
| [[Dimbhe Dam|Dimbhe]] || 2000 || Ghod || Pune || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 67.21 || 852 || 1151.23 || 38220.00 || 17547 || 35391.00 || Irrigation || 2872
|-
| [[Bhama Asakhed Dam|Bhama Asakhed]] || 2000 || Bhama || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 51 || 1425 || 6183 || 230473.00 || 21630 || 217100.00 || Irrigation || 3431.72
|-
| [[Wan Dam, Akola|Wan]] || 2000 || Wan || Akola ||[[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 67.65 || 500 || 599 || 83465.00 || 4391 || 81955.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity Water supply || 3874
|-
| [[Berdewadi Dam|Berdewadi]] || 2001 || local || Lanja || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 61.19 || 656 || 1796.2 || 15841.00 || 871 || 15356.00 || Irrigation || 296
|-
| [[Chitri Dam|Chitri]] || 2001 || Chitri || Kolhapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 55.1 || 1710 || 2606 || 53414.00 || 2931 || 52359.00 || Irrigation || 571
|-
| [[Uttarmand Dam|Uttarmand]] || 2001 || Uttarmand || Satara || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 46.45 || 1389 || || 24925.00 || 2393 || || Irrigation || 824
|-
| [[Jamkhedi Dam|Jamkhedi]] || 2001 || Jamkhedi || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.62 || 1750 || 710 || 14450.00 || 2081 || 12290.00 || Irrigation || 1113
|-
| [[Bhivargi Dam|Bhivargi]] || 2001 || Patan || Sangli || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 15.85 || 1606 || || 11200.00 || || 8630.00 || Irrigation ||
|-
| [[Madan Dam|Madan]] || 2002 || Waghadinalla || Arvi || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 26.55 || 1291 || 976.14 || 11460.00 || || 10460.00 || Irrigation || 662.5
|-
| [[Babhulgaon Dam|Babhulgaon]] || 2003 || local || Solapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.93 || 16.5 || 56100 || 56100.00 || 2270 || || Irrigation || 1046
|-
| [[Chargad Dam|Chargad]] || 2003 || Chargad || Amravati || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 24.5 || 3740 || 1095 || 12005.00 || 2842 || 8266.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 1107.5
|-
| [[Andra Valley Dam|Andra Valley]] || 2003 || Andra || Pune || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 40.45 || 330 || 207.86 || 83310.00 || 7421 || 82750.00 || Irrigation || 1110
|-
| [[Pentakali Dam|Pentakali]] || 2003 || Penganga || Buldhana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 27.5 || 990 || 694.35 || 67355.00 || 12870 || 59976.00 || Irrigation || 6476
|-
| [[Kudnur Dam|Kudnur]] || 2005 || local || Kolhapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 20.99 || 316 || 208.68 || 11925.00 || 214 || 1062.00 || Irrigation || 58.24
|-
| [[Deogad Dam|Deogad]] || 2005 || Karli Nalla || Phonda || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 54.68 || 1784 || 6200 || 100428.00 || 5731 || 98020.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 2078
|-
| [[Shivana Takli Dam|Shivana Takli]] || 2005 || Shivna || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 17.7 || 4524 || 622 || 39360.00 || 887 || 38190.00 || Irrigation || 4415
|-
| [[Popatkhed Dam|Popatkhed]] || 2005 || Dather || Akola || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 42.6 || || || 12192.00 || || 10709.00 || Irrigation ||
|-
| [[Morbe Dam|Morbe]] || 2006 || Dhavari || Khalapur || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 59.1 || 3420 || 18075 || 19089.00 || 9780 || 160.01 || Water supply || 690.4
|-
| [[Lalocalalla Dam|Lalocalalla]] || 2006 || local || Samudrapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 13.9 || 3385 || 407.67 || 29515.00 || 9039 || 27613.00 || Irrigation || 925
|-
| [[Morana Dam|Morana (Gureghar)]] || 2006 || Morana || Satara || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 47.02 || 420 || || 39550.00 || 31.27 || 36990.00 || Irrigation || 1360.11
|-
| [[Tarandale Dam|Tarandale]] || 2007 || local || Sindhudurg || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 48 || 400 || || 10800.00 || || 9810.00 || || 147.7
|-
| Kalmodi || 2007 || Arala || Khed || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 40.6 || 104 || 139.28 || 42670.00 || 2710 || 42670.00 || Irrigation || 963.21
|-
| [[Sina Kolegaon Dam|Sina Kolegaon]] || 2007 || Sina || Dharashiv || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 36.6 || || 234 || 150490.00 || 1529 || 89340.00 ||Irrigation || 7689
|-
| [[Katangi Dam|Katangi]] || || Katanginalla || Goregaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 13.65 || 2360 || 464.12 || 11120.00 || 31.02 || 9400.00 || Irrigation || 845.5
|-
| [[Bham Dam|Bham]] || || Tapi || Dharni || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 67.5 || 10982 || || 378,000.00 || 1551.6 || 378,000.00 || Irrigation || 445
|-
| [[Sarang Kheda Dam|Sarang Kheda]] || || Waki || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 34.5 || 1081 || 76.2 || 75800.00 || 7203 || 70550.00 || Irrigation || 563
|-
| [[Chenna Dam|Chenna]] || || Chenna || Gadchiroli || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 33 || 740 || 413 || 14800.00 || 1930 || 14790.00 || Irrigation || 602
|-
| [[Madan Dam|Madan]] || || local || Madan || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 26.5 || 1413 || 773 || 11460.00 || || 10560.00 || Irrigation || 662
|-
| [[Godavari Dam|Godavari]] || || Darna || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 34.75 || 1028 || 3007 || 46730.00 || 2565 || 40790.00 || Irrigation || 662
|-
| [[Karwappa Dam|Karwappa]] || || Karwappa || Gadchiroli || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 35 || 1416 || 991 || 32560.00 || 4454 || 32560.00 || Irrigation || 841
|-
| [[Manikpuri Dam|Manikpuri]] || || Waki || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 42.84 || 888 || 1453 || 14760.00 || 650 || 13450.00 || Irrigation || 912
|-
| [[Lower Tapi Dam|Lower Tapi]] || || Kadwa || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.8 || 860 || 303.72 || 16460.00 || 3150 || 11470.00 || Irrigation || 983
|-
| [[Bhavali Dam|Bhavali]] || || Bham || Thane || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 33.97 || 1550 || 329 || 75050.00 || 4980 || 69760.00 || Irrigation || 990
|-
| [[Jamkhed Dam|Jamkhed]] || || local || Nanded || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 16.9 || 1605 || 44 || 10230.00 || || 8150.00 || Irrigation || 1019
|-
| [[Nagan Dam|Nagan]] || || Nagan || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.24 || 2940 || 1800 || 25150.00 || 3334 || 22760.00 || Irrigation || 1103
|-
| [[Talamba Dam|Talamba]] || || Karli || Sindhudurg || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 57.41 || 2955 || 7343 || 308750.00 || 21350 || 285630.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 1354.47
|-
| [[Wakod Dam|Wakod]] || || Nagzari || Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 14.28 || 2975 || 577 || 12050.00 || 4480 || 11400.00 || Irrigation || 1380
|-
| [[Mahamadwadi Dam|Mahamadwadi]] || || Gad river || Konakwadi || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 59.33 || 1590 || 12000 || 93374.00 || 4243 || 91399.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity || 1678
|-
| [[Lower Panzara Dam|Lower Panzara (Akkalp)]] || || Punad || Nashik || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 33.28 || 706 || 1114 || 39750.00 || 3123 || 36990.00 || Irrigation || 1791
|-
| [[Waki Dam|Waki]] || || Godavari || Jalgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 51.87 || 869 || 4582 || 53730.00 || 2054 || 53340.00 || Irrigation || 1808
|-
| [[Dara Dam|Dara]] || || Shiwan || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 31.3 || 4828 || 2410 || 24180.00 || 2070 || 21700.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 1864
|-
| [[Upper Kadwa Dam|Upper Kadwa]] || || Manyad || Nandgaon || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 32.92 || 1470 || 471.66 || 14010.00 || 238 || 9460.00 || Irrigation || 2032
|-
| [[Gomai Dam|Gomai]] || || Gomai || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 23.9 || 5596 || 1391 || 28104.00 || 5920 || 20352.00 || Irrigation || 2049
|-
| [[Utawali Dam|Utawali]] || || Utawali || Buldhana || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 26.05 || 2112 || 1910 || 20808.00 || 3642 || || Irrigation || 2336
|-
| [[Chandrabhaga Dam, Amravati|Chandrabhaga]] || || Chandrabhaga || Amravati || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 44.7 || 1573 || 2952 || 41427.00 || 3262 || 41248.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity Water supply || 2476
|-
| [[Tultuli Dam|Tultuli]] || || Khobragadi || Gadchiroli || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 21.59 || 5280 || 2745 || 225051.00 || 50920 || 216948.00 || Irrigation || 3460
|-
| [[Purna Dam|Purna]] || || Purna || Amravati || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 38 || 3120 || 1277 || 41759.00 || 5880 || 35370.00 || Irrigation Hydroelectricity Water supply || 3906
|-
| [[Anjneri Dam|Anjneri]] || || Panzara || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 32.3 || 3137 || 4326 || 107790.00 || 14815 || 87870.00 || Irrigation || 4332
|-
| [[Nawatha Dam|Nawatha]] || || Burai || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29 || 2610 || 1427 || 36930.00 || 7360 || 33910.00 || Irrigation || 4342
|-
| [[Human Dam|Human]] || || Human || Chandrapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 28 || 3222 || 2448 || 313731.00 || 80930 || 313731.00 || Irrigation || 9242
|-
| [[Prakasha Barrage Dam|Prakasha Barrage]] || || Tapi || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 39.5 || 1070 || 179 || 325000.00 || 3850 || 248210.00 || Irrigation || 16071
|-
| [[Lower Wardha Dam|Lower Wardha]] || || Wardha || Wardha || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 27.8 || 9464 || 2639 || 253340.00 || 54654 || 216870.00 || Irrigation || 20788
|-
| [[Dhaner Dam|Dhaner]] || || Tapi || Burhanpur || [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 27.7 || 425 || || 141000.00 || 170 || 141000.00 || Irrigation || 21083
|-
| [[Nanduri Dam|Nanduri]] || || Tapi || Ama Local Nallaher || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|Gravity]] || 20 || 2186 || 1381.25 || 42056.00 || 575.36 || 35780.00 || Irrigation Water supply || 49299.5
|-
| [[Sulwade Barrage Dam|Sulwade Barrage]] || || Tapi || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 27.73 || 688 || 226 || 63640.00 || 11870 || 62110.00 || Irrigation || 50517
|-
| [[Wadishewadi Dam|Wadishewadi]] || || Tapi || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 36.5 || 614.5 || 324 || 92190.00 || 18230 || 91810.00 || Irrigation || 50529
|-
| [[Dehali Dam|Dehali]] || || Tapi || Dhule || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 28.26 || 5349 || 1762 || 65060.00 || 1229 || 65060.00 || Irrigation Water Supply || 64227
|-
| [[Gose Khurd Dam]]|| 2008 || [[Wainganga River|Wainganga]]|| Bhandara || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 22.50 || 11356 || 3828 || 769483.00 || 22258 || 376592.00 || Irrigation || 67300
|-
| [[Punad Dam|Punad]] || || Delhi || Nandurbar || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 29.62 || 1820 || 123 || 19080.00 || 2202 || 17290.00 || Irrigation ||
|-
| [[Kalammawadi Dam|Kalammawadi]] || || Dudhaganga|| Kolhapur || [[Dam#Earth-fill dams|Earthfill]] || 73.08 || 1280 || 679.0 || 679000.0 || || 679000.0 || Irrigation, Hydroelectric||
|}

==See also==
* [Famine in India]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
* Sakhare, V.B.2005. "Reservoir fisheries of Maharashtra." ''Fishing Chimes''. 23(7):34-37
* Sakhare, V.B.2007. ''Reservoir Fisheries and Limnology'', Narendra Publishing House, Delhi
* Sakhare, V.B.2007. ''Applied Fisheries''. Daya Publishing House, Delhi
*[http://www.kolhapurtourism.org/our-destination/kalammawadi-dam/ Kalammawadi dam at kolhapurtourism]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170904212957/http://www.industryabout.com/country-territories-3/870-india/hydro-energy/41487-kalammawadi-dam Kalammawadi dam at industryabout]}}
*[http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/V5930E/V5930E08.htm Mapping, locations, statistical data]; diversion of flow from east to west, reservoirs on different scales from Nathsagar to tanks system of Bhandara, Pazar talav, seasonal flow patterns and as they are modified by bunding and lifting of water

{{Dams and Reservoirs}}
{{Asia topic|List of dams and reservoirs in}}
{{Dams and reservoirs in India}}

[[Category:Dams in Maharashtra|*]]
[[Category:Lists of buildings and structures in Maharashtra|Dams]]
[[Category:Lists of dams in India|Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Lists of tourist attractions in Maharashtra|Dams]]
[[Category:Reservoirs in Maharashtra|*]]

Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University

2026-02-18T13:37:20Z

Felorox: corrected lead further and updated info

{{ad|date=July 2024}}
{{short description|Public university in Orissa, India}}

{{Use Indian English|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University
| image = [[File:Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University logo.png|200px]]
| former_name = North Orissa University
| motto = ''Sādhanā Swābhimān Sádbhābanā Swayåmsampurnatā''
| motto_lang = ori
| established = {{Start date and age|1998|07|13|df=yes|p=yes|br=yes}}
| type = [[Public University]]
| chancellor = [[Governor of Odisha]]
| vice_chancellor = Pramod Kumar Satapathy ''(acting)''
| city = [[Baripada]]
| state = [[Odisha]]
| postalcode =
| country = India
| students =
| campus = Urban
| campus_size = {{convert|98.84|acre}}
| free_label =
| free =
| colours = {{Color box|#B03048}}{{Color box|#FFFF00}} Maroon and Yellow
| accreditation = [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]]
| affiliation =
| academic_affiliations = [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]
| coordinates = {{coord|21.9303|86.7636|type:edu|display=inline, title}}
| website = {{url|www.nou.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
| other_name =
}}
[[File:Main entrance gate of Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada- May 2024.jpg|alt=MSCB University main entrance gate panorama|thumb|266x266px|Panorama of the main entrance gate of Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University]]
[[File:President graces the 12th convocation of Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada.jpg|alt=12th Convocation of Mahararaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada|thumb|266x266px|12th Convocation of Mahararaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.presidentofindia.gov.in/press_releases/president-india-graces-12th-convocation-maharaja-sriram-chandra-bhanja-deo}}</ref>]]
'''Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University''' ('''MSCB University'''),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome To Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University (Erstwhile North Orissa University) |url=http://www.nou.nic.in/ |access-date=2022-09-19 |website=www.nou.nic.in}}</ref> formerly '''North Orissa University''' ('''NOU'''),<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-12-24 |title=NoU in Odisha renamed after visionary king Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Dei |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/education/news/nou-in-odisha-renamed-after-visionary-king-maharaja-sriram-chandra-bhanja-dei/articleshow/79935554.cms |access-date=2024-07-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> is a [[public university]] in the regional city of [[Baripada]] in the state of [[Odisha]], India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=University {{!}} Mayurbhanj District, Government of Odisha {{!}} India|url=https://mayurbhanj.nic.in/public-utility-category/university/|access-date=2020-06-10|language=en-US}}</ref> MSCB University was accredited by [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council]] (NAAC) with an A grade in third assessment cycle with a score of 3.1 out of 4 points.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Institute with valid accreditation |url=http://naac.gov.in/images/docs/ACCREDITATION_STATUS/Institutions_Accredited_by_NAAC_Whose_Accreditation_Period_Is_Valid_uploaded_1_8_2022.xls |website=naac.gov.in |format=xls}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-04-12 |title=Baripada varsity gets A grade from NAAC |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/baripada-varsity-gets-a-grade-from-naac/articleshow/99422246.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-04-12 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> This university mainly provides [[higher education]] through on-campus as well as [[distance education]] modes. <ref>{{Cite web |title=North Orissa University Distance education Admission 2024 {{!}} NOU {{!}} UG PG Application Fee, Eligibility |url=https://icdde.com/north-orissa-university-distance-education/ |access-date=2024-07-21 |language=en}}</ref> It aims to provide job-oriented technical courses.<ref name="GuptaKumar2006">{{cite book|author1=Ameeta Gupta|author2=Ashish Kumar|title=Handbook of Universities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rs-jsaPenxYC&pg=PA658|access-date=27 September 2012|year=2006|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0608-6|pages=658–}}</ref> Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University (MSCB University) ranks 5577th globally and 248th in India based on overall research output. In the academic sector, it holds positions 2836th globally and 187th in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2024 |title= Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University (MSCB University)|url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/institution-outputs/india/maharaja-sriram-chandra-bhanja-deo-university-mscb-university/5c77902dd00efbc5e81c8ede |website=nature.com}}</ref>

== University at a glance ==
The Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University (MSCB University), formerly known as North Orissa University (NOU),<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.nou.nic.in/University-Name-Change.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Miscellaneous {{!}} Higher Education Department |url=https://dhe.odisha.gov.in/universities/miscellaneous |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=dhe.odisha.gov.in}}</ref> was founded by the [[Government of Odisha]] under Section 32 of the Odisha University Act, 1989 (Act 5 of 1989),<ref>{{Cite web |title=About NOU |url=http://www.nou.nic.in/About_Nou.htm |access-date=2020-06-10 |website=www.nou.nic.in}}</ref> by notice No. 880 dated 13th July 1998.<ref>{{Cite web| title=The Orissa Universities Act, 1989 | url=https://dhe.odisha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-03/ODISHA_UNIVERSITY_ACT_1989.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622011213/https://dhe.odisha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-03/ODISHA_UNIVERSITY_ACT_1989.pdf | archive-date=2021-06-22}}</ref>

The university was established in 1999 on a 98.84-acre site in Takatpur, [[Baripada]], in the [[Mayurbhanj district|Mayurbhanj District]] of [[Odisha]]. It was created by separating from [[Utkal University]] and operates as an affiliating institution. The University has been acknowledged by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]] in accordance with Sections 2(f) and 12(B) of the UGC Act, 1956, effective from February 15, 2000, and June 21, 2006, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Govt. of Odisha:: Central Monitoring Mechanism for Right to Information [RTI CMM V-3.0]: Pages |url=https://www.rtiodisha.gov.in/pa/T1RILzM4LzQyOTgvMjI= |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=www.rtiodisha.gov.in}}</ref> The university's [[geographical]] authority include the [[Mayurbhanj district|Mayurbhanj]] and [[Kendujhar district|Keonjhar districts]] in the northern region of Odisha, which are densely inhabited with [[Tribe|tribal populations]]. NOU has authority over a total of 103 institutions, which includes 65 colleges in [[Mayurbhanj district|Mayurbhanj]] and 38 colleges in [[Kendujhar|Keonjhar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Govt. of Odisha: Central Monitoring Mechanism for Right to Information [RTI CMM V-3.0]: Pages |url=https://www.rtiodisha.gov.in/pa/T1RILzM4LzQyOTgvMjI= |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=www.rtiodisha.gov.in}}</ref> Among these [[School|schools]], there are 2 autonomous institutions, 2 law colleges, and 3 [[Teacher education|teachers' education]] ([[Bachelor of Education|B.Ed.]]) [[College|colleges]],<ref>{{Cite web| title=3-year integrated B.Ed.- M.Ed. Programme, 2016-2019 | url=https://nou.nic.in/Int.%20B.Ed-M.Ed.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328081119/https://nou.nic.in/Int.%20B.Ed-M.Ed.pdf | archive-date=2025-03-28}}</ref> one of them reserved for physically challenged students.<ref>{{Cite news |date=December 23, 2020 |title=North Orissa University now bears Mayurbhanj Maharaja's name |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2020/dec/24/north-orissa-universitynow-bears-mayurbhanj-maharajas-name-2240319.html |access-date=December 24, 2020 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] 09:32am IST}}</ref> These colleges provide education to a significant number of [[Student|students]] at both the [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] and [[Postgraduate education|postgraduate]] levels.<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url=https://nou.nic.in/University.htm |website=nou.nic.in}}</ref>

MSCB University has recognition from prestigious organizations<ref>{{Cite web |title=North Orissa University {{!}} India Science, Technology & Innovation - ISTI Portal |url=https://www.indiascienceandtechnology.gov.in/allstinstitutions/north-orissa-university |access-date=2024-07-21 |website=www.indiascienceandtechnology.gov.in}}</ref> such as the [[Bar Council of India]], [[Distant Education Bureau|DEC]], [[Indira Gandhi National Open University|IGNOU]], [[National Council for Teacher Education|NCTE]], and is included in the Association of Indian Universities and Association of Commonwealth Universities.

== Organisation and administration ==
[[File:Group picture of Santali Wikipedia workshop on 11 March 2018.jpg|thumb|262x262px|Group picture of Santali Wikipedia workshop in main campus.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+Academics
! colspan="4" |'''P.G. courses, MSCB University'''
|-
| colspan="2" |'''P.G. courses, MSCB University'''
|'''M.Phil. courses, MSCB University'''
|'''Pre-Ph.D. (course work), MSCB University'''
|-
|
* M.A/ M. Sc. Anthropology and Tribal Studies
* M.Sc. Botany
* M.Sc. Biotechnology
* M.Sc. Chemistry
* Master of Business Administration
* Master of Computer Application
* Master of Social Work
* M.Sc. Computer Science
* M.A. Economics
* M.A. Education
* M.A. English
* M.A. Geology
* M.A. Hindi
* Int. B.Ed-M.Ed.
* Master of Library & Infermation Science
|
* M.Sc./ M.A. Mathematics
* M.Sc. Material Science
* M.A. Odia
* M.Sc. Physics
* M.Sc. RS & GIS
* M.A. Sanskrit
* M.A. Santali
* M.Sc. WLBC
* M.Sc./ M.A. Yoga & Naturopathy
* M.Sc. Zoology
|
* M.Phil. Biotechnology
* M.Phil. Botany
* M.Phil. Chemistry
* M.Phil. Computer Science
* M.Phil. Economics
* M.Phil. English
* M.Phil. Material Science
* M.Phil. Odia
* M.Phil. Physics
* M.Phil. Sanskrit
* M.Phil. Santali
* M.Phil. Zoology
|
* Pre-Ph.D. Biotechnology
* Pre-Ph.D. Botany
* Pre-Ph.D. Chemistry
* Pre-Ph.D. Computer-Science & IT
* Pre-Ph.D. Economics
* Pre-Ph.D. Life-Science
* Pre-Ph.D. Material-Science
* Pre-Ph.D. Odia
* Pre-Ph.D. Physics
* Pre-Ph.D. Sanskrit
* Pre-Ph.D. Santali
* Pre-Ph.D. Zoology
|-
|
|
|
|
|}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Entrance gate of MSCB University 2024.jpg|Main gate
File:Administrative building of MSCB University Baripada 2025.jpg|Administrative building
File:Central Library of MSCB University 2025.jpg|Central library
File:Statue of Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo with the pedestal inside MSCB University.jpg|Sculpture
File:Convention hall of MSCB University 2025.jpg|Convention hall
File:Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Biodiversity Park inside MSCB University 2025.jpg|Biodiversity park
File:Sports council and gymnasium of MSCB University 2025.jpg|Sports council and gym
File:HRDC building of MSCB University 2025.jpg|HRDC building
File:Sacred groves inside MSCB University 2025.jpg|Sacred groves
File:MSCB University canteen 2025.jpg|Canteen
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links==
* {{official|http://nou.nic.in}}

{{Universities in Odisha}}
{{Department of Higher Education, Odisha}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University| ]]
[[Category:Universities in Odisha]]
[[Category:Department of Higher Education (Odisha)]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1998]]
[[Category:1998 establishments in Orissa]]
[[Category:Mayurbhanj district]]

Kanhapa

2026-02-15T09:52:01Z

Felorox:

{{Short description|Indian poet}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2021}}
{{cleanup lang|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox Buddhist leader
| name = Kānhapā
| image = Mahasiddha Kanhapa.jpg
| caption = Kanhapa, 8th centurt Buddhist [[Mahasiddha]]
| birth_date = c. 10th century AD
| birth_place = 
| death_date = 
| religion = [[Tantric Buddhism]]
| guru = [[Jalandhar]]
| disciples = [[Nath Sampradaya]] (after [[Matsyendranatha]] and [[Gorakhnath]])
| literary_works = [[Charyapada]]
}}
'''Kānhapā''', '''Kanha''' or '''Kanhapada''' or '''Krishnacharya'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kahnapa - Banglapedia|url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Kahnapa|access-date=2022-01-19|website=en.banglapedia.org}}</ref> ( c 10th century AD) was one of the main [[poets]] of ''[[Charyapada]]'', the earliest known example of [[Assamese Literature|Assamese]], [[Bengali literature|Bengali]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], and [[Odia literature|Odia]] literature. He was a [[Tantric buddhism|tantric Buddhist]] and a disciplle of Jalandhar.[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=IyILAAAAYAAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Kanhapa%22+taranath&q=%22Kanhapa%22+taranath&hl=en&source=gb_mobile_entity&ovdme=1&redir_esc=y#%22Kanhapa%22%20taranath Page21] Kanhapada is also a prominent siddhacharya to [[Nath]] [[Sampradaya]] after [[Matsyendranatha]] and [[Gorakhnath]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=asf|url=http://archive.org/details/BangalirItihasAdiparbaByNiharranjanRoy|title=Bangalir Itihas Adiparba By Niharranjan Roy|pages=601}}</ref> His poems in Charjyapad are written in a code, whereby every poem has a descriptive or narrative surface meaning but also encodes tantric Buddhist teachings. Some experts believe this was to conceal sacred knowledge from the uninitiated.

In one of his poems, Kanhupa wrote:

{{blockquote|
Your hut stands outside the city

Oh, untouchable maid

The bald Brahmin passes sneaking close by

Oh, my maid, I would make you my companion

Kanha is the kapali, a yogi

He is naked and has no disgust

There is a lotus with sixty-four petals

Upon that the maid will climb with this poor self and dance.}}

The language of Kanhupa's poetry bears a very strong resemblance to modern Bangla and Odia. For example,

{{blockquote|
eka so padamā caüṣaṭṭhī pākhur̤i .

tahim̐ car̤i nācaï ḍombi bāpur̤i..}}

{{blockquote|ଏକ ସୋ ପଦମା ଚଉଷଟ୍ଠୀ ପାଖୁଡ଼ି ।

ତହିଁ ଚଡ଼ି ନାଚଇ ଡୋମ୍ବି ବାପୁଡ଼ି ॥}}

{{blockquote|এক সো পদমা চৌষট্‌ঠী পাখুড়ি ।

তহিঁ চড়ি নাচই ডোম্বি বাপুড়ি ॥}}

<ref>{{Cite web |title=নগর বাহিরি রে ডোম্বি তোহোরি কুড়িআ |url=http://onushilon.org/music/gitikar/corja/corjja10.htm |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=onushilon.org |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163407/http://onushilon.org/music/gitikar/corja/corjja10.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Padama (Padma:Lotus), Chausatthi (64), Pakhudi (petals) Tahin (there, in that), Charhi (climb/rise), nachai (dances), Dombi (a Bengali or Odia woman belonging to the scheduled caste, Domi/Domni), Bapuri (a Bangla and Odia word for 'poor fellow'; ‘বাপুর, বাপুড়া’<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dasa |first=Jnanendramohana |date=1937 |title=Bangala Bhashara abhidana |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/dasa_query.py?qs=%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81&searchhws=yes&matchtype=exact |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=dsal.uchicago.edu}}</ref>)

Somewhat modern poetic Bangla would be, “একশো পদ্মে/পদমে চৌষট্টি পাকড়ি/পাখুড়ি। তাহে চড়িয়া/চড়ি নাচে ডোমি বাপুড়ি/বেচারি॥”

or

{{blockquote|
hā lo ḍombi to puchami sadabhābe.

āisasi jāsi ḍombi kāhari nābem̐..}}

{{blockquote|ହା ଲୋ ଡୋମ୍ବି ତୋ ପୁଛମି ସଦଭାବେ।

ଆଇସସି ଜାସି ଡୋମ୍ବି କାହରି ନାବେଁ॥}}

{{blockquote|হা লো ডোম্বি তো পুছমি সদভাবে।

আইসসি যাসি ডোম্বি কাহরি নাবেঁ॥}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=নগর বাহিরি রে ডোম্বি তোহোরি কুড়িআ |url=http://onushilon.org/music/gitikar/corja/corjja10.htm |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=onushilon.org |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163407/http://onushilon.org/music/gitikar/corja/corjja10.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The above verse hardly requires any translation to be understood in present-day [[Bengali language|Bengali]] or [[Odia language|Odia]].

Modern poetic Bengali version of it will be “হ্যাঁ লো ডোমনি/ডোমি, তোকে/তোয় পুঁছি/জিজ্ঞাসি/শুধাই সদ্ভাবে। আসিস-যাস ডোমি/ডোমনি কাহারে নায়/নাওয়ে”.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Bengali male poets]]
[[Category:Indian Buddhists]]
[[Category:Mahasiddhas]]
[[Category:Buddhist yogis]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Vajrayana]]
[[Category:Poets of Charyapada]]

{{india-poet-stub}}

Kolhapur Municipal Corporation

2026-02-15T06:03:10Z

Felorox: correct formatting to improve readability and added references

{{Short description|Local civic body in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = '''Kolhapur Municipal Corporation'''
| native_name = '''कोल्हापूर महानगरपालिका'''
| motto = ' बहुजन हिताय बहुजन सुखाय '
| foundation = 12 October 1982
| native_name_lang = mr
| coa_pic =
| coa_res = 300px
| coa_alt =
| house_type = Municipal Corporation
| body = Kolhapur
| leader1_type = Mayor
| leader1 = Ruparani Nikam
| party1 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| leader2_type = Municipal Commissioner & Administrator
| leader2 = Smt. K Manjulekshmi
<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/k-manjulekshmi-appointed-new-kolhapur-municipal-chief/articleshow/102964179.cms?from=mdr | title=K Manjulekshmi appointed new Kolhapur municipal chief | newspaper=The Times of India | date=23 August 2023 }}</ref>
| leader3_type = Deputy Mayor
| leader3 = Akshay Vikram Jarg
| party3 = [[Jan Surajya Shakti|JSS]]
| members = 81
| last_election1 = [[2025–26 Maharashtra local election|15 January 2026]]<ref>{{cite web |title=BMC, 28 other municipal corporations to go for polls on January 15; result on January 16 |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/maharashtra/maharashtra-bmc-28-other-municipal-corporations-to-go-for-polls-on-january-15-result-on-january-16-latest-updates-2025-12-15-1021804 |publisher=India TV News |date=15 December 2025}} </ref>
| next_election1 = 2031
| website = [https://web.kolhapurcorporation.gov.in/?language=en https://web.kolhapurcorporation.gov.in/]
| political_groups1 =
'''Government (46)'''
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}}} [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (26)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}}} [[Shiv Sena (2022–present)|SHS]] (15)
:*{{Party legend|Nationalist Congress Party|4}}
:*{{Color box|#CB00F1}} [[Vinay Kore|JSS]] (1)
''' Opposition (35)'''
:*{{Party legend|Indian National Congress|34}}
:*{{Party legend|Shiv Sena (UBT)|1}}
}}

'''Kolhapur''' Municipality was established on 12 October 1954. Establishment of municipality initiated planning of modern [[Kolhapur]] city of [[Maharashtra]] state.
{{clarify span|Due to Maharashtra government anaunces the 15% growth in the municipal corporations seats there was a 92 seats from 81 seats in Kolhapur municipal corporation.|reason=incomprehensible|date=July 2023}} Municipal Corporation mechanism in India was introduced during British Rule with formation of municipal corporation in Madras ([[Chennai]]) in 1688, later followed by municipal corporations in Bombay ([[Mumbai]]) and Calcutta ([[Kolkata]]) by 1762.<ref name="May ref5">{{cite news |last1=Gupta |first1=Anupam |title=City Mayors: Indian Mayors |url=http://www.citymayors.com/mayors/indian-mayors.html |access-date=29 October 2021 |publisher=citymayors.com}}</ref> Kolhapur Municipal Corporation is headed by [[Mayor]] of city and governed by [[Municipal commissioner (India)|Commissioner]]. Kolhapur Municipal Corporation has been formed with [[Municipal corporation (India)#Functions|functions]] to improve the infrastructure of town.

== Revenue sources ==

The following are the income sources for the corporation from the Central and State Government.<ref name="Ko11">{{cite news |last1=Jadhav |first1=Radheshyam |title=Why civic bodies in India need municipal bonds |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/why-civic-bodies-in-india-need-municipal-bonds/article33237962.ece |access-date=18 May 2022 |publisher=www.thehindubusinessline.com |date=3 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ko12">{{cite news |title=Municipal corporations under severe strain as revenues sink: RBI Report |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/municipal-corporations-under-severe-strain-as-revenues-sink-rbi-report-314215-2021-12-02 |access-date=18 May 2022 |publisher=Business Today |date=2 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ko13">{{cite news |title=If cities are to deliver better quality life, need to have business models which are sustainable |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/if-cities-are-to-deliver-better-quality-life-need-to-have-business-models-which-are-sustainable/642276/ |access-date=18 May 2022 |publisher=Financialexpress |date=17 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Revenue from taxes ===
Following is the Tax related revenue for the corporation.

* Property tax.
* Profession tax.
* Entertainment tax.
* Grants from Central and State Government like Goods and Services Tax.
* Advertisement tax.

=== Revenue from non-tax sources ===

Following is the non-tax related revenue for the corporation.

* Water usage charges.
* Fees from documentation services.
* Rent received from municipal property.
* Funds from municipal bonds.

== List of Mayors ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+List of Mayor of Kolhapur City<ref>{{Cite web |title=कोल्हापूर महानगरपालिका - मा. महापौर |url=https://web.kolhapurcorporation.gov.in/mayers |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |website=web.kolhapurcorporation.gov.in}}</ref>
!#
!Name
! colspan="3" |Term
!Election
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|1
|Narayan Jadhav
|16 August 1978
|20 August 1979
|{{Age in years and days|16 August 1978|20 August 1979}}
|
|
|
|-
|2
|Nanasaheb Yadav
|20 August 1979
|20 August 1980
|{{Age in years and days|20 August 1979|20 August 1980}}
|
|
|
|-
|3
|Dattatrey Kanerkar
|20 August 1980
|25 February 1981
|{{Age in years and days|20 August 1980|25 February 1981}}
|
|
|
|-
|4
|Baburao Parkhe
|6 March 1981
|20 August 1981
|
|
|
|
|-
|5
|Subhash Rane
|20 August 1981
|20 August 1982
|
|
|
|
|-
|6
|Vilasrao Sasane
|20 August 1982
|20 August 1983
|
|
|
|
|-
|7
|Baliram Pawar
|20 August 1983
|20 August 1984
|
|
|
|
|-
|8
|Mahadev Adgule
|19 March 1986
|19 March 1987
|
|
|
|
|-
|9
|Ramchandra Phalke
|29 March 1989
|29 January 1990
|
|
|
|
|-
|10
|Raghunath Bawdekar
|16 February 1990
|28 March 1990
|
|
|
|
|-
|11
|Bhim Singh Rajput
|28 March 1990
|17 November 1990
|
|
|
|
|-
|12
|Shyamrao Shinde
|16 November 1991
|16 November 1992
|
|
|
|
|-
|13
|Raosaheb Pawar
|16 November 1993
|16 November 1994
|
|
|
|
|-
|14
|Raju Shingade
|16 November 1995
|16 November 1996
|
|
|
|
|-
|15
|Shivajirao Kadam
|17 November 1997
|17 November 1998
|
|
|
|
|-
|16
|Sunil Kadam
|17 November 2000
|15 October 2001
|
|
|
|
|-
|17
|Shirish Kanerkar
|29 October 2001
|6 April 2002
|
|
|
|
|-
|18
|Bhimrao Pawar
|6 April 2002
|17 August 2002
|
|
|
|
|-
|19
|Bajirao Chavan
|7 March 2003
|17 May 2003
|
|
|
|
|-
|20
|Marutirao Katware
|17 May 2003
|12 March 2004
|
|
|
|
|-
|21
|Ajit Karade
|16 November 2005
|16 May 2008
|
|
|
|
|-
|22
|Sagar Chavan
|1 December 2009
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|23<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Buchade elected mayor, Patil deputy mayor in Kolhapur civic polls |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-buchade-elected-mayor-patil-deputy-mayor-in-kolhapur-civic-polls-1467437 |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref>
|Vandana Buchade
|15 November 2010
|15 November 2011
|{{Age in years and days|15 November 2010|15 November 2011}}
|
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|27<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-01-02 |title=Sunita Raut of the Nationalist Congress Party was elected unopposed the 39th mayor of Kolhapur Municipal Corporation. The general body meeting on Thursday also elected Mohan Gonjare as the deputy mayor. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sunita-raut-of-the-nationalist-congress-party-was-elected-unopposed-the-39th-mayor-of-kolhapur-municipal-corporation-the-general-body-meeting-on-thursday-also-elected-mohan-gonjare-as-the-deputy-mayor-/articleshow/28294430.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=}}</ref>
|Sunita Raut
|2 January 2014
|28 July 2014
|{{Age in years and days|2 January 2014|28 July 2014}}
|
| rowspan="2" |[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}" |
|-
|28<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-08-05 |title=Trupti Malvi set to be elected Kolhapur mayor |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/trupti-malvi-set-to-be-elected-aurangabad-mayor/articleshow/39643394.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=}}</ref>
|Trupti Malvi
|8 August 2014
|17 June 2015
|{{Age in years and days|8 August 2014|17 June 2015}}
|
|-
|29<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-07-05 |title=Vaishali Dakare is new mayor of Kolhapur |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/vaishali-dakare-is-new-mayor-of-kolhapur/articleshow/47942741.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=}}</ref>
|Vaishali Dakare
|4 July 2015
|14 November 2015
|{{Age in years and days|4 July 2015|14 November 2015}}
|
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|-
|30<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-12-09 |title=Nationalist Congress Party’s Hasina Faras elected Kolhapur mayor |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/ncps-hasina-faras-elected-city-mayor/articleshow/55882503.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=}}</ref>
|Hasina Faras
|25 November 2016
|12 December 2017
|{{Age in years and days|25 November 2016|12 December 2017}}
| rowspan="7" |2015
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}" |
|-
|31<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-23 |title=Mayor resolves to complete water supply project |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/mayor-resolves-to-complete-water-supply-project/articleshow/62218865.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=}}</ref>
|Swati Yavaluje
|22 December 2017
|15 May 2018
|{{Age in years and days|22 December 2017|15 May 2018}}
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|-
|32<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2018-05-25 |title=काँग्रेसच्या शोभा बोंद्रे कोल्हापूरच्या नव्या महापौर |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/news/maharashtra/congresss-shobha-bondre-elected-as-kolhapur-mayor-544792 |access-date= |website=ABP Majha |language=mr}}</ref>
|Shobha Bondre
|25 May 2018
|26 November 2018
|{{Age in years and days|25 May 2018|26 November 2018}}
|-
|33<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2018-12-10 |title=कोल्हापूरच्या महापौरपदी काँग्रेस-राष्ट्रवादीच्या सरिता मोरे |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/elections/kolhapur-mayor-congress-ncp-candidate-sarita-more-elected-612329 |access-date= |website=ABP Majha |language=mr}}</ref>
|Sarita More
|10 December 2018
|16 June 2019
|{{Age in years and days|10 December 2018|16 June 2019}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: {{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}" |
|-
|34<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-29 |title=कोल्हापूर महापौरपदी माधवी गवंडी निश्चित - Marathi News {{!}} Kolhapur Mayor Madhavi Gawandi Fixed - Latest Kolhapur News at Loksatta.com |url=https://www.loksatta.com/kolhapur/kolhapur-mayor-madhavi-gawandi-fixed-1921323/ |access-date= |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}</ref>
|Madhavi Gawandi
|2 July 2019
|8 November 2019
|{{Age in years and days|2 July 2019|8 November 2019}}
|-
|35<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-11-20 |title=Surmanjiri Latkar elected mayor, Mohite deputy; Sena skips voting |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/surmanjiri-latkar-elected-mayor-mohite-deputy-sena-skips-voting/articleshow/72132578.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=}}</ref>
|Surmanjiri Latkar
|19 November 2019
|30 January 2020
|{{Age in years and days|19 November 2019|30 January 2020}}
|-
|36<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-11 |title=Latest Marathi News- Breaking News Today {{!}} Read Marathi Batmya from Maharashtra, India ब्रेकींग मराठी न्यूज at https://loksatta.com/ |url=https://www.loksatta.com/kolhapur/nilofer-ajarekar-of-congress-elected-as-mayor-of-kolhapur-zws-70-2081729/ |access-date= |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}</ref>
|Nilofar Ajrekar
|17 February 2020
|14 November 2020
|{{Age in years and days|17 February 2020|14 November 2020}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|-
|{{En dash}}
|Vacant
([[Municipal commissioner (India)|Commissioner's rule]])
|14 November 2020
|6 February 2026
|{{Age in years and days|14 November 2020|6 February 2026}}
| colspan="3" |{{En dash}}
|-
|37<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-02-06 |title=BJP’s Ruparani Nikam elected Kolhapur mayor after 5-year gap |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/bjps-ruparani-nikam-elected-kolhapur-mayor-after-5-year-gap/articleshow/127983931.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=}}</ref>
|Ruparani Nikam
|6 February 2026
|''incumbent''
|{{Age in years and days|6 February 2026}}
|2026
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|}

== Municipal elections ==

The period from 1941 to 1944 was the golden period in the history of municipality. There were major changes in various fields. In the three-year election of March 1941, local self-government was established. A control board of three persons – [[Bhai Madhavrao Bagal]], Seth Govindrao Korgaonkar, Shri [[Ratnappa Kumbhar]] – was appointed in it. Motto of this board "To reserve the society without any discrimination. There is no linking of this board to any political organization. Whatever rights are confessed by government to citizens should be utilized fully is prime duty of the board." is declared in the board's manifesto.

==Progress of corporation==

The period from 1954 to 71 was the period of speedy growth of Kolhapur city. It is seen that the municipality moved towards corporation status during this period. It is seen from records that in 1960, there were 44 members in municipality. Out of them 37 were from general category, 3 from reserved backward category and 4 from women reserved category. The municipal working was based on administrative triangle of general body meeting, chief officer and standing committee. Engineers, health officers, account officers, supervisors, octroi and tax officers used to help chief officer. In 1956- c57, the annual income of municipality was Rs. 33,21,213 through taxes and other means, and the expenditure was Rs. 29,29,161. This indicates the growing business of municipality. During this period, a network of roads was constructed in the city. New bridges were constructed as per requirement. Water supply was made more effective. New markets and gardens were constructed to make the city more beautiful.

Effective growth in industrialization in Kolhapur resulted in starting a new industrial era, due to devoted efforts of Y. P. Pawar, Mhadba Mistri, Tatya Shinde, and late Rambhai Samani. The large area of Udyam Nagari was busy in preparing machinery and spare parts. The products from Kolhapur Industrial Estate started getting exported to several Asian and African companies. Municipality helped the growth of industry in many ways.

During this period, [[Shivaji University]] was established at the hands of [[Dr. Radhakrishnan]] in 1962. Thus, municipality helped in restructuring industry and education. In December 1972, the municipal council was dissolved.

==Era of elected body of members==
In August 1978, the first people-elected corporation was formed in true sense. During this period, Shri Babasaheb Kasabekar (1978–79), Shri Nanasaheb Yadav, (1979–80), late Shri D. N. Kanerkar (1980), Baburao Parkhe (1980-81), Prof. Shri Subhash Rane were mayors and they contributed significantly to the development of Kolhapur city.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Municipal Corporations in Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Kolhapur]]
[[Category:Municipal corporations in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:1954 establishments in Bombay State]]

Swadesh Deepak

2026-02-14T21:17:04Z

Felorox: New Details

{{Short description|Indian writer}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}

'''Swadesh Deepak''' (born 1943) is an Indian playwright, novelist and short-story writer. Deepak has been active on the [[Hindi]] literary scene since the mid-1960s and is best known for ''Court Martial,'' a 1991 play. Deepak's most recent book is ''Maine Mandu Nahin Dekha,'' a volume of memoirs.

==Awards and honours==

Deepak won the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sangeetnatak.org/programmes_recognition&honours_drama_playwriting.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505095910/http://www.sangeetnatak.org/programmes_recognition%26honours_drama_playwriting.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 May 2015|title=Playwriting award 2004|author=Sangeet Natak Akademi|access-date=28 December 2008|publisher=SNA|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Books ==

===Collections of short stories===

* ''Ashwarohi / अश्वारोही (1973)''
* ''Maatam / मातम (1978)''
* ''Tamaasha / तमाशा (1979)''
* ''Pratinidhi Kahaniyan / प्रतिनिधि कहानियां (1985)''
* ''Bal Bhagwaan / बाल भगवान (1986)''
* ''Kisi Apriya Ghatna Ka Samachar Nahin / किसी अप्रिय घटना का समाचार नहीं (1990)''
* ''Maskhare Kabhi Nahin Rote / मसखरे कभी नहीं रोते (1997)''
* ''Nirvachit Kahaniyan / निर्वाचित कहानियां (2003)''
* ''Bagugoshe / बगूगोशे'' (2017)

===Novels===

* ''Number 57 Squadron / नंबर ५७ स्क्वाड्रन (1973)''
* ''Mayapot / मायापोत (1985)''

===Plays===

* ''Natak Bal Bhagwan / नाटक बाल भगवान (1989)''
* ''Court Martial / कोर्ट मार्शल (1991)''
* ''Jalta Hua Rath / जलता हुआ रथ (1998)''
* ''Sabse Udaas Kavita / सबसे उदास कविता (1998)''
* ''Kaal Kothari / काल कोठरी (1999)''

===Memoirs===

* ''Maine Mandu Nahin Dekha / मैंने मांडू नहीं देखा (2003)''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.littlemag.com/hunger/swadesh.html Translation of a Short Story by Swadesh Deepak (from ''The Little Magazine'')]
* [https://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050515/spectrum/main2.htm Media Feature on Swadesh Deepak]
* [http://www.geocities.ws/samarthavashishtha/SwadeshDeepak.html ''Swadesh Deepak, sir'', a poem by Samartha Vashishtha]
* [https://indiantheatre.blogspot.com/2005/09/swadesh-deepaks-play-courtmartial-1st.html Synopsis and Reviews of ''Court Martial'']
* [http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/the-ranking.../297858/ News about Swadesh Deepak ''Court Martial'']
* [http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/small-talk/348222/ Court Martial at ''FTII'', by Swatantra Theatre PUNE]
* https://amitspecial.blogspot.in/2013/03/where-is-swadesh-deepak.html
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Deepak, Swadesh}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Indian male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian memoirists]]
[[Category:People from Ambala]]
[[Category:Hindi-language Indian writers]]
[[Category:Hindi dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Haryana]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Novelists from Haryana]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]

Suruchi Singh

2026-02-05T06:42:15Z

Felorox: New A Biography

{{Short description|Indian sport shooter (born 2006)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}

{{Infobox sportsperson
| image = Suruchi Singh.jpg
| caption = Suruchi at the [[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 World Cup]] in [[Lima]]
| full_name = Suruchi Inder Singh Phogat
| birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|28 April 2006}}
| birth_place = [[Jhajjar]], [[Haryana]], India
| sport = [[Shooting sports|Shooting]]
| event = [[ISSF 10 meter air pistol|10 m air pistol]]
| highestranking = 1 (2025)
| pb = 245.1 '''WRJ''' (2025) 588 '''NR''' (2025)
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport|Women's [[ISSF 10 meter air pistol|10 m air pistol shooting]]}}[[File:Shooting pictogram.svg|30px]]
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCount
| total = yes
| [[ISSF World Shooting Championships|World Championships]]
| 0
| 1
| 0
| [[ISSF World Cup#World Cup Final|World Cup Final]]
| 1
| 0
| 0
| [[Asian Shooting Championships|Asian Championships]]
| 1
| 1
| 2
| [[ISSF World Cup|World Cup]]
| 4
| 0
| 1
| [[ISSF Junior World Cup|Junior World Cup]]
| 0
| 1
| 1
}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ISSF World Shooting Championships|World Championships]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2025 ISSF World Shooting Championships|2025 Cairo]]|[[2025 ISSF World Shooting Championships#Pistol|Team]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ISSF World Cup#World Cup Final|World Cup Final]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 Doha]]|[[2025 ISSF World Cup#Pistol events|Individual]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Shooting Championships|Asian Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2026 Asian Rifle/Pistol Championships|2026 New Delhi]]|[[2026 Asian Rifle/Pistol Championships#Women|Team]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2026 Asian Rifle/Pistol Championships|2026 New Delhi]]|[[2026 Asian Rifle/Pistol Championships#Mixed|Mixed team]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2025 Asian Shooting Championships|2025 Shymkent]]|[[2025 Asian Shooting Championships#Mixed - Senior|Mixed team]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2025 Asian Shooting Championships|2025 Shymkent]]|[[2025 Asian Shooting Championships#Women - Senior|Team]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ISSF World Cup|World Cup]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 Buenos Aires]]|[[2025 ISSF World Cup#Pistol events|Individual]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 Munich]]|[[2025 ISSF World Cup#Pistol events|Individual]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 Lima]]|[[2025 ISSF World Cup#Pistol events|Individual]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 Lima]]|[[2025 ISSF World Cup#Pistol events|Mixed team]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 Buenos Aires]]|[[2025 ISSF World Cup#Pistol events|Mixed team]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ISSF Junior World Cup|Junior World Cup]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[ISSF Junior World Cup|2023 Suhl]]|[[ISSF Junior World Cup|Team]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[ISSF Junior World Cup|2023 Suhl]]|[[ISSF Junior World Cup|Mixed team]]}}
}}
'''Suruchi Inder Singh Phogat''' (born 28 April 2006) is an Indian [[Shooting sports|sport shooter]] who specializes in the [[ISSF 10 meter air pistol|10 m air pistol]] event.<ref>{{cite web |title=Inder Singh SURUCHI |url=https://www.issf-sports.org/athletes/SHINDW2804200601 |access-date=24 April 2025 |website=[[International Shooting Sport Federation]]}}</ref> Singh gained international recognition by winning five back-to-back gold medals at the [[2025 ISSF World Cup|2025 World Cup]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2025-06-13 |title=With Munich gold, Suruchi Phogat announces intent to dominate 10 m air pistol |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/suruchi-phogat-munich-gold-10m-air-pistol-intent-10065512/ |access-date=2025-06-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Namit |date=2025-07-03 |title=Suruchi, the Phogat who shoots: Rise and rise of India’s latest teenage shooting sensation |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/long-reads/suruchi-phogat-india-latest-teenage-shooting-sensation-story-10103675/ |access-date=2025-08-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title='Parampara, Pratishtha, Anushasan': How 18-year-old Suruchi Singh became India's new shooting sensation |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/shooting/parampara-pratishtha-anushasan-how-18-year-old-suruchi-singh-became-indias-new-shooting-sensation/articleshow/120376360.cms |access-date=2025-08-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Early life==
Suruchi was born in the Sasroli village of [[Jhajjar district]] in [[Haryana]], into a family with a strong sporting lineage. Her father, [[Havildar]] Inder Singh, initially aspired for her to pursue wrestling, inspired by his cousin, Virender Singh, a Deaflympics gold medalist. But she gravitated towards shooting and began her training aged 13 at the Guru Dronacharya Shooting Academy in [[Bhiwani]] under coach Suresh Singh. During the [[COVID-19 pandemic|pandemic]], she kept her practice going at a makeshift range.<ref name="ss4">{{cite news |date=16 April 2025 |title=Suruchi Singh: How a shooting star took shape at India's boxing bastion |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/sports/suruchi-singh-how-a-shooting-star-took-shape-at-indias-boxing-bastion/articleshow/120340551.cms?from=mdr |access-date=18 April 2025 |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Shooting sports in India|Shooting in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2006 births]]
[[Category:Indian female sport shooters]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Jhajjar]]
[[Category:Sport shooters from Haryana]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]

Rajinikanth

2026-02-04T21:22:47Z

Felorox: Page refined with updated information

{{Short description|Indian actor (born 1950)}}
{{For-text|his biography|[[Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography]]|other uses|[[Rajini (disambiguation)]]}}
{{distinguish|Shivajirao Gaekwad}}
{{Good article}}
{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rajinikanth
| image = Rajinikanth in 2019.jpg
| caption = Rajinikanth in 2019
| birth_name = Shivaji Rao Gaikwad
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1950|12|12|df=y}}<ref name=shivaji />
| birth_place = [[Bangalore]], [[Mysore State]], India
| other_names =
| alma_mater = [[M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute|Adyar Film Institute]]
| height =
| occupation = {{flatlist|
*[[Actor]]
*film producer
*screenwriter
*playback singer
}}
| years_active = 1975–present
| works = [[Rajinikanth filmography|Full list]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Latha Rajinikanth]]|1981}}
| children = {{flatlist|
*[[Aishwarya Rajinikanth|Aishwarya]]
*[[Soundarya Rajinikanth|Soundarya]]
}}
| relatives = See [[List of South Indian film families#Rajinikanth family|Rajinikanth family]]
| honours = [[Padma Vibhushan]] (2016)<ref name="pv">{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanth-awarded-padma-vibhushan-padma-shri-for-priyanka-chopra-ajay-devgn/ |title=Rajinikanth gets Padma Vibhushan; Padma Shri for Priyanka, Ajay Devgn |date=26 January 2014 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=8 December 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025080029/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanth-awarded-padma-vibhushan-padma-shri-for-priyanka-chopra-ajay-devgn/ |archive-date=25 October 2016 |location=New Delhi}}</ref> [[Padma Bhushan]] (2000)
| awards = [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]] (2019)<ref name="DS">{{cite web |title=Rajinikanth honoured with Dadasaheb Phalke award: 'I dedicate this award to my fans across around the world' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanth-honoured-with-dadasaheb-phalke-award-7253877/#:~:text=Actor%20Rajinikanth%20has%20been%20honoured,of%20Indian%20cinema%20Rajnikant%20ji. |website=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=3 April 2021 |date=2 April 2021}}</ref> 
[[NTR National Award]] (2016) [[Kalaimamani]] (1984) ([[List of awards and nominations received by Rajinikanth|See full list]])
}}
'''Shivaji Rao Gaikwad'''{{efn|There are numerous variant spellings of the name. These include ''Gaikwad'', ''Gaykwad'', ''Gaikawad'', and, ''Gaykawad''.}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-09-21 |title=#SelfMadeActors: From being Shivaji Rao Gaekwad to Superstar Rajinikanth; The story of this self made actor in Kollywood is just inspiring |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/selfmadeactors-from-being-shivaji-rao-gaekwad-to-superstar-rajinikanth-the-story-of-this-self-made-actor-in-kollywood-is-just-inspiring/photostory/113539368.cms |access-date=2024-12-12 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> (born 12 December 1950), known professionally as '''Rajinikanth''',{{efn|There are numerous variant spellings of the name. These include ''Rajanikant'', ''Rajni Kanth'', ''Rajanikanth'' and ''Rajanikant''.{{sfn|Ramachandran|2012|pp=160–161}}}} is an Indian actor who predominantly works in [[Tamil cinema]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oneindia.com/politicians/rajinikanth-71764.html|title=Rajinikanth: Age, Biography, Education, Wife, Caste, Net Worth & More - Oneindia|access-date=1 September 2023}}</ref> In a career spanning over five decades, he has done 170 films{{efn|Including the film with his extended cameo appearance – ''[[Lal Salaam (2024 film)|Lal Salaam]]'' (2024)|name="KO"}} that includes films in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Hindi]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Kannada]], [[Bengali language|Bangla]], and [[Malayalam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 August 2025 |title=Coolie: 50 Years of Rajinikanth, India's bus conductor turned superstar |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cgln14jz1n1o |access-date=18 August 2025 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> He is widely regarded to be one of the most successful and popular actors in the history of [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]].<ref>[https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanths-journey-from-being-a-conductor-to-becoming-demi-god/ Rajinikanth's Journey from Being a Conductor to Becoming Demi-God"] (23 May 2014). ''[[The Indian Express]]''. Retrieved 6 July 2023.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-13 |title=Rajinikanth {{!}} Biography, Movies, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rajinikanth |access-date=2025-01-20 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The [[Government of India]] honoured him with the [[Padma Bhushan]] in 2000 and the [[Padma Vibhushan]] in 2016, India's third and second highest [[Orders, decorations, and medals of India|civilian honours]] respectively, the [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]] in 2019, the highest Indian award in the field of cinema, and the [[IFFI Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award]] for his contributions to world cinema.<ref name="CivilIndiaAwards">{{Cite web |url=http://mha.nic.in/awar2000.htm |title=Civilian Awards announced on 26 January 2000 |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs (India) |language=ta |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302144232/http://mha.nic.in/awar2000.htm |archive-date=2 March 2007 |access-date=20 April 2007}}</ref><ref name="The Hindu">{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/padma-awards-announced/article8151257.ece |title=Padma Vibhushan for Rajinikanth, Dhirubhai Ambani, Jagmohan |date=25 January 2016 |work=The Hindu |access-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125105210/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/padma-awards-announced/article8151257.ece |archive-date=25 January 2016}}</ref>

Following his debut in [[K. Balachander]]'s 1975 Tamil drama ''[[Apoorva Raagangal]]'', Rajinikanth's acting career commenced with a brief phase of portraying antagonistic characters in Tamil films. His major positive role as a scorned lover in [[S. P. Muthuraman]]'s ''[[Bhuvana Oru Kelvi Kuri]]'' (1977), 1978's ''[[Mullum Malarum]]'' and ''[[Aval Appadithan]]'' received him critical acclaim; the former earned him a [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize]] for Best Actor.<ref name="IE1">{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/happy-birthday-rajinikanth-how-the-superstar-came-to-be/|title=Happy Birthday Rajinikanth: How the superstar came to be|date=12 December 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=27 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107121907/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/happy-birthday-rajinikanth-how-the-superstar-came-to-be/|archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajitha |date=22 December 1999 |title=Rajini acts in front of the camera, never behind it |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/dec/22muthu.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107121339/http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/dec/22muthu.htm |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=6 June 2016 |website=Rediff.com}}</ref> By the end of the decade, he had worked in all [[Cinema of South India|South Indian film industries]] and established a career in Tamil cinema. He then played [[dual role]]s in the action thriller ''[[Billa (1980 film)|Billa]]'' (1980), a remake of the Hindi film ''[[Don (1978 film)|Don]]'' (1978). It was his biggest commercial success to that point, earned him stardom and gave him the [[action hero]] image.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 December 2006 |title=Ajit-The new 'Billa'! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/ajit-the-new-billa-news-tamil-kkfvgVcaegdsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107122518/http://www.sify.com/movies/ajit-the-new-billa-news-tamil-kkfvgVcaegdsi.html |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=27 May 2016 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> He starred in triple role in ''[[Moondru Mugam]]'' (1982), which earned him a special prize at the Tamil Nadu State Film Awards ceremony. The following year, he made his [[Hindi cinema|Hindi film]] debut with [[T. Rama Rao]]'s top grossing ''[[Andhaa Kaanoon]]'' (1983).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://filminformation.com/featured/flashback-13-october-2023-from-our-issue-dated-17th-october-1998/|title=Blockbusters Of Twenty-Five Years (1973-1997)|date=13 October 2023}}</ref> ''[[Nallavanukku Nallavan]]'' (1984) won him that year's [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor&nbsp;– Tamil|Filmfare Award for Best Tamil Actor]].<ref name="Zee News">{{Cite web |last=Handoo |first=Ritika |date=12 December 2014 |title=Thalaiva Rajinikanth turns 64! |url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/celebrity/thalaiva-rajinikanth-turns-64_1513435.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107121814/http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/celebrity/thalaiva-rajinikanth-turns-64_1513435.html |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=24 December 2014 |website=[[Zee News]]}}</ref> In the latter half of the 1980s, he starred in several successful films in Tamil and Hindi, including ''[[Geraftaar]]'' (1985), ''[[Padikkadavan (1985 film)|Padikkadavan]]'' (1985), ''[[Mr. Bharath]]'' (1986), ''[[Dosti Dushmani]]'' (1986), ''[[Velaikkaran (1987 film)|Velaikaran]]'' (1987), ''[[Manithan (1987 film)|Manithan]]'' (1987), ''[[Dharmathin Thalaivan]]'' (1988) and ''[[ChaalBaaz]]'' (1989).<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 February 2012 |title=Return of Rajinikanth |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/return-of-rajinikanth/story-WwoOk94xxZ9e2qqym8kpGI.html |url-status=live |access-date=27 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107124131/http://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/return-of-rajinikanth/story-WwoOk94xxZ9e2qqym8kpGI.html |archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=6039|title=Cinema Can Come Back Stronger|date=4 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=25 April 1988 |title=Rajinikanth donates eyes |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bX1lAAAAIBAJ&sjid=uJ0NAAAAIBAJ&pg=595%2C1497665 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524120843/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=bX1lAAAAIBAJ&sjid=uJ0NAAAAIBAJ&pg=595%2C1497665 |archive-date=24 May 2024 |access-date=24 May 2024 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref>

In 1991, [[Mani Ratnam]]'s Tamil crime film ''[[Thalapathi]]'', earned him major critical acclaim for his performance.<ref name="TOI" /> He collaborated with [[Suresh Krissna]] for many films including ''[[Annaamalai]]'' (1992) and ''[[Baashha]]'' (1995); the latter was the biggest commercial success in his career yet as well as the highest-grossing film in Tamil for many years.<ref name="IE2">{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanths-journey-from-being-a-conductor-to-becoming-demi-god/ |title=Rajinikanth's journey from being a conductor to becoming demi-god |date=23 May 2014 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=5 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170107125028/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanths-journey-from-being-a-conductor-to-becoming-demi-god/ |archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> His other success includes [[P. Vasu]]'s ''[[Mannan (film)|Mannan]]'' (1992), ''[[Uzhaippali]]'' (1993) and [[K. S. Ravikumar]]'s ''[[Muthu (film)|Muthu]]'' (1995) and ''[[Padayappa]]'' (1999); the latter, which went on to become his and Tamil cinema's highest-grossing movie, exceeding ''Baashha''.<ref name="tribune">{{Cite news |last=Chatterjee |first=Saibal |date=4 September 2005 |title=The Rajni phenomenon |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)]] |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050904/spectrum/main5.htm |url-status=live |access-date=6 June 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170107125005/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050904/spectrum/main5.htm |archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref>

After a few years of hiatus, Rajinikanth returned to acting with the [[comedy horror]] film ''[[Chandramukhi]]'' (2005); it went on to become the highest-grossing Tamil film of all time. His next, [[S. Shankar]]'s ''[[Sivaji (film)|Sivaji]]'' (2007) was the third Indian film and the first ever [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film to enter the [[100 Crore Club]]. He then played dual role as a scientist and an [[Android (robot)|andro-humanoid robot]] in the [[science fiction film]] ''[[Enthiran]]'' (2010) and its sequel [[2.0 (film)|''2.0'']] (2018), both being [[List of most expensive Indian films|India's most expensive productions at the time of their release]] and among the [[List of highest-grossing Indian films|highest-grossing Indian films of all time]].{{efn|The film grossed {{INRConvert|2.89|b|lk=r|year=2016}} worldwide, surpassing ''Sivaji''{{'}}s collection of {{INRConvert|1.55|b|lk=r|year=2016}}. As of June 2012, it remains the highest-grossing Tamil film, till the release of Thuppakki.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/baahubali-beats-endhirans-lifetime-box-office-record-639747 |title=2nd Saturday Box Office Collection: Baahubali Beats Endhiran's Lifetime Record in 9 Days |last=H Hooli |first=Shekhar |date=19 July 2015 |website=[[International Business Times]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107130404/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/baahubali-beats-endhirans-lifetime-box-office-record-639747 |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=6 June 2016}}</ref>}} His action films ''[[Jailer (2023 Tamil film)|Jailer]]'' (2023) and ''[[Coolie (2025 film)|Coolie]]'' (2025) became major commercial success in Tamil cinema, making him the only actor in the industry with three films surpassing the ₹500 crore mark.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 January 2024|title=Salaar Worldwide Box Office Update|url=https://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=8249|website=[[Box Office India]]|language=en}}</ref>

Known for his uniquely styled mannerism and one liners in films, he has a huge fan base and a [[cult following]], he has [[List of awards and nominations received by Rajinikanth|won numerous film awards]], including the [[National Film Award]], seven [[Tamil Nadu State Film Awards]], a [[Nandi Award]], a [[Filmfare Award South|Filmfare Award]] and two [[Maharashtra State Film Awards]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/rajinikanth-poses-with-family-in-beautiful-together-moment-as-superstar-is-honoured-at-iffi-2025-younger-daughter-soundarya-shares-pic/articleshow/125655145.cms|title=Rajinikanth poses with family in beautiful 'together' moment as superstar is honoured at IFFI 2025; younger daughter Soundarya shares PIC|date=29 November 2025|via=The Economic Times - The Times of India}}</ref> Rajinikanth was named one of the most influential persons in South Asia by ''[[Asiaweek]]''.<ref name="mass_popularity">{{Cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2009/12/14/sunday-celebrity-rajini-simple-stylish-spiritual-explains-his-uniqueness |title=Rajini is simple, stylish, spiritual, that explains his uniqueness |last=Ethiraj |first=Gopal |date=14 December 2009 |work=[[Asian Tribune]] |access-date=14 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215034339/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2009/12/14/sunday-celebrity-rajini-simple-stylish-spiritual-explains-his-uniqueness |archive-date=15 December 2009}}</ref><ref name="i1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/meet-indias-biggest-film-star-2096273.html |title=Meet India's biggest film star |last=Buncombe |first=Andrew |date=3 October 2010 |work=[[The Independent]] |access-date=3 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122065142/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/news/meet-indias-biggest-film-star-2096273.html |archive-date=22 January 2015 |location=London}}</ref> He was also named by ''[[Forbes]] India'' as the most influential Indian of the year 2010.<ref name="Now, a film on Rajinikanth's life">{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/news-interviews/Now-a-film-on-Rajinikanths-life/articleshow/8157830.cms |title=Now, a film on Rajinikanth's life |date=4 May 2011 |access-date=4 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910033430/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-04/news-interviews/29508246_1_rajinikanth-biopic-film |archive-date=10 September 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Early life and background==

Rajinikanth was born as Shivaji Rao Gaikwad on 12 December 1950 in a [[Marathi people|Marathi]] family in [[Bangalore]], [[Mysore State]] (present day [[Karnataka]]).{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. Introduction}}<ref name=shivaji /><ref name="birth">{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/Bangalore/Even_more_acclaim_will_come_his_way/articleshow/2178985.cms |title=Even more acclaim will come his way |last=Ruma Singh |date=6 July 2007 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216163710/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/Bangalore/Even_more_acclaim_will_come_his_way/articleshow/2178985.cms |archive-date=16 February 2012}}</ref> His mother was a homemaker,{{efn|While [[Naman Ramachandran]]'s 2012 biography of Rajinikanth identifies his mother's name as Ramabai,<ref name=shivaji/> journalist Ramachandra Rao, a childhood friend of the actor, said in 2012 that her name was Jijabai.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/tracing-kabalis-rajinikanth-his-link-to-shivaji/articleshow/53330949.cms |title=Tracing 'Kabali's' Rajinikanth & his link to Shivaji |date=22 July 2016 |website=[[The Economic Times]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411143021/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/tracing-kabalis-rajinikanth-his-link-to-shivaji/articleshow/53330949.cms |archive-date=11 April 2017 |access-date=11 April 2017}}</ref>}} and his father Ramoji Rao Gaekwad was a police constable.<ref name="shivaji">{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-how-shivaji-became-rajanikanth/20130116.htm |title=How Shivaji became Rajinikanth |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006154556/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-how-shivaji-became-rajanikanth/20130116.htm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref> His ancestors hailed from [[Mavadi Kadepathar]], [[Pune district]], [[Maharashtra]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/pune/report-rajinikanth-invited-for-saswad-literary-meeting-1942995 |title=Rajinikanth invited for Saswad literary meeting |date=31 December 2013 |work=Daily News and Analysis |access-date=5 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140123014805/http://www.dnaindia.com/pune/report-rajinikanth-invited-for-saswad-literary-meeting-1942995 |archive-date=23 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/Rajini-creates-drinking-water-facility-in-his-parentsrsquo-memory/article16624915.ece |title=Rajini creates drinking water facility in his parents' memory |newspaper=The Hindu |date=28 April 2009 |via=www.thehindu.com |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602083354/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/Rajini-creates-drinking-water-facility-in-his-parentsrsquo-memory/article16624915.ece |archive-date=2 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> He is the youngest of four siblings in a family consisting of two elder brothers (Satyanarayana Rao and Nageshwara Rao) and a sister (Aswath Balubhai).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tamilstar.com/news-id-rajinikanth-birthday-rajinikanth-life-history-12-12-111181.htm |title=Biographical article about Superstar Rajini Kanth |website=www.tamilstar.com |publisher=Tamil Star Inc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006121541/http://www.tamilstar.com/news-id-rajinikanth-birthday-rajinikanth-life-history-12-12-111181.htm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. Introduction}} After his father's retirement from work in 1956, the family moved to the suburb of [[Hanumanthanagar, Bengaluru|Hanumantha Nagar]] in [[Bengaluru|Bangalore]] and built a house there.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. Introduction}} He lost his mother at the age of nine.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/reel-to-real-image-a-tome/article4278597.ece |title=Reel to real image, a tome |last=S |first=Anandan |date=6 January 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=22 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628032143/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/reel-to-real-image-a-tome/article4278597.ece |archive-date=28 June 2013}}</ref>

Rajinikanth had his primary education at the Gavipuram Government Kannada Model Primary School in [[Bengaluru|Bangalore]].<ref name="Primary">{{Cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/rajini-s-friends-to-renovate-primary-school-news-kannada-kmnme1fbiff.html |title=Rajini's friends to renovate primary school |date=13 December 2010 |website=[[Sify]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205145727/http://www.sify.com/movies/rajini-s-friends-to-renovate-primary-school-news-kannada-kmnme1fbiff.html |archive-date=5 December 2013 |access-date=9 July 2011}}</ref> As a child, he was "studious and mischievous" with a great interest in [[cricket]], [[association football|football]] and [[basketball]]. During this time, his brother enrolled him at the [[Ramakrishna Math]], a Hindu monastery set up by the [[Ramakrishna Mission]]. In the ''math'', he was taught [[Vedas]], tradition and history, which eventually instilled a sense of spirituality in him.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 1}} In addition to spiritual lessons, he also began acting in plays at the ''math''. His aspiration towards theatre grew at the math and was once given an opportunity to enact the role of ''[[Ekalavya]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s friend from the Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]]. His performance in the play received praise from the Kannada poet [[D. R. Bendre]].{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. Introduction}} After sixth grade, Rajinikanth was enrolled at the [[Acharya Pathasala Public School]] and studied there till completion of his [[pre-university course]].{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 1}} During his schooling at the ''Acharya Pathasala'', he spent a lot of time acting in plays.

Upon completion of his school education, Rajinikanth performed several jobs including that of a [[coolie]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/getahead/slide-show/slide-show-1-specials-9-life-lessons-to-learn-from-rajinikanth/20121212.htm#2 |title=1. Struggle is a stepping stone |date=12 December 2012 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204092600/http://www.rediff.com/getahead/slide-show/slide-show-1-specials-9-life-lessons-to-learn-from-rajinikanth/20121212.htm |archive-date=4 February 2014 |access-date=5 February 2014}}</ref> before getting a job in the [[Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation|Bangalore Transport Service]] as a [[bus conductor]].<ref name="bmtc">{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/dec/22friend.htm |title=You can see God in him at times |last=M. D |first=Riti |date=22 December 1999 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101320/http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/dec/22friend.htm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=14 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]|language=Ta|url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1983-06-05/page/n45/mode/2up|pages=46–48|date=5 June 1983|access-date=21 April 2023|title=சிவாஜிராவின் இளமைப்பருவம்}}</ref> He continued to take part in plays after the Kannada playwright Topi Muniappa offered him a chance to act in one of his mythological plays. He decided to take up an acting course in the newly formed [[Film and Television Institute of Tamil Nadu|Madras Film Institute]] after coming across an advertisement.<ref name="MM1">{{Cite news |date=2 February 2009 |url=http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/2009/02/02164256/Rajini05.html |title=திரைப்படக் கல்லூரியில் 2 ஆண்டு நடிப்பு பயிற்சி |work=[[Maalai Malar]] |access-date=6 February 2014 |language=ta |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140206101403/http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/2009/02/02164256/Rajini05.html |archive-date=6 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Although his family was not fully supportive of his decision to join the institute,<ref name=MM1 /> his friend and co-worker Raj Bahadur motivated him to join the institute and financially supported him during this phase.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/16/stories/2007061612510100.htm |title=He drove Rajnikant to stardom |last=K. V. Subramanya |date=16 June 2007 |access-date=4 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107065743/http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/16/stories/2007061612510100.htm |archive-date=7 November 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jun/13ssraj.htm |title=Meet the bus driver Rajni worked with |date=13 June 2007 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106150541/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jun/13ssraj.htm |archive-date=6 November 2014 |access-date=9 September 2010}}</ref> During his stay at the institute, he was noticed by the Tamil film director [[K. Balachander]].<ref name="Rajini">{{Cite web |url=http://forbesindia.com/article/recliner/why-rajinikanth-rocks/17592/1?id=17592&pg=1 |title=Why Rajinikanth Rocks |last=Lakhe |first=Manisha |date=27 September 2010 |website=[[Forbes]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327154329/http://forbesindia.com/article/recliner/why-rajinikanth-rocks/17592/1?id=17592&pg=1 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |access-date=9 April 2011}}</ref> Balachander provided Rajinikanth with his stage name to avoid confusion with fellow actor [[Sivaji Ganesan]], having taken it from a character's name in his earlier film ''[[Major Chandrakanth (1966 film)|Major Chandrakanth]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaasanthi |title=Rajinikanth: A Life |date=2021 |isbn=978-93-90652-10-5 |location=New Delhi |oclc=1268466867}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=8 December 2012 |title=It was a small role, but people would remember him |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/It-was-a-small-role-but-people-would-remember-him/article12190436.ece |url-status=live |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406055925/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/It-was-a-small-role-but-people-would-remember-him/article12190436.ece |archive-date=6 April 2018}}</ref> The [[K. Balachander|director]] advised him to learn to speak [[Tamil language|Tamil]], a recommendation that Rajinikanth quickly followed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://forbesindia.com/article/person-of-the-year-10/rajinikanth-who-really-is-the-super-star/20452/2?id=20452&pg=2 |access-date=22 February 2013 |title=Rajinikanth: Who Really Is the Super Star? |last1=N.S. |first1=Ramnath |last2=D'Souza |first2=Nilofer |date=22 December 2010 |website=[[Forbes]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418110323/http://forbesindia.com/article/person-of-the-year-10/rajinikanth-who-really-is-the-super-star/20452/2?id=20452&pg=2 |archive-date=18 April 2015}}</ref> Although he can read the language, he cannot write in it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Asokan |first=Mamtha |date=25 October 2021 |title=Does Rajinikanth know how to write in Tamil? Daughter Soundarya says he doesn't |website=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/does-rajinikanth-know-how-to-write-in-tamil-daughter-soundarya-says-he-doesnt/articleshow/87263200.cms |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>

==Acting career==
{{Main|Rajinikanth filmography}}

=== 1975–1977: Early career ===
{{quote box
| quote = "Rajinikanth claims that I am his school. But I must admit that this wasn't the Rajinikanth I introduced. He has evolved on his own merits and strengths. I gave him an opportunity and unveiled him to the world. He went and conquered it."
| source = — K. Balachander about Rajinikanth{{Sfn|Hindu|2012|p=12}}
| align = right
| width = 25em
}}

Rajinikanth began his film career with the Tamil film ''[[Apoorva Raagangal]]'' (1975), directed by [[K. Balachander]].<ref name="firstbreak">{{Cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/12/12/super-star-rajnikanth-turns-61-fans-celebrates-enthusiastically |title=Super Star Rajnikanth turns 61: Fans celebrates enthusiastically |last=Sathyalaya Ramakrishnan |date=13 December 2010 |work=Asian Tribune |access-date=18 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215013133/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/12/12/super-star-rajnikanth-turns-61-fans-celebrates-enthusiastically |archive-date=15 December 2010}}</ref> He was cast in a small role as the ex-husband of the female lead played by [[Srividya]].<ref name=firstbreak/><ref name="pioneer">{{Cite news |url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/sunday-edition/agenda/150th-anniversary-issue/the-other-rajinikanth.html |title=The other Rajinikanth |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |date=5 January 2014 |work=[[The Pioneer (India)|The Pioneer]] |access-date=5 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418113701/http://www.dailypioneer.com/sunday-edition/agenda/150th-anniversary-issue/the-other-rajinikanth.html |archive-date=18 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="express">{{Cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/fans-celebrate-rajinikanths-61st-birthday/723665/ |title=Fans celebrate Rajinikanth's 61st birthday |last=C Raja Mohan |date=12 December 2010 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120060826/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/fans-celebrate-rajinikanths-61st-birthday/723665 |archive-date=20 January 2011}}</ref> The film explored [[Age disparity in sexual relationships|relationships between people with wide age differences]] and was deemed controversial upon release.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/experiments-in-tamil-cinema/photostory/29651841.cms |title=Experiments in Tamil cinema&nbsp;— Apoorva Raagangal (1975) |work=The Times of India |access-date=5 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509033249/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/Experiments-in-Tamil-cinema/photostory/29651841.cms |archive-date=9 May 2015}}</ref> However, it received critical acclaim and won three [[National Film Awards]] including the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil|Award for the Best Tamil Feature]] at the [[23rd National Film Awards]] in 1976.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm23rdNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=23NFA.pdf |title=23rd National Film Awards |publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526091043/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm23rdNFAAward.aspx?PdfName=23NFA.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2011 |access-date=23 April 2011}}</ref> A review from ''[[The Hindu]]'' noted that, "Newcomer Rajinikanth is dignified and impressive."{{Sfn|Hindu|2012|p=67}} His next release was [[Puttanna Kanagal]]'s Kannada [[anthology film]] ''[[Katha Sangama (1976 film)|Katha Sangama]]'' (1976).<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2008101851261100.htm&date=2008/10/18/&prd=mp& |title=Blast from the past: Naagarahaavu- 1972 |date=18 October 2008 |work=The Hindu |access-date=5 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110055318/http://hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2008101851261100.htm&date=2008%2F10%2F18%2F&prd=mp& |archive-date=10 November 2012}}</ref> Rajinikanth appeared in the last segment of the film; he played the role as a village ruffian who rapes a blind woman in the absence of her husband.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 3}} Balachander cast him in a pivotal role in ''[[Anthuleni Katha]]'' (1976), the [[Telugu language|Telugu]] remake of his own Tamil film ''[[Aval Oru Thodar Kathai]]'' (1974).{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 3}} In ''[[Moondru Mudichu]]''{{em dash}}the first Tamil film to feature him in a prominent role{{em dash}}he played a character that "blithely row[s] away" when his friend drowns accidentally in the lake only to fulfill his desire to marry the former's girlfriend.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 4}} His style of flipping the cigarette in the film made him popular among the audience.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-12-19/news/35912468_1_new-flavours-asin-rajinikanth |title=Mirinda advertisement: Can Asin match the charisma of Rajinikanth, Sridevi and Kamal Hassan |last=Chamikutty |first=Preethi |date=19 December 2012 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=7 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005011059/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-12-19/news/35912468_1_new-flavours-asin-rajinikanth |archive-date=5 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In his final release of the year, ''[[Baalu Jenu]]'', he was cast as the main antagonist who troubles the female lead.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 3}} He played similar roles in Balachander's ''[[Avargal]]'' (1977),<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/cp/2011/04/10/stories/2011041050170800.htm |title=We will miss you, Sujatha |last=Malathi Rangarajan |date=10 April 2011 |access-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810024423/http://www.hindu.com/cp/2011/04/10/stories/2011041050170800.htm |archive-date=10 August 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> and [[Bharathiraja]]'s ''[[16 Vayathinile|16 Vayadhinile]]'' (1977).{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 3}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/Print/815331.aspx |title=Return of Rajinikanth |date=22 February 2012 |work=The Hindustan Times |access-date=5 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140205182315/http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/Print/815331.aspx |archive-date=5 February 2014}}</ref> The same year, he made his first-ever appearance as a lead actor in the Telugu film ''[[Chilakamma Cheppindi]]'' (1977), which earned him his only nomination for the [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/getahead/slide-show/slide-show-1-specials-9-life-lessons-to-learn-from-rajinikanth/20121212.htm#3 |title=Success has humble beginnings |date=12 December 2012 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225021844/http://www.rediff.com/getahead/slide-show/slide-show-1-specials-9-life-lessons-to-learn-from-rajinikanth/20121212.htm |archive-date=25 February 2013 |access-date=24 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/09/04/stories/2010090464702000.htm |title=Fusion of culture at celebrity wedding |last=Srinivasan |first=Meera |date=4 September 2010 |access-date=22 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020140220/http://www.hindu.com/2010/09/04/stories/2010090464702000.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=20 October 2011}}</ref> [[S. P. Muthuraman]] experimented Rajinikanth in a positive role in ''[[Bhuvana Oru Kelvi Kuri]]'' (1977).<ref name="rediff1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/dec/22muthu.htm |title=Rajini acts in front of the camera, never behind it |last=Rajitha |date=22 December 1999 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107121339/http://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/dec/22muthu.htm |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=14 June 2011}}</ref> The success of the film brought the duo together for 24 more films till the 1990s.<ref name="rediff1" /> Rajinikanth played supporting and "villainous" roles in most of the films released during the year.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 4}} In ''[[Gaayathri]]'' he was cast as a pornographer who secretly films his relationship with his wife without her knowledge and in ''[[Galate Samsara]]'' he played the role of a married man who develops an affair with a [[Cabaret|cabaret dancer]].{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. 5}} He had 15 of his films released during the year.{{Sfn|Sreekanth|2008|p=370}}

=== 1978–1989: Experimentation and breakthrough ===
In 1978, Rajinikanth had 20 releases across Tamil, Telugu and Kannada.{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc=chpt. 6}}{{Sfn |Sreekanth |2008 |pp=369–370}} His first film of the year was [[P. Madhavan]]'s ''[[Shankar Salim Simon]]'', in which he was among the three leads. Following that, he co-starred alongside [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] in the [[Kannada cinema|Kannada film]] ''[[Kiladi Kittu]]''. He played the second lead in ''[[Annadammula Savaal]]'', which starred [[Krishna Ghattamaneni|Krishna]]; Rajinikanth reprised his role from the [[Sahodarara Savaal|Kannada original]]. He then played an important role in the supernatural thriller ''[[Aayiram Jenmangal]]''. In ''[[Maathu Tappada Maga]]'', he was the main antagonist. ''[[Bairavi]]'', directed by [[M. Bhaskar]], was the first Tamil film to cast Rajinikanth as a solo hero.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanth-top-films-19150.html |title=40 years of Superstar Rajinikanth: His top movies |date=19 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703200749/http://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/rajinikanth-top-films-19150.html |archive-date=3 July 2015 |publisher=[[India TV]]}}</ref>{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc=chap. 6}} It was for this film that he earned the sobriquet "Superstar".{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc=chap. 6}} [[S. Thanu]], one of the film's distributors, set up a {{convert|35|ft|m}} high cut-out of Rajinikanth.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/2012/10/28231007/I-do-not-want-the-title-Super.html |title=சூப்பர் ஸ்டார் பட்டம் எனக்கு வேண்டாம்!: ஏற்க மறுத்தார், ரஜினிகாந்த்! |date=28 October 2012 |work=[[Maalai Malar]] |access-date=12 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318013621/http://cinema.maalaimalar.com/2012/10/28231007/I-do-not-want-the-title-Super.html |archive-date=18 March 2013 |language=ta}}</ref> His next appearance ''[[Ilamai Oonjal Aadukirathu]]'', a quadrangular love story written and directed by [[C. V. Sridhar]], saw him play the role of a man who sacrifices his love for his friend, played by [[Kamal Haasan]]. The film's success prompted Sridhar to remake the film in Telugu, ''[[Vayasu Pilichindi]]'', which retained the original cast of the Tamil film.{{sfn|Ramachandran|2012|p=79}}

His next film, ''[[Vanakkatukuriya Kathaliye]]'', had an introductory song to mark his entry, a trend that would soon catch on in with his later films.{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc=chap. 6}} ''[[Mullum Malarum]]'', released during the same period, received critical acclaim, and earned him his first [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil]] nomination.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/12/13/stories/2009121356310700.htm |title=A phenomenon called Rajnikanth |last=D. Karthikeyan |date=13 December 2009 |access-date=22 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015162317/http://www.hindu.com/2009/12/13/stories/2009121356310700.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=15 October 2013}}</ref> The film marked the directional debut of [[Mahendran (filmmaker)|Mahendran]], with a screenplay adapted from a novel of the same name published in ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]''.{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc=chap. 6}} It won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Tamil Film]] and a Special Prize (Best Actor) for Rajinikanth at the Tamil Nadu State Film Awards.{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc= chap. 6}} Following this, he made a foray into [[Cinema of Kerala|Malayalam cinema]] with [[I. V. Sasi]]'s fantasy film ''[[Allauddinum Albhutha Vilakkum]]'', which was based on a story from the [[Arabian Nights]]. The same year, he acted in ''[[Dharma Yuddam]]'', in which he played a mentally-ill person avenging the death of his parents. He then co-starred with [[N. T. Rama Rao]] in ''[[Tiger (1979 film)|Tiger]]''. Upon completion of ''Tiger'', Rajinikanth had acted in 50 films over a period of four years, and in four languages. Some other popular films released during this period are the youthful entertainer ''[[Ninaithale Inikkum (1979 film)|Ninaithale Inikkum]]'', the Tamil–Kannada bilingual ''[[Priya (1978 film)|Priya]]'', the Telugu film ''[[Amma Evarikkaina Amma]]'' and the melodrama ''[[Aarilirunthu Arubathu Varai]]''. ''Priya'', based on a detective novel by [[Sujatha (writer)|Sujatha]], had the distinction of being the first film of Rajinikanth to be shot mostly outside India, mainly in Southeast Asia.{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc=chap. 6}} A''arilirunthu Arubathu Varai'' earned him his second nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil.

Raijinikanth, who credited [[Hindi film]] star [[Amitabh Bachchan]] as his inspiration,<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Amitabh-is-my-inspiration-says-Rajini/article16133086.ece |title=Amitabh is my inspiration, says Rajini |date=15 August 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=24 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516093145/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Amitabh-is-my-inspiration-says-Rajini/article16133086.ece |archive-date=16 May 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> began playing Amitabh Bachchan's roles in Tamil remakes of his films.<ref name="indianexpress">{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/revisiting-prakash-mehra-zanjeer-the-film-that-made-amitabh-bachchan-4714064/ |title=Revisiting Prakash Mehra's Zanjeer: The film that made Amitabh Bachchan |date=20 June 2017 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=24 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033352/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/revisiting-prakash-mehra-zanjeer-the-film-that-made-amitabh-bachchan-4714064/ |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> This began with ''[[Shankar Salim Simon]]'' (1978), a remake of ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony]]'' (1977), followed by ''[[Naan Vazhavaippen]]'' (1979), a remake of ''[[Majboor (1974 film)|Majboor]]'' (1974).<ref name="Mint">{{Cite news |url=http://www.livemint.com/Consumer/1zecmlLkbhchQlpXOOOsxN/10-Rajinikanth-films-that-were-remakes-of-Amitabh-Bachchan-s.html |title=10 Rajinikanth films that were remakes of Amitabh Bachchan starrers |last=Jha |first=Lata |date=18 July 2016 |work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |access-date=19 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719141109/http://www.livemint.com/Consumer/1zecmlLkbhchQlpXOOOsxN/10-Rajinikanth-films-that-were-remakes-of-Amitabh-Bachchan-s.html |archive-date=19 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> He was subsequently cast in a series of roles modelled after Amitabh Bachchan in Tamil remakes of his films.<ref name="indianexpress" /> Rajinikanth starred in eleven Tamil remakes of Amitabh Bachchan films,<ref name="catchnews">{{Cite news |url=http://www.catchnews.com/bollywood-news/like-amitabh-bachchan-does-rajinikanth-owe-his-success-to-salim-khan-and-javed-akhtar-catch-flash-back-bollywood-news-1469260347.html |title=What do Amitabh Bachchan and Rajinikanth have in common? |date=23 July 2016 |work=Catch News |access-date=29 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033736/http://www.catchnews.com/bollywood-news/like-amitabh-bachchan-does-rajinikanth-owe-his-success-to-salim-khan-and-javed-akhtar-catch-flash-back-bollywood-news-1469260347.html |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> as well as a Telugu remake of ''Amar Akbar Anthony'', ''[[Ram Robert Rahim]]'' (1980), alongside [[Sridevi]].<ref name="Mint" /> The most successful of these were remakes of [[Salim–Javed]] films, such as ''[[Billa (1980 film)|Billa]]'' (1980), ''[[Thee (1981 film)|Thee]]'' (1981) and ''[[Mr. Bharath]]'' (1986).<ref name="catchnews" />

During this phase of his career, Rajinikanth abruptly chose to quit acting, but was coaxed to return with the Tamil film ''[[Billa (1980 film)|Billa]]'' (1980), a remake of the [[Bollywood]] blockbuster ''[[Don (1978 film)|Don]]'' (1978), written by Salim-Javed and starring [[Amitabh Bachchan]]. ''Billa'' had Rajinikanth playing dual roles and eventually became his first solo commercial success.<ref name="expressindia">{{Cite news |url=http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=88218 |title='Yesterday I was a conductor, today I'm a star' |last=Girija Jinnaa |date=15 June 2007 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=4 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617192827/http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=88218 |archive-date=17 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2015 |title=Best films of Rajinikanth |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/40-years-of-rajinikanth-south/20150827.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170107120017/http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/40-years-of-rajinikanth-south/20150827.htm |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=16 May 2018 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> His pairing with [[Sridevi]] continued in ''[[Johnny (1980 film)|Johnny]]'', where he was once again cast in a double role, earned him his third nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil. He also starred in ''[[Murattu Kaalai (1980 film)|Murattu Kaalai]]'' which was a commercial success.<ref name=rediff1/> The success of ''Billa'' was a turning point in Rajinikanth's career, disproving detractors that claimed Rajinikanth was "finished" and which saw him accepted as a full-fledged hero.<ref name="expressindia" /> The success of ''Billa'' established Rajinikanth as one of the top stars of Tamil cinema.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/story/19880731-rajanikant-his-name-spells-box-office-magic-in-the-south-797520-1988-07-30 |title=Rajanikant: His name spells box-office magic in the south |date=31 July 1988 |work=[[India Today]]}}</ref>

In 1981, he appeared in ''[[Garjanai (1981 film)|Garjanai]]'' which was shot simultaneously in [[Kannada]] and [[Malayalam]], making it his last film in those two languages up until 2023. In K. Balachander's first home production, ''[[Netrikan]]'', he played dual roles as a womanising father and a responsible son.<ref name=rediff1/> His first full-length comedy was ''[[Thillu Mullu]]'', directed by [[K. Balachander]]. He agreed to it solely due to the strong suggestion by his mentor that he should do non-commercial roles, to break the stereotyped action-hero mould by which he was getting famous at the time. ''[[Thillu Mullu]]'' earned him his fourth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/regional/return-of-rajinikanth/article1-815331.aspx |title=Return of Rajinikanth |date=22 February 2012 |work=[[The Hindustan Times]] |access-date=10 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140210092421/http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/regional/return-of-rajinikanth/article1-815331.aspx |archive-date=10 February 2014}}</ref> 1981 also saw the release of ''[[Thee (1981 film)|Thee]]'', a remake of blockbuster [[Hindi language|Hindi]] film ''[[Deewaar]]'' (1975), also originally written by Salim-Javed and starring Amitabh Bachchan; in ''Thee'', Rajinikanth reprised the role of Bachchan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livemint.com/Consumer/1zecmlLkbhchQlpXOOOsxN/10-Rajinikanth-films-that-were-remakes-of-Amitabh-Bachchan-s.html |title=10 Rajinikanth films that were remakes of Amitabh Bachchan starrers |date=18 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719141109/http://www.livemint.com/Consumer/1zecmlLkbhchQlpXOOOsxN/10-Rajinikanth-films-that-were-remakes-of-Amitabh-Bachchan-s.html |archive-date=19 July 2016}}</ref> In 1982, he starred in ''[[Pokkiri Raja (1982 film)|Pokkiri Raja]]'', ''[[Moondru Mugam]]'', ''[[Thanikattu Raja]]'', ''[[Pudukavithai]]'' and ''[[Enkeyo Ketta Kural]]''. ''Moondru Mugam'' which starred Rajinikanth playing three different roles for the first time, earned him his fifth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil.<ref name="raana">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/01/29/stories/2011012959320200.htm |title=''Raana'' Rajini's next venture |last=Srinivasan |first=Meera |date=29 January 2011 |access-date=24 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110010958/http://www.hindu.com/2011/01/29/stories/2011012959320200.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=10 November 2012}}</ref>

By 1983, he was a popular actor across [[South Indian cinema]], including Telugu and Kannada films.<ref name="southpopular">{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/society/article2153059.ece |title=The Rajini mystique |date=2 July 2011 |work=The Hindu |access-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225031116/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/article2153059.ece |archive-date=25 December 2014}}</ref> In 1983, Rajinikanth starred in his first [[Bollywood]] film, ''[[Andhaa Kaanoon]]'', alongside [[Hema Malini]], [[Reena Roy]] and [[Amitabh Bachchan]] (in an extended cameo appearance).<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Narayan |first=S Venkat |date=30 April 1983 |title=Film review: Andhaa Kaanoon is what they call a masala film |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/films/story/19830430-film-review-andhaa-kaanoon-starring-amitabh-bachchan-rajnikant-hema-malini-771321-2013-10-19 |magazine=[[India Today]] |location=[[New Delhi]] |publisher=Living Media India Limited |access-date=30 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430172223/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/films/story/19830430-film-review-andhaa-kaanoon-starring-amitabh-bachchan-rajnikant-hema-malini-771321-2013-10-19 |archive-date=30 April 2023}}</ref> The film opened to excellent response from the audience and emerged a blockbuster at the box office.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=4612 |title=2018 Has High Number Of Blockbusters |date=9 January 2019 |access-date=16 January 2024 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116170928/https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=4612 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1984, he appeared in ''[[Naan Mahaan Alla (1984 film)|Naan Mahaan Alla]]'', a remake of [[Subhash Ghai]]'s directional ''[[Vishwanath (1978 film)|Vishwanath]]'', the film proved to be a superhit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 January 2020 |title=Baashha to Darbar: Here is a list of Rajinikanth's Pongal releases that turned super hits |url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/gallery/lifestyle/baashha-to-darbar-here-is-a-list-of-rajinikanth-s-pongal-releases-that-turned-super-hits-q3s7ap |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215045100/https://newsable.asianetnews.com/gallery/lifestyle/baashha-to-darbar-here-is-a-list-of-rajinikanth-s-pongal-releases-that-turned-super-hits-q3s7ap |archive-date=15 February 2021 |access-date=15 February 2021 |website=[[Asianet News]]}}</ref> That same year, he played a small role in ''[[Anbulla Rajinikanth]]'' and delivered three more successful [[Hindi]] films, ''[[Meri Adalat]]'', ''[[Gangvaa]]'' and ''[[John Jani Janardhan (1984 film)|John Jani Janardhan]]'' (in which he played a triple role).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/Film-Information-1984-Classifica.jpg|title=Film Information Classification (1984)}}</ref> His performance in ''[[Nallavanuku Nallavan]]'' earned him his first and only [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil]].<ref name="filmfare">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5UqAAAAYAAJ |title=Collections |publisher=Update Video Publication |year=1991 |pages=394 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203223423/http://books.google.com/books?id=Q5UqAAAAYAAJ |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In his 100th film ''[[Sri Raghavendra]]'' (1985), he played the Hindu saint [[Raghavendra Swami]].<ref name="rebel_image" />

In the second half of the 1980s, Rajinikanth acted in commercially successful films, such as ''[[Naan Sigappu Manithan (1985 film)|Naan Sigappu Manithan]]'' (1985), ''[[Geraftaar]]'' (1985), ''[[Padikkadavan (1985 film)|Padikkathavan]]'' (1985), ''[[Mr. Bharath]]'' (1986), ''[[Dosti Dushmani]]'' (1986), ''[[Velaikkaran (1987 film)|Velaikaran]]'' (1987), ''[[Manithan (1987 film)|Manithan]]'' (1987), ''[[Insaaf Kaun Karega]]'' (1987), ''[[Guru Sishyan (1988 film)|Guru Sishyan]]'' (1988) and ''[[Dharmathin Thalaivan]]'' (1988), with ''Velaikaran'' earning him his seventh nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/Trade-Guide-1985-Classification.jpg|title=Trade Guide Classification 1985}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2022 |title=Mani Ratnam reacts to Rajinikanth's Manithan beating Kamal Haasan's Nayakan at box office |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/mani-ratnam-reacts-to-rajinikanth-manithan-beating-kamal-haasan-nayakan-at-box-office-7947893/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603021507/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/mani-ratnam-reacts-to-rajinikanth-manithan-beating-kamal-haasan-nayakan-at-box-office-7947893/ |archive-date=3 June 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref name=TG1987>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/TG-Classification-1987.jpg|title=Trade Guide Classification 1987}}</ref> In 1988, he made his only American film appearance in ''[[Bloodstone (1988 film)|Bloodstone]]'', directed by [[Dwight Little]], in which he played an English-speaking Indian taxi driver.{{Sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |loc= chap. The 1980s}}<ref name="Weldon1996">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HrsbAQAAIAAJ |title=The Psychotronic Video Guide |last=Weldon |first=Michael |publisher=Titan Books |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-85286-770-6 |pages=66 |access-date=22 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203223429/http://books.google.com/books?id=HrsbAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Rajinikanth finished the decade with films including ''[[Rajadhi Raja (1989 film)|Rajadhi Raja]]'', ''[[Siva (1989 Tamil film)|Siva]]'', ''[[Raja Chinna Roja]]'' and ''[[Mappillai (1989 film)|Mappillai]]'' while also starring in a few [[Bollywood]] productions. ''Raja Chinna Roja'' was the first Indian film to feature [[Films with live action and animation|live action and animation]].{{sfn |Ramachandran |2012 |p=127}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2004/05/14/stories/2004051401350100.htm |title=Finger on people's pulse |last=S.R. Ashok Kumar |date=14 May 2004 |access-date=28 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221163631/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/fr/2004/05/14/stories/2004051401350100.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=21 February 2015}}</ref>

=== 1990–2010: Superstardom ===
[[File:Rajinikanth and Kamal Haasan at audio release of Shamitabh.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Rajinikanth with Kamal Haasan]]

Rajinikanth began the new decade with a mega blockbuster in ''[[Panakkaran]]'' (1990), which was a remake of [[Amitabh Bachchan]]'s 1981 film ''[[Laawaris (1981 film)|Laawaris]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |title=Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography |title-link=Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-14-342111-5 |location=New Delhi |pages=128 |author-link=Naman Ramachandran |orig-date=2012}}</ref> The film earned him his eighth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil. His next two Tamil films, the [[fantasy film|fantasy comedy]] ''[[Athisaya Piravi]]'', (a remake of [[Chiranjeevi]]'s 1988 film ''[[Yamudiki Mogudu (1988 film)|Yamudiki Mogudu]]'') which also released in 1990 and the family drama ''[[Dharma Durai (1991 film)|Dharmadorai]]'' (1991), did above-average business at the box office. His stint with Bollywood continued since the past decade as he went on to star in more Hindi films. ''[[Hum (1991 film)|Hum]]'' released in 1991 saw him doing the second main lead with [[Amitabh Bachchan]] became an inspiration for ''Baashha''.<ref name="IndiaJanDay">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/15/stories/2006121506571400.htm |title=It's India-Japan Friendship Year |date=15 December 2006 |access-date=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520065653/http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/15/stories/2006121506571400.htm |archive-date=20 May 2007 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=ta}}</ref> In 1991, he worked with [[Mani Ratnam]] in ''[[Thalapathi]]'', which was heavily inspired by the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref name="thalapathi">{{Cite web |url=http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/jun/09/slide-show-1-looking-at-mani-ratnams-landmark-movies.htm |title=Looking at Mani Ratnam's landmark movies&nbsp;– Rediff.com Movies |date=9 June 2010 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006132648/http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/jun/09/slide-show-1-looking-at-mani-ratnams-landmark-movies.htm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=30 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/tamil-superstar-rajnikant-turns-60-fans-celebrate/553338/2 |title=Tamil superstar Rajnikant turns 60, fans celebrate |date=12 December 2009 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326003855/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/tamil-superstar-rajnikant-turns-60-fans-celebrate/553338/2 |archive-date=26 March 2010}}</ref> in which he co-starred with actor [[Mammooty]]; the film dealt with the friendship between two unknown characters based on [[Karna]] and [[Duryodhana]], respectively,<ref name="thalapathi" /> and was set in a more contemporary milieu and was both critically acclaimed and successful upon release.<ref name="rebel_image">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2010/10/24/stories/2010102450020100.htm |title=Magazine : He's back |last=K. Hariharan |date=24 October 2010 |access-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028131931/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2010/10/24/stories/2010102450020100.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=28 October 2010}}</ref> He received his ninth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for the film. He went on to appear in remakes of films from other languages, mostly from Hindi and Telugu. ''[[Annaamalai]]'', which released in 1992, was yet another friendship-centric film and was loosely based on the 1987 Bollywood film ''[[Khudgarz]]''.<ref>{{cite news|last=Suganth|first=M|date=27 June 2017|title=Without Annamalai, there wouldn't be Baashha|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/without-annamalai-there-wouldnt-be-baashha/articleshow/59322761.cms|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=28 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228223001/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/without-annamalai-there-wouldnt-be-baashha/articleshow/59322761.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The film was the first to have the ''Superstar'' graphic title card.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/story-behind-rajinikanths-iconic-title-card-superstar-rajinikanth/articleshow/92784388.cms|title=Story Behind Rajinikanth's Iconic Title Card 'Superstar Rajinikanth'|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=10 July 2022}}</ref> He received his tenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for the film. ''[[Mannan (film)|Mannan]]'', directed by [[P. Vasu]], a remake of Kannada actor [[Dr. Rajkumar|Rajkumar]]'s 1986 blockbuster ''[[Anuraga Aralithu]]'', also was released in 1992 and became a box office success. Rajinikanth wrote his first screenplay for the film ''[[Valli (film)|Valli]]'' (1993), in which he also made a special appearance. He also starred in the film ''[[Yajaman]]'', in which he played the role of Vaanavaraayan, a village chieftain. His romantic-comedy ''[[Veera (1994 film)|Veera]]'' (1994) was controversial for its climax but went on to become one of the highest-grossing films in 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/38534/inspiration-remakes.html |title=Inspiration for remakes |last=Megha Shenoy |date=4 April 2011 |website=[[The Deccan Herald]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021111848/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/38534/inspiration-remakes.html |archive-date=21 October 2012 |access-date=26 February 2013}}</ref> That year, he earned his eleventh nomination for the [[Filmfare Awards|Filmfare]] Award for Best Actor – Tamil for the action-drama ''[[Uzhaippali]]''.

He joined hands with [[Suresh Krishna (director)|Suresh Krishna]] for ''[[Baashha]]'' (1995), which emerged as an industry record,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-working-with-rajinikanth-baasha-director-tells-all/20121212.htm |title=Working with Rajinikanth: Baasha director tells all |date=12 December 2012 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208151126/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-working-with-rajinikanth-baasha-director-tells-all/20121212.htm |archive-date=8 February 2013 |access-date=26 February 2013}}</ref> and is routinely touted by fans and critics alike as a major-hit, as the film elevated him from being just another very popular actor to nearly demigod status among the masses.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Rajinikanth-Old-is-gold/articleshow/4138227.cms? |title=Rajinikanth: Old is gold |last=Pillai |first=Sreedhar |date=17 February 2009 |work=The Times of India |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114114139/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Rajinikanth-Old-is-gold/articleshow/4138227.cms |archive-date=14 January 2016}}</ref> He made a cameo in ''[[Peddarayudu]]'' for his friend [[Mohan Babu]] and also helped him in obtaining the remake rights. The same year, he acted in yet another gangster film, ''[[Aatank Hi Aatank]]'' with [[Aamir Khan]] which was also his last Hindi film in a major role till date.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mio.to//album/Aandavan+%282000%29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904042748/http://mio.to/album/Aandavan+%282000%29|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 September 2014|title=Aandavan (2000) - Deva|via=mio.to}}</ref> His film ''[[Muthu (film)|Muthu]]'', a remake of [[Mohanlal]]'s blockbuster Malayalam film ''[[Thenmavin Kombathu]]'', was another commercial success, directed by [[K. S. Ravikumar]] and produced by K. Balachander, and became the first Tamil film to be dubbed into Japanese, as ''Mutu: Odoru Maharaja''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mid-day.com/photos/b-town-specials/happy-birthdayrajinikanth/2/ |title=Happy birthday, Rajinikanth! |website=[[Mid-Day]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014211458/http://www.mid-day.com/photos/b-town-specials/happy-birthdayrajinikanth/2/ |archive-date=14 October 2013 |access-date=9 October 2013}}</ref> The film grossed a record US$1.6&nbsp;million in Japan in 1998 and was responsible for creating a large Japanese fan-base for the actor.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/brand-rajinikanth/895433/0 |title=Brand Rajinikanth |last=S Saroj Kumar |date=4 January 2012 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006113614/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/brand-rajinikanth/895433/0 |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> ''Muthu''{{'}}s success in [[Japan]] led American news magazine ''[[Newsweek]]'' to comment in a 1999 article that Rajinikanth had "supplanted [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] as Japan's trendiest heartthrob".<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/1999/05/09/dancing-maharajas.html "Dancing Maharajas".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125150815/http://www.newsweek.com/1999/05/09/dancing-maharajas.html |date=25 November 2010 }} ''Newsweek''. 10 May 1999.</ref> During a visit to Japan in 2006, Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] acknowledged the success of ''Muthu'' in the country during a speech, justifying the positive [[India-Japan relations|relationship between the two nations]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/14prem.htm |title=When the PM wowed Japan's parliament |last=Prem Panicker |date=14 December 2006 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805172727/http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/dec/14prem.htm |archive-date=5 August 2012 |access-date=8 January 2012}}</ref> He received his twelfth and thirteenth nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for his performances in ''Baashha'' and ''Muthu''.

He also entered [[Bengali film industry|Bengali cinema]] through ''[[Bhagya Debata]]'', which was released at the end of 1995. 1997's ''[[Arunachalam (film)|Arunachalam]]'', another commercial success, earned him his fourteenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil. Rajinikanth released his last film of the millennium with ''[[Padayappa]]'' (1999), which went on to become a blockbuster success, and earned him his fifteenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil. It starred [[Ramya Krishnan]] and [[Soundarya]], the former critically acclaimed for her performance. It was also the last prominent role for veteran Tamil actor [[Sivaji Ganesan]].

After a brief pause, Rajinikanth starred in ''[[Baba (2002 film)|Baba]]'' in 2002, for which he had also written the screenplay.<ref name="baba">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/08/16/stories/2002081600960300.htm |title=Baba |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=16 August 2002 |access-date=24 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225032939/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/08/16/stories/2002081600960300.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=25 December 2014}}</ref> Released with much fanfare and hype at the time, the film featured a story revolving around the reforming of a gangster, later revealed to be the reincarnation of the Hindu saint [[Mahavatar Babaji]], and fights against political corruption.<ref name=baba/> It fell short of market expectations and the high bids reportedly translated to heavy losses for the distributors. Rajinikanth himself repaid the losses incurred by the distributors.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/may/03gv.htm |title=Film producer GV commits suicide |last=N Sathiya Moorthy |date=3 May 2003 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170107125855/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/may/03gv.htm |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=17 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/05/12/stories/2004051200960100.htm |title=Superstar wannabes |last=Sudhish Kamath |date=12 May 2004 |access-date=17 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001064811/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/05/12/stories/2004051200960100.htm |archive-date=1 October 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> The film was received with comments such as "the bloom was off the rose" and that "the gold does not glitter any more".<ref name="Will Sivaji be Rajini">{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jun/05msg.htm |title=Will Sivaji be Rajini's biggest hit?- History |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607142307/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jun/05msg.htm |archive-date=7 June 2007 |access-date=6 May 2007}}</ref> [[Pattali Makkal Katchi]] (PMK) leader [[S. Ramadoss]] condemned him for smoking and posing with [[beedi]]s in the film. He was criticised for spoiling the Tamil youth by glorifying smoking and drinking. PMK volunteers attacked the theatres which screened the film and usurped film rolls and burned them.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/Mar232004/n7.asp |title=Rajini keeps everyone guessing |date=23 March 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309043030/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/Mar232004/n7.asp |archive-date=9 March 2007 |access-date=5 April 2007}}</ref>

Two years later, Rajinikanth signed up for P. Vasu's ''[[Chandramukhi]]'' (2005), a remake of the [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam film]] ''[[Manichitrathazhu]]''. Upon release the film was highly successful at the box office, and in 2007 it set the record of being the longest running Tamil film.<ref name="The Final Verdict">{{Cite web |url=http://sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=13736924 |title=The Final Verdict&nbsp;– History |date=8 May 2005 |website=[[Sify]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224110012/http://www.sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=13736924 |archive-date=24 December 2014 |access-date=24 February 2013}}</ref> ''Chandramukhi'' was also dubbed in [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and in German as ''Der Geisterjäger'' and released in the respective nations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2006/04/02/rajnis-chandramukhi-in-turkish-and-german-1143979538.html |title=Rajni's 'Chandramukhi' in Turkish and German |date=2 April 2006 |publisher=[[Oneindia.in]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026145318/http://news.oneindia.in/2006/04/02/rajnis-chandramukhi-in-turkish-and-german-1143979538.html |archive-date=26 October 2014 |access-date=7 June 2011}}</ref> Following ''Chandramukhi''{{'}}s release, it was reported that [[AVM Productions]] was set to produce a film directed by [[S. Shankar|Shankar]] starring Rajinikanth – the largest collaboration yet for a Tamil film. The film was titled ''[[Sivaji (film)|Sivaji]]'' and was released in the summer of 2007, following two years of filming and production. It became the first Tamil film to be charted as one of the "top-ten best films" of the United Kingdom and [[South Africa]] box offices upon release.<ref name="United Kingdom Box Office 15–17 June 2007">{{Cite web |url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/uk/?yr=2007&wk=24&p=.htm |title=United Kingdom Box Office June 15–17, 2007 |publisher=[[Box Office Mojo]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070626043750/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/uk/?yr=2007&wk=24&p=.htm |archive-date=26 June 2007 |access-date=18 June 2007}}</ref><ref name="South Africa Box Office 3–5 August 2007">{{Cite web |url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/southafrica/?yr=2007&wk=31&p=.htm |title=South Africa Box Office August 3–5, 2007 |publisher=Box Office Mojo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024011722/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/southafrica/?yr=2007&wk=31&p=.htm |archive-date=24 October 2007 |access-date=8 June 2007}}</ref> Rajinikanth received a salary of {{INRConvert|260|m|year=2007}}, for his role in the film highest in his film career at that time.<ref name="Neha">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Bollywood/Rapchik-Rajinikanth-mind-it/Article1-606098.aspx |title=Rapchik Rajinikanth, mind it! |last=Sharma |first=Neha |date=29 September 2010 |work=[[The Hindustan Times]] |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224090431/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Bollywood/Rapchik-Rajinikanth-mind-it/Article1-606098.aspx |archive-date=24 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/What-makes-Rajinikanth-the-Boss/articleshow/6762996.cms |title=What makes Rajinikanth the Boss? |last=Varma |first=Anuradha |date=17 October 2010 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=13 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104110543/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-17/news-interviews/28228019_1_hero-worship-mgr-sivaji-ganesan |archive-date=4 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/1062351/report-after-brangelina-its-rajinikanth |title=After Brangelina, it's Rajinikanth |last=Vilakudy |first=Rajaneesh |date=5 November 2006 |website=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014080020/http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/1062351/report-after-brangelina-its-rajinikanth |archive-date=14 October 2013 |access-date=9 October 2013}}</ref> He received his sixteenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for his performance in the film. During the production of ''Sivaji'', [[Soundarya Rajinikanth]] announced her intention of producing a computer-generated imagery film starring an animated version of her father titled ''Sultan: The Warrior''. The film was set for release in 2008,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/news/2017/bangalore-molestation-case-esha-gupta-slams-abu-hamzi-son-farhan-for-his-insensitive-comments-251010.html |title=Rajinikanth's Sultan rechristened as Hara |date=25 October 2010 |work=OneIndia |access-date=27 March 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707231049/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/tamil/exclusive/2010/rajinikanth-sultan-rechristened-hara-251010.html |archive-date=7 July 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-12-13/news/27690498_1_soundarya-rajnikant-film-sultan-the-warrior |title=Animated film on Rajnikant to be released in December 2008 |date=13 December 2007 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |access-date=9 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015023424/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-12-13/news/27690498_1_soundarya-rajnikant-film-sultan-the-warrior |archive-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> however, it entered [[development hell]], and its development status would become unknown over the next few years.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/The-day-Rajini-took-ill/articleshow/12910784.cms |title=The day Rajini took ill |last=Ramanujam |first=Srinivas |date=29 April 2012 |access-date=9 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015111052/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-04-29/news-interviews/31475535_1_superstar-rajinikanth-rana-soundarya-rajinikanth |archive-date=15 October 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Rajinikanth 2010 - still 113555 crop.jpg|thumbnail|Rajinikanth at the [[Enthiran (soundtrack)|''Enthiran'' (2010) soundtrack]] release event in [[Mumbai]]|alt=|left]]
He worked with P. Vasu again for ''[[Kuselan]]'', a remake of the Malayalam film ''[[Kadha Parayumbol]]'', which was made simultaneously in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Kathanayakudu (2008 film)|Kathanayakudu]]'', in which Rajinikanth played an extended cameo role as Ashok Kumar, a film star in the Indian cinema, and as a best friend to the film's protagonist. According to Rajinikanth, the film somewhat narrated his early life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/aug/01ssk3.htm |title=Pasupathy, the real star of Kuselan |last=P |first=Krishnakumar |date=1 August 2008 |website=Rediff.com |publisher=Rediff |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802201524/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/aug/01ssk3.htm |archive-date=2 August 2011 |access-date=12 June 2011}}</ref> The film, however, performed poorly at box offices and led to many distributors incurring major losses.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/keyword/kuselan/featured/3 |title=Kollywood in a flap |last=Pillai |first=Sreedhar |date=20 August 2008 |access-date=24 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616205822/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/keyword/kuselan/featured/3 |archive-date=16 June 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=dead}}</ref> Rajinikanth also stated that he would work with [[Pyramid Saimira]] again to compensate for ''Kuselan''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?238204 |title=Hope Floats For SRK |last=Iyengar |first=Pushpa |publisher=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|The Outlook]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028041643/http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?238204 |archive-date=28 October 2011 |access-date=30 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.bangaloremirror.com/index.aspx?Page=article&sectname=News%20-%20City&sectid=10&contentid=2008121620081216010601113f7794623 |title=Kuselan may spark Tamil film boycott |last=S |first=Shyam Prasad |date=16 December 2008 |work=[[Bangalore Mirror]] |access-date=24 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524180750/http://www.bangaloremirror.com/index.aspx?Page=article&sectname=News%20-%20City&sectid=10&contentid=2008121620081216010601113f7794623 |archive-date=24 May 2013}}</ref>{{Quote box
| quote = "Is there anything left to be said about a man who, at 61, still manages to star in one of the most successful films of the year, not just in the south, but across India? Superstar Rajni once again proved that he is the actor with the Midas touch with the sci-fi flick Endhiran, where he played an ambitious scientist, a naive robot and an evil android bent on destroying the world [...] He did it with such aplomb that he's been the talk of the town for months. He might do one film in two years, but when he does, he pulls out all the stops."
| source = —[[Rediff.com]] on Rajinikanth's performance in ''[[Enthiran]]'' (2010)<ref name="Rajini in Enthiran">{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-best-tamil-actors-of-2010/20101214.htm |title=Rajinikanth in Endhiran |date=14 December 2010 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527010449/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-best-tamil-actors-of-2010/20101214.htm |archive-date=27 May 2011 |access-date=12 July 2011}}</ref>
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Rajinikanth worked again with Shankar for the science fiction film ''[[Enthiran]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/chulbul-pandey-now-lives-in-chennai/729300/ |title=Chulbul Pandey Now Lives in Chennai |last=Gupta |first=Shubhra |date=26 December 2010 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=2 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211152620/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/chulbul-pandey-now-lives-in-chennai/729300/ |archive-date=11 February 2011}}</ref> The film was released worldwide in 2010 as the most expensive Indian film ever made, ultimately emerging an ''All Time Blockbuster'' and the second highest-grossing film in India of its time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=7234|title=Ponniyan Selvan Part 1 Is A Historic BLOCKBUSTER For The Tamil Film Industry|publisher=Box Office India}}</ref><ref name="162crores">{{Cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/Ndtv-Show-Special-Story.aspx?from=bottomrelated&ID=538&StoryID=ENTEN20100154445 |title=Rajini's Endhiran: A sell out in Chennai |publisher=[[NDTV]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106150430/http://movies.ndtv.com/Ndtv-Show-Special-Story.aspx?from=bottomrelated&ID=538&StoryID=ENTEN20100154445 |archive-date=6 November 2012 |access-date=26 September 2010}}</ref> Rajinikanth was paid a remuneration of {{INRConvert|450|m|year=2010}} for the film.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/avatar-technology-powers-rajnikant-in-enthir/673748/ |title=Avatar technology powers Rajnikant in Enthiran |date=28 August 2010 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=24 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124071605/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/avatar-technology-powers-rajnikant-in-enthir/673748 |archive-date=24 November 2010}}</ref> He received his seventeenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for his performance in the film. The film's success lead to the [[Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad]] to use the film as a case study to analyse the business of cinema and its success story in a post-graduate elective management course called ''Contemporary Film Industry: A Business Perspective''. The course would also study ''Muthu''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rajinikants-Robot-part-of-IIM-A-course/articleshow/7147893.cms |title=Rajinikanth's Enthiran&nbsp;– Case study in IIM A |date=23 December 2010 |access-date=9 April 2011 |location=India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122818/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-23/india/28227042_1_case-study-iim-rajinikanth |archive-date=25 October 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 2011-present: Career fluctuations and return to success ===

In January 2011, Rajinikanth was slated to appear in ''Rana'', a period film to be produced by [[Soundarya Rajinikanth]] and directed by [[K. S. Ravikumar]], who would work with the actor for a third time.<ref name=raana/> During the [[principal photography]] of the film on 29 April 2011, he suffered a mild [[foodborne illness]] on the sets, which led to vomiting, dehydration, and exhaustion.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_rajinikanth-admitted-to-hospital_1537595 |title=Rajinikanth admitted to hospital&nbsp;– Entertainment&nbsp;– DNA |date=29 April 2011 |website=Daily News and Analysis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818115734/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_rajinikanth-admitted-to-hospital_1537595 |archive-date=18 August 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011}}</ref> He was treated at St. Isabel's Hospital for a day before being discharged.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/rajinikanth-hospitalised-news-news-le3q2ebeebh.html |title=Rajinikanth hospitalised |website=[[Sify]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811141240/http://www.sify.com/movies/rajinikanth-hospitalised-news-news-le3q2ebeebh.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 |access-date=1 July 2011}}</ref> Five days later, he was rushed to the same hospital again after suffering from breathlessness and fever.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/rajinikanth-again-hospitalised-133744-2011-05-13 |title=Actor Rajinikanth hospitalised again |last=ITGD Bureau |date=14 May 2011 |website=[[India Today]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014172404/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/rajinikanth-again-hospitalised/1/138159.html |archive-date=14 October 2013 |url-status=live |access-date=1 July 2011}}</ref> He was diagnosed with [[bronchitis]] and was kept at the hospital for a week, while also spending a few days in an [[intensive care unit]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Rajini-writes-letter-to-fans-says-he-will-be-back-soon/Article1-710881.aspx |title=Rajini writes letter to fans, says he will be back soon |date=18 June 2011 |work=The Hindustan Times |access-date=1 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110621070954/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Rajini-writes-letter-to-fans-says-he-will-be-back-soon/Article1-710881.aspx |archive-date=21 June 2011}}</ref> Several conflicting reports of discharge dates arose, as well as claims of Rajinikanth's health deteriorating.<ref name="ndtv" /> Two days after his last discharge, Rajinikanth was admitted to the [[Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute]] on 16 May 2011 for recurring respiratory and gastrointestinal problems.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/modi-to-visit-rajini-in-hospital-105754 |title=Modi To Visit Rajini in Hospital |publisher=NDTV |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216130427/http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/modi-to-visit-rajini-in-hospital-105754 |archive-date=16 December 2013 |access-date=1 July 2011}}</ref> The hospital maintained that Rajinikanth was in stable condition and showed positive response to treatment.<ref name="ndtv">{{Cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?id=ENTEN20110175793&keyword=regional&section=Movies&subcatg=MOVIESINDIA |title=Rajinikanth's Condition Stable: Hospital |publisher=NDTV |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210090601/http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/rajinikanth-s-condition-stable-hospital-106385 |archive-date=10 February 2014 |access-date=1 July 2011}}</ref> It was widely reported that he required a [[kidney transplantation]], which was later denied by [[Dhanush]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-01/chennai/29608004_1_dhanush-isabel-hospital-national-award |title=Rajini will soon be back to complete 'Raana': Dhanush |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=1 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905124113/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-01/chennai/29608004_1_dhanush-isabel-hospital-national-award |archive-date=5 September 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 21 May 2011, [[Aishwarya Rajinikanth]] released a photo of her and Rajinikanth in his hospital ward, both posing with a [[thumb signal|thumbs-up]], responding to fans' negative reaction to news reports.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-23/chennai/29573758_1_private-ward-icu-senior-doctor |title=Rajinikanth out of ICU, moved into private ward |date=23 May 2011 |access-date=1 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905124119/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-23/chennai/29573758_1_private-ward-icu-senior-doctor |archive-date=5 September 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=dead}}</ref> The hospital restricted unauthorised visitors.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Rajini-getting-better-say-docs-as-fans-pray-for-their-superstar/articleshow/8172875.cms |title=Rajini getting better, say docs as fans pray for their superstar |date=6 May 2011 |access-date=1 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122809/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-06/chennai/29516197_1_rajinikanth-triple-role-enthiran |archive-date=25 October 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref> Rajinikanth's brother, Sathyanarayana Rao Gaekwad, reported that the cause of the sudden illness was due to stress from rapid weight-loss and changes in diet, as well as [[alcohol withdrawal syndrome|withdrawal of alcohol consumption]] and [[smoking cessation]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/rajini-suffering-from-lung-liver-ailment-brother-106258 |title=Rajini suffering from lung, liver ailment: Brother |date=17 May 2011 |publisher=NDTV |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520205352/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/rajini-suffering-from-lung-liver-ailment-brother-106258 |archive-date=20 May 2011 |access-date=1 July 2011}}</ref> After addressing fans in a 4-minute [[digital recording|digitally recorded]] [[voice message]] to the media, Rajinikanth, under the advice of Amitabh Bachchan, travelled from [[Chennai]] to [[Singapore]] with his family on 21 May 2011, where he was to undergo further treatment for [[nephropathy]] at [[Mount Elizabeth Hospital]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/international-news-of-the-week-111060400093_1.html |title=International news of the week |date=4 June 2011 |work=[[Business Standard]] |access-date=17 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620163528/http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/international-news-of-the-week-111060400093_1.html |archive-date=20 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/rajini-in-singapore-hospital-on-big-b-s-advice_709858.html |title=Rajini in Singapore hospital on Big B's advice |date=30 May 2011 |publisher=[[Zee News]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712183018/http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/rajini-in-singapore-hospital-on-big-b-s-advice_709858.html |archive-date=12 July 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011}}</ref> After spending over two weeks at the hospital, he was finally discharged on 15 June 2011 and continued to recuperate in Singapore, before returning to Chennai on 13 July 2011.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/rajnikanth-fine-recovering-well-dhanush/article2065995.ece |title=Rajnikanth fine, recovering well: Dhanush |date=31 May 2011 |work=The Hindu |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015080939/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/rajnikanth-fine-recovering-well-dhanush/article2065995.ece |archive-date=15 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/rajinikanth-to-return-tonight-118777 |title=Rajinikanth to return tonight |date=14 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102184246/http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/rajinikanth-to-return-tonight-118777 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |access-date=9 October 2013}}</ref>
Despite several failed attempts to restart ''Rana'' upon his return, Rajinikanth reprised his ''Enthiran'' character, Chitti, in the Bollywood science-fiction film ''[[Ra.One]]'' (2011) in a guest appearance alongside [[Shah Rukh Khan]] and [[Kareena Kapoor]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/rajinikanths-cameo-ra-one/articleshow/10003322.cms |title=Rajinikanth's cameo RA.One |last=Rudrappa |first=Chetan |date=16 September 2011 |access-date=2 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122823/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-16/news-interviews/30164710_1_superhero-flick-raone-rajinikanth |archive-date=25 October 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref> In November 2011, it was decided that ''Rana'' would be shelved in favour of a new project, titled ''[[Kochadaiiyaan]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/news-interviews/Rana-a-triple-delight-for-Rajini-fans/articleshow/7385003.cms |title=Rana, a triple delight for Rajini fans |last=Bharti Dubey, TNN, 29 January 2011, 05.42&nbsp;pm IST |date=29 January 2011 |access-date=30 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524072144/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-01-29/news-interviews/28378236_1_rajinikanth-film-muthu-and-padayappa |archive-date=24 May 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref> The film became a huge disaster at the box office.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/now-kochadaiyaan-producers-in-financial-tangle/article6729035.ece |title=Now Kochadaiyaan producers in financial tangle |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=18 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107130420/http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/now-kochadaiyaan-producers-in-financial-tangle/article6729035.ece |archive-date=7 January 2017 |date=27 December 2014 |last1=Kandavel |first1=Sangeetha}}</ref> The [[motion capture]] film, which is the first of its type in India, was released in 2014 to positive reviews.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kochadaiiyaan-review-roundup-commendable-attempt-by-soundarya-worth-watching-600846 |title='Kochadaiiyaan' Review Roundup: Commendable Attempt by Soundarya; Worth Watching |date=23 May 2014 |work=[[International Business Times]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107130410/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kochadaiiyaan-review-roundup-commendable-attempt-by-soundarya-worth-watching-600846 |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=24 May 2014}}</ref> ''Kochadaiiyaan'', and the 3D release of ''Sivaji'' in 2012,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/movie-review-rajinikanth-s-sivaji-3d-303788 |title=Movie Review: Rajinikanth's Sivaji 3D |date=11 December 2012 |website=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]] |publisher=[[NDTV]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527015330/http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/movie-review-rajinikanth-s-sivaji-3d-303788 |archive-date=27 May 2014 |access-date=14 April 2014}}</ref> made Rajinikanth the first Indian actor to have appeared in four different forms of world cinema: [[black-and-white]], [[colour film|colour]], [[3D film|3D]] and [[motion capture]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/130403/entertainment-kollywood/article/rajini-%E2%80%98cannes%E2%80%99 |title=Rajini 'Cannes' |date=3 April 2013 |work=Deccan Chronicle |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310063752/http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/130403/entertainment-kollywood/article/rajini-%E2%80%98cannes%E2%80%99 |archive-date=10 March 2014 |access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref> Following the completion of ''Kochadaiiyaan'', Rajinikanth began work in Ravikumar's next directorial venture, titled ''[[Lingaa]].''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/entertainment/bollywood/Sona-presses-the-rewind-button/articleshow/34320366.cms |title=Sona presses the rewind button |date=28 April 2014 |work=Mumbai Mirror |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001062519/http://www.mumbaimirror.com/entertainment/bollywood/Sona-presses-the-rewind-button/articleshow/34320366.cms |archive-date=1 October 2014 |access-date=2 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/superstar-rajinikanths-next-is-lingaa/article5960175.ece |title=Superstar Rajinikanth's next is Lingaa |date=29 April 2014 |newspaper=The Hindu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920045726/http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/superstar-rajinikanths-next-is-lingaa/article5960175.ece |archive-date=20 September 2014 |access-date=2 May 2014 |last1=Subramanian |first1=Karthik}}</ref> The film was released on 12 December 2014, coinciding with his birthday,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/lingaa-stamped-u-rating-rajinikanth-starrer-confirmed-12-december-release-615162 |title='Lingaa' Stamped with 'U' Rating; Rajinikanth Starrer Confirmed for 12 December Release |date=26 November 2014 |work=International Business Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220031320/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/lingaa-stamped-u-rating-rajinikanth-starrer-confirmed-12-december-release-615162 |archive-date=20 February 2015 |access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> and received mixed reviews from critics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/I-take-responsibility-flaws-in-Lingaa-KS-Ravikumar/articleshow/45585327.cms |title=I take responsibility for the book scene in Lingaa: KS Ravikumar |date=21 December 2014 |website=The Times of India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225122829/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/I-take-responsibility-flaws-in-Lingaa-KS-Ravikumar/articleshow/45585327.cms |archive-date=25 December 2014 |access-date=29 December 2014}}</ref>

After a two-year absence from big screen, Rajinikanth's next film was director [[Pa. Ranjith]]'s crime drama ''[[Kabali (film)|Kabali]]'', produced by [[S. Thanu]]. The film was released in July 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-kabali-review-round-up-this-is-what-critics-are-saying-about-the-rajinikanth-blockbuster-2236945 |title=Kabali review round-up: This is what critics are saying about the Rajinikanth blockbuster |date=22 July 2016 |work=Daily News and Analysis |access-date=25 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725052356/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-kabali-review-round-up-this-is-what-critics-are-saying-about-the-rajinikanth-blockbuster-2236945 |archive-date=25 July 2016}}</ref> The film became the [[List of Tamil films of 2016|highest grossing Tamil film]] of the year grossing over {{INRConvert|300|c|lk=c|year=2020}} and became the [[List of highest-grossing Tamil films|fifth highest-grossing Tamil film of all time]] before being surpassed by his another film ''[[2.0 (film)|2.0]]''.{{#tag:ref|Box office gross values of {{INR}}650 crore were reported for ''Kabali'' in the first 13 days by several organisations including ''Financial Express'' and ''Indian Express'',<ref name="Financial Express 650 crore 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/photos/entertainment-gallery/334390/kabali-box-office-collections-at-over-rs-650-cr-rajinikanth-starrer-is-now-no-1-movie-in-india/4/|title=Rajinikanth starrer Kabali box office collections rise to over Rs 650 crore, turns No. 1 movie in India – The Financial Express|date=1 August 2016|access-date=7 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Financial Express 650 crore 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/photos/entertainment-gallery/334390/kabali-box-office-collections-at-over-rs-650-cr-rajinikanth-starrer-is-now-no-1-movie-in-india/3/|title=Rajinikanth starrer Kabali box office collections rise to over Rs 650 crore, turns No. 1 movie in India – The Financial Express|date=1 August 2016|access-date=7 August 2016}}</ref> which were more than double the estimates made by other sources.<ref name="IBT 675 questioned">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kabali-box-office-collection-reports-rajinikanth-starrer-raking-rs-675-crore-13-days-are-fake-688881|title='Kabali' box office collection: Reports of Rajinikanth-starrer raking in Rs. 675 crore in 13 days are fake|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805214307/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kabali-box-office-collection-reports-rajinikanth-starrer-raking-rs-675-crore-13-days-are-fake-688881|archive-date=5 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> ''International Business Times'' (IBT) and ''[[Firstpost]]'' criticized these estimates as inflated, explaining the discrepancy as due in part to the addition of "pre-release business" figures, such as music and satellite rights sales of {{INR}}200 crore,<ref name="Firstpost 600 questioned" /> being factored into the box office sales totals.<ref name="IBT 675 questioned" /> ''Firstpost'' wrote, "More conservative estimates put Kabali's collections at around Rs 300 crores from worldwide ticket sales."<ref name="Firstpost 600 questioned">{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/rajinikanth-kabali-has-earned-rs-600-crore-at-the-global-box-office-or-has-it-2932578.html|title=Rajinikanth's Kabali has earned Rs 600 crore at the global box office. Or has it? – Firstpost|date=3 August 2016|access-date=7 August 2016}}</ref> IBT's analysts in August 2016 estimated the film's worldwide gross total of its first 13 days at around {{INR|350 crore}} (US${{To USD|3500|IND|year=2016}} million).<ref name="IBT 350 crore">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kabali-box-office-collection-rajinikanth-starrer-beats-7-big-records-baahubali-bahubali-688964 |title='Kabali' Box Office collection |work=International Business Times India|date=4 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805071102/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kabali-box-office-collection-rajinikanth-starrer-beats-7-big-records-baahubali-bahubali-688964|archive-date=5 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Figures given in December 2016 by ''Financial Express'' indicated an estimated domestic gross of {{INR}}215 crore and an overseas gross of {{INR}}262 crore, which total {{INR}}477 crore.<ref name="IE Dec 2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/rajinikanth-birthday-today-as-superstar-rajni-turns-65-wishes-pour-in/471636/|title=Rajinikanth birthday today; As superstar Rajni turns 65, wishes pour&nbsp;in|date=12 December 2016}}</ref> A figure of USD$77 million given by ''Forbes'' in May 2017 converted to approximately {{INR}}493–499 crore.<ref name="Forbes 77 mil USD">{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2017/05/11/armies-of-ajith-fans-mobilize-to-blast-vivegam-teaser-to-record-views/#4d79d92716eb|title=Armies Of Ajith Fans Mobilize To Blast 'Vivegam' Teaser To Record Views|access-date=13 May 2017|work=Forbes|quote=Kabali, which starred blockbuster hero Rajinikanth, went on to gross nearly 5 billion rupees (US$77 million) worldwide, making it the 6th highest grossing Indian film in history at the time.}}</ref> According to ''International Business Times'' in October 2017, ''Kabali''{{'}}s final worldwide gross was around {{INRConvert|286|c}}.<ref name="IBT Oct 2017">{{cite news|last=Upadhyaya|first=Prakash|title=Mersal box office collection: A crowning-moment for Vijay as his film joins Rs 200-crore club|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/mersal-12-days-box-office-collection-crowning-vijay-film-joins-rs-200-crore-club-2nd-weekend-747432|work=[[International Business Times]]|date=30 October 2017}}</ref>|group=n|name=Kabali}} Also, at the [[Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards]], the film was nominated at five categories winning all of them,<ref>{{cite web |date=14 January 2017|last=Arul|title=Rajinikanth, Vijay, Sasikumar at Vikatan awards - Photos|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/photos/rajinikanth-vijay-sasikumar-vikatan-awards-9850-slide-57502|access-date=31 December 2020|website=IBTimes India|language=en}}</ref> and also won five awards, at the [[Edison Awards (India)|Edison Awards]], and two nominations at the [[6th South Indian International Movie Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|title=SIIMA 2017 Nomination List&nbsp;– Tamil|url=http://siima.in/2017/nominations.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170531085328/http://siima.in/2017/nominations.html|archive-date=31 May 2017|access-date=31 May 2017|publisher=[[South Indian International Movie Awards]]}}</ref> He also received his eighteenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for his performance in the film.

In August 2016, it was announced that Rajinikanth and director Ranjith would work together again for a film with Dhanush as producer, titled ''[[Kaala (2018 film)|Kaala]]'', in which Rajinikanth plays a [[Dharavi]]-dwelling gangster who fights against corporate takeover of the slum.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/rajinikanthranjith-combo-under-dhanushs-production-soon/article9046675.ece Rajinikanth-Ranjith combo under Dhanush's production soon] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830160909/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/rajinikanthranjith-combo-under-dhanushs-production-soon/article9046675.ece |date=30 August 2016 }}. The Hindu (29 August 2016). Retrieved on 3 November 2016.</ref> The film was officially released on 7 June 2018 and received positive reviews from critics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/tamil-movies-kaala-box-office-update-rajinikanths-latest-offering-starts-picking-up-at-the-ticket-windows-3101544/|title=Rajinikanth's Kaala Witnesses an Upward Trend at the Box Office - Read Details|author=India com Entertainment desk|date=9 June 2018|website=India.com|language=en|access-date=26 April 2020}}</ref> In 2018 he also appeared in [[S. Shankar]]'s ''[[2.0 (film)|2.0]]'' reprising the roles of Dr. Vaseegaran and Chitti, alongside [[Akshay Kumar]] and [[Amy Jackson]].<ref name="TOI">{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Akshay-Kumar-plays-the-villain-in-Robot-2/articleshow/50203162.cms |title=Akshay Kumar plays the villain in 'Robot 2' |website=The Times of India |access-date=15 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613065129/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Akshay-Kumar-plays-the-villain-in-Robot-2/articleshow/50203162.cms |archive-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=live|last1=Iyer |first1=Meena }}</ref> The film was released on 29 November 2018 and was commercially successful at the box office. The film earned over {{INRConvert|117.34|c}} worldwide on its first day, which was the second-highest ever for an Indian film. The film crossed {{INRConvert|520|c|year=2018}} in its opening weekend to be the highest-grossing film worldwide for that week. The film also grossed over {{INRConvert|655.81|c}}{{Ndash}}{{INRConvert|800|c|lk=c}} at the box office became the [[List of Tamil films of 2018|highest-grossing Tamil film]] of the year and [[List of highest-grossing Tamil films|second highest grossing Tamil film of all time]].<ref>{{Cite news |title='2.0' final box office collection all format: The Rajinikanth starrer helmed by S. Shankar is the sixth highest grossing Indian film ever |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/box-office/2-0-final-box-office-collection-all-format-the-rajinikanth-starrer-helmed-by-s-shankar-is-the-sixth-highest-grossing-indian-film-ever/articleshow/67989955.cms |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> ''2.0'' is the [[List of highest-grossing films in India|fourth highest-grossing film in India]] and is the [[List of highest-grossing Indian films#Worldwide gross collection|seventh highest-grossing Indian film worldwide]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=4535|title=Top All Time India Grossers All Formats – 2.0 Second |website=Box Office India|access-date=25 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=4533|title=2.0 All India Update – Crosses 400 Crore NETT|website= Box Office India|access-date=25 December 2019}}</ref> In 2019, Rajinikanth starred in [[Karthik Subbaraj]]'s ''[[Petta (film)|Petta]]'', in which his performance received praise for his return to his vintage stereotypical style of acting and grossed over {{INRConvert|250|c}}, becoming the [[List of Tamil films of 2019|second highest-grossing Tamil film]] of 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/box-office/article/rs-1000-crore-thats-how-much-rajinikanths-three-films-grossed-at-the-worldwide-box-office-in-a-span-of-7-months/358526|title=Rs 1000 crore! That's how much Rajinikanth's three films grossed at the box office in a span of 7 months|website=timesnownews|date=2 February 2019|access-date=4 November 2019}}</ref> The combined gross earnings of ''Kaala'', ''2.0'' and ''[[Petta (film)|Petta]]'' by the end of January 2019 was determined to be over {{INR}}1000 crore according to trade analysts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/box-office/article/rs-1000-crore-thats-how-much-rajinikanths-three-films-grossed-at-the-worldwide-box-office-in-a-span-of-7-months/358526 |title=Rs 1000 crore! That's how much Rajinikanth's three films grossed at the worldwide box office in a span of 7 months &#124; Entertainment News |date=2 February 2019 |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202212029/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/box-office/article/rs-1000-crore-thats-how-much-rajinikanths-three-films-grossed-at-the-worldwide-box-office-in-a-span-of-7-months/358526 |archive-date=2 February 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Rajinikanth then worked with [[AR Murugadoss]] in the film ''[[Darbar (film)|Darbar]]'', alongside [[Nayanthara]] which released in 2020. He played the role of a police officer after 27 years since his last film as a police officer was the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film ''[[Pandian (film)|Pandian]]''. In spite of the huge expectations, the film received mixed to negative reviews and flopped at the box office.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 January 2020 |title=Darbar box office: Film ends up as a colossal flop, distributors plan to approach Rajinikanth |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/darbar-box-office-film-ends-up-as-a-colossal-flop-distributors-plan-to-approach-rajinikanth/story-j7miLvAkLvmFHhqd59cuLM.html|access-date=28 August 2020 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 January 2020 |title=Rajinikanth's Darbar is AR Murugadoss' failure |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/opinion-entertainment/rajinikanth-darbar-is-ar-murugadoss-failure-6208719/|access-date=28 August 2020 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> His 168th film was with director [[Siva (director)|Siva]], titled ''[[Annaatthe]]'' co-starring [[Nayanthara]] and [[Keerthy Suresh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/annaatthe|title=Annaatthe (2024)|website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]] }}</ref> The film was released on 4 November 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rajinikanth's Annaatthe to hit screens on November 4 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/rajinikanths-annaatthe-to-hit-screens-on-november-4/articleshow/80450919.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126184148/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/rajinikanths-annaatthe-to-hit-screens-on-november-4/articleshow/80450919.cms |archive-date=26 January 2021 |access-date=25 January 2021 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The film became a commercial success at the box office by grossing around {{INRConvert| 240|c|lk=c|year=2021}} beating the collections made by other Tamil films such as ''[[Master (2021 film)|Master]]'' and ''[[Maanaadu]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/rajinikanth-pays-surprise-visit-to-annaatthe-director-siruthai-siva-carries-this-gift-4540088.html|title=Rajinikanth Pays Surprise Visit to Annaatthe Director Siruthai Siva, Carries This Gift|website=[[News18]]|date=10 December 2021 |access-date=10 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Annaatthe Box Office Rajinikanth Starrer Becomes One Of The Biggest Blockbuster of The Year Enters 200 Crore Club |url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/annaatthe-box-office-rajinikanth-starrer-becomes-biggest-blockbuster-of-the-year-enters-%e2%82%b9200-crore-club-5096002/ |access-date=2022-01-03 |website=www.india.com |date=15 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=K. |first=Janani |date=14 November 2021 |title=Annaatthe box office collection Day 10: Rajinikanth film is still going strong |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/annaatthe-box-office-collection-day-10-rajinikanth-film-is-still-going-strong-1876495-2021-11-14 |access-date=14 November 2021 |website=India Today |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114040425/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/annaatthe-box-office-collection-day-10-rajinikanth-film-is-still-going-strong-1876495-2021-11-14 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After a two-year absence from big screen, his 169th film is ''[[Jailer (2023 Tamil film)|Jailer]]'', which was directed by [[Nelson Dilipkumar]]. He played a retired jailer in the film and it was released on 10 August 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 February 2022 |title=Rajinikanth teams up with Nelson for 'Thalaivar 169' |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/rajinikanth-teams-up-with-nelson-for-thalaivar-169/article38407701.ece |url-status=live |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210152043/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/rajinikanth-teams-up-with-nelson-for-thalaivar-169/article38407701.ece |archive-date=10 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2022 |title=Nelson-Rajinikanth's Thalaivar 169 titled Jailer |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/jun/17/nelson-rajinikanths-thalaivar-169-titled-jailer-32155.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619123732/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/jun/17/nelson-rajinikanths-thalaivar-169-titled-jailer-32155.html|archive-date=19 June 2022 |access-date=8 July 2022 |website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2022 |title=#Thalaivar169 by Nelson Dilipkumar titled Jailer |url=https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/06/17/thalaivar169-by-nelson-dilipkumar-titled-jailer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617083037/https://www.dtnext.in/cinema/2022/06/17/thalaivar169-by-nelson-dilipkumar-titled-jailer |archive-date=17 June 2022 |access-date=17 June 2022 |website=[[DT Next]]}}</ref> The film received predominantly positive reviews upon its release and achieved tremendous commercial success, grossing over ₹600 crores worldwide.<ref name="Jailer">{{Cite news |title='Jailer' box office collection grossed over Rs 600 crore |work=[[India Today]]|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/jailer-box-office-collection-day-29-rajinikanths-film-is-steady-despite-jawan-release-2432744-2023-09-08}}</ref> In 2024, he appeared in [[T. J. Gnanavel]]'s [[Action (genre)|action drama]] film ''[[Vettaiyan]]'' and did a guest appearance in his daughter's ([[Aishwarya Rajinikanth]]) [[Sport film|sports drama]] film ''[[Lal Salaam (2024 film)|Lal Salaam]]''.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/thalaivar-170-titled-lal-salaam-rajinikanth-takes-a-cameo-role-while-vishnu-vishal-and-vikranth-play-leads-in-aishwarya-rajinikanths-directorial/articleshow/95315078.cms | title='Thalaivar 170' titled 'Lal Salaam'; Rajinikanth takes a cameo role while Vishnu Vishal and Vikranth play leads in Aishwarya Rajinikanth's directorial | newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2023 |title='Thalaivar 170' pre-production work has reached the final stage |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/rajinikanth-to-speak-kanyakumari-tamil-in-thalaivar-170/articleshow/103864928.cms?from=mdr |access-date= |website=[[Times of India]]}}</ref> While the latter sank without a trace, ''Vettaiyan'' opened to positive critical reception, but underperformed commercially.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2024 |title=Lal Salaam box office Day 6: Aishwarya Rajinikanth's film continues its underwhelming run, yet to hit Rs 15 crore mark |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/lal-salaam-box-office-day-6-aishwarya-rajinikanths-film-continues-its-underwhelming-run-yet-to-hit-rs-15-crore-mark-9162609/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215060716/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/lal-salaam-box-office-day-6-aishwarya-rajinikanths-film-continues-its-underwhelming-run-yet-to-hit-rs-15-crore-mark-9162609/ |archive-date=15 February 2024 |access-date=15 February 2024 |website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> In 2025, he appeared in [[Lokesh Kanagaraj]]'s action thriller ''[[Coolie (2025 film)|Coolie]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 November 2024 |title=Lokesh Kanagaraj reveals Rajinikanth's 'Coolie' release plans |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/lokesh-kanagaraj-reveals-rajinikanths-coolie-release-plans/articleshow/115009604.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20241107081101/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/lokesh-kanagaraj-reveals-rajinikanths-coolie-release-plans/articleshow/115009604.cms |archive-date=7 November 2024 |access-date=4 January 2025 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> He is currently working on ''[[Jailer 2]]'' directed by [[Nelson Dilipkumar]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Verma |first=Rohan |date=2025-04-10 |title=Jailer 2 Release Date Buzz: Rajinikanth's Action Sequel Aiming For 2025 Or 2026, Fans Await Official Confirmation |url=https://www.koimoi.com/south-indian-cinema/jailer-2-release-date-buzz-rajinikanths-action-sequel-aiming-for-2025-or-2026-fans-await-official-confirmation/ |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=Koimoi |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Political career==
[[File:The Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh presented the Entertainer of the Year Award to Shri Rajnikanth, at the 'NDTV Indian of the Year Awards Function', in New Delhi on January 17, 2008.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Rajinikanth (left) receiving the 2008 NDTV Entertainer of the Year Award from Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]]]]
It was speculated that Rajinikanth would enter politics in 1995. He decided against it and declared that if he entered politics now, it would result in a lot of confusion and that he would not be able to serve the people and fulfil their expectations. However, he added that if Chief Minister [[J. Jayalalithaa]]'s party returns to power in the [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]], "even God cannot save the people of the State".<ref>{{cite news |title=Rajnikant not to enter politics now |url=http://www.webpage.com/hindu/950930/12/2801f.html |access-date=14 September 2023 |work=The Hindu |date=28 September 1995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961222063926/http://www.webpage.com/hindu/950930/12/2801f.html |archive-date=22 December 1996 |page=1}}</ref> Rajinikanth went on to wholeheartedly support the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (DMK) and [[Tamil Maanila Congress]] alliance and asked the people of Tamil Nadu and his fans to vote for that alliance. This alliance had a complete victory in the elections. He also supported the same alliance in the [[1996 Indian general election|1996]] and [[1998 Indian general election]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/highlights/01-01-99/yearhig2.htm |title=Tamil Cinema 1998-Year Highlights (Part-2) |date=21 January 1998 |access-date=23 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620181502/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/highlights/01-01-99/yearhig2.htm |archive-date=20 June 2008 |publisher=Dinakaran}}</ref>

Later in 2004, Rajinikanth said he would personally vote for the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) but would not extend his support to any front during the [[2004 Indian general election|upcoming Indian general election]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/election/2004/apr/28einter2.htm |title=Rajnikanth is a firm believer in Hindutva |date=28 April 2004 |publisher=Rediff |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530202050/http://www.rediff.com/election/2004/apr/28einter2.htm |archive-date=30 May 2013 |access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref> The party, however, failed to win any seats in [[Tamil Nadu]] in the [[Lok Sabha]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2009-05-17/news/27657995_1_aiadmk-mps-mdmk-lone-puducherry-seat |title=AIADMK entering Parliament after five years |date=17 May 2009 |work=The Times of India |access-date=8 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025061624/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2009-05-17/news/27657995_1_aiadmk-mps-mdmk-lone-puducherry-seat |archive-date=25 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Rajinikanth canceled his visit to Sri Lanka in March 2017 at the urging of Tamil Nadu politicians. Leaders of the BJP criticized this choice.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/bjp-subramanian-swamy-says-rajinikanth-and-other-tamil-film-actors-are-chickens--news-182095 | title=Swamy and other BJP leaders criticise Rajinikanth - News | date=25 March 2017 }}</ref> In June 2017, BJP leader [[Subramanian Swamy]] alleged that Rajinikanth was illiterate and unfit for politics. He also accused Rajinikanth of financial fraud, claiming that he has strong proof of financial irregularities by Rajinikanth that will bring down Rajinikanth's political aspirations.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/swamy-vs-superstar-rajini-has-committed-financial-fraud-should-not-enter-politics-64137 | title=Swamy vs Superstar: 'Rajini has committed financial fraud, should not enter politics' | date=24 June 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/250617/subramanian-swamys-outbursts-on-rajinikanth-follows-speculations.html | title=Subramanian Swamy's outbursts on Rajinikanth follows speculations | date=25 June 2017 }}</ref>

However several political analysts state Rajinikanth has missed his chance and unlike 1996 when he was at his peak it will be very difficult for him to make a significant impact in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/opinion-entertainment/why-rajinikanth-hasnt-taken-the-plunge-it-is-not-1996-any-more-4658857/ |title=Why Rajinikanth hasn't taken the plunge: It is not 1996 anymore |work=The Indian Express |author=Kavitha Muralidharan |date=16 May 2017 |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709062901/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/opinion-entertainment/why-rajinikanth-hasnt-taken-the-plunge-it-is-not-1996-any-more-4658857/ |archive-date=9 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/the-political-opportunity-for-rajinikanth-has-come-and-gone/story-GyC5mlbQYuK1MaSpEXSu1L.html |title=The political opportunity for Rajinikanth has come and gone |work=Hindustan Times |author=Viju Cherian |date=12 December 2016 |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725170226/https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/the-political-opportunity-for-rajinikanth-has-come-and-gone/story-GyC5mlbQYuK1MaSpEXSu1L.html |archive-date=25 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/rajini-no-political-superstar-718935.html |title=Rajini no political superstar, may have missed his day |work=Deccan Herald |author=ETB Sivapriyan |date=17 February 2019 |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011190649/https://www.deccanherald.com/national/rajini-no-political-superstar-718935.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Rajinikanth announced entry into politics on 31 December 2017 and confirmed his intention to contest in the 2021 [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] elections in all 234 constituencies. He stated that his party would resign if it was unable to fulfill its electoral promises within three years of coming into power.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ndtv.com/tamil-nadu-news/rajinikanth-to-end-suspense-political-announcement-soon-10-points-1794019?pfrom=home-topscroll |title=Rajnimanth joins politics and announced a new party |date=31 December 2017 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=1 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231191010/https://www.ndtv.com/tamil-nadu-news/rajinikanth-to-end-suspense-political-announcement-soon-10-points-1794019?pfrom=home-topscroll |archive-date=31 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Rajinikanth dissolved his organisation Rajini Makkal Mandram (RMM) on 12 July 2021 and also said that he has no plans to enter politics in the future.<ref>{{Cite web |author=D. Govardan|date=12 July 2021 |title=Rajinikanth decides to dissolve Rajini Makkal Mandram |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/rajinikanth-decides-to-dissolve-rajini-makkal-mandram/articleshow/84337959.cms |access-date=2021-07-13 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

== Public image ==
[[File:Rajinikanth_at_Premiere_of_the_film_Kochadaiiyaan.jpg|thumb|right|Rajinikanth at premiere of ''[[Kochadaiiyaan]]'' (2014)]]
Rajinikanth is widely regarded as one of the most popular actors in the history of [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]]. His popularity has been attributed to his distinctively delivered dialogue and eccentricities showcased in his movies, alongside his political pronouncements and charitable work.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=http://www.breakingnewsonline.net/features/4300-who-rules-south-cinema-rajinikanth-or-kamal-haasan.html |title=Who rules South Cinema&nbsp;– Rajinikanth or Kamal Haasan? |date=28 September 2010 |publisher=Breakingnewsonline.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723032306/http://www.breakingnewsonline.net/features/4300-who-rules-south-cinema-rajinikanth-or-kamal-haasan.html |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref> Many also cite reasons for Rajinikanth's popularity as coming from his larger-than-life super-hero appearance in many films, supported by gravity-defying stunts and charismatic expressions, all while attempting to maintain modesty in real-life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2267820/pagenum/all/#p2 |title=Superstar Rajinikanth!: The biggest movie star you've probably never heard of.&nbsp;– By Grady Hendrix&nbsp;– Slate Magazine |last=Hendrix |first=Grady |date=27 September 2010 |publisher=Slate.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315123608/http://www.slate.com/id/2267820/pagenum/all/ |archive-date=15 March 2011 |access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref> Almost every film of Rajinikanth has punchlines delivered by him in a distinctive style, and these punchlines often have a message or even warn the film's antagonists.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thesouthreports.com/profiles/blogs/rajini-delivers-a-punch |title=Rajini's Punch dialogues |publisher=thesouthreports.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325080027/http://www.thesouthreports.com/profiles/blogs/rajini-delivers-a-punch |archive-date=25 March 2011 |access-date=12 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-04-18/chennai/27783880_1_naan-oru-thadavu-sonna-nooru-thadava-sonna-mathiri-punch-lines |title=It doesn't get bigger than Rajinikanth |date=18 April 2008 |access-date=12 April 2011 |location=India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817082412/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-04-18/chennai/27783880_1_naan-oru-thadavu-sonna-nooru-thadava-sonna-mathiri-punch-lines |archive-date=17 August 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Rajinikanth is one of the highest-grossing actors in Tamil cinema history. After opening his first official Twitter account in 2014, Rajinikanth received over 210,000 followers within 24 hours, which according to ''[[The Economic Times]]'' was deemed by social media research firms as the fastest rate of followers for any Indian celebrity, as well as among the top-10 in the world.<ref name="rtwit">{{Cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/superstar-rajinikanth-proves-his-might-again-notches-over-2-4-lakh-followers-on-twitter-debut/articleshow/34744248.cms |title=Superstar Rajinikanth proves his might again, notches over 2.4 lakh followers on Twitter debut |last=Varuni |first=Khosla |date=7 May 2014 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |access-date=10 June 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140510072930/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/internet/superstar-rajinikanth-proves-his-might-again-notches-over-2-4-lakh-followers-on-twitter-debut/articleshow/34744248.cms |archive-date=10 May 2014}}</ref> In 2015, a film about his fandom, ''[[For the Love of a Man (film)|For the Love of a Man]]'', premiered at the [[71st Venice International Film Festival]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiewire.com/article/venice-review-for-the-love-of-a-man-portrays-the-biggest-movie-star-youve-never-heard-of-20150905 |title=Venice Review: 'For the Love of a Man' Portrays the Biggest Movie Star You've Never Heard Of |date=5 September 2015 |publisher=Indiewire |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204143900/http://www.indiewire.com/article/venice-review-for-the-love-of-a-man-portrays-the-biggest-movie-star-youve-never-heard-of-20150905 |archive-date=4 February 2016 |access-date=5 February 2016}}</ref>

==Personal life==

===Relationships===
While he was working as a bus conductor in [[Bangalore]], Rajinikanth met a medical student named Nirmala and started a relationship. After seeing him perform in a stage play, she encouraged him to pursue an acting career and sent an application to the [[M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute|Adyar Film Institute]] on his behalf and unbeknownst to him. Although he took up the offer and proceeded with his acting career, Rajinikanth has since lost contact with her.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2019/10/17/When-Rajinikanth-spoke-about-his-first-love-and-what-she-did-to-make-him-a-star.html |title=When Rajinikanth spoke about his first love and what she did to make him a star |website=The Week |access-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023220959/https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2019/10/17/When-Rajinikanth-spoke-about-his-first-love-and-what-she-did-to-make-him-a-star.html |archive-date=23 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Family===
Rajinikanth married [[Latha Rajinikanth|Latha Rangachari]], a student of [[Ethiraj College for Women]] who interviewed him for her college magazine.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. The 1980s}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/at-62-rajinikanth-on-his-marriage-kamal-and-sivaji-553299.html |title=At 62: Rajinikanth on his marriage, Kamal and Sivaji |date=12 December 2012 |work=[[First Post (India)|First Post]] |access-date=5 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316074354/http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/at-62-rajinikanth-on-his-marriage-kamal-and-sivaji-553299.html |archive-date=16 March 2014}}</ref> The marriage took place on 26 February 1981, in [[Tirupati (city)|Tirupati]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rajinikanth.com/bio-data.htm |title=Rajini's personal life |publisher=weeksupdate.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715153332/http://www.rajinikanth.com/bio-data.htm |archive-date=15 July 2011 |access-date=28 March 2011}}</ref> The couple has two daughters: [[Aishwarya Rajinikanth|Aishwarya]] and [[Soundarya Rajinikanth|Soundarya]]. He has four grandchildren through his daughters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/58296.html |title=Dhanush's son named Linga&nbsp;– Tamil Movie News |website=IndiaGlitz |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101012005331/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/58296.html |archive-date=12 October 2010 |access-date=6 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/12/stories/2006101205680200.htm |title=Tamil Nadu / Chennai News : Rajnikanth turns grandfather |date=12 October 2006 |access-date=10 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924101802/http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/12/stories/2006101205680200.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=24 September 2009}}</ref>

===Views===
Rajinikanth is a practicing [[Hindu]] and is a strong believer of [[spirituality]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/election/2004/apr/28einter2.htm |title=Rajnikanth is a firm believer in Hindutva |date=28 April 2004 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530202050/http://www.rediff.com/election/2004/apr/28einter2.htm |archive-date=30 May 2013 |access-date=22 February 2013}}</ref> He is also a practitioner of [[yoga]] and [[meditation]]. Rajinikanth has religiously visited major Hindu temples prior to the release of each of his films; for instance he visited the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] before the release of ''[[Sivaji (film)|Sivaji]]'' in 2007 and visited [[Sathya Sai Baba]] at [[Prasanthi Nilayam]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]] before the release of ''[[Kuselan]]'' the following year.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/04/14/stories/2008041450550200.htm |title=Andhra Pradesh / Anantapur News : Rajinikanth in Puttaparthi |date=14 April 2008 |access-date=9 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103145017/http://www.hindu.com/2008/04/14/stories/2008041450550200.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=3 November 2010}}</ref> He also occasionally leaves for pilgrimage to the [[Himalayas]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-21/news-interviews/29909539_1_himalayas-vijay-tv-endhiran |title=Rajinikanth love Himalayas |last=Ramanujam |first=Srinivasa |date=21 August 2011 |access-date=24 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616165302/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-21/news-interviews/29909539_1_himalayas-vijay-tv-endhiran |archive-date=16 June 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=dead}}</ref>

He has often referred to [[Ramakrishna Paramahamsa]],<ref name="spirituality">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cinefundas.com/2011/06/01/why-does-rajini-dwell-in-the-hearts-of-millions |title=Why does Rajini dwell in the hearts of millions? |date=1 June 2011 |publisher=cinefundas.com |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604192455/http://www.cinefundas.com/2011/06/01/why-does-rajini-dwell-in-the-hearts-of-millions |archive-date=4 June 2011 |access-date=15 June 2011}}</ref> [[Swami Satchidananda]], [[Ragavendra Swami]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/60272.html |title=Rajini blesses "Mahaan" actor |date=22 September 2010 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101118021226/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/60272.html |archive-date=18 November 2010 |access-date=15 June 2011}}</ref> [[Mahavatar Babaji]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/38458.html |title=Rajini's tribute to Babaji |date=10 May 2008 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023235030/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/38458.html |archive-date=23 October 2012 |access-date=15 June 2011}}</ref> and [[Ramana Maharshi]]<ref name="spirituality" /> as his favourite spiritual leaders.

===Philanthropy===
According to [[Naman Ramachandran]], the author of ''[[Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography]]'', most of Rajinikanth's philanthropic activities went unpublicised because he chose to keep them undisclosed. In the 1980s, when superstitious beliefs in [[Tamil Nadu]] created a stigma towards eye donation, Rajinikanth took the case of campaigning in support of [[corneal transplantation]] via television and public speeches.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHhyrIUXwxU |title=Rajnikanth in Eye Donation Campaign |date=23 October 2011 |last=Manoj Thulasi |publisher=YouTube |access-date=10 June 2014 |medium=Television production}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead YouTube link|date=February 2022}}</ref> In 2011, Rajinikanth announced his support for the [[2011 Indian anti-corruption movement|anti-corruption movement]] led by [[Anna Hazare]] and offered his commercial wedding venue, the Raghavendra Kalyana Mandapam, in [[Chennai]] free of cost for the [[India Against Corruption]] members to hold their fast.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Actor-Rajinikanth-supports-Anna-Hazare/articleshow/9705776.cms |title=Actor Rajinikanth supports Anna Hazare |date=23 August 2011 |access-date=8 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025122753/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-23/india/29918051_1_anna-hazare-tamil-superstar-actor-rajinikanth |archive-date=25 October 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_rajinikanth-lends-wedding-hall-for-anti-corruption-fast-team-anna_1630389 |title=Rajinikanth lends wedding hall for anti-corruption fast: Team Anna |date=26 December 2011 |website=Daily News and Analysis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102200330/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_rajinikanth-lends-wedding-hall-for-anti-corruption-fast-team-anna_1630389 |archive-date=2 November 2012 |access-date=24 February 2013}}</ref> He also provided lodging in the venue for sanitary workers hired to clean up after the [[2015 South India floods]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Rajinikanth provides shelter to conservancy workers |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/rajinikanth-provides-shelter-to-conservancy-workers/article7993964.ece |access-date=5 March 2021 |agency=The Hindu |date=24 March 2016}}</ref> Rajinikanth's fan associations regularly organise blood donation and eye donation camps and distribute food during his birthday.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/rajinikanth-to-have-a-quiet-birthday-says-wife-latha/439181-8.html |title=Rajinikanth has a quiet birthday |date=12 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508030139/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/rajinikanth-to-have-a-quiet-birthday-says-wife-latha/439181-8.html |archive-date=8 May 2014 |access-date=12 December 2013}}</ref>

=== Controversies ===

==== Money lending allegation ====
Rajinikanth declared {{INRConvert|6.11|m|year=2003}}, {{INRConvert|17|m|year=2004}} and {{INRConvert|3.39|m|year=2005}} as earnings for the years 2002–2003, 2003–2004 and 2004–2005, respectively. However, the [[Income Tax Department]] observed that he had claimed a considerable sum of professional expenses and thus carried out a survey in 2005 at his residence at Poes Garden. During the survey, the IT-Department found out that he had accounted for many expenses as his professional costs and it was also discovered that not even one-tenth of the residential property was allocated to professional purposes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=S |first=Mohamed Imranullah |date=29 January 2020 |title=I-T Dept. withdraws three cases against actor Rajinikanth |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/i-t-dept-withdraws-three-cases-against-actor-rajinikanth/article30678692.ece |url-status=live |issn=0971-751X |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=1 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301032121/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/i-t-dept-withdraws-three-cases-against-actor-rajinikanth/article30678692.ece}}</ref> Moreover, when Rajinikanth was questioned by the I-T department if he's in the money lending business, he initially denied it. Later, though, he admitted to the IT-Department that he was indeed a [[Money-lender|money lender]], and that he had loaned money as a source of profit at an interest rate of 18 percent. Later, for all three years in dispute, Rajinikanth was forced to submit revised reports, confessing he had earned more than what was reported in the initial report on 14 February 2005.<ref>{{Cite news |last=S |first=Mohamed Imranullah |date=30 January 2020 |title=Rajinikanth told Income Tax Department he was into 'money lending' |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/rajinikanth-told-income-tax-department-he-was-into-money-lending/article30687490.ece |url-status=live |issn=0971-751X |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=28 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228031418/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/rajinikanth-told-income-tax-department-he-was-into-money-lending/article30687490.ece}}</ref> But the I-T department penalized him {{INRConvert|6.6|m|year=2020}}, since he filed revised returns only after they surveyed him.<ref name="TNM18">{{Cite web |last=Shekar |first=Anjana |date=30 January 2020 |title=Why Rajinikanth became a 'money lender' in 2004: Experts take a guess |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/why-rajinikanth-became-money-lender-2004-experts-take-guess-117163 |url-status=live |website=The News Minute |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=11 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711151809/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/why-rajinikanth-became-money-lender-2004-experts-take-guess-117163}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lobo |first=Shalini |date=29 January 2020 |title=I-T dept withdraws tax appeal against actor Rajinikanth |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/rajinikanth-tax-it-department-cbdt-1641177-2020-01-29 |url-status=live |website=India Today |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=11 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711151359/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/rajinikanth-tax-it-department-cbdt-1641177-2020-01-29}}</ref>

This was challenged by Rajinikanth and his lawyers, and in January 2020 the I-T department wrote off the fine, due to its recent decision to withdraw from appeals in cases below {{INRConvert|10|m|year=2020}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-T Dept withdraws appeal against Rajinikanth over penalty |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/i-t-dept-withdraws-appeal-against-rajinikanth-over-penalty/article30675436.ece |access-date=11 July 2020 |website=@businessline |date=28 January 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712122117/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/i-t-dept-withdraws-appeal-against-rajinikanth-over-penalty/article30675436.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> The news that Rajinikanth told the Income Tax department that he was lending money at an 18 per cent interest rate has earned outrage and criticism for his high interest rate loans, which is a big problem in Tamil Nadu.<ref name="TNM18" />

====Comments on social issues====
[[File:Rajinikanth and Vijay at the Nadigar Sangam Protest.jpg|thumb|Rajinikanth with [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]] at a [[2018 Tamil Nadu protests for Kaveri water sharing|Kaveri water sharing protest]] by the [[Nadigar Sangam]] in 2018]]
In 2002, Rajinikanth undertook a day-long fast to protest the [[Government of Karnataka]]'s [[Kaveri River water dispute|decision to not release Kaveri River water into Tamil Nadu]], and announced that he would contribute {{INRConvert|10|m}} toward a plan to interlink Indian rivers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 October 2002 |title=Rediff India News: Rajinikanth fasts for Kaveri waters |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/oct/13cau2.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430054103/http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/oct/13cau2.htm |archive-date=30 April 2009 |access-date=23 September 2009 |work=Rediff.com}}</ref> He met with Indian Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] and many experts to canvass support for the project.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 October 2002 |title=Rediff India News:Rajinikanth to meet Indian PM |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/oct/14cau.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430065605/http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/oct/14cau.htm |archive-date=30 April 2009 |access-date=23 September 2009 |publisher=Rediff}}</ref> His hunger strike was independent of the [[Nadigar Sangam]], who organised their own solidarity protest for the same cause. Film director [[Bharathiraja|Bharathi Raja]] lashed out against Rajinikanth, alleging that he is dividing the film industry and saying that he was a "traitor who had a tacit understanding with the Karnataka government".<ref name="hinduonnet.com">{{Cite web |date=12 October 2002 |title=Rally exposes politicised film industry |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/10/13/stories/2002101304130100.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102121317/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/10/13/stories/2002101304130100.htm |archive-date=2 November 2007 |access-date=5 April 2007}}</ref>

In 2008, Rajinikanth took part in a hunger strike organised by the Nadigar Sangam against Karnataka's stance on the [[Hogenakkal Falls water dispute]], during which he gave a speech against politicians in [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajnikanth blasts Karnataka over water project&nbsp;– Thaindian News |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/politics/rajnikanth-blasts-karnataka-over-water-project_10034510.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504194054/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/politics/rajnikanth-blasts-karnataka-over-water-project_10034510.html |archive-date=4 May 2009 |access-date=23 September 2009 |publisher=Thaindian.com}}</ref> It led to the state announcing a ban on him and his film ''[[Kuselan]]'' (2008). The ban was lifted after Rajinikanth appeared on [[TV9 Kannada]] and issued an apology for his speech. He later thanked the [[Government of Karnataka]] for lifting the ban and allowing the film's release in the state. The apology and subsequent gratitude towards Karnataka led to strong reactions from Nadigar Sangam members [[R. Sarathkumar]], [[Sathyaraj]] and [[Radha Ravi]], who called the apology a disgrace to Tamils and opined that his speech never provoked the sentiments of the [[Kannada people]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajini earns the wrath of Tamil cinema |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news-1/aug-08-01/rajinikanth-01-08-08.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410002237/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news-1/aug-08-01/rajinikanth-01-08-08.html |archive-date=10 April 2010 |access-date=9 September 2010 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> Rajinikanth's support toward fellow actor [[Ajith Kumar]], who in 2010 condemned the forceful inclusion of Tamil cinema personae in political affairs, broke into a controversy.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 February 2010 |title=Karunanidhi against bringing politics into film world |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/02/07/stories/2010020757030100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616061152/http://www.hindu.com/2010/02/07/stories/2010020757030100.htm |archive-date=16 June 2010 |access-date=18 October 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

In 2020, Rajinikanth quoted a 2017 article from [[Outlook (Indian magazine)|''Outlook'']], which reported that [[Dravidar Kazhagam]] founder [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]] garlanded the idols of [[Hindus|Hindu]] deities [[Rama]] and [[Sita]] with footwear at an atheist rally in 1971.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Venkateswaran |first=Vikram |date=23 January 2020 |title=Rajinikanth Takes on Periyar – Foot-in-Mouth or Political Debut? |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/rajinikanth-periyar-thuglak-controversy-political-move-non-dravidian-identity |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124134856/https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/rajinikanth-periyar-thuglak-controversy-political-move-non-dravidian-identity |archive-date=24 January 2020 |access-date=30 August 2020 |website=TheQuint}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=17 January 2020 |title=Rajinikanth Accused of Promoting Enmity, Warned With Protests After 'Slipper' Comment on Periyar |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/blatant-lie-dravidian-outfit-slams-rajinikanth-for-nude-photo-comment-on-periyar-2462085.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118145651/https://www.news18.com/news/india/blatant-lie-dravidian-outfit-slams-rajinikanth-for-nude-photo-comment-on-periyar-2462085.html |archive-date=18 January 2020 |access-date=30 August 2020 |website=News18}}</ref> His remarks were criticized by supporters of Periyar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 January 2020 |title='Didn't say anything out of imagination, won't apologise': Rajinikanth on controversy around remarks against Periyar |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/didn-t-say-anything-out-of-imagination-won-t-apologise-rajinikanth-on-controversy-around-remarks-against-periyar/story-9CzkjERZ4i8pr3an5qcKbL.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215053802/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/didn-t-say-anything-out-of-imagination-won-t-apologise-rajinikanth-on-controversy-around-remarks-against-periyar/story-9CzkjERZ4i8pr3an5qcKbL.html |archive-date=15 February 2020 |access-date=30 August 2020 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> In response to the backlash, Rajinikanth stated, "I did not speak on something that didn't happen. I've only spoken on what was reported. It was reported in ''[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]'' also. Sorry, I will not apologise."<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 January 2020 |title='I will not apologise for remarks on Periyar incident': Rajinikanth |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/i-will-not-apologise-remarks-periyar-incident-rajinikanth-116513 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121102238/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/i-will-not-apologise-remarks-periyar-incident-rajinikanth-116513 |archive-date=21 January 2020 |access-date=30 August 2020 |website=www.thenewsminute.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-21 |title=Rajinikanth refuses to apologise for Periyar remark; 'think and speak', urges Stalin |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/rajinikanth-refuses-to-apologise-for-controversial-remark-on-periyar-6227644/ |access-date=2022-09-04 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> A report on Thoothukudi police firing criticized Rajnikanth's comment on the incident that the whole anti-Sterlite protest was engineered by "anti-social" elements.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 October 2022 |title=Report on Thoothukudi police firing slams Rajinikanth for saying 'anti-social elements had intruded' |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/thoothukudi-police-firing-report-slams-rajinikanth-saying-anti-social-elements-intruded-2287089-2022-10-19 |access-date=1 September 2023 |website=India Today}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{{Main|Rajinikanth filmography}}

Rajinikanth appeared in over 171 films,{{efn|Including the film with cameo appearance-[[Lal Salaam (2024 film)|Lal Salaam]]|name="GO"}} predominantly in [[Tamil cinema]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Menon |first=Sadanand |date=18 January 2013 |title=Power of the Dark Sun |work=[[India Today]] |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/leisure/story/20130128-sadanand-menon-reviews-rajinikanth-the-definitive-biography-by-naman-ramachandran-761461-1999-11-29 |url-status=live |access-date=19 July 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170107120140/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/sadanand-menon-reviews-rajinikanth-the-definitive-biography-by-naman-ramachandran/1/242791.html |archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> He began his film career by playing antagonistic and supporting roles before graduating to a lead actor.<ref name="hindu1">{{Cite news |last=Kesavan |first=N. |date=14 April 2016 |title=Villains with heroic pasts |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/tamil-film-industry-villains-with-heroic-pasts/article8475517.ece |url-status=live |access-date=26 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107121324/http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/tamil-film-industry-villains-with-heroic-pasts/article8475517.ece |archive-date=7 January 2017}}</ref> He has also worked in other Indian film industries such as [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]], [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]], [[Kannada cinema|Kannada]], [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] and [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bangla]]. Alongside Indian films, he has also appeared in [[Bloodstone (1988 film)|an English film]].

== Awards and recognition ==
{{Main|List of awards and nominations received by Rajinikanth}}

[[File:The President, Shri Pranab Mukherjee presenting the Padma Vibhushan Award to Shri Rajinikanth, at a Civil Investiture Ceremony, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on April 12, 2016.jpg|thumb|President [[Pranab Mukherjee]] presenting the [[Padma Vibhushan]] to Rajinikanth at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|Rashtrapati Bhavan]], [[New Delhi]], on 12 April 2016]]
Rajinikanth has received numerous awards for many of his films, mostly in Tamil. He received his first and only [[Filmfare Award]] for [[Filmfare Best Actor Award (Tamil)|Best Tamil Actor]] in 1984 for ''[[Nallavanuku Nallavan]]''.<ref name=filmfare /> Later he received Filmfare Award nominations for his performances in ''[[Sivaji (film)|Sivaji]]'' (2007)<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0479751/awards/ |title=Sivaji (2007) - Awards - IMDb |language=en-US |access-date=2024-08-09 |via=www.imdb.com}}</ref> and ''[[Enthiran]]'' (2010). As of 2014, Rajinikanth has received six [[Tamil Nadu State Film Awards]] for his performances in various films.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. Awards}} He also received numerous awards from [[Cinema Express Awards|Cinema Express]] and Filmfans' Association for his on-screen performances and off-screen contributions in writing and producing.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|2012|loc=chpt. Awards}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/rajinikanth-conferred-dadasaheb-phalke-award-2020-11617257991776.html|title=Tamil actor Rajini gets Dadasaheb Phalke Award 2020|first=Lata|last=Jha|date=1 April 2021|website=mint}}</ref>

Rajinikanth received the [[Kalaimamani]] award in 1984 and the M. G. R. Award in 1989, both from the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]]. In 1995, the [[South Indian Film Artistes' Association]] presented him with the Kalaichelvam Award. He was honoured with the [[Padma Bhushan]] (2000) and the [[Padma Vibhushan]] (2016) by the [[Government of India]].<ref name="CivilIndiaAwards"/><ref name="The Hindu"/> He was selected as the Indian Entertainer of the Year for 2007 by [[NDTV]], competing against the likes of [[Shah Rukh Khan|Shahrukh Khan]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.itimes.com/public/rajnikanth.rao/claim-to-fame/Indian-Entertainer-Of-The-Year |title=Indian Entertainer of the year |publisher=itimes.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007142000/http://www.itimes.com/public/rajnikanth.rao/claim-to-fame/Indian-Entertainer-Of-The-Year |archive-date=7 October 2011 |access-date=28 March 2011}}</ref> The Government of Maharashtra honoured him with the Raj Kapoor Award the same year. He received the [[Chevalier Sivaji Ganesan Award for Excellence in Indian Cinema]] at the [[4th Vijay Awards]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/cp/2010/06/18/stories/2010061850251400.htm |title=Air supply |date=18 June 2010 |access-date=24 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015163203/http://www.hindu.com/cp/2010/06/18/stories/2010061850251400.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=15 October 2013}}</ref> Rajinikanth was also named one of the most influential persons in South Asia by ''[[Asiaweek]]''.<ref name="mass_popularity"/><ref name="i1"/>
[[File:Rajinikanth being honored with Dadasaheb Phalke Award.jpg|thumb|Vice President [[Venkaiah Naidu]] presenting the [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]] to Rajinikanth at the [[67th National Film Awards]], New Delhi, on 25 October 2021]]
He was named by ''[[Forbes]] India'' as the most influential Indian of the year 2010.<ref name="Now, a film on Rajinikanth's life"/> In 2011, he was awarded the Entertainer of the Decade Award by [[NDTV]] for the year 2010 by the then Indian Minister for Home Affairs [[P. Chidambaram]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/rajinikanth-is-the-entertainer-of-the-decade-news-tamil-lcqjCadcfcf.html |title=Rajinikanth is the Entertainer of the decade |date=31 May 2010 |website=[[Sify]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219012520/http://www.sify.com/movies/rajinikanth-is-the-entertainer-of-the-decade-news-tamil-lcqjCadcfcf.html |archive-date=19 February 2011 |access-date=9 September 2010}}</ref> In December 2013, he was honoured by NDTV as one among the "25 Greatest Global Living Legends".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-13/superstar-rajini-has-been-honored-as-one-among-the-25-greatest-global-living-legends.html |title=''Without Tamil people's love and affection, I wouldn't be here'', Rajini |date=15 December 2013 |website=Behindwoods |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216075603/http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-13/superstar-rajini-has-been-honored-as-one-among-the-25-greatest-global-living-legends.html |archive-date=16 December 2013 |access-date=16 December 2013}}</ref> In 2014, he was presented with the [[IFFI Indian Film Personality of the Year Award|Indian Film Personality of the Year Award]] at the [[45th International Film Festival of India|45th IFFI]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/rajinikanth-conferred-centenary-award-at-iffi/article6618815.ece |title=Rajinikanth conferred Centenary Award at IFFI |date=20 November 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=20 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128094114/http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/rajinikanth-conferred-centenary-award-at-iffi/article6618815.ece |archive-date=28 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-iffi-2014-stalwarts-amitabh-bachchan-rajinikanth-in-opening-act-2036962 |title=IFFI 2014: Stalwarts Amitabh Bachchan, Rajinikanth in opening act |date=20 November 2014 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |access-date=20 November 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122224814/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-iffi-2014-stalwarts-amitabh-bachchan-rajinikanth-in-opening-act-2036962 |archive-date=22 November 2014}}</ref> Rajinikanth received [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]] at the 67th National Film Awards presentation ceremony, at [[Vigyan Bhawan]] in New Delhi, Monday, 25 October 2021.

In 2025, Rajinikanth was honoured with the [[IFFI Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award|Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award]] at the [[56th International Film Festival of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/iffi-2025-international-film-festival-of-india-rajinikanth-felicitated-50-years-in-industry-line-up-goa/article70253420.ece |title= IFFI 2025: Superstar Rajinikanth to be honoured for completing 50 years in industry|date=7 November 2025|access-date=7 November 2025|website= [[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* {{anl|Rajinikanth facts}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=n}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |author-link=Naman Ramachandran |title=Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography |year=2012 |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin Books Limited]] |isbn=978-81-8475-796-5 |pages=244 |title-link=Rajinikanth: The Definitive Biography}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sreekanth |first=Gayathri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xIAQAAIAAJ&q=rajinikanth |title=The Name is Rajinikanth |publisher=Om Books International |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-291-1355-9 |access-date=24 September 2016 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115209/https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xIAQAAIAAJ&q=rajinikanth&dq=rajinikanth |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Rajinikanth 12.12.12: A Birthday Special |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyFMAgAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=[[The Hindu]] |id=GGKEY:A78L0XB1B0X |ref={{harvid|Hindu|2012}} |access-date=24 September 2016 |archive-date=8 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108195742/https://books.google.com/books?id=YyFMAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live |last1=Ramachandran |first1=Naman}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rao |first=A.N.Prahlada |url=https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL6468602A/A._N%C4%81_Prahl%C4%81dar%C4%81v?sort=old |title=Nanna Daari Vibhinna Daari: Rajanikanth Kannada |publisher=Nava Bharat Publication |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-85286-770-6 |location=[[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]] |ol=25437576M}}
* {{cite book |last=Krishnamoorthy |first=Raja |title=Rajini's Punchtantra: Business and Life Management the Rajinikanth Way |year=2012 |publisher=Rupa & Co |isbn=9788129119995 |pages=124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2WSjaZBsCY4C&q=rajini%27s+punchtantra&pg=PT111 |access-date=24 September 2016 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115144/https://books.google.com/books?id=2WSjaZBsCY4C&pg=PT111&dq=rajini%27s+punchtantra |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Ramakrishnan |first=Ram N |title=Grand Brand Rajini: Brand Management the Rajinikanth Way |year=2012 |publisher=Rupa Publications India |isbn=9788129120595 |pages=149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_QlgEACAAJ&q=Grand+Brand+Rajini |access-date=24 September 2016 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011190650/https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_QlgEACAAJ&dq=Grand+Brand+Rajini |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

==External links==

{{Commons and category|Rajinikanth}}
{{wikiquote|Rajinikanth}}
* {{Twitter|rajinikanth}}
* {{IMDb name|0707425}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person|rajinikanth}}

{{Dadasaheb Phalke Award}}
{{IFFI Satyajit Ray Lifetime Achievement Award}}
{{IFFI - Indian Film Personality of the year Award}}
{{NTR National Award}}
{{Padma Vibhushan Awards}}
{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 2000–09}}
{{FilmfareTamilBestActor}}
{{TamilNaduStateAwardForBestActor}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|India|Bollywood|Film|1950s}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rajinikanth| ]]
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in arts]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Tamil screenwriters]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Film producers from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards South winners]]
[[Category:M.G.R. Government Film and Television Training Institute alumni]]
[[Category:Marathi actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients]]

Ninad Bedekar

2026-01-30T12:44:11Z

Felorox: Starting post

{{Short description|Marathi writer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox writer
| name =
| image = Ninad Bedekar.jpeg
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1949|08|17}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2015|05|10|1949|08|17}}
| education = Diploma of Mechanical Engineering
| birth_place = [[Pune]], [[India]]
| occupation = Historian, Writer and Orator, Retired factory executive
| years_active = 1975–2015
}}

'''Ninad Gangadhar Bedekar''' (17 August 1949 – 10 May 2015) was a historian,<ref>{{Cite news|title = Eminent historian Ninad Bedekar no more | newspaper=The Times of India|url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/Ninad-Bedekar-dies-at-65/articleshow/47221449.cms|date=13 January 2017 | accessdate = 30 August 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = Noted historian Ninad Bedekar passes away in Pune|url = https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/noted-historian-ninad-bedekar-passes-away-in-pune/|date=10 May 2015 | author=Press Trust of India | accessdate = 30 August 2018}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|title = Historian Ninad Bedekar dead|url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/historian-ninad-bedekar-dead/article7195022.ece|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 2015-05-12|access-date = 2015-08-24|issn = 0971-751X|language = en}}</ref> writer and orator<ref name="TOI20101016">{{cite news |title=Newspaper vendors felicitated |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-16/pune/28222897_1_felicitated-vendors-rotary-club |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104043719/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-16/pune/28222897_1_felicitated-vendors-rotary-club |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-11-04 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=2010-10-16 |accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> from [[Pune]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]], writing and speaking in [[Marathi language|Marathi]]. He was specialized in research of the rule of warrior-king Chatrapati [[Shivaji]] Maharaj.

==Career==
He was the grandson of Sardar Raste of Pune. He is the son of notable freedom fighter Pramila Tai Bedekar. Bedekar was an engineer by profession and was serving in [[Cummins]] India Limited for 15 years.

Bedekar was known for his research on the forts of [[Maharashtra]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and about 75 forts outside India, having led numerous treks to them. He was a life member Shri Shivaji Raigad Smarak Mandal - Pune, Shri Shivaji Raigad Smarak Mandal – (Chairman) Maharastra Kalopasak, Pune – (Chairman).

He was acquainted with [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], as well as the [[Modi script]]. He was a life member of [[Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal]], Pune and an honorary member of Fort Renovation and Beautification Committee for the Government of Maharashtra. He held a diploma in mechanical engineering, and has worked for Kirloskar Cummins Ltd (now Cummins India Limited).<ref name="Paranjape">{{cite news|title=शिवशाहीच्या इतिहासाचा 'निनाद'|author=Paranjape Samir|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/19981128/33350414.html|newspaper=[[Loksatta]]|language=mr|date=2009-08-16|accessdate=2010-12-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100601034022/http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/19981128/33350414.html|archive-date=2010-06-01}}</ref>

He had given many lectures widely all over Maharashtra on Maratha history. He scripted the [[Son et lumière (show)|Son et lumière]] show at [[Shanivarwada]], and wrote the script for Marathi TV serial Peshwai. Bedekar transliterated some rare documents written in [[Modi alphabet|Modi script]] about the [[Maratha Empire]] that were found in the UK.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/Ninad-Bedekar-dies-at-65/articleshow/47221449.cms Eminent historian Ninad Bedekar no more]</ref> He had written many books that include Durgkatha, Shartiche Shiledar and Maharastratil Durg among others. He was an expert on forts in India and abroad.

In 2003, Bedekar succeeded,<ref name=":0"/> along with the Maratha-Hindu-nationalist organization, [[Shiv Sena]], in having [[James Laine]]'s academic [[monograph]], ''Shivaji: Hindu king in Islamic India'' (Oxford University Press) banned in their state.

==Death==
Bedekar died in 2015, at the age 65 in [[Pune]].<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/historian-ninad-bedekar-dead/article7195022.ece Historian Ninad Bedekar dead]</ref><ref>[http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/noted-historian-ninad-bedekar-passes-away-in-pune/ Noted historian Ninad Bedekar passes away in Pune]</ref>

==Bibliography==
* ''Durgakathaa'' / ''दुर्गकथा''
* ''Shartiche Shiledaara ( 5 Parts )'' / ''शर्तीचे शिलेदार (५ भाग)''
* ''Hasaraa Itihaasa'' / ''हसरा इतिहास''
* ''Durgavaibhava'' / ''दुर्गवैभव''
* ''Itihaasa Durgaanchaa'' / ''इतिहास दुर्गांचा''
* ''Mahaaraastraatila Durga'' / ''महाराष्ट्रातील दुर्ग''
* ''Saaksha Itihaasaachi'' / ''साक्ष इतिहासाची''
* ''Thoralaa Raajaa Saanguna Gelaa'' / ''थोरला राजा सांगून गेला''
* ''Khaanderee'' / ''खांदेरी''
* ''Javhaara'' / ''जव्हार''
* ''Gajakathaa'' / ''गजकथा''
* ''Ekaa Navina Shivacharitraachyaa Nimittaane'' / ''एका नवीन शिवचरित्राच्या निमित्ताने''
* ''Vijaya Durgaache Rahasya''' / ''विजयदुर्गाचे रहस्य''
* ''छत्रपती शिवाजी महाराज व पहिले बाजीराव पेशवे यांची "कालातीत व्यवस्थापन तत्वे"''.<ref>{{ISBN|978-81-7421-178-1}}</ref>
* ''<nowiki/>'shivbhushan'. He presented 'Shivbhushan', a poem in the Brajabhasha, on an audio CD.''

He wrote the foreword<ref name="DNA-20110405">{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/interview_there-are-hardly-any-english-books-on-panipat_1528438|title=There are hardly any English books on Panipat|last=Kulthe |first=Bhagyashree|date=2011-04-05|work=DNA|publisher=Diligent Media Corporation Ltd.|accessdate=16 July 2012|location=Mumbai}}</ref> to the critically acclaimed book ''[[Solstice at Panipat]]'' by Uday Kulkarni.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bedekar, Ninad}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:2015 deaths]]
[[Category:Marathi-language writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian historians]]
[[Category:Writers from Pune]]

Khalid Anwer

2026-01-26T01:45:17Z

Felorox: general rework page per sources and improved wording

{{Short description|Pakistani lawyer (1938–2025)}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Khalid Anwer
| office = [[Law Minister of Pakistan|Minister of Law, Justice and Human Rights]]
| primeminister = [[Nawaz Sharif]]
| image =
| term_start =
| term_end =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| religion =
| signature =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1938|11|4}}
| birth_place = [[Delhi]], [[British India]]<ref name="senate"/>
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2025|3|12|1938|11|4}}
| death_place = [[Karachi]], [[Sindh]], Pakistan
| party =
| relations = [[Chaudhri Muhammad Ali]] (Father)
}}

'''Khalid Anwer''' ([[Urdu]]/{{langx|pa|{{Nastaliq|خالد انور}}}}; 4 November 1938 – 13 March 2025) was a Pakistani lawyer, jurist and constitutional expert who once served as the federal [[Law Minister of Pakistan|Minister for Law, Justice and Human Rights]] following his appointment in 1997.<ref name="senate"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://criticalppp.com/archives/5220 |title=Khalid Anwer and the NRO – by Aamir Mughal |access-date=3 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618183954/http://criticalppp.com/archives/5220 |archive-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=usurped }}</ref><ref>[http://www.rawa.org/dec10-p.htm Scenes of a sit-in demonstration organized by RAWA in front of UN office at Islamabad in regard to International Human Rights Day]</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-court-idUSTRE80F1IW20120116 Pakistan top court challenges PM on corruption cases], Reuters</ref><ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/0116/breaking13.html Pakistan PM ordered to court], Irish Times</ref> He remained in office until the [[1999 Pakistani coup d'état]] led by General [[Pervez Musharraf]] which toppled the ruling government of [[Nawaz Sharif]].<ref>[http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=90716&Cat=6&dt=2/2/2012 Christian Divorce (amendment) Bill being considered by HR ministry]</ref><ref name="firm"/> He was the son of [[Chaudhry Muhammad Ali]], a freedom fighter and the fourth [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] who was notable for having played a role in the formation of the first [[Constitution of Pakistan of 1956|Constitution of Pakistan in 1956]].<ref name="senate">[http://www.senate.gov.pk/ShowMemberDetail.asp?MemberCode=309&CatCode=0&CatName= Khalid Anwer: Senate of Pakistan]</ref>

He was the chief pioneer behind the Protection of Economic Reforms Act, 1992 in Pakistan, which explicitly states that its provisions take precedence over other laws, including the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, the Customs Act, and the Income Tax Ordinance. These were termed as the root cause for [[Pakistani economic crisis (2022-2024)]] as $100 billion of black money was approximated to have no money trail and resulted in real estate ownership in the UK, USA & UAE.<ref>https://narratives.com.pk/featured/rich-elite-poor-country/</ref>

Anwer obtained a B.Sc. (Hons.) and LLB degree from the [[University of the Punjab]]'s famous [[Punjab University Law College]] and later a B.A. (Hons.) degree from [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]]. In addition, he was a [[barrister-at-law]] from the [[Inner Temple]], England. In March 1997, Anwer was elected as a member of the [[Senate of Pakistan]] for a term of six years.<ref name="senate"/>

Anwer had an experience of 38 years as a court advocate and legal expert and argued cases relating to constitutional matters in the [[Supreme Court of Pakistan|Supreme Court]], as well as commercial issues.<ref name="firm">[https://www.khalidanwer.com/ Khalid Anwer & Co: The firm]</ref> In 1993, he played an instrumental role in persuading the Supreme Court to restore the deposed federal government back into office and in 1996, convinced the Supreme Court that the previous government's dismissal was lawful. While in office as the law minister, he sought assistance of the [[Asian Development Bank]] for a complete overhaul of Pakistan's entire legal system.<ref name="firm"/> Until his death, he was running a [[Karachi]]-based law firm called ''Khalid Anwer & Co''.<ref name="firm"/>

Anwer died in [[Karachi]], [[Sindh]] on 13 March 2025, at the age of 86.<ref>[https://www.dawn.com/news/1897658/former-law-minister-khalid-anwer-passes-away-in-karachi Former law minister Khalid Anwer passes away in Karachi]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box |title=[[Law Minister of Pakistan|Minister of Law, Justice and Human Rights]]|
years=1997–1999|
before=Unknown|
after=Unknown}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Anwar, Khalid}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:Children of prime ministers of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Law ministers of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Members of the Senate of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Nawaz Sharif administration]]
[[Category:Pakistani lawyers]]
[[Category:Politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:University of the Punjab alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistan Muslim League (N) politicians]]

Anil Kaushik

2026-01-24T17:03:00Z

Felorox:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Anil Kaushik
| office = Vice President BJP Maharashtra
| term = November 2024
| image =
| caption = Vice President Bhartiya Janta Party Maharashtra
| party = [[BJP]]
| birth_place = India
| residence = [[Vashi, Navi Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| spouse = Sudarshana Kaushik
| website =
}}

'''[[Anil Kaushik]]''' is an [[Indian National Congress]] Politician from [[Navi Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India. He is an ex-deputy mayor of [[Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Mundhe submits report, gets support from CM Fadnavis |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/mirror-now/in-focus/video/mundhe-submits-report-got-support-from-cm/174502|work= [[Times Now]]| date = 28 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Post CM meeting, mayor not to resign |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/55134066.cms|work= [[The Times of India]]| date = 16 October 2016}}</ref> He has been appointed as the [[Navi Mumbai]] Congress President in 2018.<ref>{{cite news|title=Anil kaushik and Ankush sonawane in race of navi mumbai district congress president |url=https://www.loksatta.com/navimumbai-news/anil-kaushik-ankush-sonawane-in-race-of-navi-mumbai-district-congress-president-1558907/|work= [[Loksatta]]| date = 21 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="president_inc_navimumbai">{{cite news|title=Anil Kaushik alleges while Sector 17 Vashi suffered |url=https://www.nmtv.tv/anil-kaushik-alleges-while-sector-17-vashi-suffered-sampat-shewales-family-progressed/|work= NMTV| date = 18 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=composite response city bharat bandh |url=http://www.lokmat.com/navi-mumbai/composite-response-city-bharat-bandh/|work= [[Lokmat]]| date = 11 September 2018}}</ref>

In 2024 appointed as Vice President BJP Maharashtra.

==Positions held==
*2024: Vice President Bhartiya Janta Party Maharashtra
* 2018: Elected as [[President (corporate title)|President]] of [[Navi Mumbai]] District Congress Committee<ref name="president_inc_navimumbai" />
* 2000: Elected Deputy Mayor of [[Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Dy CM rules out any role in Navi Mumbai mayoral poll |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Dy-CM-rules-out-any-role-in-Navi-Mumbai-mayoral-poll/articleshow/28903338.cms|work= [[The Times of India]]| date = 21 November 2002}}</ref>
* 2002: President Navi Mumbai District Congress Committee*
*2000: Elected Corporator Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation*
*1998: Leader Of Opposition Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation*
*1997:President Vashi Block Congress*
*1995: Elected Corporator Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation*
*1992: Vice President Thane Block Congress*
*1990: Vice President Vashi Block Youth Congress*
*1985: Executive Member Thane Taluka Congress*

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kaushik, Anil}}
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Marathi politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Navi Mumbai]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Jharkhand State Open University

2026-01-21T04:12:13Z

Felorox: started pg

{{refimprove|date=July 2024}}
{{Short description|University in Jharkhand}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Jharkhand State Open University
| other_name = JSOU
| native_name =
| caption = University Logo
| latin_name =
| motto = ''तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय''
| mottoeng = Lead me from darkness to light
| established = {{start date and age|2021}}
| type = [[Public university|Public]]
| endowment =
| staff =
| chairperson =
| director =
| president =
| provost =
| rector =
| chancellor = [[Governor of Jharkhand]]
| vice_chancellor = Triveni Nath Sahu
| dean =
| head_label =
| head =
| students =
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| doctoral =
| city = [[Ranchi]]
| state = [[Jharkhand]]
| country = [[India]]
| coor = {{coord|23.4486|85.3147|type:edu_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| campus = [[Urban area|Urban]]
| free_label =
| free =
| colors =
| colours =
| mascot =
| nickname =
| affiliations = [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]
| website = {{url|https://jsou.ac.in/}}
| image = Jharkhand State Open University logo.jpg
| image_size = 200
}}

'''Jharkhand State Open University''' is a [[State university (India)|State university]] Headquarter located at [[Ranchi]], [[Jharkhand]], established by the State Government of Jharkhand under the Jharkhand State Open University Act, 2021 (Jharkhand Act, 12, 2021).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Jharkhand State Open University Act, 2021
|url=https://prsindia.org/files/bills_acts/acts_states/jharkhand/2021/Act%20No.%2012%20of%202021%20Jharkhand.pdf|publisher=PRS India|accessdate=12 July 2024|date=23 November 2021}}</ref>
It was established to promote the Open University and distance education system in the educational pattern of the Jharkhand State and to provide educational opportunities to those who are unable to go in formal education and wish to upgrade their education or acquire knowledge and studies in various fields through the distance mode of education, such as the Print-medium (correspondence courses), contact programs, study centres, and mass media, and to provide access to Degree, Diploma, and Certificate program.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jharkhand cabinet approves Rs 20 crore for State Open University
|url=https://lagatar24.com/jharkhand-cabinet-approves-rs-20-crore-for-state-open-university/170551/|publisher=Lagatar English|accessdate=31 July 2024|date=11 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Good News: झारखंड ओपेन यूनिवर्सिटी में कुलपति नियुक्त... यूजीसी से मान्यता का रास्ता साफ... जनवरी से शुरू होगा नामांकन
|url=https://www.jagran.com/jharkhand/ranchi-jharkhand-open-university-vice-chancellor-appointed-ugc-recognition-way-clear-admission-start-from-january2023-22852564.html|publisher=Dainik Jagran|accessdate=31 July 2024|date=1 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jharkhand's 1st open university gets study centre at DSPMU
|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/states-1st-open-univ-gets-study-centre-at-dspmu/articleshow/95000022.cms|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=31 July 2024|date=21 October 2022}}</ref>

==Department==
Jharkhand State Open University has been offering numerous courses through the (Open and Distance Learning) form of education. All of these courses have significant in-house capabilities that students may take use of at any time.<ref>{{cite web|title=झारखंड खुला विवि के 31 पाठ्यक्रमों में दाखिले का अवसर
|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/jharkhand/ranchi/story-opportunity-for-admission-in-31-courses-of-jharkhand-open-university-8693505.html|publisher=Hindustan|accessdate=31 July 2024|date=10 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=इस डिग्री के बाद खोल सकेंगे अपनी दवा की दुकान, प्राथमिक उपचार के लिए भी होंगे काबिल; नामांकन के लिए पढ़ें डिटेल
|url=https://www.jagran.com/jharkhand/jamshedpur-nomination-continues-for-various-courses-at-lbsm-college-center-for-jharkhand-state-open-university-23714004.html|publisher=Dainik Jagran|accessdate=31 July 2024|date=9 May 2024}}</ref>

*School of Vocational Education and Training
*School of Business and Management Studies
*School of Journalism & Mass Communication Studies
*School of Computer and Information Sciences
* School of Social Work
*School of Humanities & Social Sciences
*School of Sciences and Technology
*School of Tribal Studies
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official|https://apupsg.ac.in/}}

{{Education in India}}

{{Universities in Jharkhand}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Ranchi]]
[[Category:Education in Jharkhand]]

Vietnam Veedu Sundaram

2026-01-16T22:42:23Z

Felorox: New A Details

{{Short description|Indian playwright, screenwriter and film director}}
{{more citations needed| date= November 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vietnam Veedu Sundaram
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Sundaram
| birth_date = c. 1943
| death_date = 6 August 2016
| death_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| birth_place = [[Tiruchirappalli]], [[Madras Presidency]] (now Tamil Nadu), [[British India]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=B. Kolappan |title='Vietnam Veedu' Sundaram passes away |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/%E2%80%98Vietnam-Veedu-Sundaram-passes-away/article14556551.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=6 August 2016 |access-date=17 November 2019}}</ref>
| othername =
| occupation = Playwright, screenwriter, film director, actor
| yearsactive = 1970-2016
| spouse = Chella<ref name =ie>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Veteran-script-writer-director-and-actor-Vietnam-Veedu-Sundaram-passes-away/2016/08/06/article3566092.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807163518/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Veteran-script-writer-director-and-actor-Vietnam-Veedu-Sundaram-passes-away/2016/08/06/article3566092.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 August 2016|title=Veteran script writer, director and actor Vietnam Veedu Sundaram passes away|work=newindianexpress.com|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>
| domesticpartner =
| children = [[Anu Parthasarathy]]
| website =
}}

'''Vietnam Veedu Sundaram''' was an Indian playwright, screenwriter and film director. He wrote films such as [[Gauravam (1973 film)|Gauravam]], [[Vietnam Veedu]], Gnana Oli, Satyam, Grihapravesam, Justice Gopinath, Annan Oru Koyil, [[Naan Yen Pirandhen]] and [[Naalai Namadhe (1975 film)|Naalai Namadhe]]. He also directed a few films and is well known for his family themes. He written stories films in languages such as Telugu, Kannada and Hindi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/05/16/sunday-celebrity-%E2%80%98vietnam-veedu%E2%80%99-sundaram%E2%80%99s-thinking-beyond-tomorrow-makes-him-batti|title=Sunday Celebrity: 'Vietnam Veedu' Sundaram's thinking beyond tomorrow makes him batting still - Asian Tribune|work=asiantribune.com|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> He also worked as an actor in films and television.

==Early life==

Sundaram was born in 1943 to a lawyer father in [[Tiruchirappalli]], [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Turns, twists and drama ruled Sundaram's life and films |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/turns-twists-and-drama-ruled-sundarams-life-and-films/ |access-date=17 November 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=9 August 2016}}</ref> His mother brought him to [[Madras]] in 1945 to see [[Mahatma Gandhi]] at Island Grounds. As he was not well-educated, he was made to work in a factory even at a very young age. In 1955-56 he joined Dunlop factory as a machine operator. In the meantime, he was also working as a service boy in United Amateur Artistes run by Y.G. Parthasarathy, his wife and Pattu. That kindled his interest in drama and cinema. He narrated real life incidents with imagination and make it an interesting story. This made him a good storyteller among his friends. Slowly he graduated himself in theatrics and play writing. Soon he became a good screenplay and dialogue writer.

==Film career==

He was the mastermind behind creating the highly successful play "Vietnam Veedu," hence the prefix for his name. Vietnam Veedu Sundaram played the hat-trick in films too with the same titles, all acted by the Nadigar Thilagam [[Sivaji Ganesan]], the Thespian of Indian cinema.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/vietnam-veedu-sundaram-passed-away-news-tamil-qigjLEcebjbhf.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819061420/http://www.sify.com/movies/vietnam-veedu-sundaram-passed-away-news-tamil-qigjLEcebjbhf.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 August 2016|title='Vietnam Veedu' Sundaram passed away!|work=sify.com|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> He is known as the 'founder' of social mythology. The well known movies which he wrote include Vietnam Veedu, Gnana Oli, Naan En Piranden, Naalai Namadhe, Satyam, Gruhapravesam, Justice Gopinath, Anaan Oru Koyil, Oru Malarin Payanam, Navagraha Nayaki, Geethanjali, Aayiram Kannudayaal, Dharmam, Piranthen Valarthen, Nambinar Keduvathillai, Jallikattu, Raja Mariyadhai, Velundu Vinaiyillai, Soora Samhaaram. He also wrote story for Kannada film Anupama. He gained national fame for writing the story for 1978 Hindi film Devata starring Sanjev Kumar in the lead. He cast the ever green [[K. R. Vijaya]] in the role of goddess in "Namma Veetu Deivam", the first time social mythology in Tamil, which was remade into Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada. That set the social mythology trend in films and televisions. He has directed more than dozen films and is well known for his family themes with one of them [[Gauravam (1973 film)|Gauravam]] being a cult classic.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/small-screen-promotes-theatre-art-says-vietnam-veedu-sundaram/article3393756.ece|title=Small screen promotes theatre art, says 'Vietnam Veedu' Sundaram|date=7 May 2012|access-date=4 September 2016|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref> His stories have been made into films in other languages also. He started acting in films since 1999.He turned actor on the small screen from 1998 and has to his credit quite a few television serials. He has worked as a writer for films with many popular stars including [[M. G. Ramachandran]], [[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[Rajinikanth]], [[Kamal Haasan]], [[K. R. Vijaya]], [[Sathyaraj]] and [[Karthik (actor)|Karthik]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/03/11/stories/2005031102080500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050526004827/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/03/11/stories/2005031102080500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 May 2005|title=A veteran reminisces ...|first=One of the early scriptwriters "Vietnam Veedu" Sundaram is famous for his family-oriented storylines He goes on a rewind trip in a conversation with S. R. ASHOK KUMAR "Vietnam Veedu"|last=Sundaram|date=3 October 2005|pages=05|access-date=4 September 2016|work=[[The Hindu]]|via=The Hindu (old)}}</ref>

==Death==
Sundaram died on 6 August 2016 at the age of 73 due to age related ailments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/director-actor-screen-writer-vietnam-veedu-sundaram-dead-in-chennai-tamil-news-164602.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807162157/http://www.indiaglitz.com/director-actor-screen-writer-vietnam-veedu-sundaram-dead-in-chennai-tamil-news-164602.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 August 2016|title=IndiaGlitz - Director actor Screen writer Vietnam Veedu Sundaram dead in Chennai - Tamil Movie News|work=indiaglitz.com|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> He is survived by his wife Chella and daughter [[Anu Parthasarathy]] who is a costume designer.<ref name = ie/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-costume-designer/anu-parthasarathy/anu-parthasarathy-interview.html|title=Anu Parthasarathy interview|work=behindwoods.com|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==

"Vietnam Veedu" Sundaram won the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Dialogue Writer]] for his magnum opus, [[Vietnam Veedu]] in 1970.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IMDb |url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0002955/1970/1/?ref_=ev_tl_yr_4 |access-date=September 29, 2025 |website=IMDb}}</ref> He also won the Arignar Anna Award in the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Honorary Award]] in 1991.

==Filmography==
{{unreferenced section|date= November 2022}}

===Writer===
;Films
{{Colbegin}}
* [[Vietnam Veedu]] (1970) - Scriptwriter
* Namma Veettu Deivam (1970) - Dialogue
* [[Veguli Penn]] (1971) - Dialogue
* [[Irulum Oliyum]] (1971) - Dialogue
* [[Gnana Oli]] (1972) - Scriptwriter
* [[Naan Yen Pirandhen]] (1972) - Dialogue
* Itho Enthan Deivam (1972) - Dialogue
* Vijaya (1973) - Scriptwriter
*[[Manidharil Manikkam]] (1973)
* [[Gauravam (1973 film)|Gauravam]] (1973) - Scriptwriter
* Kasthuri Vijayam (1975) - Scriptwriter
* [[Naalai Namadhe (1975 film)|Naalai Namadhe]] (1975) - Scriptwriter
* Panakkara Penn (1976)
* [[Satyam (1976 film)|Satyam]] (1976)
* [[Gruhapravesam (1976 film)|Gruhapravesam]] (1976)
*[[Paalootti Valartha Kili]] (1976)
*[[Thaaliya Salangaiya]] (1977)
*[[Naam Pirandha Mann]] (1977)
*[[Thanikudithanam]] (1977)
* [[Justice Gopinath]] (1978)
* [[Annan Oru Koyil]] (1978)
*[[Oru Veedu Oru Ulagam]] (1978)
* [[Devata (1978 film)|Devata]] (1978) (Hindi)
*[[Allauddinum Albhutha Vilakkum]] (1979)
*Kandhar Alangaram (1979)
*Valli Mayil (1980)
*[[Engamma Maharani]] (1981)
* [[Anupama (1981 film)|Anupama]] (1981) (Kannada)
* [[Paritchaikku Neramaachu]] (1982)
*[[Vaa Kanna Vaa]] (1982)
*[[Thunai]] (1982)
*Nalamthaana (1982)
*[[Garuda Saukiyama]] (1982)
*[[Donga (film)|Donga]] (1985) (Telugu)
*[[Anthasthu]] (1985)
* [[Oru Malarin Payanam]] (1985)
* [[Navagraha Nayagi]] (1985)
* [[Geethanjali (1985 film)|Geethanjali]] (1985)
*Ammavum Neeye Appavum Neeye (1985)
* [[Aayiram Kannudayaal]] (1986)
* [[Dharmam]] (1986)
* [[Piranthaen Valarnthaen]] (1986)
* [[Nambinar Keduvathillai]] (1986)
*[[Brahmastram (1986 film)|Brahmastram]] (1986) (Telugu)
* [[Anand (1987 film)|Anand]] (1987)
* [[Jallikattu (1987 film)|Jallikattu]] (1987)
* [[Raja Mariyadhai]] (1987)
* [[Velundu Vinaiyillai]] (1987)
* [[Soora Samhaaram]] (1988)
* [[Bharatamlo Bala Chandrudu]] (1988) (Telugu)
* [[Prananiki Pranam]] (1990) (Telugu) - Story
{{Colend}}

;Television
*''Vikramadithyan''
*''En Peyar Ranganayaki''
*''Velan''

===Director===
* Vijaya (1973)
* [[Gauravam (1973 film)|Gauravam]] (1973)
* Devi Sri Karumari Amman (1974)
* [[Payanam (1976 film)|Payanam]] (1976)
*Kandhar Alangaram (1979)
* [[Gnana Paravai]] (1991)

===As actor===
;Films
*''[[Appu (2000 film)|Appu]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Anjaneya (film)|Anjaneya]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Kannamoochi Yenada]]'' (2007) - Arumugam Gounder's father
* ''[[Kolagalam]]'' (2013)
*''Vandha Mala'' (2015)
* ''Namma Kadha'' (2017)

==Television==
{{unreferenced section|date= November 2022}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Channel
|-
|2000 - 2001 || ''[[Krishnadasi (2000 TV series)|Krishnadasi]]'' || Sama || rowspan=2|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|2004 - 2007|| ''[[My Dear Bootham (TV series)|My Dear Bootham]]'' || Alavudeen/Moosa's Grandfather
|-
| 2000–2001
|''Rishimoolam''||Host||[[Puthuyugam TV]]
|-
|2002 - 2005||''[[Metti Oli]]''|| Kathiresan||rowspan=5|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|2004 - 2006||''[[Raja Rajeshwari]]''||
|-
|2004 - 2007|| ''Avargal''||
|-
|2007 - 2012||''[[Athipookal (TV series)|Athipookal]]''||Krishnamurthy
|-
|2008 - 2009||''[[Kalasam (TV series)|Kalasam]]''
|-
|2010||''[[Abirami (TV series)|Abirami]]'' ||Villain || [[Kalaignar TV]]
|-
|2010 - 2012||''Pondatti Thevai'' || Minor Sundarrajan||rowspan=4|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|2012 - 2015||''[[Bhairavi Aavigalukku Priyamanaval]]''||
|-
|2012 - 2014||''[[Pillai Nila (TV series)|Pillai Nila]]''||Neelaveni's Uncle
|-
|2013 - 2016|| ''[[Valli (2012 TV series)|Valli]]'' ||Sundaram
|-
|2015 - 2016||''Thangamana Purushan''|| ||[[Kalaignar TV]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sundaram, Vietnam Veedu}}
[[Category:Tamil comedians]]
[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Tamil screenwriters]]
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:2016 deaths]]
[[Category:Writers from Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Film directors from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian male screenwriters]]
[[Category:Tamil dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]

K. Ponnusamy (AIADMK politician)

2026-01-04T15:27:05Z

Felorox: started new entry

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{BLP one source|date=January 2026}}
'''K. Ponnusamy''' is an Indian politician who was a member of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] from the [[Dharapuram Assembly constituency|Dharapuram constituency]] from 2011 to 2016, for the [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] party.<ref>{{cite web|title=List of MLAs from Tamil Nadu 2011 |url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/member_list.pdf |publisher=Govt. of Tamil Nadu |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320103427/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/member_list.pdf |archivedate=2012-03-20 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ponnusamy, K.}}
[[Category:All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
{{AIADMK-politician-stub}}

Central Indian leaf-toed gecko

2025-12-16T04:00:07Z

Felorox: Creating New Stub!

{{Short description|Species of lizard}}
{{speciesbox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Hemidactylus chipkali {{!}} IUCN RedList |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/115605109/115605117 |website=iucnredlist.org}}</ref>
| genus = Hemidactylus
| species = chipkali
| authority = Mirza & Raju, 2017
| synonyms =
}}

The '''Central Indian leaf-toed gecko''' ('''''Hemidactylus chipkali''''') is a species of [[gecko]]. It is [[endemic]] to [[Madhya Pradesh]] in [[India]].<ref name=RDB>{{NRDB species|genus=Hemidactylus|species=chipkali}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q30090347}}

[[Category:Hemidactylus]]
[[Category:Reptiles described in 2017]]
[[Category:Endemic reptiles of India]]
{{Hemidactylus-stub}}

St. Mary's Basilica, Bengaluru

2025-11-29T05:45:37Z

Felorox: New New Entry

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox church
| denomination = [[Roman Catholic]]
| name = St. Mary's Basilica
| native_name = {{ubl

|ಸೇಂಟ್ ಮೇರಿಸ್ ಬೆಸಿಲಿಕಾ
}}
| image = St.Mary%27s_Basilica.jpg
| imagesize = 260px
| caption =
| coordinates =
| country = India
| location = [[Bangalore, Karnataka]]
| previous denomination =
| churchmanship =
| membership =
| attendance =
| website =
| former name =
| bull date =
| founded date =
| founder = Fr. Jean-Antoine Dubois
| dedication = [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|St. Mary]]
| dedicated date =
| consecrated date = 8 September 1882
| cult =
| relics =
| events =
| past bishop =
| people =
| status = [[Minor Basilica]]
| functional status = Active
| heritage designation =
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| style = [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]]
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| parish =
| deanery = Basilica Deanery
| archdeaconry =
| archdiocese = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bangalore|Archdiocese of Bangalore]]
| diocese =
| province =
| presbytery =
| synod =
| circuit =
| district =
| division =
| subdivision =
| archbishop = Archbishop [[Peter Machado]]
| bishop =
| abbot =
| vicar = S. Jaynathan & Msgr. C. Francis
| provost-rector =
| provost =
| viceprovost =
| rector = Fr. Martin Kumar
| dean = Fr. Martin Ananda Kumar.
| subdean =
| precentor =
| canon =
| canonpastor =
| prebendary =
| priestincharge =
| priest = Fr. Martin Kumar
| asstpriest = Fr. Joe Prem Britto
| honpriest =
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| minister =
| assistant =
| seniorpastor = Fr. Micheal Antony
| pastor =
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}}

'''St. Mary's Basilica''' is a [[shrine]] located in [[Shivajinagar, Bangalore|Shivajinagar (Blackpally)]] locality of [[Karnataka, India]]. It is among the oldest churches at [[Bangalore]] and the first church in the state that has been elevated to the status of a [[Basilicas_in_the_Catholic_Church|minor basilica]].<ref name="Chandramouli">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/08/29/stories/2002082900270200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030309121105/http://thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/08/29/stories/2002082900270200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 March 2003|title=Home to all faiths|date=29 August 2002|issue=Bangalore|last1=Chandramouli|first1=K|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=7 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="book">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzWFvPc2xP0C&q=%22st+mary's+basilica%22+%22is+the+only+church%22&pg=PA15|title=Bangalore:An Expat Survival Guide|publisher=Chillibreeze publication|first1=Preethi | last1=Sharma | first2=Nishi | last2=Vishwanathan|isbn=9788190405522|access-date=2007-08-15}}</ref><ref name=Smriti>{{cite book|last1=Srinivas|first1=Smriti|title=Landscapes of Urban Memory: The Sacred and the Civic in India's High-Tech City|date=2001|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=1452904898|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmOvKsagbAgC&q=cantonment+market%2C+bangalore&pg=PA18|access-date=19 January 2015}}</ref> It is famous for festivities held during the St. Mary's Feast in the month of September each year, attracting devotees from the entire [[metropolitan area]] of [[Bangalore]].

==History==
'''St. Mary's Basilica''' had a humble beginning as a thatched hut in the 17th century, built by [[Christianity in Tamil Nadu|Tamil Christian]] migrants from [[Gingee]]. The Shrine was then known as 'Chapel of Kanikkai Madha' and was located in their village where rice was grown. The rice grown in the village had a distinct white colour, and hence the settlement came to known as ''Bili Akki Palli'' or colloquiallyly could have been named after John Blakiston (1785-1867), who designed the layout of the Bangalore Cantonment.<ref name=Black>{{cite news|last1=Aruni|first1=S K|title=Tracing the architect of the Cantonment|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/tracing-the-architect-of-the-cantonment/article2946227.ece|access-date=19 January 2015|issue=Bangalore|work=The Hindu|date=29 February 2012}}</ref>

Bangalore was not a big city in 1648 when [[Christianity]] entered [[Seringapatam]], the capital of the then the [[Mysore Kingdom]]. But during [[Hyder Ali]]'s tenure in 1724–25, Bangalore saw its first Church, [[Fort Church, Bangalore|Drummers' Chapel]], in the Kalasipalya locality. When [[Tippu Sultan]] ascended the throne, [[Christian missionaries]] had to flee [[Mysore]]; thus the history of [[Christianity]] in [[Mysore]] was murky until 1799. With the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] Bangalore was seized from the tyranny of [[Tipu Sultan]], who was defeated. The French [[Missions Etrangères de Paris|MEP]] priest [[Jean-Antoine Dubois]] arrived at Bangalore and began restoring the [[Catholic]] religion. He went around Somanahalli, Kamanahalli, Begur, Gunjam, Palahalli, Doranahalli, Garenahalli, Shettyhalli, and beyond, visiting the [[Catholic]] families there and ministering to their spiritual needs. He was one of the first to introduce vaccination into India; he also wrote the famous book ''Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/hindumannerscust1906dubo|title=Hindu manners, customs and ceremonies|last1=Dubois|first1=J. A. (Jean Antoine)|last2=Beauchamp|first2=Henry K. (Henry King)|last3=Dubois|first3=J. A. (Jean Antoine)|date=1906|publisher=Oxford : Clarendon Press}}</ref> The Mass vestments worn by Fr Jean-Antoine Dubois are still preserved in the church at Palahalli near [[Srirangapattana]].

Dubois built a chapel with a thatched roof in 1803 at ''Bili Akki Palli,'' or colloquially ''Blackpally'' and offered Mass there.<ref name="hist1">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/08/30/stories/2006083024010300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825143002/http://www.hindu.com/2006/08/30/stories/2006083024010300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-08-25|title=Annual St. Mary's Feast begins|date=2006-08-30|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2007-08-15}}</ref> The structure was called Kaanike Mathe Devalaya, which in Kannada means the Church of [[Our Lady of the Presentation]]. That small prayer house is the location where the basilica currently stands. When [[Bangalore Cantonment]] was established, a Mass was regularly held by Dubois and attended by both [[Europe]]an and [[India]]n Catholics. In 1811 Dubois built a small chapel with a [[Clergy house|rectory]] for priests. In 1813, with the help of the British, he modified and enhanced the chapel and renamed it the Church of the Purification of Our Lady, Blackpalli. Until recently the engraving of the year '1813' was seen in the front nave of the old church where the miraculous statue is housed.

Fr Andreas, a priest from [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]] of Indian origin, succeeded Dubois and expanded the church building in the shape of a cross. But it was destroyed during the communal riots of 1832, and troops had to be called in to protect the settlement for many months.<ref name="Chandramouli" /><ref name="St. Mary's Basilica">{{cite web|url=http://www.stmarysbasilica.in/history.htm|title=St. Mary's Basilica - History|publisher=St. Mary's Basilica|last1=St. Mary's Basilica}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzWFvPc2xP0C&q=%22st+mary's+basilica%22+%22is+the+only+church%22&pg=PA15|title=Bangalore:An Expat Survival Guide|publisher=Chillibreeze publication|isbn=978-81-904055-2-2|access-date=2009-03-20|author=Preethi Sharma|author2=Nishi Vishwanathan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/08/30/stories/2006083024010300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825143002/http://www.hindu.com/2006/08/30/stories/2006083024010300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-08-25|title=Annual St. Mary's Feast begins|date=2006-08-30|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2009-03-20}}</ref>

The church was rebuilt during the years 1856–1882 under its original name, the Church of our Lady of the Presentation. The current form of the majestic Gothic-style church (pictured) is credited to Rev L E Kleiner. It was consecrated on 8 September 1882 by Bishop Jean-Yves-Marie Coadou, the [[vicar apostolic|Vicar Apostolic]] of [[Mysore]], in the presence of 35 priests and 4,000 [[Catholics]] of [[Bangalore]]. The total amount spent on the construction of the new church. including the pulpit and the statues, was Rs. 29,659.

Over time, the church of St Mary's at Blackpally had become a parish and has since overseen the construction of other churches in Bangalore, most prominently St Francis Xavier's Cathedral (1851), St Joseph's Church (1867), and Sacred Heart Church, Ashoknagar ([[Austin Town, Bengaluru|Austin Town]]) (1867). The church was elevated to the status of a minor basilica in 1973 through an edict issued by [[Pope Paul VI]]. It was the sixth church in India to be elevated to this status. An annual nine-day [[novena]] is held between 30 August and 7 September, with Mass being offered in English, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.<ref name="St. Mary's Basilica" /> The area of Blackpally is now known as Shivajinagar.

==Architecture==
[[File:Mass, St Mary's Basilica Bangalore.jpg|thumb]]
The basilica has been built in the Gothic style with arches, ornamental [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]]s, and [[stained glass]] windows.<ref name="hist4">{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-16/bangalore/27838029_1_references-church-blessing|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017232618/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-10-16/bangalore/27838029_1_references-church-blessing|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-10-17|author=Anita Rao Kashi|title=Blessing faithful, soothing the eye|access-date=2007-08-16|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=2005-10-16}}</ref> Multiple columns with rich [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] capitals support the stately arches of the church. The columns and tall spires of the basilica can be seen from far away. The stained glass windows were removed during [[World War II]] and were subsequently restored in 1947.

==St. Mary's feast==
St. Mary's Feast which celebrates the birth of [[Mother Mary]] is the most important festival celebrated in the basilica and is attended by 500,000 people.{{clarify|date=August 2014|text=Bangalore has two million christians, yet, more than five hundred thousands attended that church especially Hindus and Muslims.}} Held in the month of September, the festivities go on for 10 days culminating in a grand chariot procession on the last day.<ref name="hist1"/> The festivities begin with the hoisting of a traditional flag. A [[Novena]] is held on the first nine days from 29 August to 7 September. September 8, the day on which Mother Mary was born, is celebrated as a Holy feast. Mass is offered in different languages and mass marriages are conducted for the poor and needy. A thanksgiving Mass is also organized for couples who have completed 50 years of marriage. [[Eucharistic]] celebrations are held on the day of the feast and a decorated chariot with the image of Mother Mary is drawn by devotees along the various streets of Bangalore.

==Mass times==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Weekdays
! Saturday
! Sunday
|-
|
06:00 English 
07:00 Tamil 
09:00 Kannada 
11:00 Tamil 
18:00 Mon, Tue & Fri Tamil 
18:00 Wed Kannada 
18:00 Thu English 
|
06:00 English 
07:00 Tamil 
9:00 Kannada 
10:00 English 
11:00 Tamil 
18:00 Tamil 
|
06:00 English 
07:00 Tamil 
08:00 Tamil 
09:15 Kannada 
11:00 Tamil 
18:00 English
|}
{{clear}}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode=packed>
Image:St. Mary's Basilica Bangalore.jpg|The church
Image:St. Mary's Basilica Bangalore Inside.jpg|Nave
Image:St. Mary's Basilica Bangalore alter.jpg|Altar
Image:St. Mary's Basilica Bangalore front.jpg|Front view from the road
</gallery>
<gallery mode=packed>
Image:St. Mary's Basilica Bangalore pillar.jpg|Pillars inside the church
Image:St. Mary's Basilica Bangalore gate.jpg|Church gate
Image:St. Mary's Basilica, Bangalore at Night.jpg|At night
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{coord|12|59|3.1|N|77|36|13.99|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=title}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.stmarysbangalore.com Official website]

{{Basilicas in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saint Marys Basilica, Bangalore}}
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches completed in 1882]]
[[Category:19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in India]]
[[Category:Basilica churches in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Bengaluru]]

Molvom

2025-11-28T01:39:31Z

Felorox: creating a data needs work

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Molvom
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| image =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| nickname =
| image_map1 =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Nagaland#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Molvom
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Administrative divisions of India#Regions|Region]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Northeast India]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nagaland]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Chümoukedima district|Chümoukedima District]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_footnotes =
| government_type =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| total_type = 
| area_footnotes =
| area_magnitude = 
| area_total_km2 = 
| area_land_km2 = 
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent =
| area_urban_km2 =
| area_metro_km2 =
| area_blank1_title =
| area_blank1_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m =
| elevation_min_m =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_rank =
| population_total = 1391<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiagrowing.com/Nagaland/Medziphema/Molvom|title=Census of India 2011 – Molvom data|website=indiagrowing.com|access-date=19 March 2023}}{{dead link|date=November 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_urban =
| population_density_urban_km2 =
| population_metro =
| population_density_metro_km2 =
| population_blank1_title = [[Demonym]]
| population_blank1 =
| population_density_blank1_km2 =
| population_blank2_title = Official
| population_blank2 = [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 797106
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 =
| website = {{URL|nagaland.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Molvom''' is a [[Kuki people|Kuki]] village located in the [[Chümoukedima district|Chümoukedima District]] of [[Nagaland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mapsofindia.com/villages/nagaland/dimapur/medziphema/molvom.html|title=Map of Molvom|website=www.mapsofindia.com|access-date=19 March 2023}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
Molvom is situated in the Chümoukedima District of Nagaland. As per the Population Census 2011, there are a total 241 households in Molvom. The total population of Molvom is 1391.

== See also ==
*[[Chümoukedima district|Chümoukedima District]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Chümoukedima district]]

Freshers (Indian TV series)

2025-11-18T10:19:44Z

Felorox: Creating A Data!

{{Short description|Indian television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Freshers series.jpeg
| genre = [[Romance film|Romance]]
| director = Aniruddh Shinde
| creator = [[Sanjay Jadhav]]
| writer = {{Plain list|
* [[Sanjay Jadhav]]
* Ashish Pathare}}
| runtime = 22 minutes
| starring = [[#Cast|See below]]
| company = Dreaming 24 Seven Production
| producer = [[Sanjay Jadhav]] Deepak Rane
| num_episodes = 211
| country = India
| language = Marathi
| network = [[Zee Yuva]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2016|08|22|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2017|06|13|df=y}}
}}

'''''Freshers''''' is an Indian Marathi television series directed by Aniruddh Shinde and it was aired from 22 August 2016 on [[Zee Yuva]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=6 August 2016|title=Freshers - Zee Yuva Serial|url=https://marathistars.com/tv-serial/freshers-zee-yuva-serial/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-18|website=Marathi Stars|language=en-US}}</ref> It was ended on 13 June 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Marathi TV serial Freshers to go off air|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/marathi-tv-serial-freshers-to-go-off-air/articleshow/58986771.cms|access-date=2022-07-05|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|language=en|date=4 June 2017}}</ref> This series is based on friendship and lifestyle of first year B. M. M. degree college students admitted in H. K. College in Mumbai.

== Plot summary ==
The story revolves around seven freshmen enrolled in a bachelor's degree in mass media. They all hail from different family backgrounds and also from different parts of Maharashtra. Each one has their own dreams and goals. Initially, critical of their differences, they start enjoying the journey while discovering their true selves. Each day brings about a new set of fun-filled expeditions for them. No matter how bad the situation is they always stand for each other.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=6 January 2017|title=Zee Yuva's Freshers To Complete A Century Of Episodes|url=https://megamarathi.com/marathi-serials/freshers-complete-century-episodes/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2021-01-18|website=MegaMarathi.Com|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Freshers: a refreshing show for Marathi audience - The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/Freshers-a-refreshing-show-for-Marathi-audience/articleshow/53431416.cms|access-date=2021-01-18|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=28 July 2016 |language=en}}</ref>

== Cast ==
===Main===
* [[Mitali Mayekar]] as Sayali Bankar: A dynamic and dashing young lady from Nashik. Her father Keshav Bankar, a soldier, was killed in action when she was young. Since moving to Mumbai 2 years before admitting in the college, she works as a saleswoman at a food company. She used to love Nirav but later helped Manava express her love for Nirav.
* [[Amruta Deshmukh]] as Pari Deshmukh: A funny character from [[Latur]]. Her father Prataprao Deshmukh, a politician, is a member of the Maharashtra Svabhiman Party and head of one of the first families in Latur. She attended H.K. College in Mumbai for her ex-boyfriend Vinit who is also admitted in the same college but is left heartbroken when Vinit deceives her. She is always at loggerheads with Sayali and sometimes with Samrat. She helps her friends during financial issues.
* [[Onkar Raut]] as Dhaval Mithbavkar: A lighthearted orphan who lives with his grandmother at [[Lalbaug]], Mumbai. He is a last minute riser. He is always late to lectures and fakes reasons to his professors. He gets into a relation with Ruchira when her ex-boyfriend cheats on her. He is always loggerheads with Mangya and his goon associates and his boss Rohit.
* Siddhart Khirid as Nirav Desai: A smart and kindhearted boy from [[Pune]], belonging to a family of doctors but wishes to be a filmmaker. He is Manava's love interest. He comes up with abstract and innovative ideas for his projects. He faces issues with expenses due to strong opposition of his family to his interest towards his passion. He won special award of ''Best Director'' for his contribution in the play staged at Annual Mumbai Inter College Play Competition.
* Rashmi Anpat as Manava Raje: Daughter of Ashok Raje, a millionaire businessman. She is a gorgeous and stunning girl, known for concealing her background and simple behaviour, and a fan of [[Virat Kohli]]. She is Nirav's girlfriend. She wrote the play which Nirav directed.
* Rasika Vengurlekar as Renuka Bhillare: A meek and timid girl who hails from Raigad. She is extremely attached to her father, a widower, who runs a sweet shop. She idolizes Sayali as her mother. She is the foodie among the girls. She considers Samrat as her best friend and foodie partner. She aspires to become a News Reporter.
* [[Shubhankar Tawde]] as Samrat Patil: A Kabaddi player from [[Kolhapur]]. He loves Kabaddi more than anything. He was forcefully sent to college on his mother's and uncle's insistence. He is close with her young sister Shivani "Chabudi". He considers Nirav and Renuka as his best friends and Renuka as his foodie partner. He scores low marks in his exams.

===Recurring===
* Vidyadhar Joshi as Principal Harishchandra Kirloskar: Principal of his namesake H. K. College. Though kind on the inside, he is draconian and a stickler for discipline.
* Sunny Mungekar as Rajkumar Deshmukh: Pari's brother and an activist of the Maharashtra Svabhiman Party.
* Sai Kalyankar as Ruchira: Dhaval's girlfriend.
* Ruturaj Shinde as Kiran Chakradev (Chakrya): Nirav and Samrat's estranged and adamant roompartner. He always schemes against the gang and causes troubles for Nirav and Samrat in the hostel room but fails in every attempts.
*Purva Phadke as [[Juhi Parmar]]: Vinit's Girlfriend
*Ronak Shinde as Vinit: He is the one who was the boyfriend of Pari but he later confesses Pari that he was actually in love with Juhi.
*Shital Shukla As Dhawal's Grandmother: She is the only one for Dhawal to take care of him. She has close bondings with her grandson. Besides, She runs a general store.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://m.imdb.com/title/tt10127740/ Freshers] on [[IMDb]]
*[https://www.zee5.com/tvshows/details/freshers/0-6-163 Freshers] on [[ZEE5]]

[[Category:Marathi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Indian romance television series]]
[[Category:Zee Yuva original programming]]

Vasanti Shinde

2025-11-09T11:27:59Z

Felorox:

{{Short description|Indian tennis player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox tennis biography
| name = Vasanti Shinde
| native_name =
| image =
| caption =
| full_name =
| country = {{IND}}
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1997|02|18|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Pune]], India
| residence =
| height =
| turnedpro =
| plays = Left (two-handed backhand)
| careerprizemoney = $22,698
| singlesrecord = 36–61
| singlestitles =
| highestsinglesranking = No. 1179 (22 May 2023)
| currentsinglesranking =
| doublesrecord = 63–87
| doublestitles = 1 ITF
| highestdoublesranking = No. 211 (19 August 2024)
| currentdoublesranking = No. 1222 (3 November 2025)
| updated = 3 November 2025
}}

'''Vasanti Shinde''' (born 18 February 1997) is a professional Indian tennis player.<ref>{{Cite news | date=2024-05-29 |title=Vasanti Shinde in doubles quarterfinals |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/vasanti-shinde-in-doubles-quarterfinals/article68229396.ece |access-date=2024-07-14 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Shinde has a career-high doubles ranking by the [[Women's Tennis Association|WTA]] of 211, achieved on 19 August 2024.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wtatennis.com/players/320827/vasanti-shinde|title=Vasanti Shinde | Player Stats & More – WTA Official|website=Women's Tennis Association}}</ref>

Partnering [[Leonie Küng]], Shinde won her first $75k tournament in July 2024 at the ITF event in [[2024 ATV Tennis Open|Roma]], Italy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itftennis.com/en/tournament/w75plush-rome/ita/2024/w-itf-ita-2024-015/|title=ITF W75 Roma Main Draws|website=www.itftennis.com}}</ref>

==ITF finals==

===Doubles: 6 (1 title, 6 runner-ups)===
{|class=wikitable style="font-size:85%;"
!Legend
|- style="background:#addfad;"
|W60/75 tournaments
|- style="background:#ffe4c4;"
|W40/50 tournaments
|- style="background:lightblue;"
|W25/35 tournaments
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
|W15 tournaments
|}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Result
!class="unsortable"|W–L
!{{ns}}Date{{ns}}
!Tournament
!Tier
!Surface
!Partner
!Opponents
!class="unsortable"|Score
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 0–1
| Nov 2021
| style="background:#f0f8ff;"|ITF Lousada, Portugal
| style="background:#f0f8ff;"|W15
| Hard (i)
| {{flagicon|POR}} [[Inês Murta]]
| {{flagicon|NED}} [[Jasmijn Gimbrère]] {{flagicon|SUI}} [[Naïma Karamoko]]
| w/o
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 0–2
| Jun 2023
| style="background:lightblue;"|ITF Madrid, Spain
| style="background:lightblue;"|W25
| Hard
| {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Li Zongyu]]
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Dalayna Hewitt]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Alana Smith (tennis)|Alana Smith]]
| 6–4, 2–6, [6–10]
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 0–3
| Sep 2023
| style="background:#ffe4c4;"|ITF Saint-Palais-sur-Mer, France
| style="background:#ffe4c4;"|W40
| Clay
| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Victoria Muntean]]
| {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Emily Appleton (tennis)|Emily Appleton]] {{flagicon|UKR}} [[Valeriya Strakhova]]
| 1–6, 2–6
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 0–4
| Mar 2024
| style="background:lightblue;"|ITF Terrassa, Spain
| style="background:lightblue;"|W35
| Clay
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Yvonne Cavallé Reimers]]
| {{flagicon|SLO}} [[Nika Radišić]] {{flagicon|BIH}} [[Anita Wagner]]
| 5–7, 6–7(7)
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 0–5
| Apr 2024
| style="background:lightblue;"|ITF Santa Margherita di Pula, Italy
| style="background:lightblue;"|W35
| Clay
| {{flagicon|GRE}} [[Sapfo Sakellaridi]]
| {{flagicon|ESP}} Yvonne Cavallé Reimers {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Aurora Zantedeschi]]
| 6–3, 4–6, [9–11]
|-
| style="background:#98fb98;"|Win
| 1–5
| Jul 2024
| style="background:#addfad;"|[[2024 ATV Tennis Open|Rome Open]], Italy
| style="background:#addfad;"|W75
| Clay
| {{flagicon|SUI}} [[Leonie Küng]]
| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Matilde Paoletti]] {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Beatrice Ricci]]
| 4–6, 6–4, [10–7]
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 1–6
| Nov 2025
| style="background:lightblue;"|ITF Faro, Portugal
| style="background:lightblue;"|W35
| Hard
| {{flagicon|LAT}} [[Elza Tomase]]
| {{flagicon|GER}} [[Josy Daems]] {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Mina Hodzic]]
| 3–6, 7–5(5), [9–11]
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{WTA|320827}}
* {{ITF|vasanti-shinde/800342717/ind}}

{{Top Indian female doubles tennis players}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shinde, Vasanti}}
[[Category:1997 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian female tennis players]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Pune]]

{{India-tennis-bio-stub}}

Puthen Kovilakam

2025-10-06T19:33:27Z

Felorox: small improved details after review additionally and corrected details

{{Short description|Section of the palace of Kodungallur Kovilakam, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
'''Puthen Kovilakam''' ({{Coord|10.2162589|N|76.201531|E|region:IN_type:landmark|display=inline,title|format=dms|name=accident site}}) is one section of the [[Kodungallur Kovilakam]], a palace in [[Kodungallur]], [[Kerala]], [[India]].<ref>[http://www.keralatourism.org/muziris/circuit-tours.php Muziris Heritage Site]</ref> Puthen Kovilakam means "new palace". This [[Kovilakam]] (manor house) was known by the name "[[Gurukulam]]".<ref>[http://www.scholarswithoutborders.in/KnowledgeBeforePrinting&After.pdf Knowledge before printing and after – The Indian tradition in changing Kerala] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802165702/http://www.scholarswithoutborders.in/KnowledgeBeforePrinting%26After.pdf |date=2010-08-02 }}</ref> It was a well-known learning center. Many eminent scholars from this Kovilakam contributed to [[Malayalam]] and [[Sanskrit]] literature.
<ref>[http://www.mahabharata-resources.org/kkkt.html Kodungallur Kunhikkuttan Thampuran]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Tourist attractions in Thrissur}}
{{Tourism in Kerala|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Palaces in Thrissur]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Thrissur district]]