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Welham Girls' School

2026-05-01T11:37:27Z

EmilBarraza: post...

{{Short description|Girls' boarding school in Dehradun, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Welham Girls' School
| image = Welham Girls' School logo.png
| motto = [[Sanskrit]]: ''Artha shanti phala vidya'' (The aim of education is to bring peace)
| location = 12 Circular Road [[Dehradun]]-248001 [[India]]
| schooltype = [[Independent school|Independent]]
| religious_affiliation = [[Secular]]
| founded = 1957
| founder = [[Hersilia Susie Oliphant|H.S. Oliphant]]
| gender = Girls
| lower_age = 10
| upper_age = 18
| houses = 5
| colours = Blue and White {{color box|blue}} {{color box|white}}
| mascot = Kingfisher
| publication = {{Unbulleted list|''News and Views''|''Chrysalis''|''Techkey ''|''Delphic''|''Kshitij''}}
| website = {{URL|http://www.welhamgirls.com}}
| head_label = Current Principal
| head = Vibha Kapoor
| head_name2 = Founder Principal
| head2 = [[Grace Mary Linnel]]
| campus = 12 [[acre]]s
| affiliation = [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education|ICSE]] [[Indian School Certificate|ISC]]
| free_label = Former pupils
| free_text = Welhamites
| enrollment = 550
}}

'''Welham Girls' School''' is a private [[boarding school]] for girls located in [[Dehradun]], Uttarakhand, India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/rishi-valley-ends-doons-legacy-as-best-boarding/184136-3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923221100/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/rishi-valley-ends-doons-legacy-as-best-boarding/184136-3.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 September 2011 |title=Rishi Valley ends Doon's legacy as best boarding school – India News – IBNLive |publisher=Ibnlive.in.com |access-date=28 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gahs.in/2011/12/gold-completion-in-welham-girls-school.html |title=Award India: Gold completion in Welham Girls' School the largest in India: a peek into their Residential Project with HESCO |publisher=Gahs.in |date=26 September 2011 |access-date=28 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://educationworldonline.net/index.php/page-article-choice-more-id-2369 |title=Educationworldonline.net |access-date=23 January 2012 |archive-date=7 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507011451/http://educationworldonline.net/index.php/page-article-choice-more-id-2369 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Top ranked ISC and ICSE Schools: http://www.thelearningpoint.net/home/examination-results-2013/top-icse-and-isc-schools-based-on-academic-performance</ref>

== History ==
The school was founded by [[Hersilia Susie Oliphant]], who had previously set up [[Welham Boys' School]].<ref name="Tribune_2019">{{cite news |last1=Chopra |first1=Jaskiran |title=Dehradun's journey to town of schools, with Miss Oliphant |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/dehradun-s-journey-to-town-of-schools-with-miss-oliphant-835501 |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=The Tribune |date=22 September 2019}}</ref> She named the schools after her home village of [[Welham, Nottinghamshire]] in the United Kingdom.<ref name="Tribune_2019"/>

She acquired a palatial estate called Nasreen adjacent to the boys' school to start a small boarding school for girls.<ref name="Tribune_2019"/> There were no funds, staff, or school buildings. There were originally ten pupils.<ref name="Tribune_2019"/> Oliphant recruited another English woman, [[Grace Mary Linnel]], to run the boarding school for girls.<ref name="Tribune_2019"/> Linnel became the founder principal of Welham Girls School, which started in 1957.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.welhamgirls.com/welham-girls-history.html|title=History}}</ref>

The school has been described in ''[[The Economic Times]]'' as one of a group of "old, rich and popular schools — the [[Eton College|Eton]] equivalents in India ... These boarding schools are a state of mind in themselves, an attitude which can’t be duplicated".<ref name="Sch_forever">{{cite news |last1=Ghosh |first1=Aniruddha |last2=Naithani |first2=Ambika |title=At school, forever |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/at-school-forever/articleshow/322477.cms |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=The Economic Times |date=5 November 2006}}</ref>

== Extracurricular activities ==
The school hosts competitive events such as sports, craft, dramatics, music, dance and photography.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110518/dplus.htm |title=The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Dehradun Plus |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |access-date=28 March 2012}}</ref> Sports include basketball, hockey, swimming, badminton, lawn tennis, athletics, table tennis, karate, shooting and aerobics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/welham-girls-school-lift-hockey-title-233469 |title=The Tribune, India |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |date= 7 May 2020 |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref> The basketball team has won numerous tournaments and represented Uttrakhand at the national level. Several students have been chosen for the India camp as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/YPS-Mohali-cagers-shine/articleshow/8174276.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707064436/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-06/others/29515926_1_mohali-boys-cagers |url-status=live |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=YPS, Mohali cagers shine |date=6 May 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=28 March 2012}}</ref>

== Notable alumni ==
<gallery class="center">
File:PRIYANKA GANDHI & NEELAM SHARMA AMBALA EX CHAIRMAN MUNICIPAL COUNCIL AMBALA CANTT.jpg|[[Priyanka Gandhi]], Politician
File:Kareena Kapoor Khan in 2023 (1) (cropped).jpg|[[Kareena Kapoor]], Actor
File:Meira Kumar.jpg|[[Meira Kumar]], former Speaker of the [[Lok Sabha]]
File:Tavleen Singh - India Economic Summit 2011.jpg|[[Tavleen Singh]], Journalist
File:Deepa Mehta (Giza Eskubideen Zinemaldiaren Saria - Premio Festival Derechos Humanos) (33879458355).jpg|[[Deepa Mehta]], Film director
</gallery>

===Art===
* [[Madhu Jain]], textile designer<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhardwaj |first1=Karan |title=Roots of revival |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2013/vivacity/roots-of-revival.html |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=The Pioneer |date=3 August 2013}}</ref>
* [[Smriti Morarka]], hand-weaving revivalist<ref name=morepr4Tanruvi>{{Cite web|title=Weaving a success story|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/weaving-a-success-story/75061/|date=2005-09-04|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref>
* [[Mrinalini Mukherjee]], artist<ref>{{Cite web|title=Secular Deities, Enchanted Plants: Mrinalini Mukherjee at the NGMA|url=https://thewire.in/2322/secular-deities-enchanted-plants-mrinalini-mukherjee-at-the-ngma/|last=Gupta|first=Trisha|date=23 May 2015|website=The Wire|access-date=5 April 2023}}</ref>
* [[Laila Tyabji]], co-founder of [[Dastkar]]<ref name="Business Standard">{{cite news | url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/lunch-with-bs-laila-tyabji-114032101237_1.html | title=Business Standard | newspaper=Business Standard India | publisher=Business Standard | date=21 March 2014 | access-date=3 December 2014| last1=Krishna | first1=Geetanjali }}</ref>

===Business===
* [[Devika Bulchandani]], Global CEO, [[Ogilvy (agency)|Ogilvy]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gopalan |first1=Krishna |title=Ogilvy's new Global CEO is Amritsar-born Devika Bulchandani |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/corporate/story/ogilvys-new-global-ceo-is-amritsar-born-devika-bulchandani-346698-2022-09-08 |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=Business Today |date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
* [[Devyani Rana]], vice-president of [[Coca-Cola India]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pesta |first1=Jesse |title=A Look at Two Players in Massacre Could Help Explain Nepalese Crisis |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB991781944412784570 |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=Wall Street Journal |date=6 June 2001}}</ref>

===Film===

* [[Kareena Kapoor]], actress<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2000/may/18kar.htm |title=I do not intend doing the David Dhawan kind of films |access-date=5 April 2023 |author=Verma, Sukanya |date=18 May 2000 |work=Rediff.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103191530/http://rediff.com/entertai/2000/may/18kar.htm |archive-date=3 November 2006}}</ref>
* [[Nitya Mehra]], director and screenwriter<ref>{{cite news |last1=Upadhyay |first1=Karishma |title=Inside an all-women writers' room: in conversation with director Sudhanshu Saria |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/sudhanshu-saria-talks-to-the-hindu-weekend-on-masoom-building-indian-female-characters-and-season-three-of-delhi-crime/article34451505.ece |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=The Hindu |date=30 April 2021}}</ref>
* [[Deepa Mehta]], film director<ref name="skirt">{{cite web |title=Old school skirt |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/old-school-skirt/7209/0 |date= 24 June 2006 |publisher=[[Indian Express]]|access-date=5 April 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Shivani Rawat]], producer<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walters |first1=David |title=The Sundance Kid's Hot Streak |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-11/the-sundance-kid-s-hot-streak |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=Bloomberg UK |date=11 January 2017}}</ref>
* [[Sukhmani Sadana]], actor and screenwriter<ref>{{cite news |title=Sukhmani Sadana shares her Doon days |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sukhmani-sadana-shares-her-doon-days/articleshow/49001094.cms |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=Entertainment Times |date=17 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Priya Seth]], cinematographer<ref>{{cite web|author=Nandini Ramnath |url=https://scroll.in/reel/945835/women-cinematographers-speak-up-the-mainstream-is-hostile-diverse-pool-is-simply-not-available |title=Women cinematographers on how the mainstream ignores them: 'On the periphery' |publisher= |date=2019-12-09 |access-date=5 April 2023}}</ref>
* [[Alankrita Shrivastava]], screenwriter and film director<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wmfindia.com/blogs/female-idol-blog-series-filmmaker-alankrita-shrivastava-on-lipstick-under-my-burkha-and-more/|title=Female Idol Blog Series – Filmmaker Alankrita Shrivastava On 'Lipstick Under My Burkha' And More|publisher=WMF India|accessdate=5 April 2023|archive-date=1 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601202257/http://www.wmfindia.com/blogs/female-idol-blog-series-filmmaker-alankrita-shrivastava-on-lipstick-under-my-burkha-and-more/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Indian Administrative Service===
* [[Neera Yadav (civil servant)|Neera Yadav]], IAS officer<ref name="W-S_about">{{cite web |title=About Welham |url=https://welhamadmission.com/about-welham.html |publisher=Welham School |access-date=5 April 2023}}</ref>

===Journalism===
* [[Radhika Roy]], co-founder and co-owner of [[NDTV]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kathuria|first=Charvi|date=28 November 2020|title=Who is Radhika Roy, the woman who built India's NDTV from behind-the-scenes?|url=https://www.shethepeople.tv/news/who-is-radhika-roy-ndtv/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=[[SheThePeople.TV]]|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Tavleen Singh]], non-fiction writer, journalist and columnist, ''[[Indian Express]]''<ref name="skirt"/>
* [[Madhu Trehan]], journalist and co-founder of ''[[Newslaundry]]''<ref name="skirt"/>

===Law===
* [[Malavika Rajkotia]], lawyer and activist<ref name="mentor_magazine_2017">{{cite journal |last1=Sambasivam |first1=Padmini |title=Innovation and Thought Leadership |journal=Mentor Magazine |date=January 2017 |volume=10 |issue=8 |page=12 |url=https://issuu.com/mentormagazine/docs/mentor_january_2016_volume_10_issue/12 |access-date=5 April 2023 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Literature===
* [[Advaita Kala]], novelist and screenwriter<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chitkara |first1=Vanita |last2=Singh |first2=Ayesha |title=Off the beaten track |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/supplement/story/20100301-off-the-beaten-track-742078-2010-02-17 |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=India Today |date=1 March 2010}}</ref>
* [[Deepti Kapoor]], novelist<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-15 |title=Why everyone's talking about Deepti Kapoor's Age of Vice |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/why-everyones-talking-about-deepti-kapoors-age-of-vice-8381405/ |access-date=5 April 2023 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

===Politics and activism===

* [[Subhashini Ali]], activist, president of the [[All India Democratic Women's Association]]<ref>{{cite web
| last =Fernandes | first =Vivek | title =The Subhashini Ali 5 Questions | work =rediff.com | date =2001-07-21 | url =http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/jul/21sub.htm |access-date=5 April 2023}}</ref>
* [[Renuka Chowdhury]], MP [[Rajya Sabha]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharanya |title=Congress Leader Renuka Chowdhury Booked by Police: What Went Down? |url=https://www.shethepeople.tv/news/congress-leader-renuka-chowdhury-booked-by-police |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=She the People |date=17 June 2022}}</ref>
* [[Priyanka Gandhi]], Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha (House of the People)<ref name="Sch_forever"/>
* [[Brinda Karat]], Member of Parliament, [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exclusive Interview/Brinda Karat |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2005/may/04inter1.htm |access-date=5 April 2023 |website=Rediff |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Meira Kumar]], ex-presidential candidate and First Lady speaker of the [[Lok Sabha]]<ref name="toi_2017_Kumar">{{cite news |title=Oppn prez nominee Meira Kumar an acclaimed rifle shooter |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/oppn-prez-nominee-meira-kumar-an-acclaimed-rifle-shooter/articleshow/59277814.cms |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=Times of India |date=23 June 2017}}</ref>
* [[Mala Sen]], writer and activist<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/books-obituaries/8546445/Mala-Sen.html|title=Mala Sen|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=30 May 2011|access-date=5 April 2023 }}</ref>
* [[Ambika Soni]], politician<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dua |first1=Rohan |title=Ambika Soni, retired babu husband worth Rs 94 crore |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/ambika-soni-retired-babu-husband-worth-rs-94-crore/articleshow/33461607.cms |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=8 April 2014}}</ref>

===Sports===
* [[Jyoti Ann Burrett]], footballer<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/sports/report/slide-show-1-interview-jyoti-burnette-yearns-for-place-to-train-and-play-football-in-delhi-laxmi-negi/20130926.htm#5|title=Footballer Jyoti yearns for space to play in Delhi|work=Rediff|access-date=5 April 2023}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.welhamgirls.com School website]

{{Dehradun}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|30.3163|78.0564|type:edu_region:IN-UT|display=title}}

[[Category:Girls' schools in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Boarding schools in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Schools in Dehradun]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Private schools in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Girls boarding schools]]

List of Satavahana kings

2026-04-30T04:54:51Z

EmilBarraza: Started

{{Short description|none}}

The [[Satavahana]]s were the rulers of the [[Middle kingdoms of India|ancient Indian]] Satavahana Empire.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian History |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=9781259063237 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORnlAAAAQBAJ&pg=SL1-PA251 |language=en}}</ref>

They ruled over regions of [[Deccan]] (core region), [[Central India|central]] and [[southern India]] between c. mid 3rd century BCE to mid 3rd century CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182}}</ref> [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] (r. c. 106–130 CE) is considered the greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. He is known as the "Lord of the West".<ref name="auto6">John Marshall, "A guide to Sanchi", [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p.48]</ref> His mother's Nashik Prashasti inscription praises him for his military victories. The Satavahanas were the followers of [[Hindu]] religion.<ref name="academic.oup.com">{{cite web | title=The Satavahana Phase | website=academic.oup.com | date=2007 | doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195687859.003.0021 | url=https://academic.oup.com/book/27690/chapter-abstract/197831152?redirectedFrom=fulltext | access-date=2022-10-29 | last1=Sharma | first1=R.S. | pages=203–210 | isbn=978-0-19-568785-9 }}</ref>

[[File:Map of the Satavahanas.png|thumb|Approximate extent of the Satavahana Empire, in the early 1st century CE]]

The Satavahana Empire declined for a number of reasons, after [[Yajnashri Satakarni]], the last powerful ruler, the Satavahanas were succeeded by weak rulers who were unable to manage the vast empire. The loss of centralized power led to the rise of feudatories, finally it led to the division of the empire.<ref> {{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |title=Ancient India |location=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2003}}</ref> The Satavahanas' greatest competitors were the Sakas, who had established power in Western India.<ref name="Bhagwan_1883">{{cite book |title=Proceedings of the Leyden International Oriental Congress for 1883 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=womFcFAtU7MC&pg=PA144 |year=1885 |author=Bhagwanlal Indraji |chapter=The Hâtigumphâ and three other inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves near Cuttack |pages=144–180 |author-link = Bhagwanlal Indraji}}</ref>

== List of rulers ==

Multiple [[Puranas]] contain chronology of Satavahana kings. However, there are inconsistencies among the various Puranas over the number of kings in the dynasty, the names of the kings, and the length of their rule. In addition, some of the kings listed in the Puranas are not attested via archaeological and numismatic evidence. Similarly, there are some kings known from coins and inscriptions, whose names are not found in the Puranic lists.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=381–384}}{{sfn|Chattopadhyaya|1974|pp=17–56}}

The reconstructions of the Satavahana kings by historians fall into two categories:
* According to the first one, 30 Satavahana kings ruled for around 450 years, starting from Simuka's rule immediately after the fall of the Mauryan empire. This view relies heavily on the Puranas, and is now largely discredited.
* According to the second (and more widely accepted) category of reconstructions, the Satavahana rule started in around first century BCE. The chronologies in this category contain a smaller number of kings, and combine Puranic records with archaeological, numismatic and textual evidence.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|pages=166–168}}

Because of uncertainty regarding the establishment date of the Satavahana kingdom, it is difficult to give absolute dates for the reigns of the Satavahana kings.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=381–384}} Therefore, many modern scholars do not assign absolute dates to the reigns of the historically attested Satavahana kings, and those who do vary greatly with each other.{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=166}}

=== List based on Archeology ===
[[Himanshu Prabha Ray]] provides the following chronology, based on archaeological and numismatic evidence:{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=167}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Satavahana dynasty rulers
!Serial. Nu
!Ruler
!Reign
|-
|1
|[[Simuka]]
|before 100 BCE
|-
|2
|[[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Kanha]]
|c. 100–70 BCE
|-
|3
|[[Satakarni I]]
|c. 70–60 BCE
|-
|4
|[[Satakarni II]]
|c. 50–25 BCE
|-
| colspan="4" |'''[[Western Kshatrapa|Kshatrapa]] interregnum rule with vassal Satavahana kings'''
|-
|5
|[[Hāla]] ''(vassal under Kshatrapas)''
|c. 20–24 CE
|-
|6
|[[Nahapana]] ''(Kshatrapas King)''
|c. 54–100 CE
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Restored Satavahana dynasty'''
|-
|7
|[[Gautamiputra Satakarni]]
|c. 86–110 CE
|-
|8
|[[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi|Pulumavi]]
|c. 110–138 CE
|-
|9
|[[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]]
|c. 138–145 CE
|-
|10
|Shiva Shri Pulumavi
|c. 145–152 CE
|-
|11
|[[Shivaskanda Satakarni|Shiva Skanda Satakarni]]
|c. 145–152 CE
|-
|12
|[[Yajna Sri Satakarni|Yajna Shri Satakarni]]
|c. 152–181 CE
|-
|13
|Vijaya Satakarni
|until c. 200 CE
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Regional Satavahana rulers of south-eastern Deccan''':{{sfn|Sinopoli|2001|p=178}}
|-
|14
|Chandra Shri
|3rd century CE
|-
|15
|Pulumavi II
|3rd century CE
|-
|16
|Abhira Isvarasena
|3rd century CE
|-
|17
|Madhariputra Sakasena
|3rd century CE
|-
|18
|Haritiputra Satakarni
|3rd century CE
|-
|}

=== List based on Puranas ===

The various [[Puranas]] give different lists of the Satavahana rulers. The ''[[Matsya Purana]]'' states that 30 Satavahana kings ruled for 460 years, but some of its manuscripts name only 19 kings whose reigns add up to 448.5 years. The ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' also mentions that there were 30 Satavahana kings, but its various manuscripts name only 17, 18, and 19 kings respectively; the reigns add up to 272.5, 300, and 411 years respectively. Many of these kings are not attested by historical evidence. On the other hand, some Satavahana kings attested by numismatic evidence (such as Rudra Satakarni) are not mentioned in the Puranas at all.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|1996|p=134}}

Different scholars have explained these anomalies in different ways. Scholars such as [[R. G. Bhandarkar]], [[D. C. Sircar]] and [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|H. C. Raychaudhuri]] theorised that the ''Vayu Purana'' mentions only the main imperial branch of the dynasty, while the ''Matsya Purana'' puts together princes of all its branches.{{sfn|Dhavalikar|1996|p=134}}

The names of the Satavahana kings (in [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]), as mentioned in the various Puranas, are given below. These names vary across different manuscripts of the same Puranas, and some names are missing in some of the manuscripts. The list given below for each Purana contains the most exhaustive version. In the Puranas, Krishna (IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is described as brother of the first king, who overthrew the Kanva king Susharman.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 70%; width: 100%;"
|+ Puranic genealogy of Satavahana dynasty{{sfn|Dhavalikar|1996|p=139}}
! #
! Ruler
! Coins
! Epigraphy
! ''[[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]]''
! ''[[Brahmanda Purana|Brahmanda]]''
! ''[[Matsya Purana|Matsya]]''
! ''[[Vayu Purana|Vayu]]''
! ''[[Vishnu Purana|Vishnu]]''
! Reign (years)
! Alternative names and reigns<ref name="Bhandarkar1884">{{cite book |author=Sir Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar |title=Early History of the Dekkan Down to the Mahomedan Conquest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA25 |year=1884 |publisher=Printed at the Government Central Press |page=25 }}</ref><ref name="RS_1884">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8wOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA145 |title=Lists of Inscriptions, and Sketch of the Dynasties of Southern India |volume=2 |author=Robert Sewell |publisher=Government Press |year=1884 |page=145 |author-link=Robert Sewell (historian) }}</ref>
|-
| 1 || [[Simuka]] || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 23 || Śiśuka (''Matsya''), Sindhuka (''Vayu''), Śipraka (''Vishnu''), Chhismaka (''Brahmanda'')
|-
| 2 || [[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Kṛṣṇa]] (Kanha) || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 18 ||
|-
| 3 || [[Satakarni I|Śatakarṇi I]] || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 10 || Śantakarṇa (''Bhagavata''), Mallakarni - 10 or 18 years (''Matsya''), Śri Śatakarṇi (''Vishnu'')
|-
| 4 || Pūrṇotsanga || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || 18 || Paurṇamāsa (''Bhagavata'')
|-
| 5 || Skandastambhi || || || || ✓ || ✓ || || || 18 || Śrivasvani (''Matsya'')
|-
| 6 || [[Satakarni II|Śatakarṇi II]] || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 56 ||
|-
| 7 || Lambodara || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || 18 ||
|-
| 8 || Āpīlaka || ✓ || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 12 || Apītaka (''Matsya''), Ivīlaka (''Vishnu''), Hivilaka (''Bhagavata'')
|-
| 9 || Meghasvāti || ✓ || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || 18 || Saudāsa (''Brahmanda'')
|-
| 10 || Svāti (Śatakarṇi) || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || 12 ||
|-
| 11 || Skandasvāti || || || || ✓ || ✓ || || || 7 || Skandasvati - 28 years (''Brahmanda'')
|-
| 12 || Mṛgendra-Svātikarṇa || || || || ✓ || ✓ || || || 3 || Mahendra Śatakarṇi (''Brahmanda'')
|-
| 13 || Kuntala-Svātikarṇa || || || || ✓ || ✓ || || || 8 ||
|-
| 14 || Svātikarṇa || || || || ✓ || ✓ || || || 1 ||
|-
| 15 || Pulomavi I || ✓ || || ✓ || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 24 || Pulomavi - 36 years (''Matsya''), Aṭamāna (''Bhagavata''), Paṭimavi (''Vayu''), Paṭumat (''Vishnu''), Ābhi - ''Brahmanda''
|-
| 16 || Gaurakṛṣṇa || || || ✓ || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 25 || Gorakśāśvaśri (''Matsya''), Nemi Kṛṣṇa (''Vayu''), Arishṭakarman (''Vishnu'')
|-
| 17 || [[Hāla]] || || || ✓ || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 5 || Hāleya (''Bhagavata''); 1 year in one manuscript
|-
| 18 || Mandalaka || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 5 || Talaka (''Bhagavata''), Saptaka (''Vayu''), Pattalaka (''Vishnu''), Bhavaka (''Brahmanda'')
|-
| 19 || Purindrasena || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 5 || Purīṣabhiru (''Bhagavata''), Purikaṣena - 21 years (''Vayu''), Pravillasena (''Vishnu''), Pravillasena - 12 years (''Brahmanda'')
|-
| 20 || Sundara Śatakarṇi || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 1 || Sundara Svatikarṇa (''Matsya''), Sunandana (''Bhagavata'')
|-
| 21 || Cakora Śatakarṇi (Chakora) || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 0.5 ||
|-
| 22 || Śivasvāti || || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 28 || Svātisena - 1 year (''Brahmanda''), Śivasvāmi (''Vayu'')
|-
| 23 || [[Gautamiputra Satakarni|Gautamīputra]] || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 21 || Yantramati - 34 years (''Brahmanda''), Gotamīputra (''Bhagavata'' and ''Vishnu''); 24 years according to inscriptions
|-
| 24 || [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi|Pulomavi II]] (Vashishtiputra) || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || || ✓ || 28 || Purīmān (''Bhagavata''), Pulomat (''Matsya''), Pulimat (''Vishnu''). See also: [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni]].
|-
| 25 || Śivaśri || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || 7 || Madaśirā (''Bhagavata'')
|-
| 26 || [[Shivaskanda Satakarni|Śivaskanda Śatakarṇi]] || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || 7 ||
|-
| 27 || [[Yajna Sri Satakarni|Yajñaśri]] || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 29 || Yajñaśri Śatakarṇi - 19 years (''Brahmanda''), Yajñaśri - 9, 20 or 29 years (''Matsya'')
|-
| 28 || Vijaya || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 6 ||
|-
| 29 || Candraśri (Chandrashri) || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 3 || Candravijaya (''Bhagavata''), Daṇḍaśri (''Brahmanda'' and ''Vayu''), Vada-Śri or Candra-Śri-Śatakarṇi - 10 years (''Matsya'')
|-
| 30 || Pulomavi III || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || 7 || Sulomadhi (''Bhagavata''), Pulomavit (''Matsya''), Pulomarchis (''Vishnu'')
|}

==== List of rulers ====

S. Nagaraju relies on the Puranic lists of 30 kings, and gives the following regnal dates:<ref name="RKS_2013">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXwcAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |title=Ajanta Paintings: 86 Panels of Jatakas and Other Themes |author=Rajesh Kumar Singh |publisher=Hari Sena |year=2013 |isbn=9788192510750 |pages=15–16 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+List of Satavahana dynasty rulers
! S. No
!Ruler
!Reign
|-
|1
| [[Simuka]] ||({{reign|228|205 BCE}})
|-
|2
| [[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Krishna]] || ({{reign|205|187 BCE}})
|-
|3
| [[Satakarni]] I || ({{reign|187|177 BCE}})
|-
|4
| Purnotsanga || ({{reign|177|159 BCE}})
|-
|5
| Skandhastambhi || ({{reign|159|141 BCE}})
|-
|6
| [[Satakarni II]] || ({{reign|141|85 BCE}})
|-
|7
| Lambodara || ({{reign|85|67 BCE}})
|-
|8
| Apilaka || ({{reign|67|55 BCE}})
|-
|9
| Meghasvati || ({{reign|55|37 BCE}})
|-
|10
| Svati || ({{reign|37|19 BCE}})
|-
|11
| Skandasvati || ({{reign|19|12 BCE}})
|-
|12
| Mrigendra Satakarni || ({{reign|12|9 BCE}})
|-
|13
| Kunatala Satakarni || ({{reign|9|1 BCE}})
|-
|14
| Satakarni III || (r. 1 BCE – 1 CE)
|-
|15
| [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi|Pulumavi I]] || ({{reign|1|36 CE}})
|-
|16
| Gaura Krishna || ({{reign|36|61 CE}})
|-
|17
| [[Hāla]] || ({{reign|61|66 CE}})
|-
|18
| Mandalaka aka Puttalaka or Pulumavi II || ({{reign|69|71 CE}})
|-
|19
| Purindrasena || ({{reign|71|76 CE}})
|-
|20
| Sundara Satakarni || ({{reign|76|77 CE}})
|-
|21
| Chakora Satakarni || ({{reign|77|78 CE}})
|-
|22
| [[Sivasvati|Shivasvati]] || ({{reign|78|106 CE}})
|-
|23
| [[Gautamiputra Satkarni]] || ({{reign|106|130 CE}})
|-
|24
| [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi|Vasisthiputra]] aka Pulumavi III ||({{reign|130|158 CE}})
|-
|25
| [[Vashishtiputra Satakarni|Shiva Sri Satakarni]] || ({{reign|158|165 CE}})
|-
|26
| [[Shivaskanda Satakarni]] || (r. 165–172)
|-
|27
| [[Yajna Sri Satakarni|Sri Yajna Satakarni]] || ({{reign|172|201 CE}})
|-
|28
| Vijaya Satakarni || ({{reign|201|207 CE}})
|-
|29
| Chandra Sri Satakarni || ({{reign|207|214 CE}})
|-
|30
| Pulumavi IV || ({{reign|217|224 CE}})
|}

=== Mid-Chronology of Satavahana rulers ===

Apart from the two traditional views (long and short chronologies) there is another kind of analysis pointing out to a "Mid-Chronology", as it was already proposed by Dr. Dehejia and others, and particularly most recently by Shailendra Bhandare, who regards Satavahana's rule extended more than three centuries (c. 150 BCE to 250 CE)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanheritagefoundation.org/|title=Deccan Heritage Foundation|website=Deccan Heritage Foundation|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref> with the flourish of trans-national trade, urbanism and monumental architecture in South India.

Bhandare regards Simuka to have ruled since around 160–150 BCE and that this date would still fit in well with Pargiter's 460 years to the Satavahanas, as it would fix the end of the dynasty around 300 CE, not too far from the mid-3rd century as consensus approximately lies.<ref name="auto9">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/3479571|title=Linking the Past: Overstruck Coins and the Chronology of the Satavahanas|first=Shailen|last=Bhandare|journal='Felicitas': Essay in Numismatics, Epigraphy and History in Honour of Joe Cribb, Eds. Shailendra Bhandare and Sanjay Garg|date=January 2011 |access-date=11 December 2019|via=www.academia.edu}}</ref> Regarding Siri Satakani and his wife Naganika, Bhandhare considers their rule to have been somewhere around 110 +/- 20 BCE.<ref name="auto9"/>

==== List by Shailendra Bhandare ====

Bhandare also suggests the following sequence of reigns, based on his analysis of Satavahana coinage:<ref>Shimada, Akira, (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca 300 BCE - 300 CE), Brill. pp. 51-52.</ref>

* Gautamiputa Satakani (ca. 60–85 CE)
* Vasithiputa Siri Pulumayi (ca. 85–125 CE)
* Vasithiputa Siri Satakani (ca. 125–152 CE)
* Vasithiputa Siva Siri Pulumayi (ca. 152–160 CE)
* Vasithiputa Siri Khada Satakani (ca. 160–165 CE)
* Vasithiputa Vijaya Satakani (ca. 165–170 CE)
* Siri Yaña Satakani (ca. 170–200 CE)
* Gotamiputa Siri Cada (ca. 200–215 CE)
* Gotamiputa Siri Vijaya Satakani (ca. 215–225 CE)

==== Shailendra Bhandare's edited list by Andrew Ollett ====

On the other hand, based to a large degree on Shailendra Bhandare's work, with slight corrections, Andrew Ollett (2017) mentions the following reigns for the whole Satavahana dynasty:{{sfn|Ollett|2017|pp=189,190}}

* Vasisthiputra Sri Chimuka Satavahana (ca. 120–96 BCE)
* Krsna (ca. 96–88 BCE)
* Sri [[Satakarni]] (ca. 88–42 BCE)
* Sakti
* Mantalaka
* Sundara
* Gautamiputra Siva Satakarni (?–60 CE)
* Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 60–84 CE)
* Vasisthiputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 84–119 CE)
* Vasisthiputra Sri Satakarni (ca. 119–148 CE)
* Vasisthiputra Sivasri Pulumavi (ca. 148–156 CE)
* Vasisthiputra Sriskanda Satakarni (ca. 156–170 CE)
* Gautamiputra Sriyajña Satakarni (ca. 171–199 CE)
* Gautamiputra Srivijaya Satakarni (ca. 200–205 CE)
* Vasisthiputra Sricanda Satakarni (ca. 206–220 CE)
* Mathariputra Sri Pulumavi (ca. 220–230 CE)

== See also ==
* [[Middle kingdoms of India]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Maharashtra]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[List of Indian monarchs]]
* [[List of wars involving India]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
* {{cite book |first=Sudhakar |last=Chattopadhyaya |title=Some Early Dynasties of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78I5lDHU2jQC&pg=PA77 |year=1974 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2941-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sinopoli |first=Carla M. |chapter=On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty |title=Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History |editor-last1=Alcock |editor-first1=Susan E.|editor-link1=Susan E. Alcock|editor-last2=D'Altroy |editor-first2=Terence N.|editor-last3=Morrison|editor-first3=Kathleen D. |editor-last4=Sinopoli |editor-first4=Carla M.|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|url=https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/archaeology/archaeology-general-interest/empires-perspectives-archaeology-and-history?format=PB&isbn=9780521112345|year=2001 |isbn=9780521770200 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBuPx1rdGYIC&pg=PA155 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ollett |first1=Andrew |title=Language of the Snakes |date=2017 |page=194 |publisher=University of California Press |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1w8h1vk }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pradhan |first1=Shruti S. |title=FROM THE SĀTAVĀHANAS TO THE ANDHRAS AND THE ANDHRA-BHRTYAS |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |date=1994 |volume=75 |issue=1/4 |pages=121–142 |jstor=41694410 |issn=0378-1143}}
* {{cite journal |last=Dhavalikar |first=Madhukar Keshav |author-link=Madhukar Keshav Dhavalikar |title=Sātavāhana Chronology: A Re-examination |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |volume=77 |issue=1/4 |year=1996 |pages=133–140 |jstor=41702166 }}
* {{cite book |first=Upinder |last=Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA383 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 }}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category inline|Satavahana}}

[[Category:Lists of Indian monarchs|Satavahana kings]]
[[Category:Satavahana kings| ]]

Kapkot Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:19:21Z

EmilBarraza: put up first post with sources.

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttarakhand legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Kapkot
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = Uttarakhand
| district = [[Bageshwar district|Bageshwar]]
| mla = [[Suresh Singh Gariya]]
| type = SLA
| electors = 99,309
| loksabha_cons = [[Almora Lok Sabha constituency|Almora]]
| reservation = None
| constituency_no = 46
| map_image = Kapkot Assembly constituency map.svg
}}
'''Kapkot Legislative Assembly constituency''' is one of the 70 assembly constituencies of [[Uttarakhand]]; a northern state of [[India]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref> [[Kapkot]] is part of [[Almora (Lok Sabha constituency)|Almora Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gov.ua.nic.in/ceouttranchal/ceo/ac_detl.aspx |title=CEO Uttaranchal - Assembly Constitution Detail |website=gov.ua.nic.in |access-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203060144/http://gov.ua.nic.in/ceouttranchal/ceo/ac_detl.aspx |archive-date=3 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gov.ua.nic.in/ceouttranchal/ceo/ac_pc.aspx |title=CEO Uttaranchal - Assembly and Parliamentary constituencies |website=gov.ua.nic.in |access-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203060201/http://gov.ua.nic.in/ceouttranchal/ceo/ac_pc.aspx |archive-date=3 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[2002 Uttaranchal Legislative Assembly election|2002]] || rowspan=2 | [[Bhagat Singh Koshyari]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[2007 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|-
| [[2009 elections in India#Uttarakhand|2009^]] ||Sher Singh Gariya
|-
| [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2012]] || [[Lalit Pharswan]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2017]] || [[Balwant Singh Bhauryal]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election|2022]] || [[Suresh Singh Gariya]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Kapkot<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2022 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615102703/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2022/Form20/form20_2022.htm|archive-date=15 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Suresh Singh Gariya]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=31,275 |percentage=48.83% |change={{increase}}3.67 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Lalit Pharswan]]|party=Indian National Congress|votes=27,229|percentage=42.51%|change={{increase}}7.28}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Bhoopesh Upadhyay|party=Aam Aadmi Party|votes=3,529|percentage=5.51%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=None of the above|party=None of the above|votes=785|percentage=1.23%|change={{decrease}}0.63}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Rajendra Singh|party=Independent politician|votes=513|percentage=0.80%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Har Govind Joshi|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|votes=506|percentage=0.79%|change={{decrease}}10.77}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Hari Singh Shastry|party=Samajwadi Party|votes=215|percentage=0.34%|change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,046 |percentage=6.32% |change= {{decrease}}3.61 }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=64,052|percentage=62.94%|change={{increase}}0.65}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,01,772 |ref = |change= {{increase}}5.20 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}3.67 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2017 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Kapkot<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2017 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630093109/https://election.uk.gov.in/CEO-Website/VidhanSabha2017/Form_20/form20_2017.htm|archive-date=30 June 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Balwant Singh Bhauryal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=27,213 |percentage=45.16% |change={{increase}}4.56 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Lalit Pharswan]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=21,231 |percentage=35.23% |change={{decrease}}8.02 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhoopesh Upadhyay |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=6,964 |percentage=11.56% |change={{increase}}7.81 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagwat Singh Dasila |party=Independent politician |votes=1,242 |percentage=2.06% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the above |party=None of the above |votes=1,116 |percentage=1.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Singh Aithani |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=951 |percentage=1.58% |change={{decrease}}0.97 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dayal Singh Kapkoti |party=Independent politician |votes=641 |percentage=1.06% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,982 |percentage=9.93% |change= {{increase}}7.28 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=60,256 |percentage=62.29% |change= {{increase}}1.88 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 96,741 |ref = |change= {{increase}}13.16 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}1.91 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2012 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Kapkot<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Uttarakhand|title=Uttarakhand State General Assembly Elections 2012 - AC-Wise Detailed Result (Form-20) |url=https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929115647/https://election.uk.gov.in/Vidhan_sabha2012/form20_2012_PDF/form20_2012.htm|archive-date=29 September 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Lalit Pharswan]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=22,335 |percentage=43.25% |change={{increase}}24.84 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Balwant Singh Bhauryal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=20,966 |percentage=40.60% |change={{decrease}}4.44 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Karam Singh Danu |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,934 |percentage=3.75% |change=New}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Govind Singh Bhandari |party=Independent politician |votes=1,493 |percentage=2.89% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Chandra Pathak (Er.) |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=1,318 |percentage=2.55% |change=New}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Himmat Singh Aithani |party=Independent politician |votes=1,218 |percentage=2.36% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=997 |percentage=1.93% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sundar Singh Mehara |party=Uttarakhand Raksha Morcha |votes=449 |percentage=0.87% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anand Singh Kapkoti |party=Independent politician |votes=396 |percentage=0.77% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,369 |percentage=2.65% |change= {{decrease}}20.70}}
{{Election box turnout |votes=51,637 |percentage=60.40% |change= {{increase}}2.04}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 85,489 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}12.41 }}
{{Election box end}}

===2009 by-election===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2009 elections in India#Uttarakhand|Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly by-election 2009]]: Kapkot}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=Sher Singh Gariya|party=Bhartiya Janata Party|votes=13,823|percentage=45.04|change={{decrease}}12.62}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Kunti Parihar|party=Nationalist Congress Party|votes=6,656|percentage=21.68|change=new}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Chamu Singh Ghasiyal|party=Indian National Congress|votes=5,651|percentage=18.41|change={{decrease}}13.44}}
{{Election box majority|votes=7,167|percentage=23.36|change={{decrease}}2.46}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=30,687|percentage=58.36|change={{decrease}}9.57}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors =52,582 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bhartiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing ={{decrease}}2.46
}}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2007 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Kapkot<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2007 to the Legislative Assembly of Uttarakhand |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/Stat_rept_2007_UT.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114082304/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/Stat_rept_2007_UT.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Bhagat Singh Koshyari]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=21,255 |percentage=57.66% |change={{increase}}0.26 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pratap Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,739 |percentage=31.85% |change={{increase}}2.19 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Lokapal Singh Karmiyal |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=1,256 |percentage=3.41% |change={{decrease}}0.21 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Chandra Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,042 |percentage=2.83% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Devendra Singh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=820 |percentage=2.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Khayali Chandra Joshi |party=Bharatiya Jan Shakti |votes=380 |percentage=1.03% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nain Ram |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=369 |percentage=1.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,516 |percentage=25.82% |change= {{decrease}}1.93 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=36,861 |percentage=67.93% |change= {{increase}}6.90 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 54,272 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}0.26 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2002 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2002 Uttaranchal Legislative Assembly election]]: Kapkot<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2002 to the Legislative Assembly of Uttarakhand |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_2002_UT.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114065248/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_2002_UT.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Bhagat Singh Koshyari]]|party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=17,617 |percentage=57.40% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chamu Singh Gasyal |party=Indian National Congress |votes=9,103 |percentage=29.66% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narendra Singh Bhauryal |party=Uttarakhand Janwadi Party |votes=1,648 |percentage=5.37% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. K. Joshi |party=Uttarakhand Kranti Dal |votes=1,111 |percentage=3.62% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dhanuli Devi |party=Independent politician |votes=676 |percentage=2.20% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jagdish Chandra |party=Independent politician |votes=536 |percentage=1.75% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,514 |percentage=27.74% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=30,691 |percentage=61.08% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 50,296 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Almora (Lok Sabha constituency)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Uttarakhand Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/93-uttarakhand/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=17 January 2024}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand}}

{{coord|29.94|79.90|display=title}}

[[Category:Bageshwar district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:2002 establishments in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2002]]

Vadamadurai Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T08:55:55Z

EmilBarraza: done

{{Short description|Defunct state assembly constituency in Dindigul district in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Vadamadurai
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| established = 1951
| district = [[Dindigul]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Erode (Lok Sabha constituency)|Erode]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| party=[[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]]
| mla = Nagarajan. K
| electors = 92,205
| reservation = None
| abolished = 1971
}}
'''Vadamadurai''' is a [[Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|state assembly]] constituency in [[Dindigul district]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Winner
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
|style="text-align: center;" colspan="4"|'''Madras State'''
|-
| [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1967]]||P. T. Naicker|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1962 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1962]]||M. Maruthanayagam Pillai|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1957]]||T. Thirumalaimuthu Veerasakkayya Tiruvenkatasamy Naicker|| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1952]]||Chinaswamy Naidu|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|style="text-align: center;" colspan="4"|'''Tamil Nadu'''
|-
| [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1971]]||Nagarajan. K|| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|}

==Election results==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#1971|1971]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|58.75}}
{{bar percent|[[#1967|1967]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|49.11}}
{{bar percent|[[#1962|1962]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|57.97}}
{{bar percent|[[#1957|1957]]|{{party color|Independent politician}}|44.00}}
{{bar percent|[[#1952|1952]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|62.97}}
}}

===1971===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Vadamadurai<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = 1971 Tamil Nadu Election Results | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_TN_71.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006131227/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_TN_71.pdf | archive-date = 6 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=Nagarajan. K |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=35,989 |percentage=58.75% |change=12.62% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Rajendran. S |party=Indian National Congress |votes=25,270 |percentage=41.25% |change=-7.86% }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,719 |percentage=17.50% |change=14.51% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=61,259 |percentage=70.55% |change= -3.39% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 92,205 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 9.64% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1967===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Vadamadurai<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Madras%201967.pdf |title= 1967 Tamil Nadu Election Results, Election Commission of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320175222/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Madras%201967.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 |date=19 April 2009 }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=P.Thambi Naicker |party=Indian National Congress |votes=30,507 |percentage=49.11% |change=-8.86% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. S. Lakshmanan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=28,651 |percentage=46.13% |change=7.19% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. P. Pillai |party=Independent politician |votes=1,656 |percentage=2.67% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. A. Gounder |party=Independent politician |votes=1,301 |percentage=2.09% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,856 |percentage=2.99% |change=-16.05% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=62,115 |percentage=73.94% |change= 4.02% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 88,792 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -8.86% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1962===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1962 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Vadamadurai<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Madras_1962.pdf |title=1962 Madras State Election Results, Election Commission of India |access-date= 19 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201143/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Madras_1962.pdf |archive-date=27 Jan 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=M. Maruthanayagam Pillai |party=Indian National Congress |votes=27,975 |percentage=57.97% |change=19.38% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Nallathambi |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=18,788 |percentage=38.93% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Ramarajan |party=Independent politician |votes=1,495 |percentage=3.10% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,187 |percentage=19.04% |change=13.63% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=48,258 |percentage=69.92% |change= 25.09% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 71,585 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician |swing= 13.97% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1957===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Vadamadurai<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2015-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127200447/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf |archive-date=27 Jan 2013}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=T. Thirumalaimuthu Veerasakkayya Tiruvenkatasamy Naicker |party=Independent politician |votes=13,996 |percentage=44.00% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Chinnasamy Naidu |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,275 |percentage=38.59% |change=-24.37% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Gopalakrishna Reddiar |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes=3,707 |percentage=11.65% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. Ramalingam |party=Independent politician |votes=1,830 |percentage=5.75% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,721 |percentage=5.41% |change=-34.84% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=31,808 |percentage=44.83% |change= -1.41% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 70,949 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -18.96% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1952===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Vadamadurai<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2014-10-14 |archive-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=Chinaswamy Naidu |party=Indian National Congress |votes=22,745 |percentage=62.97% |change=62.97% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Srinivasan |party=Socialist Party (India) |votes=8,205 |percentage=22.71% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Venkataramadoss |party=Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |votes=5,173 |percentage=14.32% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=14,540 |percentage=40.25% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=36,123 |percentage=46.24% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 78,116 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Indian National Congress |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=Statistical reports of assembly elections |access-date=8 July 2010 |publisher=Election Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |archive-date=5 October 2010 }}

{{Defunct assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}
{{coords|10.44|78.10|display=title}}

[[Category:Dindigul district]]
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Politics of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Madras State]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 1971]]
[[Category:1971 disestablishments in India]]

Dayakishan Pandey

2026-04-19T05:04:22Z

EmilBarraza: Creating basic details with sources

{{Short description|Indian politician and lawyer (1911-1976)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Dayakishan Pandey
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1911|03|24}}
| birth_place = [[Pithoragarh]], [[Uttarakhand]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1976|10|21|1911|03|24}}
| death_place = [[Pithoragarh]], [[Uttarakhand]]
| office = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Pithoragarh Assembly constituency|Pithoragarh]]
| term_start = 1974
| term_end = 1976
| predecessor = Hira Singh Bora
| successor = Kamal Kishan Pandey
| party = [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)]]
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse =
| children = Kamal Kishan Pandey
| website =
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}
'''Dayakishan Pandey''' (24 March 1911 - 21 October 1976) was an Indian politician and advocate who served as a MLA from [[Pithoragarh Assembly constituency]] from 1974 until his death in 1976 as a member of the [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=पूर्व विधायक लीला राम शर्मा नहीं रहे - |url=https://www.jagran.com/uttarakhand/pithoragarh-9525775.html |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lohani |first=Girish |date=2019-11-23 |title=1972 के विधानसभा चुनाव में पिथौरागढ़ की जनता ने निर्दलीय उम्मीदवार डी. के. पाण्डे को भारी मतों से विजयी बनाया |url=https://kafaltree.com/forgotten-pages-from-the-history-of-haldwani-21/ |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=Kafal Tree |language=en-US}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2025}}<ref name="election1974">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3249-uttar-pradesh-1974/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 1974 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=26 March 2022}}</ref>

== Political career ==
*1962- Lost to [[Krishna Chandra Pant]] from [[Nainital Lok Sabha constituency]]
*1974- Elected to Pithoragarh on Congress(O) ticket

== Personal life ==
Pandey died on 21 October 1976, aged 65. Following his death his son Kamal Kishan Pandey was elected as the M.L.A of Pithoragarh in 1977.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1976 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Pithoragarh district]]
[[Category:Politicians from Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1974–1977]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress (Organisation)]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress (Organisation) politicians]]

Chappar Chiri

2026-04-18T07:29:25Z

EmilBarraza: Creating initial stub needs work

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Refimprove|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Chappar Chiri
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| native_name = Chappar Chiri Fateh
| native_name_lang =
| nickname =
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Punjab
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|30|42|N|76|40|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mohali district|Mohali]]
| established_title =
| established_date = 1709
| founder = Banda Singh Bahadur
| named_for = [[Battle of Chappar Chiri]]
| government_type = Punjab Mohali [[GMADA]]
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 =
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Chapar Chiri''' is a small village located in the [[Mohali district]] of [[Punjab, India]]. It is near [[Mohali]] city and is 14 km west of [[Chandigarh]].
{{stack|
[[File:Night view of Fateh Burj, Punjab, India.JPG|200px|right|thumb|[[Banda Singh Bahadur]] War Memorial The village is famous because it contains the tallest victory tower in India]]
}}
The village is famous due to [[Fateh Burj]] (English: The Victory Tower) is the tallest victory tower (minar) in the country.<ref name=Victory>{{cite news|title=Badal inaugurates tallest victory tower|url=http://news.in.msn.com/national/article.aspx?cp-documentid=5638227|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103233640/http://news.in.msn.com/national/article.aspx?cp-documentid=5638227|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|accessdate=18 November 2012|newspaper=MSN|date=30 November 2011}}</ref> The 420 ft tower is dedicated to the establishment of Sikh rule in Punjab in 1709.<ref name=Singh>{{cite news|last=Bajwa|first=Harpreet|title=Fateh Burj, India’s tallest victory tower, thrown open|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/fateh-burj-india-s-tallest-victory-tower-thrown-open/882669|accessdate=18 November 2012|newspaper=Indian Express|date=1 December 2011}}</ref> It is also known as Baba Banda Singh Bahadur War Memorial. It was here that [[Banda Singh Bahadur]], one of the most respected Sikh generals, won a decisive battle against [[Wazir Khan (Sirhind)|Wazir Khan]], the Mughal Governor of [[History of Sirhind|Sirhind]].[3]

== References ==
{{Wikivoyage|Chappar Chiri}}
{{reflist}}

{{Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar district}}

[[Category:Villages in Mohali district]]

Lamsang Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:34:49Z

EmilBarraza: Stub

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Manipur State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Lamsang
| mla = [[Sorokhaibam Rajen]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| state = [[Manipur]]
| district = [[Imphal West district|Imphal West]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Inner Manipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Inner Manipur]]
| established = 1972
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:33787}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14166-manipur-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Manipur General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=25 May 2022}}</ref>{{update after|2027|6}}
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 17
}}

'''Lamsang Legislative Assembly constituency''' is one of the 60 [[Manipur Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Manipur]] state in [[India]].<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://ceomanipur.nic.in/magazine/2019/gels/CEO%20Report%202019%20.pdf |title= Report - General Election to Lok Sabha, 2019|website=ceomanipur.nic.in |date= |author=Chief Electoral Officer, Manipur |accessdate= December 27, 2020}}</ref>

It is part of [[Imphal West district]].

== Extent ==
Lamsang is the 17th of 60 constituencies of Manipur. It consists of 49 parts namely: 1 - Awang Leikinthabi Awang Leikai, 2 - Awang Leikinthabi Makha Leikai, 3 - Awang Wabgai, 4 - Tingri, 5 - Maharabi, 6 - Potsangbam Khullen Khoiru, 7 - Potsangbam Khullen Thouriphi, 8 - Khonghampat Khullen (A), 9 - Khonghampat Khullen (B), 10 - Khonghampat Khunou, 11 - Mantri Leikai, 12 - Khamaral, 13 - Kameng, 14 - Mana-Ingkhol, 15 - Tendongyan, 16 - Pheidinga, 17 - Loitang Khullen, 18 - Mayang Langjing Taning Awang Leikai, 19 - Mayang Langjing Taning Makha Leikai, 20 - Mayang Langjing Tamang, 21 - Akham, 22 - Lamdeng (A), 23 - Lamdeng (B), 24 - Lamdeng Khunoun (A), 25 - Lamdeng Khunou (B), 26 - Awang khunou, 27 - Awang Khunou Sorok Maning, 28 - Awang Khunou Sorok Mamang, 29 - Salam Keikhu, 30 - Salam Keikhu, 31 - Tharoijam, 32 - Heibongpokpi, 33 - Haorang Sabal, 34 - Lamsang, 35 - Lambal, 36 - Taothong Ayungba, 37 - Taothong Apheiba, 38 - Taothong, 39 - Khullem Leikai (A), 40 - Khullem Leikai (B), 41 - Khullem Leikai (C), 42 - Khullem Leikai (D), 43 - Luker (A), 44 - Kiyam, 45 - Luker (B), 46 - Maklang, 47 - Leitong, 48 - Thangjing Khullen, and 49 - Sangaithel.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Winner !! colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[1972 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Laishram Samungouba Singh || {{Full party name with color|Manipur Peoples Party}}
|-
| [[1974 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|1974]] || Khundongbam Jugeswar || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
| [[1980 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|1980]] || Phuritsabam Sagar Singh || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1984 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|1984]] || Mutum Deven || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1990 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|1990]] || Deven || {{Full party name with color|Manipur Peoples Party}}
|-
| [[1995 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|1995]] || [[Sorokhaibam Rajen|Sorokhaibam Rajen Singh]]|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2000 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|2000]] || [[Sorokhaibam Rajen|Sorokhaibam Rajen Singh]]|| {{Full party name with color|Manipur State Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2002 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|2002]] || [[Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2007 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|2007]] || Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2012 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|2012]] || Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2017 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|2017]] || [[Sorokhaibam Rajen|Sorokhaibam Rajen Singh]]|| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2022 Manipur Legislative Assembly election|2022]] || [[Sorokhaibam Rajen|Sorokhaibam Rajen Singh]]|| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

== Election results ==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 2022|2022]]|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|47.80}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 2017|2017]]|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|44.93}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 2012|2012]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|40.23}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 2007|2007]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|53.67}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 2002|2002]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|54.80}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 2000|2000]]|{{party color|Manipur State Congress Party}}|34.18}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1995|1995]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|22.13}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1990|1990]]|{{party color|Manipur Peoples Party}}|32.02}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1984|1984]]|{{party color|Independent politician}}|43.21}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1980|1980]]|{{party color|Independent politician}}|19.20}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1974|1974]]|{{party color|Communist Party of India}}|25.44}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1972|1972]]|{{party color|Manipur Peoples Party}}|27.87}}
}}
=== 2022 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceomanipur.nic.in/ResultSheets/StateLegislativeAssembly/2022/results |title=Result Sheet State Assembly Election 2022 |website=Chief Electoral Officer, Manipur |accessdate= 11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126084814/https://ceomanipur.nic.in/ResultSheets/StateLegislativeAssembly/2022/results |archive-date= 26 November 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sorokhaibam Rajen]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=15,185 |percentage=47.80% |change=2.87% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Pukhrambam Sumati Devi|party=National People's Party (India)|votes=14,785|percentage=46.54%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Arambam Karamjit Singh|party=Independent politician|votes=733|percentage=2.31%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Khundrakpamkanba Meitei|party=Janata Dal (United)|votes=616|percentage=1.94%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Likmabam Manibabu Singh|party=Indian National Congress|votes=241|percentage=0.76%|change=-39.60%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Nota|party=None of the above|votes=210|percentage=0.66%|change=0.07%}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=400 |percentage=1.26% |change=-3.31% }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=31,770|percentage=94.03%|change=1.43%}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 33,787 |change =11.63% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= 2.87% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2017 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceomanipur.nic.in/ResultSheets/SLAResult2017.html |title=FORM 20- FINAL RESULT SHEET OF ASSEMBLY ELECTION, 2017 |website=Office of the Chief Electoral Officer - Manipur |accessdate= 11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905063602/http://www.ceomanipur.nic.in/ResultSheets/SLAResult2017.html |archive-date= 5 September 2018}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sorokhaibam Rajen]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=12,593 |percentage=44.93% |change=43.81% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu Singh|party=Indian National Congress|votes=11,313|percentage=40.36%|change=0.13%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Phijam Pakchao Singh|party=North East India Development Party|votes=3,956|percentage=14.11%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=None of the Above|party=None of the above|votes=166|percentage=0.59%|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,280 |percentage=4.57% |change=-8.02% }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=28,028|percentage=92.60%|change=1.24%}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 30,267 |change =10.68% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 4.70% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2012 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Archive/ResultSheets/SLAResult2012.html |title=FORM 20- FINAL RESULT SHEET OF ASSEMBLY ELECTION, 2012 |website=Office of the Chief Electoral Officer - Manipur |accessdate= 11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628212737/https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Archive/ResultSheets/SLAResult2012.html |archive-date= 28 June 2017}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,053 |percentage=40.23% |change=-13.44% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Sorokhaibam Rajen]]|party=Nationalist Congress Party|votes=6,909|percentage=27.65%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Pakchao Phijam|party=Communist Party of India|votes=6,500|percentage=26.01%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Khundrakpamkanba Meitei|party=Manipur State Congress Party|votes=736|percentage=2.95%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Khoirom Raghumani Singh|party=All India Trinamool Congress|votes=418|percentage=1.67%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Priyokumar Phijam|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=280|percentage=1.12%|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,144 |percentage=12.58% |change=5.23% }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=24,986|percentage=91.04%|change=0.01%}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 27,347 |change =-0.43% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -13.44% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2007 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Archive/ResultSheets/SLAResult2007.html |title=FORM 20- FINAL RESULT SHEET OF ASSEMBLY ELECTION, 2007 |website=Office of the Chief Electoral Officer - Manipur |accessdate= 11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512162740/https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Archive/ResultSheets/SLAResult2007.html |archive-date= 12 May 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,468 |percentage=53.67% |change=-1.13% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Sorokhaibam Rajen]]|party=Manipur Peoples Party|votes=11,624|percentage=46.33%|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,844 |percentage=7.35% |change=-3.19% }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=25,092|percentage=91.36%|change=0.27%}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 27,465 |change =14.74% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -1.13% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2002 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2002 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Archive/ResultSheets/SLAResult2002.html |title=FORM 20- FINAL RESULT SHEET OF ASSEMBLY ELECTION, 2002 |website=Office of the Chief Electoral Officer - Manipur |accessdate= 11 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512183325/https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Archive/ResultSheets/SLAResult2002.html |archive-date= 12 May 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,859 |percentage=54.80% |change=38.05% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Sorokhaibam Rajen]]|party=Federal Party of Manipur|votes=9,579|percentage=44.27%|change=42.33%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Thoudam Nabachandra Singh|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=155|percentage=0.72%|change=-32.66%}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,280 |percentage=10.54% |change=9.73% }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=21,639|percentage=91.09%|change=-3.77%}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 23,936 |change =7.98% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Manipur State Congress Party |swing= 32.68% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2000 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2000 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sorokhaibam Rajen]] |party=Manipur State Congress Party |votes=6,840 |percentage=34.18% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu Singh|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=6,678|percentage=33.37%|change=31.80%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Khomdram Robindro Singh|party=Indian National Congress|votes=3,353|percentage=16.76%|change=-5.37%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Arambam Kumar Singh|party=Janata Dal (United)|votes=1,051|percentage=5.25%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Phuritsabam Shyamo Singh|party=Janata Dal (Secular)|votes=786|percentage=3.93%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Anoubam Chidananda Sharma|party=Manipur Peoples Party|votes=644|percentage=3.22%|change=-9.27%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Waikhom Priyokumar Singh|party=Federal Party of Manipur|votes=388|percentage=1.94%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Mongjam Guno|party=Independent politician|votes=135|percentage=0.67%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Thokchom Inaocha Singh|party=Nationalist Congress Party|votes=135|percentage=0.67%|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=162 |percentage=0.81% |change=-0.92% }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=20,010|percentage=91.16%|change=-3.70%}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 22,167 |change =9.94% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Manipur State Congress Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 12.06% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1995 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1995 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sorokhaibam Rajen]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,184 |percentage=22.13% |change=12.02% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Wangkheimayum Brajabidhu Singh|party=Independent politician|votes=3,857|percentage=20.40%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Phuritsabam Shyamo Singh|party=Independent politician|votes=3,167|percentage=16.75%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Dr. Haobam Borobabu Singh|party=Independent politician|votes=2,849|percentage=15.07%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Mutum Ruhini Devi|party=Manipur Peoples Party|votes=2,361|percentage=12.49%|change=-19.53%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Khungdongbam Jugeshor|party=Communist Party of India|votes=2,049|percentage=10.84%|change=-6.11%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Thoudam Nabachandra Singh|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=297|percentage=1.57%|change=-10.04%}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=R.K. Gambhir Singh|party=Janata Dal|votes=145|percentage=0.77%|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=327 |percentage=1.73% |change=-0.97% }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=18,909|percentage=94.86%|change=3.41%}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 20,163 |change =7.67% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Manipur Peoples Party |swing= -9.89% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1990 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1990 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Deven |party=Manipur Peoples Party |votes=5,454 |percentage=32.02% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ph. Sagar Singh |party=Janata Dal |votes=4,995 |percentage=29.33% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=H. Kwaklei |party=Communist Party of India |votes=2,886 |percentage=16.94% |change=-2.25% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=N. Manihar |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,977 |percentage=11.61% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Th. Manihar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,721 |percentage=10.10% |change=1.55% }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=459 |percentage=2.69% |change=-17.73% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=17,033 |percentage=91.45% |change= 2.02% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 18,727 |change =14.71% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Manipur Peoples Party |loser=Independent politician |swing= -11.19% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1984 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1984 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Mutum Deven |party=Independent politician |votes=6,181 |percentage=43.21% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Phuritsabam Sagor |party=Independent politician |votes=3,259 |percentage=22.78% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Khundongbam Jugeshwor |party=Communist Party of India |votes=2,746 |percentage=19.20% |change=0.57% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ningthoojam Manihar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,224 |percentage=8.56% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Laishram Shamungou |party=Independent politician |votes=895 |percentage=6.26% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,922 |percentage=20.43% |change=19.86% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=14,305 |percentage=89.43% |change= 5.98% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 16,325 |change =9.63% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Independent politician |swing= 24.01% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1980 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1980 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Phuritsabam Sagar Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=2,329 |percentage=19.20% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Khundongbam Jugeshwar |party=Communist Party of India |votes=2,260 |percentage=18.63% |change=-6.81% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Maibam Angangjao |party=Independent politician |votes=1,882 |percentage=15.51% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chingangbam Kuber |party=Manipur Peoples Party |votes=1,582 |percentage=13.04% |change=-12.39% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Laishram Shamungou Singh |party=Janata Party |votes=1,503 |percentage=12.39% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Th. Indra |party=Indian National Congress (I) |votes=1,400 |percentage=11.54% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=A. K. Kullachandra |party=Indian National Congress (U) |votes=1,013 |percentage=8.35% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hidangmayum Madhumangol |party=Independent politician |votes=96 |percentage=0.79% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thiyam Lal Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=66 |percentage=0.54% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=69 |percentage=0.57% |change=0.56% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=12,131 |percentage=83.45% |change= -4.50% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 14,891 |change =21.07% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Communist Party of India |swing= -6.24% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1974 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1974 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Khundongbam Jugeswar |party=Communist Party of India |votes=2,696 |percentage=25.44% |change=-0.25% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Laisram Shamu Singh |party=Manipur Peoples Party |votes=2,695 |percentage=25.43% |change=-2.44% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Haibam Angangjao |party=Independent politician |votes=2,303 |percentage=21.73% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ching Angbam Kupera |party=Independent politician |votes=1,384 |percentage=13.06% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ningthoujan Manihar |party=Independent politician |votes=901 |percentage=8.50% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Longjam Thambou Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=497 |percentage=4.69% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thiyam Lal Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=122 |percentage=1.15% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1 |percentage=0.01% |change=-2.17% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=10,598 |percentage=87.95% |change= 7.73% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 12,300 |change =28.30% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Communist Party of India |loser=Manipur Peoples Party |swing= -2.43% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1972 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]]: Lamsang}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Laishram Samungouba Singh |party=Manipur Peoples Party |votes=2,108 |percentage=27.87% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Jugeshwar |party=Communist Party of India |votes=1,943 |percentage=25.69% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Phuritsabam Sagar Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,626 |percentage=21.50% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ningthouja Manihar |party=Independent politician |votes=945 |percentage=12.50% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chongtham Achow |party=Independent politician |votes=531 |percentage=7.02% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Samurailatpam Apabi |party=Independent politician |votes=310 |percentage=4.10% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thiyam Lala Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=100 |percentage=1.32% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=165 |percentage=2.18% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=7,563 |percentage=80.22% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 9,587 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Manipur Peoples Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Manipur Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Imphal West district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Manipur Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/81-manipur/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=14 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Manipur}}
{{coord|24.82|93.87|display=title}}

[[Category:Imphal West district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Manipur]]
[[Category:Politics of Manipur]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1972]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Manipur]]

Deeba Salim Irfan

2026-04-06T19:34:40Z

EmilBarraza: Creating basic biography v1...

{{Short description|Indian-born United Arab Emirates author, poet, entrepreneur (born 1969)}}
{{Multiple issues|{{notability|Biographies|date=December 2016}}
{{COI|date=December 2016}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Deeba Salim Irfan
| image =
| image_size =
| caption = Irfan at book launch for ''Urma'', Dubai
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| occupation = Novelist
| alma_mater =
| period =
| genre =
| spouse =
| children = 3
}}

'''Deeba Salim Irfan''' is an Indian writer, poet and a brand expert. Her debut novel was ''URMA''.<ref name="love in times of war">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/article3385652.ece |title=Love in times of war |last=Moorjani |first=Manit |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] | date=5 May 2012| access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref>

== Career ==
She has been on several global literary conferences and jury sessions including iWrite’19 a competition for aspiring writers at Jaipur Book Mark, (Jaipur Literature Festival) and Abu Dhabi Book Fair. She was the chairperson of the advisory board of the Young Author Awards for traditionally published authors under the age of 30.<ref>{{cite news| title =First International Young Author Awards to be held in Dubai | work =Gulf News | date =30 July 2017 | url =https://gulfnews.com/news/uae/society/first-international-young-author-awards-to-be-held-in-dubai-1.2066263 }}</ref> She hosts a Meetup Group – TheWriteScene in Dubai, to assist fellow writers with their work.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.meetup.com/TheWriteSceneDubai/ |title=The Write Scene in Dubai |date= |website=The Write Scene in Dubai meetup|access-date=}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last=Faheem |first=Syyada |title=A Feminist Study of Deeba Salim Irfan's Novel ''Urma'' |journal=Research Journal of English Language and Literature |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=393–397 |url=http://www.rjelal.com/3.4.15/393-397%20SYYADA%20FAHEEM.pdf |ref=|access-date=October 21, 2024}}
* [https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/by-woman-for-women/article6932704.ece By Woman for Women], [[The Hindu]]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Irfan, Deeba Salim}}
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Aligarh Muslim University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian expatriates in the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:Indian women poets]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Aligarh]]
[[Category:People from Dubai]]
[[Category:20th-century women poets]]
[[Category:21st-century women poets]]

Arun Alat

2026-04-01T23:19:20Z

EmilBarraza: created first data basic info.

{{BLP sources|date=September 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Arun Alat
| image = File:Arun Alat 01.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1988|10|06}}
| birth_place = [[Pilicode]], [[Kasargod]], [[Kerala]], India
| years_active = 2010–present
| instrument = Guitar, vocals
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer| Lyricist|Guitarist|Composer}}
}}

'''Arun Alat''' (born 6 October 1988) is an Indian [[playback singer]], [[Composer|music composer]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/life/dreaming-of-words-documentary-by-nandan-about-njattyela-sreedharan-who-made-dravida-language-dictionary-updated-jj-203007.html|title = നാല് ഭാഷകളിൽ വാക്കുകളെ സ്വപ്നം കണ്ടയാൾ - ഇത് തലശ്ശേരിയിലെ ശ്രീധരേട്ടൻ|date = 4 February 2020}}</ref> and [[lyricist]] who made a space in Malayalam film industry as a singer with his debut song "Swapnamoru Chaakku" from the 2010 film'' [[Best Actor (film)|Best Actor]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Singer Arun Alat ventures into composing - Times of India ►|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/singer-arun-alat-ventures-into-composing/articleshow/67752318.cms|access-date=2020-12-12|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-25|title=ഓർമയുണ്ടോ അമ്മയുടെ മടിയിൽ തലചായ്ച്ച് ഉറങ്ങിയ രാത്രികൾ? താരാട്ടുപാട്ടായി 'താലോലം'|url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/life/singer-arun-alat-conceived-thalolam-lullaby-nj-252063.html|access-date=2020-12-12|website=News18 Malayalam}}</ref>

==Musical career==

In 2010, soon after completing his Btech in Civil engineering at [[Mar Athanasius College of Engineering]], Kothamangalam, He got into playback singing. National award-winning music director [[Bijibal]] introduced him through the song 'Swapnamoru Chakku'. After that He has been collaborating with many leading musicians in Malayalam for different film and non-film projects.

Arun Alat had worked as a [[Civil Engineer]] in an Architectural-Structural-project management company in Kochi [FormsIndia] for more than two years during the initial stage of his music career. In 2013, he left his engineering job aside to concentrate fully on his music projects.

==Discography==

=== As singer ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Song !! Film !! Music director
|-
| 2010 || Swapnamoru chakku || [[Best Actor (film)]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2011 || Vinnin nenjil || Kadhayile Nayika || Thej Mervin
|-
| Kaaalamonnu kaalal || [[Sevenes]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| Kallippenne || [[Innanu Aa Kalyanam]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2012 || Namosthuthe || [[Thattathin Marayathu]] || [[Shaan Rahman]]
|-
| Aakasham || [[Scene Onnu Nammude Veedu]] || [[Ratheesh Vegha]]
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2013 || Naatiloru koottam || [[Isaac Newton S/O Philipose]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| Kunjaruvikal || [[Lokpal]] || [[Ratheesh Vegha]]
|-
| Vayyente Shivane || [[God for Sale]] || [[Afsal Yusuf]]
|-
| Vinnile Thaarakam || [[Philips and the Monkey Pen]] || Rahul subrahmanian
|-
| Eesho || [[Punyalan Agarbattis]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2014 || MaGoBa || [[Mannar Mathai Speaking 2]] || [[Rahul Raj]]
|-
| Kadha Parayana || [[On the Way (2014 Indian film)|On the Way]] || Sejo John
|-
| Thaj Theerthoru || Monaayi Angane Aanaayi || Vinu Uday
|-
| Akkare Akkare || Vazhiyariyaathe || Sai Balan
|-
| Thaadi Paaattu || [[Tamaar Padaar]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| Thammil Thammil || [[Mylanchi Monchulla Veedu]] || [[Afsal Yusuf]]
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2015 || Neelambalin || [[Oru Vadakkan Selfie]] || [[Shaan Rahman]]
|-
| Haritha Nibida || [[Aadu (film)|Aadu]] || [[Shaan Rahman]]
|-
| Azhakee || [[Wonderful Journey]] || S.P Varma
|-
| Kaavaalam || ATM || Antony John
|-
| Pinjomal || [[Jo and the Boy]] || Rahul Subrahmanian
|-
| Marutha Song || [[Adi Kapyare Kootamani]] || [[Shaan Rahman]]
|-
| Ente Maavum Poothe || [[Adi Kapyare Kootamani]] || [[Shaan Rahman]]
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2016 || Maayum Sandhye || AakashVaani || Rahul Subrahmanian
|-
| Vayya Vayya Vayya || [[Ithu Thaanda Police]] || Sumesh Parameshwar
|-
| Theeram || [[0-41*]] || Abhijith Unni
|-
| Ulakathin || [[Karinkunnam 6'S]] || [[Rahul Raj]]
|-
| Innaleyum || [[Kavi Uddheshichathu]] || Vinu Thomas
|-
| Pokkuveyiline || [[Swarna Kaduva]] || [[Ratheesh Vegha]]
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2017 || Puthen Sooryan || [[Aby (film)]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| Vaadathe Vezhathe || [[Avarude Raavukal]] || [[Shankar Sharma]]
|-
| 20 20 song|| [[Rakshadhikari Baiju Oppu]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| Chirakukalaayi || [[Oru Cinemakkaran]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| Nenje Nenje || Kadam kadha || [[Deepankuran Kaithapram]]
|-
| Aarini || [[Paippin Chuvattile Pranayam]] || [[Bijibal]]
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2019 || Aalam Niranjulla || [[Neeyum Njanum]] || Vinu Thomas
|-
| Summa Summa || Maanasi (Tamil) || Shivram
|-
| Ini raavum pakalum || Safe || Rahul Subrahmanian
|-
| 2021 || Itha Vazhimaari odunnu || [[Home (2021 film)]] || Rahul Subrahmanian
|-
| 2022 || En Kanavil || [[4 Years (film)]] || Sankar Sharma
|-
| 2024 || Ullamarinjavale || [[Turkish Tharkam]] || [[Ifthi]]
|}

=== As lyricist ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Song !! Film
|-
| 2019 || "Ee Veyil" || ''Safe''
|-
| rowspan=2|2021 || "Mukilu Thodanai" || rowspan=2| ''[[Home (2021 film)|Home]]''
|-
| "Onnunarnnu"
|-
| 2022 || "Pokam" || ''[[Shyam Singha Roy]]''
|-
| rowspan=3|2022 || "Darshana" || rowspan=3|''[[Hridayam (film)|Hridayam]]''
|-
| "Arike Ninna"
|-
| "Sarvam Sadha"
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2022 || "Pen poove Then vande" || rowspan="5" | ''[[Sita Ramam]]''
|-
| "Kannil Kannil"
|-
|"Oru kayarike"
|-
|"Na dhir dhi"
|-
|"Oru yugam"
|-
| 2022 || "Na Na Na" || ''[[Mike (given name)|Mike]]''
|-
| 2023 || "Raave" || ''[[Thaaram Theertha Koodaram]]''
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2023 || "En Roja Neeye" || rowspan="2" | ''[[Kushi (2023 film)]]''
|-
| "Aradhya"
|-
| 2024 || "Mizhideepame" || ''[[Lucky Baskhar]]'' - (D)
|}

=== As Composer ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Project !! Project Category !! Director
|-
| 2021 || [[Dreaming of Words]]|| Documentary || Nandan
|}

=== Indie Music ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Song !! Artists featured !! Language
|-
| 2020 || Thalolam || Sathyabhama || [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2021 || Nava Malayalam || Arun Alat, [[Bhadra Rajin]]|| [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2022 || Deshadanam (#1MinMusic) || Arun Alat || [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2021 || Premam (#1MinMusic) || Arun Alat || [[Malayalam]]
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
# [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/I-learn-something-from-every-musician-Arun/articleshow/46821320.cms I learn something from every musician: Arun]
# [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/his-musical-idiom/article5716907.ece His musical idiom : The Hindu]
# [https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/singer-turned-song-writer-arun-alat-on-writing-the-lyrics-for-darshana-from-pranav-mohanlals-upcoming-film-hridayam/article37382979.ece]

== External links ==
* [https://www.facebook.com/ArunAlat Arun Alat] at Facebook
* {{IMDb name|7801863}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Alat, Arun}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]

Telangana Legislative Council

2026-03-29T12:58:38Z

EmilBarraza:

{{About|the upper house of [[Telangana Legislature]]|the lower house|Telangana Legislative Assembly}}{{More citations needed|date=March 2026}}

{{Short description|Upper house of the bicameral legislature of the state of Telangana in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Telangana Legislative Council {{small|Telaṅgāṇa Śāsana Mandali}}
| coa_pic =
| coa_res = 250px
| house_type = Upper house
| body = Telangana Legislature
| term_limits = 6 years
| foundation = {{Start date and age|df=yes|paren=yes|br=yes|2014|06|02}}
| leader1_type = [[List of governors of Telangana|Governor]]
| leader1 = '''[[Shiv Pratap Shukla]]'''
| election1 = 11 March 2026
| leader2_type = Secretary
| leader2 = Dr. V. Narasimha Charyulu
| election2 = 1 September 2017
| leader3_type = [[List of current Indian legislative speakers and chairpersons|Chairman]]
| leader3 = '''[[Gutha Sukender Reddy]]'''
| party3 = [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| election3 = 14 March 2022
| leader4_type = [[List of current Indian legislative speakers and chairpersons|Deputy Chairman]]
| leader4 = '''[[Banda Prakash]]'''
| party4 = [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| election4 = 12 February 2023
| leader5_type = [[Government of Telangana|Leader of the House]] {{small|(Chief Minister)}}
| leader5 = '''[[Revanth Reddy|Anumula Revanth Reddy]]'''
| party5 = [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| election5 = 07 December 2023
| leader6_type = [[Government of Telangana|Minister of Legislative Affairs]]
| leader6 = '''[[D. Sridhar Babu]]'''
| party6 = [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| election6 = 07 December 2023
| leader7_type = [[List of current Indian opposition leaders|Leader of the Opposition]]
| leader7 = '''[[S. Madhusudhana Chary]]'''
| party7 = [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| election7 = 11 September 2024
| members = '''40''' (34 Elected + 6 Nominated)
| voting_system1 = [[Single transferable vote]]
| last_election1 = January 2024
| session_room = Jubilee Hall.jpg
| session_res =
| meeting_place = [[Jubilee Hall, Hyderabad|Jubilee Hall]], Hyderabad
| structure1 =
| structure1_res = 300px
| political_groups1 = 
'''[[Government of Telangana|Government]] (14)'''
:{{Color box|{{Party color|Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance}}}} [[Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance|INDIA]] (14)
:*{{colorbox|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}} [[Indian National Congress|INC]] (13)
:*{{colorbox|{{party color|Communist Party of India}}}} [[Communist Party of India|CPI]] (1)
'''Official Opposition (17)'''
:*{{colorbox|{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}}} [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (17)
'''[[Parliamentary Opposition|Other Opposition]] (6)'''
:*{{colorbox|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}}} [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (3)
:*{{colorbox|{{party color|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}}} [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]] (2)
:*{{colorbox|#2c3484}} PRTU (1)
'''Vacant (3)'''
:{{Color box|#FFFFFF}} Vacant (3)
| footnotes =
| website = [https://legislature.telangana.gov.in/council Telangana Legislative Council]
}}

The '''Telangana Legislative Council''', also known as '''Telangana Śāsana Parishattu''', is the [[upper house]] of the [[Telangana Legislature]] of the [[India]]n state of [[Telangana]]; the [[lower house]] being the [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]]. It is situated in the state capital of [[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]], and has 40 members. The Legislative Council has been in existence since 2 June 2014 after bifurcation from the state of Andhra Pradesh.

==Composition==
The chairman, elected by the council, presides over the sessions of the council. The deputy chairman is also elected to preside in the chairman's absence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Member's Information - Legislative Council - Liferay DXP |url=https://aplegislature.org/web/legislative-council/member-s-information |access-date=2023-03-18 |website=aplegislature.org |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927143101/http://aplegislature.org/web/legislative-council/member-s-information |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=WHAT IS LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-legislative-council |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601215918/https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-legislative-council |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Presiding officers===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Designation
!Name
|-
|[[List of governors of Telangana|Governor]]
|[[Jishnu Dev Varma]]
|-
|Chair
|[[Gutha Sukender Reddy]] {{small|([[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|INC]])}}
|-
|Deputy Chair
|[[Banda Prakash]] {{small|([[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]])}}
|-
|Leader of the House {{small|(Chief Minister)}}
|[[Revanth Reddy]] {{small|([[Indian National Congress|INC]])}}
|-
|Leader of the Opposition
|[[S. Madhusudhana Chary]] {{small|([[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]])}}
|}

=== Members ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!colspan="2" | Party
!Members
|-
|{{Full party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
|style="text-align: center;" | 17
|-
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|style="text-align: center;" | 13
|-
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|style="text-align: center;" | 3
|-
|{{Full party name with color|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}
|style="text-align: center;" | 2
|-
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|style="text-align: center;" | 1
|-
|style="background-color: #2c3484" |
|Progressive Recognized Teachers Union
|style="text-align: center;"| 1
|-
|style="background-color: #FFFFFF" |
|Vacant
|style="text-align: center;" | 3
|-

!colspan="2" | '''Total'''
!40
|}

==Current members==

=== Elected by Members of the Legislative Assembly (14) ===
'''Keys:''' {{legend2|{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (7)|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{{legend2|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (6)|border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Communist Party of India}}|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] (1)|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! #
! style="width:200px" |Member
! colspan="2" | Party
! Term start
! Term end
|-
| 1
|[[Dasoju Sravan Kumar]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|-
| 2
| [[Challa Venkatrami Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 30-Mar-2023
| 29-Mar-2029
|-
| 3
| Kurumaiahgari Naveen Kumar
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 30-Mar-2023
| 29-Mar-2029
|-
| 4
| [[Deshapati Srinivas|Deshapathi Srinivas]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 30-Mar-2023
| 29-Mar-2029
|-
| 5
|[[Banda Prakash]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 22-Nov-2021
| 21-Nov-2027
|-
| 6
|Parupati Venkatrama Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 22-Nov-2021
| 21-Nov-2027
|-
| 7
|Thakkellapally Ravindar Rao
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 22-Nov-2021
| 21-Nov-2027
|-
| 8
|[[Gutha Sukender Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress }}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 22-Nov-2021
| 21-Nov-2027
|-
| 9
|[[Vijaya Shanthi|Vijaya Shanthi Moturi]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|-
| 10
|[[Addanki Dayakar]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|-
| 11
|[[Kethavath Shankar Naik]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|-
| 12
|[[Bomma Mahesh Kumar Goud]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 23-Jan-2024
| 21-Nov-2027
|-
| 13
|[[Balmoor Venkat|Balmoor Venkat Narsing Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 23-Jan-2024
| 21-Nov-2027
|-
| 14
|[[Nellikanti Satyam]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India}}" |
| [[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|}

=== Elected from Local Authorities Constituencies (14) ===
'''Keys:''' {{legend2|{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (7)|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{{legend2|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (4)|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{{legend2|{{party color|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}|[[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]] (2)|border=solid 1px #000000}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! #
! Constituency
! style="width:200px" |Member
! colspan="2" | Party
! Term start
! Term end
|-
| 1
| [[Adilabad]]
| [[Dande Vittal]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 2
| [[Karimnagar]]
| T. Bhanu Prasad Rao
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 3
| [[Karimnagar]]
| [[L. Ramana]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 4
| [[Medak]]
| Vanteri Yadav Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 5
| [[Ranga Reddy]]
| Sunkari Raju
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 6
| [[Mahabubnagar]]
|[[N. Naveen Kumar Reddy|Naveen Kumar Reddy]]<ref name="BRS candidate Naveen Kumar Reddy wins Mahabubnagar MLC local body polls">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=BRS candidate Naveen Kumar Reddy wins Mahabubnagar MLC local body polls |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/brs-candidate-naveen-kumar-reddy-wins-mahabubnagar-mlc-local-body-polls-896927 |access-date=2 June 2024 |work= |date=2 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240602064336/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/brs-candidate-naveen-kumar-reddy-wins-mahabubnagar-mlc-local-body-polls-896927 |archive-date=2 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 02-Jun-2024
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 7
| [[Mahabubnagar]]
| Kuchukulla Damodar Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 8
| [[Khammam]]
| Tata Madhusudhan
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 9
| [[Warangal]]
| Pochampally Srinivas Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 10
| [[Nalgonda]]
| Mankena Koti Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 11
| [[Ranga Reddy]]
| [[P. Mahender Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| 05-Jan-2022
| 04-Jan-2028
|-
| 12
| [[Hyderabad]]
| [[Mirza Riyaz Ul Hassan Effendi]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}" |
| [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]]
| 02-May-2025
| 01-May-2031
|-
| 13
| [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]]
| Colspan=5|'''Vacant since 6 January 2026'''<ref>{{Cite web
|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/mlc-kavithas-resignation-accepted-by-council-chairman/article70479656.ece
|title=MLC Kavitha’s resignation accepted by Council chairman
|website=The Hindu
|language=en
|access-date=2026-01-07
}}</ref>
|-
| 14
| [[Hyderabad]]
| [[Mirza Rahmat Baig]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}" |
| [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]]
| 02-May-2023
| 01-May-2029

|}

=== Elected from Graduates constituencies (3) ===
'''Keys:''' {{legend2|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (1)|border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (1)|border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (1)|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! #
! Constituency
! style="width:200px" |Member
! colspan="2" | Party
! Term start
! Term end
|-
| 1
| [[Nalgonda]]-[[Warangal]]-[[Khammam]]
|[[Teenmar Mallanna]]
|{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
| 7-Jun-2024
| 29-Mar-2027
|-
| 2
| [[Mahabubnagar]]-[[Hyderabad]]-[[Ranga Reddy]]
|[[Surabhi Vani Devi]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
| 30-Mar-2021
| 29-Mar-2027
|-
| 3
| [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]]-[[Adilabad]]-[[Medak]]-[[Karimnagar]]
| [[C. Anji Reddy|Chinnamile Anji Reddy]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|}

=== Elected from Teachers constituencies (3) ===
'''Keys:''' {{legend2|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (2)|border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|#2c3484|PRTU (1)|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! #
! Constituency
! style="width:200px" |Member
! colspan="2" | Party
! Term start
! Term end
|-
| 1
| [[Nalgonda]]-[[Warangal]]-[[Khammam]]
| [[P. Sripal Reddy|Pingili Sripal Reddy]]
| bgcolor=#2C3484 |
| PRTU
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|-
| 2
| [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]]-[[Adilabad]]-[[Medak]]-[[Karimnagar]]
| [[Malka Komaraiah]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| 30-Mar-2025
| 29-Mar-2031
|-
| 3
| [[Mahabubnagar]]-[[Hyderabad]]-[[Ranga Reddy]]
| A. Venkata Narayana Reddy
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| 30-Mar-2023
| 29-Mar-2029
|}

=== Nominated by Governor (6) ===
'''Keys:''' {{legend2|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (2)|border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (2)|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{{legend2|{{party color|#FFFFFF}}|Vacant (2) |border=solid 1px #000000}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! #
! style="width:200px" |Member
! colspan="2" | Party
! Term start
! Term end
|-
| 1
|Boggarapu Dayanand
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
| 15-Nov-2020
| 14-Nov-2026
|-
| 2
| [[Basavaraju Saraiah]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
| 15-Nov-2020
| 14-Nov-2026
|-
| 3
|[[S. Madhusudhana Chary]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
| 14-Dec-2021
| 13-Dec-2027
|-
| 4
|[[Goreti Venkanna]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
| 15-Nov-2020
| 14-Nov-2026
|-
| 5
| colspan=5| ''Vacant since 27 May 2023''<ref name="mlc">{{Cite web |title = Supreme Court: కోదండరామ్, అమీర్ అలీఖాన్ నియామకంపై స్టే.. సుప్రీం సంచలన తీర్పు |url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/telangana/supreme-court-stays-appointment-of-kodandaram-and-aamir-ali-khan-as-mlcs/1801/125147218 |date=13 August 2025 |website=eenadu.net}}</ref>
|-
| 6
| colspan=5| ''Vacant since 27 May 2023''<ref name="mlc" />
|-
|}

==Former Members from 2007==
{{legend2|{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (17)|border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]] (8) |border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] (23) |border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (1) |border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|#FF4400|[[Communist Party of India|CPI]] (2) |border=solid 1px #000000}} {{legend2|{{party color|Independent politician}}|[[Independent politician|IND]] (5)
|border=solid 1px #000000}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! #
! Member
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
| 1.
| Thelukutla Gopala Venkata Krishna Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 2.
| Paturi Sudhakar Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 3.
| V. Bhoopal Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 4.
| S. Jagadeeswar Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 5.
| [[Nethi Vidya Sagar]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 6.
| [[Potla Nageswara Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 7.
| Arikela Narsa Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 8.
| Patil Venugopal Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 9.
| [[Naradasu Laxman Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 10.
| Konda Muralidhar Rao
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 11.
| S. Indrasain Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 12.
| K. B. Naranayappa
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 13.
| Poola Ravindar
|bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| [[Independent politician|IND]]
|-
| 14.
| [[Ponguleti Sudhakar Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 15.
| Peer Shabbir Ahmed
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 16.
| Patnam Narender Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 17.
| P. Yadagiri
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 18.
| [[Nagapuri Rajalingam]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 19.
| [[Mohd. Ali Shabbir]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 20.
| Mohammed Saleem
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 21.
| [[M.S.Prabhakar Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 22.
| [[Kokkirala Premsagar Rao|K.Premsagar Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 23.
| [[K.Yadava Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 24.
| [[Swamy Goud|K.Swamy Goud]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 25.
| [[K.R. Amos]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 26.
| [[Ibrahim Bin Abdullah Masquati]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 27.
| [[K. Nageshwar]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| [[Independent politician|IND]]
|-
| 28.
| Kapilavai Dileep Kumar
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 29.
| [[Chukka Ramaiah]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| [[Independent politician|IND]]
|-
| 30.
| [[Cherupally Seetha Ramulu]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}" |
| [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
|-
| 31.
| [[Bodakunti Venkateswarlu]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 32.
| [[Bharathi Dhiravat]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 33.
| [[Balasani Laxminarayana]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}" |
| [[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
| 34.
| [[B. Mohan Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| [[Independent politician|IND]]
|-
| 35.
| [[P.J.C. Shekara Raoy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Communist Party of India}}" |
| [[Communist Party of India|CPI]]
|-
| 36.
| [[N. Ramchander Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
|-
| 37.
| [[Puranam Satish Kumar]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 38.
| [[Komatireddy Raj Gopal Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 39.
| [[Thummala Nageswara Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 40.
| [[Rekulapally Bhoopathi Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 41.
| Tera Chinnapa Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 42.
| Kancharla Bhupal Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 43.
| [[Nayani Narasimha Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 44.
| Yegge Mallesham
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 45.
| K. Naveen Rao
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 47.
| Ramulu Naik
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 48.
| Akula Lalitha
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 49.
| [[Mynampally Hanumanth Rao]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 50.
| T. Santhosh Kumar
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 51.
| [[Karne Prabhakar]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 52.
| [[Anumula Revanth Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| [[Independent politician|IND]]
|-
| 53.
| [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
| 54.
| [[Palla Rajeshwar Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 55.
| [[Kaushik Reddy|Padi Kaushik Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 56.
| Kasireddy Narayan Reddy
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 57.
| [[Kadiyam Srihari]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
| 57.
| [[M. Srinivas Reddy]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}" |
| [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]]
|-
|58.
|Kura Raghotham Reddy
| bgcolor=#2C3484 |
| PRTU
|-
|59.
|M. S. Prabhakar Rao
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
|-
|}

== See also ==
*[[List of members of the Telangana Legislative Council]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Legislatures of India}}

[[Category:Telangana Legislative Council| ]]
[[Category:2014 establishments in Telangana]]
[[Category:State upper houses in India]]

Charan Singh (spiritual leader)

2026-03-27T05:57:12Z

EmilBarraza: Creating basic biography v1...

{{Short description|Fourth Satguru of Radha Soami Satsang Beas}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| name = Charan Singh
| image = Charan Singh Grewal.jpg
| location = [[Beas]], [[Punjab]], [[India]]
| office1 = Fourth Satguru of Radha Soami Satsang Beas
| Title =
| religion = [[Sant Mat]], [[Radha Soami]]
| parents =
| spouse = Harjeet Kaur
| children =
| occupation = Lawyer (approx up to 5 years) and later spiritual leader of Radha Soami Satsang Beas sect
| relatives =
| Period = 1951–1990
| Predecessor = [[Jagat Singh (Sant)|Jagat Singh]]
| Successor = [[Gurinder Singh]]
| birth_date = 12 December 1916
| birth_place = [[Moga district]], [[Punjab]]
| death_date = {{d-da|1 June 1990|12 December 1916}}
| death_place = [[Beas]], [[Punjab, India]]
| alma_mater = * Randhir College Kapurthala (F.A.)
* Gordon College Rawalpindi (B.A.)
* Punjab University Lahore (L.L.B.)
| alias = Hazur Maharaj Ji
| post =
| website = https://www.rssb.org/
}}
'''Charan Singh''' (12 December 1916 – 1 June 1990), was the spiritual head of [[Radha Soami Satsang Beas]], Dera Baba Jaimal Singh, after he was named successor by the preceding Beas guru [[Jagat Singh (Sant)|Jagat Singh]], in 1951. Charan Singh served as the guru for the Beas Dera for almost four decades, until his death from heart failure in 1990 at the age of 73. Before his appointment in 1951, he had practiced law in Hisar and Sirsa, India. He was an initiate of [[Sawan Singh]]'s, who was his paternal grandfather and the predecessor of Jagat Singh. Charan Singh assigned the duties of his successor and Guru to his initiate and nephew [[Gurinder Singh]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maharaj Charan Singh|url=https://rssb.org/Maharaj_Charan_Singh.html#1|access-date=20 July 2021|website=Radha Soami Satsang Beas|language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
{{refimprove section|date=June 2023}}
Singh was born in 1916 in his mother’s home in [[Moga, Punjab|Moga]], Punjab. His birth name was Harcharan Singh but was later changed to the Charan Singh. His father, Harbans Singh Grewal, was the youngest son of [[Sawan Singh]], who was affectionately known as the Great Master. His mother's name was Mata Sham Kaur.

At the age of 22, Singh completed his B.A. degree from Gordon College, Rawalpindi, and went on to study law at Punjab University, Lahore. After receiving his LL.B. degree in 1942, he started to build his own practice as a lawyer in the town of Sirsa, near the family home. In 1944 Sawan Singh arranged his marriage to Harjeet Kaur, the daughter of Rao Bahadur Shiv Dhyan Singh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maharaj Charan Singh|url=https://rssb.org/Maharaj_Charan_Singh.html#3|access-date=20 July 2021|website=Radha Soami Satsang Beas|language=en}}</ref>

== Spiritual path ==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2023}}
By the time Singh was appointed as the ''satguru'', the ''dera'' had grown, and many ''satsang'' centres had been established throughout India. His practical understanding of administrative matters allowed him to make changes to the administrative structure that would carry the organization smoothly into a fast-changing, modern world. In 1957, Singh placed all Dera assets into a Charitable Trust, the Radha Soami Satsang Beas Society. Singh himself helped frame the constitution and rules and regulations for the Society. His leadership in this matter created an administrative framework under which the Dera and its activities continue to be administered.

As the spiritual head of Radha Soami Satsang Beas, Charan Singh was noted for his succinct and clear explanations of the [[Sant Mat]] teachings, a reflection of his legal training and practice. He had many disciples from foreign countries as well as India, and would often give discourses and hold question-and-answer sessions with them, both at the Beas International guest house, as well as on his frequent overseas tours. Many of these sessions were published in books and as audio recordings, and offer a comprehensive understanding of the path of Sant Mat. Under his guidance, books on Sant Mat were published in almost every Indian language, as well as the main languages spoken globally such as French, Spanish, Dutch, German, Greek, Italian, Indonesian, and many others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English Books - RSSB |url=https://scienceofthesoul.org/books-english.html |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=scienceofthesoul.org}}</ref>

Most of the activities of the Society take place in the form of seva – voluntary service to the Lord through service to humanity – which is a key foundation of the teachings of the Beas masters. Charan Singh initiated the launching of a Medical Eye Camp, a network of charitable hospitals, disaster management projects, and free food distribution programmes, which have continued as his legacy.

==Vegetarianism==
Singh insisted on a strict [[Lacto vegetarianism|lacto-vegetarian]] diet for ethical reasons.<ref name="Juergensmeyer 1991">Juergensmeyer, Mark. (1991). ''Radhasoami Reality: The Logic of a Modern Faith''. Princeton University Press. pp. 129-131. {{ISBN|0-691-07378-3}}</ref> The act of killing is considered to produce bad [[karma]] from those who slaughter the animal and those who buy and consume the products.<ref name="Juergensmeyer 1991"/> Initiates are not allowed to eat [[Egg as food|eggs]] or "even an occasional plate of soup containing eggs, fish, fowl or meat or meat broth".<ref name="Juergensmeyer 1991"/> In response to unfertilized eggs, Singh commented that the egg fertilized or not, is essentially a foetus and not compatible with a vegetarian diet. He warned that wavering from vegetarianism even minutely will lead to "misuse and thus defeat the purpose".<ref name="Juergensmeyer 1991"/>

== Death and successor ==
On 1 June 1990, Singh died at Dera, Beas. He entrusted his authority and responsibility as patron of the Radha Soami Satsang Beas Society and the Maharaj Jagat Singh Medical Relief Society Beas to [[Gurinder Singh]] who, at 36 years of age, has taken on the same responsibilities that had been assumed by Charan Singh forty years earlier.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maharaj Charan Singh|url=https://rssb.org/Maharaj_Charan_Singh.html#7|access-date=20 July 2021|website=Radha Soami Satsang Beas|language=en}}</ref>

==Selected publications==

*''Spiritual Discourses'' (1974)
*''Quest For Light'' (1977)
*[https://archive.org/details/divinelight00char/mode/2up ''Divine Light''] (1983)
*''Light on Sant Mat'' (1985)
*''Spiritual Heritage: A Transcription from Tape Recorded Talks of Maharaj Charan Singh'' (1985)
*[https://rssb.org/book-EN-011-0.html ''Die to Live'' (1988)]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

* Katherine Wason. (1966). [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.103057/page/n1/mode/2up ''The Living Master'']. Radha Soami Satsang Beas.
* [https://rssb.org/book-love-in-action.html Love in Action] (1990). Radha Soami Satsang Beas.

==External links==
* [http://www.rssb.org Radha Soami Satsang Beas (RSSB)]
* [http://scienceofthesoul.org/ Science of the Soul]

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Charan singh}}

[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:1990 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian spiritual teachers]]
[[Category:Indian spiritual writers]]
[[Category:Indian vegetarianism activists]]
[[Category:People from Moga district]]
[[Category:Sant Mat gurus]]
[[Category:Surat Shabd Yoga]]
[[Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)]]

Ashok Vaswani

2026-03-26T19:25:52Z

EmilBarraza: created some data first draft

{{Short description|Indian banker}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ashok Vaswani
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1962}}
| birth_place = [[India]]
| education =([[BCom]]) [[Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ashok Vaswani official Linkedin Account|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/ashokvaswani?trk=public-profile-join-page|website=Linkedin|language=en}}</ref> [[University of Mumbai]] ([[Chartered Accountant|CA]]) [[Institute of Chartered Accountants of India|ICAI]] ([[Company Secretary|CS]]) [[Institute of Company Secretaries of India|ICSI]] ([[Executive Education|Exec.]]) [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kotak Mahindra Bank appoints International Banker Ashok Vaswani as MD and CEO|url=https://www.kotak.com/content/dam/Kotak/about-us/media-press-releases/2023/CEO-Appointment-Final.pdf|website=Kotak Mahindra Bank|language=en}}</ref>
| occupation = [[Business executive]], [[banker]]
| years_active =
| known_for = [[CEO]] of [[Kotak Mahindra Bank]]
| notable_works =
| spouse = Veena Vaswani
| children = 1
}}

'''Ashok Vaswani''' is an [[India]]n [[business executive]] and [[banker]] who is serving as the MD and CEO of [[Kotak Mahindra Bank]] since 1 January 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/banks/kotak-mahindra-bank-to-appoint-international-banker-ashok-vaswani-as-md-ceo-11577141.html|title=Kotak Mahindra Bank to appoint international banker Ashok Vaswani as new MD & CEO|first=Aparna|last=Banerjea|publisher=Moneycontrol|website=moneycontrol.com|date=21 October 2023|access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref><ref name='BI'>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/finance/banks/news/ashok-vaswani-is-new-ceo-of-kotak-mahindra-bank/articleshow/104607321.cms|title=Ashok Vaswani is new CEO of Kotak Mahindra Bank|first=Malini|last=Bhupta|publisher=Business Insider|website=businessinsider.in|date=21 October 2023|access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/kotak-bank-gets-rbi-nod-to-appoint-ashok-vaswani-as-md-ceo-for-3-years/articleshow/104606490.cms|title=Kotak Bank gets RBI nod to appoint Ashok Vaswani as MD & CEO for 3 years|first=Vidya|last=Sreedharpublisher=The Economic Times|website=indiatimes.com|date=21 October 2023|access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref><ref name='Mint'>{{cite news|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/kotak-mahindra-bank-to-appoint-ashok-vaswani-as-md-ceo-11697881718309.html|title=Kotak Mahindra Bank to appoint Ashok Vaswani as MD & CEO|first=Devesh|last=Kumar|publisher=Livemint|website=livemint.com|date=21 October 2023|access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bqprime.com/business/ashok-vaswani-to-be-kotak-mahindra-bank-ceo|title=Ashok Vaswani To Be Kotak Mahindra Bank CEO|first=Vishwanath|last=Nair|publisher=BQ Prime|website=bqprime.com|date=21 October 2023|access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref> Previously, he has worked at [[Citigroup]] and [[Barclays]].<ref name='BI'/><ref name='Mint'/>

== Education ==
Vaswani completed his under graduation with a [[BCom]] degree in [[Economics]], and [[Accountancy]] from the [[Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics]] of [[Bombay University]]. He completed his chartered accountancy degree ([[Chartered Accountant|CA]]) from [[Institute of Chartered Accountants of India]] and Company Secretary ([[Company Secretary|CS]]) from [[Institute of Company Secretaries of India]].

He completed his [[Executive Education]] ([[Executive Education|Exec.]]) from [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]] in California, USA.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kotak Mahindra Bank appoints International Banker Ashok Vaswani as MD and CEO|url=https://www.kotak.com/content/dam/Kotak/about-us/media-press-releases/2023/CEO-Appointment-Final.pdf|website=Kotak Mahindra Bank|language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
Vaswani spent twenty years with [[Citigroup]] starting in India and then moved to [[Barclays]].<ref name='BI'/><ref name='Mint'/>

At [[Barclays Bank]], [[UK]], he worked as CEO of the Global Consumer, Private, Corporate and Payments businesses of the bank. He has also worked as a member of the group executive committee.<ref name='Mint'/> Vaswani served as the president of Pagaya Technologies from July 2022 to January 2024.<ref name='BI'/>

In 2024, he joined as CEO for Kotak Mahindra Bank, India.{{fact|date=March 2026}}

== Personal life ==
Vaswani is married to Veena and they have one daughter,<ref name='Mint'/> who double majored in Economics and Psychology at [[Columbia University]] as [[summa cum laude]] and did her MBA at [[Harvard]].<ref>https://lsvp.com/team-member/anoushka-vaswani/</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaswani, Ashok}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian bankers]]
[[Category:Kotak Mahindra Bank]]
[[Category:1962 births]]

Variety (magazine)

2026-03-26T14:34:28Z

EmilBarraza: updated details per standard format and improved wording

{{Short description|American entertainment trade magazine}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox magazine
| title = Variety
| logo = [[File:Variety logo.svg|frameless|class=skin-invert]]
| image_file = Variety cover.jpg
| caption = Cover of the April 17, 2024, issue
| publisher = Michelle Sobrino-Stearns (CEO and group publisher) Dea Lawrence (COO/CMO)
| paid_circulation = 85,300
| editor = Ramin Setoodeh (co-editor) Cynthia Littleton (co-editor)
| editor_title = Editor-in-Chief
| frequency = Weekly
| category = [[Trade journal|Trade]], [[entertainment]]
| company = [[Penske Media Corporation]]
| founder = [[Sime Silverman]]
| firstdate = Weekly: {{Start date and age|1905|12|16}} in [[New York City]] Dailies: {{Start date|1933}} in [[Los Angeles]] {{Start date|1998}} in New York City
| country = United States
| based = [[Los Angeles]], California, US
| language = English
| website = {{Official website|name=variety.com}}
| issn = 0042-2738
| oclc = 60626328
}}

'''''Variety''''' is an American [[trade magazine]] owned by [[Penske Media Corporation]]. It was founded by [[Sime Silverman]] in [[New York City]] in 1905 as a weekly newspaper reporting on theater and [[vaudeville]]. In 1933, '''''Daily Variety''''' was launched, based in Los Angeles, to cover the [[film industry|motion-picture industry]]. ''Variety''{{'s}} website features entertainment news, reviews, box office results, plus a credits database, production charts and film calendar.

==History==
===Founding===
[[File:Variety 16 December 1905 first issue.jpg|thumb|upright=1.00|The first issue of ''Variety'' on December 16, 1905]]
''Variety'' has been published since December 16, 1905,<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety01-1905-12#page/n2/mode/1up | title=Variety, First Year No. 1 | magazine=Variety | date=December 16, 1905 | page=3 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Inside Variety | date=2000 | publisher=Ars Millenii | publication-place=Madrid | first=Peter | last=Besas}}</ref> when it was launched by [[Sime Silverman]] as a weekly periodical covering theater and [[vaudeville]], with its headquarters in [[New York City]]. Silverman had been fired by ''[[The Morning Telegraph]]'' in 1905 for panning an act which had taken out an advert for $50.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety81-1925-12#page/n257/mode/1up | title=How "Variety" Happened | magazine=Variety | date=December 30, 1925 | page=8 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> He subsequently decided to start his own publication that, he said, would "not be influenced by advertising."<ref name="NYTStruggling">{{cite news | last1=Cieply | first1=Michael | title=Trade Papers Struggling in Hollywood | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/15/business/media/15variety.html | access-date=3 January 2021 | work=The New York Times | date=14 March 2010 | quote=Mr. Silverman started a paper of his own. Its first issue promised notices "that will not be influenced by advertising." | archive-date=January 26, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126072112/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/15/business/media/15variety.html | url-status=live}}</ref> With a loan of $1,500 from his father-in-law, he launched ''Variety'' as publisher and editor.<ref name="VarietyObit">{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety111-1933-09#page/n208/mode/1up | title=Sime Silverman, founder of 'Variety,' Dies Suddenly in Hollywood at 60 | magazine=Variety | date=September 26, 1933 | page=1 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> In addition to ''The Morning Telegraph'', other major competitors at the time of the company's launch were ''[[New York Clipper|The New York Clipper]]'' and the ''[[New York Dramatic Mirror]]''.<ref name="VarietyObit" />

The original logo, which is very similar to the current design, was sketched by Edgar M. Miller, a scenic painter, who refused payment.<ref name="archive18">{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety41-1915-12#page/n158/mode/1up | title=The First Issue of Variety | magazine=Variety | date=December 24, 1915 | page=18}}</ref> The front cover contained pictures of the original editorial staff: Alfred Greason, Epes W. Sargeant (Chicot or Chic), Joshua Lowe, and Silverman.<ref name="Four-Letter">{{cite magazine | title='Variety's' Four-Letter Signatures, The Dog-Tags of its Critics | date=January 9, 1974 | magazine=Variety | page=26 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_variety_1974-01-09_273_9/page/26/mode/1up | access-date=November 2, 2023 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The first issue contained a review by Silverman's son [[Sidne Silverman|Sidne]], also known as Skigie (based on the childish lisping of his name) who was claimed to be the youngest critic in the world at seven years old.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety01-1905-12#page/n4/mode/1up | title="Skigie," the Youngest Critic in the World | magazine=Variety | date=December 16, 1905 | page=5 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

===20th century===
In 1922, Silverman acquired ''The New York Clipper'' which had been reporting on the stage and other entertainment since 1853, in an attempt to attract advertising revenue away from ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'', following a dispute with William Donaldson, the owner of ''Billboard''.<ref name=house /> Silverman folded it two years later after spending $100,000, merging some of its features into ''Variety''.<ref name=house /><ref name="InsideStuff">{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety111-1933-09#page/n210/mode/1up | title=Veteran 'Variety' Mugg Gives Some Inside Stuff on Sime's Starting 'V' | magazine=Variety | date=September 26, 1933 | page=3 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The same year, he launched the ''Times Square Daily'', which he referred to as "the world's worst daily" and soon scrapped.<ref name="VarietyObit" /> During that period, ''Variety'' staffers worked on all three papers.

After the launch of ''[[The Hollywood Reporter]]'' in 1930,<ref name="Variety1932">{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety105-1932-01#page/n1/mode/1up | title='Variety' Charges Hollywood Daily of Stealing Its News Each Week | date=January 5, 1932 | magazine=Variety}}</ref> Silverman launched the Hollywood-based ''Daily Variety'' in 1933 with Arthur Ungar as the editor. It replaced the ''Variety Bulletin'' issued in Hollywood on Fridays as a four-page wraparound to the ''Weekly''.<ref name=house /> ''Daily Variety'' was initially published every day other than Sunday but mostly on Monday to Friday.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety111-1933-09#page/n91/mode/1up | title=Daily Variety on Coast | magazine=Variety | date=September 12, 1933 | page=5}}</ref> The ''Daily'' and the ''Weekly'' were initially run as virtually independent newspapers, with the ''Daily'' concentrating mostly on Hollywood news and the ''Weekly'' on U.S. and international coverage.

Silverman passed on the editorship of the ''Weekly Variety'' to [[Abel Green]] as his replacement in 1933. He remained as publisher until his death later that year, soon after launching ''Daily Variety''. Silverman's son Sidne succeeded him as publisher of both publications but upon contracting [[tuberculosis]] in 1936 he could no longer take a day-to-day role at the paper.<ref name=Erichs>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | date=February 11, 1976 | page=2 | title=Harold Erichs, 74, 'Variety' Treasurer, Financial Officer; Career Spanned 60 Years | last=Silverman | first=Syd | author-link=Syd Silverman}}</ref> Green, the editor, and Harold Erichs, the treasurer and chief financial officer, ran the paper during his illness.<ref name=Erichs /> Following Sidne's death in 1950, his only son [[Syd Silverman]], was the sole heir to what was then ''Variety'' Inc. Young Syd's [[legal guardian]] Erichs, who had started at ''Variety'' as an office boy, assumed the presidency.<ref name=Erichs /><ref name=house />

Ungar remained editor of ''Daily Variety'' until his death in 1950.<ref name="UngarObit">{{cite news | last= | first= | title=Arthur Ungar Dies | newspaper=The Brattleboro Reformer | date=25 July 1950 | url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/547833106/?terms=%22weekly%2Bvariety%22%2B%22daily%2Bvariety%22%2B%22ungar%22%2B%22green%22 | access-date=22 February 2021 | archive-date=July 4, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704202810/https://www.newspapers.com/image/547833106/?terms=%22weekly%2Bvariety%22%2B%22daily%2Bvariety%22%2B%22ungar%22%2B%22green%22 | url-status=live}}</ref>
He was followed by Joe Schoenfeld, an agent at the [[William Morris Agency]] who had previously worked at ''Variety'' from 1932 to 1943.<ref name=tom /><ref name=schoen/>

In 1953, [[Army Archerd]] took over the "Just for Variety" column on page two of ''Daily Variety'' and swiftly became popular in Hollywood. Archerd broke countless exclusive stories, reporting from film sets, announcing pending deals, and giving news of star-related hospitalizations, marriages, and births. The column appeared daily for 52 years until September 1, 2005.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://variety.com/2005/scene/markets-festivals/just-for-variety-column-to-end-after-52-years-1117926968/ | title='Just for Variety' column to end after 52 years | date=August 3, 2005 | access-date=March 12, 2018 | archive-date=March 12, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312204713/http://variety.com/2005/scene/markets-festivals/just-for-variety-column-to-end-after-52-years-1117926968/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

Erichs continued to oversee ''Variety'' until 1956.<ref name=Erichs /><ref name=house>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | date=January 14, 1981 | page=13 | title=The House That Sime Built | last=Gillette | first=Don Carle | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_variety_1981-01-14_301_11/page/13/mode/1up | access-date=May 6, 2024 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> After that date, Syd Silverman managed the company as publisher of both the ''Weekly Variety'' in New York and the ''Daily Variety'' in Hollywood.

Schoenfeld left ''Daily Variety'' in 1959 to return to the William Morris Agency as co-head of their worldwide motion picture department and Thomas M. Pryor, former Hollywood bureau chief of ''[[The New York Times]]'', replaced him as editor.<ref name=schoen>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | date=November 30, 1988 | page=2 | title=Joe Schoenfeld, Ex-Daily Variety Editor, Morris Exec, Dies At 81}}</ref> Under Pryor, ''Daily Variety'' expanded from 8 pages to 32 pages and also saw circulation increase from 8,000 to 22,000.<ref name="Pryor-NYT-obit" /><ref>{{cite web | url=http://simesite.net/?page_id=51 | last=Besas | first=Peter | title=Tom | website=simesite.net | access-date=April 12, 2018 | archive-date=March 8, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308232419/http://simesite.net/?page_id=51 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=tom />

Green remained editor of ''Variety'' until he died in 1973, with Syd taking over.<ref name="NYTAbelGreen">{{cite news | last1=Freeman | first1=William M. | title=Abel Green, Editor of Variety And Language Stylist, 72, Dies | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/05/11/archives/abel-green-editor-of-variety-and-language-stylist-72-dies-architect.html | page=42 | access-date=22 February 2021 | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | date=11 May 1973 | archive-date=July 4, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704202805/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/05/11/archives/abel-green-editor-of-variety-and-language-stylist-72-dies-architect.html | url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=wat />

In 1987, ''Variety'' was sold to [[Cahners Publishing]] for $64 million.<ref>{{Cite news | issn=0458-3035 | last=Harris | first=Kathryn | title=Writers at Variety Ask: Will Sale End Freewheeling Era? | newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] | access-date=August 23, 2014 | date=July 15, 1987 | url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-07-15-fi-2283-story.html | archive-date=August 26, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826113543/http://articles.latimes.com/1987-07-15/business/fi-2283_1_daily-variety | url-status=live}}</ref> In December 1987, Syd handed over editorship of ''Variety'' to Roger Watkins.<ref name=wat>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | title=Syd Silverman In New Variety Role; Roger Watkins Is Weekly Editor | date=October 28, 1987 | page=2}}</ref> After 29 years as editor of ''Daily Variety'', Tom Pryor handed over to his son Pete in June 1988.<ref name=tom>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | title=A Boffo 29 Years With Tom Pryor | date=June 22, 1988 | page=3}}</ref>

On December 7, 1988, Watkins proposed and oversaw the transition to [[color printing|four-color print]]. Upon its launch, the new-look ''Variety'' measured one inch shorter with a washed-out color on the front. The old front-page box advertisement was replaced by a strip advertisement, along with the first photos published in ''Variety'' since Sime gave up using them in the old format in 1920: they depicted Sime, Abel, and Syd.<ref>{{cite web | last=Besas | first=Peter | title=Roger | url=http://www.simesite.net/roger/ | website=simesite.net | at=7th paragraph | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205074151/http://www.simesite.net/roger/ | archive-date=February 5, 2015}}</ref>

For 20 years from 1989, ''Variety''{{'}}s editor-in-chief was [[Peter Bart]], originally only of the weekly New York edition, with Michael Silverman (Syd's son) running the ''Daily'' in Hollywood. Bart had worked previously at [[Paramount Pictures]] and ''The New York Times''.

Syd remained as publisher until 1990 when he was succeeded on ''Weekly Variety'' by Gerard A. Byrne and on ''Daily Variety'' by Sime Silverman's great-grandson, Michael Silverman. Syd became chairman of both publications.<ref>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | title=Byrne new Variety publisher; Silverman appointed chairman | date=February 7, 1990 | page=3}}</ref>

===21st century===
In April 2009, Bart moved to the position of "vice president and editorial director", characterized online as "Boffo No More: Bart Up and Out at ''Variety''". From mid-2009 to 2013, Timothy M. Gray oversaw the publication as Editor-in-Chief,<ref>{{cite news | first1=Brooks | last1=Barnes | last2=Cieply | first2=Michael | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/07/movies/07bart.html | title=Change of Guard at Variety Reflects Shifting Landscape | work=[[The New York Times]] | date=April 6, 2009 | access-date=February 25, 2017 | archive-date=December 26, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226151934/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/07/movies/07bart.html | url-status=live}} Accessed July 30, 2009 (registration required).</ref> after over 30 years of various reporter and editor positions in the newsroom.<ref>"[https://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=about_staff_layout&dpt=Editorial Editorial Staff]". ''Variety''. Undated. Accessed August 9, 2009. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619044658/http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=about_staff_layout&dpt=Editorial |date=June 19, 2009 }}</ref>

===Acquisition by Penske Media Corporation===
In October 2012, [[Reed Business Information]], the periodical's owner, (formerly known as Reed-Elsevier, which had been parent to Cahner's Corp. in the United States) sold the publication to [[PMC (company)|Penske Media Corporation]] (PMC).<ref>{{cite news | first=Patrick | last=Goldstein | work=[[The Los Angeles Times]] | date=July 19, 2012 | url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/moviesnow/la-et-mn-big-picture-variety-20120719,0,2609760.story | title=The Big Picture: Variety's future looks bleak | access-date=February 18, 2020 | archive-date=October 15, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015053613/http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/moviesnow/la-et-mn-big-picture-variety-20120719,0,2609760.story | url-status=live}} Accessed July 21, 2012</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/09/in-a-fire-sale-penske-media-buys-variety/ | title=In a Fire Sale, Penske Media Buys Variety | work=The New York Times | access-date=October 9, 2012 | first1=Brooks | last1=Barnes | first2=Michael | last2=Cieply | date=October 9, 2012 | archive-date=October 10, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010214416/http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/09/in-a-fire-sale-penske-media-buys-variety/ | url-status=live}}</ref> PMC is the owner of ''[[Deadline Hollywood]]'', which since the [[2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike]] has been considered ''Variety''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s largest competitor in online showbiz news. In October 2012, [[Jay Penske]], chairman and CEO of PMC, announced that the website's [[paywall]] would come down, the print publication would stay, and he would invest more into ''Variety''{{'}}s digital platform in a [[town hall meeting|townhall]].<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://deadline.com/2012/10/jay-penske-tells-variety-town-hall-today-pay-wall-ends-print-stays-digital-expands-351438/ | title=Jay Penske Tells Variety Town Hall Today: Pay Wall Ends, Print Stays, Digital Expands | magazine=[[Deadline Hollywood]] | date=October 10, 2012 | publisher=[[Penske Media Corporation]] | access-date=October 11, 2012 | archive-date=October 11, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011155236/http://www.deadline.com/2012/10/jay-penske-tells-variety-town-hall-today-pay-wall-ends-print-stays-digital-expands/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2013, owner Penske appointed three co-editors to oversee different parts of the publication's industry coverage; Claudia Eller as Editor, Film; Cynthia Littleton as Editor, TV; and Andrew Wallenstein as Editor, Digital. The decision was also made to stop printing ''Daily Variety'' with the last printed edition published on March 19, 2013, with the headline "Variety Ankles Daily Pub Hubbub".<ref>{{cite news | work=Daily Variety | title=Variety Ankles Daily Pub Hubbub | date=March 19, 2013 | page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | work=[[Reuters]] | title=Showbiz magazine Daily Variety goes out of print after 80 years | date=March 20, 2013 | access-date=May 5, 2018 | first1=Steve | last1=Gorman | first2=Brandon | last2=Lowrey | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/entertainment-us-usa-media-variety/showbiz-magazine-daily-variety-goes-out-of-print-after-80-years-idUSBRE92J01M20130320 | archive-date=December 28, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228122843/https://www.reuters.com/article/entertainment-us-usa-media-variety/showbiz-magazine-daily-variety-goes-out-of-print-after-80-years-idUSBRE92J01M20130320 | url-status=live}}</ref> A significant portion of the publication's advertising revenue comes during the film-award season leading up to the [[Academy Awards]]. During this "Awards Season", large numbers of colorful, full-page "[[For Your Consideration (advertising)|For Your Consideration]]" advertisements inflate the size of ''Variety'' to double or triple its usual page count.

In June 2014, ''Variety'' launched a high-end real-estate breaking news site, ''Dirt'', under the direction of self-proclaimed "Real Estalker" Mark David, which later expanded to its own stand-alone site in 2019.<ref>{{cite magazine | title=Variety's Real Estate Section 'Dirt' Expands to Stand-Alone Site | date=August 19, 2019 | url=https://variety.com/2019/dirt/news/variety-dirt-real-estate-stand-alone-site-1203291433/ | magazine=Variety | access-date=November 6, 2022 | archive-date=November 6, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106201809/https://variety.com/2019/dirt/news/variety-dirt-real-estate-stand-alone-site-1203291433/ | url-status=live}}</ref> October 2014 Eller and Wallenstein were upped to Co-Editors in Chief, with Littleton continuing to oversee the trade's television coverage. In June 2014, Penske Media Corporation entered into an agreement with Reuters to syndicate news from ''Variety'' and ''Variety'' Latino-Powered by Univision to distribute leading entertainment news to the international news agency's global readership. This dissemination comes in the form of columns, news stories, images, video, and data-focused products. In July 2015, ''Variety'' was awarded a Los Angeles Area Emmy Award by the Television Academy in the Best Entertainment Program category for ''[[Variety Studio: Actors on Actors]]'', a series of one-hour specials that take viewers inside Hollywood films and television programs through conversations with acclaimed actors. A second Los Angeles Area Emmy Award was awarded in 2016.

In June 2019, ''Variety'' shut down its Gaming section.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Ricchiuto | first1=Madeline | title=Variety to Shut Down Their Entire Gaming Section, Effective Just After E3 | date=May 10, 2019 | url=https://bleedingcool.com/games/variety-to-shut-down-their-entire-gaming-section-effective-just-after-e3/ | website=bleedingcool.com | access-date=February 5, 2021 | archive-date=April 17, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417121644/https://bleedingcool.com/games/variety-to-shut-down-their-entire-gaming-section-effective-just-after-e3/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

==Editions==
* '''''Variety''''' (first edition published December 16, 1905) is a weekly entertainment publication with a broad coverage of movies, television, theater, music and technology, written for entertainment executives. It is the only remaining ''Variety'' print publication and is published weekly and delivered internationally.
* '''''Daily Variety''''' (first edition published September 6, 1933<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/2008/film/markets-festivals/depression-doesn-t-stop-i-daily-variety-i-1117994816/ | title=Depression Doesn't Stop Daily Variety | magazine=Variety | last=Hofler | first=Robert | date=October 28, 2008 | access-date=April 23, 2018 | archive-date=March 4, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215648/http://variety.com/2008/film/markets-festivals/depression-doesn-t-stop-i-daily-variety-i-1117994816/ | url-status=live}}</ref> and last published March 19, 2013) was the Los Angeles–based Hollywood and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] daily edition. The ''Daily Variety'' brand was revived in 2019 as a Mon–Fri email newsletter presenting the top stories of the last 24 hours. Top stories are also posted on the ''Daily Variety'' page of ''Variety.com''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://variety.com/e/daily-variety/ | title=Daily Variety | website=variety.com | access-date=August 11, 2019 | archive-date=April 18, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418051034/https://variety.com/e/daily-variety/ | url-status=live}}</ref> '''''Daily Variety Gotham''''', (started in 1998) was the name of the New York City–based edition which gave a priority focus to [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] [[show business|show-business]] news and was produced earlier in the evening than the Los Angeles edition so it could be delivered to New York the following morning.
* '''''Variety.com''''' (launched in 1998) is the [[Internet]] version of ''Variety''. It was one of the first online newspapers to charge for access when it launched. In June 2010, all content on the website became paywalled.<ref>{{cite news | work=[[Daily Variety]] | date=June 25, 2010 | title=Paywall at 100% | page=1}}</ref> The paywall was removed in April 2013, but access to additional content, such as the archives, requires subscription. ''Variety'' is also available as a mobile app as '''''Variety On-The-Go'''''.<ref name="ap-nopaywallstint">{{cite news | url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jBCLQI3KL-K2QL_l9L2OsOzAG6xAD9CG1OI02 | title=Variety to begin charging for Web access Thursday | last=Nakashima | first=Ryan | date=December 9, 2009 | agency=[[The Associated Press]] | work=[[Google News]] | access-date=December 11, 2009}}{{dead link|date=June 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* '''''Variety Hitmakers''''' (first edition published in November 2017) is the publication's first music franchise.<ref name=Hitmakers>{{cite web | url=https://www.music-news.com/news/UK/109400/Kendrick-Lamar-and-DJ-Khaled-receive-honours-at-Variety-Hitmakers-event | title=Kendrick Lamar and DJ Khaled receive honours at Variety Hitmakers event | author= | date=November 19, 2017 | website=Music-News.com | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119193356/https://www.music-news.com/news/UK/109400/Kendrick-Lamar-and-DJ-Khaled-receive-honours-at-Variety-Hitmakers-event | archive-date=November 19, 2017 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref> The annual list recognizes the writers, producers, publishers, and other key personnel behind the scenes "who helped make―and break―the most consumed songs of the year as compiled by BuzzAngle Music".<ref name=BTS>{{cite news | url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2019/11/732_279019.html | title=BTS first K-pop act to win Variety's 'Group of the Year' award | last=Dong | first=Sun-hwa | date=November 21, 2019 | work=[[The Korea Times]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121090220/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2019/11/732_279019.html | archive-date=November 21, 2019 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://variety.com/gallery/varietys-2017-hitmakers/ | title=Variety's 2017 Hitmakers | last=Bryant | first=Jacob | date=November 21, 2017 | website=variety.com | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122213908/https://variety.com/gallery/varietys-2017-hitmakers/ | archive-date=November 22, 2017 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/2017/music/news/variety-hitmakers-most-consumed-tracks-2017-1202619816/ | title=Hitmakers: The 30 Most-Consumed Songs of 2017 | author= | date=November 21, 2017 | magazine=Variety | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122081708/https://variety.com/2017/music/news/variety-hitmakers-most-consumed-tracks-2017-1202619816/ | archive-date=November 22, 2017 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref> [[Kendrick Lamar]], [[DJ Khaled]], and [[Scooter Braun]] featured on three individual covers of the premiere print issues, with Lamar named Hitmaker of the Year.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rap-up.com/2017/11/21/kendrick-lamar-covers-variety-hitmakers-issue/ | title=Kendrick Lamar Covers Variety's Hitmakers | date=November 21, 2017 | work=[[Rap-Up]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122021657/https://www.rap-up.com/2017/11/21/kendrick-lamar-covers-variety-hitmakers-issue/ | archive-date=November 22, 2017 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref> He, along with Khaled and [[Hailee Steinfeld]], was honored at the inaugural [[Variety Hitmakers Awards|Hitmakers awards]] ceremony held later that same month—the event has continued annually since.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevebaltin/2017/11/22/variety-launches-hitmakers-music-franchise-with-kendrick-lamar-dj-khaled/ | title=Variety Celebrates 'Hitmakers' Kendrick Lamar, DJ Khaled | last=Baltin | first=Steve | date=November 22, 2017 | website=[[Forbes.com]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906180348/https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevebaltin/2017/11/22/variety-launches-hitmakers-music-franchise-with-kendrick-lamar-dj-khaled/ | archive-date=September 6, 2021 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.idolator.com/7904078/varietys-hitmakers-brunch-honors-billie-eilish-bts-more | title=Variety's Hitmakers Brunch Honors Billie Eilish, BTS & More | last=Wass | first=Mike | date=December 7, 2019 | website=Idolator | archive-url=https://archive.today/20210906212259/https://www.idolator.com/7904078/varietys-hitmakers-brunch-honors-billie-eilish-bts-more | archive-date=September 6, 2021 | url-status=dead | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref> Other honorees have included [[Dua Lipa]] and [[Bebe Rexha]] as 2018's Breakthrough Artist and Songwriter of the Year respectively,<ref>{{cite news | url=http://abcnewsradioonline.com/music-news/2018/11/29/dua-lipa-named-variety-breakthrough-artist-of-the-year-says.html | title=Dua Lipa named "Variety" Breakthrough Artist of the Year, says sophomore album will be "fun," "nostalgic" and "conceptual" | date=November 29, 2018 | website=[[ABC News Radio]] | archive-url=https://archive.today/20210906213727/http://abcnewsradioonline.com/music-news/2018/11/29/dua-lipa-named-variety-breakthrough-artist-of-the-year-says.html | archive-date=September 6, 2021 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref> [[BTS]] (2019 Group of the Year),<ref name=BTS /> and [[Harry Styles]] (2020 Hitmaker of the Year).<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://wwd.com/eye/parties/hes-probably-the-only-reason-im-alive-billie-eilish-says-of-brother-collaborator-finneas-oconnell-1203392117/ | title=Harry Styles Responds to 'Vogue' Cover Backlash: 'Lines Are Becoming More and More Blurred' | last=Kaufman | first=Gil | date=December 2, 2020 | magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202153621/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9492446/harry-styles-variety-cover-highlights/ | archive-date=December 2, 2020 | url-status=live | access-date=September 6, 2021}}</ref>

On December 15, 1906, ''Variety'' published its first anniversary number that contained 64 pages, double the size of a regular edition.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety05-1906-12#page/n48/mode/1up | title=Anniversary Number | work=Variety | date=September 15, 1906}}</ref> It published regular bumper anniversary editions each year, most often at the beginning of January, normally with a review of the year and other charts and data, including, from 1938 onwards, lists of the top performing films of the year<ref name="32ndAnni" /> and, from 1949, the annually updated all-time rental chart.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety173-1949-01#page/n45/mode/2up | title=All-Time Top Grossers | work=Variety | page=47 | date=January 5, 1949}}</ref> The editions also contained many advertisements from show business personalities and companies. The 100th anniversary edition was published in October 2005 listing ''Variety''{{'s}} icons of the century.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/variety-names-centurys-top-icons/ | title=Variety Names Century's Top Icons | work=CBS News | date=October 21, 2005 | access-date=March 12, 2018 | archive-date=January 2, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102130929/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/variety-names-centurys-top-icons/ | url-status=live}} Accessed March 12, 2018.</ref> Along with the large anniversary editions, ''Variety'' also published special editions containing lots of additional information, charts and data (and advertising) for three film festivals: [[Cannes Film Festival]],<ref>{{cite news | title=Cannes Festival Special Issue | date=May 1989 | work=Variety}}554 pages</ref> MIFED Film Market,<ref>{{cite news | title=MIFED Film Market Review 1989 Special Issue | date=October 1989 | work=Variety}}392 pages</ref> and [[American Film Market]]<ref>{{cite news | title=10th American Film Market Edition | date=February 21, 1990 | work=Variety}}356 pages</ref> ''Daily Variety'' also published an anniversary issue each October. This regularly contained a day-by-day review of the year in show business and in the 1970s started to contain republication of the film reviews published during the year.<ref>{{cite news | title=43rd Anniversary Edition | work=Daily Variety | date=October 26, 1976}}</ref>

Older back issues of ''Variety'' are available on [[microfilm]]. In 2010, ''Variety.com'' allowed access to digitized versions of all issues of ''Variety'' and ''Daily Variety'' with a subscription.<ref>{{cite news | first=Tim | last=Gray | url=https://variety.com/2010/biz/news/opening-the-variety-vault-1118024050/ | title=Opening the Variety vault | work=Variety | date=September 13, 2010 | access-date=March 22, 2018 | archive-date=July 29, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729021324/https://variety.com/2010/biz/news/opening-the-variety-vault-1118024050/ | url-status=live}} Accessed March 9, 2018.</ref> Certain articles and reviews prior to 1998 have been republished on ''Variety.com''. The Media History Digital Library has scans of the archive of ''Variety'' from 1905 to 1963 available online.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://guides.library.ucla.edu/film/varietymag | title=UCLA Library Variety & Daily Variety Magazine | website=library.ucla.edu | access-date=March 9, 2018 | archive-date=January 2, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102130926/http://guides.library.ucla.edu/film/varietymag | url-status=live}}</ref>

===Circulation===
The first issue of ''Variety'' sold 320 copies in 1905.<ref name="archive18" />

Paid circulation for the weekly ''Variety'' magazine in 2023 was 85,300.<ref>BPA Audit Statement, 2023</ref> Each copy of each ''Variety'' issue is read by an average of three people, with an estimated total readership of 255,900.<ref>Ipsos Subscriber Study, 2013</ref> ''Variety.com'' has 32 million unique monthly visitors.<ref>Comscore, March 2023</ref><ref>BPA Worldwide, September 2011</ref>

==Culture==
For much of its existence, ''Variety''{{'s}} writers and columnists have used a [[jargon]] called ''slanguage''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://variety.com/static-pages/slanguage-dictionary/ | title=''Variety''{{'s}} "Slanguage Dictionary" | date=February 20, 2013 | quote=Now that Variety is available online, we offer the following glossary of terms, most of which you're likely to see while scanning this site. | access-date=January 28, 2018 | archive-date=December 18, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151218071350/https://variety.com/static-pages/slanguage-dictionary/ | url-status=live}}</ref> or ''Varietyese'' (a form of ''[[headlinese]]'') that refers especially to the movie industry, and has largely been adopted and imitated by other writers in the industry. The language initially reflected that spoken by the actors during the early days of the newspaper.<ref name="InsideStuff" />

Such terms as "boffo", "payola", and "striptease"  are attributed to the magazine.<ref>{{cite news | first=Gloria | last=Hillard | title=A Century of 'Variety'-Speak | url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4708916 | publisher=[[National Public Radio]] | date=June 18, 2005 | access-date=April 2, 2018 | archive-date=July 29, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729021614/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4708916 | url-status=live}} Accessed March 15, 2008.</ref>

In 1934, founder Sime Silverman headed a list in [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] of the "ten modern Americans who have done most to keep American jargon alive".<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,746817,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125075353/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,746817,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=November 25, 2010 | title=Press: Doctor & Duke | date=January 15, 1934 | magazine=Time | access-date=April 2, 2018}}</ref>

According to ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' cites ''Variety'' as the earliest source for about two dozen terms, including "show biz" (1945).<ref name=Wren2005>{{cite news | last=Wren | first=Celia | date=February 27, 2005 | title=Do you speak showbiz? Variety celebrates 100 years of slanguage | url=https://archive.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2005/02/27/do_you_speak_showbiz/?page=full | newspaper=[[The Boston Globe]] | access-date=February 5, 2015 | archive-date=February 5, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205095547/http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2005/02/27/do_you_speak_showbiz/?page=full | url-status=live}}</ref> In 2005, Welcome Books published ''The Hollywood Dictionary'' by Timothy M. Gray and J. C. Suares, which defines nearly 200 of these terms.

One of its popular headlines was during the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]]: "[[Wall Street Lays An Egg|Wall St. Lays An Egg]]".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety96-1929-10#page/n338/mode/1up | title=Wall St. Lays an Egg | work=Variety | date=October 30, 1929}}</ref> The most famous was "[[Sticks Nix Hick Pix]]"<ref>{{cite news | first=George | last=McCall | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety119-1935-07#page/n124/mode/1up | title=Sticks Nix Hick Pix | work=Variety | date=July 17, 1935}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Elizabeth | last=Guider | url=https://variety.com/2005/film/news/1935-exhibitor-perspective-sticks-in-memory-1117922319/ | title=1935 exhibitor perspective 'Sticks' in memory | work=Variety | date=May 8, 2005 | access-date=March 8, 2018 | archive-date=July 29, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729021058/https://variety.com/2005/film/news/1935-exhibitor-perspective-sticks-in-memory-1117922319/ | url-status=live}}</ref> (the [[Theatrical property|movie-prop]] version renders it as "Stix nix hix pix!" in ''[[Yankee Doodle Dandy]]'' (1942), [[Michael Curtiz]]'s [[musical film|musical]]–[[biographical film]] about [[George M. Cohan]] starring [[James Cagney]]).

In 2012, Rizzoli Books published ''Variety: An Illustrated History of the World from the Most Important Magazine in Hollywood'' by Gray. The book covers ''Variety''{{'}}s coverage of hundreds of world events, from the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], through [[Arab Spring]] in 2012, and argues that the entertainment industry needs to stay aware of changes in politics and tastes since those changes will affect their audiences. In a foreword to the book, [[Martin Scorsese]] calls ''Variety'' "the single most formidable trade publication ever" and says that the book's content "makes you feel not only like a witness to history, but part of it too."

In 2013, ''Variety'' staffers tallied more than 200 uses of weekly or Daily ''Variety'' in TV shows and films, ranging from ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' to ''[[Entourage (U.S. TV series)|Entourage]]''.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

In 2016, ''Variety'' endorsed [[Hillary Clinton]] for [[President of the United States]], marking the first time the publication endorsed a candidate for elected office in its 111-year history.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/2016/biz/news/variety-hillary-clinton-endorsement-1201905147/ | title=Variety Endorses Hillary Clinton for President | date=November 1, 2016 | access-date=November 2, 2016 | magazine=Variety | first1=Claudia | last1=Eller | first2=Andrew | last2=Wallenstein | archive-date=August 24, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824173715/https://variety.com/2016/biz/news/variety-hillary-clinton-endorsement-1201905147/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

==Office locations==
''Variety''{{'s}} first offices were in the [[Knickerbocker Theatre (Broadway)|Knickerbocker Theatre]] located at 1396 Broadway on 38th and Broadway in New York. Later it moved to 1536 Broadway at the 45th and Broadway corner until [[Loew's]] acquired the site to build the [[Loew's State Theatre (New York City)|Loew's State Theatre]].<ref name="VarietyObit" /> In 1909, ''Variety'' set up its first overseas office in London.<ref>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | title=Abel Green, 72, Editor of Variety, Dies; 52 Years on Show Beat | date=May 16, 1973 | page=1}}</ref>

In 1920, Sime Silverman purchased an old brownstone building around the corner at 154 West 46th Street in New York, which became the ''Variety'' headquarters until 1987, when the publication was purchased.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book | title=Broadway: An Encyclopedia | last=Bloom | first=Ken | publisher=Routledge | year=2004 | location=New York | pages=538–540}}</ref> Under the new management of Cahners Publishing, the New York headquarters of the ''Weekly Variety'' was relocated to the corner of 32nd Street and Park Avenue South.<ref name=":0" /> Five years later, it was downgraded to a section of one floor in a building housing other Cahner's publications on West 18th Street, until the majority of operations were moved to [[Los Angeles]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

When ''Daily Variety'' started in 1933, its offices were in various buildings near Hollywood Blvd. and Sunset Blvd. In 1972, Syd Silverman purchased a building at 1400 North Cahuenga Blvd. which housed the Daily's offices until 1988, after which its new corporate owners and new publisher, Arthur Anderman, moved them to a building on the [[Miracle Mile, Los Angeles, California|Miracle Mile]] on [[Wilshire Boulevard]].

In late 2008, ''Variety'' moved its Los Angeles offices to [[5900 Wilshire]], a 31-story office building on Wilshire Boulevard in the Miracle Mile area.<ref name=":1">{{Cite magazine | url=https://deadline.com/2013/03/variety-deadline-westwood-building-headquarters-pmc-451471/ | title=Deadline And Variety To Live Under One Roof After Westwood Building Deal | date=March 12, 2013 | magazine=[[Deadline Hollywood]] | publisher=[[Penske Media Corporation]] | access-date=May 24, 2019 | archive-date=December 18, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181218023954/https://deadline.com/2013/03/variety-deadline-westwood-building-headquarters-pmc-451471/ | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine | url=https://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/a-sign-of-change-variety-name-removed-from-5900-wilshire/ | title=A Sign of Change: Variety Name Removed From 5900 Wilshire | magazine=Los Angeles Magazine | last=Arnold | first=Shayna Rose | date=November 15, 2013 | access-date=May 24, 2019 | archive-date=November 12, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112121336/https://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/a-sign-of-change-variety-name-removed-from-5900-wilshire/ | url-status=live}}</ref> The building was dubbed the ''Variety'' Building because a red, illuminated "''Variety''" sign graced the top of it.<ref name=":1" />

In 2013, PMC, the parent company of ''Variety'', announced plans to move ''Variety's'' offices to their new corporate headquarters at 11175 Santa Monica Blvd. in Westwood.<ref name=":1" /> There, ''Variety'' shares the 9-story building with parent company PMC, ''Variety'' Intelligence Platform, and PMC's other media brands, including ''Deadline.com'', ''Rolling Stone'', ''Vibe'', ''Billboard'', ''Robb Report'' and the West Coast offices of ''WWD'' and ''Footwear News''.<ref>{{cite news | last1=Kauffman | first1=Alexander | title=Is Variety Moving to Penske Media Headquarters on the 405? (Eeew!) | url=https://www.thewrap.com/variety-moving-penske-media-headquarters-405-eeew-70421/ | publisher=The Wrap | date=20 December 2012 | access-date=February 22, 2021 | archive-date=July 4, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704202805/https://www.thewrap.com/variety-moving-penske-media-headquarters-405-eeew-70421/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

==Content==
===Film reviews===
On January 19, 1907, ''Variety'' published what is considered the first [[film criticism|film review]] in history. Two reviews written by Sime Silverman were published: [[Pathé|Pathe]]'s comedy short ''An Exciting Honeymoon'' and [[Edison Studios]]' western short ''The Life of a Cowboy'' directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].<ref name="FirstReview">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety05-1907-01#page/n54/mode/1up | title=An Exciting Honeymoon | work=Variety | page=9 | date=January 19, 1907}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.filmsite.org/1907-filmhistory.html | title=Timeline of Greatest Film Milestones and Turning Points in Film History – The Year 1907 | work=filmsite.org | access-date=March 8, 2018 | archive-date=January 13, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113084133/https://www.filmsite.org/1907-filmhistory.html | url-status=live}}</ref> ''Variety'' discontinued reviews of films between March 1911 until January 1913<ref name="VarietyMovieGuide">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WoexyWeRvUC | title=Variety Movie Guide | last=Elley | first=Derek | date=May 1, 1992 | publisher=Prentice Hall General Reference | isbn=978-0-13-928342-0}}</ref> as they were convinced by a film producer, believed to be [[George Kleine]], that they were wasting space criticizing moving pictures and others had suggested that favorable reviews brought too strong a demand for certain pictures to the exclusion of others.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety41-1915-12#page/n155/mode/1up | title=A Critic Confesses | work=Variety | page=16 | date=December 24, 1915}}</ref> Despite the gap, ''Variety'' is still the longest unbroken source of film criticism in existence.<ref name="VarietyMovieGuide" />

In 1930 ''Variety'' also started publishing a summary of miniature reviews for the films reviewed that week<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety97-1930-01#page/n409/mode/1up | title=Miniature Reviews | work=Variety | page=22 | date=January 15, 1930}}</ref> and in 1951 the editors decided to position the capsules on top of the reviews,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety182-1951-06#page/n5/mode/1up | title=Film Reviews | work=Variety | page=6 | date=June 6, 1951}}</ref> a tradition retained today.

===Film reviewers===
Writing reviews was a side job for ''Variety'' staff, most of whom were hired to be reporters and not film or theatre critics. Many of the publication's reviewers identified their work with four-letter [[pen names]] ("sigs") rather than with their full names. The practice stopped in August 1991.<ref name=sig>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | last=Bart | first=Peter | author-link=Peter Bart | date=August 5, 1991 | page=3 | title=Signing off on 'sigs'}}</ref> Those abbreviated names include the following:<ref name="Four-Letter" />
* Abel – [[Abel Green]], editor 1931–1973<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/stream/Var55-1919-06#page/n74/mode/1up | title=Playthings of Passion | magazine=Variety | date=May 30, 1919 | page=75 | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>
* Anby – [[Vincent Canby]], 1951–1957, later chief film critic for ''[[The New York Times]]''
* Army – [[Army Archerd]]
* Beau – Lee Beaupre
* Bell – Harry Ennis<ref name="Variety25">[http://www.archive.org/stream/variety78-1925-04#page/n137/mode/2up "American Roof"], ''Variety'', April 15, 1925, p. 11. [[Internet Archive]], San Francisco, California. Retrieved July 28, 2019. Both of the trade publication's reviewers Harry Ennis ("Bell") and Ed Barry ("Edba") are identified in the cited source.</ref>
* Besa – Peter Besas
* Bige – Joe Bigelow
* Bill – Bill Greeley
* Bing – [[Claude Binyon]]
* Bok – Bob Knight
* Bril – Brian Lowry<ref name=sig />
* Brog – William Brogdon<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=Variety|title=Film reviews: Shane|date=April 15, 1953|page=6|last=Brogdon|first=William|url=https://variety.com/1953/film/reviews/shane-1200417556/}}</ref>
* Byro – [[Stuart Byron]]
* Cart – [[Todd McCarthy]], 1979–1989; film review editor 1991–2010.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rogerebert.com/rogers-journal/variety-this-thumbs-for-you | title=Variety: This Thumb's For You | author-link=Roger Ebert | last=Ebert | first=Roger | date=March 9, 2010 | access-date=July 5, 2011 | website=rogerebert.com | archive-date=January 29, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129031713/http://www.rogerebert.com/rogers-journal/variety-this-thumbs-for-you | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/1982/film/reviews/e-t-the-extra-terrestrial-1200425287/ | title=Film Reviews: E.T. The Extra Terrestrial | last=McCarthy | first=Todd | magazine=Variety | date=May 26, 1982 | access-date=March 11, 2018 | archive-date=January 13, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113084116/https://variety.com/1982/film/reviews/e-t-the-extra-terrestrial-1200425287/ | url-status=live}}</ref>
* Chic – Epes W Sargeant
* Con – John White Conway (1888–1928)<ref>{{cite news | title=JACK CONWAY, "CON," DEAD.; Reviewer for Variety Had Gone to Bermuda for Health | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1928/10/04/archives/jack-conway-con-dead-reviewer-for-variety-had-gone-to-bermuda-for.html | access-date=20 July 2023 | work=The New York Times | date=4 October 1928}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | editor-last=Fisher | editor-first=James | article=Conway, Jack | article-url=https://american_theatre.en-academic.com/289/Conway%2C_Jack | encyclopedia=The Historical Dictionary of the American Theater | access-date=20 July 2023 | language=en}} Republished as {{cite encyclopedia | article=Conway, Jack (1888–1928) | last1=Fisher | first1=James | last2=Londré | first2=Felicia Hardison | title=Historical Dictionary of American Theater: Modernism | edition=2nd | publication-place=Lanham, Maryland | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | series=Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts | year=2018 | isbn=978-1-5381-0786-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pro7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158 | access-date=22 July 2024 | page=158}}</ref>
* Daku – Dave Kaufman
* Daws – Amy Dawes<ref name=sig />
* Doch – Blake Murdoch<ref name=sig />
* Drek – [[Derek Elley]]<ref name=sig />
* Edba – Ed Barry<ref name="Variety25" />
* Edwa – Bill Edwards
* Fob – Frank Beermann
* Fred – Fred Schader<ref name="Four-Letter" />
* Gene – Gene Arneel
* Gilb – George Gilbert
* Har – [[Jim Harwood|James Harwood]]<ref>{{cite news | url=https://variety.com/1993/scene/people-news/jim-harwood-110304/ | title=Jim Harwood | work=Variety | date=September 7, 1993 | access-date=April 6, 2021 | archive-date=July 4, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704202805/https://variety.com/1993/scene/people-news/jim-harwood-110304/ | url-status=live}}</ref>
* Hawk – Robert Hawkins<ref>{{cite news | last=Saperstein | first=Pat | url=https://variety.com/2017/film/festivals/bob-robert-hawkins-dies-dead-variety-italy-1202594907/ | title=Bob Hawkins, Longtime Variety Journalist, Dies at 93 | work=Variety | date=October 22, 2017 | access-date=November 20, 2020 | archive-date=September 23, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923075437/https://variety.com/2017/film/festivals/bob-robert-hawkins-dies-dead-variety-italy-1202594907/ | url-status=live}}</ref>
* Hell – Jack Hellmann
* Herm – Herman Schoenfeld<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/07/20/archives/obituary-1-no-title.html | title=Obituaries | work=The New York Times | page=D13 | date=July 20, 1979 | access-date=November 20, 2020 | archive-date=November 29, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129084917/https://www.nytimes.com/1979/07/20/archives/obituary-1-no-title.html | url-status=live}}</ref>
* Hobe – Hobe Morrison
* Holl and Hyho – [[Hy Hollinger]], 1953–1960, 1979–1992<ref name=sig />
* Jac – Harlan Jacobson
* Jolo – Joshua Lowe
* Jose – Joe Cohen
* Kirb – Fred Kirby
* Lait – [[Jack Lait]]
* Land – Robert J. Landry
* Ley – [[Joe Leydon]]<ref name=sig />
* Lor – Lawrence Cohn<ref name=sig />
* Lour – Lee Lourdeaux<ref name=sig />
* Mac - Joseph McBride<ref name=sig />
* Madd – John Madden
* Mick – Larry Michie
* Mor – Morry Roth
* Mosk – Gene Moskowitz, longtime Paris correspondent and film critic<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/12/31/obituaries/gene-moskowitz-dead-variety-film-critic-61.html|work=The New York Times|title=Gene Moskowitz Dead; Variety Film Critic, 61|date=December 31, 1982|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204074627/https://www.nytimes.com/1982/12/31/obituaries/gene-moskowitz-dead-variety-film-critic-61.html|archivedate=February 4, 2012|accessdate=March 24, 2026|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Murf – Arthur D. Murphy, the principal film critic from December 1964 until October 1978.<ref name="MurfObit" />
* Ness – Lisa Nesselson<ref name=sig />
* Pry – Thomas M. Pryor, editor of ''Daily Variety'' from 1959 until his retirement in 1988.<ref name="Pryor-NYT-obit">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/22/business/thomas-m-pryor-editor-89.html | title=Thomas M. Pryor; Editor, 89 | work=The New York Times | page=A25 | date=March 22, 2001 | access-date=November 20, 2020 | archive-date=March 8, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308232645/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/22/business/thomas-m-pryor-editor-89.html | url-status=live}}</ref>
* Reli – Rebecca Lieb<ref name=sig />
* Rush – Alfred Greason
* Sam – B. Samantha Stenzel<ref name=sig />
* Sid or Skig – [[Sidne Silverman]], ''Variety'' publisher and Sime Silverman's son.<ref name=sig />
* Sime – [[Sime Silverman]], founder of ''Variety'' and the first to write a film review for the paper.<ref name="FirstReview" />
* Sisk – Robert Sisk, formerly a writer of "news letters" for ''[[The Baltimore Sun|The Sun]]'' in Baltimore, Maryland.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://archive.org/details/variety83-1926-06/page/n261/mode/2up | title=Inside Stuff On Legit | work=Variety | date=June 23, 1926 | page=36 | via=Internet Archive | access-date=February 26, 2020}}</ref>
* Strat – [[David Stratton]]
* Suze – Suzan Ayscough<ref name=sig />
* Syd – [[Syd Silverman]], Sime Silverman's grandson
* The Skirt – Hattie Silverman, Sime's wife<ref name=sig />
* Tube - Larry Tubelle
* Ung – Arthur Ungar, first ''Daily Variety'' editor
* Verr - Addison Verrill<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=Variety|date=December 4, 2020|url=https://variety.com/2020/film/awards/chicago-7-aaron-sorkin-modern-parallels-1234842666/|last=Gray|first=Tim|title=With 'Chicago 7', Modern Audiences Will Relate to the Revolution of the Past}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=Variety|date=June 10, 1970|url=https://archive.org/details/varietyfilmrevie0000unse/page/n493/mode/2up?view=theater|author=Verr.|page=|title=Film reviews: Chicago 70}}</ref>
* Whit – Whitney Williams<ref>{{cite web | url=https://variety.com/author/whitney-williams/ | title=Whitney Williams | work=variety.com | access-date=December 2, 2020 | archive-date=February 28, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228212306/https://variety.com/author/whitney-williams/ | url-status=live}}</ref>
* Yung – Deborah Young<ref name=sig />

===Reprints of reviews===
''Variety'' is one of the three English-language periodicals with 10,000 or more film reviews reprinted in book form. These are contained in the 24-volume ''[[Variety Film Reviews]]'' (1907–1996). Film reviews continue to be published in ''Variety''. The other two periodicals are ''[[The New York Times]]'' (as ''The New York Times Film Reviews'' (1913–2000) in 22 volumes) and ''[[Harrison's Reports]]'' (as ''[[Harrison's Reports and Film Reviews]]'' (1919–1962) in 15 volumes).

In 1992, ''Variety'' published the ''Variety Movie Guide'' containing a collection of 5,000 abridged reviews edited by [[Derek Elley]].<ref name="VarietyMovieGuide" /> The last edition was published in 2001 with 8,500 reviews.<ref>{{Cite book | title=Variety Movie Guide 2001 | last=Elley | first=Derek | date=March 1, 2001 | publisher=Penguin Group (USA) | isbn=0-399-52657-9}}</ref> Many of the abridged reviews for films prior to 1998 are published on ''Variety.com'' unless they have later posted the original review.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/1985/film/reviews/maximum-overdrive-1200426863/ | title=Film reviews – Maximum Overdrive | date=January 1986 | magazine=Variety | access-date=March 11, 2018 | archive-date=March 12, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312083832/http://variety.com/1985/film/reviews/maximum-overdrive-1200426863/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

===Obituaries===
The complete text of approximately 100,000 entertainment-related [[obituaries]] (1905–1986) was reprinted as ''[[Variety Obituaries]]'', an 11-volume set, including alphabetical index. Four additional bi-annual reprints were published (for 1987–1994) before the reprint series was discontinued.

The annual anniversary edition published in January would often contain a [[necrology]] of the entertainment people who had died that year.<ref>{{cite news | work=Variety | title=Necrology of 1982 | page=239 | date=January 12, 1983}}</ref>

===Charts and data===
''Variety'' started reporting [[box office]] grosses for films by theatre on March 3, 1922, to give exhibitors around the country information on a film's performance on Broadway, which was often where first run showings of a film were held. In addition to New York City, they also endeavored to include all of the key cities in the U.S. in the future and initially also reported results for ten other cities including Chicago and Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=http://www.archive.org/stream/variety66-1922-03#page/n46/mode/1up | title=Business on Broadway Figures For Exhibitors' Information | magazine=Variety | date=March 3, 1922 | page=47}}</ref> They continued to report these grosses for films until 1989 when they put the data into a summarized weekly chart<ref name="NewBOFormat">{{cite news | title=New B.O. Sample Format | work=Variety | page=9 | date=December 20, 1989}}</ref> and only published the data by theatre for New York and Los Angeles as well as other international cities such as London and Paris.

As [[Multimedia|media]] expanded over the years, charts and data for other media such as TV ratings and music charts were published, especially in the anniversary editions that were regularly published each January.

During the 1930s, charts of the top performing films of the year were published and this tradition has been maintained annually since.<ref name="32ndAnni">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety129-1938-01#page/n2/mode/1up | title=Top Pix and Stars of 1937 | work=Variety | page=3 | date=January 5, 1938}}</ref>

In 1946, a weekly National Box Office survey was published on page 3 indicating the performance of the week's hits and flops based on the box office results of 25 key U.S. cities.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety162-1946-04#page/n2/mode/1up | title=Lent and Weather Easing Some B.O.s But 'Trunk,' 'Adventure,' 'Utopia' 'Big' | work=Variety | page=3 | date=April 3, 1946}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.simesite.net/muggs.asp?articleid=313 | last=Golden | first=Herb | date=June 19, 2003 | title=How boxoffice reporting was built: Then, as now, they're merely a guide
| work=New York | via=simesite.net | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030810225548/http://www.simesite.net/muggs.asp?articleid=313 | archive-date=August 10, 2003}}</ref> Later that year, a list of All-Time Top Grossers with a list of films that had achieved or gave promise of earning $4,000,000 or more in domestic (United States and Canada) rentals was published.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/variety163-1946-09#page/n180/mode/1up | title=All-Time Top Grossers | work=Variety | page=5 | date=September 25, 1946}}</ref> An updated chart was published annually for over 50 years, normally in the anniversary edition each January.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.variety.com/numbers/video.asp | title=All-Time Top Film Rentals | date=1998 | work=Variety | access-date=24 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991007042514/http://www.variety.com/numbers/video.asp | archive-date=7 October 1999 | url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://variety.com/1997/digital/features/rental-champs-rate-of-return-1116680329/ | title=Rental Champs Rate of Return | work=Variety | date=December 15, 1997 | access-date=March 11, 2018 | archive-date=May 5, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505044012/https://variety.com/1997/digital/features/rental-champs-rate-of-return-1116680329/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

In the late 1960s, ''Variety'' started to use an [[IBM 360]] computer to collate the grosses from their weekly reports of 22 to 24 U.S. cities from January 1, 1968. The data came from up to 800 theatres which represented around 5% of the U.S. cinema population at the time but around one-third of the total U.S. box office grosses. In 1969, they started to publish the computerized box office compilation of the top 50 grossing films of the week based on this data.<ref>{{cite news | title=Computerized B.O. Chart Due | work=Variety | date=April 16, 1969 | page=3}}</ref> "[[The Love Bug]]" was the number one in the first chart published for the week ending April 16, 1969.<ref>{{cite news | title=50 Top-Grossing Films | work=Variety | date=April 23, 1969 | page=11}}</ref> The chart format was changed in 1989 to reduce the list to a top 40 and display a summary of the sample city theater grosses rather than publish the theater grosses separately.<ref name="NewBOFormat" /> The sample chart was discontinued in 1990.<ref name="SampleChart">{{cite news | title=Variety's Grosses Report | work=Variety | page=5 | date=February 14, 1990}}</ref>

Arthur D. Murphy, who joined ''Variety'' in 1964 and worked there until 1993, was one of the first to organize and chart domestic box office gross information that became more available during the 1980s and report it in a meaningful form setting a standard for how film box office information is reported today.<ref name="MurfObit">{{cite web | url=http://www.simesite.net/muggs.asp?articleid=311 | last=Berkshire | first=Geoffrey | date=June 18, 2003 | title=B.O. guru who made a difference | type=Obituary | via=simesite.net | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031115050806/http://www.simesite.net/muggs.asp?articleid=311 | archive-date=November 15, 2003}} {{cite web | url=http://www.simesite.net/muggs.asp?articleid=311 | last=Byrge | first=Duane | date=2003 | title=The Hollywood Reporter | type=Obituary | via=simesite.net | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031115050806/http://www.simesite.net/muggs.asp?articleid=311 | archive-date=November 15, 2003}}</ref> Murphy used the weekly sample reports to estimate the total US weekly box office compared with previous annual totals which was reported in ''Variety's'' US Box Office Report each week. The sample also allowed Murphy to estimate the Market Share percentage rankings of distributors.<ref name="NewBOFormat" />

In 1976, ''Variety'' Box Office Index (VBI) was launched where each month's actual key city box office tally, after seasonal adjustment, was simultaneously expressed as an index number, with 1970 as a whole being used as the base initially. The current month's VBI expressed the monthly box office performance as a percentage change from the base year.<ref>{{cite news | title=Variety Debuts New Film Index, Graphs | work=Variety | date=February 4, 1976}}</ref> The index was published until 1991 giving a history of comparable monthly and annual box office performance for the past 20 years.

During the 1980s, ''Daily Variety'' started to publish a weekly chart of the domestic box office grosses of films as compared to the Top 50 chart in ''Variety'' which was based on a sample of key markets. ''Variety'' started to publish this weekend box office report together with the sample top 50 chart (later top 40) until they discontinued the sample chart in February 1990 with the weekend box office report being their main source of box office reporting.<ref name="SampleChart" />

In 2009, ''Variety'' launched a chart showcasing the top performing film trailers ahead of theatrical release in partnership with media measurement firm Visible Measures.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.visiblemeasures.com/insights/charts/variety/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213110621/http://www.visiblemeasures.com/insights/charts/variety/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=February 13, 2014 | title=Top 10 Film Trailers of the Week | work=visiblemeasures.com}}</ref>

===Other ''Variety'' products===
In 1937, ''Variety'' compiled and published a Radio Directory compiling a record of events in radio such as program histories, ratings and popularity polls.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/stream/varietyradiod19371938vari#page/n0/mode/2up | title=Variety Radio Directory 1937–1938 | year=1937 | publisher=Variety}}</ref> It published an annual edition for the next three years<ref>{{cite magazine | magazine=Variety | title='Variety' To Publish Annual Book Of Reference on All Show Biz | date=September 21, 1977 | page=2}}</ref> which are available on the Media History Digital Library.

In 1981, ''Variety International Showbusiness Reference'' was published, which they claimed was the first book to contain a complete list of all winners and nominees for the [[Academy Awards]], [[Emmy Awards]], [[Tony Awards]], [[Grammy Awards]] and [[Pulitzer Prize]]. The following year they published ''Variety major U.S. showbusiness awards'' containing just this award details and a revised edition, called ''Variety presents the complete book of major U.S. show business awards'', was published in 1985.<ref>{{cite book | publisher=Garland | title=Variety presents the complete book of major U.S. show business awards | last=Kaplan | first=Mike | year=1985 | isbn=0-8240-8919-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/varietypresentsc00kapl/page/n8/mode/1up | via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

In 1988, R.R. Bowker, a Reed Reference Publishing Company, part of Reed-Elsevier, PLC, a "sister" company to ''Variety'', published ''Variety's Video Directory Plus'', a CD-ROM subscription product, updated quarterly, containing metadata about 90,000 home video products and full-text film reviews from ''Variety''.

{{infobox magazine|title=International Film Guide|issn=0074-6053|oclc=230752727}}

[[Peter Cowie]] joined ''Variety'' in 1989<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/2000/more/news/i-variety-i-s-cowie-on-move-1117785663/ | title=Variety's Cowie on Move | date=August 28, 2000 | access-date=March 18, 2019 | magazine=Variety | archive-date=November 7, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107171942/https://variety.com/2000/more/news/i-variety-i-s-cowie-on-move-1117785663/ | url-status=live}}</ref> and his ''International Film Guide'', which had been published annually since 1964, became ''Variety International Film Guide'' with reports from countries on the year in cinema as well as information of film festivals. It continued to bear ''Variety'''s name until 2006.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/catalog?q=%22International+film+guide%22&search_field=search_title | title=Variety International Film Guide | website=searchworks.stanford.edu | access-date=April 9, 2018 | archive-date=November 7, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107084904/https://searchworks.stanford.edu/catalog?q=%22International+film+guide%22&search_field=search_title | url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1990, ''Variety'' published a 15-volume set of its television reviews (including home video product) from 1923 to 1988. Additional supplements were published covering 1989–1990, 1991–1992 and 1993–1994.<ref name="Prouty">{{cite book | last=Prouty | first=Howard H. | title=Variety Television Reviews Series | date=1994 | volume=17 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | isbn=978-0-8240-3796-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RxHbPxbBM1AC&q=variety+television+reviews+1991&pg=PP9 | access-date=August 7, 2019 | issn=1064-9557}}</ref>

In 1999, Cowie published ''The Variety Insider'' with detailed information on the year in entertainment as well as historical information. A second edition followed in 2000.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rspkAAAAMAAJ&q=the+variety+insider | title=The Variety Insider | first=Peter | last=Cowie | isbn=0-399-52524-6 | date=June 1, 1999 | publisher=Berkley}}</ref>

In 2004, ''Variety'' published ''VLife'', providing insider news on lifestyle features for the entertainment industry. It was published seven times annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2004/more/news/vlife-turns-to-chalon-1117914319/|title=VLife turns to Chalon|publisher=Variety|date=December 4, 2004|accessdate=October 10, 2024}}</ref>

===''Variety Studio: Actors on Actors''===
{{Main|Variety Studio: Actors on Actors}}
In November 2014, ''Variety'' premiered ''Variety Studio: Actors on Actors'', a co-production with PBS SoCal that featured two actors discussing their craft and thoughts on Hollywood, which subsequently went on to win three Emmy awards, including a Daytime Creative Arts Award in May 2019.

In January 2017, they launched the ''Variety'' Content Studio, creating custom content for brands.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://variety.com/2015/biz/news/variety-names-dea-lawrence-as-chief-marketing-officer-1201608896/ | title=Variety Names Dea Lawrence as Chief Marketing Officer | date=October 6, 2015 | work=Variety | access-date=April 2, 2018 | archive-date=April 2, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402102154/http://variety.com/2015/biz/news/variety-names-dea-lawrence-as-chief-marketing-officer-1201608896/ | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | title=Variety Names Dea Lawrence as Chief Marketing Officer | date=October 6, 2015 | work=Variety}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.indiewire.com/2017/01/variety-content-studios-penske-media-corporation-1201767453/ | title=Variety Announces the Launch of Variety Content Studios | author=Indiewire Staff | date=January 11, 2017 | work=IndieWire | access-date=April 2, 2018 | archive-date=April 2, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402101717/http://www.indiewire.com/2017/01/variety-content-studios-penske-media-corporation-1201767453/ | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/variety-launches-content-studios-for-branded-production-1201957304/ | title=Variety Launches Content Studios for Branded Production | date=January 10, 2017 | work=Variety | access-date=April 2, 2018 | archive-date=April 3, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403051913/https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/variety-launches-content-studios-for-branded-production-1201957304/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

==''Variety'' Insight==
''Variety'' established its data and research division, ''Variety'' Insight, in 2011 when it acquired entertainment data company, TVtracker.com.<ref name=observer>{{cite news | url=http://observer.com/2011/12/hollywood-trade-variety-moves-into-data-and-research-business/ | title=Hollywood Trade Variety Moves Into Data and Research Business | last=Stoeffel | first=Kat | work=[[New York Observer]] | date=December 9, 2011 | access-date=September 21, 2016 | archive-date=September 23, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923040203/http://observer.com/2011/12/hollywood-trade-variety-moves-into-data-and-research-business/ | url-status=live}}</ref> Its film database was announced in December 2011 as FlixTracker, but was later folded into ''Variety'' Insight. The subscription service is positioned as an alternative to crowd-sourced websites, such as the [[IMDb]].<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://www.fastcompany.com/1799676/variety-launches-fact-checked-imdb-alternative-1000-subscriptions | title=Variety Launches Fact-Checked IMDB Alternative With $1,000 Subscriptions | last=Carr | first=Austin | magazine=[[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company]] | date=December 8, 2011 | access-date=September 21, 2016 | archive-date=October 1, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001231907/https://www.fastcompany.com/1799676/variety-launches-fact-checked-imdb-alternative-1000-subscriptions | url-status=live}}</ref> The database uses ''Variety''{{'}}s existing relationships with the studios to get information. The ''[[New York Observer]]'' identified the main competitor as [[Baseline StudioSystems]].<ref name=observer /> In 2014, ''Variety'' Insight added Vscore, a measure of actors' cachet and bankability.<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/2014/biz/news/johnny-depp-value-jennifer-lawrence-variety-vscore-1201263164/ | title=Variety Launches Vscore to Measure Actors' Value | author= | magazine=Variety | date=August 6, 2014 | access-date=September 21, 2016 | archive-date=September 23, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923013829/http://variety.com/2014/biz/news/johnny-depp-value-jennifer-lawrence-variety-vscore-1201263164/ | url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, it partnered with ScriptNoted, a social media website for film [[screenplay|scripts.]]<ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://variety.com/2015/biz/news/variety-insight-partners-with-scriptnoted-1201620426/ | title=Variety Insight Partners With ScriptNoted | magazine=Variety | date=October 20, 2015 | access-date=September 21, 2016 | archive-date=September 23, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923012405/http://variety.com/2015/biz/news/variety-insight-partners-with-scriptnoted-1201620426/ | url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2020, it was rebranded Luminate Film & TV, part of Luminate, a joint venture between Penske Media Corporation (PMC) and Eldridge Industries.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://filmandtv.luminatedata.com/ | title=How Long Has Luminate Film & TV Been Around? | access-date=November 13, 2024}}</ref>

==''Variety'' Australia==
''Variety'' Australia is a website owned by [[Brag Media]], published under license from ''Variety'' Media, LLC. It covers film, TV and music around the world, but with a special focus on the Australian and New Zealand industries. The main writer is Vivienne Kelly.<ref>{{cite web | title=Variety Australia | website=Variety Australia | url=https://au.variety.com/ | access-date=25 October 2022 | archive-date=October 25, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025062654/https://au.variety.com/ | url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|United States|Journalism}}
* ''[[Deadline Hollywood]]'' – Related publication owned by [[Penske Media Corporation]]
* [[List of film periodicals]]
* {{anl|The Hollywood Reporter|''The Hollywood Reporter''}}
* ''[[TVLine]]'' – Related publication owned by [[Penske Media Corporation]]
* {{anl|Variety Hitmakers Awards}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Besas | title=Inside Variety | publication-place=Madrid | publisher=Ars Millenii | date=2000}} The 563-page book gives a detailed history of the newspaper (it was never called a "magazine" under the Silvermans) from its birth in 1905 to its sale in 1987.
* [http://simesite.net/ Sime's Site]
:* a web site run by Peter Besas,  Ian Watkins, for ex-''Variety'' employees from the pre-Cahners, pre-corporate, Silverman era.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Appendix:Words from Variety}}
* {{Official website}}
* [https://guides.library.ucla.edu/film/varietymag ''Variety''] at the [[UCLA Library]]
* [https://archive.org/details/pub_variety?sort=-date ''Variety''] at the [[Internet Archive]]

{{Penske Media Corporation}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Variety (magazine)| ]]
[[Category:GLAAD Media Awards winners]]
[[Category:1905 establishments in New York City]]
[[Category:2012 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:Entertainment trade magazines]]
[[Category:Film magazines published in the United States]]
[[Category:Magazines established in 1905]]
[[Category:Magazines published in Los Angeles]]
[[Category:Magazines published in New York City]]
[[Category:Music magazines published in the United States]]
[[Category:Penske Media Corporation]]
[[Category:Weekly magazines published in the United States]]

Communism

2026-03-23T13:47:57Z

EmilBarraza: Expanded content with additional details

{{Short description|Political and socioeconomic ideology}}
{{distinguish|Communalism (disambiguation){{!}}Communalism|Communitarianism}}
{{other uses}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{use American English|date=August 2021}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{communism sidebar}}
{{Economic systems sidebar}}

'''Communism''' ({{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|communis}}|common, universal}}){{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Communism |encyclopedia=[[World Book Encyclopedia]] |volume=4 |location=Chicago |publisher=World Book |date=2008 |page=890 |isbn=978-0-7166-0108-1}}</ref> is a [[political philosophy|political]] and [[economic ideology|economic]] [[ideology]] whose goal is the creation of a [[communist society]], a [[socioeconomic]] order centered on [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]], distribution, and exchange that allocates products in society based on need.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ely |first=Richard T |title=French and German socialism in modern times |date=1883 |publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]] |location=New York |pages=35–36 |oclc=456632 |quote=All communists without exception propose that the people as a whole, or some particular division of the people, as a village or commune, should own all the means of production{{snd}}land, houses, factories, railroads, canals, etc.; that production should be carried on in common; and that officers, selected in one way or another, should distribute among the inhabitants the fruits of their labor.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bukharin |first1=Nikolai |title=[[The ABC of Communism]] |last2=Preobrazhensky |first2=Yevgeni |date=1922 |publisher=[[Communist Party of Great Britain]] |location=London, England |pages=72–73, § 20 |translator-last1=Paul |translator-first1=Cedar |chapter=Distribution in the communist system |author1-link=Nikolai Bukharin |author2-link=Yevgeni Preobrazhensky |access-date=18 August 2021 |orig-date=1920 |translator-last2=Paul |translator-first2=Eden |translator-link1=Cedar Paul |translator-link2=Eden Paul |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/ABC-of-Communism.pdf#page=67 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212173140/https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/ABC-of-Communism.pdf#page=67 |archive-date=12 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="Steele p.43">{{harvp|Steele|1992|p=43}}: "One widespread distinction was that socialism socialised production only while communism socialised production and consumption."</ref> A communist society entails the absence of [[private property]] and [[social class]]es,{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}} and ultimately money<ref>{{cite book |last1=Engels |first1=Friedrich |author1-link=Friedrich Engels |date=2005 |orig-date=1847 |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm#18 |chapter=Section 18: What will be the course of this revolution? |title=[[The Principles of Communism]] |translator-first=Paul |translator-last=Sweezy |translator-link=Paul Sweezy |quote=Finally, when all capital, all production, all exchange have been brought together in the hands of the nation, private property will disappear of its own accord, money will become superfluous, and production will so expand and man so change that society will be able to slough off whatever of its old economic habits may remain. |access-date=18 August 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250209135705/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm#18 |archive-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> and the [[State (polity)|state]].<ref>{{cite book |author1-link=Nikolai Bukharin |last1=Bukharin |first1=Nikolai |author2-link=Yevgeni Preobrazhensky |last2=Preobrazhensky |first2=Yevgeni |date=1922 |orig-date=1920 |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/ABC-of-Communism.pdf#page=67 |chapter=Administration in the communist system |pages=73–75, § 21 |title=[[The ABC of Communism]] |translator-link1=Cedar Paul |translator-last1=Paul |translator-first1=Cedar |translator-link2=Eden Paul |translator-last2=Paul |translator-first2=Eden |location=London, England |publisher=[[Communist Party of Great Britain]] |access-date=18 August 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250212173140/https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1920/abc/ABC-of-Communism.pdf#page=67 |archive-date=12 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Kurian |editor-first=George |year=2011 |chapter-url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-encyclopedia-of-political-science |chapter=Withering Away of the State |title=The Encyclopedia of Political Science |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[CQ Press]] |doi=10.4135/9781608712434 |isbn=978-1-933116-44-0 |access-date=3 January 2016 |via=[[SAGE Publishing]] |last1=Kurian |first1=George}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Communism - Non-Marxian communism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism/Non-Marxian-communism |access-date=13 May 2022 |website=Britannica |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250211204523/https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism/Non-Marxian-communism |archive-date=11 February 2025}}</ref> Communism is a part of the broader [[history of socialism|socialist movement]].{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}

Communists often seek a voluntary state of [[self-governance]] but disagree on the means to this end. This reflects a distinction between a [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] approach of [[communization]], [[revolutionary spontaneity]], and [[workers' self-management]], and an [[authoritarian socialism|authoritarian socialist]], [[vanguardist]], or [[communist party|party]]-driven approach to establish a [[socialist state]], which is expected to [[withering away of the state|wither away]].<ref name="Kinna 2012">{{cite book |last=Kinna |first=Ruth |author-link=Ruth Kinna |year=2012 |editor-last1=Berry |editor-first1=Dave |editor-last2=Kinna |editor-first2=Ruth |editor-link2=Ruth Kinna |editor-last3=Pinta |editor-first3=Saku |editor-last4=Prichard |editor-first4=Alex |title=Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red |location=London |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=1–34 |isbn=9781137284754}}</ref> Communist parties have been described as radical left or far-left.{{sfn|March|2009|pp=126–143}}{{Sfn|George|Wilcox|1996|p=95|ps= "The far left in America consists principally of people who believe in some form of Marxism-Leninism, i.e., some form of Communism. A small minority of extreme leftists adhere to "pure" Marxism or collectivist anarchism. Most far leftists scorn reforms (except as a short-term tactic), and instead aim for the complete overthrow of the capitalist system including the U.S. government."}}{{refn|Communism is generally considered to be among the more radical ideologies of the [[political left]].<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2009 |title=Left |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/left |access-date=22 May 2022 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |quote=... communism is a more radical leftist ideology. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250205002949/https://www.britannica.com/topic/left |archive-date=5 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Radical left |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/radical-left |access-date=16 July 2022 |website=[[Dictionary.com]] |quote=Radical left is a term that refers collectively to people who hold left-wing political views that are considered extreme, such as supporting or working to establish communism, Marxism, Maoism, socialism, anarchism, or other forms of anticapitalism. The radical left is sometimes called the far left. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250210114719/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/radical-left |archive-date=10 February 2025}}</ref> Unlike [[far-right politics]], for which there is general consensus among scholars on what it entails and its grouping (e.g. various academic handbooks studies), [[far-left politics]] have been difficult to characterize, particularly where they begin on the [[political spectrum]], other than the general consensus of being to the left of a standard political left, and because many of their positions are not extreme,<ref>{{harvnb|March|2009|p=126}}: "The far left is becoming the principal challenge to mainstream social democratic parties, in large part because its main parties are no longer extreme, but present themselves as defending the values and policies that social democrats have allegedly abandoned."</ref> or because ''far-left'' and ''[[hard left]]'' are considered to be pejoratives that imply they are marginal.<ref>{{cite book |last=March |first=Luke |year=2012 |title=Radical Left Parties in Europe |edition=E-book |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=1724 |isbn=978-1-136-57897-7}}</ref> In regards to communism and communist parties and movements, some scholars narrow the far left to their left, while others include them by broadening it to be the left of mainstream socialist, social-democratic, and labourist parties.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cosseron |first=Serge |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgQFAQAAIAAJ |title=Dictionnaire de l'extrême gauche |trans-title=Dictionary of the far left |edition=paperback |language=fr |location=Paris |page=20 |publisher=Larousse |isbn=978-2-035-82620-6 |access-date=19 November 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> In general, they agree that there are various subgroupings within far-left politics, such as the radical left and the extreme left.{{sfn|March|2009|p=129}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=March |first=Luke |date=September 2012 |title=Problems and Perspectives of Contemporary European Radical Left Parties: Chasing a Lost World or Still a World to Win? |journal=[[International Critical Thought]] |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=314–339 |doi=10.1080/21598282.2012.706777 }}</ref>|group=note}}

There are many [[variants of communism]], such as [[anarchist communism]], [[Marxist schools of thought]] (including [[Leninism]] and its offshoots), and [[religious communism]]. These ideologies share the analysis that the current order of society stems from the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist]] [[economic system]] and [[mode of production]]; they believe that there are two major social classes under capitalism, that the relationship between them is exploitative, and that it can only be resolved through [[social revolution]].<ref name="Marx & Engels 1848">{{cite book |last1=Engels |first1=Friedrich |author1-link=Friedrich Engels |last2=Marx |first2=Karl |author2-link=Karl Marx |date=1969 |orig-date=1848 |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm |chapter=Bourgeois and Proletarians |title=[[The Communist Manifesto]] |translator-first=Samuel |translator-last=Moore |translator-link=Samuel Moore (translator) |location=Moscow |publisher=[[Progress Publishers]] |access-date=1 March 2022 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |series=Marx/Engels Selected Works |volume=1 |pages=98–137 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250214015104/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm |archive-date=14 February 2025}}</ref>{{refn|Earlier forms of communism ([[utopian socialism]] and some earlier forms of [[religious communism]]), shared support for a [[classless society]] and [[common ownership]] but did not necessarily advocate [[revolutionary politics]] or engage in scientific analysis; that was done by Marxist communism, which has defined mainstream, modern communism, and has influenced all modern forms of communism. Such communisms, especially new religious or utopian forms of communism, may share the Marxist analysis, while favoring evolutionary politics, [[Localism (politics)|localism]], or [[reformism]]. By the 20th century, communism has been associated with [[revolutionary socialism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Newman|1y=2005|2a1=Morgan|2y=2015}}|group=note}} The two classes under capitalism are the [[proletariat]] ([[working class]]), who make up most of the population and sell their [[Labour power|labor power]] to survive, and the [[bourgeoisie]] (owning class), a minority that derives profit from employing the proletariat through private ownership of the means of production.<ref name="Marx & Engels 1848"/> Some variants additionally emphasize [[Feudalism|feudal]] classes, such as the [[Peasant|peasantry]] and [[Feudal lord|feudal lords]], or other classes. According to this, a [[communist revolution]] would put the working class in power,<ref>{{cite book |last=Gasper |first=Phillip |title=The Communist Manifesto: A Road Map to History's Most Important Political Document |publisher=[[Haymarket Books]] |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-931859-25-7 |page=23 |quote=Marx and Engels never speculated on the detailed organization of a future socialist or communist society. The key task for them was building a movement to overthrow capitalism. If and when that movement was successful, it would be up to the members of the new society to decide democratically how it was to be organized, in the concrete historical circumstances in which they found themselves.}}</ref> and establish common ownership of property, the primary element in the transformation of society towards a [[socialist mode of production]].<ref name="Steele 1992, pp. 44–45">{{harvp|Steele|1992|pp=44–45}}: "By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism'. ... At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists. ... The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917 ..., the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution."</ref><ref name="Gregory & Stuart 2003, p. 118">{{cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Paul R. |last2=Stuart |first2=Robert C. |date=2003 |title=Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First |edition=7th |publisher=South-Western College Pub. |pages=118 |isbn=0-618-26181-8 |quote=Under socialism, each individual would be expected to contribute according to capability, and rewards would be distributed in proportion to that contribution. Subsequently, under communism, the basis of reward would be need.}}</ref><ref name="Bockman 2011, p. 20">{{cite book |last=Bockman |first=Johanna |title=Markets in the Name of Socialism: The Left-Wing Origins of Neoliberalism |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8047-7566-3 |page=20 |quote=According to nineteenth-century socialist views, socialism would function without capitalist economic categories – such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent – and thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognized the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilize the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.}}</ref>

Communism in its modern form grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe that argued capitalism caused the misery of urban factory workers.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}} In 1848, [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]] offered a new definition of communism in ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''. In the 20th century, [[Communist state|Communist governments]] espousing [[Marxism–Leninism]] came to power,<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Stephen |date=2014 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism |location=Oxford, England |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=3}}</ref>{{refn|''Communism'' is capitalized by scholars when referring to [[Communist party]]-ruled states and governments, which are considered to be proper nouns as a result.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/cspn/Website/Classroom%20Materials/Curriculum%20Packets/Cold%20War%20&%20Red%20Scare/IV.html |title=IV. Glossary |website=Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |access-date=13 August 2021 |quote=... communism (noun) ... 2. The economic and political system instituted in the Soviet Union after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Also, the economic and political system of several Soviet allies, such as China and Cuba. (Writers often capitalize Communism when they use the word in this sense.) These Communist economic systems often did not achieve the ideals of communist theory. For example, although many forms of property were owned by the government in the USSR and China, neither the work nor the products were shared in a manner that would be considered equitable by many communist or Marxist theorists. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208123611/https://www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/cspn/Website/Classroom%20Materials/Curriculum%20Packets/Cold%20War%20&%20Red%20Scare/IV.html |archive-date=8 December 2024}}</ref> Following scholar [[Joel Kovel]], sociologist [[Sara Diamond (sociologist)|Sara Diamond]] wrote: "I use uppercase 'C' ''Communism'' to refer to actually existing governments and movements and lowercase 'c' ''communism'' to refer to the varied movements and political currents organized around the ideal of a classless society."<ref>{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Sara |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1bqY-DxHMEC |title=Roads to Dominion: Right-wing Movements and Political Power in the United States |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |page=8 |isbn=978-0-8986-2864-7 |access-date=23 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]'' also adopted such distinction, stating that ''communism'' exists since millennia, while ''Communism'' (used in reference to [[Leninist]] and [[Marxist–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] communism as applied by Communist states in the 20th century) only began in 1917.<ref>{{cite book |last=Courtois |first=Stéphane |year=1999 |orig-date=1997 |chapter=Introduction |editor-last=Courtois |editor-first=Stéphane |collaboration=Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Panné, Jean-Louis; Werth, Nicolas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC |title=The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=ix–x, 2 |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |access-date=23 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> [[Alan M. Wald]] wrote: "In order to tackle complex and often misunderstood political-literary relationships, I have adopted methods of capitalization in this book that may deviate from editorial norms practiced at certain journals and publishing houses. In particular, I capitalize 'Communist' and 'Communism' when referring to official parties of the Third International, but not when pertaining to other adherents of Bolshevism or revolutionary Marxism (which encompasses small-'c' communists such as Trotskyists, Bukharinists, council communists, and so forth)."<ref>{{cite book |last=Wald |first=Alan M. |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OfgqsLNAo4cC |title=Exiles from a Future Time: The Forging of the Mid-Twentieth-Century Literary Left |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |page=xix |isbn=978-1-4696-0867-9 |access-date=13 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> In 1994, [[Communist Party USA]] activist [[Irwin Silber]] wrote: "When capitalized, the International Communist Movement refers to the formal organizational structure of the pro-Soviet Communist Parties. In lower case, the international communist movement is a more generic term referring to the general movement for communism."<ref>{{cite book |last=Silber |first=Irwin |year=1994 |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/silber-socialism.pdf |title=Socialism: What Went Wrong? An Inquiry into the Theoretical and Historical Sources of the Socialist Crisis |edition=hardback |location=London |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |page=vii |isbn=9780745307169 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209233145/https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/silber-socialism.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2024}}</ref>|group=note}} first in the [[Soviet Union]] with the 1917 [[Russian Revolution]], then in Eastern Europe, Asia, and other regions after World War II.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Darity |editor-first=William A. Jr. |date=2008 |title=Communism |encyclopedia=[[International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]] |edition=2nd |volume=2 |location=New York |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Reference USA]] |pages=35–36 |isbn=9780028661179}}</ref> By the 1920s, communism had become one of the two dominant [[types of socialism]] in the world, the other being [[social democracy]].{{sfn|Newman|2005|p=5|ps=: "Chapter 1 looks at the foundations of the doctrine by examining the contribution made by various traditions of socialism in the period between the early 19th century and the aftermath of the First World War. The two forms that emerged as dominant by the early 1920s were social democracy and communism."}}

For much of the 20th century, more than one-third of the world's population lived under Communist governments. These were characterized by [[one-party rule]], rejection of private property and capitalism, state control of economic activity and [[mass media]], [[State atheism|restrictions on]] [[freedom of religion]], and suppression of opposition. With the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, many governments abolished Communist rule.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Communism |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572241/Communism.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129124930/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572241/Communism.html |archive-date=29 January 2009 |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=[[Encarta]]}}</ref><ref name="Dunn">{{cite book |last=Dunn |first=Dennis |title=A History of Orthodox, Islamic, and Western Christian Political Values |date=2016 |publisher=[[Palgrave-Macmillan]] |isbn=978-3319325668 |location=Basingstoke |pages=126–131}}</ref> Only a few nominally Communist governments remain, such as [[China]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frenkiel |first1=Émilie |last2=Shaoguang |first2=Wang |author2-link=Wang Shaoguang |date=15 July 2009 |title=Political change and democracy in China |website=Laviedesidees.fr |url=https://laviedesidees.fr/IMG/pdf/20090715_entretienwang.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909060743/https://laviedesidees.fr/IMG/pdf/20090715_entretienwang.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2017 |access-date=13 January 2023}}</ref> [[Cuba]], [[Laos]], [[North Korea]],{{refn|While it refers to its leading ideology as ''[[Juche]]'', which is portrayed as a development of [[Marxism–Leninism]], the status of North Korea remains disputed. Marxism–Leninism was superseded by ''Juche'' in the 1970s and was made official in 1992 and 2009, when constitutional references to Marxism–Leninism were dropped and replaced with ''Juche''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dae-Kyu |first=Yoon |year=2003 |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1934&context=ilj |title=The Constitution of North Korea: Its Changes and Implications |journal=[[Fordham International Law Journal]] |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=1289–1305 |access-date=10 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224144030/https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1934&context=ilj |archive-date=24 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2009, the constitution was quietly amended so that it removed all Marxist–Leninist references present in the first draft, and also dropped all references to communism.<ref>{{cite news|last=Park |first=Seong-Woo |date=23 September 2009 |url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/in_focus/first_millitary-09232009120017.html |script-title=ko:북 개정 헌법 '선군사상' 첫 명기 |title=Bug gaejeong heonbeob 'seongunsasang' cheos myeong-gi |trans-title=First stipulation of the 'Seongun Thought' of the North Korean Constitution |agency=[[Radio Free Asia]] |language=ko |access-date=10 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517045408/https://www.rfa.org/korean/in_focus/first_millitary-09232009120017.html |archive-date=17 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Juche'' has been described by Michael Seth as a version of [[Korean ultranationalism]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Seth |first=Michael J. |year=2019 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GPm9DwAAQBAJ&q=%22juche%22+%22ultranationalism%22&pg=PA159 |title=A Concise History of Modern Korea: From the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=159 |isbn=9781538129050 |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206043439/https://books.google.com/books?id=GPm9DwAAQBAJ&q=%22juche%22+%22ultranationalism%22&pg=PA159 |url-status=live}}</ref> which eventually developed after losing its original Marxist–Leninist elements.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fisher |first1=Max |date=6 January 2016 |url=https://www.vox.com/2016/1/6/10724334/north-korea-history |title=The single most important fact for understanding North Korea |website=Vox |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306090942/https://www.vox.com/2016/1/6/10724334/north-korea-history |archive-date=6 March 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to ''North Korea: A Country Study'' by Robert L. Worden, Marxism–Leninism was abandoned immediately after the start of [[de-Stalinization]] in the Soviet Union and has been totally replaced by ''Juche'' since at least 1974.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Worden |editor-first=Robert L. |year=2008 |url=http://cdn.loc.gov/master/frd/frdcstdy/no/northkoreacountr00word/northkoreacountr00word.pdf |title=North Korea: A Country Study |edition=5th |location=Washington, D. C. |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |page=206 |isbn=978-0-8444-1188-0 |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725073828/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/no/northkoreacountr00word/northkoreacountr00word.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Daniel Schwekendiek wrote that what made North Korean Marxism–Leninism distinct from that of China and the Soviet Union was that it incorporated national feelings and macro-historical elements in the socialist ideology, opting for its "own style of socialism". The major Korean elements are the emphasis on traditional [[Confucianism]] and the memory of the traumatic experience of [[Korea under Japanese rule]], as well as a focus on autobiographical features of [[Kim Il Sung]] as a guerrilla hero.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schwekendiek |first=Daniel |date=2011 |title=A Socioeconomic History of North Korea |location=Jefferson |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |pages=31 |isbn=978-0786463442}}</ref>|group=note|name=NKorea}} and [[Vietnam]].{{sfn|Lansford|2007|pp=9–24, 36–44}} Except for North Korea, these have allowed more economic competition while maintaining one-party rule.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}} Communism's decline has been attributed to economic inefficiency and to [[authoritarianism]] and [[bureaucracy]] within Communist governments.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}{{sfn|Lansford|2007|pp=9–24, 36–44}}<ref name=":0" />

Although the emergence of the Soviet Union as the first state based on Marxism–Leninism led to socialism becoming widely associated with the [[Soviet economic model]], several scholars argue that in practice this model functioned as a form of [[state capitalism]].<ref name="Chomsky, Howard, Fitzgibbons">{{harvp|Chomsky|1986}}; {{harvp|Howard|King|2001}}; {{harvp|Fitzgibbons|2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Wolff |first=Richard D. |author-link=Richard D. Wolff |date=27 June 2015 |title=Socialism Means Abolishing the Distinction Between Bosses and Employees |url=http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/31567-socialism-means-abolishing-the-distinction-between-bosses-and-employees |access-date=29 January 2020 |website=[[Truthout]] |archive-date=11 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311070639/http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/31567-socialism-means-abolishing-the-distinction-between-bosses-and-employees |url-status=dead}}</ref> Public memory of 20th-century Marxist-Leninist states has been described as a battleground between [[anti-communism]] and [[anti anti-communism]].{{sfn|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}} Authors have written about [[mass killings under communist regimes]] and [[mortality rate]]s,{{refn|Scholars generally write about individual events, and make estimates of any deaths like any other historical event, favouring background context and country specificities over generalizations, ideology, and Communist grouping as done by other scholars; some events are categorized by a Communist state's particular era, such as Stalinist repression,<ref name="Wheatcroft 2000">{{cite journal |last=Wheatcroft |first=Stephen G. |author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft |date=1999 |title=Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=315–345 |doi=10.1080/09668139999056 |jstor=153614}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wheatcroft |first=Stephen G. |author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft |date=2000 |title=The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and Its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1143–1159 |doi=10.1080/09668130050143860 |jstor=153593 |pmid=19326595 }}</ref> rather than a connection to all Communist states, which came to cover one-third the world's population by 1985.{{sfn|Lansford|2007|pp=24–25}} {{paragraph break}} Historians like [[Robert Conquest]] and [[J. Arch Getty]] mainly wrote and focused on the [[History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)|Stalin era]]; they wrote about people who died in the [[Gulag]] or as a result of Stalinist repression, and discussed estimates about those specific events, as part of the excess mortality debate in [[Joseph Stalin]]'s Soviet Union, without connecting them to communism as a whole. They have vigorously debated, including on the [[Holodomor genocide question]],<ref name="Getty 7–8">{{cite magazine |last=Getty |first=J. Arch |author-link=J. Arch Getty |date=22 January 1987 |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v09/n02/j-arch-getty/starving-the-ukraine |title=Starving the Ukraine |magazine=The London Review of Books |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=7–8 |access-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220053330/https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v09/n02/j.-arch-getty/starving-the-ukraine |archive-date=20 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marples |first1=David R. |author1-link=David R. Marples |title=Ethnic Issues in the Famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |date=May 2009 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=505–518 |doi=10.1080/09668130902753325 |jstor=27752256 }}</ref> but the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], the [[Revolutions of 1989]], and the release of state archives put some of the heat out of the debate.<ref name="Davies & Harris 2005, pp. 3–5">{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Sarah |last2=Harris |first2=James |year=2005 |chapter=Joseph Stalin: Power and Ideas|title=Stalin: A New History |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=3–5 |isbn=978-1-139-44663-1}}</ref> Some historians, among them [[Michael Ellman]], have questioned "the very category 'victims of Stalinism'" as "a matter of political judgement" because mass deaths from famines are not a "uniquely Stalinist evil" and were widespread throughout the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ellman |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Ellman |year=2002 |title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=1172 |doi=10.1080/0966813022000017177 }}</ref> There exists very little literature that compares excess deaths under "the Big Three" of Stalin's Soviet Union, [[Mao Zedong]]'s China, and [[Pol Pot]]'s Cambodia, and that which does exist mainly enumerates the events rather than explain their ideological reasons. One such example is ''Crimes Against Humanity Under Communist Regimes – Research Review'' by [[Klas-Göran Karlsson]] and [[Michael Schoenhals]], a review study summarizing what others have stated about it, mentioning some authors who saw the origins of the killings in [[Karl Marx]]'s writings; the geographical scope is "the Big Three", and the authors state that killings were carried out as part of an unbalanced modernizing policy of rapid industrialization, asking "what marked the beginning of the unbalanced Russian modernisation process that was to have such terrible consequences?"{{sfn|Karlsson|Schoenhals|2008}} {{paragraph break}} Notable scholarly exceptions are historian [[Stéphane Courtois]] and political scientist [[Rudolph Rummel]], who have attempted a connection between all Communist states. Rummel's analysis was done within the framework of his proposed concept of [[democide]], which includes any direct and indirect deaths by government, and did not limit himself to Communist states, which were categorized within the framework of [[totalitarianism]] alongside other regime-types. Rummel's estimates are on the high end of the spectrum, have been criticized and scrutinized, and are rejected by most scholars. Courtois' attempts, as in the introduction to ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]'', which have been described by some critical observers as a crudely [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] and [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] work, are controversial; many reviewers of the book, including scholars, criticized such attempts of lumping all Communist states and different sociological movements together as part of a Communist death toll totalling more than 94 million.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{harvp|Harff|1996}}; {{harvp|Hiroaki|2001}}; {{harvp|Paczkowski|2001}}; {{harvp|Weiner|2002}}; {{harvp|Dulić|2004}}; {{harvp|Harff|2017}}</ref> Reviewers also distinguished the introduction from the book proper, which was better received and only presented a number of chapters on single-country studies, with no cross-cultural comparison, or discussion of [[mass killing]]s; historian [[Andrzej Paczkowski]] wrote that only Courtois made the comparison between communism and Nazism, while the other sections of the book "are, in effect, narrowly focused monographs, which do not pretend to offer overarching explanations", and stated that the book is not "about communism as an ideology or even about communism as a state-building phenomenon."{{sfn|Paczkowski|2001|pp=32–33}} More positive reviews found most of the criticism to be fair or warranted, with political scientist [[Stanley Hoffmann]] stating that "Courtois would have been far more effective if he had shown more restraint",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoffman |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Hoffmann |date=Spring 1998 |title=Le Livre noir du communisme: Crimes, terreur, répression (The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, and Repression) by Stéphane Courtois. |journal=[[Foreign Policy]] |volume=110 (Special Edition: Frontiers of Knowledge) |pages=166–169 |doi=10.2307/1149284 |jstor=1149284}}</ref> and Paczkowski stating that it has had two positive effects, among them stirring a debate about the implementation of totalitarian ideologies and "an exhaustive balance sheet about one aspect of the worldwide phenomenon of communism."{{sfn|Paczkowski|2001}} {{paragraph break}} A [[Soviet and communist studies]] example is [[Steven Rosefielde]]'s ''Red Holocaust'', which is controversial due to [[Holocaust trivialization]]; nonetheless, Rosefielde's work mainly focused on "the Big Three" (Stalin era, [[Mao era]], and the [[Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia]]), plus [[Kim Il Sung]]'s North Korea and [[Ho Chi Minh]]'s Vietnam. Rosefielde's main point is that Communism in general, although he focuses mostly on [[Stalinism]], is less genocidal and that is a key distinction from [[Nazism]], and did not make a connection between all Communist states or communism as an ideology. Rosefielde wrote that "the conditions for the Red Holocaust were rooted in Stalin's, Kim's, Mao's, Ho's and Pol Pot's siege-mobilized terror-command economic systems, not in Marx's utopian vision or other pragmatic communist transition mechanisms. Terror-command was chosen among other reasons because of legitimate fears about the long-term viability of terror-free command, and the ideological risks of market communism."<ref name=Rosefielde_2010>{{cite book |last1=Rosefielde |first1=Steven |author-link1=Steven Rosefielde |title=Red Holocaust |date=2009 |doi=10.4324/9780203864371 |isbn=978-1-135-19518-2 |page=xvi }}</ref>|group=note|name=third}}{{refn|Some authors, such as [[Stéphane Courtois]] in ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]'', stated that Communism killed more than Nazism and thus was worse; several scholars have criticized this view.<ref>{{cite journal |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |last=Suny |first=Ronald Grigor |author-link=Ronald Grigor Suny |title=Russian Terror/ism and Revisionist Historiography |journal=[[Australian Journal of Politics & History]] |date=2007 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8497.2007.00439.x |quote=... [leaves out] most of the 40-60,000,000 lives lost in the Second World War, for which arguably Hitler and not Stalin was principally responsible. |postscript=. Quote at p. 13.}}</ref> After assessing twenty years of historical research in Eastern European archives, lower estimates by the "revisionist school" of historians have been vindicated,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Getty |first1=J. Arch |author1-link=J. Arch Getty |last2=Rittersporn |first2=Gábor |last3=Zemskov |first3=Viktor |author3-link=Viktor Zemskov |date=October 1993 |url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/GTY-Penal_System.pdf |title=Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1017–1049 |doi=10.2307/2166597 |jstor=2166597 |access-date=17 August 2021|via=Soviet Studies}}</ref> despite the popular press continuing to use higher estimates and containing serious errors.<ref name="Wheatcroft 1999">{{cite journal |last=Wheatcroft |first=Stephen G. |author-link=Stephen G. Wheatcroft |date=March 1999 |url=http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Secret_Police.pdf |title=Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=340–342 |doi=10.1080/09668139999056 |jstor=153614 |access-date=17 August 2021 |via=Soviet Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250213115332/https://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Secret_Police.pdf |archive-date=13 February 2025}}</ref> Historians such as [[Timothy D. Snyder]] stated it is taken for granted that Stalin killed more civilians than Hitler; for most scholars, excess mortality under Stalin was about 6 million, which rise to 9 million if foreseeable deaths arising from policies are taken into account. This estimate is less than those killed by Nazis, who killed more noncombatants than the Soviets did.<ref name="Snyder">{{cite magazine |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |author-link=Timothy D. Snyder |date=27 January 2011 |url=http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse |title=Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse? |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]] |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250214144354/https://www.nybooks.com/online/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/ |archive-date=14 February 2025}} See also [https://archive.org/details/bloodlandseurope00snyd_814/page/n404 p. 384] of Snyder's ''[[Bloodlands]]''.</ref>|group=note|name=fourth}} which remain controversial, polarized, and debated topics in academia, historiography, and politics when discussing communism and the legacy of Marxist-Leninist states.{{sfn|Ghodsee|2014}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}}{{sfn|Neumayer|2018}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}} From the 1990s, many Communist parties adopted democratic principles and came to share power with others in government, such as the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist)|CPN UML]] and the [[Nepal Communist Party]], which support [[People's Multiparty Democracy]] in [[Communism in Nepal|Nepal]].<ref name=Peter>{{cite book |last=Lamb |first=Peter |year=2015 |title=Historical Dictionary of Socialism |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=415 |isbn=9781442258266 |quote=In the 1990s, following the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet Union, social democracy was adopted by some of the old communist parties. Hence, parties such as the Czech Social Democratic Party, the Bulgarian Social Democrats, the Estonian Social Democratic Party, and the Romanian Social Democratic Party, among others, achieved varying degrees of electoral success. Similar processes took place in Africa as the old communist parties were transformed into social democratic ones, even though they retained their traditional titles ... .}}</ref><ref name="The Economist">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |title=Nepal's election The Maoists triumph |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=18 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214103506/http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |archive-date=14 February 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Diplomat">{{cite news |last=Bhattarai |first=Kamal Dev |date=21 February 2018 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/02/the-rebirth-of-the-nepal-communist-party/ |title=The (Re)Birth of the Nepal Communist Party |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |access-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210004219/https://thediplomat.com/2018/02/the-rebirth-of-the-nepal-communist-party/ |archive-date=10 December 2024}}</ref>
{{toc limit|3}}

== Etymology and terminology ==
''Communism'' derives from the [[French language|French]] word {{lang|fr|communisme}}, a combination of the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|communis}} (which literally means ''common'') and the suffix {{lang|fr|{{nbh}}isme}} (an act, practice, or process of doing something).{{sfn|Harper|2020}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=-ism Definition & Meaning {{!}} Britannica Dictionary |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/-ism |access-date=26 September 2023 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250209140339/https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/-ism |archive-date=9 February 2025}}</ref> Semantically, {{lang|la|communis}} can be translated to "of or for the community", while ''isme'' is a suffix that indicates the abstraction into a state, condition, action, or [[doctrine]]. ''Communism'' may be interpreted as "the state of being of or for the community"; this semantic constitution has led to numerous usages of the word in its evolution. Prior to becoming associated with its more modern conception of an economic and political organization, it was initially used to designate various social situations. After 1848, ''communism'' came to be primarily associated with [[Marxism]], most specifically embodied in ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'', which proposed a particular type of communism.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}<ref name="Morris">{{cite web |last=Morris |first=Emily |date=8 March 2021 |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/culture-online/ask-expert/your-questions-answered/does-communism-work-if-so-why-not |title=Does communism work? If so, why not |website=Culture Online |publisher=[[University College London]] |access-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213223118/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/culture-online/case-studies/2022/sep/does-communism-work-if-so-why-not |archive-date=13 December 2024}}</ref>

One of the first uses of the word in its modern sense is in a letter sent by [[Victor d'Hupay]] to [[Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne]] around 1785, in which d'Hupay describes himself as an {{lang|fr|auteur communiste}} ("communist author").<ref>{{cite journal |title=Quelques dates à propos des termes communiste et communisme |trans-title=Some dates on the terms communist and communism |first=Jacques |last=Grandjonc |author-link=:de:Jacques Grandjonc |journal=Mots |year=1983 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=143–148 |language=fr |doi=10.3406/mots.1983.1122}}</ref> In 1793, [[Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne|Restif]] first used {{lang|fr|communisme}} to describe a social order based on egalitarianism and the common ownership of property.<ref name="Hodges">{{cite book |first=Donald C. |last=Hodges |author-link=Donald C. Hodges |title=Sandino's Communism: Spiritual Politics for the Twenty-First Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pu7zAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |date=February 2014 |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |isbn=978-0-292-71564-6 |pages=7 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Restif would go on to use the term frequently in his writing and was the first to describe communism as a [[Government#Forms|form of government]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://commoningtimes.org/texts/nancy-communism-the-word.pdf |title=Communism, the Word |last=Nancy |first=Jean-Luc |author-link=Jean-Luc Nancy |publisher=Commoning Times |year=1992 |access-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250129190544/http://commoningtimes.org/texts/nancy-communism-the-word.pdf |archive-date=29 January 2025}}</ref> [[John Goodwyn Barmby]] is credited with the first use of ''communism'' in English, around 1840.{{sfn|Harper|2020}}

=== Communism and socialism ===
Since the 1840s, the term ''communism'' has usually been distinguished from ''[[socialism]]''. The modern definition and usage of the term ''socialism'' was settled by the 1860s, becoming predominant over alternative terms such as ''associationism'' ([[Fourierism]]), ''[[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]'', or ''[[co-operative]]'', which had previously been used as synonyms. Meanwhile, the term ''communism'' fell out of use during this period.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289]}}

An early distinction between ''communism'' and ''socialism'' was that the latter aimed to only socialize [[Production (economics)|production]], whereas the former aimed to socialize both production and [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] (in the form of common access to [[final good]]s).<ref name="Steele p.43"/> This distinction can be observed in Marx's communism, where the distribution of products is based on the principle of "[[to each according to his needs]]", in contrast to a socialist principle of "[[to each according to his contribution]]".{{r|Gregory & Stuart 2003, p. 118}} Socialism has been described as a philosophy seeking distributive justice, and communism as a subset of socialism that prefers economic equality as its form of distributive justice.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ely |first=Richard T. |author-link=Richard T. Ely |title=French and German socialism in modern times |date=1883 |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)|Harper & Brothers]] |location=New York |pages=29–30 |oclc=456632 |quote=The central idea of communism is economic equality. It is desired by communists that all ranks and differences in society should disappear, and one man be as good as another ... The distinctive idea of socialism is distributive justice. It goes back of the processes of modern life to the fact that he who does not work, lives on the labor of others. It aims to distribute economic goods according to the services rendered by the recipients ... Every communist is a socialist, and something more. Not every socialist is a communist.}}</ref>

In 19th century Europe, the use of the terms ''communism'' and ''socialism'' eventually accorded with the cultural attitude of adherents and opponents towards [[religion]]. In European [[Christendom]], ''communism'' was believed to be the [[atheist]] way of life. In [[Protestant England]], ''communism'' was too [[phonetically]] similar to the Roman Catholic ''[[communion rite]]'', hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289]}} [[Friedrich Engels]] stated that in 1848, at the time when ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' was first published,<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Friedrich Engels |last=Engels |first=Friedrich |orig-date=1888 |date=2002 |title=Preface to the 1888 English Edition of the Communist Manifesto |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]] |pages=202}}</ref> socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not; the [[Owenism|Owenites]] in England and the Fourierists in France were considered respectable socialists, while working-class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselves ''communists''. This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of [[Étienne Cabet]] in France and [[Wilhelm Weitling]] in Germany.<ref>{{cite book |last=Todorova |first=Maria |author-link=Maria Todorova |year=2020 |title=The Lost World of Socialists at Europe's Margins: Imagining Utopia, 1870s–1920s |edition=hardcover |location=London |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=9781350150331}}</ref> While [[Liberal democracy|liberal democrats]] looked to the [[Revolutions of 1848]] as a [[democratic revolution]], which in the long run ensured [[liberty, equality, and fraternity]], Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of working-class ideals by a [[bourgeoisie]] indifferent to the legitimate demands of the [[proletariat]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gildea |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Gildea |year=2000 |chapter=1848 in European Collective Memory |editor-last1=Evans |editor-first1=Robert John Weston |editor-link1=R. J. W. Evans |editor-last2=Strandmann |editor-first2=Hartmut Pogge |editor-link2=Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann |title=The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction |edition=hardcover |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=207–235 |isbn=9780198208402}}</ref>

By 1888, Marxists employed the term ''socialism'' in place of ''communism'', which had come to be considered an old-fashioned synonym for the former. It was not until 1917, with the [[October Revolution]], that ''socialism'' came to be used to refer to a distinct stage between [[capitalism]] and communism. This intermediate stage was a concept introduced by [[Vladimir Lenin]] as a means to defend the [[Bolshevik]] seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticism that Russia's [[productive forces]] were not sufficiently developed for [[socialist revolution]].<ref name="Steele 1992, pp. 44–45"/> A distinction between ''communist'' and ''socialist'' as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1918 after the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] renamed itself as the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], which resulted in the adjective ''Communist'' being used to refer to socialists who supported the politics and theories of Bolshevism, [[Leninism]], and later in the 1920s those of [[Marxism–Leninism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Busky |first=Donald F. |title=Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] |location=Santa Barbara, California |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-275-96886-1 |page=9 |quote=In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.}}</ref> In spite of this common usage, [[Communist parties]] also continued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism.{{sfn|Williams|1983|p=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289]}}

According to ''The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx'', "Marx used many terms to refer to a post-capitalist society{{snd}}positive humanism, socialism, Communism, realm of free individuality, free association of producers, etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that 'socialism' and 'Communism' are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death."<ref name="Hudis et al. 2018">{{cite book |last1=Hudis |first1=Peter |title=The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx |chapter=Marx's Concept of Socialism |date=2018 |pages=757–772 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190695545.013.50 |isbn=978-0-19-069554-5 }}</ref> According to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "Exactly how communism differs from socialism has long been a matter of debate, but the distinction rests largely on the communists' adherence to the revolutionary socialism of Karl Marx."{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}

=== Associated usage and Communist states ===
[[File:Hammer and Sickle and Star.svg|thumb|150px|The [[hammer and sickle]] is a common theme of [[communist symbolism]]. This is an example of a hammer and sickle and [[red star]] design from the [[flag of the Soviet Union]].]]
In the United States, ''communism'' is widely used as a pejorative term as part of a [[Red Scare]], much like ''socialism'', and mainly in reference to [[authoritarian socialism]] and [[Communist state]]s. The emergence of the [[Soviet Union]] as the world's first Communist state led to the term's widespread association with Marxism–Leninist and the [[Soviet-type economic planning]] model.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Busky |first=Donald F. |title=Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] |location=Santa Barbara, California |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-275-96886-1 |pages=6–8 |quote=In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism–Leninism. ... [T]he adjective democratic is added by democratic socialists to attempt to distinguish themselves from Communists who also call themselves socialists. All but communists, or more accurately, Marxist–Leninists, believe that modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice, and democratic socialists wish to emphasise by their name that they disagree strongly with the Marxist–Leninist brand of socialism.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Communism |encyclopedia=The [[Columbia Encyclopedia]] |edition=6th |year=2007}}</ref> In his essay "Judging Nazism and Communism",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Malia |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Malia |date=Fall 2002 |title=Judging Nazism and Communism |journal=The National Interest |publisher=Center for the National Interest |issue=69 |pages=63–78 |jstor=42895560}}</ref> [[Martin Malia]] defines a "generic Communism" category as any Communist [[political party]] movement led by [[intellectual]]s; this [[umbrella term]] allows grouping together such different [[regime]]s as radical [[Soviet]] industrialism and the [[Khmer Rouge]]'s anti-urbanism.{{r|David-Fox 2004}} According to [[Alexander Dallin]], the idea to group together different countries, such as [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and [[Hungarian People's Republic|Hungary]], has no adequate explanation.{{r|Dallin 2000}}

While the term ''Communist state'' is used by Western historians, political scientists, and news media to refer to countries ruled by Communist parties, these [[List of non-communist socialist states|socialist states]] themselves did not describe themselves as communist or claim to have achieved communism; they referred to themselves as being a socialist state that is in the process of constructing communism.<ref>{{harvp|Wilczynski|2008|p=21}}; {{harvp|Steele|1992|p=45}}: "Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all."; {{harvp|Rosser|Barkley|2003|p=14}}; {{harvp|Williams|1983|p=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289]}}</ref> Terms used by Communist states include ''[[National-democratic state|national-democratic]]'', ''[[People's democracy (Marxism–Leninism)|people's democratic]]'', ''[[Socialist-leaning countries|socialist-oriented]]'', and ''[[Socialist state|workers and peasants']]'' states.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nation |first1=R. Craig |title=Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917–1991 |date=1992 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0801480072 |pages=85–86 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85 |access-date=19 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801050439/https://books.google.ie/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85 |archive-date=1 August 2019 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of communism}}

=== Early communism ===
{{further|Pre-Marxist communism|Primitive communism|Religious communism|Scientific socialism|Utopian socialism}}
According to [[Richard Pipes]],<ref name="Pipes">{{cite book |author-link=Richard Pipes |last=Pipes |first=Richard |date=2001 |title=Communism: A History |isbn=978-0-8129-6864-4 |pages=3–5 |publisher=[[Random House Publishing]]}}</ref> the idea of a [[Classless society|classless]], [[egalitarian]] society first emerged in [[ancient Greece]]. Since the 20th century, [[ancient Rome]] has been examined in this context, as well as thinkers such as [[Aristotle]], [[Cicero]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Plato]], and [[Tacitus]]. Plato, in particular, has been considered as a possible communist or socialist theorist,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bostaph |first=Samuel |year=1994 |chapter=Communism, Sparta, and Plato |editor-last=Reisman |editor-first=David A. |title=Economic Thought and Political Theory |edition=hardcover |series=Recent Economic Thought Series |volume=37 |location=Dordrecht |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |pages=1–36 |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-1380-9_1 |isbn=9780792394334}}</ref> or as the first author to give communism a serious consideration.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Franklin |first=A. Mildred |date=9 January 1950 |title=Communism and Dictatorship in Ancient Greece and Rome |journal=The Classical Weekly |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=83–89 |doi=10.2307/4342653 |jstor=4342653}}</ref> The 5th-century [[Mazdak]] movement in [[Persia]] (modern-day Iran) has been described as ''communistic'' for challenging the enormous privileges of the [[noble class]]es and the [[clergy]], criticizing the institution of [[private property]], and striving to create an egalitarian society.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Ehsan Yarshater |last=Yarshater |first=Ehsan |date=1983 |chapter-url=https://www.the-derafsh-kaviyani.com/english/mazdak.pdf |chapter=Mazdakism (The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Period) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611075040/http://www.derafsh-kaviyani.com/english/mazdak.html |archive-date=11 June 2008 |access-date=10 June 2020 |title=[[The Cambridge History of Iran]] |volume=3 |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=991–1024 (1019)}}</ref><ref name="Ermak 2019">{{cite book |title=Communism: The Great Misunderstanding |last=Ermak |first=Gennady |year=2019 |publisher=Amazon Digital Services LLC - Kdp |isbn=978-1-7979-5738-8}}</ref> At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of [[religious text]].{{sfn|Lansford|2007|pp=24–25}}

In the medieval [[Christian Church]], some [[monastic]] communities and [[religious order]]s shared their land and their other property. Sects deemed heretical such as the [[Waldensians]] preached an early form of [[Christian communism]].<ref name="Busky 2002 p. 33">{{cite book |last=Busky |first=D.F. |title=Communism in History and Theory: From Utopian socialism to the fall of the Soviet Union |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] |series=[[ABC-CLIO]] ebook |issue=v. 3 |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-275-97748-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-bi65fwN7kC&pg=PA33 |access-date=18 April 2023 |page=33 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Boer 2019 p. 12">{{cite book |last=Boer |first=Roland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8KODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |title=Red Theology: On the Christian Communist Tradition |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-39477-3 |series=Studies in Critical Research on Religion |page=12 |author-link=Roland Boer |access-date=18 April 2023}}</ref> As summarized by historians Janzen Rod and Max Stanton, the [[Hutterites]] believed in strict adherence to biblical principles, church discipline, and practised a form of communism. In their words, the Hutterites "established in their communities a rigorous system of Ordnungen, which were codes of rules and regulations that governed all aspects of life and ensured a unified perspective. As an economic system, communism was attractive to many of the peasants who supported social revolution in sixteenth century central Europe."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Janzen |first1=Rod |last2=Stanton |first2=Max |title=The Hutterites in North America |date=18 July 2010 |edition=illustrated |location=Baltimore |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgUbHUXmrvYC&pg=PA17 |page=17 |isbn=9780801899256 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> This link was highlighted in one of Marx's early writings; Marx stated that "[a]s Christ is the intermediary unto whom man unburdens all his divinity, all his religious bonds, so the state is the mediator unto which he transfers all his Godlessness, all his human liberty."<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus in History, Legend, Scripture, and Tradition: A World Encyclopedia: A World Encyclopedia |last1=Houlden |first1=Leslie |last2=Minard |first2=Antone |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781610698047 |location=Santa Barbara |page=357}}</ref> [[Thomas Müntzer]] led a large [[Anabaptist]] communist movement during the [[German Peasants' War]], which [[Friedrich Engels]] analyzed in his 1850 work ''[[The Peasant War in Germany]]''. The [[Marxist]] communist ethos that aims for unity reflects the [[Christian universalist]] teaching that humankind is one and that there is only one god who does not discriminate among people.<ref>{{cite book |last=Halfin |first=Igal |year=2000 |title=From Darkness to Light: Class, Consciousness, and Salvation in Revolutionary Russia |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |page=46 |isbn=0822957043}}</ref>

[[File:Hans Holbein, the Younger - Sir Thomas More - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Thomas More]], whose ''[[Utopia (More book)|Utopia]]'' portrayed a society based on common ownership of property]]
Communist thought has also been traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer [[Thomas More]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Surtz |first=Edward L. |date=June 1949 |title=Thomas More and Communism |journal=PMLA |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=549–564 |doi=10.2307/459753 |jstor=459753 }}</ref> In his 1516 [[treatise]] titled ''[[Utopia (More book)|Utopia]]'', More portrayed a society based on [[common ownership]] of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of [[reason]] and [[virtue]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Nandanwad |first=Nikita |date=13 December 2020 |url=https://retrospectjournal.com/2020/12/13/communism-virtue-and-the-ideal-commonwealth-in-thomas-mores-utopia/ |title=Communism, virtue and the ideal commonwealth in Thomas More's Utopia |magazine=Retrospect Journal |location=Edinburgh |publisher=[[University of Edinburgh]] |access-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241227174958/https://retrospectjournal.com/2020/12/13/communism-virtue-and-the-ideal-commonwealth-in-thomas-mores-utopia/ |archive-date=27 December 2024}}</ref> Marxist communist theoretician [[Karl Kautsky]], who popularized Marxist communism in Western Europe more than any other thinker apart from Engels, published ''Thomas More and His Utopia'', a work about More, whose ideas could be regarded as "the foregleam of Modern Socialism" according to Kautsky. During the [[October Revolution]] in Russia, [[Vladimir Lenin]] suggested that a monument be dedicated to More, alongside other important Western thinkers.<ref name="Papke 2016">{{cite journal |last=Papke |first=David |year=2016 |url=https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=utopia500 |title=The Communisitic Inclinations of Sir Thomas More |journal=Utopia500 |issue=7 |access-date=18 August 2021 |via=Scholarly Commons |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305075036/https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1006&context%3Dutopia500 |archive-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>

In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, where a [[Puritan]] religious group known as the [[Diggers]] advocated the abolition of private ownership of land. In his 1895 ''Cromwell and Communism'',{{sfn|Bernstein|1895}} [[Eduard Bernstein]] stated that several groups during the [[English Civil War]] (especially the Diggers) espoused clear communistic, [[agrarianist]] ideals and that [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s attitude towards these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Elmen |first=Paul |date=September 1954 |title=The Theological Basis of Digger Communism |journal=Church History |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=207–218 |doi=10.2307/3161310 |jstor=3161310 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Juretic |first=George |date=April–June 1974 |title=Digger no Millenarian: The Revolutionizing of Gerrard Winstanley |journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]] |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=263–280 |doi=10.2307/2708927 |jstor=2708927}}</ref> Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the [[Age of Enlightenment]] of the 18th century through such thinkers as [[Gabriel Bonnot de Mably]], [[Jean Meslier]], [[Étienne-Gabriel Morelly]], and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] in France.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hammerton |first=J. A. |title=Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World History Volume Eight |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4h68smTPGYC&pg=PA4979 |publisher=Mittal Publications |pages=4979 |id=GGKEY:96Y16ZBCJ04}}</ref> During the upheaval of the [[French Revolution]], communism emerged as a political doctrine under the auspices of [[François-Noël Babeuf]], [[Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne]], and [[Sylvain Maréchal]], all of whom can be considered the progenitors of modern communism, according to [[James H. Billington]].<ref name="Billington">{{cite book |last=Billington |first=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=saTynFUNPD8C |title=Fire in the Minds of Men: Origins of the Revolutionary Faith |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4128-1401-0 |page=71 |access-date=18 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

In the early 19th century, various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. Unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Communism |date=2006 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |via=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> Notable among them were [[Robert Owen]], who founded [[New Harmony, Indiana]], in 1825, and [[Charles Fourier]], whose followers organized other settlements in the United States, such as [[Brook Farm]] in 1841.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}} In its modern form, communism grew out of the [[History of socialism|socialist movement]] in 19th-century Europe. As the [[Industrial Revolution]] advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the [[proletariat]]{{snd}}a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Engels. In 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}

=== Revolutionary wave of 1917–1923 ===
{{further|Revolutions of 1917–1923}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Lenin in 1920 (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Vladimir Lenin]], founder of the [[Soviet Union]] and the leader of the [[Bolshevik party]]
| image2 = Leon Trotsky (3x4 cropped).jpg
| caption2 = [[Leon Trotsky]], founder of the [[Red Army]] and a key figure in the [[October Revolution]]
}}

In 1917, the [[October Revolution]] in Russia set the conditions for the rise to state power of [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s [[Bolsheviks]], which was the first time any avowedly communist party reached that position. The revolution transferred power to the [[All-Russian Congress of Soviets]] in which the Bolsheviks had a majority.<ref>{{cite book |author1-link=Jerry F. Hough |last1=Hough |first1=Jerry F. |author2-link=Merle Fainsod |last2=Fainsod |first2=Merle |date=1979 |orig-date=1953 |title=How the Soviet Union is Governed |location=Cambridge and London |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |page=81 |isbn=9780674410305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dowlah |first1=Alex F. |last2=Elliott |first2=John E. |date=1997 |title=The Life and Times of Soviet Socialism |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger]] |page=18 |isbn=9780275956295}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=David R. Marples |last=Marples |first=David R. |date=2010 |title=Russia in the Twentieth Century: The Quest for Stability |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=38 |isbn=9781408228227}}</ref> The event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement, as Marx stated that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development; however, the [[Russian Empire]] was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry, and a minority of industrial workers. Marx warned against attempts "to transform my historical sketch of the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe into a historico-philosophy theory of the {{lang|fr|arche générale}} imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wittfogel |first=Karl A. |date=July 1960 |title=The Marxist View of Russian Society and Revolution |journal=[[World Politics]] |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=487–508 |doi=10.2307/2009334 |jstor=2009334 |quote=Quote at p. 493.}}</ref> and stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule through the ''[[Obshchina]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Marc Edelman |last=Edelman |first=Marc |date=December 1984 |id={{Gale|A3537723}} |title=Late Marx and the Russian Road: Marx and the 'Peripheries of Capitalism' |journal=[[Monthly Review]] |volume=36 |pages=1–55 }}</ref>{{refn|While the [[Bolsheviks]] rested on hope of success of the 1917–1923 wave of proletarian revolutions in Western Europe before resulting in the [[socialism in one country]] policy after their failure, Marx's view on the ''mir'' was shared not by self-professed Russian Marxists, who were mechanistic [[Determinism|determinists]], but by the [[Narodniks]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Faulkner |first=Neil |year=2017 |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/45628/625271.pdf |title=A People's History of the Russian Revolution |edition=hardback |location=London |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |pages=34, 177 |isbn=9780745399041 |access-date=18 August 2021 |via=OAPEN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321152042/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/45628/625271.pdf |archive-date=21 March 2022}}</ref> and the [[Socialist Revolutionary Party]],<ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=Elizabeth |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lA_JBQAAQBAJ |title=The Socialist Alternative to Bolshevik Russia: The Socialist Revolutionary Party, 1921–39 |edition=1st hardback |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page= |isbn=9780415435840 |access-date=18 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]] |quote=''Narodniki'' had opposed the often mechanistic determinism of Russian Marxism with the belief that non-economic factors such as the human will act as the motor of history. The SRs believed that the creative work of ordinary people through unions and cooperatives and the local government organs of a democratic state could bring about social transformation. ... They, along with free soviets, the cooperatives and the ''mir'' could have formed the popular basis for a devolved and democratic rule across the Russian state.}}</ref> one of the successors to the Narodniks, alongside the [[Popular Socialists (Russia)|Popular Socialists]] and the [[Trudoviks]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/n/a.htm |title=Narodniks |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Marxism |publisher=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |access-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220231737/https://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/n/a.htm |archive-date=20 December 2024}}</ref>|group=note}} The moderate [[Mensheviks]] (minority) opposed Lenin's Bolsheviks (majority) plan for [[socialist revolution]] before the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] was more fully developed. The Bolsheviks' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans such as "Peace, Bread, and Land", which tapped into the massive public desire for an end to Russian involvement in [[World War I]], the peasants' demand for [[land reform]], and popular support for the [[Soviet (council)|soviets]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Holmes |first=Leslie |title=Communism: a very short introduction |date=2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-157088-9 |location=Oxford, UK |pages=18 |oclc=500808890}}</ref> 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of Bolshevik demand for transfer of power to the [[soviets]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Head |first1=Michael |title=Evgeny Pashukanis: A Critical Reappraisal |date=12 September 2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-30787-5 |pages=1–288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYGNAgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PT83 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PA21 |language=en}}</ref> Lenin's government also instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare|healthcare]] and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ugri͡umov |first1=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |title=Lenin: A Political Life: Volume 1: The Strengths of Contradiction |date=24 June 1985 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-05591-3 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntiuCwAAQBAJ&q=universal+education&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref> The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on [[Petrograd]] occurred largely without any human [[Casualty (person)|casualties]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shukman |first1=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |date=5 December 1994 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2 |page=343 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA343 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergman |first1=Jay |title=The French Revolutionary Tradition in Russian and Soviet Politics, Political Thought, and Culture |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884270-5 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UKjDwAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PA224 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McMeekin |first1=Sean |title=The Russian Revolution: A New History |date=30 May 2017 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-09497-4 |page= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXmZDgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+bloodless&pg=PT155 |language=en}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2024}}

By November 1917, the [[Russian Provisional Government]] had been widely discredited by its failure to withdraw from World War I, implement land reform, or convene the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] to draft a constitution, leaving the soviets in ''[[de facto]]'' control of the country. The Bolsheviks moved to hand power to the [[Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies]] in the October Revolution; after a few weeks of deliberation, the [[Left Socialist-Revolutionaries]] formed a [[coalition government]] with the Bolsheviks from November 1917 to July 1918, while the right-wing faction of the [[Socialist Revolutionary Party]] boycotted the soviets and denounced the October Revolution as an illegal [[coup]]. In the [[1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election]], socialist parties totaled well over 70% of the vote. The Bolsheviks were clear winners in the urban centres, and took around two-thirds of the votes of soldiers on the Western Front, obtaining 23.3% of the vote; the Socialist Revolutionaries finished first on the strength of support from the country's rural peasantry, who were for the most part [[Single-issue politics|single issue voters]], that issue being land reform, obtaining 37.6%, while the Ukrainian Socialist Bloc finished a distant third at 12.7%, and the Mensheviks obtained a disappointing fourth place at 3.0%.<ref name="Dando 1966">{{cite journal |last=Dando |first=William A. |date=June 1966 |title=A Map of the Election to the Russian Constituent Assembly of 1917 |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=314–319 |doi=10.2307/2492782 |jstor=2492782 }}</ref>

Most of the Socialist Revolutionary Party's seats went to the right-wing faction. Citing outdated voter-rolls, which did not acknowledge the party split, and the assembly's conflicts with the Congress of Soviets, the Bolshevik–Left Socialist-Revolutionaries government moved to dissolve the Constituent Assembly in January 1918. The Draft Decree on the Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly was issued by the [[Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union]], a committee dominated by Lenin, who had previously supported a [[multi-party system]] of free elections. After the Bolshevik defeat, Lenin started referring to the assembly as a "deceptive form of bourgeois-democratic parliamentarianism."{{r|Dando 1966}} Some argued this was the beginning of the development of [[vanguardism]] as an hierarchical party–elite that controls society,<ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=Elizabeth |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFMuCgAAQBAJ |title=The Socialist Alternative to Bolshevik Russia: The Socialist Revolutionary Party, 1921–39 |edition=1st hardback |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415435840 |access-date=18 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> which resulted in a split between [[anarchism and Marxism]], and [[Leninist]] communism assuming the dominant position for most of the 20th century, excluding rival socialist currents.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Franks |first=Benjamin |date=May 2012 |title=Between Anarchism and Marxism: The Beginnings and Ends of the Schism |journal=[[Journal of Political Ideologies]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=202–227 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2012.676867 }}</ref>

Other communists and Marxists, especially [[social democrats]] who favored the development of [[liberal democracy]] as a prerequisite to [[socialism]], were critical of the Bolsheviks from the beginning due to Russia being seen as too backward for a [[socialist revolution]].<ref name="Steele 1992, pp. 44–45"/> [[Council communism]] and [[left communism]], inspired by the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919]] and the wide [[proletarian revolution]]ary wave, arose in response to developments in Russia and are critical of self-declared constitutionally [[socialist state]]s. Some left-wing parties, such as the [[Socialist Party of Great Britain]], boasted of having called the Bolsheviks, and by extension those [[Communist state]]s which either followed or were inspired by the Soviet Bolshevik model of development, establishing [[state capitalism]] in late 1917, as would be described during the 20th century by several academics, economists, and other scholars,<ref name="Chomsky, Howard, Fitzgibbons"/> or a [[command economy]].<ref name="The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy, 1985">{{cite journal |last=Wilhelm |first=John Howard |year=1985 |title=The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies|Soviet Studies]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=118–30 |doi=10.1080/09668138508411571}}</ref><ref name="Gregory 2004">{{cite book |last=Gregory |first=Paul Roderick |author-link=Paul Roderick Gregory |url=https://www.hoover.org/press-releases/political-economy-stalinism |title=The Political Economy of Stalinism |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-511-61585-6 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511615856 |quote='Although Stalin was the system's prime architect, the system was managed by thousands of 'Stalins' in a nested dictatorship,' Gregory writes. 'This study pinpoints the reasons for the failure of the system{{snd}}poor planning, unreliable supplies, the preferential treatment of indigenous enterprises, the lack of knowledge of planners, etc.{{snd}}but also focuses on the basic principal agent conflict between planners and producers, which created a sixty-year reform stalemate.' |postscript=. Quote is from Hoover Institution's press release about the book |access-date=12 August 2021 |via=[[Hoover Institution]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120041338/https://www.hoover.org/press-releases/political-economy-stalinism |archive-date=20 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="Ellman 2007">{{harvp|Ellman|2007|p=22}}: "In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the 'administrative-command' economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population ... ."</ref> Before the Soviet path of development became known as ''socialism'', in reference to the [[two-stage theory]], communists made no major distinction between the [[socialist mode of production]] and communism;{{r|Hudis et al. 2018}} it is consistent with, and helped to inform, early concepts of socialism in which the [[law of value]] no longer directs economic activity. Monetary relations in the form of [[Exchange value|exchange-value]], [[Profit (economics)|profit]], [[interest]], and [[Wage labour|wage labor]] would not operate and apply to Marxist socialism.{{r|Bockman 2011, p. 20}}
[[File:Gramsci.png|alt=One of the founders of the Italian Communist Party, one of the greatest interpreters of Marxism, a martyr of anti-fascism, and perhaps the most important Italian intellectual. |thumb|[[Antonio Gramsci]] (1891-1937) One of the founders of the [[Italian Communist Party]], one of the greatest interpreters of Marxism, a martyr of [[anti-fascism]], and perhaps the most important Italian intellectual. ]]
While [[Joseph Stalin]] stated that the law of value would still apply to socialism and that the Soviet Union was ''socialist'' under this new definition, which was followed by other Communist leaders, many other communists maintain the original definition and state that Communist states never established socialism in this sense. Lenin described his policies as state capitalism but saw them as necessary for the development of socialism, which left-wing critics say was never established, while some [[Marxist–Leninists]] state that it was established only during the [[Stalin era]] and [[Mao era]], and then became capitalist states ruled by ''[[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionists]]''; others state that Maoist China was always state capitalist, and uphold [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]] as the only [[socialist state]] after the Soviet Union under Stalin,<ref name="Bland 1995">{{cite journal |last=Bland |first=Bill |date=1995 |orig-date=1980 |url=https://revolutionarydemocracy.org/archive/BlandRestoration.pdf |title=The Restoration of Capitalism in the Soviet Union |journal=Revolutionary Democracy Journal |access-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219155044/https://revolutionarydemocracy.org/archive/BlandRestoration.pdf |archive-date=19 December 2024}}</ref><ref name="Bland 1997">{{cite book |last=Bland |first=Bill |date=1997 |url=http://ml-review.ca/aml/China/historymaotable.html |title=Class Struggles in China |edition=revised |location=London |access-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126211253/http://ml-review.ca/aml/China/historymaotable.html |archive-date=26 January 2025}}</ref> who first stated to have achieved ''socialism'' with the [[1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=S. A. |year=2014 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=126 |isbn=9780191667527 |quote=The 1936 Constitution described the Soviet Union for the first time as a 'socialist society', rhetorically fulfilling the aim of building socialism in one country, as Stalin had promised.}}</ref>

=== Communist states ===
==== Soviet Union ====
{{further|Communist state|Soviet Union}}
[[War communism]] was the first system adopted by the Bolsheviks during the [[Russian Civil War]] as a result of the many challenges.{{r|Peters 1998}} Despite ''communism'' in the name, it had nothing to do with communism, with strict discipline for workers, [[strike action]]s forbidden, obligatory labor duty, and military-style control, and has been described as simple [[authoritarian]] control by the Bolsheviks to maintain power and control in the Soviet regions, rather than any coherent political [[ideology]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Himmer |first=Robert |year=1994 |title=The Transition from War Communism to the New Economic Policy: An Analysis of Stalin's Views |journal=[[The Russian Review]] |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=515–529 |doi=10.2307/130963 |jstor=130963}}</ref> The Soviet Union was established in 1922. Before the [[Ban on factions in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|broad ban]] in 1921, there were several factions in the Communist party, more prominently among them the [[Left Opposition]], the [[Right Opposition]], and the [[Workers' Opposition]], which debated on the path of development to follow. The Left and Workers' oppositions were more critical of the state-capitalist development and the Workers' in particular was critical of [[bureaucratization]] and development from above, while the Right Opposition was more supporting of state-capitalist development and advocated the [[New Economic Policy]].<ref name="Peters 1998">{{cite journal |last=Peters |first=John E. |year=1998 |title=Book Reviews: The Life and Times of Soviet Socialism |journal=[[Journal of Economic Issues]] |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=1203–1206 |doi=10.1080/00213624.1998.11506129}}</ref> Following Lenin's [[democratic centralism]], the Leninist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base. They were made up only of elite [[Cadre (politics)|cadres]] approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to [[party discipline]].<ref name="World War II 2001">{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Davies |author-link=Norman Davies |chapter=Communism |title=The Oxford Companion to World War II |editor1-first=I. C. B. |editor1-last=Dear |editor2-first=M. R. D. |editor2-last=Foot |editor2-link=M. R. D. Foot |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2001}}</ref> [[Trotskyism]] overtook the left communists as the main dissident communist current, while more [[libertarian communism]]s, dating back to the [[libertarian Marxist]] current of council communism, remained important dissident communisms outside the Soviet Union. The [[Great Purge]] of 1936–1938 was [[Joseph Stalin]]'s attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. In the [[Moscow trials]], many old Bolsheviks who had played prominent roles during the [[Russian Revolution]] or in Lenin's Soviet government afterwards, including [[Lev Kamenev]], [[Grigory Zinoviev]], [[Alexei Rykov]], and [[Nikolai Bukharin]], were accused, pleaded guilty of conspiracy against the Soviet Union, and were executed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sedov |first=Lev |date=1980 |url=http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/sedov/works/red/index.htm |title=The Red Book on the Moscow Trial: Documents |location=New York |publisher=New Park Publications |isbn=0-86151-015-1 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241226131641/https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/sedov/works/red/index.htm |archive-date=26 December 2024}}</ref>{{r|World War II 2001}}

The devastation of [[World War II]] resulted in a massive recovery program involving the rebuilding of industrial plants, housing, and transportation as well as the demobilization and migration of millions of soldiers and civilians. In the midst of this turmoil during the winter of 1946–1947, the Soviet Union experienced the worst natural famine in the 20th century.{{sfn|Gorlizki|2004|p=}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}} There was no serious opposition to Stalin as the secret police continued to send possible suspects to the [[gulag]]. Relations with the United States and Britain went from friendly to hostile, as they denounced Stalin's political controls over eastern Europe and his [[Berlin Blockade]]. By 1947, the [[Cold War]] had begun. Stalin himself believed that capitalism was a hollow shell and would crumble under increased non-military pressure exerted through proxies in countries like Italy. He greatly underestimated the economic strength of the West and instead of triumph saw the West build up alliances that were designed to permanently stop or contain Soviet expansion. In early 1950, Stalin gave the go-ahead for [[North Korea]]'s invasion of [[South Korea]], expecting a short war. He was stunned when the Americans entered and defeated the North Koreans, putting them almost on the Soviet border. Stalin supported [[China]]'s entry into the [[Korean War]], which drove the Americans back to the prewar boundaries, but which escalated tensions. The United States decided to mobilize its economy for a long contest with the Soviets, built the [[hydrogen bomb]], and strengthened the [[NATO]] alliance that covered [[Western Europe]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gaddis |first=John Lewis |title=The Cold War: A New History |date=2006 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |author-link=John Lewis Gaddis}}</ref>

According to Gorlizki and Khlevniuk, Stalin's consistent and overriding goal after 1945 was to consolidate the nation's superpower status and in the face of his growing physical decrepitude, to maintain his own hold on total power. Stalin created a leadership system that reflected historic czarist styles of paternalism and repression yet was also quite modern. At the top, personal loyalty to Stalin counted for everything. Stalin also created powerful committees, elevated younger specialists, and began major institutional innovations. In the teeth of persecution, Stalin's deputies cultivated informal norms and mutual understandings which provided the foundations for collective rule after his death.{{sfn|Gorlizki|2004|p=}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}}

For most Westerners and [[anti-communist]] Russians, Stalin is viewed overwhelmingly negatively as a [[mass murder]]er; for significant numbers of Russians and Georgians, he is regarded as a great statesman and state-builder.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McDermott |first=Kevin |date=2006 |title=Stalin: Revolutionary in an Era of War |location=Basingstoke and New York |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |page=1 |isbn=978-0-333-71122-4}}</ref>

==== China ====
[[File:Mao Proclaiming New China.JPG|thumb|right|[[Mao Zedong]] proclaiming the foundation of the [[China|People's Republic of China]] on October 1, 1949]]
After the [[Chinese Civil War]], [[Mao Zedong]] and the [[Chinese Communist Party]] came to power in 1949 as the [[Nationalist government]] headed by the [[Kuomintang]] fled to the island of Taiwan. In 1950–1953, China engaged in a large-scale, undeclared war with the United States, South Korea, and United Nations forces in the [[Korean War]]. While the war ended in a military stalemate, it gave Mao the opportunity to identify and purge elements in China that seemed supportive of capitalism. At first, there was close cooperation with Stalin, who sent in technical experts to aid the industrialization process along the line of the Soviet model of the 1930s.{{sfn|Brown|2009|pp=179–193}} After Stalin's death in 1953, relations with Moscow soured{{snd}}Mao thought Stalin's successors had betrayed the Communist ideal. Mao charged that Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] was the leader of a "revisionist clique" which had turned against Marxism and Leninism and was now setting the stage for the restoration of capitalism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gittings |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=259WHxBah2wC&pg=PA40 |title=The Changing Face of China: From Mao to Market |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=9780191622373 |page=40 |author-link=John Gittings}}</ref> The two nations were at sword's point by 1960. Both began forging alliances with communist supporters around the globe, thereby splitting the worldwide movement into two hostile camps.<ref>{{cite book |last=Luthi |first=Lorenz M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dl4TRDxqexMC&pg=PA94 |title=The Sino-Soviet Split: Cold War in the Communist World |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1400837625}}</ref>

Rejecting the Soviet model of rapid urbanization, Mao Zedong and his top aide [[Deng Xiaoping]] launched the [[Great Leap Forward]] in 1957–1961 with the goal of industrializing China overnight, using the peasant villages as the base rather than large cities.{{sfn|Brown|2009|pp=316–332}} Private ownership of land ended and the peasants worked in large collective farms that were now ordered to start up heavy industry operations, such as steel mills. Plants were built in remote locations, due to the lack of technical experts, managers, transportation, or needed facilities. Industrialization failed, and the main result was a sharp unexpected decline in agricultural output, which led to mass famine and millions of deaths. The years of the Great Leap Forward in fact saw economic regression, with 1958 through 1961 being the only years between 1953 and 1983 in which China's economy saw negative growth. Political economist [[Dwight H. Perkins (economist)|Dwight Perkins]] argues: "Enormous amounts of investment produced only modest increases in production or none at all. ... In short, the Great Leap was a very expensive disaster."<ref>{{cite book |last=Perkins |first=Dwight Heald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVywAAAAIAAJ |title=China's economic policy and performance during the Cultural Revolution and its aftermath |publisher=[[Harvard Institute for International Development]] |year=1984 |page=12 |author-link=Dwight H. Perkins (economist)}}</ref> Put in charge of rescuing the economy, Deng adopted pragmatic policies that the idealistic Mao disliked. For a while, Mao was in the shadows but returned to center stage and purged Deng and his allies in the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976).<ref>{{cite book |last=Vogel |first=Ezra F.|title=[[Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2011 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3IaR-FxlA6AC&pg=PA40 40]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=3IaR-FxlA6AC&pg=PA42 42] |author-link=Ezra Vogel}}</ref>

The [[Cultural Revolution]] was an upheaval that targeted intellectuals and party leaders from 1966 through 1976. Mao's goal was to purify communism by removing pro-capitalists and traditionalists by imposing [[Maoist]] orthodoxy within the [[Chinese Communist Party]]. The movement paralyzed China politically and weakened the country economically, culturally, and intellectually for years. Millions of people were accused, humiliated, stripped of power, and either imprisoned, killed, or most often, sent to work as farm laborers. Mao insisted that those he labelled [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionists]] be removed through violent [[class struggle]]. The two most prominent militants were Marshall [[Lin Biao]] of the army and Mao's wife [[Jiang Qing]]. China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming [[Red Guard]] groups around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a mass purge of senior officials who were accused of taking a "[[capitalist road]]", most notably [[Liu Shaoqi]] and [[Deng Xiaoping]]. During the same period, Mao's [[personality cult]] grew to immense proportions. After Mao's death in 1976, the survivors were rehabilitated and many returned to power.{{sfn|Brown|2009}}{{page needed|date=June 2022}}

Mao's government was responsible for vast numbers of deaths with estimates ranging from 40 to 80 million victims through starvation, persecution, [[Laogai|prison labour]], and mass executions.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Johnson (writer) |date=5 February 2018 |title=Who Killed More: Hitler, Stalin, or Mao? |url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2018/02/05/who-killed-more-hitler-stalin-or-mao/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205193203/https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2018/02/05/who-killed-more-hitler-stalin-or-mao/ |archive-date=5 February 2018 |access-date=18 July 2020 |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=Fenby |first=Jonathan |url=https://archive.org/details/modernchinafallr00fenb/page/351/mode/2up |title=Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present |publisher=[[Penguin Group]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0061661167 |pages=351 |author-link=Jonathan Fenby}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schram |first=Stuart |author-link=Stuart R. Schram |date=March 2007 |title=Mao: The Unknown Story |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=189 |issue=189 |pages=205 |doi=10.1017/s030574100600107x }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Evangelista |first=Matthew A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IAfLDzySd4C&q=80+million |title=Peace Studies: Critical Concepts in Political Science |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0415339230 |pages=96 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Mao has also been praised for transforming China from a [[semi-colony]] to a leading world power, with greatly advanced literacy, women's rights, basic healthcare, primary education, and life expectancy.<ref name="Bottelier">{{Cite book |last=Bottelier |first=Pieter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMhUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |title=Economic Policy Making In China (1949–2016): The Role of Economists |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-1351393812 |pages=131 |quote=We should remember, however, that Mao also did wonderful things for China; apart from reuniting the country, he restored a sense of natural pride, greatly improved women's rights, basic healthcare and primary education, ended opium abuse, simplified Chinese characters, developed pinyin and promoted its use for teaching purposes. |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pantsov |first1=Alexander V. |title=Mao: The Real Story |last2=Levine |first2=Steven I. |date=2013 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-1451654486 |location= |page=574}}</ref><ref name="Galtung">{{cite book |last1=Galtung |first1=Marte Kjær |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqqDBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 |title=49 Myths about China |last2=Stenslie |first2=Stig |date=2014 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1442236226 |page=189}}</ref><ref name="PopulationStudies2015">{{cite journal |last1=Babiarz |first1=Kimberly Singer |last2=Eggleston |first2=Karen |display-authors=etal. |date=2015 |title=An exploration of China's mortality decline under Mao: A provincial analysis, 1950–80 |journal=[[Population Studies (journal)|Population Studies]] |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=39–56 |doi=10.1080/00324728.2014.972432 |pmc=4331212 |pmid=25495509 |quote=China's growth in life expectancy at birth from 35–40 years in 1949 to 65.5 years in 1980 is among the most rapid sustained increases in documented global history.}}</ref>

=== Cold War ===
{{further|Cold War|Eastern Bloc}}
[[File:Communist Block.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|{{legend-inline|red}}{{legend-inline|#d00000|States that had communist governments}} {{legend|#ce5c00|States that the Soviet Union believed at one point to be [[moving toward socialism]]}} {{legend|#d0d000|Other states allied with the Soviet Union at some point}}]]
Its leading role in World War II saw the emergence of the [[industrialized Soviet Union]] as a [[superpower]].<ref name="Program_CPSS">{{cite web |url=http://aleksandr-kommari.narod.ru/kpss_programma_1961.htm |script-title=ru:Программа коммунистической партии советского Союза |title=Programma kommunisticheskoy partii sovetskogo Soyuza |language=ru |trans-title=Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union |date=1961 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011120447/http://aleksandr-kommari.narod.ru/kpss_programma_1961.htm |archive-date=11 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="Nossal">{{cite conference |first=Kim Richard |last=Nossal |title=Lonely Superpower or Unapologetic Hyperpower? Analyzing American Power in the post–Cold War Era |url=http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm |conference=Biennial meeting, South African Political Studies Association, 29 June–2 July 1999 |access-date=28 February 2007 |archive-date=7 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807084022/http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> Marxist–Leninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took power with Soviet assistance in [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Polish People's Republic|Poland]], Hungary, and [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]]. A Marxist–Leninist government was also created under [[Josip Broz Tito]] in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]; Tito's independent policies led to the [[Tito–Stalin split]] and expulsion of Yugoslavia from the [[Cominform]] in 1948, and [[Titoism]] was branded ''[[deviationist]]''. [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]] also became an independent Marxist–Leninist state following the [[Albanian–Soviet split]] in 1960,{{r|Bland 1995}}{{r|Bland 1997}} resulting from an ideological fallout between [[Enver Hoxha]], a Stalinist, and the Soviet government of [[Nikita Khrushchev]], who enacted a period of [[de-Stalinization]] and re-approached diplomatic relations with Yugoslavia in 1976.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/1880822 |title=Kushtetuta e Republikës Popullore Socialiste të Shqipërisë: [miratuar nga Kuvendi Popullor më 28. 12. 1976]. SearchWorks (SULAIR) |trans-title=Constitution of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania: [approved by the People's Assembly on 28. 12. 1976]. SearchWorks (SULAIR) |language=sq |access-date=3 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322181503/http://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/1880822 |archive-date=22 March 2012 |publisher=8 Nëntori |date=4 January 1977}}</ref> The Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong, established the [[People's Republic of China]], which would follow its own ideological path of development following the [[Sino-Soviet split]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Chambers Dictionary of World History |editor-first1=Bruce |editor-last1=Lenman |editor-first2=Trevor |editor-last2=Anderson |editor-first3=Hilary |editor-last3=Marsden |publisher=[[Chambers (publisher)|Chambers]] |location=Edinburgh |year=2000 |page=769 |isbn=9780550100948}}</ref> Communism was seen as a rival of and a threat to Western capitalism for most of the 20th century.<ref name="Georgakas1992">{{cite encyclopedia |author-link=Dan Georgakas |last=Georgakas |first=Dan |date=1992 |chapter=The Hollywood Blacklist |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the American Left |edition=paperback |location=Champaign |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |isbn=9780252062506}}</ref>

In Western Europe, communist parties were part of several post-war governments, and even when the Cold War forced many of those countries to remove them from government, such as in Italy, they remained part of the [[liberal-democratic]] process.<ref name="Kindersley"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Lazar |first=Marc |author-link=Marc Lazar |title=Communism |doi=10.4135/9781412959636.n81 |pages=310–314 (312) |editor1-last=Badie |editor1-first=Bertrand |editor1-link=Bertrand Badie |editor2-last=Berg-Schlosser |editor2-first=Dirk |editor2-link=Dirk Berg-Schlosser |editor3-last=Morlino |editor3-first=Leonardo |editor3-link=Leonardo Morlino |encyclopedia=[[International Encyclopedia of Political Science]] |volume=2 |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-4129-5963-6 }}</ref> There were also many developments in libertarian Marxism, especially during the 1960s with the [[New Left]].<ref>{{harvp|Wright|1960}}; {{harvp|Geary|2009|p=1}}; {{harvp|Kaufman|2003}}; {{harvp|Gitlin|2001|pp=3–26}}; {{harvp|Farred|2000|pp=627–648}}</ref> By the 1960s and 1970s, many Western communist parties had criticized many of the actions of communist states, distanced from them, and developed a [[democratic road to socialism]], which became known as [[Eurocommunism]].<ref name="Kindersley">{{cite book |editor-first1=Richard |editor-last1=Kindersley |title=In Search of Eurocommunism |date=1981 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-16581-0 |isbn=978-0-333-27594-8 }}{{pn|date=January 2026}}</ref> This development was criticized by more orthodox supporters of the Soviet Union as amounting to [[social democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Deutscher |first=Tamara |date=January–February 1983 |url=http://newleftreview.org/I/137/tamara-deutscher-e-h-carr-a-personal-memoir |title=E. H. Carr{{snd}}A Personal Memoir |journal=[[New Left Review]] |volume=I |issue=137 |pages=78–86 |article-number=378 |doi=10.64590/ylt |access-date=13 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240917173616/https://newleftreview.org/issues/i137/articles/tamara-deutscher-e-h-carr-a-personal-memoir |archive-date=17 September 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Since 1957, [[Communism in Kerala|communists have been frequently voted into power]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Jaffe |first1=Greg |last2=Doshi |first2=Vidhi |date=1 June 2018 |title=One of the few places where a communist can still dream |language=en-US |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/the-place-where-communists-can-still-dream/2017/10/26/55747cbe-9c98-11e7-b2a7-bc70b6f98089_story.html |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20171116200113/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/the-place-where-communists-can-still-dream/2017/10/26/55747cbe-9c98-11e7-b2a7-bc70b6f98089_story.html |archive-date=16 November 2017}}</ref>

In 1959, [[Cuban Revolution|Cuban revolutionaries]] overthrew Cuba's previous government under the dictator [[Fulgencio Batista]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Cuban Revolution |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Cuban-Revolution |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250215015717/https://www.britannica.com/event/Cuban-Revolution |archive-date=15 February 2025}}</ref> While the revolutionaries were originally not uniformly communist, after their military victory, the new rebel officials underwent a sort of [[Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution|radicalization alongside their political consolidation]], that pushed the new government to eventually become Marxist-Leninist.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Henken |first1= Ted |last2=Celaya |first2=Miriam |last3=Castellanos |first3=Dimas |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Cuba |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhXHEAAAQBAJ&dq=consolidation+of+26th+of+july+movement&pg=PA93 |location= |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=93 |isbn=9781610690126}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Farber |first=samuel |date=6 September 2007|title=The Origins of the Cuban Revolution Reconsidered |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmdifpVk3SoC&dq=cuba+%22radicalization+of+the+revolution%22&pg=PA4 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |page=4 |isbn=9780807877098}}</ref>

=== Dissolution of the Soviet Union ===
{{further|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}}
With the fall of the [[Warsaw Pact]] after the [[Revolutions of 1989]], which led to the fall of most of the former [[Eastern Bloc]], the Soviet Union was dissolved on 26 December 1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the [[Soviet of the Republics]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Alimzhanov |first=Anuarbek |date=1991 |url=http://vedomosti.sssr.su/1991/52/#1561#1082 |title=Deklaratsiya Soveta Respublik Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR v svyazi s sozdaniyem Sodruzhestva Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv |script-title=ru:Декларация Совета Республик Верховного Совета СССР в связи с созданием Содружества Независимых Государств |language=ru |trans-title=Declaration of the Council of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in connection with the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151220173637/http://vedomosti.sssr.su/1991/52/#1561 |archive-date=20 December 2015 |work=[[Vedomosti]] |volume=52}}. [[wikisource:ru:Декларация Совета Республик ВС СССР от December 26, 1991 № 142-Н|Declaration № 142-Н]] {{in lang|ru}} of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, formally establishing the dissolution of the Soviet Union as a state and subject of international law.</ref> The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former [[Soviet republics]] and created the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], although five of the signatories ratified it much later or did not do it at all. On the previous day, Soviet president [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] (the eighth and final [[leader of the Soviet Union]]) resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers, including control of the [[Cheget]], to Russian president [[Boris Yeltsin]]. That evening at 7:32, the [[Soviet flag]] was lowered from the [[Kremlin]] for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary [[Russian flag]]. Previously, from August to December 1991, all the individual republics, including Russia itself, had seceded from the union. The week before the union's formal dissolution, eleven republics signed the [[Alma-Ata Protocol]], formally establishing the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], and declared that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/22/world/end-soviet-union-text-declaration-mutual-recognition-equal-basis.html |title=The End of the Soviet Union; Text of Declaration: 'Mutual Recognition' and 'an Equal Basis' |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=22 December 1991 |access-date=30 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222132725/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/22/world/end-soviet-union-text-declaration-mutual-recognition-equal-basis.html |archive-date=22 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1225.html |title=Gorbachev, Last Soviet Leader, Resigns; U.S. Recognizes Republics' Independence |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=26 December 1991 |access-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207063853/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1225.html |archive-date=7 February 2019}}</ref>

=== Post-Soviet communism ===
{{see also|List of socialist parties with national parliamentary representation}}

[[File:18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China.jpg|thumb|[[18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|18th National Congress]] of the [[Chinese Communist Party]]]]
[[File:Communist flag at night at Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, year 2024.jpg|thumb|[[Communist Party of Vietnam|Communist]] flag at night at Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, 2024]]
As of 2023, states controlled by Communist parties under a single-party system include the People's Republic of China, the [[Republic of Cuba]], the [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], the [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]], and the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in several other countries. With the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] and the [[Fall of Communism]], there was a split between those hardline Communists, sometimes referred to in the media as ''[[neo-Stalinist]]s'', who remained committed to orthodox Marxism–Leninism, and those, such as [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]] in Germany, who work within the liberal-democratic process for a democratic road to socialism;<ref>{{cite book |last=Sargent |first=Lyman Tower |year=2008 |title=Contemporary Political Ideologies: A Comparative Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarypoli00sarg_989 |url-access=limited |edition=14th |publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/contemporarypoli00sarg_989/page/n135 117] |isbn=9780495569398 |quote=Because many communists now call themselves democratic socialists, it is sometimes difficult to know what a political label really means. As a result, social democratic has become a common new label for democratic socialist political parties.}}</ref> other ruling Communist parties became closer to [[democratic socialist]] and [[social democratic]] parties.<ref name=Peter>{{cite book |last=Lamb |first=Peter |year=2015 |title=Historical Dictionary of Socialism |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=415 |isbn=9781442258266 |quote=In the 1990s, following the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet Union, social democracy was adopted by some of the old communist parties. Hence, parties such as the Czech Social Democratic Party, the Bulgarian Social Democrats, the Estonian Social Democratic Party, and the Romanian Social Democratic Party, among others, achieved varying degrees of electoral success. Similar processes took place in Africa as the old communist parties were transformed into social democratic ones, even though they retained their traditional titles ... .}}</ref> Outside Communist states, reformed Communist parties have led or been part of left-leaning government or regional coalitions, including in the former Eastern Bloc. In Nepal, Communists ([[CPN UML]] and [[Nepal Communist Party]]) were part of the [[1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly]], which abolished the monarchy in 2008 and turned the country into a federal liberal-democratic republic, and have democratically shared power with other communists, Marxist–Leninists, and [[Maoists]] ([[CPN Maoist]]), social democrats ([[Nepali Congress]]), and others as part of their [[People's Multiparty Democracy]].<ref name="The Economist">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |title=Nepal's election The Maoists triumph |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=18 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214103506/http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |archive-date=14 February 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The Diplomat">{{cite news |last=Bhattarai |first=Kamal Dev |date=21 February 2018 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/02/the-rebirth-of-the-nepal-communist-party/ |title=The (Re)Birth of the Nepal Communist Party |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |access-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210004219/https://thediplomat.com/2018/02/the-rebirth-of-the-nepal-communist-party/ |archive-date=10 December 2024}}</ref> The [[Communist Party of the Russian Federation]] has some supporters, but is reformist rather than revolutionary, aiming to lessen the inequalities of Russia's market economy.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}

In China, the [[reform and opening up]] was started in 1978 under the leadership of [[Deng Xiaoping]], and since then China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 8% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ravallion |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Ravallion |date=2005 |url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20634060~pagePK%3A64165401~piPK%3A64165026~theSitePK%3A469382%2C00.html |title=Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China's Success |publisher=[[World Bank]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301071146/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20634060~pagePK%3A64165401~piPK%3A64165026~theSitePK%3A469382%2C00.html |archive-date=1 March 2018 |access-date=10 August 2006}}</ref> After losing Soviet subsidies and support, Vietnam and Cuba have attracted more foreign investment to their countries, with their economies becoming more market-oriented.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}} North Korea, the last Communist country that still practices Soviet-style Communism, is both repressive and isolationist.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}

== Theory ==
Communist political thought and theory are diverse but share several core elements.{{efn|March (2009), p. 127: "The 'communists' are a broad group. Without Moscow's pressure, 'orthodox' communism does not exist beyond a commitment to Marxism and the communist name and symbols. 'Conservative' communists define themselves as Marxist–Leninist, maintain a
relatively uncritical stance towards the Soviet heritage, organize their parties through Leninist democratic centralism and still see the world through the Cold-War prism of 'imperialism,' although even these parties often appeal to nationalism and populism. 'Reform' communists, on the other hand, are more divergent and eclectic. They have
discarded aspects of the Soviet model (for example, Leninism and democratic centralism), and have at least paid lip service to elements of the post-1968 'new left' agenda (a (feminism, environmentalism, grass-roots democracy, and so on)."{{harvnb|March|2009|p=127}}|group=quote}} The dominant forms of communism are based on [[Marxism]] or [[Leninism]] but non-Marxist versions of communism also exist, such as [[anarcho-communism]] and [[Christian communism]], which remain partly influenced by Marxist theories, such as [[libertarian Marxism]] and [[humanist Marxism]] in particular. Common elements include being theoretical rather than ideological, identifying political parties not by ideology but by class and economic interest, and identifying with the proletariat. According to communists, the proletariat can avoid mass unemployment only if capitalism is overthrown; in the short run, state-oriented communists favor [[state ownership]] of the [[commanding heights of the economy]] as a means to defend the proletariat from capitalist pressure. Some communists are distinguished by other Marxists in seeing peasants and smallholders of property as possible allies in their goal of shortening the abolition of capitalism.{{sfn|Hanson|2001}}

For Leninist communism, such goals, including short-term proletarian interests to improve their political and material conditions, can only be achieved through [[vanguardism]], an elitist form of [[socialism from above]] that relies on theoretical analysis to identify proletarian interests rather than consulting the proletarians themselves,{{sfn|Hanson|2001}} as is advocated by [[libertarian]] communists.{{r|Kinna 2012}} When they engage in elections, Leninist communists' main task is that of educating voters in what are deemed their true interests rather than in response to the expression of interest by voters themselves. When they have gained control of the state, Leninist communists' main task was preventing other political parties from deceiving the proletariat, such as by running their own independent candidates. This vanguardist approach comes from their commitments to [[democratic centralism]] in which communists can only be cadres, i.e. members of the party who are full-time professional revolutionaries, as was conceived by [[Vladimir Lenin]].{{sfn|Hanson|2001}}

=== Marxist communism ===
{{main|Marxism}}

{{see also|List of communist ideologies|Marxist schools of thought}}
[[File:Marx et Engels à Shanghai.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A monument dedicated to [[Karl Marx]] (left) and [[Friedrich Engels]] (right) in Shanghai]]
Marxism is a method of [[socioeconomic]] analysis that uses a [[materialist]] interpretation of historical development, better known as [[historical materialism]], to understand [[social class]] relations and [[social conflict]] and a [[dialectic]]al perspective to view [[social transformation]]. It originates from the works of 19th-century German philosophers [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]. As Marxism has developed over time into various branches and [[schools of thought]], no single, definitive [[Marxist theory]] exists.<ref name="Wolff and Resnick, 1987">{{cite book |last1=Wolff |first1=Richard |author1-link=Richard D. Wolff |last2=Resnick |first2=Stephen |author2-link=Stephen Resnick |url=https://archive.org/details/economicsmarxian00wolf_0 |title=Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical |year=1987 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=978-0801834806 |page=[https://archive.org/details/economicsmarxian00wolf_0/page/130 130] |quote=The German Marxists extended the theory to groups and issues Marx had barely touched. Marxian analyses of the legal system, of the social role of women, of foreign trade, of international rivalries among capitalist nations, and the role of parliamentary democracy in the transition to socialism drew animated debates ... Marxian theory (singular) gave way to Marxian theories (plural). |url-access=registration}}</ref> Marxism considers itself to be the embodiment of [[scientific socialism]] but does not model an ideal society based on the design of [[intellectual]]s, whereby communism is seen as a [[State of affairs (sociology)|state of affairs]] to be established based on any intelligent design; rather, it is a non-[[idealist]] attempt at the understanding of material history and society, whereby communism is the expression of a real movement, with parameters that are derived from actual life.<ref>{{cite book |author1-link=Karl Marx |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |date=1845 |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm |chapter=Idealism and Materialism |title=[[The German Ideology]] |postscript=. Transcribed by T. Delaney, B. Schwartz, and B. Baggins. |page=[https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm#p48 48] |quote=Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality [will] have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence. |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

According to Marxist theory, class conflict arises in capitalist societies due to contradictions between the material interests of the oppressed and exploited [[proletariat]]{{snd}}a class of wage laborers employed to produce goods and services{{snd}}and the [[bourgeoisie]]{{snd}}the [[ruling class]] that owns the [[means of production]] and extracts its wealth through appropriation of the [[surplus product]] produced by the proletariat in the form of [[Profit (economics)|profit]]. This class struggle that is commonly expressed as the revolt of a society's [[productive forces]] against its [[relations of production]], results in a period of short-term crises as the bourgeoisie struggle to manage the intensifying [[alienation of labor]] experienced by the proletariat, albeit with varying degrees of [[class consciousness]]. In periods of deep crisis, the resistance of the oppressed can culminate in a [[proletarian revolution]] which, if victorious, leads to the establishment of the [[socialist mode of production]] based on [[social ownership]] of the means of production, "[[To each according to his contribution]]", and [[production for use]]. As the productive forces continued to advance, the [[communist society]], i.e. a classless, stateless, humane society based on [[common ownership]], follows the maxim "[[From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs]]."{{r|Hudis et al. 2018}}

While it originates from the works of Marx and Engels, Marxism has developed into many different branches and schools of thought, with the result that there is now no single definitive Marxist theory.{{r|Wolff and Resnick, 1987}} Different Marxian schools place a greater emphasis on certain aspects of [[classical Marxism]] while rejecting or modifying other aspects. Many schools of thought have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts, which has then led to contradictory conclusions.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Hara |first=Phillip |title=Encyclopedia of Political Economy |volume=2 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-415-24187-8 |page=107 |quote=Marxist political economists differ over their definitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These differences are so fundamental, the arguments among differently persuaded Marxist political economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to political economies that celebrate capitalism.}}</ref> There is a movement toward the recognition that historical materialism and [[dialectical materialism]] remain the fundamental aspects of all [[Marxist schools of thought]].{{r|Ermak 2019}} Marxism–Leninism and its offshoots are the most well-known of these and have been a driving force in [[international relations]] during most of the 20th century.<ref name="Columbia">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Communism |url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/communism.html |encyclopedia=[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]] |edition=6th |year=2007}}</ref>

Classical Marxism is the economic, philosophical, and sociological theories expounded by Marx and Engels as contrasted with later developments in Marxism, especially Leninism and Marxism–Leninism.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://isj.org.uk/classical-marxism-and-the-question-of-reformism/ |title=Classical Marxism and the question of reformism |last=Gluckstein |first=Donny |date=26 June 2014 |journal=[[International Socialism (magazine)|International Socialism]] |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> [[Orthodox Marxism]] is the body of Marxist thought that emerged after the death of Marx and which became the official philosophy of the socialist movement as represented in the [[Second International]] until World War I in 1914. Orthodox Marxism aims to simplify, codify, and systematize Marxist method and theory by clarifying the perceived ambiguities and contradictions of classical Marxism. The philosophy of orthodox Marxism includes the understanding that material development (advances in technology in the [[productive forces]]) is the primary agent of change in the structure of society and of human social relations and that social systems and their relations (e.g. [[feudalism]], [[capitalism]], and so on) become contradictory and inefficient as the productive forces develop, which results in some form of social revolution arising in response to the mounting contradictions. This revolutionary change is the vehicle for fundamental society-wide changes and ultimately leads to the emergence of new [[economic system]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rees |first=John |author-link=John Rees (activist) |title=The Algebra of Revolution: The Dialectic and the Classical Marxist Tradition |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-19877-6}}</ref> As a term, ''orthodox Marxism'' represents the methods of historical materialism and of dialectical materialism, and not the normative aspects inherent to classical Marxism, without implying dogmatic adherence to the results of Marx's investigations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lukács |first=György |author-link=György Lukács |date=1967 |orig-date=1919 |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/history/orthodox.htm |chapter=What is Orthodox Marxism? |title=[[History and Class Consciousness|History and Class Consciousness']] |translator-last=Livingstone |translator-first=Rodney |publisher=[[Merlin Press]] |access-date=22 September 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |quote=Orthodox Marxism, therefore, does not imply the uncritical acceptance of the results of Marx's investigations. It is not the 'belief' in this or that thesis, nor the exegesis of a 'sacred' book. On the contrary, orthodoxy refers exclusively to method.}}</ref>

==== Marxist concepts ====
===== Class conflict and historical materialism =====
{{main|Class conflict|Historical materialism}}

At the root of Marxism is historical materialism, the [[materialist]] conception of history which holds that the key characteristic of economic systems through history has been the [[mode of production]] and that the change between modes of production has been triggered by class struggle. According to this analysis, the [[Industrial Revolution]] ushered the world into the new [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]]. Before capitalism, certain [[working class]]es had ownership of instruments used in production; however, because machinery was much more efficient, this property became worthless and the mass majority of workers could only survive by selling their labor to make use of someone else's machinery, and making someone else profit. Accordingly, capitalism divided the world between two major classes, namely that of the [[proletariat]] and the [[bourgeoisie]]. These classes are directly antagonistic as the latter possesses [[private ownership]] of the [[means of production]], earning profit via the [[surplus value]] generated by the proletariat, who have no ownership of the means of production and therefore no option but to sell its labor to the bourgeoisie.<ref>{{cite book |last=Engels |first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Engels |date=1969 |chapter='Principles of Communism'. No. 4 – 'How did the proletariat originate?' |title=Marx & Engels Selected Works |volume=I |location=Moscow |publisher=[[Progress Publishers]] |pages=81–97}}{{isbn?}}</ref>

According to the materialist conception of history, it is through the furtherance of its own material interests that the rising bourgeoisie within [[feudalism]] captured power and abolished, of all relations of private property, only the feudal privilege, thereby taking the feudal [[ruling class]] out of existence. This was another key element behind the consolidation of capitalism as the new mode of production, the final expression of class and property relations that has led to a massive expansion of production. It is only in capitalism that private property in itself can be abolished.<ref>[[Friedrich Engels|Engels, Friedrich]]. [1847] (1969). "[https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm#015 "Was not the abolition of private property possible at an earlier time?]" ''[[Principles of Communism]]''. ''[[Marx/Engels Collected Works]]''. '''I'''. Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp. 81–97.{{isbn?}}</ref> Similarly, the proletariat would capture political power, abolish bourgeois property through the [[common ownership]] of the means of production, therefore abolishing the bourgeoisie, ultimately abolishing the proletariat itself and ushering the world into [[Communist society|communism as a new mode of production]]. In between capitalism and communism, there is the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]]; it is the defeat of the [[bourgeois state]] but not yet of the capitalist mode of production, and at the same time the only element which places into the realm of possibility moving on from this mode of production. This ''dictatorship'', based on the [[Paris Commune]]'s model,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Priestland |first=David |date=January 2002 |title=Soviet Democracy, 1917–91 |journal=[[European History Quarterly]] |location=Thousand Oaks, California |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=111–130 |doi=10.1177/0269142002032001564 |quote-page=114 |quote=Lenin defended all four elements of Soviet democracy in his seminal theoretical work of 1917, ''State and Revolution''. The time had come, Lenin argued, for the destruction of the foundations of the bourgeois state, and its replacement with an ultra-democratic 'Dictatorship of the Proletariat' based on the model of democracy followed by the communards of Paris in 1871. Much of the work was theoretical, designed, by means of quotations from Marx and Engels, to win battles within the international Social Democratic movement against Lenin's arch-enemy Kautsky. However, Lenin was not operating only in the realm of theory. He took encouragement from the rise of a whole range of institutions that seemed to embody class-based, direct democracy, and in particular the soviets and the factory committees, which demanded the right to 'supervise' ('kontrolirovat') (although not to take the place of) factory management.}}</ref> is to be the most democratic state where the whole of the public authority is elected and recallable under the basis of [[universal suffrage]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Twiss |first1=Thomas M. |title=Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy |date=2014 |doi=10.1163/9789004269538 |isbn=978-90-04-26953-8 |pages=28–29 }}</ref>

===== Critique of political economy =====
{{main|Critique of political economy}}

Critique of [[political economy]] is a form of [[social critique]] that rejects the various social categories and structures that constitute the mainstream discourse concerning the forms and modalities of resource allocation and income distribution in the economy. Communists, such as Marx and Engels, are described as prominent critics of political economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Patrick |date=March 2020 |title=The Illusion of the Economic: Social Theory without Social Forms |journal=[[Critical Historical Studies]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=19–27 |doi=10.1086/708005 |quote='There are no counterparts to Marx's economic concepts in either classical or utility theory.' I take this to mean that Marx breaks with economics, where economics is understood to be a generally applicable social science. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Liedman |first=Sven-Eric |date=December 2020 |title=Engelsismen
|url=https://fronesis.nu/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/FR02808.pdf |journal=[[Fronesis (magazine)|Fronesis]] |language=sv |page=134 |quote=Engels var också först med att kritiskt bearbeta den nya nationalekonomin; hans 'Utkast till en kritik av nationalekonomin' kom ut 1844 och blev en utgångspunkt för Marx egen kritik av den politiska ekonomin |number=28 |trans-quote=Engels was the first to critically engage the new political economy his 'Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy' came out in 1844 and became a starting point for Marx's own critique of political economy.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=István |last=Mészáros |date=2010 |others=transcribed by Conttren, V. (2022) |chapter=The Critique of Political Economy |title=Social Structure and Forms of Consciousness |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |pages=317–331 |chapter-url=https://osf.io/65mxd/ |doi=10.17605/OSF.IO/65MXD}}</ref> The critique rejects economists' use of what its advocates believe are unrealistic [[axiom]]s, faulty historical assumptions, and the normative use of various descriptive narratives.<ref>{{cite book |last=Henderson |first=Willie |title=John Ruskin's political economy |date=2000 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-203-15946-2 |location=London |oclc=48139638 |quote=... Ruskin attempted a methodological/scientific critique of political economy. He fixed on ideas of 'natural laws', 'economic man' and the prevailing notion of 'value' to point out gaps and inconsistencies in the system of classical economics.}}</ref> They reject what they describe as mainstream economists' tendency to posit the economy as an ''[[a priori]]'' societal category.<ref name="Reading Capital">{{cite book |last1=Louis |first1=Althusser |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1968/reading-capital/ch02.htm |title=Reading Capital |last2=Balibar |first2=Etienne |publisher=[[Verso Editions]] |year=1979 |pages=158 |oclc=216233458 |quote='To criticize Political Economy' means to confront it with a new problematic and a new object: i.e., to question the very object of Political Economy}}</ref> Those who engage in critique of economy tend to reject the view that the economy and its categories is to be understood as something [[transhistorical]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Fareld |first1=Victoria |title=From Marx to Hegel and Back |date=2020 |pages=142,182 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |doi=10.5040/9781350082700.ch-001 |isbn=978-1-3500-8267-0 |last2=Kuch |first2=Hannes }}</ref>{{sfn|Postone|1995|pages=44,192–216}} It is seen as merely one of many types of historically specific ways to distribute resources. They argue that it is a relatively new mode of resource distribution, which emerged along with modernity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mortensen |title=Ekonomi |journal=Tidskrift för litteraturvetenskap |language=sv |volume=3 |number=4 |pages=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Moishe |last=Postone |title=Time, labor, and social domination: a reinterpretation of Marx's critical theory |year=1995 |isbn=0-521-56540-5 |pages=130, 5 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |oclc=910250140}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Jönsson |first=Dan |title=John Ruskin: En brittisk 1800-talsaristokrat för vår tid? - OBS |date=7 February 2019 |url=https://sverigesradio.se/avsnitt/1244376 |url-status=live |access-date=24 September 2021 |publisher=[[Sveriges Radio]] |language=sv |quote=Den klassiska nationalekonomin, som den utarbetats av John Stuart Mill, Adam Smith och David Ricardo, betraktade han som en sorts kollektivt hjärnsläpp ... |trans-quote=The classical political economy as it was developed by John Stuart Mill, Adam Smith, and David Ricardo, as a kind of 'collective mental lapse' ... |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305082621/https://sverigesradio.se/avsnitt/1244376 |archive-date=5 March 2020}}</ref>

Critics of economy critique the given status of the economy itself, and do not aim to create theories regarding how to administer economies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramsay |first=Anders |date=21 December 2009 |title=Marx? Which Marx? Marx's work and its history of reception |url=https://www.eurozine.com/marx-which-marx/ |url-status=live |access-date=16 September 2021 |website=[[Eurozine]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212144158/http://www.eurozine.com/marx-which-marx/ |archive-date=12 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Ruccio |first=David |date=10 December 2020 |title=Toward a critique of political economy |website=MR Online |url=https://mronline.org/2020/12/10/toward-a-critique-of-political-economy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215173028/https://mronline.org/2020/12/10/toward-a-critique-of-political-economy/ |archive-date=15 December 2020 |access-date=20 September 2021 |quote=Marx arrives at conclusions and formulates new terms that run directly counter to those of Smith, Ricardo, and the other classical political economists.}}</ref> Critics of economy commonly view what is most commonly referred to as the economy as being bundles of [[metaphysical]] concepts, as well as societal and normative practices, rather than being the result of any self-evident or proclaimed economic laws.<ref name="Reading Capital"/> They also tend to consider the views which are commonplace within the field of economics as faulty, or simply as [[pseudoscience]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Patrick |date=March 2020 |title=The Illusion of the Economic: Social Theory without Social Forms |journal=[[Critical Historical Studies]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=19–27 |doi=10.1086/708005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Patterson |first1=Orlando |last2=Fosse |first2=Ethan |title=Overreliance on the Pseudo-Science of Economics |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/02/09/are-economists-overrated/overreliance-on-the-pseudo-science-of-economics |url-status=live |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209225723/http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/02/09/are-economists-overrated/overreliance-on-the-pseudo-science-of-economics |archive-date=9 February 2015 |access-date=13 January 2023}}</ref> Into the 21st century, there are multiple critiques of political economy; what they have in common is the critique of what critics of political economy tend to view as [[dogma]], i.e. claims of the economy as a necessary and transhistorical societal category.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ruda |first1=Frank |last2=Hamza |first2=Agon |date=2016 |title=Introduction: Critique of Political Economy |url=http://crisiscritique.org/political11/Introduction-2.pdf |journal=[[Crisis and Critique]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=5–7 |access-date=13 January 2023 |archive-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116135722/http://crisiscritique.org/political11/Introduction-2.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===== Marxian economics =====
{{main|Marxian economics}}

Marxian economics and its proponents view capitalism as economically unsustainable and incapable of improving the living standards of the population due to its need to compensate for [[falling rates of profit]] by cutting employee's wages, social benefits, and pursuing military aggression. The [[communist mode of production]] would succeed capitalism as humanity's new mode of production through workers' [[revolution]]. According to Marxian [[crisis theory]], communism is not an inevitability but an economic necessity.<ref>Free will, non-predestination and non-determinism are emphasized in Marx's famous quote "Men make their own history". ''The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte'' (1852).</ref>

===== Socialization versus nationalization =====
{{main|Socialization (economics)|Socialization (Marxism)}}

An important concept in Marxism is socialization, i.e. [[social ownership]], versus [[nationalization]]. Nationalization is [[state ownership]] of property whereas socialization is control and management of property by society. Marxism considers the latter as its goal and considers nationalization a tactical issue, as state ownership is still in the realm of the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]]. In the words of Friedrich Engels, "the transformation ... into State-ownership does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces. ... State-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution."<ref name=":0" group="lower-alpha">{{harvp|Engels|1970|pp=95–151}}: "But, the transformation{{snd}}either into joint-stock companies and trusts, or into State-ownership{{snd}}does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces. In the joint-stock companies and trusts, this is obvious. And the modern State, again, is only the organization that bourgeois society takes on in order to support the external conditions of the capitalist mode of production against the encroachments as well of the workers as of individual capitalists. The modern state, no matter what its form, is essentially a capitalist machine{{snd}}the state of the capitalists, the ideal personification of the total national capital. The more it proceeds to the taking over of productive forces, the more does it actually become the national capitalist, the more citizens does it exploit. The workers remain wage-workers{{snd}}proletarians. The capitalist relation is not done away with. It is, rather, brought to a head. But, brought to a head, it topples over. State-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution."</ref> This has led Marxist groups and tendencies critical of the [[Soviet model]] to label states based on nationalization, such as the Soviet Union, as [[state capitalist]], a view that is also shared by several scholars.<ref name="Chomsky, Howard, Fitzgibbons"/>{{r|The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy, 1985}}<ref name="Ellman 2007"/>

=====Democracy in Marxism=====
{{Excerpt|Democracy in Marxism||only=paragraphs}}

=== Leninist communism ===
{{Main|Leninism}}

{{Quote box
| quote = We want to achieve a new and better order of society: in this new and better society there must be neither rich nor poor; all will have to work. Not a handful of rich people, but all the working people must enjoy the fruits of their common labour. Machines and other improvements must serve to ease the work of all and not to enable a few to grow rich at the expense of millions and tens of millions of people. This new and better society is called socialist society. The teachings about this society are called "socialism".
| source = Vladimir Lenin, ''To the Rural Poor'' (1903)<ref>{{cite book |last=Lenin |first=Vladimir |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |orig-date=1903 |chapter=To the Rural Poor |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1903/rp/1.htm |title=Collected Works |volume=6 |page=366 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref>
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Leninism is a political ideology developed by Russian [[Marxist]] revolutionary [[Vladimir Lenin]] that proposes the establishment of the [[Dictatorship of the proletariat#Vladimir Lenin|dictatorship of the proletariat]], led by a revolutionary [[vanguard party]], as the political prelude to the establishment of communism. The function of the Leninist vanguard party is to provide the working classes with the [[political consciousness]] (education and organisation) and revolutionary leadership necessary to depose [[capitalism]] in the [[Russian Empire]] (1721–1917).<ref name="Modern Thought Third Edition 1999 pp. 476">{{cite book |title=The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought |edition=Third |date=1999 |pages=476–477}}</ref>

Leninist revolutionary leadership is based upon ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' (1848), identifying the [[Communist party]] as "the most advanced and resolute section of the working class parties of every country; that section which pushes forward all others." As the vanguard party, the [[Bolsheviks]] viewed history through the theoretical framework of [[dialectical materialism]], which sanctioned political commitment to the successful overthrow of capitalism, and then to instituting [[socialism]]; and as the revolutionary national government, to realize the socio-economic transition by all means.<ref name="Leninism, p. 265">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Leninism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |edition=15th |volume=7 |pages=265}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=July 2023}}

==== Marxism–Leninism ====
{{main|Marxism–Leninism}}

[[File:Lenin-statue-in-Kolkata.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Vladimir Lenin]] statue in Kolkata, West Bengal, India]]

[[Marxism–Leninism]] is a political ideology developed by [[Joseph Stalin]].<ref name="made_by_stalin">{{cite magazine|last=Lisichkin |first=G. |date=1989 |title=Мифы и реальность |language=ru |trans-title=Myths and reality |magazine=[[Novy Mir]] |volume=3 |pages=59}}</ref> According to its proponents, it is based on Marxism and Leninism. It describes the specific political ideology which Stalin implemented in the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] and in a global scale in the [[Comintern]]. There is no definite agreement between historians about whether Stalin actually followed the principles of Marx and Lenin.<ref name="stalin_follow_marx_lenin">{{cite magazine |first=Aleksandr |last=Butenko |author-link=Aleksandr Butenko |script-title=ru:Социализм сегодня: опыт и новая теория |title=Sotsializm segodnya: opyt i novaya teoriya |trans-title=Socialism Today: Experience and New Theory |language=ru |magazine=Журнал Альтернативы |number=1 |date=1996 |pages=2–22}}</ref> It also contains aspects which according to some are deviations from Marxism such as [[socialism in one country]].<ref name="sioc1">{{cite journal |title=Comment on Wallerstein |first=Richard |last=Platkin |journal=[[Social Justice (journal)|Contemporary Marxism]] |volume=4–5 |publisher=[[Synthesis Publications]] |date=1981 |issue=4 |jstor=23008565 |page=151 |quote=[S]ocialism in one country, a pragmatic deviation from classical Marxism.}}</ref><ref name="sioc2">{{cite book |last=Erik |first=Cornell |title=North Korea Under Communism: Report of an Envoy to Paradise |date=2002 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0700716975 |page=169 |quote=Socialism in one country, a slogan that aroused protests as not only it implied a major deviation from Marxist internationalism, but was also strictly speaking incompatible with the basic tenets of Marxism.}}</ref> Marxism–Leninism was the official ideology of 20th-century [[Communist parties]] (including [[Trotskyist]]), and was developed after the death of Lenin; its three principles were [[dialectical materialism]], the [[leading role of the Communist party]] through [[democratic centralism]], and a [[planned economy]] with [[industrialization]] and [[agricultural collectivization]]. ''Marxism–Leninism'' is misleading because Marx and Lenin never sanctioned or supported the creation of an ''-ism'' after them, and is revealing because, being popularized after Lenin's death by Stalin, it contained those three doctrinal and institutionalized principles that became a model for later Soviet-type regimes; its global influence, having at its height covered at least one-third of the world's population, has made ''Marxist–Leninist'' a convenient label for the [[Communist bloc]] as a dynamic ideological order.{{sfnm|1a1=Hanson|1y=2001|1pp=9298-9302|2a1=Morgan|2a2=2015}}<ref group="lower-alpha">{{harvp|Morgan|2015|ps=: {{"'}}Marxism–Leninism' was the formal name of the official state ideology adopted by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), its satellite states in Eastern Europe, the Asian communist regimes, and various 'scientific socialist' regimes in the Third World during the Cold War. As such, the term is simultaneously misleading and revealing. It is misleading, since neither Marx nor Lenin ever sanctioned the creation of an eponymous 'ism'; indeed, the term Marxism–Leninism was formulated only in the period of Stalin's rise to power after Lenin's death. It is revealing, because the Stalinist institutionalization of Marxism–Leninism in the 1930s did contain three identifiable, dogmatic principles that became the explicit model for all later Soviet-type regimes: dialectical materialism as the only true proletarian basis for philosophy, the leading role of the communist party as the central principle of Marxist politics, and state-led planned industrialization and agricultural collectivization as the foundation of socialist economics. The global influence of these three doctrinal and institutional innovations makes the term Marxist–Leninist a convenient label for a distinct sort of ideological order{{snd}}one which, at the height of its power and influence, dominated one-third of the world's population."}}</ref>

During the Cold War, Marxism–Leninism was the ideology of the most clearly visible communist movement and is the most prominent ideology associated with communism.{{r|Columbia}}{{refn|According to their proponents, Marxist–Leninist ideologies have been adapted to the material conditions of their respective countries and include [[Castroism]] (Cuba), [[National communism in Romania|Ceaușism]] (Romania), [[Gonzalo Thought]] (Peru), [[Guevarism]] (Cuba), [[Ho Chi Minh Thought]] (Vietnam), [[Hoxhaism]] (anti-revisionist Albania), [[Husakism]] (Czechoslovakia), [[Juche]] (North Korea), [[Kadarism]] (Hungary), [[Khmer Rouge]] (Cambodia), [[Khrushchevism]] (Soviet Union), [[Prachanda Path]] (Nepal), [[Shining Path]] (Peru), and [[Titoism]] (anti-Stalinist Yugoslavia).{{sfn|Morgan|2015}}<ref group="lower-alpha">{{harvp|Hanson|2001|ps=: "As communist Parties emerged around the world, encouraged both by the success of the Soviet Party in establishing Russia's independence from foreign domination and by clandestine monetary subsidies from the Soviet comrades, they became identifiable by their adherence to a common political ideology known as Marxism–Leninism. Of course from the very beginning Marxism–Leninism existed in many variants. The conditions were themselves an effort to enforce a minimal degree of uniformity on diverse conceptions of communist identity. Adherence to the ideas of 'Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Trotsky' characterized the Trotskyists who soon broke off in a 'Fourth International'."}}</ref>|group=note}} [[Social fascism]] was a theory supported by the Comintern and affiliated [[Communist parties]] during the early 1930s, which held that [[social democracy]] was a variant of [[fascism]] because it stood in the way of a [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], in addition to a shared [[corporatist]] economic model.<ref name="Haro 2011">{{cite journal |last=Haro |first=Lea |year=2011 |title=Entering a Theoretical Void: The Theory of Social Fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party |journal=[[Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory]] |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=563–582 |doi=10.1080/03017605.2011.621248 }}</ref> At the time, leaders of the Comintern, such as Stalin and [[Rajani Palme Dutt]], stated that [[capitalist]] society had entered the [[Third Period]] in which a [[proletariat revolution]] was imminent but could be prevented by social democrats and other ''fascist'' forces.{{r|Haro 2011}}<ref name="Hoppe 2011">{{cite book |last=Hoppe |first=Bert |year=2011 |title=In Stalins Gefolgschaft: Moskau und die KPD 1928–1933 |trans-title=In Stalin's Followers: Moscow and the KPD 1928–1933 |publisher=[[Oldenbourg Verlag]] |language=de |isbn=978-3-486-71173-8}}</ref> The term ''social fascist'' was used pejoratively to describe social-democratic parties, anti-Comintern and progressive socialist parties and dissenters within Comintern affiliates throughout the [[interwar period]]. The social fascism theory was advocated vociferously by the [[Communist Party of Germany]], which was largely controlled and funded by the Soviet leadership from 1928.{{r|Hoppe 2011}}

Within Marxism–Leninism, [[anti-revisionism]] is a position which emerged in the 1950s in opposition to the reforms and [[Khrushchev Thaw]] of Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. Where Khrushchev pursued an interpretation that differed from Stalin, the anti-revisionists within the international communist movement remained dedicated to Stalin's ideological legacy and criticized the Soviet Union under Khrushchev and his successors as [[state capitalist]] and [[social imperialist]] due to its hopes of achieving peace with the United States. The term ''Stalinism'' is also used to describe these positions but is often not used by its supporters who opine that Stalin practiced [[orthodox Marxism]] and Leninism. Because different political trends trace the historical roots of revisionism to different eras and leaders, there is significant disagreement today as to what constitutes anti-revisionism. Modern groups which describe themselves as anti-revisionist fall into several categories. Some uphold the works of Stalin and Mao Zedong and some the works of Stalin while rejecting Mao and universally tend to oppose [[Trotskyism]]. Others reject both Stalin and Mao, tracing their ideological roots back to Marx and Lenin. In addition, other groups uphold various less-well-known historical leaders such as [[Enver Hoxha]], who also broke with Mao during the [[Sino-Albanian split]].{{r|Bland 1995}}{{r|Bland 1997}} ''Social imperialism'' was a term used by Mao to criticize the Soviet Union post-Stalin. Mao stated that the Soviet Union had itself become an [[imperialist]] power while maintaining a socialist ''façade''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mao |first=Zedong |author-link=Mao Zedong |year=1964 |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/1964/phnycom.htm |title=On Khrushchev's Phoney Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World |location=Beijing |publisher=[[Foreign Languages Press]] |access-date=1 August 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Hoxha agreed with Mao in this analysis, before later using the expression to also condemn Mao's [[Three Worlds Theory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoxha |first=Enver |author-link=Enver Hoxha |year=1978 |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch4.htm |chapter=The Theory of 'Three Worlds': A Counterrevolutionary Chauvinist Theory |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/toc.htm |title=Imperialism and the Revolution |location=Tirana |publisher=Foreign Language Press |access-date=1 August 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

===== Stalinism =====
{{main|Stalinism}}

[[File:Joseph Stalin in 1932 (4) (cropped)(2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Joseph Stalin]], the longest-serving [[leader of the Soviet Union]]]]
Stalinism represents Stalin's style of governance as opposed to Marxism–Leninism, the [[socioeconomic system]] and [[political ideology]] implemented by Stalin in the Soviet Union, and later adapted by other states based on the [[ideological Soviet model]], such as [[central planning]], [[nationalization]], and [[one-party state]], along with [[public ownership]] of the [[means of production]], accelerated [[industrialization]], pro-active development of society's [[productive forces]] (research and development), and nationalized [[natural resources]]. Marxism–Leninism remained after [[de-Stalinization]] whereas Stalinism did not. In the last letters before his death, Lenin warned against the danger of Stalin's personality and urged the Soviet government to replace him.{{r|Ermak 2019}} Until the [[death of Joseph Stalin]] in 1953, the Soviet Communist party referred to its own ideology as ''Marxism–Leninism–Stalinism''.{{sfn|Hanson|2001}}

Marxism–Leninism has been criticized by other communist and Marxist tendencies, which state that Marxist–Leninist states did not establish socialism but rather [[state capitalism]].<ref name="Chomsky, Howard, Fitzgibbons"/>{{r|The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy, 1985}}<ref name="Ellman 2007"/> According to Marxism, the dictatorship of the proletariat represents the rule of the majority (democracy) rather than of one party, to the extent that the co-founder of Marxism, Friedrich Engels, described its "specific form" as the [[Republicanism|democratic republic]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=A Critique of the Draft Social-Democratic Program of 1891 |title=[[Marx/Engels Collected Works]] |volume=27 |page=217 |quote=If one thing is certain it is that our party and the working class can only come to power under the form of a democratic republic. This is even the specific form for the dictatorship of the proletariat.}}</ref> According to Engels, state property by itself is private property of capitalist nature,<ref name=":0" group="lower-alpha"/> unless the proletariat has control of political power, in which case it forms public property.<ref group="lower-alpha">{{harvp|Engels|1970}}: "The proletariat seizes the public power, and by means of this transforms the socialized means of production, slipping from the hands of the bourgeoisie, into public property. By this act, the proletariat frees the means of production from the character of capital they have thus far borne, and gives their socialized character complete freedom to work itself out."</ref> Whether the proletariat was actually in control of the Marxist–Leninist states is a matter of debate between Marxism–Leninism and other communist tendencies. To these tendencies, Marxism–Leninism is neither Marxism nor Leninism nor the union of both but rather an artificial term created to justify Stalin's ideological distortion,<ref name="stalin_distortion">{{cite book |title=History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976–89 |first=Allan |last=Todd |page=16 |quote=The term Marxism–Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'. This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues. ... However, many Marxists (even members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said.}}</ref> forced into the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Comintern. In the Soviet Union, this struggle against Marxism–Leninism was represented by [[Trotskyism]], which describes itself as a Marxist and Leninist tendency.{{sfn|Hanson|2001}}

===== Trotskyism =====
{{main|Trotskyism}}

[[File:Mexico - Bellas Artes - Fresque Riviera « Man at the Crossroads ».JPG|thumb|Detail of ''Man, Controller of the Universe'', fresco at [[Palacio de Bellas Artes]] in Mexico City showing [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Friedrich Engels]], and [[Karl Marx]]]]
Trotskyism, developed by [[Leon Trotsky]] in opposition to [[Stalinism]],{{sfn|Patenaude|2017|p=199}} is a Marxist and Leninist tendency that supports the theory of [[permanent revolution]] and [[world revolution]] rather than the [[two-stage theory]] and Stalin's [[socialism in one country]]. It supported another communist revolution in the [[Soviet Union]] and [[proletarian internationalism]].{{sfn|Patenaude|2017|p=193}}

Rather than representing the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], Trotsky claimed that the Soviet Union had become a [[degenerated workers' state]] under the leadership of Stalin in which class relations had re-emerged in a new form. Trotsky's politics differed sharply from those of Stalin and Mao, most importantly in declaring the need for an international proletarian revolution{{snd}}rather than socialism in one country{{snd}}and support for a true dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles. Struggling against Stalin for power in the Soviet Union, Trotsky and his supporters organized into the [[Left Opposition]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Robert V. |author1-link=Robert Vincent Daniels |title=A Documentary History of Communism in Russia |date=1993 |publisher=[[University of Vermont Press]] |location=Burlington, Vermont |isbn=978-0-87451-616-6 |pages=125–129, 158–159 |edition=3rd}}</ref> the platform of which became known as Trotskyism.{{sfn|Patenaude|2017|p=199}}

In particular, Trotsky advocated for a [[decentralization|decentralised]] form of [[economic planning]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Twiss |first1=Thomas M. |title=Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy |date=8 May 2014 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |isbn=978-90-04-26953-8 |pages=105–106 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3o2fAwAAQBAJ&dq=trotsky+decentralized+planning&pg=PA106 |language=en}}</ref> mass soviet [[democratization]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Ree |first1=Erik |title=Socialism in One Country: A Reassessment |journal=[[Studies in East European Thought]] |date=1998 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=77–117 |doi=10.1023/A:1008651325136 |jstor=20099669 |url=https://dare.uva.nl/personal/pure/en/publications/socialism-in-one-country-a-reassessment(86c1e5b5-25c0-4e87-9842-9bd7b3ef190f).html }}</ref> elected representation of Soviet [[List of political parties in the Soviet Union|socialist parties]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deutscher |first1=Isaac |title=The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky |date=5 January 2015 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78168-721-5 |pages=293 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Trotsky |first1=Leon |author-link=Leon Trotsky |title=The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and where is it Going? |date=1991 |publisher=[[Mehring Books]] |isbn=978-0-929087-48-1 |page=218 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hiCYS9Z3lDoC |language=en}}</ref> the tactic of a [[united front]] against far-right parties,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ticktin |first1=Hillel |author1-link=Hillel Ticktin |chapter=Trotsky's political economy of capitalism |title=The Trotsky Reappraisal |editor1-last=Brotherstone |editor1-first=Terence |editor2-last=Dukes |editor2-first=Paul |date=1992 |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7486-0317-6 |page=227}}</ref>
[[cultural]] autonomy for artistic movements,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eagleton |first1=Terry |author-link=Terry Eagleton |title=Marxism and Literary Criticism |date=7 March 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-94783-6 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7k8t09BbIQC&q=trotsky+literature+and+revolution+socialist+realism |language=en}}</ref> voluntary [[collectivisation]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beilharz |first1=Peter |title=Trotsky, Trotskyism and the Transition to Socialism |date=19 November 2019 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-000-70651-2 |pages=1–206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lfe-DwAAQBAJ&dq=trotsky+widely+acknowledged+collectivisation&pg=PT196 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Joshua |title=Leon Trotsky : a revolutionary's life |date=2011 |location=New Haven |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-13724-8 |page=161 |url=https://archive.org/details/leontrotskyrevol0000rube/page/160/mode/2up?q=forced+collectivization}}</ref> a [[The Death Agony of Capitalism and the Tasks of the Fourth International|transitional program]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Löwy |first1=Michael |author-link=Michael Löwy |title=The Theory of Revolution in the Young Marx |date=2005 |publisher=[[Haymarket Books]] |isbn=978-1-931859-19-6 |page=191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSrvmQeZyhoC&dq=trotsky+transitional+program&pg=PA191 |language=en}}</ref> and socialist [[proletarian internationalism|internationalism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cox |first1=Michael |title=Trotsky and His Interpreters; or, Will the Real Leon Trotsky Please Stand up? |journal=The Russian Review |date=1992 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=84–102 |doi=10.2307/131248 |jstor=131248 }}</ref>

Trotsky had the support of many party [[intellectuals]] but this was overshadowed by the huge apparatus which included the GPU and the party cadres who were at the disposal of Stalin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Volkogonov |first1=Dmitri |title=Trotsky: The Eternal Revolutionary |date=June 2008 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-00-729166-3 |page=284 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BNwaOW1VgEC |language=en}}</ref> Stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the Soviet regime and Trotskyist attempts to remove Stalin from power resulted in Trotsky's exile from the Soviet Union in 1929. While in exile, Trotsky continued his campaign against Stalin, founding in 1938 the [[Fourth International]], a Trotskyist rival to the Comintern.<ref name="transitional">{{cite magazine |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1938/tp/index.htm |title=The Transitional Program |first=Leon |last=Trotsky |author-link=Leon Trotsky |date=May–June 1938 |magazine=Bulletin of the Opposition |access-date=5 November 2008}}</ref>{{sfn|Patenaude|2017|pp=189, 194}}{{sfn|Johnson|Walker|Gray|2014|loc=Fourth International (FI)|p=155}} In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in [[Mexico City]] on Stalin's orders. Trotskyist currents include [[orthodox Trotskyism]], [[third camp]], [[Posadism]], and [[Pabloism]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.bolshevik.org/history/pabloism/Trpab-4.htm |title=A Letter to Trotskyists Throughout the World |date=16 November 1953 |magazine=[[The Militant]] |author-link=Socialist Workers Party (UK) |author=National Committee of the SWP}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.peacelandbread.com/post/on-the-problem-of-trotskyism |title=On the Problem of Trotskyism |first=Jeff |last=Korolev |date=27 September 2021 |journal=Peace, Land, and Bread |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211163239/https://www.peacelandbread.com/post/on-the-problem-of-trotskyism |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The economic platform of a [[planned economy]] combined with an authentic [[socialist democracy|worker's democracy]] as originally advocated by Trotsky has constituted the programme of the Fourth International and the modern Trotskyist movement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Weber |first1=Wolfgang |title=Solidarity in Poland, 1980-1981 and the Perspective of Political Revolution |date=1989 |publisher=[[Mehring Books]] |isbn=978-0-929087-30-6 |page=ix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-FCyCDv9QswC&dq=trotskyists+planned+economy+workers+democracy+programme&pg=PR9 |language=en}}</ref>

===== Maoism =====
{{main|Maoism|Marxism–Leninism–Maoism}}

[[File:Mao Statue at Zhong Shan Guang Chang.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Long Live the Victory of Mao Zedong Thought]] monument in Shenyang]]Maoism is the theory derived from the teachings of the Chinese political leader [[Mao Zedong]]. Developed from the 1950s until the [[Deng Xiaoping]] [[Chinese economic reform]] in the 1970s, it was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the Communist Party of China and as the theory guiding [[revolutionary movement]]s around the world. A key difference between Maoism and other forms of Marxism–Leninism is that [[peasant]]s should be the bulwark of the revolutionary energy which is led by the working class.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Meisner |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Meisner |date=January–March 1971 |title=Leninism and Maoism: Some Populist Perspectives on Marxism-Leninism in China |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=45 |issue=45 |pages=2–36 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000010407 |jstor=651881 }}</ref> Three common Maoist values are revolutionary [[populism]], being practical, and [[dialectic]]s.{{sfn|Womack|2001}}

The synthesis of Marxism–Leninism–Maoism,<ref group="lower-alpha">{{harvp|Hanson|2001|ps=: {{"'}}Marxism–Leninism–Maoism' became the ideology of the Chinese Communist Party and of the splinter parties that broke off from national communist parties after the Chinese definitively split with the Soviets in 1963. Italian communists continued to be influenced by the ideas of Antonio Gramsci, whose independent conception of the reasons why the working class in industrial countries remained politically quiescent bore far more democratic implications than Lenin's own explanation of worker passivity. Until Stalin's death, the Soviet Party referred to its own ideology as 'Marxism–Leninism–Stalinism'."}}</ref> which builds upon the two individual theories as the Chinese adaption of Marxism–Leninism, did not occur during the life of Mao. After [[de-Stalinization]], Marxism–Leninism was kept in the [[Soviet Union]], while certain [[anti-revisionist]] tendencies like [[Hoxhaism]] and Maoism stated that such had deviated from its original concept. Different policies were applied in Albania and China, which became more distanced from the Soviet Union. From the 1960s, groups who called themselves ''Maoists'', or those who upheld Maoism, were not unified around a common understanding of Maoism, instead having their own particular interpretations of the political, philosophical, economical, and military works of Mao. Its adherents claim that as a unified, coherent higher stage of Marxism, it was not consolidated until the 1980s, first being formalized by the [[Shining Path]] in 1982.<ref name="On Marxism-Leninism-Maoism">{{cite web |date=1982 |title=On Marxism-Leninism-Maoism |url=http://library.redspark.nu/1982_-_Maoism._On_Marxism-Leninism-Maoism |access-date=20 January 2020 |website=MLM Library |publisher=[[Communist Party of Peru]] |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728184142/http://library.redspark.nu/1982_-_Maoism._On_Marxism-Leninism-Maoism}}</ref> Through the experience of the [[people's war]] waged by the party, the Shining Path were able to posit Maoism as the newest development of Marxism.{{r|On Marxism-Leninism-Maoism}}

==== Eurocommunism ====
{{main|Eurocommunism}}

[[File:Enrico Berlinguer.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Enrico Berlinguer]], the secretary of the [[Italian Communist Party]] and main proponent of Eurocommunism]]Eurocommunism was a [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionist]] trend in the 1970s and 1980s within various Western European communist parties, claiming to develop a theory and practice of [[social transformation]] more relevant to their region. Especially prominent within the [[French Communist Party]], [[Italian Communist Party]], and [[Communist Party of Spain]], Communists of this nature sought to undermine the influence of the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]] during the [[Cold War]].{{r|Kindersley}} Eurocommunists tended to have a larger attachment to liberty and democracy than their Marxist–Leninist counterparts.<ref>{{cite news |last=Escalona |first=Fabien |date=29 December 2020 |title=Le PCF et l'eurocommunisme: l'ultime rendez-vous manqué? |trans-title=The French Communist Party and Eurocommunism: The greatest missed opportunity? |url=https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/culture-idees/291220/le-pcf-et-l-eurocommunisme-l-ultime-rendez-vous-manque |language=fr |work=Mediapart |access-date=9 February 2023}}</ref> [[Enrico Berlinguer]], general secretary of Italy's major Communist party, was widely considered the father of Eurocommunism.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/eurocomunismo_%28Dizionario-di-Storia%29/ |title=Eurocomunismo |trans-title=Eurocommunism |date=2010 |encyclopedia=Enciclopedia Treccani |language=it |access-date=22 September 2021}}</ref>

=== Libertarian Marxist communism ===
{{main|Libertarian Marxism}}

[[File:Rosa Luxemburg.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Rosa Luxemburg]] as a champion of socialist democracy who famously stated, "Freedom is always and exclusively freedom for the one who thinks differently."]]
Libertarian Marxism is a broad range of economic and political philosophies that emphasize the [[anti-authoritarian]] aspects of [[Marxism]]. Early currents of libertarian Marxism, known as [[left communism]],<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Pierce |first=Wayne |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/wayne-price-libertarian-marxism-s-relation-to-anarchism |title=Libertarian Marxism's Relation to Anarchism |pages=73–80 |magazine=The Utopian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525073948/http://www.utopianmag.com/files/in/1000000034/12___WayneLibMarx.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> emerged in opposition to Marxism–Leninism<ref name="Gorter et al. 2007">{{cite book |title=Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils |date=2007 |publisher=Red and Black Publishers |isbn=978-0-9791813-6-8 |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |first1=Hermann |last1=Gorter |author1-link=Herman Gorter |first2=Antonie |last2=Pannekoek |author2-link=Antonie Pannekoek |first3=Sylvia |last3=Pankhurst |author3-link=Sylvia Pankhurst |first4=Otto |last4=Rühle |author4-link=Otto Rühle}}</ref> and its derivatives such as [[Stalinism]] and [[Maoism]], as well as [[Trotskyism]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Marot |first=Eric |date=2006 |url=http://libcom.org/library/trotsky-left-opposition-rise-stalinism-theory-practice-john-eric-marot |title=Trotsky, the Left Opposition and the Rise of Stalinism: Theory and Practice |access-date=31 August 2021}}</ref> Libertarian Marxism is also critical of [[reformist]] positions such as those held by [[social democrats]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://libcom.org/library/social-democracy-1-aufheben-8 |title=The Retreat of Social Democracy ... Re-imposition of Work in Britain and the 'Social Europe' |magazine=[[Aufheben]] |volume=8 |date=Autumn 1999 |access-date=31 August 2021}}</ref> Libertarian Marxist currents often draw from Marx and Engels' later works, specifically the ''[[Grundrisse]]'' and ''[[The Civil War in France]]'',<ref>{{cite book |first=Ernesto |last=Screpanti |author-link=Ernesto Screpanti |title=Libertarian communism: Marx Engels and the Political Economy of Freedom |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=London |date=2007 |isbn=978-0230018969}}</ref> emphasizing the Marxist belief in the ability of the [[working class]] to forge its own destiny without the need for a revolutionary party or [[State (polity)|state]] to mediate or aid its liberation.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Hal |last=Draper |author-link=Hal Draper |title=The Principle of Self-Emancipation in Marx and Engels |journal=[[Socialist Register]] |volume=8 |issue=8 |url=http://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/5333 |date=1971 |access-date=25 April 2015}}</ref> Along with [[anarchism]], libertarian Marxism is one of the main derivatives of [[libertarian socialism]].<ref>{{citation |last=Chomsky |first=Noam |author-link=Noam Chomsky |url=http://www.chomsky.info/audionvideo/19700216.mp3 |title=Government In The Future |publisher=Poetry Center of the New York YM-YWHA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116194522/http://www.chomsky.info/audionvideo/19700216.mp3 |archive-date=16 January 2013 |type=Lecture}}</ref>

Aside from left communism, libertarian Marxism includes such currents as [[autonomism]], [[communization]], [[council communism]], [[De Leonism]], the [[Johnson–Forest Tendency]], [[Lettrism]], [[Luxemburgism]], [[Situationism]], [[Socialisme ou Barbarie]], [[Solidarity (UK)|Solidarity]], the [[World Socialist Movement]], and [[workerism]], as well as parts of [[Freudo-Marxism]], and the [[New Left]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://libcom.org/library/libertarian-marxist-tendency-map |title=A libertarian Marxist tendency map |publisher=libcom.org |access-date=1 October 2011}}</ref> Libertarian Marxism has often had a strong influence on both [[Post-left anarchy|post-left]] and [[Social anarchism|social anarchists]].{{cn|date=November 2025}} Notable theorists of libertarian Marxism have included [[Anton Pannekoek]], [[Raya Dunayevskaya]], [[Cornelius Castoriadis]], [[Maurice Brinton]], [[Daniel Guérin]], and [[Yanis Varoufakis]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/speakers/yanis_varoufakis |title=Yanis Varoufakis thinks we need a radically new way of thinking about the economy, finance and capitalism |last=Varoufakis |first=Yanis |author-link=Yanis Varoufakis |publisher=[[TED (conference)|TED]] |access-date=14 April 2019 |quote=Yanis Varoufakis describes himself as a "libertarian Marxist}}</ref> the latter of whom claims that Marx himself was a libertarian Marxist.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/yanis-varoufakis-we-leftists-are-not-necessarily-pro-public-sector-marx-was-anti-state-1-7861928 |title=Yanis Varoufakis: We leftists are not necessarily pro public sector – Marx was anti state |last=Lowry |first=Ben |work=The News Letter |date=11 March 2017 |access-date=14 April 2019}}</ref>

==== Council communism ====
{{main|Council communism}}

Council communism is a movement that originated from Germany and the Netherlands in the 1920s,{{sfn|Johnson|Walker|Gray|2014|loc=Pannekoek, Antonie (1873–1960)|pp=313–314}} whose primary organization was the [[Communist Workers' Party of Germany]]. It continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both [[libertarian Marxism]] and [[libertarian socialism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=van der Linden |first=Marcel |author-link=Marcel van der Linden |year=2004 |title=On Council Communism |journal=Historical Materialism |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=27–50 |doi=10.1163/1569206043505275 }}</ref> The core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by [[workers' council]]s, which are composed of [[Delegate model of representation|delegates]] elected at workplaces and [[Recall election|recallable]] at any moment. Council communists oppose the perceived authoritarian and undemocratic nature of [[central planning]] and of [[state socialism]], labelled [[state capitalism]], and the idea of a revolutionary party,<ref name="The New Blanquism">{{cite magazine |title=The New Blanquism |first=Antonie |last=Pannekoek |author-link=Antonie Pannekoek |magazine=Der Kommunist |location=Bremen |number=27 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/pannekoe/1920/blanquism.htm |date=1920 |access-date=31 July 2020 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Anarchism and Council Communism on the Russian Revolution |first=Christos |last=Memos |journal=[[Anarchist Studies]] |volume=20 |issue=2 |url=https://www.lwbooks.co.uk/anarchist-studies/20-2/anarchism-and-council-communism-russian-revolution |pages=22–47 |date=Autumn–Winter 2012 |publisher=Lawrence & Wishart Ltd. |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129181048/https://www.lwbooks.co.uk/anarchist-studies/20-2/anarchism-and-council-communism-russian-revolution}}</ref> since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party would necessarily produce a [[party dictatorship]]. Council communists support a workers' democracy, produced through a federation of workers' councils.

In contrast to those of [[social democracy]] and [[Leninist]] communism, the central argument of council communism is that democratic workers' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural forms of working-class organizations and governmental power.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gerber |first=John |author-link=John Paul Gerber |title=Anton Pannekoek and the Socialism of Workers' Self-Emancipation, 1873-1960 |year=1989 |publisher=Kluwer |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-0792302742}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shipway |first=Mark |chapter=Council Communism |pages=104–126 |editor-first1=Maximilien |editor-last1=Rubel |editor-link1=Maximilien Rubel |editor-first2=John |editor-last2=Crump |title=Non-Market Socialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |year=1987 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York}}</ref> This view is opposed to both the [[reformist]]<ref name="Socialism and Labor Unionism">{{cite magazine|title=Socialism and Labor Unionism |first=Anton |last=Pannekoek |author-link=Anton Pannekoek |magazine=The New Review |volume=1 |number=18 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/pannekoe/1913/07/socialism-labor-unionism.htm |date=July 1913 |access-date=31 July 2020 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> and the Leninist communist ideologies,{{r|The New Blanquism}} which respectively stress parliamentary and [[New institutionalism|institutional]] government by applying [[Reform movement|social reforms]] on the one hand, and [[vanguard parties]] and [[Participatory democracy|participative]] [[democratic centralism]] on the other.{{r|Socialism and Labor Unionism}}{{r|The New Blanquism}}

==== Left communism ====
{{main|Left communism}}

Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints held by the communist left, which criticizes the political ideas and practices espoused, particularly following the series of revolutions that brought [[World War I]] to an end by [[Bolsheviks]] and [[social democrats]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Communist Left in the Third International |first=Amadeo |last=Bordiga |author-link=Amadeo Bordiga |date=1926 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bordiga/works/1926/comintern.htm |access-date=23 September 2021 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> Left communists assert positions which they regard as more authentically [[Marxist]] and [[proletarian]] than the views of Marxism–Leninism espoused by the [[Communist International]] after its [[1st Congress of the Comintern|first congress]] (March 1919) and during its [[2nd World Congress of the Comintern|second congress]] (July–August 1920).{{r|Gorter et al. 2007}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bordiga |first1=Amadeo |author-link=Amadeo Bordiga |title=Dialogue with Stalin |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/bordiga/works/1952/stalin.htm |publisher=Marxists Internet Archive |access-date=15 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ronald I. |last=Kowalski |title=The Bolshevik Party in Conflict: The Left Communist Opposition of 1918 |publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]] |location=Basingstoke, England |date=1991 |isbn=978-1-349-10369-0 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-10367-6 |page=2}}</ref>

Left communists represent a range of political movements distinct from [[Marxist–Leninists]], whom they largely view as merely the left wing of [[Capital (economics)|capital]], from [[anarcho-communists]], some of whom they consider to be [[internationalist socialists]], and from various other revolutionary socialist tendencies, such as [[De Leonists]], whom they tend to see as being internationalist socialists only in limited instances.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.internationalism.org/book/export/html/761 |title=The Legacy of De Leonism, part III: De Leon's misconceptions on class struggle |date=2000–2001 |website=Internationalism}}</ref> [[Bordigism]] is a Leninist left-communist current named after [[Amadeo Bordiga]], who has been described as being "more Leninist than Lenin", and considered himself to be a Leninist.<ref>{{cite book |last=Piccone |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Piccone |date=1983 |title=Italian Marxism |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |pages=134 |isbn=978-0-520-04798-3}}</ref>

=== Other types of communism ===
==== Anarcho-communism ====
{{main|Anarcho-communism}}

[[File:Kropotkin2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Peter Kropotkin]], main theorist of [[anarcho-communism]]]]
Anarcho-communism is a [[libertarian]] theory of [[anarchism]] and communism which advocates the abolition of the [[State (polity)|state]], [[private property]], and [[capitalism]] in favor of [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]];<ref name="Mayne">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&pg=PA131 |title=From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms |first=Alan James |last=Mayne |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |page=316 |isbn=978-0-275-96151-0 |year=1999 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Anarchism for Know-It-Alls |publisher=Filiquarian Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-59986-218-7}}</ref> [[direct democracy]]; and a [[Horizontal integration|horizontal network]] of [[voluntary association]]s and [[workers' council]]s with production and consumption based on the guiding principle, "[[From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs|From each according to his ability, to each according to his need]]".<ref>{{cite web |last=Fabbri |first=Luigi |author-link=Luigi Fabbri |title=Anarchism and Communism. Northeastern Anarchist No. 4. 1922 |date=13 October 2002 |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629024338/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html |archive-date=29 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=The Nestor Makhno Archive |title=Constructive Section |url=http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/constructive.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721225357/http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/platform/constructive.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Anarcho-communism differs from Marxism in that it rejects its view about the need for a [[state socialism]] phase prior to establishing communism. [[Peter Kropotkin]], the main theorist of anarcho-communism, stated that a revolutionary society should "transform itself immediately into a communist society", that it should go immediately into what Marx had regarded as the "more advanced, completed, phase of communism".<ref name="theanarchistlibrary.org">{{cite book |url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Wayne_Price__What_is_Anarchist_Communism_.html |title=What is Anarchist Communism? |first=Wayne |last=Price |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221140615/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Wayne_Price__What_is_Anarchist_Communism_.html |archive-date=21 December 2010 |access-date=19 January 2011}}</ref> In this way, it tries to avoid the reappearance of class divisions and the need for a state to be in control.{{r|theanarchistlibrary.org}}

Some forms of anarcho-communism, such as [[insurrectionary anarchism]], are [[Egoist anarchism|egoist]] and strongly influenced by radical [[individualism]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gray |first1=Christopher |title=Leaving the 20th century: the incomplete work of the Situationist International |date=1998 |location=London |isbn=9780946061150 |page=88 |publisher=Rebel Press}}</ref><ref name="creativenothing">{{cite book |url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html |title=Towards the creative Nothing |first=Renzo |last=Novatore |author-link=Renzo Novatore |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728093004/http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing.html |archive-date=28 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 |title=Bob Black. ''Nightmares of Reason'' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027102331/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Bob_Black__Nightmares_of_Reason.html#toc22 |archive-date=27 October 2010 |access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref> believing that anarchist communism does not require a [[communitarian]] nature at all. Most anarcho-communists view anarchist communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.<ref group="lower-alpha">{{cite web |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Kropotkin |date=1901 |title=Communism and Anarchy |url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Communism_and_Anarchy.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728092851/http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Petr_Kropotkin__Communism_and_Anarchy.html |archive-date=28 July 2011 |quote=Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty{{snd}}provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy ... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause) |author-link=Delo Truda |url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Dielo_Truda__Workers__Cause___Organisational_Platform_of_the_Libertarian_Communists.html |title=Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists |date=1926 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728092719/http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Dielo_Truda__Workers__Cause___Organisational_Platform_of_the_Libertarian_Communists.html |archive-date=28 July 2011 |quote=This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=MY PERSPECTIVES – Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12 |url=http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/vb/wd12persp.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716084332/http://www.reocities.com/kk_abacus/vb/wd12persp.html |archive-date=16 July 2011 |quote=I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle.}}</ref>

==== Christian communism ====
{{main|Christian communism}}

Christian communism is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ]] compel [[Christians]] to support [[religious communism]] as the ideal [[social system]].{{sfn|Lansford|2007|pp=24–25}} Although there is no universal agreement on the exact dates when communistic ideas and practices in Christianity began, many Christian communists state that evidence from the [[Bible]] suggests that the first Christians, including the [[Apostles in the New Testament]], established their own small communist society in the years following Jesus' death and resurrection.<ref>{{cite web |last=Montero |first=Roman |date=30 July 2019 |title=The Sources of Early Christian Communism |url=https://churchlifejournal.nd.edu/articles/the-sources-of-early-christian-communism/ |access-date=26 March 2021 |website=Church Life Journal}}</ref>

Many advocates of Christian communism state that it was taught by Jesus and practiced by the apostles themselves,<ref>{{cite book |last=Kautsky |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Kautsky |title=Foundations of Christianity |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1908/christ/index.htm |date=1953 |orig-date=1908 |publisher=[[Atheneum Books|Russell & Russell]] |chapter=IV.II. The Christian Idea of the Messiah. Jesus as a Rebel. |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1908/christ/ch10.htm#s3 |quotation=Christianity was the expression of [[class conflict]] in Antiquity. |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref> an argument that historians and others, including anthropologist Roman A. Montero,<ref>{{cite book |last=Montero |first=Roman A. |title=All Things in Common The Economic Practices of the Early Christians |date=2017 |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |isbn=9781532607912 |location=Eugene |page=5|oclc=994706026}}</ref> scholars like [[Ernest Renan]],<ref>{{cite book |first=Ernest |last=Renan |page=122 |title=Origins of Christianity |publisher=Carleton |location=New York |year=1869 |chapter=VIII. First Persecution. Death of Stephen. Destruction of the First Church of Jerusalem |volume=II. The Apostles |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=knYRAAAAYAAJ&q=christian+communism&pg=PA152 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Roland |last=Boer |page=120 |title=Political Grace. The Revolutionary Theology of John Calvin |chapter=Conclusion: What If? Calvin and the Spirit of Revolution. Bible |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-664-23393-8 |location=Louisville, Kentucky |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIeLYNEq6zsC&q=christian+communism&pg=PA120 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> and theologians like [[Charles Ellicott]] and [[Donald Guthrie (theologian)|Donald Guthrie]],<ref>{{cite book |first1=Charles John |last1=Ellicott |author1-link=Charles Ellicott |first2=Edward Hayes |last2=Plumptre |author2-link=Edward Plumptre |chapter=III. The Church in Jerusalem. I. Christian Communism |title=The Acts of the Apostles |year=1910 |location=London |publisher=[[Cassell (publisher)|Cassell]] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk8AAAAIAAJ&q=christian+communism&pg=PA11 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Guthrie |author-link=Donald Guthrie (theologian) |orig-date=1975 |year=1992 |publisher=[[Zondervan]] |isbn=978-0-310-25421-8 |title=The Apostles |page=[https://archive.org/details/apostles0010guth/page/46 46] |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |chapter=3. Early Problems. 15. Early Christian Communism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uts4VTUm1iEC&q=christian+communism&pg=PA46 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> generally agree with.{{sfn|Lansford|2007|pp=24–25}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Frank K. |last=Flinn |title=Encyclopedia of Catholicism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxEONS0FFlsC&pg=PA173 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8160-7565-2 |pages=173–174}}</ref> Christian communism enjoys some support in Russia. Russian musician [[Yegor Letov]] was an outspoken Christian communist, and in a 1995 interview he was quoted as saying: "Communism is the [[Kingdom of God]] on Earth."<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Agranovsky |first=Dmitry |date=12 July 1995 |url=http://grob-hroniki.org/article/1995/art_1995-12-07a.html |title=Yegor Letov: Russkiy Proryv |script-title=ru:Егор Летов: Русский Прорыв |trans-title=Egor Letov: Russian Breakthrough |magazine=Sovetskaya Rossiya |language=ru |issue=145 |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>

== Analysis ==

==== Achievements of the Soviet planned economies ====
[[File:Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg|thumb|upright|Soviet stamp showing the orbit of [[Sputnik 1]]]]
In the officially sanctioned textbooks describing the socialist planned economies as they existed in the 1980s, it was claimed as follows:
* Class and national oppression had been totally eradicated.
* [[Unemployment]], [[hunger]], [[poverty]], [[illiteracy]] and uncertainty about the future had been eliminated.
* Every citizen had a guaranteed right to work, rest, [[universal education|education]], [[universal healthcare|health care]], abode and security in old age and maintenance in the event of disability.
* Material standards of living were rising steadily and everyone had free access to knowledge and to the values of world and national culture.
* Every citizen had a right in practice to take part in discussing and solving any problems in the life of the enterprise, region, republic and the country they lived in, including the rights to free speech, of assembly and to demonstrate.<ref>Sergei Ilyin and Alexander Motylev, ''What is Political Economy?'', 1986, Moscow: Progress Publishers, pp. 271–72.</ref>

Data collected by the [[United Nations]] of indicators of human development in the early 1990s show that a high level of social development was achieved in the former socialist planned economies of Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CEE/CIS). Life expectancy in the CEE/CIS area in the period 1985–1990 was 68 years, while for the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) it was 75 years.<ref>UN Department of Economic & Social Affairs, ''World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision'', File MORT/7.1. Data for 1985–1990. The world average was 64 years.</ref> Infant mortality in the CEE/CIS area was 25 for every 1,000 live births in 1990, compared to 13 in the OECD area.<ref>UN, 1994, ''Demographic Yearbook 1992'', New York: United Nations Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, Tables 4 and 20. Data is for 1990. The world average was 58 for every1,000 live births.</ref> In terms of education, the two areas enjoyed universal adult literacy and full enrollment of children in primary and secondary schools. For tertiary education, the CEE/CIS had 2,600 university students per 100,000 population, while in the OECD the comparable figure was 3,550 students. Overall enrollment at primary, secondary and tertiary levels was 75 percent in the CEE/CIS region and 82 percent in the OECD countries.<ref>UNDP, ''Human Development Report 1997'', Tables 27 and 47; figures are for 1992–94. The world average is 1,490 students per 100,000 people and 60 percent for the gross enrolment ratio, combining all levels of education. Countries with a high intake at tertiary level to technical and vocational education such as Western Germany (2,320) had a similar ratio of university students to the socialist countries, reflecting a higher proportion of manufacturing and construction in their economies. {{ISBN|0-19-511997-5}}.</ref>

The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on [[Science and technology in the Soviet Union|science and technology]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Science and Technology |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0413%29 |access-date=23 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+su0413%29 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=15 June 1992 |title=The Soviet Union and the United States – Revelations from the Russian Archives {{!}} Exhibitions – Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915012329/http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html |archive-date=15 September 2017 |access-date=12 November 2017 |website=www.loc.gov}}</ref> Lenin believed the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks and research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, 40% of chemistry PhDs in the Soviet Union were attained by women, compared with only 5% in the United States.<ref>[[Rose Eveleth]] (12 December 2013). [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today-180948141/?no-ist Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006112126/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today-180948141/?no-ist |date=6 October 2014 }}. ''[[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian.com]].'' Retrieved 26 June 2014.</ref> By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding, space technology, and military technologies. However, due to rigid state planning and [[Nomenklatura|bureaucracy]], the Soviets remained far behind the [[First World]] in chemistry, biology, and computer science. Under Stalin, the Soviet government persecuted [[geneticists]] in favour of [[Lysenkoism]], a [[pseudoscience]] rejected by the scientific community in the Soviet Union and abroad but supported by Stalin's inner circles. Implemented in the USSR and China, it resulted in reduced crop yields and is widely believed to have contributed to the [[Great Chinese Famine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Offord |first1=Catherine |title=Stamping Out Science, 1948 |journal=[[The Scientist (magazine)|The Scientist]] |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/stamping-out-science-1948-68665 |access-date=20 September 2021 |archive-date=28 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528184521/https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/stamping-out-science-1948-68665 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1980s, the Soviet Union had more [[scientists]] and [[engineers]] relative to the world's population than any other major country, owing to strong levels of state support.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Chi Ling |title=Fallen Behind: Science, Technology and Soviet Statism |journal=Intersect: The Stanford Journal of Science, Technology, and Society |date=11 June 2015 |volume=8 |issue=3 |url=https://ojs.stanford.edu/ojs/index.php/intersect/article/view/691#:~:text=This%20essay%20argues%20that%20the,demands%20of%2021st%20century%20informationalization. |language=en}}</ref> Some of its most remarkable technological achievements, such as launching the [[Sputnik 1|world's first space satellite]], were achieved through military research.<ref name="Library of Congress Country Studies">{{cite web |title=Economy |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0009%29 |access-date=23 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+su0009%29 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

On housing the main problem was over-crowding rather than homelessness in the socialist planned economies. In the USSR the area of residential accommodation was 15.5 square meters per person by 1990 in urban areas but 15 percent of the population were without their own separate accommodation and had to live in communal apartments according to the 1989 census.<ref>Brown, A, Kaser, M C, Smith, G S (editors), ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union'', 1994, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 411, 465 {{ISBN|0-521-35593-1}}.</ref> Housing was generally of good quality in both the CEE/CIS region and in the OECD countries: 98 and 99 percent of the population in the OECD countries had access to safe drinking water and improved sanitation respectively, compared to 93 and 85 percent in the CEE/CIS area by 1990.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data |work=UN Statistics Division, Department of Economic & Social Affairs |title=Millennium Development Goals Indicators for 1990 |access-date=26 December 2013 }} {{dead link|date=November 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

Unemployment did not exist officially in the socialist planned economies, though there were people between jobs and a fraction of unemployable people as a result of illness, disability or other problems, such as alcoholism. The proportion of people changing jobs was between 6 and 13 percent of the labour force a year according to employment data during the 1970s and 1980s in Central and Eastern Europe and the USSR. Labour exchanges were established in the USSR in 1967 to help enterprises re-allocate workers and provide information on job vacancies. Compulsory unemployment insurance schemes operated in Bulgaria, Eastern Germany and Hungary but the numbers claiming support as a result of losing their job through no fault of their own numbered a few hundred a year.<ref>Brown, A, Kaser, M C, Smith, G S (editors), ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union'', 1994, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 431, 464 {{ISBN|0-521-35593-1}}; and Porket, J L, ''Unemployment in Capitalist, Communist and Post-Communist Economies'', 1995, London: Macmillan pp. 32–36 {{ISBN|0-312-12484-8}}.</ref>

By 1988, GDP per person, measured at purchasing power parity in US dollars, was $7,519 in Russia and $6,304 for the USSR. The highest income was to be found in Slovenia ($10,663) and Estonia ($9,078) and the lowest in Albania ($1,386) and Tajikistan ($2,730). Across the whole CEE/CIS area, GDP per person was estimated at $6,162.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/20631/ |title=IMF staff estimates in Stanley Fischer, Ratna Sahay and Carlos Vegh, ''Stabilization and growth in transition economies: The early experience'', April 1996, IMF Working Paper WP/96/31; Table 1, p. 6 |publisher=Mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de |date= April 1996|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref> This compared to the US with $20,651 and $16,006 for Germany in the same year. For the OECD area as a whole estimated GDP per person was $14,385.<ref>OECD ''National Accounts at a Glance'', 2013 edition for 1988 GDP per capita at current purchasing power parities and current prices, Retrieved 1 November 2013.</ref> Thus, on the basis of IMF estimates, national income (GDP) per person in the CEE/CIS area was 43 percent of that in the OECD area.

==== Economic problems of the Soviet planned economies ====
[[File:Graph of Soviet National Income Growth.png|thumb|350px|Soviet national income 1928–1987 growth in % based on estimates of the official statistical agency of the Soviet Union, the CIA and revised estimates by [[Grigorii Khanin]]]]

From the 1960s onwards, CMEA countries, beginning with East Germany, attempted "intensive" growth strategies, aiming to raise the productivity of labour and capital. However, in practice this meant that investment was shifted towards new branches of industry, including the electronics, computing, automotive and nuclear power sectors, leaving the traditional heavy industries dependent upon older technologies. Despite the rhetoric about modernization, innovation remained weak as enterprise managers preferred routine production that was easier to plan and brought them predictable bonuses. Embargoes on high technology exports organized through the US-supported [[CoCom]] arrangement hampered technology transfer. Enterprise managers also ignored inducements to introduce labour-saving measures as they wished to retain a reserve of personnel to be available to meet their production target by working at top speed when supplies were delayed.<ref>[[Archie Brown (historian)|Archie Brown]], and [[Michael Kaser]], ''Soviet Policy for the 1980s'', 1982, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, pp. 188, 194, 200, 208 {{ISBN|0-253-35412-9}}; Simon Clarke (editor), ''Structural Adjustment without Mass Unemployment? Lessons from Russia'', 1998, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 23–28 {{ISBN|1-85898-713-X}}; Marie Lavigne, ''The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy'', 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 52–54, 60–61, 75–76, 248 {{ISBN|0-333-52731-3}}; Padma Desai, ''The Soviet Economy: Problems and Prospects'', 1990, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. 10–11 {{ISBN|0-631-17183-5}}</ref>

Under conditions of "taut planning", the economy was expected to produce a volume of output higher than the reported capacity of enterprises and there was no "slack" in the system. Enterprises faced a resource constraint and hoarded labour and other inputs and avoided sub-contracting intermediate production activities, preferring to retain the work in-house. The enterprise, according to the theory promulgated by [[János Kornai]], was constrained by its resources not by the demand for its goods and services; nor was it constrained by its finances since the government was not likely to shut it down if it failed to meet its financial targets. Enterprises in socialist planned economies operated within a "soft" budget constraint, unlike enterprises in capitalist market economies which are demand-constrained and operate within "hard" budget constraints, as they face bankruptcy if their costs exceed their sales. As all producers were working in a resource-constrained economy they were perpetually in short supply and the shortages could never be eliminated, leading to chronic disruption of production schedules. The effect of this was to preserve a high level of employment.<ref>János Kornai, ‘’Economics of Shortage’’, Amsterdam: North Holland; Marie Lavigne, ''The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy'', 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 60, 130–35, 248 {{ISBN|0-333-52731-3}}</ref>

As the supply of consumer goods failed to match rising incomes (because workers still received their pay even if they were not fully productive), household savings accumulated, indicating, in the official terminology, "postponed demand". Western economists called this "[[monetary overhang]]" or "repressed inflation". Prices on the black market were several times higher than in the official price-controlled outlets, reflecting the scarcity and possible illegality of the sale of these items. Therefore, although consumer welfare was reduced by shortages, the prices households paid for their regular consumption were lower than would have been the case had prices been set at market-clearing levels.<ref>Brown, A, and Kaser, M C, ''The Soviet Union Since the Fall of Khrushchev'', 1978, London: Macmillan, pp. 212–14 {{ISBN|0-333-23337-9}}; Brown, A, and Kaser, M C, ''Soviet Policy for the 1980s'', 1982, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, p. 193 {{ISBN|0-253-35412-9}}; Marie Lavigne, ''The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy'', 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 61, 130–35 {{ISBN|0-333-52731-3}}</ref>

Over the course of the 1980s it became clear that the CMEA area was "in crisis", although it remained viable economically and was not expected to collapse.<ref>Marie Lavigne, ''The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy'', 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 76 and 248 {{ISBN|0-333-52731-3}}</ref> The "extensive" growth model was retarding growth in the CMEA as a whole, with member countries dependent upon supplies of raw materials from the USSR and upon the Soviet market for sales of goods. The decline in growth rates reflected a combination of diminishing returns to capital accumulation and low innovation as well as micro-economic inefficiencies, which a high rate of saving and investment was unable to counter. The CMEA was supposed to ensure coordination of national plans but it failed even to develop a common methodology for planning which could be adopted by its member states. As each member state was reluctant to give up national self-sufficiency the CMEA's efforts to encourage specialization was thwarted. There were very few joint ventures and therefore little intra-enterprise technology transfer and trade, which in the capitalist world was often undertaken by trans-national corporations. The International Bank for Economic Cooperation had no means of converting a country's trade surplus into an option to buy goods and services from other CMEA members.<ref>Marie Lavigne, ''The Economies of Transition: From socialist economy to market economy'', 1995, London: Macmillan, pp. 52–54, 75–76 {{ISBN|0-333-52731-3}}</ref>

=== Reception ===
{{Anti-communism}}
Emily Morris from [[University College London]] wrote that because Karl Marx's writings have inspired many movements, including the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], communism is "commonly confused with the political and economic system that developed in the Soviet Union" after the revolution.{{r|Morris}}<ref group="lower-alpha">{{harvp|Morgan|2015|ps=: "Communist ideas have acquired a new meaning since 1918. They became equivalent to the ideas of Marxism–Leninism, that is, the interpretation of Marxism by Lenin and his successors. Endorsing the final objective, namely, the creation of a community owning means of production and providing each of its participants with consumption 'according to their needs', they put forward the recognition of the class struggle as a dominating principle of a social development. In addition, workers (i.e., the proletariat) were to carry out the mission of reconstruction of the society. Conducting a socialist revolution headed by the avant-garde of the proletariat, that is, the party, was hailed to be a historical necessity. Moreover, the introduction of the proletariat dictatorship was advocated and hostile classes were to be liquidated."}}</ref> Historian Andrzej Paczkowski summarized communism as "an ideology that seemed clearly the opposite, that was based on the secular desire of humanity to achieve equality and social justice, and that promised a great leap forward into freedom."{{sfn|Paczkowski|2001|pp=32–33}} In contrast, Austrian-American economist [[Ludwig von Mises]] argued that by abolishing free markets, [[Economic calculation problem|communist officials would not have the price system]] necessary to guide their planned production.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Greaves |first=Bettina Bien |date=1 March 1991 |title=Why Communism Failed |url=https://fee.org/articles/why-communism-failed/ |access-date=13 August 2023 |website=[[Foundation for Economic Education]] |language=en}}</ref>

[[Anti-communism]] developed as soon as communism became a conscious political movement in the 19th century, and [[anti-communist mass killings]] have been reported against alleged communists, or their alleged supporters, which were committed by anti-communists and political organizations or governments opposed to communism. The communist movement has faced opposition since it was founded and the opposition to it has often been organized and violent. Many of these anti-communist mass killing campaigns, primarily during the Cold War,<ref name="Aarons 2007">{{cite book |last=Aarons |first=Mark |url=http://www.brill.com/legacy-nuremberg-civilising-influence-or-institutionalised-vengeance |title=The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law) |date=2007 |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |isbn=978-9004156913 |editor1-last=Blumenthal |editor1-first=David A. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA71 71], [https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA81 80–81] |chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide |access-date=28 June 2021 |editor2-last=McCormack |editor2-first=Timothy L. H. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA69 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105053952/http://www.brill.com/legacy-nuremberg-civilising-influence-or-institutionalised-vengeance |archive-date=5 January 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|Bevins|2020b}} were supported by the United States and its [[Western Bloc]] allies,<ref>{{cite book |last=Blakeley |first=Ruth |date=2009 |title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–23], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA92&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false 85–96] |isbn=978-0-415-68617-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McSherry |first1=J. Patrice |author1-link=J. Patrice McSherry |editor1-last=Esparza |editor1-first=Marcia |editor2-first=Henry R. |editor2-last=Huttenbach |editor3-first=Daniel |editor3-last=Feierstein |title=State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies) |chapter=Chapter 5: 'Industrial repression' and Operation Condor in Latin America |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=acGNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 107] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-66457-8 |url=https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377}}</ref> including those who were formally part of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], such as the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66]], the [[Guatemalan genocide]] and [[Operation Condor]] in South America.<ref>{{cite book |last=Blakeley |first=Ruth |date=2009 |title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 91–94], 154 |isbn=978-0415686174}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bevins |first=Vincent |author-link=Vincent Bevins |date=18 May 2020a |url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2020/05/18/how-jakarta-became-the-codeword-for-us-backed-mass-killing/ |title=How 'Jakarta' Became the Codeword for US-Backed Mass Killing |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]] |access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Prashad |first=Vijay |author-link=Vijay Prashad |date=2020 |title=Washington Bullets: A History of the CIA, Coups, and Assassinations |publisher=[[Monthly Review|Monthly Review Press]] |pages=13–14, 87 |isbn=978-1583679067}}</ref>

=== Excess mortality in Communist states ===
{{further|Mass killings under communist regimes}}

Many authors have written about excess deaths under Communist states and [[mortality rate]]s,{{refn|group=note|name=third}} such as [[excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin]].{{refn|group=note|name=fourth}} Some authors posit that there is a Communist death toll, whose death estimates vary widely, depending on the definitions of the deaths that are included in them, ranging from lows of 10–20 million to highs over 100 million. The higher estimates have been criticized by several scholars as ideologically motivated and inflated; they are also criticized for being inaccurate due to incomplete data, inflated by counting any excess death, making an unwarranted link to communism, and the grouping and body-counting itself. Higher estimates account for actions that Communist governments committed against civilians, including executions, human-made famines, and deaths that occurred during, or resulted from, imprisonment, and forced deportations and labor. Higher estimates are criticized for being based on sparse and incomplete data when significant errors are inevitable, and for being skewed to higher possible values.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{harvp|Harff|1996}}; {{harvp|Hiroaki|2001}}; {{harvp|Paczkowski|2001}}; {{harvp|Weiner|2002}}; {{harvp|Dulić|2004}}; {{harvp|Harff|2017}}</ref> Others have argued that, while certain estimates may not be accurate, "quibbling about numbers is unseemly. What matters is that many, many people were killed by communist regimes."{{sfn|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}} Historian Mark Bradley wrote that while the exact numbers have been in dispute, the [[order of magnitude]] is not.{{sfn|Bradley|2017|pp=151–153}}

There is no consensus among [[genocide scholars]] and [[scholars of Communism]] about whether some or all the events constituted a [[genocide]] or [[mass killing]].{{refn|Most genocide scholars do not lump Communist states together, and do not treat genocidical events as a separate subjects, or by regime-type, and compare them to genocidical events which happened under vastly different [[regime]]s. Examples include ''Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charny |first1=Israel W. |author1-link=Israel Charny |last2=Parsons |first2=William S. |last3=Totten |first3=Samuel |author3-link=Samuel Totten |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Ef8Hrx8Cd0C |title=Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=978-0-415-94430-4 |access-date=13 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> ''The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mann |first1=Michael |title=The Dark Side of Democracy |date=2004 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817274 |isbn=978-0-521-83130-7 }}{{pn|date=January 2026}}{{psc|date=January 2026}}</ref> ''Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Sémelin |first=Jacques |author-link=Jacques Sémelin |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIS-AwAAQBAJ |title=Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-14282-3 |access-date=13 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> ''Resisting Genocide: The Multiple Forms of Rescue'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Andrieu |first1=Claire |last2=Gensburger |first2=Sarah |last3=Sémelin |first3=Jacques |author3-link=Jacques Sémelin |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=61HEQ2Y9iQ8C |title=Resisting Genocide: The Multiple Forms of Rescue |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-80046-4 |access-date=13 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> and ''Final Solutions''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Valentino |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Valentino |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqedDgAAQBAJ |title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8014-6717-2 |access-date=13 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Several of them are limited to the geographical locations of "the Big Three", or mainly the [[Cambodian genocide]], whose culprit, the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime, was described by genocide scholar [[Helen Fein]] as following a [[xenophobic]] ideology bearing a stronger resemblance to "an almost forgotten phenomenon of national socialism", or [[fascism]], rather than communism,<ref>{{cite book |last=Fein |first=Helen |author-link=Helen Fein |year=1993 |chapter=Soviet and Communist Genocides and 'Democide' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4TaAAAAMAAJ |title=Genocide: A Sociological Perspective; Contextual and Comparative Studies I: Ideological Genocides |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-0-8039-8829-3 |access-date=13 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> while historian [[Ben Kiernan]] described it as "more racist and generically totalitarian than Marxist or specifically Communist",<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heder |first=Steve |date=July 1997 |title=Racism, Marxism, Labelling, and Genocide in Ben Kiernan's 'The Pol Pot Regime' |journal=South East Asia |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=101–153 |doi=10.1177/0967828X9700500202 |jstor=23746851}}</ref> or do not discuss Communist states, other than passing mentions. Such work is mainly done in an attempt to prevent [[genocide]]s but has been described by scholars as a failure.{{r|Weiss-Wendt 2008}}|group=note}} Among genocide scholars, there is no consensus on a common terminology,<ref name="Weiss-Wendt 2008">{{cite book |last=Weiss-Wendt |first=Anton |date=2008 |chapter=Problems in Comparative Genocide Scholarship |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Dan |title=The Historiography of Genocide |location=London |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=42–70 |doi=10.1057/9780230297784_3 |isbn=978-0-230-29778-4 |quote=There is barely any other field of study that enjoys so little consensus on defining principles such as definition of genocide, typology, application of a comparative method, and timeframe. Considering that scholars have always put stress on prevention of genocide, comparative genocide studies have been a failure. Paradoxically, nobody has attempted so far to assess the field of comparative genocide studies as a whole. This is one of the reasons why those who define themselves as genocide scholars have not been able to detect the situation of crisis.}}</ref> and the events have been variously referred to as ''excess mortality'' or ''mass deaths''; other terms used to define some of such killings include ''[[classicide]]'', ''[[crimes against humanity]]'', ''[[democide]]'', ''genocide'', ''[[politicide]]'', ''[[Holocaust (disambiguation)|holocaust]]'', ''mass killing'', and ''[[Political repression|repression]]''.{{sfn|Karlsson|Schoenhals|2008}}{{refn|Genocide scholar [[Barbara Harff]] maintains a global database on mass killings, which is intended mostly for statistical analysis of mass killings in attempt to identify the best predictors for their onset and data is not necessarily the most accurate for a given country, since some sources are general genocide scholars and not experts on local history;{{sfn|Harff|2017}} it includes [[anticommunist mass killings]], such as the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966]] (genocide and politicide), and some events which happened under Communist states, such as the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]] (genocide and politicide), the [[Cambodian genocide]] (genocide and politicide), and the [[Cultural Revolution]] (politicide), but no comparative analysis or communist link is drawn, other than the events just happened to take place in some Communist states in Eastern Asia. The Harff database is the most frequently used by genocide scholars.{{r|Tago & Wayman 2010}} [[Rudolph Rummel]] operated a similar database, but it was not limited to Communist states, it is mainly for statistical analysis, and in a comparative analysis has been criticized by other scholars,<ref>{{harvnb|Harff|1996}}; {{harvnb|Kuromiya|2001}}; {{harvnb|Paczkowski|2001}}; {{harvnb|Weiner|2002}}; {{harvnb|Dulić|2004}}; {{harvnb|Karlsson|Schoenhals|2008|pp=35, 79|ps=: "While Jerry Hough suggested Stalin's terror claimed tens of thousands of victims, R.J. Rummel puts the death toll of Soviet communist terror between 1917 and 1987 at 61,911,000. In both cases, these figures are based on an ideological preunderstanding and speculative and sweeping calculations. On the other hand, the considerably lower figures in terms of numbers of Gulag prisoners presented by Russian researchers during the glasnost period have been relatively widely accepted. ... It could, quite rightly, be claimed that the opinions that Rummel presents here (they are hardly an example of a serious and empirically-based writing of history) do not deserve to be mentioned in a research review, but they are still perhaps worth bringing up on the basis of the interest in him in the blogosphere."}}</ref> over that of Harff,{{sfn|Harff|2017}} for his estimates and statistical methodology, which showed some flaws.{{sfn|Dulić|2004}}|group=note}} These scholars state that most Communist states did not engage in mass killings;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Valentino |first1=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Valentino |date=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQfeXVU_EvgC |title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century |location=Ithaca |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |pages=91 |isbn=978-0-801-47273-2 |quote=Communism has a bloody record, but most regimes that have described themselves as communist or have been described as such by others have not engaged in mass killing.}}</ref>{{refn|In their criticism of ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]'', which popularized the topic, several scholars have questioned, in the words of [[Alexander Dallin]], "[w]hether all these cases, from Hungary to Afghanistan, have a single essence and thus deserve to be lumped together{{snd}}just because they are labeled Marxist or communist{{snd}}is a question the authors scarcely discuss."<ref name="Dallin 2000">{{cite journal |last=Dallin |first=Alexander |date=Winter 2000 |title=The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. By Stéphane Courtois, Nicolas Werth, Jean-Louis Panné, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartošek, and Jean-Louis Margolin. Trans. Jonathan Murphy and Mark Kramer. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999. xx, 858 pp. Notes. Index. Photographs. Maps. $37.50, hard bound. |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=882–883 |doi=10.2307/2697429 |jstor=2697429}}</ref> In particular, historians Jens Mecklenburg and Wolfgang Wippermann stated that a connection between the events in [[Joseph Stalin]]'s Soviet Union and [[Pol Pot]]'s Cambodia are far from evident and that Pol Pot's study of Marxism in Paris is insufficient for connecting radical Soviet industrialism and the [[Khmer Rouge]]'s murderous anti-urbanism under the same category.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Mecklenburg |editor-first1=Jens |editor-last2=Wippermann |editor-first2=Wolfgang |date=1998 |title='Roter Holocaust'? Kritik des Schwarzbuchs des Kommunismus |trans-title=A 'Red Holocaust'? A Critique of the Black Book of Communism |location=Hamburg |publisher=Konkret Verlag Literatur |language=de |isbn=3-89458-169-7}}</ref> Historian Michael David-Fox criticized the figures as well as the idea to combine loosely connected events under a single category of Communist death toll, blaming [[Stéphane Courtois]] for their manipulation and deliberate inflation which are presented to advocate the idea that communism was a greater evil than Nazism. David-Fox criticized the idea to connect the deaths with some "generic Communism" concept, defined down to the common denominator of party movements founded by intellectuals.<ref name="David-Fox 2004">{{cite journal |last=David-Fox |first=Michael |date=Winter 2004 |title=On the Primacy of Ideology: Soviet Revisionists and Holocaust Deniers (In Response to Martin Malia) |journal=[[Kritika (journal)|Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History]] |volume=5 |number=1 |pages=81–105 |doi=10.1353/kri.2004.0007 }}</ref> A similar criticism was made by ''[[Le Monde]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Malia |first=Martin |date=October 1999 |chapter=Preface |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC |title=The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |page=xiv |isbn=978-0-674-07608-2 |access-date=12 August 2021 |via=[[Google Books]] |quote=... commentators in the liberal ''Le Monde'' argue that it is illegitimate to speak of a single Communist movement from Phnom Penh to Paris. Rather, the rampage of the Khmer Rouge is like the ethnic massacres of third-world Rwanda, or the 'rural' Communism of Asia is radically different from the 'urban' Communism of Europe; or Asian Communism is really only anticolonial nationalism. ... conflating sociologically diverse movements is merely a stratagem to obtain a higher body count against Communism, and thus against all the left.}}</ref> Allegation of a communist or red Holocaust is not popular among scholars in Germany or internationally,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hackmann |first=Jörg |date=March 2009 |title=From National Victims to Transnational Bystanders? The Changing Commemoration of World War II in Central and Eastern Europe |journal=[[Constellations (journal)|Constellations]] |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=167–181 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8675.2009.00526.x}}</ref> and is considered a form of softcore antisemitism and Holocaust trivialization.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heni |first=Clemens |date=Fall 2008 |title=Secondary Anti-Semitism: From Hard-Core to Soft-Core Denial of the Shoah |journal=[[Jewish Political Studies Review]] |location=Jerusalem |volume=20 |issue=3/4 |pages=73–92 |jstor=25834800}}</ref>|group=note}} [[Benjamin Valentino]] proposes the category of [[Communist mass killing]], alongside colonial, counter-guerrilla, and ethnic mass killing, as a subtype of dispossessive mass killing to distinguish it from coercive mass killing.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Valentino |first1=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Valentino |date=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQfeXVU_EvgC |title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century |location=Ithaca |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |pages=66 |isbn=978-0-801-47273-2 |quote=I contend mass killing occurs when powerful groups come to believe it is the best available means to accomplish certain radical goals, counter specific types of threats, or solve difficult military problem.}}</ref> Genocide scholars do not consider ideology,<ref name="Tago & Wayman 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Atsushi |first1=Tago |last2=Wayman |first2=Frank W. |title=Explaining the onset of mass killing, 1949–87 |journal=[[Journal of Peace Research]] |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |date=2010 |doi=10.1177/0022343309342944 |jstor=25654524 }}</ref> or regime-type, as an important factor that explains mass killings.<ref name="Straus 2007">{{cite journal |last=Straus |first=Scott |date=April 2007 |title=Review: Second-Generation Comparative Research on Genocide |journal=[[World Politics]] |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=476–501 |doi=10.1017/S004388710002089X |jstor=40060166 }}</ref> Some authors, such as [[John Gray (philosopher)|John Gray]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gray |first=John |title=Totalitarianism at the crossroads |publisher=Social Philosophy & Policy Center |others=Ellen Frankel Paul |year=1990 |isbn=0-88738-351-3 |location=[Bowling Green, OH] |pages=116 |oclc=20996281}}</ref> [[Daniel Goldhagen]],{{sfn|Goldhagen|2009|p=206}} and [[Richard Pipes]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pipes |first=Richard |title=Communism: a history |date=2001 |publisher=Modern Library |isbn=0-679-64050-9 |edition= |location=New York |pages=147 |oclc=47924025}}</ref> consider the ideology of communism to be a significant causative factor in mass killings. Some connect killings in [[Joseph Stalin]]'s Soviet Union, [[Mao Zedong]]'s China, and [[Pol Pot]]'s Cambodia on the basis that Stalin influenced Mao, who influenced Pol Pot; in all cases, scholars say killings were carried out as part of a policy of an unbalanced modernization process of rapid industrialization.{{sfn|Karlsson|Schoenhals|2008}}{{refn|The Cambodia case is particular because it is different from the emphasis Stalin's Soviet Union and Mao's China gave to [[heavy industry]]. The goal of Khmer Rouge's leaders goal was to introduce communism in an extremely short period of time through [[collectivization of agriculture]] in the effort to remove social differences and inequalities between rural and urban areas.{{sfn|Karlsson|Schoenhals|2008}} As there was not much industry in Cambodia at that time, Pol Pot's strategy to accomplish this was to increase agricultural production in order to obtain money for rapid industrialization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mann |first1=Michael |title=The Dark Side of Democracy |date=2004 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511817274 |isbn=978-0-521-83130-7 |quote-page=343 |quote=As in other Communist development plans, this agricultural surplus, essentially rice, could be exported to pay for the import of machinery, first for agriculture and light industry, later for heavy industry (Chandler, 1992: 120–8).}}</ref> {{paragraph break}} In analyzing the Khmer Rouge regime, scholars place it within the historical context. The Khmer Rouge came to power through the [[Cambodian Civil War]] (where unparalleled atrocities were executed on both sides) and [[Operation Menu]], resulting in the dropping of more than half a million tonnes of bombs in the country during the civil-war period; this was mainly directed to [[North Vietnam|Communist Vietnam]] but it gave the Khmer Rouge a justification to eliminate the pro-Vietnamese faction and other communists.{{sfn|Karlsson|Schoenhals|2008}} The [[Cambodian genocide]], which is described by many scholars as a [[genocide]] and by others, such as Manus Midlarsky, as a [[politicide]],{{r|Straus 2007}} was stopped by Communist Vietnam, and there have been [[allegations of United States support for the Khmer Rouge]]. South East Asian communism was deeply divided, as China supported the Khmer Rouge, while the Soviet Union and Vietnam opposed it. The United States supported [[Lon Nol]], who seized power in the [[1970 Cambodian coup d'état]], and research has shown that everything in Cambodia was seen as a legitimate target by the United States, whose verdict of its main leaders at that time ([[Richard Nixon]] and [[Henry Kissinger]]) has been harsh, and bombs were gradually dropped on increasingly densely populated areas.{{sfn|Karlsson|Schoenhals|2008}}|group=note}} Daniel Goldhagen argues that 20th century communist regimes "have killed more people than any other regime type."{{sfn|Goldhagen|2009|p=54}}

Some authors and politicians, such as [[George G. Watson]], allege that [[genocide]] was dictated in otherwise forgotten works of Karl Marx.<ref name="Grant 1999">{{cite journal |last=Grant |first=Robert |date=November 1999 |title=Review: The Lost Literature of Socialism |journal=The Review of English Studies |volume=50 |number=200 |pages=557–559 |doi=10.1093/res/50.200.557}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ijabs |first=Ivars |date=23 May 2008 |title=Cienīga atbilde: Soviet Story |trans-title=Worthy answer: Soviet Story |work=Latvijas Vēstnesis |language=lv |url=http://www.lv.lv/?menu=exblogi&sub=&type=full&id=44 |access-date=15 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720194148/http://www.lv.lv/?menu=exblogi&sub=&type=full&id=44 |archive-date=20 July 2011 |quote=To present Karl Marx as the 'progenitor of modern genocide' is simply to lie.}}</ref> Many commentators on the political right point to the mass deaths under Communist states, claiming them as an indictment of communism.<ref name="Piereson">{{cite web |last=Piereson |first=James |title=Socialism as a hate crime |url=https://newcriterion.com/blogs/dispatch/socialism-as-a-hate-crime-9746 |access-date=22 October 2021 |website=New Criterion |date=21 August 2018}}</ref>{{sfn|Engel-Di Mauro|Engel-Di Mauro|Faber|Labban|2021}}<ref name="Satter 2017">{{cite news |last=Satter |first=David |date=6 November 2017 |title=100 Years of Communism{{snd}}and 100 Million Dead |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/100-years-of-communismand-100-million-dead-1510011810 |access-date=22 October 2021 }}</ref> Opponents of this view argue that these killings were aberrations caused by specific authoritarian regimes, and not caused by communism itself, and point to mass deaths in wars and famines that they argue were caused by [[colonialism]], capitalism, and anti-communism as a counterpoint to those killings.<ref>{{harvp|Bevins|2020b}}; {{harvp|Engel-Di Mauro|Engel-Di Mauro|Faber|Labban|2021}}; {{harvp|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sullivan |first1=Dylan |last2=Hickel |first2=Jason |author2-link=Jason Hickel |date=2 December 2022 |title=How British colonialism killed 100 million Indians in 40 years |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/12/2/how-british-colonial-policy-killed-100-million-indians |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |access-date=14 December 2022 |quote=While the precise number of deaths is sensitive to the assumptions we make about baseline mortality, it is clear that somewhere in the vicinity of 100 million people died prematurely at the height of British colonialism. This is among the largest policy-induced mortality crises in human history. It is larger than the combined number of deaths that occurred during all famines in the Soviet Union, Maoist China, North Korea, Pol Pot's Cambodia, and Mengistu's Ethiopia.}}</ref> According to [[Dovid Katz]] and other historians, a [[historical revisionist]] view of the [[double genocide theory]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Liedy |first1=Amy Shannon |last2=Ruble |first2=Blair |date=7 March 2011 |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/holocaust-revisionism-ultranationalism-and-the-nazisoviet-double-genocide-debate-eastern |title=Holocaust Revisionism, Ultranationalism, and the Nazi/Soviet 'Double Genocide' Debate in Eastern Europe |publisher=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars|Wilson Center]] |access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Shafir |first=Michael |date=Summer 2016 |url=http://jsri.ro/ojs/index.php/jsri/article/viewFile/798/696 |title=Ideology, Memory and Religion in Post-Communist East Central Europe: A Comparative Study Focused on Post-Holocaust |journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies |volume=15 |issue=44 |pages=52–110}}</ref> equating mass deaths under Communist states with the Holocaust, is popular in [[Eastern European]] countries and the [[Baltic states]], and their approaches of history have been incorporated in the [[European Union]] agenda,<ref name="Satori">{{cite news |url=https://satori.lv/article/latvias-soviet-story-transitional-justice-and-the-politics-of-commemoration |title=Latvia's 'Soviet Story'. Transitional Justice and the Politics of Commemoration |website=Satory |date=26 October 2009 |access-date=6 August 2021}}</ref> among them the [[Prague Declaration]] in June 2008 and the [[European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism]], which was proclaimed by the [[European Parliament]] in August 2008 and endorsed by the [[OSCE in Europe]] in July 2009. Some scholars in [[Western Europe]] have rejected the comparison of the two regimes and the equation of their crimes.{{r|Satori}}

=== Memory and legacy ===
Criticism of communism can be divided into two broad categories, namely that [[criticism of Communist party rule]] that concerns with the practical aspects of 20th-century [[Communist state]]s,<ref name="Bruno Bosteels 2014">{{cite book |last=Bosteels |first=Bruno |title=The Actuality of Communism |date=2014 |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=9781781687673 |edition=paper back |location=New York City, New York |author-link=Bruno Bosteels}}</ref> and [[criticism of Marxism]] and communism generally that concerns its principles and theory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taras |first=Raymond C. |title=The Road to Disillusion: From Critical Marxism to Post-Communism in Eastern Europe |date=2015 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=9781317454786 |edition=E-book |location=London |author-link=Raymond Taras |orig-date=1992}}</ref> Public memory of 20th-century Communist states has been described as a battleground between the communist-sympathetic or [[anti-anti-communist]] political left and the [[anti-communism]] of the [[political right]].{{sfn|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}} Critics of communism on the political right point to the [[excess deaths]] under Communist states as an indictment of communism as an ideology.{{r|Piereson}}{{sfn|Engel-Di Mauro|Engel-Di Mauro|Faber|Labban|2021}}{{r|Satter 2017}} Defenders of communism on the political left say that the deaths were caused by specific authoritarian regimes and not communism as an ideology, while also pointing to [[anti-communist mass killings]] and deaths in wars that they argue were caused by capitalism and anti-communism as a counterpoint to the deaths under Communist states.{{sfn|Bevins|2020b}}{{sfn|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}}{{sfn|Engel-Di Mauro|Engel-Di Mauro|Faber|Labban|2021}}

According to Hungarian sociologist and politician [[András Bozóki]], positive aspects of communist countries included support for social mobility and equality, the elimination of illiteracy, urbanization, more accessible healthcare and housing, regional mobility with public transportation, the elimination of semi-feudal hierarchies, more women entering the labor market, and free access to higher education. Negative aspects of communist countries, on the other hand according to Bozóki included the suppression of freedom, the loss of trust in civil society; a culture of fear and corruption; reduced international travel; dependency on the party and state; Central Europe becoming a satellite of the Soviet Union; the creation of closed societies, leading to xenophobia, racism, prejudice, cynicism and pessimism; women only being emancipated in the workforce; the oppression of national identity; and relativist ethical societal standards.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bozóki |first=András |date=December 2008 |title=The Communist Legacy: Pros and Cons in Retrospect |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Communist-Legacy-Pros-and-Cons-in-Retrospect_tbl2_228979606 |website=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref>

[[Memory studies]] have been done on how the events are memorized.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kaprāns |first=Mārtiņš |date=2 May 2015 |title=Hegemonic representations of the past and digital agency: Giving meaning to 'The Soviet Story' on social networking sites |journal=Memory Studies |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=156–172 |doi=10.1177/1750698015587151 }}</ref> According to [[Kristen Ghodsee|Kristen R. Ghodsee]] and [[Scott Sehon]], on the political left, there are "those with some sympathy for socialist ideals and the popular opinion of hundreds of millions of Russian and east European citizens nostalgic for their state socialist pasts.", while on the political right, there are "the committed anti-totalitarians, both east and west, insisting that all experiments with Marxism will always and inevitably end with the gulag."{{sfn|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}} The "[[victims of Communism]]" concept,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Neumayer |first=Laure |date=November 2017 |title=Advocating for the Cause of the 'Victims of Communism' in the European Political Space: Memory Entrepreneurs in Interstitial Fields |journal=Nationalities Papers |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=992–1012 |doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1364230 |doi-access=free}}</ref> has become accepted scholarship, as part of the double genocide theory, in Eastern Europe and among anti-communists in general;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dujisin |first=Zoltan |date=July 2020 |title=A History of Post-Communist Remembrance: From Memory Politics to the Emergence of a Field of Anticommunism |journal=[[Theory and Society]] |volume=50 |issue=January 2021 |pages=65–96 |doi=10.1007/s11186-020-09401-5 |quote=This article invites the view that the Europeanization of an antitotalitarian 'collective memory' of communism reveals the emergence of a field of anticommunism. This transnational field is inextricably tied to the proliferation of state-sponsored and anticommunist memory institutes across Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), ... [and is proposed by] anticommunist memory entrepreneurs. |doi-access=free |hdl=1765/128856 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> it is rejected by some Western European{{r|Satori}} and other scholars, especially when it is used to equate Communism and [[Nazism]], which is seen by scholars as a long-discredited perspective.<ref name="Doumanis 2016">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yd8mDAAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of European History, 1914–1945 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=9780191017759 |editor-last=Doumanis |editor-first=Nicholas |edition=E-book |location=Oxford, England |pages=377–378}}</ref> The narrative posits that famines and mass deaths by Communist states can be attributed to a single cause and that communism, as "the deadliest ideology in history", or in the words of [[Jonathan Rauch]] as "the deadliest fantasy in human history",<ref>{{cite news |last=Rauch |first=Jonathan |date=December 2003 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2003/12/the-forgotten-millions/302849/ |title=The Forgotten Millions |work=[[The Atlantic]] |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref> represents the greatest threat to humanity.{{sfn|Engel-Di Mauro|Engel-Di Mauro|Faber|Labban|2021}} Proponents posit an alleged link between communism, left-wing politics, and socialism with genocide, mass killing, and [[totalitarianism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mrozick |first=Agnieszka |date=2019 |editor1-last=Kuligowski |editor1-first=Piotr |editor2-last=Moll |editor2-first=Łukasz |editor3-last=Szadkowski |editor3-first=Krystian |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=788051 |title=Anti-Communism: It's High Time to Diagnose and Counteract |journal={{ill|Praktyka Teoretyczna|pl}} |publisher=Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań |volume=1 |number=31, ''Anti-Communisms: Discourses of Exclusion'' |pages=178–184 |access-date=26 December 2020 |via=Central and Eastern European Online Library |quote=First is the prevalence of a totalitarian paradigm, in which Nazism and Communism are equated as the most atrocious ideas and systems in human history (because communism, defined by Marx as a classless society with common means of production, has never been realised anywhere in the world, in further parts I will be putting this concept into inverted commas as an example of discursive practice). Significantly, while in the Western debate the more precise term 'Stalinism' is used – in 2008, on the 70th anniversary of the Ribbentrop–Molotov Pact, the European Parliament established 23 August as the European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism – hardly anyone in Poland is paying attention to niceties: 'communism' or the left, is perceived as totalitarian here. A homogenizing sequence of associations (the left is communism, communism is totalitarianism, ergo the left is totalitarian) and the ahistorical character of the concepts used (no matter if we talk about the USSR in the 1930s under Stalin, Maoist China from the period of the Cultural Revolution, or Poland under Gierek, 'communism' is murderous all the same) not only serves the denigration of the Polish People's Republic, expelling this period from Polish history, but also – or perhaps primarily – the deprecation of Marxism, leftist programs, and any hopes and beliefs in Marxism and leftist activity as a remedy for capitalist exploitation, social inequality, fascist violence on a racist and anti-Semitic basis, as well as homophobic and misogynist violence. The totalitarian paradigm not only equates fascism and socialism (in Poland and the countries of the former Eastern bloc stubbornly called 'communism' and pressed into the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union, which should additionally emphasize its foreignness), but in fact recognizes the latter as worse, more sinister (the ''Black Book of Communism'' (1997) is of help here as it estimates the number of victims of 'communism' at around 100 million; however, it is critically commented on by researchers on the subject, including historian Enzo Traverso in the book ''L'histoire comme champ de bataille'' (2011)). Thus, anti-communism not only delegitimises the left, including communists, and depreciates the contribution of the left to the breakdown of fascism in 1945, but also contributes to the rehabilitation of the latter, as we can see in recent cases in Europe and other places. (Quote at pp. 178–179)}}</ref>

Some authors, as [[Stéphane Courtois]], propose a theory of equivalence between class and racial genocide.{{sfn|Jaffrelot|Sémelin|2009|p=37}} It is supported by the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation, with 100 million being the most common estimate used from ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]'' despite some of the authors of the book distancing themselves from the estimates made by Stephen Courtois.{{sfn|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}} Various museums and monuments have been constructed in remembrance of the victims of Communism, with support of the European Union and various governments in Canada, Eastern Europe, and the United States.{{sfn|Ghodsee|2014}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}}{{sfn|Neumayer|2018}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}} Works such as ''The Black Book of Communism'' and ''[[Bloodlands]]'' legitimized debates on the [[comparison of Nazism and Stalinism]],{{sfn|Jaffrelot|Sémelin|2009|p=37}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kühne |first=Thomas |date=May 2012 |title=Great Men and Large Numbers: Undertheorising a History of Mass Killing |journal=[[Contemporary European History]] |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=133–143 |doi=10.1017/S0960777312000070 |jstor=41485456 }}</ref> and by extension communism, and the former work in particular was important in the criminalization of communism.{{sfn|Ghodsee|2014}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}}{{sfn|Neumayer|2018}}{{page needed|date=February 2025}} According to [[Freedom House]], Communism is "considered one of the two great totalitarian movements of the 20th century", the other being Nazism, but added that "there is an important difference in how the world has treated these two execrable phenomena.":<ref>{{Cite web |last=Puddington |first=Arch |date=23 March 2017 |title=In Modern Dictatorships, Communism's Legacy Lingers On |url=https://freedomhouse.org/article/modern-dictatorships-communisms-legacy-lingers |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=[[Freedom House]] |language=en}}</ref>

The failure of Communist governments to live up to the ideal of a [[communist society]], their general trend towards increasing [[authoritarianism]], their bureaucracy, and the inherent inefficiencies in their economies have been linked to the decline of communism in the late 20th century.{{sfn|Ball|Dagger|2019}}{{sfn|Lansford|2007|pp=9–24, 36–44}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Djilas |first=Milovan |author-link=Milovan Djilas |date=1991 |title=The Legacy of Communism in Eastern Europe |journal=The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=83–92 |jstor=45290119 }}</ref> [[Walter Scheidel]] stated that despite wide-reaching government actions, Communist states failed to achieve long-term economic, social, and political success.<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0691165028 |chapter=Chapter 7: Communism |author-link=Walter Scheidel}}</ref> The experience of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the [[North Korean famine]], and alleged economic underperformance when compared to developed free market systems are cited as examples of Communist states failing to build a successful state while relying entirely on what they view as ''orthodox Marxism''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |date=2017 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691165028 |pages=222 |author-link=Walter Scheidel}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Natsios |first=Andrew S. |title=The Great North Korean Famine |date=2002 |publisher=[[Institute of Peace Press]] |isbn=1929223331 |author-link=Andrew Natsios}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2021}} Despite those shortcomings, [[Philipp Ther]] stated that there was a general increase in the standard of living throughout Eastern Bloc countries as the result of modernization programs under Communist governments.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ther |first=Philipp |url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/10812.html |title=Europe Since 1989: A History |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-691-16737-4 |page=132 |quote=Stalinist regimes aimed to catapult the predominantly agrarian societies into the modern age by swift industrialization. At the same time, they hoped to produce politically loyal working classes by mass employment in large state industries. Steelworks were built in Eisenhüttenstadt (GDR), Nowa Huta (Poland), Košice (Slovakia), and Miskolc (Hungary), as were various mechanical engineering and chemical combines and other industrial sites. As a result of communist modernization, living standards in Eastern Europe rose. Planned economies, moreover, meant that wages, salaries, and the prices of consumer goods were fixed. Although the communists were not able to cancel out all regional differences, they succeeded in creating largely egalitarian societies. |author-link=:de:Philipp Ther}}</ref>

Most experts agree there was a significant increase in mortality rates following the years 1989 and 1991, including a 2014 [[World Health Organization]] report which concluded that the "health of people in the former Soviet countries deteriorated dramatically after the collapse of the Soviet Union."{{sfn|Ghodsee|Orenstein|2021|p=78}} Post-Communist Russia during the [[IMF]]-backed economic reforms of [[Boris Yeltsin]] experienced surging [[economic inequality]] and [[poverty]] as unemployment reached double digits by the early to mid 1990s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Scheidel |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0691165028 |pages=51, 222–223 |quote=Following the dissolution of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and then of the Soviet Union itself in late 1991, exploding poverty drove the surge in income inequality.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mattei |first=Clara E. |author-link=Clara Mattei |date=2022 |title=The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism |pages=301–302 |url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo181707138.html |location= |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0226818399 |quote="If, in 1987–1988, 2 percent of the Russian people lived in poverty (i.e., survived on less than $4 a day), by 1993–1995 the number reached 50 percent: in just seven years half the Russian population became destitute.}}</ref> By contrast, the [[Central Europe]]an states of the former Eastern Bloc–Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia–showed healthy increases in life expectancy from the 1990s onward, compared to nearly thirty years of stagnation under Communism.<ref>{{harvp|Hauck|2016}}; {{harvp|Gerr|Raskina|Tsyplakova|2017}}; {{harvp|Safaei|2011}}; {{harvp|Mackenbach|2012}}; {{harvp|Leon|2013}}</ref> Bulgaria and Romania followed this trend after the introduction of more serious economic reforms in the late 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=C. |last1=Dolea |first2=E. |last2=Nolte |first3=M. |last3=McKee |url=https://jech.bmj.com/content/56/6/444 |title=Changing life expectancy in Romania after the transition |journal=[[Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health]] |year=2002 |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=444–449 |doi=10.1136/jech.56.6.444 |pmid=12011202 |pmc=1732171 |access-date=4 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chavez |first=Lesly Allyn |date=June 2014 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335675821 |title=The Effects of Communism on Romania's Population |access-date=4 January 2021}}</ref> The economies of Eastern Bloc countries had previously experienced stagnation in the 1980s under Communism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hirt |first1=Sonia |last2=Sellar |first2=Christian |last3=Young |first3=Craig |date=4 September 2013 |title=Neoliberal Doctrine Meets the Eastern Bloc: Resistance, Appropriation and Purification in Post-Socialist Spaces |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=1243–1254 |doi=10.1080/09668136.2013.822711 }}</ref> A common expression throughout Eastern Europe after 1989 was "everything they told us about communism was a lie, but everything they told us about capitalism was true."{{sfn|Ghodsee|Orenstein|2021|p=192}} The right-libertarian think tank [[Cato Institute]] has stated that the analyses done of post-communist countries in the 1990s were "premature" and "that early and rapid reformers by far outperformed gradual reformers" on [[Lists of countries by GDP per capita|GDP per capita]], the [[United Nations Human Development Index]] and [[political freedom]], in addition to developing better institutions. The institute also stated that the process of privatization in Russia was "deeply flawed" due to Russia's reforms being "far ''less'' rapid" than those of Central Europe and the [[Baltic states]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Havrylyshyn |first1=Oleh |last2=Meng |first2=Xiaofan |last3=Tupy |first3=Marian L. |date=12 July 2016 |title=25 Years of Reforms in Ex-Communist Countries |url=https://www.cato.org/policy-analysis/25-years-reforms-ex-communist-countries-fast-extensive-reforms-led-higher-growth#introduction |access-date=7 July 2023 |website=[[Cato Institute]]}}</ref>

The average post-Communist country had returned to 1989 levels of per-capita GDP by 2005.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Appel |first1=Hilary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHhTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |title=From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries |last2=Orenstein |first2=Mitchell A. |date=2018 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1108435055 |page=36}}</ref> However, [[Branko Milanović]] wrote in 2015 that following the end of the Cold War, many of those countries' economies declined to such an extent during the transition to capitalism that they have yet to return to the point they were prior to the collapse of communism.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2015 |title=After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism |journal=[[Challenge (economics magazine)|Challenge]] |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=135–138 |doi=10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402 |quote=So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades. |last=Milanović |first=Branko |author-link=Branko Milanović }}</ref> Several scholars state that the negative economic developments in post-Communist countries after the fall of Communism led to increased nationalist sentiment and [[Nostalgia for Communism|nostalgia for the Communist era]].{{sfn|Ghodsee|Sehon|Dresser|2018}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghodsee |first=Kristen Rogheh |title=Red hangover: legacies of twentieth-century communism |date=October 2017 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-6934-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=5 December 2011 |title=Confidence in Democracy and Capitalism Wanes in Former Soviet Union |work=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/12/05/confidence-in-democracy-and-capitalism-wanes-in-former-soviet-union/ |access-date=24 November 2018}}</ref> In 2011, ''[[The Guardian]]'' published an analysis of the former Soviet countries twenty years after the fall of the USSR. They found that "GDP fell as much as 50 percent in the 1990s in some republics... as capital flight, industrial collapse, hyperinflation and tax avoidance took their toll", but that there was a rebound in the 2000s, and by 2010 "some economies were five times as big as they were in 1991." Life expectancy has grown since 1991 in some of the countries, but fallen in others; likewise, some held free and fair elections, while others remained authoritarian.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=End of the USSR: visualising how the former Soviet countries are doing, 20 years on {{!}} Russia |date=17 Aug 2011 |first1=Mark |last1=Rice-Oxley |first2=Ami |last2=Sedghi |first3=Jenny |last3=Ridley |first4=Sasha |last4=Magill |url=https://theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/aug/17/ussr-soviet-countries-data |access-date=21 January 2021 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> By 2019, the majority of people in most Eastern European countries approved of the shift to multiparty democracy and a market economy, with approval being highest among residents of Poland and residents in the territory of what was once [[East Germany]], and disapproval being the highest among residents of Russia and [[Ukraine]]. In addition, 61 percent said that standards of living were now higher than they had been under Communism, while only 31 percent said that they were worse, with the remaining 8 percent saying that they did not know or that standards of living had not changed.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Richard |last1=Wike |first2=Jacob |last2=Poushter |first3=Laura |last3=Silver |first4=Kat |last4=Devlin |first5=Janell |last5=Fetterolf |first6=Alexandra |last6=Castillo |first7=Christine |last7=Huang |date=15 October 2019 |title=European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/15/european-public-opinion-three-decades-after-the-fall-of-communism/ |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Global Attitudes Project |language=en-US}}</ref>

According to Grigore Pop-Eleches and Joshua Tucker in their book ''Communism's Shadow: Historical Legacies and Contemporary Political Attitudes'', citizens of post-Communist countries are less supportive of democracy and more supportive of government-provided social welfare. They also found that those who lived under Communist rule were more likely to be left-authoritarian (referencing the [[right-wing authoritarian personality]]){{clarification needed|date=June 2025}} than citizens of other countries. Those who are left-authoritarian in this sense more often tend to be older generations that lived under Communism. In contrast, younger post-Communist generations continue to be anti-democratic but are not as left-wing ideologically, which in the words of Pop-Eleches and Tucker "might help explain the growing popularity of [[right-wing populists]] in the region."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pop-Eleches |first1=Grigore |last2=Tucker |first2=Joshua |date=12 November 2019 |title=Europe's communist regimes began to collapse 30 years ago, but still shape political views |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/11/12/europes-communist-regimes-began-collapse-years-ago-still-shape-political-views/ |access-date=20 August 2022}}</ref>

[[Conservatives]], [[Liberalism|liberals]], and [[social democrats]] generally view 20th-century Communist states as unqualified failures. Political theorist and professor [[Jodi Dean]] argues that this limits the scope of discussion around political alternatives to [[capitalism]] and [[neoliberalism]]. Dean argues that, when people think of capitalism, they do not consider what are its worst results ([[climate change]], [[economic inequality]], [[hyperinflation]], the [[Great Depression]], the [[Great Recession]], the [[Robber baron (industrialist)|robber barons]], and [[unemployment]]) because the [[history of capitalism]] is viewed as dynamic and nuanced; the history of communism is not considered dynamic or nuanced, and there is a fixed historical narrative of communism that emphasizes [[authoritarianism]], the [[gulag]], starvation, and violence.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ehms |first=Jule |date=9 March 2014 |url=https://marxandphilosophy.org.uk/reviews/7871_the-communist-horizon-review-by-jule-ehms/ |title=The Communist Horizon |website=Marx & Philosophy Society |access-date=29 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghodsee |first1=Kristen |chapter=PROLOGUE Communism 2.0? |pages=xi-xx |doi=10.1515/9780822375821-002 |jstor=j.ctv1131fqs.4 |title=The Left Side of History |id={{Project MUSE|70825|type=book}} |date=2020 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-7582-1 }}</ref> [[University of Cambridge]] historian [[Gary Gerstle]] posits that the collapse of communism "opened the entire world to capitalist penetration" and "shrank the imaginative and ideological space in which opposition to capitalist thought and practices might incubate."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerstle |first1=Gary |title=The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order |chapter=Triumph |date=2022 |pages=141–188 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197519646.003.0006 |isbn=978-0-19-751964-6 |quote-page=149 |quote=The collapse of communism, then, opened the entire world to capitalist penetration, shrank the imaginative and ideological space in which opposition to capitalist thought and practices might incubate, and impelled those who remained leftists to redefine their radicalism in alternative terms, which turned out to be those that capitalist systems could more, rather than less, easily manage. This was the moment when neoliberalism in the United States went from being a political movement to a political order.}}</ref> Ghodsee,<ref group="lower-alpha">{{harvp|Ghodsee|2018}}: "Throughout much of the twentieth century, state socialism presented an existential challenge to the worst excesses of the free market. The threat posed by Marxist ideologies forced Western governments to expand social safety nets to protect workers from the unpredictable but inevitable booms and busts of the capitalist economy. After the Berlin Wall fell, many celebrated the triumph of the West, cosigning socialist ideas to the dustbin of history. But for all its faults, state socialism provided an important foil for capitalism. It was in response to a global discourse of social and economic rights{{snd}}a discourse that appealed not only to the progressive populations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America but also to many men and women in Western Europe and North America{{snd}}that politicians agreed to improve working conditions for wage laborers as well as create social programs for children, the poor, the elderly, the sick, and the disabled, mitigating exploitation and the growth of income inequality. Although there were important antecedents in the 1980s, once state socialism collapsed, capitalism shook off the constraints of market regulation and income redistribution. Without the looming threat of a rival superpower, the last thirty years of global neoliberalism have witnessed a rapid shriveling of social programs that protect citizens from cyclical instability and financial crises and reduce the vast inequality of economic outcomes between those at the top and bottom of the income distribution."</ref> along with Gerstle and [[Walter Scheidel]], suggest that the rise and fall of communism had a significant impact on the development and decline of [[labor movement]]s and social [[welfare state]]s in the United States and other Western societies. Gerstle argues that organized labor in the United States was strongest when the threat of communism reached its peak, and the decline of both organized labor and the welfare state coincided with the collapse of communism. Both Gerstle and Scheidel posit that as economic elites in the West became more fearful of possible communist revolutions in their own societies, especially as the tyranny and violence associated with communist governments became more apparent, the more willing they were to compromise with the working class, and much less so once the threat waned.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerstle |first1=Gary |title=The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order |chapter=Introduction |date=2022 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197519646.003.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-751964-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Taylor |first=Matt |date=22 February 2017 |title=One Recipe for a More Equal World: Mass Death|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/one-recipe-for-a-more-equal-world-mass-death/ |work=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Communism}}
{{cols|colwidth=17em}}
*[[Anti anti-communism]]
*[[:Category:Communism by country|Communism by country]]
* [[Criticism of Marxism]]
* [[Crypto-communism]]
* [[List of communist parties]]
* [[List of communist parties represented in European Parliament]]
* [[Outline of Marxism]]
* [[Post-scarcity economy]]
* [[Sociocultural evolution]]
{{colend}}

'''Works'''
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* ''[[American Communist History]]''
{{colend}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Explanatory footnotes ===
{{reflist|group=note|1}}

=== Quotes ===
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

== Bibliography ==
{{main|Bibliography of works about communism}}

{{see also|Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War|Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union|Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union}}
{{refbegin}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
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* Antonio Callari (2011) Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (Volumes 1, 2 & 3); 2032 pages, Columbia University, ISBN-10 : 023115755X
* {{cite book |last=Bernstein |first=Eduard |author-link=Eduard Bernstein |year=1895 |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bernstein/works/1895/cromwell |title=Kommunistische und demokratisch-sozialistische Strömungen während der englischen Revolution |trans-title=Cromwell and Communism: Socialism and Democracy in the Great English Revolution |language=de |publisher=J. H. W. Dietz |oclc=36367345 |access-date=1 August 2021 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}
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* {{cite journal |last=Weiner |first=Amir |author-link=Amir Weiner |date=2002 |title=Review. Reviewed Work: ''The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression'' by Stéphane Courtois, Nicolas Werth, Jean-Louis Panné, Andrzej Paczkowski, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Margolin, Jonathan Murphy, Mark Kramer |journal=[[Journal of Interdisciplinary History]] |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |volume=32 |number=3 |pages=450–452 |doi=10.1162/002219502753364263 |jstor=3656222 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wilczynski |first=J. |title=The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945–1990 |publisher=Aldine Transaction |date=2008 |isbn=978-0202362281 |pages=21 |quote=Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'withering away' of the State.}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |author-link=Raymond Williams |year=1983 |orig-date=1976 |title=Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society |edition=revised |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-520469-8 |oclc=1035920683 |page=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289] |chapter=Socialism |quote=The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism. |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289}}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=C. Wright |author-link=C. Wright Mills |title=Letter to the New Left |url=http://www.marxists.org/subject/humanism/mills-c-wright/letter-new-left.htm |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |date=1960}}
* Massimo Salvadori (1963) The Rise of Modern Communism; a Brief History of Twentieth-Century Communism; Publisher Holt, Rinehart and Winston; ISBN: B000K06BDU
* {{cite book |last1=Womack |first1=B. |author-link1=Brantly Womack |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Maoism |date=2001 |pages=9191–9193 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01173-6 |isbn=978-0-08-043076-8 }}
}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Adami |editor1-first=Stefano |editor2-last=Marrone |editor2-first=G. |date=2006 |title=Communism |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies |edition=1st |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-57958-390-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Robert Vincent |author-link=Robert Vincent Daniels |date=1994 |title=A Documentary History of Communism and the World: From Revolution to Collapse |publisher=[[University Press of New England]] |isbn=978-0-87451-678-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Robert Vincent |author-link=Robert Vincent Daniels |date=2007 |title=The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-30010-649-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Dean |first=Jodi |author-link=Jodi Dean |date=2012 |title=The Communist Horizon |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=978-1-84467-954-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Dirlik |first=Arif |date=1989 |title=Origins of Chinese Communism |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505454-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Engels |first1=Friedrich |author1-link=Friedrich Engels |last2=Marx |first2=Karl |author2-link=Karl Marx |title=[[The Communist Manifesto]] |date=1998 |orig-date=1848 |edition=reprint |publisher=Signet Classics |isbn=978-0-451-52710-3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Sheila |author-link=Sheila Fitzpatrick |date=2007 |title=Revisionism in Soviet History |journal=[[History and Theory]] |volume=46 |number=4 |pages=77–91 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2303.2007.00429.x |jstor=4502285}}. Historiographical essay that covers the scholarship of the three major schools: totalitarianism, revisionism, and post-revisionism.
* {{cite book |last=Forman |first=James D. |date=1972 |title=Communism: From Marx's Manifesto to 20th-century Reality |publisher=Watts |isbn=978-0-531-02571-0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Fuchs-Schündeln |first1=Nicola |last2=Schündeln |first2=Matthias |date=2020 |title=The Long-Term Effects of Communism in Eastern Europe |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=34 |number=2 |pages=172–191 |doi=10.1257/jep.34.2.172 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Furet |first=François |author-link=François Furet |translator-last=Kan |translator-first=D. |date=2000 |title=The Passing of An Illusion: The Idea of Communism In the Twentieth Century |edition=English |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-27341-9}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Fürst |editor1-first=Juliane |editor2-last=Pons |editor2-first=Silvio |editor2-link=:it:Silvio Pons |editor3-last=Selden |editor3-first=Mark |editor3-link=Mark Selden |date=2017 |chapter=Endgames? Late Communism in Global Perspective, 1968 to the Present |title=The Cambridge History of Communism |volume=3 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-31650-159-7}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Gerlach |editor-first1=Christian |editor-link1=Christian Gerlach |editor-last2=Six |editor-first2=Clemens |date=2020 |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions |location= |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-3030549657}}
* {{cite book |last=Henry |first=Michel |author-link=Michel Henry |translator-last=Davidson |translator-first=Scott |date=2014 |orig-date=1991 |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/from-communism-to-capitalism-9781472524317 |title=From Communism to Capitalism |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |isbn=978-1-472-52431-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Laybourn |first1=Keith |author1-link=Keith Laybourn |last2=Murphy |first2=Dylan |date=1999 |title=Under the Red Flag: A History of Communism in Britain |edition=illustrated, hardcover |publisher=[[Sutton Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-75091-485-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Lovell |first=Julia |author-link=Julia Lovell |date=2019 |title=Maoism: A Global History |publisher=Bodley Head |isbn=978-184792-250-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Morgan |first=W. John |date=2003 |title=Communists on Education and Culture 1848–1948 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=0-333-48586-6}}
* {{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=W. John |date=December 2005 |title=Communism, Post-Communism, and Moral Education |journal=[[The Journal of Moral Education]] |volume=34 |number=4 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Naimark |editor-first1=Norman |editor-link1=Norman Naimark |editor-last2=Pons |editor-first2=Silvio |editor-link2=:it:Silvio Pons |date=2017 |chapter=The Socialist Camp and World Power 1941–1960s |title=The Cambridge History of Communism |volume=2 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-31645-985-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pipes |first1=Richard |author1-link=Richard Pipes |date=2003 |title=Communism: A History |edition=reprint |publisher=Modern Library |isbn=978-0-81296-864-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pons |first1=Silvio |author1-link=:it:Silvio Pons |date=2014 |title=The Global Revolution: A History of International Communism 1917–1991 |edition=English, hardcover |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19965-762-9}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Pons |editor-first1=Silvio |editor-link1=:it:Silvio Pons |editor-last2=Service |editor-first2=Robert |editor-link2=Robert Service (historian) |date=2010 |title=A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism |edition=hardcover |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-69113-585-4}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Pons |editor1-first=Silvio |editor1-link=:it:Silvio Pons |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=Stephen A. |date=2017 |chapter=World Revolution and Socialism in One Country 1917–1941 |title=The Cambridge History of Communism |volume=1 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-31613-702-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pop-Eleches |first1=Grigore |last2=Tucker |first2=Joshua A. |date=2017 |title=Communism's Shadow: Historical Legacies and Contemporary Political Attitudes |edition=hardcover |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-69117-558-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Priestland |first1=David |author1-link=David Priestland |date=2009 |title=The Red Flag: A History of Communism |publisher=[[Grove Press]] |isbn=978-0-80214-512-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sabirov |first1=Kharis Fatykhovich |date=1987 |url=https://archive.org/details/whatiscommunism1987 |title=What Is Communism? |edition=English |publisher=[[Progress Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-82853-346-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Service (historian) |date=2010 |title=Comrades!: A History of World Communism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-67404-699-3}}
* {{cite book |author1-link=Shaw Yu-ming |last1=Shaw |first1=Yu-ming |date=2019 |title=Changes And Continuities In Chinese Communism: Volume I: Ideology, Politics, and Foreign Policy |edition=hardcover |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-36716-385-3}}
* Slater, Dan; Bernhard, Michael (2026). "[[doi:10.1177/00104140251414049|Varieties of Communism]]". ''Comparative Political Studies.''
* {{cite book |last1=Zinoviev |first1=Alexandre |author1-link=Alexander Zinoviev |date=1984 |orig-date=1980 |title=The Reality of Communism |publisher=[[Schocken Books]] |isbn=978-0-80523-901-0}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|auto=1|q=Communism|wikt=Communism|s=Communism|v=y|d=Q6186}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Communism|short=x}} Retrieved 18 August 2021.
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism "Communism"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
* {{cite NIE |last=Lindsay |first=Samuel McCune |wstitle=Communism |year=1905 |short=x}} Retrieved 18 August 2021.
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/rad.html The Radical Pamphlet Collection] at the [[Library of Congress]] contains materials on the topic of communism. Retrieved 18 August 2021.

{{communism}}
{{political ideologies}}
{{political philosophy}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Communism| ]]
[[Category:1770s neologisms]]
[[Category:Anti-capitalism]]
[[Category:Anti-fascism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Left-wing ideologies]]
[[Category:Marxism–Leninism]]
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[[Category:Political culture]]
[[Category:Social anarchism]]
[[Category:Socialism]]

List of Tamil films of 1980

2026-03-22T17:33:31Z

EmilBarraza: added article and fixed typos

{{Short description|None}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=July 2020}}
{{cleanup|date=March 2020|reason=Further table cleanup needed e.g. sorting, citations}}
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2020}}

Post-amendment to the Tamil Nadu Entertainments Tax Act 1939 on 1 April 1958, Gross jumped to 140 per cent of Nett<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20171120150153/http://www.lawsofindia.org/pdf/tamil_nadu/1939/1939TN10.pdf Government raised entertainment tax to 40% (from 33%) in 1958]}}</ref> Commercial Taxes Department disclosed {{INR}}21.92 crore in entertainment tax revenue for the year.<ref>[https://ctd.tn.gov.in/documents/10184/20741/STATISTICAL+COMPENDIUM+2012-2013/9fb9d066-c862-412b-bc88-f29d4091164e?version=1.1 CTD reports {{INR}}21.92 crore ET collection in 1980-81]</ref>

{{Tamil films}}

The following is a list of films produced in the [[Tamil cinema|Tamil film industry]] in India in [[1980 in film|1980]], in alphabetical order.

==1980==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Date!![[Title]] !![[Film director|Director]] !! [[Film producer|Producer]] !! [[Music]]!! [[Cast member|Cast]]
|----
|12 January||''[[Aayiram Vaasal Idhayam]]''
|[[A. Jagannathan]]
|Selvam Arts
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Roja Ramani]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]]
|----
||26 January||''[[Rishi Moolam]]''
|[[S. P. Muthuraman]]
|S. S. K. Films
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[K. R. Vijaya]]
|----
|28 January||''[[Billa (1980 film)|Billa]]''
|R. Krishnamurthy (director)|R. Krishnamurthy
|[[Suresh Balaje|Suresh Arts]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Sripriya]], [[Helen (actress)|Helen]], [[K. Balaji]]
|----
||29 February||''[[Deiveega Raagangal]]''
|[[A. Veerappan]]
|Aachi Cine Arts
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]], [[Vadivukkarasi]], [[Roja Ramani]]
|----
|14 May||''[[Avan Aval Adhu]]''
|[[Muktha Srinivasan|V. Srinivasan]]
|Maya Arts
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Lakshmi (actress)|Lakshmi]], [[Sripriya]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]], [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
|----
|16 May||''[[Yamanukku Yaman]]''
|[[D. Yoganand]]
|Lakshmi Narasimha Pictures
|[[K. Chakravarthy]]
|[[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[Sripriya]]
|----
|||''Andharangam Oomaiyanathu''
|G. Premkumar
|Lankal Films
|[[K. J. Joy]]
|[[Sarath Babu]], [[Jose (actor)|Jose]], [[M. G. Soman]], [[Roopa (actress)|Roopa]], Rajani Sharma, [[Jayamalini]], [[Jalaja]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|||''Anna Paravai''
|R. Pattabhiraman
|Thiru Vadapalani Films
|R. Ramanujam
|[[Latha (actress)|Latha]], [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]], [[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]
|----
|4 June||''[[Anbukku Naan Adimai]]''
|R. Thyagarajan (director)|R. Thyagarajan
|[[Devar Films]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Rati Agnihotri|Rathi]], [[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Sujatha (actress)|Sujatha]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]]
|----
||
||''Ariyaa Paruvathile''
|Unknown
|New Era Combines
|[[Nickolas Raja]]
|[[Vadivukkarasi]]
|----
||
||''Avalukkagave Naan''
|M. Thiruvengadam
|Vyas N Rose Movies
|[[Madurai Somu]], [[Hareram]]
|[[Sivakumar]], Rathi Devi
|----
|||''Azhaithal Varuven''
|P. R. Somu
|R. R. Arts
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Sumalatha]], [[Vadivukkarasi]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|12 June||''[[Bhama Rukmani]]''
|R. Bhaskaran
|Sri Kamakshi Amman Movies
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[K. Bhagyaraj]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Praveena]], [[Nagesh]]
|----
|||''Bombay Mail 109''
|T. P. Sundaram
|Alarmelumanga Productions
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Ravichandran (Tamil actor)|Ravichandran]], [[Sangeeta (Telugu actress)|Sangeetha]], [[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]], [[Jayamalini]], [[Abarna]]
|----
|||''Chinna Chinna Veedu Katti''
|Yuvaraja (director)|Yuvaraja
|Sri Amman Creations
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], Babitha (Anu), [[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]]
|----
|||''Chinnajiru Kiliye''
|K. Chandra Bose
|Sunrise Enterprises
|[[G. K. Venkatesh]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|26 April||''[[Dharma Raja (film)|Dharma Raja]]''
|[[M. A. Thirumugam]]
|Vijayavel Films
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[K. R. Vijaya]], [[K. Balaji]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]]
|----
|||''Edhir Veettu Jannal''
|[[Kalaignanam]]
|Bhairavi Creation
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Suruli Rajan]], [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
|----
||
|''[[Ellam Un Kairasi]]''
|M. A. Thirumurugan
|Santhi Cine Paradise
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Seema (actress)|Seema]], [[Sowcar Janaki]], [[Major Sundarrajan]]
|----
||
|''[[Enga Ooru Rasathi]]''
|N. S. Rajendran
|Ravi Combines
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]], [[Goundamani]]
|----
||
|''Engal Vadhiyar''
|[[Durai (director)|Durai]]
|Radhakrishna Combines
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Nagesh]], [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]], [[Kavitha (actress)|Kavitha]], [[Jayamalini]], [[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
||
|''Geetha Oru Shenbagapoo''
|S. A. Kannan
|Rajeswari Movies
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Jai Ganesh]], [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]], [[Subhashini]], Lavanya, [[Suruli Rajan]], [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
|----
||
|''Geethavin Roja''
|
|Vijithaa Art Pictures
|[[M. L. Srikanth]]
|[[Jai Ganesh]]
|----
||
|''[[Gramathu Athiyayam]]''
|[[C. Rudhraiya]]
|Kumar Arts
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Chandrahasan]], [[Nandakumar (actor)|Nandakumar]], Krishnakumari
|----
||
|''[[Guru (1980 film)|Guru]]''
|[[I. V. Sasi]]
|Sivasakthi Films
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Kamal Haasan]], [[Sridevi]], [[R. Muthuraman]]
|----
||
|''[[Idhayaththil Ore Idam]]''
|Prashath
|Sri Hariharan Films
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]
|----
||
|''[[Ilamai Kolam]]''
|N. Venkatesh
|G. V. P Creations
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Suman (actor)|Suman]], [[Pratap K. Pothen]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]
|----
||
|''Inaindha Dhuruvangal''
|[[K. S. Gopalakrishnan]]
|Vohra Films
|[[V. Kumar]][01]
|[[R. Muthuraman]], [[K. R. Vijaya]]
|----
||
|''Ivargal Vidhiyasamanavargal''
|[[T. S. B. K. Moulee|Moulee]]
|Mangaadu Amman Creation
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|
|----
||
|''[[Jamboo]]''
|[[M. Karnan]]
|Indhrani Films
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]], [[Jayamala (actress)|Jayamala]], Jayavani, [[Praveena]], [[Major Sundarrajan]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]], [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
|----
||
|''[[Johnny (1980 film)|Johnny]]''
|[[Mahendran (filmmaker)|Mahendran]]
|[[K. R. Gangadharan|K. R. G. Films]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Sridevi]], [[Unni Mary|Deepa]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
||
|''[[Kaadu (1980 film)|Kaadu]]''
|[[Durai (director)|Durai]]
|Golden Harvest Productions
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|Sathar, [[Vanitha Krishnachandran|Vanitha]], Bharathi Mohan
|----
||
|''Kaalam Badhil Sollum''
|[[Amirtham]]
|Karumari Films
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]], [[Manjula Vijayakumar|Manjula]]
|----
||
|''[[Kaali (1980 film)|Kaali]]''
|[[I. V. Sasi]]
|Hem Nag Films
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]], [[Seema (actress)|Seema]], [[Fatafat Jayalaxmi]]
|----
||
|''Kadhal Kadhal Kadhal''
|M. A. Kaja
|Udhayam Productions
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[A. V. Ramanan]], [[Unni Mary|Deepa]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
||
|''Kadhal Kiligal''
|[[A. C. Tirulokchandar]]
|Arunodhaya Films
|[[K. V. Mahadevan]]
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Rati Agnihotri|Rathi]]
|----
||
|''[[Kallukkul Eeram]]''
|[[P. S. Nivas]]
|Neelima Movie Makers
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Bharathiraja]], [[Mucherla Aruna|Aruna]], [[Vijayashanti]], [[Vennira Aadai Nirmala]]
|----
||
|''[[Kannil Theriyum Kathaikal]]''
|[[Devaraj–Mohan]]
|Raja Meenakshi Films
|[[K. V. Mahadevan]], [[Ilaiyaraja]], [[G. K. Venkatesh]], [[Shankar–Ganesh]], [[Agathiyar]]
|[[Sarath Babu]], [[Sripriya]], [[Vadivukkarasi]]
|----
||
|''Karadi''
|T. K. Mohan
|Poornima Creations
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|M. G. C. Sukumar, Vijaya Geetha, [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
||
|''Kumari Pennin Ullathile''
|[[Ra. Sankaran]]
|Surendras Art International
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[K. Bhagyaraj]], [[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Vijay Babu (Actor, born 1951)|Vijay Babu]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
||
|''Kuruvikoodu''
|[[P. Madhavan]]
|Manimekalai Pictures
|[[K. V. Mahadevan]]
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Saritha]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
||
|''Madhavi Vandhal''
|Nathigam Ramaswamy
|The Nathigam Pictures
|[[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]]
|
|----
|||''Malargale Malarungal''
|Babu (director)|Babu
|Bhavana Films
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Vanitha Krishnachandran|Vanitha]]
|----
||
|''Malargindra Paruvathile''
|
|Rajapriya Combines
|[[K. V. Mahadevan]]
|
|----
|||''[[Mangala Nayagi]]''
|[[Krishnan–Panju]]
|J. C. Chowdry Arts
|[[V. Kumar]]
|[[K. R. Vijaya]], [[Sarath Babu]], [[Sivachandran]], [[Nisha Noor|Nisha]], Sri Geetha, [[Shobana|'Baby' Shobana]]
|-
|
|''Manmatha Rathangal''
|[[K. Shankar]]
|Nahar Movies
|[[K. V. Mahadevan]]
|
|----
|||''[[Maria My Darling]]''
|[[Durai (director)|Durai]]
|Durgeswari Films
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Kamal Haasan]], [[Sripriya]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]]
|----
|||''Mattravai Neril''
|[[T. S. B. K. Moulee|Moulee]]
|Ponmalar Arts
|[[Shyam (composer)|Shyam]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], Jaya Devi
|----
|||''[[Mazhalai Pattalam]]''
|[[Lakshmi (actress)|Lakshmi]]
|Kalaikoodam Productions
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]], [[Sumithra (actress)|Sumithra]]
|----
|||''[[Meenakshi (1980 film)|Meenakshi]]''
|[[Rama Narayanan]]
|Devipriya Movies
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Vijay Babu (Actor, born 1951)|Vijay Babu]], [[Smitha]]
|----
|||''Megathukkum Dhagam Undu''
|S. Jagadeesan
|[[P. S. Veerappa|P. S. V. Pictures]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Sarath Babu]], Rajani Sharma, [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|||''[[Moodu Pani]]''
|[[Balu Mahendra]]
|Raja Cine Arts
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Pratap K. Pothen]], [[Shoba]], [[Mohan (actor)|Mohan]]
|----
|||''[[Murattu Kaalai (1980 film)|Murattu Kaalai]]''
|[[S. P. Muthuraman]]
|[[AVM Productions]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]], [[Rati Agnihotri|Rathi]], [[Sumalatha]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|||''Muyalakku Moonu Kaal''
|[[V. C. Guhanathan]]
|S. P. V. Films
|[[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]]
|[[Bhanu Chander]], [[Muyalakku Moonu Kaal|Nisha]], [[Suruli Rajan]], [[Vijay Babu (Actor, born 1951)|Vijay Babu]], [[Sathyapriya]], [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]], [[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]], [[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]], [[Sachu]]
|----
|||''[[Muzhu Nilavu]]''
|[[Udumalai Chandran]]
|[[Shanthi Nikethan Productions]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Jai Ganesh]], [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]], [[Sangeeta (Telugu actress)|Sangeetha]], [[Lakshmisri]]
|----
|||''[[Naan Naaney Than]]''
|[[P. Madhavan]]
|[[Ramya Chithra Productions]]
|[[K. V. Mahadevan]]
|[[Rajesh (Tamil actor)|Rajesh]], [[Vadivukkarasi]]
|----
|||''[[Naan Potta Savaal]]''
|[[Puratchidasan]]
|[[Kanaka Saranga Films]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Reena (actress)|Reena]], [[Suruli Rajan]], [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
|----
|||''[[Nadhiyai Thedi Vandha Kadal]]''
|[[B. Lenin]]
|[[Radha Arts]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[J. Jayalalithaa|Jayalalitha]], [[Sarath Babu]], [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]], [[Jameela Malik|Jamila]]
|-
|
|''[[Nandri Karangal]]''
|[[K. S. Gopalakrishnan]]
|[[Solar Combines]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Srividya]], [[Vanitha Krishnachandran|Vanitha]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]]
|----
|||''[[Natchathiram]]''
|[[Dasari Narayana Rao]]
|[[Sri Samundeswari Combines]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sripriya]], [[Mohan Babu]], [[Sivachandran]], [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
|----
|||''[[Neer Nilam Neruppu]]''
|[[K. S. Gopalakrishnan]]
|[[Kangadhara Pictures]]
|[[Sahnkar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sujatha (actress)|Sujatha]], [[Vijay Anand (filmmaker)|Vijay Anand]], [[Y. G. Mahendra]], [[Vanitha Krishnachandran|Vanitha]]
|----
|||''[[Neerottam]]''
|[[Jaichandar]]
|[[T. M. Movies]]
|[[A. V. Ramanan]]
|[[Vijayakanth]], Thirumurugan, [[Padmapriya (actress)|Padmapriya]], [[Praveena]]
|----
|||''[[Nenjathai Killathe]]''
|[[Mahendran (filmmaker)|Mahendran]]
|[[Devi Films]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]], [[Sarath Babu]], [[Pratap K. Pothen]], [[Mohan (actor)|Mohan]]
|----
|||''Nijangal Nilaikkindrana''
|Govindan
|[[Vijayaraji Pictures]]
|[[Shankar-Ganesh]]
|
|-
|||''[[Nizhalgal]]''
|[[Bharathiraja]]
|[[Manoj Creations]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajasekharan]], [[Raadhu (actress)|Rohini]], [[Nizhalgal Ravi]], [[Vagai Chandrasekhar|Chandrasekhar]], [[Suveetha]]
|----
|||''[[Oli Pirandhadhu]]''
|[[Durai (director)|Durai]]
|[[Sunitha Cine Arts]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Menaka (actress)|Menaka]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|||''[[Oomai Kanavu Kandal]]''
|[[Vijayaraja]]
|[[Mansoor Movies]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|Thirumurugan, [[M. S. Vasanthi]], [[Meera Kalyanamalai|Meera]], [[Y. G. Mahendra]], [[Sukumari]]
|----
|||''[[Ore Mutham]]''
|[[C. A. Mugilan]]
|[[S. V. S. A. V. M. Cine Arts]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Jai Ganesh]], [[Sumithra (actress)|Sumithra]], [[Srikanth (actor, born 1940)|Srikanth]]
|----
|||''[[Oru Iravu Oru Paravai]]''
|[[P. C. Reddy]]
|[[Eswari Chithra Productions]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]], [[Latha (actress)|Latha]], [[Sarath Babu]]
|----
|||''[[Oru Kai Osai]]''
|[[K. Bhagyaraj]]
|[[Ammulu Productions]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[K. Bhagyaraj]], Ashwini
|-
|
|''[[Oru Marathu Paravaigal]]''
|[[Ra. Shankaran]]
|[[Jayavel Productions]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Jai Ganesh]], [[Sripriya]]
|-
|
|''[[Oru Thalai Ragam]]''
|[[E. M. Ibrahim]] [[T. Rajendar]]
|[[Mansoor Creations]]
|[[T. Rajendar]]
|[[Shankar (actor)|Shankar]], [[Roopa (actress)|Roopa]], [[Raveendran (actor)|Raveendran]], [[Vagai Chandrasekhar|Chandrasekhar]], [[Usha Rajendar]]
|-
|
|''[[Oru Velladu Vengaiyagiradhu]]''
|[[Devaraj–Mohan]]
|[[R. M. Veerappan|Sathya Movies]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Saritha]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]]
|-
|
|''[[Othayadi Paathayilae]]''
|[[A. S. Prakasam]]
|[[S. V. R. Enterprises]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh|Ganesh]], [[Pournami (actress)|Pournami]]
|-
|
|''[[Panam Penn Pasam]]''
|[[M. A. Kaja]]
|[[Murali Karthikeyan Pictures]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[R. Muthuraman]], [[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Saritha]], [[Vadivukkarasi]]
|-
|
|''[[Paruvathin Vasalile]]''
|[[Kiruba Shankar]]
|[[Sri Suryalaya Creations]]
|[[Gangai Amaren]]
|[[Vijay Babu (Actor, born 1951)|Vijay Babu]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]
|-
|
|''[[Polladhavan (1980 film)|Polladhavan]]''
|[[Muktha Srinivasan|V. Srinivasan]]
|[[Vidhya Movies]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Rajinikanth]], [[Lakshmi (actress)|Lakshmi]], [[Sripriya]]
|-
|
|''[[Ponnagaram]]''
|[[K. S. Mathangan]]
|[[True Films]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sarath Babu]], [[Shoba]]
|-
|
|''[[Pennukku Yaar Kaaval]]''
|[[Durai (director)|Durai]]
|[[LakshmiJyothi Films]]
|[[Ramesh Naidu]]
|[[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]], [[Sumithra (actress)|Sumithra]]
|-
|
|''[[Porkkaalam (1980 film)|Porkkaalam]]''
|[[Durai (director)|Durai]]
|[[Kasthuri Enterprises]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[M. G. C. Sukumar]], [[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Sathyakala]], [[Vanitha Krishnachandran|Vanitha]]
|-
|
|''[[Poottaatha Poottukkal]]''
|[[Mahendran (filmmaker)|Mahendran]]
|[[Sri Sarasalaya Productions]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Jayan]], [[Charulatha]], [[Sundar]], [[Archana (actress)|Archana]]
|-
|
|''[[Pournami Nilavil]]''
|[[M. A. Kaja]]
|[[Umapriya Creations]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[M. S. Vasanthi]]
|-
|
|''[[Pudhiya Thoranangal]]''
|[[M. Karnan]]
|[[Valli Velan Movies]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sarath Babu]], [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]]
|-
|
|''[[Rakaala Paravaigal]]''
|[[NOT KNOWN]]
|[[Chinnalapatti Sakthivel]]
|[[P. Sreenivasan]]
|[[Chakravarthy (1980 film)|Chakravarthy]], [[Suman (actor)|Suman]], [[Praveena]], [[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]]
|-
|
|''[[Raman Parasuraman]]''
|[[M. S. Gopinath]]
|[[Suresh Fine Arts]]
|[[Satyam (composer)|Sathyam]]
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Latha (actress)|Latha]], [[Rati Agnihotri|Rathi]]
|-
|
|''[[Ramayi Vayasukku Vandhutta]]''
|[[V. Alagappan]]
|[[Sri Durga Combines]]
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[Udhayashankar]], [[Menaka (actress)|Menaka]]
|-
|
|''[[Ratha Paasam (1980 film)|Ratha Paasam]]''
|[[K. Vijayan]]
|[[Sivaji Productions]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[Sripriya]], [[Jayachitra]], [[Mohan Babu]]
|-
|
|
|bvn
|
|
|
|-
|25 December
|''[[Rusi Kanda Poonai]]''
|[[G. N. Rangarajan]]
|[[Panchu Arunachalam|Panchu Arts]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]], [[Saritha]], [[Latha (actress)|Latha]], [[M. R. Radha]]
|----
|||''[[Samanthipoo]]''
|[[K. S. Mathangan]]
|[[Anand Creation]]
|[[Malaysia Vasudevan]]
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Shoba]]
|----
|||''[[Santhana Malargal]]''
|[[J. Ramu]]
|[[Nagavelankanni Creations]]
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[Sudhakar]], [[Radhika]]
|----
|||''[[Saranam Ayyappa]]''
|[[Dasarathan (director)|Dasarathan]]
|[[Amudeshwari Films]]
|[[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]]
|[[Jayabharathi]], [[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Radha Ravi]]
|----
|||''[[Savitri (1980 film)|Savitri]]''
|[[Bharathan]]
|[[Lena Productions]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Vinod (actor)|Vinod]], [[Menaka (actress)|Menaka]]
|----
|||''[[Soolam]]''
|[[M. Bhaskar]]
|[[Oscar Movies]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Rajkumar (Tamil actor)|Rajkumar]], [[Ponni (actress)|Ponni]]
|----
|||''[[Soundaryame Varuga Varuga]]''
|[[C. V. Sridhar]]
|[[Sri Bharani Chithra Enterprises]]
|[[Vijaya Bhaskar]]
|[[Sivachandran]], [[Sripriya]]
|----
|||''[[Sridevi (Tamil film)|Sridevi]]''
|[[Balaji (director)|Balaji]]
|[[U. M. Productions]]
|
|
|----
|||''[[Sujatha (1980 film)|Sujatha]]''
|[[Mohan (director)|Mohan]]
|[[K. Balaji|Sujatha Cine Arts]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Saritha]], [[Shankar (actor)|Shankar]], [[Rajyalakshmi]], [[Raveendran (actor)|Raveendran]]
|----
|||''[[Thai Pongal (film)|Thai Pongal]]''
|[[M. G. Vallabhan]]
|[[Anjaneya Combines]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], [[Saritha]]
|----
|||''[[Theneer]]''
|[[Jayabharathy (director)|Jayabharathy]]
|[[Vaigarai Films Pvt Ltd]]
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|
|----
|||''[[Thanimaram]]''
|[[Durai (director)|Durai]]
|[[Jayadevi Movies]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Rajesh (Tamil actor)|Rajesh]], [[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|||''[[Tharayil Pootha Malar]]''
|[[Jai Durai]]
|[[Vengarai Amman Creations]]
||[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[Ravikanth (actor)|Ravikanth]], [[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]]
|----
|||''[[Theru Vilakku]]''
|[[M. A. Kaja]]
|[[Sri Devadevi Films]]
|[[Gangai Amaran]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Unni Mary|Deepa]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|-
|||''[[Thunive Thozhan]]''
|[[R. Sundaram]]
|[[Modern Theatres]]
|R. Rajesh
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Sivachandran]], [[Sathyakala]], [[Archana (actress)|Archana]]
|----
|{{nowrap|27 September}}||''[[Uchakattam]]''
|[[N. S. Raj Bharath]]
|[[Surya Art Films]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sarath Babu]], [[Sunitha (actress)|Sunitha]]
|----
||7 March||''[[Ullasa Paravaigal]]''
|[[C. V. Rajendran]]
|[[S. P. T. Films]]
|[[Ilaiyaraaja]]
|[[Kamal Haasan]], [[Rati Agnihotri|Rathi]], [[Unni Mary|Deepa]]
|----
|29 August||''[[Vandichakkaram]]''
|[[K. Vijayan]]
|[[Vivekanandha Pictures]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Sivakumar]], [[Saritha]], [[Silk Smitha]]
|----
||6 November||''[[Varumayin Niram Sivappu]]''
|[[K. Balachander]]
|[[Premalaya Productions]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Kamal Haasan]], [[Sridevi]], [[Pratap K. Pothen]], [[S. Ve. Shekher]]
|----
||6 November||''[[Vishwaroopam (1980 film)|Vishwaroopam]]''
|[[A. C. Tirulokchandar]]
|[[Krishna (Telugu actor)|Padmalaya Pictures]]
|[[M. S. Viswanathan]]
|[[Sivaji Ganesan]], [[Sujatha (actress)|Sujatha]], [[Sridevi]]
|----
||5 December||''[[Doorathu Idi Muzhakkam]]''
|[[K. Vijayan]]
|[[Saisudha Films]]
|[[Salil Chowdhury]]
|[[Vijayakanth]], Poornima, [[Peeli Sivam]], [[Suruli Rajan]]
|----
|||''[[Yaaga Saalai (film)|Yaaga Saalai]]''
|[[K. V. Manisekaran]]
|[[Friends Movies]]
|[[Vijaya Ramani]]
|Thirumurugan, [[Vadivukkarasi]], [[M. S. Vasanthi]]
|----
|||''[[Vasantha Azhaippugal]]''
|[[T. Rajendar]]
|[[Jeppiar Pictures]]
|[[T. Rajendar]]
|[[Raveendran (actor)|Raveendran]], [[Usha Rajendar]], [[Roopa (actress)|Roopa]]
|----
|||''[[Veli Thandiya Velladu]]''
|[[M. A. Kaja]]
|[[Senthil Creations]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Vijay Babu (Actor, born 1951)|Vijay Babu]], [[Unni Mary|Deepa]]
|-
|
|''[[Valli Mayil]]''
|[[M. A. Kaja]]
|[[Kadayanalur Creations]]
|[[Shankar–Ganesh]]
|[[Vijayan (actor)|Vijayan]], [[Unni Mary|Deepa]]
|}

==References==
<references />

{{Tamil cinema}}
{{1980 films}}
{{Indian film list}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tamil Films Of 1980}}
[[Category:1980 in Indian cinema|Films, Tamil]]
[[Category:Lists of 1980 films by language]]
[[Category:Lists of Tamil films by year|1980]]
[[Category:1980 Tamil-language films| ]]

List of cities in Jharkhand by population

2026-03-22T17:14:07Z

EmilBarraza: slightly refine formatting per sources and corrected details

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
This is a list of [[urban agglomeration]]s and cities (those not included in the Urban Agglomerations), with a population above 100,000 as per 2011 census in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Jharkhand]]:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date = 2012-04-05 }}</ref>

==Urban agglomeration==
In the census of India 2011, an urban agglomeration was defined as follows:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/1.%20Data%20Highlight.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations and Cities |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011|access-date = 2012-03-27 }}</ref>

"An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such towns. An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town and its total population (i.e. all the constituents put together) should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census. In varying local conditions, there were similar other combinations which have been treated as urban agglomerations satisfying the basic condition of contiguity."

{|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="1"|Rank
!width="150" rowspan="1"| Name
!rowspan="1"|Image
!width="150" rowspan="1"| District
!rowspan="1"|Type*
!rowspan="1"|Population 2011
!rowspan="1"|Male
!rowspan="1"|Female
!width="90" rowspan="1"|Population below 5 yrs
!width="90" rowspan="1"|Literacy rate
|-
|align="right"|1
|align=left|[[Jamshedpur]]
|align=left|[[File:Jamshedpur City View.jpg|175x175px]]
|[[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]], [[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]
|UA
|align="right"|1,337,131
|align="right"|696,858
|align="right"|640,273
|align="right"|153,872
|align="right"|85.94
|-
|align="right"|2
|align=left|[[Dhanbad]]
|align=left|[[File:Police line dhanbad.jpg|175x175px]]
|[[Dhanbad district]]
|UA
|align="right"|1,195,298
|align="right"|633,363
|align="right"|561,935
|align="right"|151,010
|align="right"|80.64
|-
|align="right"|3
|align=left|[[Ranchi]]
|align=left| [[File:Ranchi hill.JPG|175x175px]]
|[[Ranchi district]]
|UA
|align="right"|1,126,741
|align="right"|586,634
|align="right"|540,107
|align="right"|128,541
|83.60
|-
|align="right"|4
|align=left|[[Bokaro Steel City]]
|align=left|[[File:Bokaro Steel City at Night .jpg|175px]]
|[[Bokaro district]]
|UA
|align="right"|563,417
|align="right"|299,232
|align="right"|264,185
|align="right"|67,672
|84.87
|-
|align="right" |5
|align="left" |[[Deoghar]]
|align="left" |[[File:PRAYER IN SATSANG ASHRAM (DEOGHAR,JHARKHAND).jpg|175px]]
|[[Deoghar district]]
|City
|align="right" |203,116
|align="right" |108,243
|align="right" |94,873
|align="right" |25,929
|86.80
|-
| align="right" |6
| align="left" |[[Phusro|Phusro–Bermo–Bokaro Thermal]]
| align="left" |[[File:National Highway no. 114A connecting West Bengal and Jharkhand 06.jpg|175px]]
|[[Bokaro district]]
|UA
| align="right" |186,139
| align="right" |97,665
| align="right" |88,474
| align="right" |22,125
|79.99
|-
| align="right" |7
| align="left" |[[Hazaribagh]]
| align="left" |[[File:Hazaribagh night scene.jpg|175px]]
|[[Hazaribagh district]]
|UA
| align="right" |153,599
| align="right" |80,095
| align="right" |73,504
| align="right" |17,276
|90.14
|-
| align="right" |8
| align="left" |[[Giridih]]
| align="left" |[[File:Shikharji Parasnath Giridih.jpg|175px]]
|[[Giridih district]]
|UA
| align="right" |143,529
| align="right" |74,841
| align="right" |68,688
| align="right" |20,658
|82.41
|-
| align="right" |9
| align="left" |[[Ramgarh Cantonment|Ramgarh]]
| align="left" |
|[[Ramgarh district]]
|UA
| align="right" |132,441
| align="right" |70,879
| align="right" |61,562
| align="right" |17,086
|82.97
|-
| align="right" |10
| align="left" |[[Medininagar]] (Daltonganj)
| align="left" |[[File:RiverKoyalView.jpg|175px]]
|[[Palamu district]]
|UA
| align="right" |119,972
| align="right" |63,244
| align="right" |56,728
| align="right" |13,752
|88.84
|-
| align="right" |11
| align="left" |[[Chirkunda]]
| align="left" |[[File:Jharkhand (30895719276).jpg|175px]]
|[[Dhanbad district]]
|UA
| align="right" |118,822
| align="right" |62,394
| align="right" |56,428
| align="right" |14,742
|77.03
|-
|align="center" colspan="30" style=|* UA=Urban Agglomeration
|}

===Constituents of urban agglomerations in Jharkhand===
The constituents of urban agglomerations in Jharkhand, with a population of 1 lakh or above, are noted below:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_4_PR_UAs_1Lakh_and_Above_Appendix.pdf | title = Constituents of urban Agglomerations Having Population 1 Lakh & above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011|access-date = 2012-04-05 }}</ref>

* Jamshedpur Urban Agglomeration includes: * Jamshedpur (Industrial Town), Jamshedpur (NAC), Tata Nagar Railway Colony (OG), Mango (NAC), Jugsalai (M), Bagbera (CT), Chhota Gobindpur (CT), Haludbani (CT), Sarjamda (CT), Gadhra (CT), Ghorabandha (CT), Purihasa (CT), Adityapur (M Corp.), Chota Gamahria (CT) and Kapali (CT).
* Dhanbad Urban Agglomeration includes: Dhanbad (M Corp.), Pondarkanali (CT), Malkera (CT), Baua Kalan (CT) and Nagri Kalan (CT).
* Ranchi Urban Agglomeration includes: Ranchi (M Corp.), Kanke (CT), Arsande (CT), Ara (CT), Tundiul (CT) and Bargarwa (CT).
* Bokaro Steel City Urban Agglomeration includes: Bokaro Steel City (CT), Chas (M Corp.), Bandhgora (CT) and Kamaldih (CT).
* Phusro Urban Agglomeration includes: Phusro (M corp), Bermo (CT), Jaridih Bazar (CT), Bokaro Thermal (CT) and Kurpania (CT).
* Hazaribagh Urban Agglomeration includes Hazaribagh (M Corp.) and Okni (CT).
* Giridih Urban Agglomeration includes: Giridih (M Corp.), Paratdih (CT), Sirsia (CT), Pertodih (CT) and Dandidih (CT).
* Ramgarh Urban Agglomeration includes: Ramgarh (NP), Sirka (CT), Marar (CT) and Barkakana (CT).
* Medininagar(Daltonganj) Urban Agglomeration includes: Medininagar (Daltonganj) (M Corp.), Rerma (CT), Sundna (CT), Baratola (CT), Nimiya (CT), Bajraha (CT), Bairiya (CT), Redma (CT) ward 0001, Sudna (CT) ward 0001, and Baralota (CT) ward 0001.
* Chirkunda Urban Agglomeration includes: Chirkunda (NP), Egarkunr (CT), Siuliban (CT), Mera (CT), Maithon (CT) and Dumarkunda (CT).

::Abbreviations: M Corp. = Municipal corporation, M = Municipal Council, NP = [[Nagar panchayat|Nagar Parishad]], NAC = [[Notified area committee]], CT = [[Census town]], CB = Cantonment Board, OG= Out growth

==Urban agglomeration constituents==
Urban agglomerations constituents with a population above 100,000 as per 2011 census are shown in the table below.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date = 2012-03-27}}</ref>

{|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="150" rowspan="1"|Urban agglomeration
!width="150" rowspan="1"| Name of constituent
!width="150" rowspan="1"| District
!rowspan="1"|Type*
!rowspan="1"|Population 2011
!rowspan="1"|Male
!rowspan="1"|Female
!width="90" rowspan="1"|Population below 5 yrs
!width="90" rowspan="1"|Literacy rate
|-
|align="left"|[[Jamshedpur]]
|align="left"|[[Jamshedpur]]
|align="left"|[[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]]
|align="left"|NAC
|align="right"|629,659
|align="right"|327,912
|align="right"|301,747
|align="right"|64,098
|align="right"|87.50
|-
|align="left"|
|align="left"|[[Mango (Jamshedpur)|Mango]]
|align="left"|[[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]]
|align="left"|M Corp.
|align="right"|224,002
|align="right"|116,243
|align="right"|107,759
|align="right"|28,258
|align="right"|86.62
|-
|align="left"|
|align="left"|[[Jugsalai]]
|align="left"|[[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]]
|align="left"|JMC
|align="right"|49,660
|align="right"|26,036
|align="right"|23,624
|align="right"|6,115
|align="right"|84.36
|-
|align="left"|
|align="left"|[[Adityapur]]<ref>Recorded as Adityapur in census records.</ref>
|align="left"|[[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]
|align="left"|M Corp.
|align="right"|173,988
|align="right"|91,495
|align="right"|82,493
|align="right"|23,042
|align="right"|83.46
|-
|align="left"|
|align="left"|[[Kopali]]
|align="left"|[[Seraikela Kharsawan district|Seraikela Kharsawan]]
|align="left"|KMC
|align="right"|43,256
|align="right"|22,337
|align="right"|20,919
|align="right"|7,603
|align="right"|72.40
|-
|align="left"|[[Dhanbad]]
|align="left"|[[Dhanbad]]
|align="left"|[[Dhanbad district|Dhanbad]]
|align="left"|M Corp.
|align="right"|1,161,561
|align="right"|615,589
|align="right"|545,972
|align="right"|146,463
|align="right"|80.78
|-
|align="left"|[[Ranchi]]
|align="left"|[[Ranchi]]
|align="left"|[[Ranchi district|Ranchi]]
|align="left"|M Corp.
|align="right"|1,073,440
|align="right"|559,031
|align="right"|514,409
|align="right"|122,353
|align="right"|88.49
|-
|align="left"|[[Bokaro Steel City]]
|align="left"|[[Bokaro Steel City]]
|align="left"|[[Bokaro district|Bokaro]]
|align="left"|CT
|align="right"|413,934
|align="right"|220,088
|align="right"|193,846
|align="right"|
|align="right"|84.94
|-
|align="left"|[[Hazaribagh]]
|align="left"|[[Hazaribagh]]
|align="left"|[[Hazaribagh district|Hazaribagh]]
|align="left"|M corp
|align="right"|142,494
|align="right"|74,267
|align="right"|68,227
|align="right"|16,100
|align="right"|89.95
|-
|align="left"|[[Giridih]]
|align="left"|[[Giridih]]
|align="left"|[[Giridih district]]
|align="left"|M Corp.
|align="right"|176,387
|align="right"|85,373
|align="right"|75,410
|align="right"|15,604
|align="right"|89.16
|-
|align="left"|[[Medininagar]]
|align="left"|[[Medininagar]]
|align="left"|[[Palamu district|Palamu]]
|align="left"|M Corp.
|align="right"|389,307
|align="right"|2,4,924
|align="right"|78,523
|align="right"|15,446
|align="right"|85.75
|}

== See also ==

* [[List of cities in Jharkhand by area]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Cities of India}}
{{Jharkhand}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Jharkhand|*]]
[[Category:Jharkhand-related lists|Cities by population]]
[[Category:Lists of cities in India by population|Jharkhand]]

Delhi

2026-03-22T01:53:32Z

EmilBarraza: Page updated with relevant improvements

{{Short description|Megacity and union territory of India}}
{{Redirect|National Capital Territory|the generic term|Capital districts and territories}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[New Delhi]], the capital of India, entirely within the limits of Delhi and [[New Delhi district]]}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Delhi
| official_name = National Capital Territory of Delhi
| native_name =
| other_name =
| image_blank_emblem =
| blank_emblem_type =
| settlement_type = [[List of cities in India by population|Megacity]] and [[States and union territories of India|union territory]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| align = center
| total_width = 250
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/2/2/2
| image1 = Tomb of Humayun, Delhi.jpg
| alt1 =
| image2 = Qutb minar ruins.jpg
| alt2 =
| image3 = Jama Masjid 2011.jpg
| alt3 =
| image4 = Red Fort in Delhi 03-2016 img3.jpg
| alt4 =
| image5 = India Gate 2014-11-01.jpg
| alt5 =
| image6 = Digambar Jain Lal Mandir, Chandni Chowk, Delhi.jpg
| alt6 =
| image7 = St. James Church 9.jpg
| alt7 =
| image8 = Hyderabad house US Sec Def highest intensity.jpg
| alt8 =
| image9 = Lotus Temple in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg
| alt9 =
}}
| image_caption = From top, left to right: [[Humayun's Tomb]]; [[Qutub Complex|Qutub Minar]]; [[Jama Masjid, Delhi|Jama Masjid]]; [[Red Fort, Delhi|Red Fort]]'s Lahori gate; [[India Gate]]; [[Sri Digambar Jain Lal Mandir|Digambar Jain Mandir]] with Gauri Shankar temple in the background; [[St. James' Church, Delhi|St. James' Church]]; [[Hyderabad House]]; [[Lotus Temple]], a [[Baháʼí House of Worship]]
| image_size =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 8
| mapframe-marker = city
| coordinates = {{Coord|28|36|36|N|77|13|48|E|type:adm1st_region:IN-DL|display=inline, title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| established_title = Capital, [[Delhi Sultanate]]
| established_date = 1214
| established_title1 = Capital, [[Mughal Empire]]
| established_date1 = 1526, intermittently with [[Agra]]
| established_title2 = [[New Delhi]], capital, [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]]
| established_date2 = 12 December 1911
| established_title3 = New Delhi, capital, [[Republic of India]]
| established_date3 = 26 January 1950
| established_title4 = Union Territory<ref name="7thAmend56" /><ref name="ReorgAct56" />
| established_date4 = 1 November 1956
| established_title5 = National Capital Territory<ref name=NCTact />
| established_date5 = 1 February 1992
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = [[North India]]
| governing_body = {{Wdib|P797|fwd=ALL|osd=no|noicon=1}}
| leader_title = [[List of lieutenant governors of Delhi|Lieutenant Governor]]
| leader_name = [[Vinai Kumar Saxena]]
| leader_title1 = {{nowrap|[[List of Chief Ministers of Delhi|Chief Minister]]}}
| leader_name1 = [[Rekha Gupta]] ([[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]])
| leader_title3 = [[Delhi Legislative Assembly|Legislature]]
| leader_name3 = [[Unicameral]] ([[Delhi Legislative Assembly|70 seats]])
| area_total_km2 = 1484
| area_total_sq_mi = 573
| area_footnotes = <ref name='Delhi Info'>{{cite web|title=Delhi Info|url=https://unccdcop14india.gov.in/about-delhi|website=unccdcop14india.gov.in|access-date=24 November 2020|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129201811/https://unccdcop14india.gov.in/about-delhi|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| area_water_sq_mi = 6.9
| area_metro_km2 = 3483
| area_metro_footnotes = <ref name="metroarea">{{cite web |title=Study on counter magnet areas to Delhi & NCR |url=http://ncrpb.nic.in/pdf_files/04_Chapter1_cma.pdf |website=National Capital Region Planning Board|page=2}}</ref>{{efn|Combined area figures of 1,483 sq km for "NCT Delhi" and 2000 sq km for "Central National Capital Region"/ CNCR (formerly designated "Delhi Metropolitan Area"/ DMA) comprising adjoining satellite cities of Delhi located in Haryana and Uttar Pradesh<ref name="metroarea"/><ref name="DMA towns">{{cite web |date=September 2007 |title=Evaluation Study of DMA Towns in National Capital Region |url=http://tcpomud.gov.in/divisions/mutp/dma/final_dma_report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320052724/http://tcpomud.gov.in/divisions/mutp/dma/final_dma_report.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2017 |access-date=19 March 2017 |website=Town and Country Planning Organisation |publisher=[[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Ministry of Urban Development]]}}</ref>}}
| elevation_m = 200–250
| elevation_ft = 650–820
| population_footnotes = <ref name="2011 census Delhi" />
| population_total = 16,787,941
| population_rank = [[List of most populous cities in India|2nd]] in India [[List of Asian cities by population within city limits|7th]] in Asia
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi = 29,298
| population_est = 21588000
| population_urban_footnotes = <ref name="delhi2011" />
| pop_est_as_of = 2024
| pop_est_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Planning/tables.pdf |title=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2023-24 - Tables |publisher= Planning Department Government of NCT of Delhi |access-date=6 December 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930092557/https://delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Planning/tables.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| population_urban = 16,349,831 ([[List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India|2nd]])
| population_blank1_footnotes = <ref name="2011 census Delhi" />
| population_blank1_title = [[Municipal Corporation of Delhi|Megacity]]
| population_blank1 = 11,034,555 ([[List of cities in India by population|2nd]])
| population_blank2_footnotes = <ref name="UNcities2018"/>
| population_blank2_title = [[Metropolitan area|Metro]] (2018)
| population_blank2 = 28514000 ([[List of metropolitan areas in India|1st]])
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = {{hlist|[[Hindi]]|[[English language|English]]<ref name="OLA 2000">{{cite web|url=https://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/d09fd2004bd07ad9a305ab56803943f0/Delhi+Official+Languages+Act+2000.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&lmod=-344844204|title=Official Language Act 2000|date=2 July 2003|publisher=Government of Delhi|access-date=17 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084459/https://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/d09fd2004bd07ad9a305ab56803943f0/Delhi+Official+Languages+Act+2000.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&lmod=-344844204|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> }}
| demographics1_title2 = Additional official
| demographics1_info2 = {{hlist| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]|[[Urdu language|Urdu]]<ref name="OLA 2000" /> }}
| demographics1_title3 = Regional
| demographics1_info3 = {{hlist|[[Haryanvi]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Sociolinguistic Survey of Haryanvi |url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/39/32/25/39322561837182664281680018892812535354/JLSR2024_011.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Haryanvi Language |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/haryanvi.htm}}</ref> |[[Kauravi dialect|Khariboli]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Hindi language variation |url=http://lisindia.ciil.org/Hindi/Hindi_vari.html}}</ref>}}
| demographics_type2 = GDP {{nobold|(2023–24)}}
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref name="NSDP">{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Planning/economic_survey_of_delhi_2023-24_english.pdf|title=ECONOMIC SURVEY OF DELHI 2023 – 24|website=delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in|access-date=15 August 2024|archive-date=30 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930092641/https://delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Planning/economic_survey_of_delhi_2023-24_english.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| demographics2_title1 = [[List of cities in India by population|Megacity]] and [[States and union territories of India|union territory]] (Nominal)
| demographics2_info1 = {{INRConvert|1107746|c|=r}}<ref name="NSDP"/>
| demographics2_title2 = [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|Per Capita NSDP]]
| demographics2_info2 = {{INRConvert|461910|lk=r}}<ref name="NSDP"/>
| demographics2_title3 = [[Gross metropolitan product|Metro]] (Nominal)
| demographics2_info3 = $273 billion<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Wealth GDP Nominal Distribution: Who Are The Leaders Of The Global Economy? – Full Size|url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Global-Wealth-Distribution.html|website=www.visualcapitalist.com|access-date=30 March 2025}}</ref>
| demographics2_title4 = [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]
| demographics2_info4 = $521.5 billion<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.c40.org/cities/delhi-nct/|title=Delhi NCT, India|website=C40 Cities|access-date=25 March 2024|archive-date=14 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314094341/https://www.c40.org/cities/delhi-nct/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| blank_name_sec2 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] {{nobold|(2018)}}
| blank_info_sec2 = {{nowrap|{{increase}} 0.839<ref name="snhdi-gdl">{{cite web |title=Gendering Human Development |url=https://mospi.gov.in/documents/213904/301563//Report%20on%20Gendering%20Human%20Development%20(1)1617270984176.pdf/ab88fd0a-d5ee-77f9-a493-4238dfb3838c#page=52 |access-date=27 January 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326022758/https://mospi.gov.in/documents/213904/301563//Report%20on%20Gendering%20Human%20Development%20%281%291617270984176.pdf/ab88fd0a-d5ee-77f9-a493-4238dfb3838c#page=52 |url-status=live }}</ref> ({{color|darkgreen|Very High}})}} · [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|1st]]
| blank1_name_sec2 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]] {{nobold|(2011)}}
| blank1_info_sec2 = 86.21%<ref name="pc-census2011">{{cite web |title=Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban) |url=https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India |access-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127163347/https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| blank2_name_sec2 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]] {{nobold|(2011)}}
| blank2_info_sec2 = 868 [[females|♀]]/1000 [[Male|♂]]<ref name="pc-census2011" />
| timezone = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +5.30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PINs]]<ref name=pin>{{cite web | url = https://www.indiapost.gov.in/vas/pages/FindPinCode.aspx | title = Find Pin Code | work = [[India Post|Department of Posts]] | access-date = 5 June 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190603225933/https://www.indiapost.gov.in/vas/pages/findpincode.aspx | archive-date = 3 June 2019 | url-status = live }}</ref>
| postal_code = 110000{{ndash}}110099
| area_code = [[Telephone numbers in India|+91 11]]
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-DL]]
| registration_plate = DL
| website = {{URL|https://delhi.gov.in/}}
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[International Airport]]
| blank4_info_sec1 = [[Delhi Metro]]
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Rapid Transit]]
| native_name_lang = hi
}}

'''Delhi''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɛ|l|i}}; {{IPA|hi|ˈdɪlːiː}} ''dillī'', occasionally {{IPA|hi|ˈdeːɦliː|}} ''dehlī''; {{IPA|pa|ˈdɪlːiː}} ''dillī''; {{IPA|ur|ˈdeɦliː}} ''dêhlī'', informally {{IPA|ur|ˈdɪlːiː|}} ''dillī''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Platts|first=John Thompson|title=A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1960|isbn=0-19-864309-8|location=London|pages=546|oclc=3201841|author-link=John Thompson Platts|orig-year=First published 1884}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution (Sixty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1991|url=https://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend69.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821020032/https://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend69.htm|archive-date=21 August 2016|access-date=23 November 2014|publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice, [[Government of India]]}}</ref><ref name="habib, Royal, karamchandani, National">{{Cite book |title=The agrarian system of Mughal India, 1556–1707 |last=Habib |first=Irfan |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-562329-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ymFAAAAIAAJ |quote=The current Survey of India spellings are followed for place names except where they vary rather noticeably from the spellings in our sources: thus I read 'Dehli' not 'Delhi ... |year=1999 |access-date=6 November 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101225812/https://books.google.com/books?id=0ymFAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}
*{{Cite book|title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland|author=Royal Asiatic Society|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mtosAAAAIAAJ|quote=also Dehli or Dilli, not Delhi ...|year=1834|access-date=6 November 2015|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225121640/https://books.google.com/books?id=mtosAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book|title=India, the beautiful|first=L.T|last=Karamchandani|publisher=Sita Publication|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_sHWfveQGksC|quote=According to available evidence the present Delhi, spelt in Hindustani as Dehli or Dilli, derived its name from King ...|year=1968|access-date=6 November 2015|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225121703/https://books.google.com/books?id=_sHWfveQGksC|url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book|title=The National geographical journal of India, Volume 40|publisher=National Geographical Society of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqAAAAAMAAJ|quote=The name which remained the most popular is 'Dilli' with variation in its pronunciation as Dilli, Dehli, or Delhi|year=1994|access-date=6 November 2015|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225121639/https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqAAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>}} officially the '''National Capital Territory''' ('''NCT''') '''of Delhi''', is a megacity and a [[union territory]] of India containing [[New Delhi]], the capital of India. Straddling the [[Yamuna]] river, but spread chiefly to the west, or beyond its [[Bank (geography)|right bank]], Delhi shares borders with the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] in the east and with the state of [[Haryana]] in the remaining directions. Delhi became a [[union territory]] on 1 November 1956 and the NCT in 1995.<ref name=statesmans-yb-2023-delhi-area-pop>{{citation|page=589|editor-last=Springer Nature Limited|title=The Statesman's Yearbook 2023: The Politics, Cultures, and Economies of the World|location=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2022|isbn=978-1-349-96055-2|quote=Delhi became a Union Territory on 1 Nov. 1956 and was designated the National Capital Territory in 1995. Delhi has an area of 1,483 sq. km. Its population (2011 census) is 16,787,941.}}</ref> The NCT covers an area of {{convert|1484|km2}}.<ref name="Delhi Info" /> According to the 2011 census, Delhi's city proper population was over 11 million,<ref name="2011 census Delhi">{{Cite web|date=2011|title=Census of India: Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011, NCT of Delhi|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_delhi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119042828/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_delhi.html |archive-date=19 January 2022|access-date=12 February 2022|website=Census of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/896594/this-study-settles-the-delhi-versus-mumbai-debate-the-capitals-economy-is-streets-ahead|title=This study settles the Delhi versus Mumbai debate: The Capital's economy is streets ahead|date=2 October 2018 |access-date=21 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221134658/https://scroll.in/article/896594/this-study-settles-the-delhi-versus-mumbai-debate-the-capitals-economy-is-streets-ahead|archive-date=21 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> while the NCT's population was about 16.8 million.<ref name="delhi2011">{{cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/India-Delhi.html?cityid=2925|title=Delhi (India): Union Territory, Major Agglomerations & Towns – Population Statistics in Maps and Charts|work=City Population|access-date=28 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302112054/https://www.citypopulation.de/India-Delhi.html?cityid=2925|archive-date=2 March 2017}}</ref>

The topography of the medieval fort [[Purana Qila]] on the banks of the river Yamuna matches the literary description of the citadel [[Indraprastha]] in the Sanskrit epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''; however, excavations in the area have revealed no signs of an ancient built environment.<ref name=sunil-kumar2>{{citation|last=Kumar|first=Sunil|chapter=Delhi|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |editor1-last = Bowering|editor1-first =Gerhard| editor2-last =Crone|editor2-first= Patricia|editor3-last=Mirza|editor3-first=Mahan|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn= 9780691134840 |year=2013 | page = 127| quote= (page 126) Although the ancient history of Delhi is always linked with Indraprastha, the capital of the Pandawas in the Mahabharata epic, (ca. 1500–1000 BCE), no archaeological trace of the city has been discovered. Instead a variety of smaller settlements attest to the occupation of the area from the fifth century BCE without leading to full scale urbanization until at the earliest, the 11th and 12th centuries CE, when the Tomara and Chawhan chieftains established their relatively humble headquarters in the southern reaches of the Delhi plain.}}</ref>
From the early 13th century until the mid-19th century, Delhi was the capital of two major empires, the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and the [[Mughal Empire]], which covered large parts of [[South Asia]]. All three [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]s in the city, the [[Qutub Minar]], [[Humayun's Tomb]], and the [[Red Fort]], belong to this period. Delhi was the early centre of [[Sufism]] and [[Qawwali]] music. The names of [[Nizamuddin Auliya]] and [[Amir Khusrau]] are prominently associated with it. The [[Khariboli dialect]] of Delhi was part of a linguistic development that gave rise to the literature of [[Urdu]] and later [[Modern Standard Hindi]]. Major Urdu poets from Delhi include [[Mir Taqi Mir]] and [[Mirza Ghalib]]. Delhi was a notable centre of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. In 1911, [[New Delhi]], a southern region within Delhi, became the capital of the [[British Indian Empire]]. During the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, Delhi was transformed from a Mughal city to a Punjabi one,<ref>
* {{citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ&pg=PA118 |year=2009 |pages=118–119 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4 |quote=It is now almost a cliché that the Partition transformed Delhi from a Mughal to a Punjabi city. The bitter experiences of the refugees at the hands of Islamists in Pakistan encouraged them to support right-wing Hindu parties. ... Trouble began in September (1947) after the arrival of refugees from Pakistan who were determined on revenge and driving Muslims out of properties which they could then occupy. Gandhi in his prayer meetings in Birla House denounced the 'crooked and ungentlemanly' squeezing out of Muslims who left for Pakistan. Despite these exhortations, two-thirds of the city's Muslims were to abandon India's capital eventually. |access-date=3 December 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202201454/https://books.google.com/books?id=utKmPQAACAAJ&pg=PA118 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Uditi|title = Calcutta: The Stormy Decades| editor1-last= Bandyopadhyay|editor1-first=Sekhar|editor2-last=Sarkar|editor2-first=Tanika |year=2017|chapter=Building Bijaygarh: A Microhistory of Refugee Squatting in Calcutta|page=407|isbn=9781351581721|publisher=Routledge|quote=Historians of the Partition of India broadly acknowledge that the demographic upheaval that followed in its wake permanently altered the faces of the capital cities of South Asia. Karachi and Dhaka were transformed overnight into national capitals; Delhi changed from a Mughal city to a Punjabi one, while Calcutta, which had always been a city of migrants, rapidly earned the dubious distinction of becoming a city of refugees.}}
*{{citation|last=Virdee|first=Pippa|title=Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India|chapter=Partitioning India: Dreams, memories, and legacies|editor-last=Jacobsen|editor-first=Knut A.|publisher=Routledge|year=2023|isbn=9781000984231|doi=10.4324/9781003278436-3|quote=The mass migration of people following Partition also fundamentally altered the physical landscape. Delhi, the colonial capital, was transformed from an Urdu-speaking Muslim city in character to a city that housed the incoming Punjabi refugees that now lend much of their character to the city. … Delhi retains its Mughal links through the extensive architecture that dominates the city, but the people are now heavily influenced by Punjabi migrants. Mughal place names and influences though are gradually being erased in favour of more ‘ancient’ and ‘authentic’ alternatives.}}
*{{citation|last=Guha|first=Ramchandra|title=India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy|publisher= Pan Macmillan|year=2011 |isbn=9780330540209| quote=Meanwhile, thousands of refugees had made their homes in Delhi itself. Till 1911 that city had been Muslim in character and culture. In that year, the British shifted their capital there from Calcutta. After 1947 New Delhi became the seat of the government of free India. Urdu-speaking Muslims went away to Pakistan, many unwillingly, while Punjabi-speaking Hindus and Sikhas arrived in their place. They set up house, and shop, wherever they could. … Indeed, a city that was once a Mughal city, then a British city, had by the 1950s emphatically become a Punjabi city.}}</ref><ref> A large number of refugees migrated out of Sindh, Pakistan in 1947. They were found living in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Hyderabad, and Maharashtra:
*{{cite journal |last1 = Gautam | first1 = Khushboo | last2 = Devnani | first2 = Chanchal | last3 = Dasgupta | first3 = Shruti | last4 = Reddy | first4 = Madhusudan | title = Genetic architecture of the Sindhi Indian population: a 19X-STR forensic analysis| journal = BMC Genomics | year = 2025 | volume = 26 | issue = 889 | article-number = 889 | doi=10.1186/s12864-025-12032-8 | pmid = 41057809 | pmc = 12505593 | doi-access = free | quote = A large number of Sindhi migrated from Pakistan after the partition of India in 1947 and were found inhabiting Gujarat, Rajasthan, Hyderabad, and Maharashtra.}}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Kumar | first1 = Priya | last2 = Kumar | first2 = Rita | title = Sindh, 1947 and Beyond | journal = South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies | year = 2016 | volume = 39 | issue = 4 | pages = 773–789 | publisher = Routledge | doi = 10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752 | quote = Meanwhile, the modalities of travel from Sindh also ensured relative safety. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled by sea, arriving directly at the ports of Bombay (now Mumbai), Porbandar, Veraval and Okha in Gujarat, enabling them to avoid the dangers of border crossing. Those who travelled by train from the interior of Sindh arrived in Rajasthan, also evading the violence in parts of North India. A smaller number crossed the Thar Desert border area by camel. This occludes from the Sindhi experience the metaphor of the death trains, a central trope of much Partition literature and film.}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Kumar | first1 = Lomous | last2=Nongmaithem | first2 = Suraj| last3 = Kumar | first3 = Sachin | last4 = Thangaraj | first4= Kumarasamy |title=Investigating the demographic history of Sindhi population inhabited in West Coast India |journal = Human Genomics | year = 2025|volume = 19 | issue = 111| article-number = 111 |doi = 10.1186/s40246-025-00822-w | pmid = 41029758 | pmc = 12487577 | doi-access = free | quote= (Introduction, page 2) During Partition, a large number (about a million) of non-Muslim Sindhi migrated to Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Punjab.}}
*{{cite book|last1=Ansari|first1=Sarah | last2= Gould |first2 = William | title = Boundaries of Belonging: Localities, Citizenship and Rights in India and Pakistan | page = 71| publisher = Cambridge University Press| year = 2019|doi=10.1017/9781108164511.004 | quote = Though a definitive total is impossible to provide thanks to the massive demographic confusion that Partition produced, an estimated fourteen to sixteen million people sought to cross the hastily delineated borders in what remains arguably the largest migration in history. ... people crossed the Rajasthan border into and out of Sindh or travelled by ship between the port cities of Bombay and Karachi.}}</ref> losing two-thirds of its Muslim residents, in part due to the pressure brought to bear by arriving Hindu and Sikh refugees from western Punjab.<ref>
*{{citation|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=The History of British Diplomacy in Pakistan|year=2020|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781000326703 |quote=Delhi had also experienced a refugee influx that transformed it from a Mughal city to a Punjabi city in the aftermath of Partition. Despite the departure of around 300,000 Muslims, the city’s population grew dramatically with attendant pressures on housing. By the beginning of August 1947, there were already 80,000 refugees in the city, and after the Transfer of Power, this number was swollen daily by around 4,000–5,000 migrants from Pakistan Punjab. The 1951 Census revealed that every third person in the city was a partition migrant.}}
*{{citation|last=Kumar|first=Sunil|chapter=Delhi|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |editor1-last = Bowering|editor1-first =Gerhard| editor2-last =Crone|editor2-first= Patricia|editor3-last=Mirza|editor3-first=Mahan|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn= 9780691134840 |year=2013 | page = 127| quote=... it was not until 1648 and the construction of the new city in the northern part of the riverine plain by Shibab al-Did Shah Jahan that the imperial capital returned to Delhi. The new capital was named Shahajahanabad … was the largest, most complex, and expansive city to be constructed in the Delhi region. … The demise of Shahjahanabad as a center of culture, social life, and political authority was confirmed when the British started constructing New Delhi as their capital. The new colonial capital was modeled on architectural paradigms first tested in South Africa and Australia and, other than in its decorative aspects, retained little of the urban traditions of the Delhi Sultanate or Shajahanabad. Independent India inherited this city as its capital in 1947, a transition that was disrupted by partition and communal clashes with large numbers of the city’s Muslim population fled and were replaced by displaced Punjabi refugees from West Pakistan. The demographic change in the population brought new residents to the city who were far removed from its history and culture. ‘’Hazrat-i-Dehli’’ meant little to the new residents of the capital of independent India, a past of the city that resides uneasily with its present.}}
*{{cite journal | last = Geva | first = Rotem | title = Press charges: renegotiating free speech and citizenship in post-partition Delhi | journal = Contemporary South Asia | publisher = Routledge | year = 2024 | volume = 32 | issue = 2 | pages = 137–150 | doi = 10.1080/09584935.2024.2341175 | quote =This article analyzes the conflict between press censorship and press freedom in Delhi during the period immediately after partition, …. Decolonization had a momentous impact on India’s capital city, Delhi, resulting in structural shifts and dislocations. As the seat of political power and an emblem of the nation, Delhi was central to the projects of nation building and state formation, with their attendant ideological and power struggles. At the same time, Delhi became a ‘partition city,’ overwhelmed with roughly half a million Hindu and Sikh refugees from West Pakistan, desperate for food, shelter, and livelihood. Amid this crisis, major violence erupted, targeting Delhi’s Muslims and forcing over two-thirds of them to flee to Pakistan.}}
</ref>
After independence in 1947, New Delhi continued as the capital of the [[Dominion of India]], and after 1950 of the [[Republic of India]].

Delhi's urban agglomeration, which includes the satellite cities [[Ghaziabad]], [[Faridabad]], [[Gurgaon]], [[Noida]], [[Greater Noida]] and [[YEIDA City|YEIDA city]] located in an area known as the [[National Capital Region (India)|National Capital Region]] (NCR), has an estimated population of over 28 million, making it the [[List of metropolitan areas in India|largest metropolitan area in India]] and the [[List of urban areas by population|second-largest in the world]] (after [[Tokyo]]).<ref name="UNcities2018">{{cite web|title=The World's Cities in 2018|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831183632/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2018_data_booklet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Delhi ranks [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|fifth among the Indian states and union territories]] in [[human development index]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=Global Data Lab |publisher=Institute for Management Research, Radboud University |access-date=25 September 2018 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923120638/https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and has the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|second-highest]] [[Gross domestic product|GDP per capita]] in India (after [[Goa]]).<ref name="NSDP"/> Although a [[union territory]], the political administration of the NCT of Delhi today more closely resembles that of a [[state of India]], with its own [[legislature]], high court and an executive council of ministers headed by a [[Chief Minister of Delhi|chief minister]]. New Delhi is jointly administered by the federal [[government of India]] and the local [[government of Delhi]], and serves as the capital of the nation as well as the NCT of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is an "interstate regional planning" area created in 1985.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rationale|url=https://ncrpb.nic.in/rationale.php|website=ncrpb.nic.in|publisher=NCR Planning Board|quote=The National Capital Region (NCR) in India was constituted under the NCRPB Act, 1985|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216113422/https://www.ncrpb.nic.in/rationale.php|archive-date=16 December 2012|access-date=5 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="profile">{{cite web|title=Census 2011|url=https://ncrpb.nic.in/pdf_files/Annual%20Report%202014-15.pdf|website=National Capital Region Planning Board|publisher=National Informatics Centre|access-date=26 March 2016|page=3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406160207/https://ncrpb.nic.in/pdf_files/Annual%20Report%202014-15.pdf|archive-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> Delhi hosted the inaugural [[1951 Asian Games]], the [[1982 Asian Games]], the 1983 [[Non-Aligned Movement]] summit, the [[2010 Men's Hockey World Cup]], the [[2010 Commonwealth Games]], the [[4th BRICS summit|2012 BRICS summit]], the [[2023 G20 New Delhi summit|2023 G20 summit]], and was one of the major host cities of the [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011]] and [[2023 Cricket World Cup]]s.

== Toponym ==
There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name ''Delhi''. One of them is derived from ''Dhillu'' or ''Dilu'', a king who built a city at this location in 50 BCE and named it after himself.<ref name="ecosurv1">{{cite web |url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/1.pdf |title=Chapter 1: Introduction |access-date=21 December 2011 |work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–2006 |publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi |pages=1–7 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113174155/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/1.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2016 }}</ref><ref name=dhillu>{{cite book |last=Bakshi|first=S.R.|title=Delhi Through Ages|orig-year=2002|publisher=Whispering Eye Bangdat |isbn=978-81-7488-138-0|page=2|year=1995}}</ref><ref name=geobritish>{{cite book |last=Smith|first=George|title=The Geography of British India, Political & Physical |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_C20DAAAAQAAJ|quote=raja delhi BC.|access-date=1 November 2008|publisher=J. Murray|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_C20DAAAAQAAJ/page/n258 216]–217|year=1882}}</ref> Another legend holds that the name of the city is based on the [[Prakrit]] word {{transliteration|hi|dhili}} (''loose'') and that it was used by the [[Tomara dynasty|Tomaras]] to refer to the city because the [[iron pillar of Delhi]] had a weak foundation and had to be moved.<ref name=geobritish /> According to Panjab Notes and Queries, the name of the city at the time of King Prithviraj was {{transliteration|hi|dilpat}}, and that {{transliteration|hi|dilpat}} and {{transliteration|hi|dilli}} are probably derived from the old Hindi word {{transliteration|hi|dil}} meaning "eminence". The former director of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], Alexander Cunningham, mentioned that {{transliteration|hi|dilli}} later became {{transliteration|hi|dihli/dehli}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/hobsonjobson_query.py?qs=DELHI&searchhws=yes |title=Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive |access-date=30 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701211851/https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/hobsonjobson_query.py?qs=DELHI&searchhws=yes |archive-date=1 July 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some suggest the coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called ''dehliwal''.<ref name=ncertVII>{{cite web
|url=https://ncert.nic.in/textbooks/testing/Index.htm|title=Our Pasts II, History Textbook for Class VII|access-date=6 July 2007|publisher=NCERT |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070623140748/https://www.ncert.nic.in/textbooks/testing/Index.htm |archive-date = 23 June 2007}}</ref> According to the [[Bhavishya Purana]], King Prithiviraja of [[Indraprastha]] built a new fort in the modern-day [[Purana Qila]] area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort ''dehali''.<ref name=historyhistoryabtindra>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V11_242.gif Delhi City] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190534/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V11_242.gif |date=3 March 2016 }} [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], 1909, v. 11, p. 236.</ref> Some historians believe that ''Dhilli'' or ''Dhillika'' is the original name for the city while others believe the name could be a corruption of the [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] words ''dehleez'' or ''dehali''—both terms meaning "threshold" or "gateway"—and symbolic of the city as a gateway to the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]].<ref name=cohen>{{cite journal
|last = Cohen |first=Richard J. |date=October–December 1989 |title=An Early Attestation of the Toponym Dhilli | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 109 | issue = 4 |pages=513–519 | doi = 10.2307/604073
|jstor = 604073}}</ref><ref name=dhilika>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Chauhans (Cahamanas, Cauhans)|access-date=22 December 2006 |last=Austin |first=Ian |author2=Thhakur Nahar Singh Jasol |encyclopedia=The Mewar Encyclopedia |publisher=mewarindia.com |url=https://www.mewarindia.com/ency/chat.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061114120751/https://mewarindia.com/ency/chat.html |archive-date = 14 November 2006}}</ref>

The people of Delhi are referred to as ''Delhiites'' or ''Dilliwalas''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Why developers charge a premium for upper storeys in Delhi/NCR region|url=https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-08-05/news/29855331_1_floor-psf-delhiites|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]|date=5 August 2011|access-date=30 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127185535/https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-08-05/news/29855331_1_floor-psf-delhiites|archive-date=27 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern [[Indo-Aryan languages]]. Examples include:
* {{transliteration|hi|[[Dilli Door Hai|Abhī Dillī dūr hai]]}} ({{lang|hi|अभी दिल्ली दूर है}} / {{Lang|ur|{{unq|ابھی دلی دور ہے}}}}) or its [[Persian language|Persian]] version, {{transliteration|fa|Hanuz Dehli dur ast}} ({{lang|fa|هنوز دهلی دور است}}), literally meaning "Delhi is still far away", which is generically said about a task or journey still far from completion.<ref name="ref46cojam">{{Cite book | title=A handbook for travellers in India, Burma and Ceylon | author=John Murray | publisher=J. Murray, 1924 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0kEKAQAAIAAJ | quote='Dilli hanoz dur ast' ('Delhi is still far off') – has passed into the currency of a proverb | year=1924 | access-date=6 November 2015 | archive-date=1 January 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101225812/https://books.google.com/books?id=0kEKAQAAIAAJ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ref88difob">{{Cite book | title=A dictionary of Hindustani proverbs | author1=S.W. Fallon | author2=Dihlavi Fakir Chand | publisher=Printed at the Medical hall press, 1886 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hh8UAAAAYAAJ | quote=Abhi Dilli dur hai | year=1886 | access-date=6 November 2015 | archive-date=1 January 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101225812/https://books.google.com/books?id=hh8UAAAAYAAJ | url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{transliteration|hi|Ās-pās barse, Dillī pānī tarse}} ({{lang|hi|आस-पास बरसे, दिल्ली पानी तरसे}} / {{Lang|ur|{{unq|آس پاس برسے، دلی پانی ترسے}}}}), literally meaning "It pours all around, while Delhi lies parched". An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it idiomatically refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty.<ref name="ref88difob" />

The form ''Delhi'', spelled in the [[Latin script]] with the ''h'' following the ''l'', originated under colonial rule and is an alternation of the spelling based on the Urdu name of the city ({{Nastaliq|دہلی}}, ''Dehli'').<ref>Syed Mahdi Husain: ''Bahadur Shah Zafar and the War of 1857 in Dehli''. Aakar Books, Delhi 2006, ISBN 81-87879-91-2, p. LV of the preface.</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Delhi|Old Delhi}}

{{Quote box
| width = 17em
| align = top
| bgcolor = #B0C4DE
| title = Historical affiliations
| fontsize = 80%
| quote =
[[Kuru kingdom|Kuru Kingdom]] c. 1200 BCE – c. 345 BCE 
[[Nanda Empire]] c. 345 BCE – c. 322 BCE 
[[Maurya Empire|Mauryan Empire]] c. 322 BCE – 185 BCE 
[[Shunga Empire]] 185 BCE – 73 BCE 
[[Saka|Sakas]] 1st century CE 
[[Kushan Empire]] 30 CE – 375 CE 
{{flagicon image|Garuda emblem.png|20px}} [[Gupta Empire]] c. 240 CE – c. 550 CE 
[[Pushyabhuti dynasty]] c. 500 – c. 647 CE 
[[Varman dynasty (Kannauj)|Varman dynasty]] c. 725 – c. 770 CE 
[[Pratihara dynasty]] c. 730 – 1036 CE 
[[Chahamanas of Shakambhari]] c. 1036 – 1192 CE 
[[Ghurid dynasty]] 1192 – 1206 CE 
{{flagicon image|Delhi Sultanate Flag.svg|20px}} [[Delhi Sultanate]] 1206 – 1398 CE 
[[File:Timurid.svg|15px]] [[Timurid Empire]] 1398 CE 
{{flagicon image|Delhi Sultanate Flag.svg|20px}} [[Delhi Sultanate]] 1398 – 1526 CE 
{{flagicon image|Alam of the Mughal Empire.svg|20px}} [[Mughal Empire]] 1526 – 1540 CE 
[[Sur Empire]] 1540 – 1555 CE 
{{flagicon image|Alam of the Mughal Empire.svg|20px}} [[Mughal Empire]] 1555 – 1737 CE 
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|20px}} [[Maratha Empire]] influence 1737 CE 
[[File:Afsharid Imperial Standard (3 Stripes).svg|25px]] [[Afsharid Iran|Afsharids]] 1738 – 1739 CE 
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|20px}} [[Maratha Empire]] 1737 – 1803 CE 
[[File:Seal of Ahmad Shah Durrani.svg|18px]] [[Durrani Empire]] 1757 CE 
{{flagicon image|Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|20px}} [[British East India Company]] 1803 – 1858 CE 
{{flagcountry|British Raj}} [[British Raj|British India]] 1858 CE – 1947 CE 
{{flagicon|India}} [[India]] 1947 CE – Present
}}

=== Ancient and early medieval periods ===
[[File:Purana Qila ramparts, Delhi.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|The walls of the 16th-century [[Purana Qila]] built on a mound matching ancient literary descriptions<ref name=asher-indraprastha/>]] Traditionally seven cities have been associated with the region of Delhi. The earliest, [[Indraprastha]], is part of a literary description in the Sanskrit epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (composed c. 400 BCE to 300 CE but describing an earlier time<ref>{{cite book |last1=Austin |first1=Christopher R. |title=Pradyumna: Lover, Magician, and Scion of the Avatāra |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-005411-3 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jCoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |language=en |access-date=2 February 2024 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907124231/https://books.google.com/books?id=4jCoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |url-status=live }}</ref>) which situates a city on a knoll on the banks of the river Yamuna. According to art historian Catherine B. Asher, the topographical description of the ''Mahabharata'' matches the area of [[Purana Qila]], a 14th-century CE fort of the [[Delhi sultanate]], but the analogy does not go much further. Whereas the ''Mahabharata'' speaks of a beautifully decorated city with surrounding fortifications, the excavations have yielded "uneven findings of [[Painted Grey Ware|painted grey pottery]] characteristic of the eleventh century BCE; no signs of a built environment, much less fortifications, have been revealed."<ref name=asher-indraprastha>{{citation|last=Asher|first=Catherine|title=City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective|editor=James D. Tracy|publisher=Cambridge University Press|chapter=Delhi walled: Changing boundaries|date=25 September 2000|pages=247–, 250|isbn=9780521652216|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7dUv-1Ql2oC|access-date=12 October 2021|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109200300/https://books.google.com/books?id=S7dUv-1Ql2oC|url-status=live}}</ref>

The earliest architectural relics date back to the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] period (c. 300 BCE); in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor [[Ashoka]] (273–235 BCE) was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of several major cities can be found in Delhi. The first of these was in the southern part of present-day Delhi. [[Tomara dynasty|Tomara Rajput]] King [[Anangpal Tomar|Anang Pal]] built the [[Qila Rai Pithora|Lal Kot]] and several temples in 1052 CE. The [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chauhan Rajputs]] under [[Vigraharaja IV]] conquered Lal Kot in the mid-12th century and renamed it [[Qila Rai Pithora]].

=== Late medieval period ===
{{See also|Delhi Sultanate}}
[[File:Qutub - Minar, Delhi (6994969674).jpg|thumb|upright|The Qutub Minar, Delhi]]
[[Prithviraj Chauhan]] was defeated in 1192 by [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad Ghori]] in the [[second battle of Tarain]]. [[Qutb al-Din Aibak|Qutb-ud-din Aibak]], was given the responsibility of governing the conquered territories of India after Ghori returned to his capital, [[Ghor Province|Ghor]]. When Ghori died without an heir in 1206 CE, Qutb-ud-din assumed control of Ghori's Indian possessions and laid the foundation of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and the [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]]. He began construction of the [[Qutb Minar]] and [[Qutb complex|Quwwat-al-Islam]] (Might of Islam) mosque, the earliest extant mosque in India. It was his successor, [[Iltutmish]] (1211–1236), who consolidated the conquest of northern India.<ref name=ecosurv1 /><ref name=Quwwat>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/periodicreporting/cycle01/section2/233-summary.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524155833/https://whc.unesco.org/archive/periodicreporting/cycle01/section2/233-summary.pdf|archive-date=24 May 2006|title=India: Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi |access-date=22 December 2006 |work= State of Conservation of the World Heritage Properties in the Asia-Pacific Region: : Summaries of Periodic Reports 2003 by property, Section II |publisher=[[UNESCO]] World Heritage Centre |pages=71–72}}</ref> At {{convert|72.5|m|abbr=on|0}}, the [[Qutb Minar]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in Delhi,<ref name="Qutab">{{cite web|url=https://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=6643&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html|title=Under threat: The Magnificent Minaret of Jam|work=The New Courier No 1|date=October 2002|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=3 May 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522201305/https://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D6643%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html|archive-date=22 May 2006}}</ref> was completed during the reign of Sultan [[Illtutmish]] in the 13th century. Although its style has some similarities with the [[Jarkurgan minaret]], it is more closely related to the [[Ghaznavid]] and [[Ghurid]] minarets of [[Central Asia]]<ref name=mcclary-medieval-monuments>{{citation|last = McClary|first=Richard Piran|title=Medieval Monuments of Central Asia: Qarakhanid Architecture of the 11th and 12th Centuries|year= 2020|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|page=287|url= |quote=The second story of the minaret, built during the reign of Iltutmish" (r. 1211-36), features a similar form of ribbing to the shaft as is seen at the Jar Kurgan minaret, but the lower section features alternating flanges and ribs, while the third storey is entirely flanged, with a stellate plan. The Qutb Minar is more closely related to the Ghaznavid and Ghurid traditions of minaret construction, although all the surviving large minarets from Central Asia can be seen to share certain general characteristics, namely, a tall tapering shaft and bands of decoration. }}</ref> [[Razia Sultana|Razia]], daughter of Iltutmish, became the Sultana of Delhi upon the former's death.

For the next three hundred years, Delhi was ruled by a succession of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Sayyid Dynasty|Indian]] and an [[Afghans|Afghan]], [[Lodi dynasty]]. They built several forts and townships that are part of the [[History of Delhi|seven cities of Delhi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html |title=Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India |publisher=Sfusd.k12.ca.us |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423014415/https://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html |archive-date=23 April 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Delhi was a major centre of [[Sufism]] during this period.<ref>{{cite book |title=Travel Delhi, India |location=History section |page=10 |isbn=9781605010519 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsYj4ysWQ6sC&q=delhi+was+center+of+sufism&pg=PT9 |author1=Mobilereference |year=2007 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi)]] was overthrown in 1290 by [[Jalal-ud-din Khalji|Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji]] (1290–1320). Under the second Khalji ruler, [[Alauddin Khalji|Ala-ud-din Khalji]], the Delhi sultanate extended its control south of the [[Narmada River]] in the [[Deccan]]. The Delhi sultanate reached its greatest extent during the reign of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (1325–1351). In an attempt to bring the whole of the Deccan under control, he moved his capital to [[Daulatabad, Maharashtra]] in central India. However, by moving away from Delhi he lost control of the north and was forced to return to Delhi to restore order. The southern provinces then broke away. In the years following the reign of [[Firoz Shah Tughlaq]] (1351–1388), the [[Delhi Sultanate]] rapidly began to lose its hold over its northern provinces. Delhi was captured and sacked by [[Timur]] in 1398,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/timurid.html |title=The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Timurid Empire) |publisher=Ucalgary.ca |access-date=7 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816204247/https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/timurid.html |archive-date=16 August 2009 }}</ref> who massacred 100,000 captive civilians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubinstein |first=W. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA28 |title=Genocide: A History |date=2004 |publisher=Pearson Longman |isbn=978-0-582-50601-5 |language=en}}</ref> Delhi's decline continued under the [[Sayyid dynasty]] (1414–1451), until the sultanate was reduced to Delhi and its hinterland. Under the Afghan [[Lodi dynasty]] (1451–1526), the sultanate recovered control of Punjab and the [[Gangetic plain]] to once again achieve domination over Northern India. However, the recovery was short-lived and the sultanate was destroyed in 1526 by [[Babur]], founder of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal dynasty]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

=== Early modern period ===
{{See also|Mughal Empire}}
[[File:Delhi Red fort.jpg|thumb|left|[[Red Fort]], a [[List of World Heritage Sites in India|UNESCO World Heritage Site]], was the main residence of the [[List of Mughal emperors|Mughal emperors]] for nearly 200 years. |alt=Red Fort with the Indian Flag at the centre]]
In 1526, [[Babur]], a descendant of [[Descent from Genghis Khan|Genghis Khan]] and [[Timur]] from the [[Fergana Valley]] in modern-day [[Uzbekistan]], invaded India and defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the [[First Battle of Panipat]] and founded the [[Mughal Empire]] that ruled from Delhi and [[Agra]].<ref name=ecosurv1 /> The Mughal dynasty ruled Delhi for more than three centuries, with a sixteen-year hiatus during the reigns of [[Sher Shah Suri]] and [[Hemu]] from 1540 to 1556.<ref name=shershah>{{cite web |url=https://www.indhistory.com/sher-shah-suri.html |title=Sher Shah – The Lion King |access-date=22 December 2006 |work=India's History: Medieval India |publisher=indhistory.com |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061212214725/https://www.indhistory.com/sher-shah-suri.html |archive-date=12 December 2006 }}</ref> [[Shah Jahan]] built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name ''[[Shahjahanabad]]'', which served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1638 and is today known as the ''Old City'' or ''Old Delhi''.<ref name=book11111>{{cite book |title=Travel Delhi, India |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsYj4ysWQ6sC&pg=PT10 |isbn=9781605010519 |author1=Mobilereference |year=2007 |publisher=MobileReference.com }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

After the death of [[Aurangzeb]] in 1707, the Mughal Empire's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu [[Maratha Empire]] from [[Deccan Plateau]] rose to prominence.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Thomas
|first = Amelia
|title = Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra
|publisher = Lonely Planet
|isbn = 978-1-74104-690-8|year = 2008
}}</ref> In 1737, Maratha forces led by [[Baji Rao I]] sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi. In 1739, the Mughal Empire lost the huge [[Battle of Karnal]] in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but militarily superior Persian army led by [[Nader Shah]] of [[Afsharid dynasty|Persia.]] After his [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invasion]], he [[sack of Delhi|completely sacked and looted Delhi]], carrying away immense wealth including the [[Peacock Throne]], the [[Daria-i-Noor]], and [[Koh-i-Noor]]. The Mughals, severely further weakened, could never overcome this crushing defeat and humiliation which also left the way open for more invaders to come, including eventually the [[British Raj|British]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&q=battle+of+karnal+less+than+three+hours&pg=RA1-PA349|title=Later Mughal|last1=Irvine|first1=William|year=1971|access-date=2 October 2020|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413204034/https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&q=battle+of+karnal+less+than+three+hours&pg=RA1-PA349|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M2uPAgAAQBAJ&q=nader+shah+humiliating+sack+of+delhi&pg=PA288|title=Territories and States of India|isbn=9781135356255|last1=Boland-Crewe|first1=Tara|last2=Lea|first2=David|date=2 September 2003|publisher=Routledge |access-date=2 October 2020|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413204219/https://books.google.com/books?id=M2uPAgAAQBAJ&q=nader+shah+humiliating+sack+of+delhi&pg=PA288|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Shah.php |title=Iran in the Age of the Raj |publisher=Avalanchepress.com |access-date=11 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113091203/https://avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Shah.php |archive-date=13 January 2011 }}</ref> [[Nader Shah|Nader]] eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor [[Muhammad Shah]] I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsDSGn8jLPAC&q=muhammad+shah+nader+shah+beg+for+mercy&pg=PA298|title=Soul and Structure of Governance in India|isbn=9788177648317|author1=Jagmohan|year=2005|publisher=Allied Publishers |access-date=2 October 2020|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413203840/https://books.google.com/books?id=QsDSGn8jLPAC&q=muhammad+shah+nader+shah+beg+for+mercy&pg=PA298|url-status=live}}</ref> A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protectors of the Mughal throne in Delhi.<ref>{{cite book
|last = Gordon
|first = Stewart
|title = The Marathas 1600–1818, Volume 2
|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year=1993
|isbn = 978-0-521-26883-7}}</ref> The city was sacked again in 1757 by the forces of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], although it was not annexed by the [[Durrani Empire|Afghan Empire]] and being its vassal state under the Mughal emperor. Then the Marathas battled and [[Battle of Delhi (1757)|won]] control of Delhi from the Afghans.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/bollywoods-great-betrayal-of-afghanistan-panipat-and-the-cost-of-vilifying-ahmad-shah-durrani/ |title=Bollywood's 'Great Betrayal' of Afghanistan: "Panipat" and the cost of vilifying Ahmad Shah Durrani |date=9 March 2020 |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109114413/https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/bollywoods-great-betrayal-of-afghanistan-panipat-and-the-cost-of-vilifying-ahmad-shah-durrani/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Colonial period ===
{{See also|British Raj}}
[[File:NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg|thumb|[[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] stamps, inauguration, New Delhi, February 1931]]
In 1803, during the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], the forces of [[British East India Company]] defeated the Maratha forces in the [[Battle of Delhi, 1803|Battle of Delhi]].<ref>{{cite book
|last = Mayaram
|first = Shail
|title = Against history, against state: counter perspective from the margins Cultures of history
|publisher = Columbia University Press|year= 2003
|isbn = 978-0-231-12731-8}}</ref> During the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], Delhi fell to the forces of East India Company after a bloody fight known as the [[Siege of Delhi]]. The city came under the direct control of the [[British Government]] in 1858. It was made a district province of the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]].<ref name=ecosurv1 /> In 1911, it was announced that the capital of the [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]] was to be transferred from [[Calcutta]] to Delhi.<ref name="cal to del">{{cite news |title=Shifting pain |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Shifting-pain/articleshow/11065881.cms |access-date=18 June 2012 |date=11 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127185454/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-11/kolkata/30504131_1_bengalis-capital-british-empire |archive-date=27 January 2013 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live}}</ref> This formally transferred on 12 December 1911.<ref>Chronicle of 20th Century History edited by J S Bowman ISBN 1-85422-005-5</ref>

The name "New Delhi" was given in 1927, and the new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931. [[New Delhi]] was officially declared as the capital of the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] after the country gained [[History of the Republic of India|independence]] on 15 August 1947.<ref>{{cite book |title=Travel Delhi |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsYj4ysWQ6sC&q=delhi+was+declared+capital+of+india&pg=PT7 |isbn=978-1-60501-051-9 |date=1 January 2007 |author1=Mobilereference|publisher=MobileReference.com }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Partition and post-independence ===
[[File:New Delhi India ~Khan Market.jpg|thumb|left|[[Khan Market]] in New Delhi, now a high-end shopping district, was established in 1951 to help refugees of the [[Partition of India]], especially those from the [[North West Frontier Province]] (NWFP). It honours [[Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan]], chief minister of NWFP during the Partition.<ref name=lakhani-indexpress-khan>{{cite web|last=Lakhani|first=Somya|title=Khan Market's humble beginnings: Meant for refugees, 'doomed to fail'|work=Indian Express|date=17 May 2019|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/delhi/khan-markets-humble-beginnings-meant-for-refugees-doomed-to-fail-5732031/|access-date=14 October 2021|quote='This market was set up for those who had been displaced; refugees who had migrated from the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) ...' said Sanjiv Mehra, president of Khan Market Traders' Association and owner of Allied Toy Store. It was aptly named after popular NWFP leader Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan or Dr Khan Sahib, the elder brother of Pashtun Independence activist Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan or Frontier Gandhi.|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027175349/https://indianexpress.com/article/delhi/khan-markets-humble-beginnings-meant-for-refugees-doomed-to-fail-5732031/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bhardwaj-khan-reuters">{{cite web |last=Bhardwaj |first=Mayank |date=31 May 2019 |title='Khan Market Gang': Modi mocks his elite adversaries |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/india-politics-khanmarket-idINKCN1T10KM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019233449/https://www.reuters.com/article/india-politics-khanmarket-idINKCN1T10KM |archive-date=19 October 2021 |access-date=14 October 2021 |work=Reuters}}</ref>]]
During the [[partition of India]], around five hundred thousand Hindu and Sikh refugees, mainly from [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]] migrated to Delhi, whereas around three hundred thousand Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan.<ref>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/capital-gains-how-1947-gave-birth-to-a-new-identity-a-new-ambition-a-new-delhi/story-e0GfoFrhwStTU2910v5DrJ.html "Capital gains: How 1947 gave birth to a new identity, a new ambition, a new Delhi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513231829/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/capital-gains-how-1947-gave-birth-to-a-new-identity-a-new-ambition-a-new-delhi/story-e0GfoFrhwStTU2910v5DrJ.html |date=13 May 2021 }}. ''[[Hindustan Times]]''. 24 April 2018.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/muslim-ghettos-of-delhi-6297633/|title=How Muslim ghettos came about in Delhi|date=3 March 2020|access-date=31 July 2021|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731110305/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/muslim-ghettos-of-delhi-6297633/|url-status=live}}</ref> Delhi has expanded much since 1947; the small part of it that was constructed during the British period has come to be informally known as ''Lutyens' Delhi''.<ref name=lutdelhiii>{{cite news |title=Lutyens' Delhi in race for UN heritage status |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Lutyens-Delhi-in-race-for-UN-heritage-status/Article1-869770.aspx |access-date=18 June 2012 |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=11 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615235957/https://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Lutyens-Delhi-in-race-for-UN-heritage-status/Article1-869770.aspx |archive-date=15 June 2012 }}</ref>

The [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]] created the Union Territory of Delhi from its predecessor, the ''[[Chief Commissioner's Province]] of Delhi''.<ref name="7thAmend56">{{cite web |title=The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956 |url=https://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm |website=[[Ministry of Law and Justice (India)]] |access-date=16 March 2017 |year=1956 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501011646/https://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm |archive-date=1 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="ReorgAct56">{{cite web |title=The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 |url=https://lawmin.nic.in/ld/P-ACT/1956/A1956-37.pdf |website=[[Ministry of Law and Justice (India)]] |access-date=16 March 2017 |year=1956 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317144043/https://lawmin.nic.in/ld/P-ACT/1956/A1956-37.pdf |archive-date=17 March 2017}}</ref> The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi.<ref name=NCTact>{{cite web |url=https://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend69.htm |title=The Constitution (Sixty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 |access-date=8 January 2007 |work=Government of India |publisher=National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, Government of India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821020032/https://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend69.htm |archive-date=21 August 2016}}</ref> The Act gave Delhi its legislative assembly along Civil lines, though with limited powers.<ref name=NCTact />

Delhi was the primary site in the nationwide [[1984 anti-Sikh riots|anti-Sikh pogroms]] of 1984, which resulted in the death of around 2,800 people in the city according to government figures, though independent estimates of the number of people killed tend to be higher. The riots were set off by the [[assassination of Indira Gandhi]]—the Prime Minister of India at the time—by her Sikh bodyguards.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8306420.stm |title=Indira Gandhi's death remembered |last=Bedi |first=Rahul |date=1 November 2009 |publisher=BBC |quote=The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing |access-date=2 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102113639/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8306420.stm |archive-date=2 November 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2001, the [[Parliament of India]] building in New Delhi was [[2001 Indian Parliament attack|attacked]] by armed militants, killing six security personnel.<ref>{{cite news |title=Terrorists attack Parliament; five intruders, six cops killed |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2001/dec/13parl1.htm |work=Rediff.com |date=13 December 2001 |access-date=2 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006075521/https://www.rediff.com/news/2001/dec/13parl1.htm |archive-date=6 October 2013 }}</ref> India suspected Pakistan-based Jihadist militant groups were behind the attack, which caused a major [[2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff|diplomatic crisis]] between the two countries.<ref>{{cite news |title=India and Pakistan: Who will strike first? |url=https://www.economist.com/printedition/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=917228 |work=Economist |date=20 December 2001 |access-date=2 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205030926/https://www.economist.com/printedition/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=917228 |archive-date=5 December 2008}}</ref> There were further terrorist attacks in Delhi in [[2005 Delhi bombings|2005]] and [[13 September 2008 Delhi bombings|2008]], resulting in a total of 92 deaths.<ref name="news24.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.news24.com/News24/World/News/0,,2-10-1462_1826434,00.html |title=Delhi blasts death toll at 62 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051105143402/https://www.news24.com/News24/World/News/0%2C%2C2-10-1462_1826434%2C00.html |archive-date=5 November 2005 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Serial-blasts-rock-Delhi-30-dead-90-injured/articleshow/3479914.cms |title=Serial blasts rock Delhi; 30 dead, 90 injured-India |date=14 September 2008 |access-date=3 November 2008 |first1=Rahul |last1=Tripathi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915175046/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Serial_blasts_rock_Delhi_18_dead/articleshow/3479914.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=15 September 2008 }}</ref> In 2020, [[2020 Delhi riots|Delhi witnessed worst communal violence]] in decades. The riots, caused mainly by Hindu mobs attacking Muslims,<ref name="guardian-3-16-20-1">{{citation |title=Delhi's Muslims despair of justice after police implicated in riots |last1=Ellis-Peterson |first1=Hannah |last2=Azizur Rahman |first2=Shaikh |location=Delhi |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/16/delhis-muslims-despair-justice-police-implicated-hindu-riots |date=16 March 2020 |access-date=17 March 2020 |quote=As the mob attacks came once, then twice and then a third time in this north-east Delhi neighbourhood, desperate stallholders repeatedly ran to Gokalpuri and Dayalpur police stations crying out for help. But each time they found the gates locked from the inside. For three days, no help came. ... Since the riots broke out in Delhi at the end of February, the worst religious conflict to engulf the capital in decades, questions have persisted about the role that the Delhi police played in enabling the violence, which was predominately Hindu mobs attacking Muslims. Of the 51 people who died, at least three-quarters were Muslim, and many Muslims are still missing. |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317023019/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/16/delhis-muslims-despair-justice-police-implicated-hindu-riots |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYTimes-Analysis-March1">{{citation |last1=Gettleman |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Abi-Habib |first2=Maria |title=In India, Modi's Policies Have Lit a Fuse |date=1 March 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/world/asia/india-modi-hindus.html |access-date=1 March 2020 |quote=This past week, as neighborhoods in India's capital burned and religiously driven bloodletting consumed more than 40 lives, most of them Muslim, India's government was quick to say that the violence was spontaneous ... Many Muslims are now leaving, hoisting their unburned things on their heads and trudging away from streets that still smell of smoke. |archive-date=1 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301173003/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/world/asia/india-modi-hindus.html |url-status=live}}</ref> 53 people were killed, two-thirds were Muslims,<ref name=nytimes-2020-3-12-two-thirds>{{citation |title='If We Kill You, Nothing Will Happen': How Delhi's Police Turned Against Muslims |first1=Jeffrey |last1=Gettleman |first2=Sameer |last2=Yasir |first3=Suhasini |last3=Raj |first4=Hari |last4=Kumar |others=Photographs by Loke, Atul |date=12 March 2020 |access-date=13 March 2020 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/world/asia/india-police-muslims.html |quote=Two-thirds of the more than 50 people who were killed and have been identified were Muslim. |archive-date=13 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313011029/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/world/asia/india-police-muslims.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="wapo-3-6-20-slater-1">{{citation |last1=Slater |first1=Joanna |last2=Masih |first2=Niha |date=6 March 2020 |title=In Delhi's worst violence in decades, a man watched his brother burn |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-delhis-worst-violence-in-decades-a-man-watched-his-brother-burn/2020/03/05/892dbb12-5e45-11ea-ac50-18701e14e06d_story.html |access-date=6 March 2020 |quote=At least 53 people were killed or suffered deadly injuries in violence that persisted for two days. The majority of those killed were Muslims, many shot, hacked or burned to death. A police officer and an intelligence officer were also killed. So too were more than a dozen Hindus, most of them shot or assaulted. |archive-date=7 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307070624/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-delhis-worst-violence-in-decades-a-man-watched-his-brother-burn/2020/03/05/892dbb12-5e45-11ea-ac50-18701e14e06d_story.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="wapo-3-2-20-slater-1">{{citation |last1=Slater |first1=Joanna |last2=Masih |first2=Niha |date=2 March 2020 |title=What Delhi's worst communal violence in decades means for Modi's India |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/what-days-of-communal-violence-mean-for-modi-and-for-india/2020/03/01/3d649c18-5a68-11ea-8efd-0f904bdd8057_story.html |access-date=15 March 2020 |quote=Zaitoon, 40, who goes by one name, half-cried as she rummaged through the items. She said mobs entered her lane shouting 'Jai Shri Ram,' or 'Victory to Lord Ram,' a slogan favoured by Modi's party, and demanded to know which houses were occupied by Muslims. She said she saw a neighbour set on fire in front of her, an account repeated by other witnesses. |archive-date=3 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303203132/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/what-days-of-communal-violence-mean-for-modi-and-for-india/2020/03/01/3d649c18-5a68-11ea-8efd-0f904bdd8057_story.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and the rest [[Hindus]].<ref name="wapo-3-6-20-slater-1"/>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Environment of Delhi}}

[[File:Delhi aerial photo 04-2016 img11.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Delhi in April 2016 with river [[Yamuna]] in top-right]]
Delhi is located in [[North India]] at {{coord|28.61|N|77.23|E}}. The city is bordered on its northern, western, and southern sides by the [[States and union territories of India|state]] of [[Haryana]] and to the east by that of [[Uttar Pradesh]] (UP). Two prominent features of the geography of Delhi are the Yamuna flood plains and the [[Delhi Ridge]]. The [[Yamuna River]] was the historical boundary between [[Punjab]] and UP, and its floodplains provide fertile alluvial soil suitable for agriculture but are prone to recurrent flooding. The Yamuna, a sacred river in [[Hinduism]], is the only major river flowing through Delhi. The [[Hindon River]] separates Ghaziabad from the eastern part of Delhi. The Delhi Ridge originates in the [[Aravalli Range]] to the south and encircles the west, northeast, and northwest parts of the city. It reaches a height of {{convert|318|m|abbr=on}} and is a dominant feature of the region.<ref name=gisridge>{{cite web |url=https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig_2002/Ts3-9/TS3_9_mohan.pdf |title=GIS-Based Spatial Information Integration, Modeling and Digital Mapping: A New Blend of Tool for Geospatial Environmental Health Analysis for Delhi Ridge |access-date=3 February 2007 |last=Mohan |first=Madan |date=April 2002 |work=Spatial Information for Health Monitoring and Population Management |publisher=FIG XXII International Congress |page=5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222151705/https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig_2002/Ts3-9/TS3_9_mohan.pdf |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref>

In addition to the wetlands formed by the Yamuna River, Delhi continues to retain over 500 ponds (wetlands < {{Convert|5|ha|abbr=in}}), which in turn support a considerable number of bird species.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Rawal |first1=Prakhar |last2=Kittur |first2=Swati |last3=Chatakonda |first3=Murali Krishna |last4=Sundar |first4=K S Gopi |title=Winter bird abundance, species richness and functional guild composition at Delhi's ponds: does time of day and wetland extent matter? |journal=Journal of Urban Ecology |date=22 January 2021 |volume=7 |issue=1 |article-number=juab001 |doi=10.1093/jue/juab001 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Delhi's ponds, despite experiencing ecological deterioration due to garbage dumping and concretisation, support the largest number of bird species known to be using ponds anywhere in the world.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Rawal |first1=Prakhar |last2=Kittur |first2=Swati |last3=Chatakonda |first3=Murali Krishna |last4=Sundar |first4=K.S. Gopi |title=Capital ponds: Site-level habitat heterogeneity and management interventions at ponds regulate high landscape-scale bird diversity across a mega-city |journal=Biological Conservation |date=August 2021 |volume=260 |article-number=109215 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109215 |bibcode=2021BCons.26009215R }}</ref> Existing policy in Delhi prevents the conversion of wetlands and, quite inadvertently, has led to the city's ponds becoming invaluable refuge for birds.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

The National Capital Territory of Delhi covers an area of {{convert|1483|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, of which {{convert|783|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|0}} is designated rural, and {{convert|700|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|0}} urban therefore making it the largest city in terms of area in the country. It has a length of {{convert|51.9|km|mi|abbr=on|0}} and a width of {{convert|48.48|km|mi|abbr=on|0}}.{{citation needed|reason=Please also update [[List of cities in India by area]] when you add a citation|date=April 2018}} Delhi is included in India's [[Earthquake zones of India|seismic zone-IV]], indicating its vulnerability to major earthquakes.<ref name=hazardprofile>{{cite web |url=https://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/hazardprofile.pdf |title=Hazard profiles of Indian districts |access-date=23 August 2006 |work=National Capacity Building Project in Disaster Management |publisher=[[UNDP]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519100611/https://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/hazardprofile.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2006}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{See also|Climate of Delhi}}
Delhi features a dry winter [[humid subtropical climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Cwa''), closely bordering a [[hot semi-arid climate]] (Köppen ''BSh''). The warm season lasts from Mid-Late March to mid-late June with an average daily high temperature above {{convert|39|C|abbr=on}}. The hottest day of the year is usually in late May, with an average high of {{convert|42|C|abbr=on}} and a low of {{convert|27|C|abbr=on}}.<ref name=weatherspark>{{cite web |title=Average weather for New Delhi, India |url=https://weatherspark.com/averages/33934/New-Delhi-India |publisher=Weatherspark.com |access-date=2 July 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816202008/https://weatherspark.com/averages/33934/New-Delhi-India |archive-date=16 August 2013}}</ref> The cold season lasts from late November to late February with an average daily high temperature below {{convert|20|C|abbr=on}}. The coldest day of the year is usually in January, with an average low of {{convert|6.9|C|abbr=on}} and a high of {{convert|19.3|C|abbr=on}}.<ref name=weatherspark /> In early March, the wind direction changes from north-westerly to south-westerly. From April to October, the weather is hot. The monsoon arrives at the end of June, along with an increase in humidity.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} The brief, mild winter starts in late November, peaks in January, and heavy fog often occurs.<ref name=Fog>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2005/01/07/stories/2005010719480300.htm |title=Fog continues to disrupt flights, trains |date=7 January 2005 |location=Chennai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060304160457/https://www.hindu.com/2005/01/07/stories/2005010719480300.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=4 March 2006}}</ref> Delhi receives an average annual precipitation of {{Convert|774.4|mm|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Agarwal |first1=Priyangi |date=20 August 2023 |title=4 months left, Delhi crosses annual rain quota |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/4-mths-left-city-crosses-annual-rain-quota/articleshow/102865895.cms |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=10 December 2023 |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210042216/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/4-mths-left-city-crosses-annual-rain-quota/articleshow/102865895.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Clear}}

<div class="center">{{Delhi weatherbox}}</div>

=== Air pollution ===
{{See also|Environmental issues in Delhi|Air pollution in Delhi}}
[[File:Poulluted killer fog in Delhi.jpg|thumb|A dense toxic smog in Delhi blocking out the sun, November 2017]]

According to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), Delhi was the most polluted<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-has-dirtiest-air-china-data-foggy-who/article1-1216605.aspx |title=Delhi is most polluted city in world, Beijing much better: WHO study |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=8 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508004750/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-has-dirtiest-air-china-data-foggy-who/article1-1216605.aspx |archive-date=8 May 2014 }}</ref> city in the world in 2014. In 2016, the WHO downgraded Delhi to the eleventh-worst in the urban air quality database.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-18-cities--delhi--fancy-schemes-for-a-dirty-business.html|title=Fancy Schemes for a Dirty Business|last=Kumar|first=Rahul|date=July 2016|website=Digital Development Debates|access-date=5 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915234747/https://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-18-cities--delhi--fancy-schemes-for-a-dirty-business.html|archive-date=15 September 2016}}</ref> However, as recently as 2022, data from the WHO and [[IQAir]], among other groups, ranked Delhi as the fourth most-polluted city globally.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Blinns |first1=Rob |date=5 September 2023 |title=Most polluted cities in the world {{!}} The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/advisor/solar-panels/polluted-cities-in-the-world |work=Independent Advisor |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=12 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312131052/https://www.independent.co.uk/advisor/solar-panels/polluted-cities-in-the-world |url-status=live }}</ref> According to one estimate, [[air pollution]] causes the death of about 10,500 people every year.<ref name="TimePollution">{{cite magazine |url=https://world.time.com/2014/02/10/smog-in-new-delhi/ |title=Delhi's Air Has Become a Lethal Hazard and Nobody Seems to Know What to Do About It |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=10 February 2014 |date=10 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302085642/https://world.time.com/2014/02/10/smog-in-new-delhi/ |archive-date=2 March 2014 }}</ref><ref name="VOAPollution">{{cite web |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/indias-air-pollution-triggers-comparisons-with-china/1855331.html |title=India's Air Pollution Triggers Comparisons with China |date=20 February 2014 |publisher=Voice of America |access-date=20 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221104928/https://www.voanews.com/content/indias-air-pollution-triggers-comparisons-with-china/1855331.html |archive-date=21 February 2014 }}</ref><ref name="EconomistPollution">{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2012/11/air-pollution-india|title=A Delhi particular|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=6 November 2012|date=6 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106114416/https://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2012/11/air-pollution-india|archive-date=6 November 2012}}</ref> The [[air quality index]] is generally moderate (101–200) between January and September, and then it drastically deteriorates to Very Poor (301–400), Severe (401–500) or Hazardous (500+) levels between October and December,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chaman |first1=Vishakha |last2=Pal |first2=Ayantika |title=Out of here in November: In Delhi-NCR, smog break is becoming the new annual vacation |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/out-of-here-in-november-in-del-ncr-smog-break-is-becoming-the-new-annual-vacation/articleshow/104979257.cms |access-date=5 November 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=5 November 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105062436/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/out-of-here-in-november-in-del-ncr-smog-break-is-becoming-the-new-annual-vacation/articleshow/104979257.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Delhi AQI: CP Smog tower down due to DPCC, says minister Gopal Rai; official says running cost high |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/delhi-aqi-cp-smog-tower-down-due-to-dpcc-says-minister-gopal-rai-official-says-running-cost-high/articleshow/104978284.cms |access-date=5 November 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=5 November 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105062840/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/delhi-aqi-cp-smog-tower-down-due-to-dpcc-says-minister-gopal-rai-official-says-running-cost-high/articleshow/104978284.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> due to various factors, including [[stubble burning]] (a type of [[Combustion of biomass|biomass burning]]), firecracker-burning during [[Diwali]], and cold weather.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/day-after-diwali-delhis-air-turns-hazardous/articleshow/66539912.cms|title=Pollution level in Delhi: Day after Diwali, Delhi's air turns 'hazardous'|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=8 November 2018 |access-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108173945/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/day-after-diwali-delhis-air-turns-hazardous/articleshow/66539912.cms|archive-date=8 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/delhi-breathed-easier-from-january-to-april/articleshow/59011204.cms|title=Delhi breathed easier from January to April|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=6 June 2017 |access-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109070658/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/delhi-breathed-easier-from-january-to-april/articleshow/59011204.cms|archive-date=9 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/air-pollution-delhi-enjoys-cleanest-february-in-three-years/story-SANlmslHev8ifFgZbh3WXI.html|title=Air pollution: Delhi enjoys cleanest February in three years|date=27 February 2018|access-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109070735/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/air-pollution-delhi-enjoys-cleanest-february-in-three-years/story-SANlmslHev8ifFgZbh3WXI.html|archive-date=9 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> During 2013–14, peak levels of fine [[particulate matter]] (PM) increased by about 44%, primarily due to high vehicular and industrial emissions, construction work and crop burning in adjoining states.<ref name="TimePollution" /><ref name="WSJPollution">{{cite news |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2014/02/15/how-crop-burning-affects-delhis-air-pollution/ |title=How Crop Burning Affects Delhi's Air |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=15 February 2014 |date=15 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306041835/https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2014/02/15/how-crop-burning-affects-delhis-air-pollution/ |archive-date=6 March 2014 }}</ref><ref name="GARDINER, 25 January 14">{{cite news |last=Harris |first=Gardiner |title=Beijing's Bad Air Would Be Step Up for Smoggy Delhi |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/26/world/asia/beijings-air-would-be-step-up-for-smoggy-delhi.html |access-date=27 January 2014 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=25 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103045801/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/26/world/asia/beijings-air-would-be-step-up-for-smoggy-delhi.html |archive-date=3 November 2014 }}</ref><ref name="BEARAK, 8 feb">{{cite news |last=Bearak |first=Max |title=Desperate for Clean Air, Delhi Residents Experiment with Solutions |url=https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/02/07/desperate-for-clean-air-delhi-residents-experiment-with-solutions/?emc=edit_tnt_20140208&tntemail0=y |access-date=8 February 2014 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=7 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222171648/https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/02/07/desperate-for-clean-air-delhi-residents-experiment-with-solutions/?emc=edit_tnt_20140208&tntemail0=y |archive-date=22 February 2014 }}</ref> Delhi has the highest level of airborne [[PM2.5]]—considered most harmful to health—with 153 micrograms per million.<ref>{{cite news |author=Madison Park |title=Top 20 most polluted cities in the world |url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/05/08/world/asia/india-pollution-who/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=8 May 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508104416/https://www.cnn.com/2014/05/08/world/asia/india-pollution-who/index.html |archive-date=8 May 2016 }}</ref>

Rising air pollution levels have significantly increased lung-related ailments (especially [[asthma]] and [[lung cancer]]) among Delhi's children and women.<ref name="TodayPollution">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/pollution-in-delhi-cng-children-in-delhi-182151-2014-02-21 |title=Children in Delhi have lungs of chain-smokers! |magazine=[[India Today]] |access-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302000403/https://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/pollution-in-delhi-cng-children-in-delhi/1/344904.html |archive-date=2 March 2014 }}</ref><ref name="DNAPollution">{{cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/health/report-pollution-increasing-lung-cancer-in-indian-women-1959054 |title=Pollution increasing lung cancer in Indian women |date=3 February 2014 |publisher=DNA |access-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305181411/https://www.dnaindia.com/health/report-pollution-increasing-lung-cancer-in-indian-women-1959054 |archive-date=5 March 2014 }}</ref> The dense [[smog]] and [[haze]] during winter results in major air and rail traffic disruptions every year.<ref name="ReutersPollution">{{cite news |url=https://in.reuters.com/article/india-delhi-winter-smog-idINDEE9BH0D420131218 |title=Delhi blanketed in thick smog, transport disrupted |work=Reuters |access-date=18 December 2013 |date=18 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220012916/https://in.reuters.com/article/2013/12/18/india-delhi-winter-smog-idINDEE9BH0D420131218 |archive-date=20 December 2013 }}</ref> According to Indian meteorologists, the average maximum temperature during winters has declined notably since 1998 due to rising air pollution.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 January 2014 |title=January days getting colder, tied to rise in pollution |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/January-days-getting-colder-tied-to-rise-in-pollution/articleshow/29429495.cms |url-status=live |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904034839/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/January-days-getting-colder-tied-to-rise-in-pollution/articleshow/29429495.cms |archive-date=4 September 2015 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

India's [[Ministry of Earth Sciences]] published a research paper in October 2018 attributing almost 41% of PM2.5 air pollution in Delhi to vehicular emissions, 21.5% to dust/fire and 18% to industries.<ref name=MoES5>{{cite news|title=Usual suspects: Vehicles, industrial emissions behind foul play|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/usual-suspects-vehicles-industrial-emissions-behind-foul-play-all-year/articleshow/66228517.cms|access-date=18 December 2018|work=The Times of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228212103/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/usual-suspects-vehicles-industrial-emissions-behind-foul-play-all-year/articleshow/66228517.cms|archive-date=28 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The director of the [[Centre for Science and Environment]] (CSE) alleged that the [[Automotive industry in India|Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers]] (SIAM) is lobbied "against the report" because it was "inconvenient" to the automobile industry.<ref name=CSE>{{cite news|title=UA vicious nexus|url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/air/a-vicious-nexus-62475|access-date=18 December 2018|work=Down to Earth|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181213162118/https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/air/a-vicious-nexus-62475|archive-date=13 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Environmentalists have also criticised the Delhi government for not doing enough to curb air pollution and to inform people about air quality issues.<ref name="VOAPollution" /> In 2014, an environmental panel appealed to [[India's Supreme Court]] to impose a 30% [[cess]] on diesel cars, but till date no action has been taken to penalise the automobile industry.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 February 2014 |title=Impose 30% cess on diesel cars, panel tells Supreme Court |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/Impose-30-cess-on-diesel-cars-panel-tells-Supreme-Court/articleshow/30180391.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304004249/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/Impose-30-cess-on-diesel-cars-panel-tells-Supreme-Court/articleshow/30180391.cms |archive-date=4 March 2014 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

Most Delhi residents are unaware of the alarming levels of air pollution in the city and the health risks associated with it.<ref name="GARDINER, 25 January 14" /><ref name="BEARAK, 8 feb" /> In 2020, annual average [[PM2.5]] in the city stood at 107.6 μg/m3, which is almost 21.5 times the WHO's PM2.5 Guideline (5 μg/m3; set in September 2021).<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=The Air Quality Life Index (AQLI) |url=https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/the-index/ |access-date=6 September 2022 |website=AQLI |language=en |archive-date=20 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820013309/https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/the-index/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These pollution levels are estimated to reduce the [[life expectancy]] of an average person living in Delhi by almost 10.1 years.<ref name="auto"/>

However, {{As of|2015|lc=y}}, awareness, particularly among the foreign diplomatic community and high-income Indians, was noticeably increasing.<ref name="NYT021415">{{cite news|author1=Gardiner Harris|title=Delhi Wakes Up to an Air Pollution Problem It Cannot Ignore|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/15/world/asia/delhi-wakes-up-to-an-air-pollution-problem-it-cannot-ignore.html|access-date=15 February 2015|work=The New York Times|date=14 February 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215042638/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/15/world/asia/delhi-wakes-up-to-an-air-pollution-problem-it-cannot-ignore.html|archive-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> Since the mid-1990s, Delhi has undertaken some measures to curb air pollution—it has the third-highest quantity of trees among Indian cities;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/news/cities/delhi_third_greenest_city.php |title=Delhi 'third greenest' city |publisher=Ndtv.com |access-date=11 March 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110213062310/https://www.ndtv.com/news/cities/delhi_third_greenest_city.php |archive-date=13 February 2011 }}</ref> the [[Delhi Transport Corporation]] operates the world's largest fleet of environmentally friendly [[compressed natural gas]] (CNG) buses.<ref name="cities.expressindia.com">{{cite web|url=https://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=85665 |title=Express India |work=The Indian Express |access-date=11 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231054504/https://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=85665 |archive-date=31 December 2010 }}</ref> In 1996, the CSE started a public interest litigation in the [[Supreme Court of India]] that ordered the conversion of Delhi's fleet of buses and taxis to run on CNG and banned the use of [[leaded petrol]] in 1998. In 2003, Delhi won the [[United States Department of Energy]]'s first 'Clean Cities International Partner of the Year' award for its "bold efforts to curb air pollution and support alternative fuel initiatives".<ref name="cities.expressindia.com" /> The [[Delhi Metro]] has also been credited for significantly reducing air pollutants in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2013 |title=Delhi Metro helps reduce vehicular air pollution, indicates research |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/delhi-metro-helps-reduce-vehicular-air-pollution-delhi-school-of-economics-160315-2013-04-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301231933/https://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-metro-helps-reduce-vehicular-air-pollution-delhi-school-of-economics/1/268105.html |archive-date=1 March 2014 |access-date= |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

However, according to several authors, most of these gains have been lost, especially due to [[stubble burning]], a rise in the market share of [[diesel exhaust|diesel cars]], and a considerable decline in bus ridership.<ref name="kumari">{{cite journal |author1=R. Kumari |author2=A.K. Attri |author3=L. Int Panis |author4=B.R. Gurjar |title=Emission estimates of Particulate Matter and Heavy Metals from Mobile sources in Delhi (India) |journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=127–142 |date=April 2013 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259827470 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108235156/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259827470_Emission_estimates_of_Particulate_Matter_and_Heavy_Metals_from_Mobile_Sources_in_Delhi |archive-date=8 November 2014 |pmid= 25464689}}</ref><ref name="CSEPollution">{{cite web |url=https://cseindia.org/node/835 |title=What is the status of air pollution in Delhi? |publisher=CSE, India |access-date=2 March 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301185410/https://cseindia.org/node/835 |archive-date=1 March 2014 }}</ref> According to CSE and System of Air Quality Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR), burning of agricultural waste in nearby Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh regions results in severe intensification of smog over Delhi.<ref name="ETTPollution">{{cite news |url=https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-11-06/news/55835957_1_pm-2-5-level-air-quality-weather-forecasting-pollution-levels |title=Delhi's air quality deteriorating due to burning of agriculture waste |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=6 November 2014 |access-date=8 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111083702/https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-11-06/news/55835957_1_pm-2-5-level-air-quality-weather-forecasting-pollution-levels |archive-date=11 November 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CSE2Pollution">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/smog-delhi-winter-low-wind-speed-emissions-225394-2014-11-01 |title=Thick blanket of smog envelopes Delhi, northern India |magazine=India Today |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105070407/https://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/smog-delhi-winter-low-wind-speed-emissions/1/398601.html |archive-date=5 November 2014 }}</ref>

Delhi has been ranked 7th best "National Clean Air City" (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India according to 'Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2024 Results' <ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2024 |title=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024 |url=https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |website=Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 2024 |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-date=14 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914164336/https://prana.cpcb.gov.in/ncapServices/robust/fetchFilesFromDrive/Swachh_Vayu_Survekshan_2024_Result.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

According to the World Air Quality Report 2024, Delhi remains the world's most polluted capital city.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Delhi is most polluted city globally; 13 of world's 20 most polluted cities in India: report |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/13-of-worlds-20-most-polluted-cities-in-india-delhi-most-polluted-capital/article69316060.ece |work=The Hindu |agency=PTI |issn=0971-751X |date=11 March 2025 |access-date=16 March 2025}}</ref>

== Civic administration ==
{{See also|List of districts of Delhi|List of neighbourhoods of Delhi|List of towns in National Capital Territory of Delhi}}
[[File:Dehli districts.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Districts of Delhi]]
Currently, the NCT of Delhi is made up of one [[Administrative divisions of India#Divisions|division]], [[List of districts of Delhi|11 districts]], 33 [[Administrative divisions of India#Subdistricts|subdivisions]], 59 census towns, and 300 villages.<ref>{{cite book|author=M.S.A. Rao|title=Urbanization and Social Change: A Study of a Rural Community on a Metropolitan Fringe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPMEAAAAMAAJ|year=1970|publisher=Orient Longmans|access-date=28 November 2017|archive-date=3 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303170044/https://books.google.com/books?id=tPMEAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
On the other way, the NCT of Delhi is divided into three municipalities. The boundaries of municipalities may be different from district boundaries:
# [[Municipal Corporation of Delhi]] (MCD), which occupies an area of {{Convert|1397.3|km2|abbr=on}} and is sub-divided into 12 zones, that is, Centre, South, West, Najafgarh, Rohini, Civil Lines, Karol Bagh, SP-City, Keshavpuram, Narela, Shahdara North and Shahdara South.<ref name="mcdonline">{{Cite web |title=Municipal Corporation of Delhi |url=https://mcdonline.nic.in/ |access-date=22 May 2022 |website=mcdonline.nic.in |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521215755/https://mcdonline.nic.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Shelly Oberoi]], is the current [[mayor]] of the unified [[Municipal Corporation of Delhi]] since 2023.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=AAP's Shelly Oberoi wins, Delhi gets new mayor after 75 days, Kejriwal says 'goons' lost {{!}} LIVE |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/delhi-mcd-mayor-election-live-updates-aap-bjp-ruckus-fourth-attempt-2337981-2023-02-22 |magazine=India Today |date=22 February 2023 |access-date=23 January 2024 |archive-date=23 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123145457/https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/delhi-mcd-mayor-election-live-updates-aap-bjp-ruckus-fourth-attempt-2337981-2023-02-22 |url-status=live }}</ref>
# [[New Delhi|New Delhi Municipality ]], which occupies an area of {{Convert|42.7|km2|abbr=on}}
# [[Delhi Cantonment]], which occupies an area of {{Convert|42.3|km2|abbr=on}}

Between 13 January 2011 and 22 May 2022, MCD was divided into three municipal corporations:<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-govt-decides-to-split-mcd-into-three-parts/article2062613.ece|title=Delhi govt decides to split MCD into three parts|agency=Press Trust of India|date=30 May 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728090021/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-govt-decides-to-split-mcd-into-three-parts/article2062613.ece|archive-date=28 July 2013}}</ref>
# [[South Delhi Municipal Corporation]] (SDMC) had jurisdiction over South and West Delhi areas, including Mahipalpur, Rajouri Garden, Uttam Nagar, Badarpur, Jaitpur, Janakpuri, Hari Nagar, Tilak Nagar, Dwarka, Jungpura, Greater Kailash, R K Puram, Malviya Nagar, Kalkaji, Ambedkar Nagar and Pul pehladpur.
# [[North Delhi Municipal Corporation]] (NDMC) had jurisdiction over areas such as Badli, Rithala, Bawana, Kirari, Mangolpuri, Tri Nagar, Model Town, Sadar Bazar, Chandni Chowk, Matia Mahal, Karol Bagh, Moti Nagar
# [[East Delhi Municipal Corporation]] (EDMC) had jurisdiction over areas such as Patparganj, Kondli, Laxmi Nagar, Seemapuri, Gonda, Karawal Nagar, Babarpur and Shahadra.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/mcd-election-results-2017-counting-begins-can-kejriwal-s-aap-beat-modi-wave-in-delhi/story-xpbRonawnk8ALeqLfwjJxL.html|title=MCD results 2017: BJP rides on Modi wave; AAP routed, Kejriwal accepts defeat|author=Hindustan Ties|date=29 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171106111359/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/mcd-election-results-2017-counting-begins-can-kejriwal-s-aap-beat-modi-wave-in-delhi/story-xpbRonawnk8ALeqLfwjJxL.html|archive-date=6 November 2017}}</ref>

Delhi is home to the [[Delhi High Court|High Court of Delhi]]. The High Court of Delhi is the highest in the Delhi before Supreme Court. The High Court of Delhi just like the apex court and other High Courts in India is the Court of record. Delhi is also home to various District Court according to jurisdictions. Delhi have Currently seven [[District courts of India|District Courts]] namely Tis Hazari Court Complex, Karkardooma Court Complex, Patiala House Court Complex, Rohini Court Complex, Dwarka Courts Complex, Saket Court Complex, and Rouse Avenue Court
Apart from the District Courts Delhi also have Consumer Courts, CBI Courts, Labour Courts, Revenue Courts, Army tribunals, electricity tribunals, Railway Tribunals, and other various tribunals situated according to appropriate jurisdictions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.apsinghlawyer.com/post/where-are-courts-in-delhi-situated|title=Where are Courts in Delhi Situated ?|date=14 August 2021|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814103138/https://www.apsinghlawyer.com/post/where-are-courts-in-delhi-situated|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://delhibarcouncil.com/resources-for-lawyers/delhi-courts/district-courts/|title=District Courts of Delhi {{pipe}} Bar Council of Delhi|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=13 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813021951/https://delhibarcouncil.com/resources-for-lawyers/delhi-courts/district-courts/|url-status=live}}</ref>

For policing purposes Delhi is divided into fifteen [[Districts of Delhi Police|police districts]] which are further subdivided into 95 local police station zones. Delhi currently has 180 police stations.<ref name=policestations>{{cite web|url=https://delhigovt.nic.in/newdelhi/police.html|title=Poile Stations|access-date=19 December 2006|publisher=Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070110174612/https://delhigovt.nic.in/newdelhi/police.html|archive-date=10 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.delhipolice.nic.in/history.html|title=Delhi Police|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814104232/https://www.delhipolice.nic.in/history.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Delhi|Government of India}}

[[File:Delhi Vidhan Sabha.jpg|thumb|[[Delhi Legislative Assembly]]]]
As a first-level administrative division, the National Capital Territory of Delhi has its own [[Legislative Assembly of Delhi|Legislative Assembly]], [[List of lieutenant governors of Delhi|Lieutenant Governor]], the council of ministers, and [[Chief Minister of Delhi|Chief Minister]]. Members of the legislative assembly are directly elected from territorial constituencies in the NCT. The legislative assembly was abolished in 1956, after which direct federal control was implemented until it was re-established in 1993. The municipal corporation handles civic administration for the city as part of the [[Panchayati Raj Act]]. The [[Government of India]] and the [[Government of Delhi|Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi]] jointly administer New Delhi, where both bodies are located. The [[Parliament of India]], the [[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|Rashtrapati Bhavan]] (Presidential Palace), [[Cabinet Secretariat of India|Cabinet Secretariat]], and the Supreme Court of India are located in the municipal district of New Delhi. There are 70 assembly constituencies and seven [[Lok Sabha]] (Indian Parliament's lower house) constituencies in Delhi.<ref name=assmbconst>{{cite web|url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/assemblypolls/delhi.html |title=Delhi: Assembly Constituencies |access-date=19 December 2006 |publisher=Compare Infobase Limited |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101060414/https://www.mapsofindia.com/assemblypolls/delhi.html |archive-date=1 January 2007 }}</ref><ref name=loksabhaconst>{{cite news|title=Lok Sabha constituencies get a new profile|url=https://www.hindu.com/2006/09/07/stories/2006090710630400.htm|date=7 September 2006|access-date=19 December 2006|location=Chennai|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104221526/https://www.hindu.com/2006/09/07/stories/2006090710630400.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=4 January 2007}}</ref>

In the first legislative assembly elections, [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), led by [[Madan Lal Khurana]], came to power.<ref name="POD">{{cite web|title=Politics of Delhi|url=https://www.indfy.com/delhi/politics.html|publisher=INDFY|access-date=17 May 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424064032/https://www.indfy.com/delhi/politics.html|archive-date=24 April 2012}}</ref> In 1998, the Congress came to power under the leadership of [[Sheila Dikshit]], who was subsequently re-elected for 3 consecutive terms. But in [[2013 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2013]], the Congress was ousted from power by the newly formed [[Aam Aadmi Party]] (AAP) led by [[Arvind Kejriwal]] forming the government with outside support from the Congress. This was despite the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] winning a plurity.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-23/news/45510175_1_aap-arvind-kejriwal-aam-aadmi-party|title=Arvind Kejriwal to be Delhi Chief Minister, swearing-in at Ramleela Maidan|work=The Economic Times |access-date=28 July 2015|date=23 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511044516/https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-23/news/45510175_1_aap-arvind-kejriwal-aam-aadmi-party|archive-date=11 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, that government was short-lived, collapsing only after 49 days.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/arvind-kejriwal-quits-over-jan-lokpal/article5688528.ece|title=Arvind Kejriwal quits over Jan Lokpal|author1=Mohammad Ali|author2=Vishal Kant|author3=Sowmiya Ashok|work=The Hindu|access-date=28 July 2015|location=Chennai|date=14 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016060813/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/arvind-kejriwal-quits-over-jan-lokpal/article5688528.ece|archive-date=16 October 2015}}</ref> Delhi was then under [[President's rule]] until February 2015,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Presidents-rule-imposed-in-Delhi/articleshow/30558345.cms|title=President's rule imposed in Delhi|work=The Times of India|access-date=28 July 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719135440/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Presidents-rule-imposed-in-Delhi/articleshow/30558345.cms|archive-date=19 July 2015}}</ref> after which AAP returned to power after a landslide victory, winning 67 out of the 70 seats in the [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/delhi-elections-aam-aadmi-party-sweeps-to-victory-1423535589|title=Upstart Party Wins India State Elections – WSJ|author=Niharika Mandhana|date=10 February 2015|work=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=28 July 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150809100429/https://www.wsj.com/articles/delhi-elections-aam-aadmi-party-sweeps-to-victory-1423535589|archive-date=9 August 2015}}</ref> AAP has held power until Feb 2025.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/election-results-2020-live-delhi-assembly-hatrick-for-arvind-kejriwal-aap-bjp-10-points-2178126|title=Delhi Election Results 2020: The Mega Victory Of Arvind Kejriwal|work=NDTV|access-date=16 May 2023|archive-date=16 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516062038/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/election-results-2020-live-delhi-assembly-hatrick-for-arvind-kejriwal-aap-bjp-10-points-2178126|url-status=live}}</ref> Following [[Delhi Legislative Assembly|assembly elections]] in 2025, [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] came to power with an outright majority.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Rekha Gupta Takes Oath: A Look At Delhi Chief Minister's Wealth |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/rekha-gupta-takes-oath-a-look-at-delhi-chief-ministers-wealth-7752493 |work=NDTV |date=20 February 2025 |access-date=20 February 2025}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Delhi}}

{{multiple image
| align = left
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Dry fruits being sold at Khari Baoli market in Old Delhi.jpg
| caption1 = The [[Khari Baoli]] market in Old Delhi is one of the oldest and busiest in the city.
| image2 = Connaught Place New Delhi.jpg
| caption2 = [[Connaught Place, New Delhi|Connaught Place]] in New Delhi is an important economic hub of the [[National Capital Region (India)|National Capital Region]].
}}

Delhi is the largest commercial center in northern India. {{As of|2016}} recent estimates of the economy of the Delhi urban area have ranged from $370 billion to $400 billion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]] [[Gross metropolitan product|metro GDP]]) ranking it either the [[List of cities by GDP|most or second-most productive metro area]] of India.<ref name=gdp>*{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/delhi-not-mumbai-indias-economic-capital/articleshow/55655582.cms|title=Delhi, not Mumbai, India's economic capital|work=[[The Times of India]]|author=Clara Lewis|date=28 November 2016|access-date=11 September 2023}}
*{{Cite web |date=3 June 2017 |title=Mumbai 17th in global GDP list, says survey |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/mumbai-17th-in-global-gdp-list-says-survey-4686508/ |access-date=16 September 2021 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020011629/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/mumbai-17th-in-global-gdp-list-says-survey-4686508/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web|title=Global city GDP 2014|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/global-metro-monitor/|publisher=[[Brookings Institution]]|date=22 January 2015|access-date=4 March 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525113815/https://www.brookings.edu/research/global-metro-monitor/|archive-date=25 May 2017}}
* {{cite web|title=Global city GDP rankings 2008–2025|url=https://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/imagelibrary/downloadMedia.ashx?MediaDetailsID=1562|publisher=[[Pricewaterhouse Coopers|PwC]]|access-date=16 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504031739/https://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/imagelibrary/downloadMedia.ashx?MediaDetailsID=1562|archive-date=4 May 2011}}
* {{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/08/13/the_most_dynamic_cities_of_2025|title=The Most Dynamic Cities of 2025|work=Foreign Policy|access-date=24 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828041241/https://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/08/13/the_most_dynamic_cities_of_2025|archive-date=28 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=metrogdp>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/mumbai-is-no-more-the-financial-capital-of-india/articleshow/55667112.cms|title=Mumbai is no more the financial capital of India|publisher=Business Insider India|date=28 November 2016|access-date=13 August 2020|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112000305/https://www.businessinsider.in/Mumbai-is-no-more-the-financial-capital-of-India/articleshow/55667112.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The nominal [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|GSDP]] of the NCT of Delhi for 2016–17 was estimated at {{INRConvert|6224|b}}, 13% higher than in 2015–16.<ref name="Budget Analysis">{{cite web|title=Delhi Budget Analysis 2017–18|url=https://www.prsindia.org/uploads/media/State%20Budget%202017-18/Delhi%20Budget%20Analysis%202017-18.pdf|website=[[PRS Legislative Research]]|access-date=10 March 2017|date=8 March 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312041800/https://www.prsindia.org/uploads/media/State%20Budget%202017-18/Delhi%20Budget%20Analysis%202017-18.pdf|archive-date=12 March 2017}}</ref> Oxford Economics Global Cities index 2024 ranked Delhi as best city in India and 108th best city in the world in Economics Category.

As per the Economic survey of Delhi (2005–2006), the [[tertiary sector of industry|tertiary sector]] contributes 70.95% of Delhi's gross SDP followed by [[secondary sector of industry|secondary]] and [[primary sector of industry|primary]] sectors with 25.20% and 3.85% contributions, respectively.<ref name=ecosurv2>{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/2.pdf|title=Chapter 2: State Income|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–06|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|pages=8–16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614085129/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/2.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref> Delhi's workforce constitutes 32.82% of the population, and increased by 52.52% between 1991 and 2001.<ref name=ecosurv5>{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/5.pdf|title=Chapter 5: Employment and Unemployment|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–06|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|pages=59–65|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215013210/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/5.pdf|archive-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> Delhi's unemployment rate decreased from 12.57% in 1999–2000 to 4.63% in 2003.<ref name=ecosurv5 /> In December 2004, 636,000 people were registered with various employment exchange programmes in Delhi.<ref name=ecosurv5 />

In 2018 the total workforce in national and state governments and the quasi-government sector was 594,000, and the private sector employed 273,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Planning/ch._21_employment_and_unemployment.pdf|title=Chapter 21: Employment and Unemployment|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2022-23|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|access-date=25 May 2023|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523224251/https://delhiplanning.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Planning/ch._21_employment_and_unemployment.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Key service industries are information technology, telecommunications, hotels, banking, media and tourism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/delhi/industries-in-delhi.html |title=Industries in Delhi |publisher=Mapsofindia.com |access-date=7 September 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503223007/https://www.mapsofindia.com/delhi/industries-in-delhi.html |archive-date=3 May 2012 }}</ref> Construction, power, health and community services and real estate are also important to the city's economy. Delhi has one of India's largest and fastest growing retail industries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/News_By_Industry/Services/Hotels__Restaurants/Delhi_Indias_hot_favourite_retail_destination/rssarticleshow/2983387.cms |title=Delhi hot favourite retail destination in India – Corporate Trends – News By Company -News |work=The Economic Times |access-date=3 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007010541/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/News_By_Industry/Services/Hotels__Restaurants/Delhi_Indias_hot_favourite_retail_destination/rssarticleshow/2983387.cms |archive-date= 7 October 2013 }}</ref> Manufacturing also grew considerably as consumer goods companies established manufacturing units and headquarters in the city. Delhi's large consumer market and the availability of skilled labour has also attracted foreign investment. In 2001, the manufacturing sector employed 1,440,000 workers and the city had 129,000 industrial units.<ref name=ecosurv9>{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/9.pdf|title=Chapter 9: Industrial Development|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–06|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|pages=94–107|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614085148/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/9.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref>

== Utility services ==
{{See also|Bhalswa landfill}}
Delhi's municipal water supply is managed by the [[Delhi Jal Board]] (DJB). {{As of|2025|Nov}}, it supplies 900 million gallons per day (MGD).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-12 |title=Delhi Jal board looking for ways to supply water all day long |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/delhi-jal-board-looking-for-ways-of-providing-24-hour-uninterrupted-water-supply/story-U1d8MIWNDG0w8SQyaE2UHI.html |access-date=2025-11-08 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> The shortfall is met by private and public [[tube well]]s and [[hand pump]]s. At 240 MGD, the Bhakra storage is DJB's largest water source, followed by the Yamuna and [[Ganges]] rivers. Delhi's [[groundwater]] level is falling and its population density is increasing, so residents often encounter acute water shortage.<ref name="ecosurv13">{{cite web |title=Chapter 13: Water Supply and Sewerage |url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/13.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614203642/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/13.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 |access-date=21 December 2006 |work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–2006 |publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi |pages=147–162}}</ref> Research on Delhi suggests that up to half of the city's water use is unofficial groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-18-cities--delhi--unequal-unreliable-and-running-out.html|title=Unequal, Unreliable and Running Out|last=Birkinshaw|first=Matt|date=July 2016|website=Digital Development Debates|access-date=5 September 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915231848/https://www.digital-development-debates.org/issue-18-cities--delhi--unequal-unreliable-and-running-out.html|archive-date=15 September 2016}}</ref> In Delhi, daily domestic solid waste production is 8000 [[tonne]]s which is dumped at three [[landfill]] locations by MCD.<ref name="hinduwaste">{{cite news |first=Sandeep |last=Joshi |title=MCD developing new landfill site |url=https://www.hindu.com/2006/06/19/stories/2006061915630400.htm |date=19 June 2006 |access-date=19 December 2006 |location=Chennai|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061119091230/https://www.hindu.com/2006/06/19/stories/2006061915630400.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=19 November 2006 }}</ref> The daily domestic waste water production is 470 MGD and industrial waste water is 70 MGD.<ref name=Delhirisks>{{cite web|url=https://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/overview/nho0019pf.htm|title=Risks in Delhi: Environmental concerns|access-date=19 December 2006|last=Gadhok|first=Taranjot Kaur|work=Natural Hazard Management|publisher=GISdevelopment.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512093110/https://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/natural_hazards/overview/nho0019pf.htm|archive-date=12 May 2012}}</ref> A large portion of the sewage flows untreated into the Yamuna river.<ref name=Delhirisks />

The city's electricity consumption is about 1,265 kWh per capita but the actual demand is higher.<ref name=ecosurv11>{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/11.pdf|title=Chapter 11: Energy|access-date=21 December 2006|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–06|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|pages=117–129|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614203731/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/11.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref> In Delhi power distribution is managed by [[Tata Power Delhi Distribution Limited|TPDDL]] and [[BSES Yamuna Power Limited|BSES Yamuna]] & [[BSES Rajdhani]] since 2002, transmission of power is done by [[Delhi Transco Limited]] and [[Powergrid]], while generation of power is by [[IPGCL]] and [[PPCL]]. The city also imports a significant quantum of power from other states.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

The [[Delhi Fire Service]] runs 43 fire stations that attend about 15,000 fire and rescue calls per year.<ref name="dfs">{{cite web|url=https://dfs.delhigovt.nic.in/aboutf.html|title=About Us|access-date=9 January 2007|work=Delhi Fire Service|publisher=Govt. of NCT of Delhi|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070122143240/https://dfs.delhigovt.nic.in/aboutf.html|archive-date=22 January 2007}}</ref> The state-owned [[MTNL]] and private enterprises such as [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone Idea|Vi]], [[Jio]] provide telephone and cell phone services to the city. Cellular coverage is available in [[GSM]], [[3G]], [[4G]], [[LTE Advanced|4G+]] and [[5G]].{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

== Transport ==
{{Main|Transport in Delhi}}

=== Air ===
[[File:Mudras at Indira Gandhi Delhi 1007.jpg|thumb| alt= Shown here is the check-in counter at Terminal 3 of the airport.|[[Indira Gandhi International Airport]]'s immigration counter in Terminal 3<ref>{{cite web |url=https://airport-delhi.com/ |title=Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport (IGI) |publisher=Airport-delhi.com |date=2 May 1986 |access-date=7 September 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516020135/https://airport-delhi.com/ |archive-date=16 May 2012 }}</ref>]]
[[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], situated to the south-west of Delhi, is the main gateway for the city's domestic and international civilian air traffic. In 2015–16, the airport handled more than 48 million passengers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aai.aero/traffic_news/Mar2k16annex3.pdf|format=jsp|title=Traffic Statistics – Domestic & International Passengers|publisher=[[Airports Authority of India]]|access-date=5 May 2016|page=3|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527102138/https://www.aai.aero/traffic_news/Mar2k16annex3.pdf|archive-date=27 May 2016}}</ref> making it the busiest airport in India and South Asia. Terminal 3, which cost {{INRConvert|96.8|b}} to construct between 2007 and 2010, handles an additional 37 million passengers annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007\02\18\story_18-2-2007_pg5_24 |title=India begins $1.94b Delhi airport revamp |work=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]]|location=Pakistan |date=18 February 2007 |access-date=3 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116121748/https://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C02%5C18%5Cstory_18-2-2007_pg5_24 |archive-date=16 January 2009 }}</ref> In 2010, IGIA was conferred the 4th best airport award in the world in the 15–25 million category, by [[Airports Council International]]. The airport was rated as the ''Best airport in the world'' in the 25–40 million passengers category in 2015, by Airports Council International. Delhi Airport was awarded ''The Best Airport in Central Asia'' and ''Best Airport Staff in Central Asia'' at the [[Skytrax]] World Airport Awards 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/indira-gandhi-international-airport-is-worlds-best-airport-for-second-time-in-row-311345-2016-03-02|title=Indira Gandhi International Airport is world's best airport for second time in row|date=2 March 2016|website=India Today|language=en|access-date=5 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026101228/https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/indira-gandhi-international-airport-is-worlds-best-airport-for-second-time-in-row-311345-2016-03-02|archive-date=26 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aci.aero/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-7-46%5E35015_666_2__|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512200746/https://www.aci.aero/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-7-46%5E35015_666_2__|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 May 2012|title=Airports Council International|date=12 May 2012|access-date=5 October 2019}}</ref> [[Hindon Airport|Hindon Domestic Airport]] in Ghaziabad was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi as the second airport for the Delhi-NCR Region on 8 March 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=PM Narendra Modi inaugurates civil enclave at Hindon airport |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/pm-narendra-modi-inaugurates-civil-enclave-at-hindon-airport/articleshow/68322539.cms |access-date=10 March 2019 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313123707/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/pm-narendra-modi-inaugurates-civil-enclave-at-hindon-airport/articleshow/68322539.cms |archive-date=13 March 2019 |url-status=live |author1-link=Press Trust of India }}</ref> A second international airport open for commercial flights has been suggested either by expansion of [[Meerut Airport]] or construction of a new airport in [[Greater Noida]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.niticentral.com/2012/09/08/does-delhi-need-a-second-airport-yes-it-does-but-where-7054.html |title=Search |work=India News Analysis Opinions on Niti Central |access-date=28 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102193703/https://www.niticentral.com/2012/09/08/does-delhi-need-a-second-airport-yes-it-does-but-where-7054.html |archive-date= 2 January 2014 }}</ref>
The [[Taj International Airport]] project in [[Jewar]] has been approved by the [[Uttar Pradesh]] government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/jewar-airport-will-now-be-a-full-fledged-aviation-hub/articleshow/63037895.cms|title=Jewar airport will now be a full-fledged aviation hub|last=Shah|first=Pankaj|work=The Times of India|date=23 February 2018|access-date=3 March 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224052827/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/jewar-airport-will-now-be-a-full-fledged-aviation-hub/articleshow/63037895.cms|archive-date=24 February 2018}}</ref>

The ''Delhi Flying Club'', established in 1928 with two [[de Havilland Moth]] aircraft named ''Delhi'' and ''Roshanara'', was based at [[Safdarjung Airport]] which started operations in 1929, when it was the Delhi's only airport and the second in India.<ref name=mecca>{{cite news|title=Mecca for young aviators |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/Mecca-for-young-aviators/Article1-749072.aspx |work=Hindustan Times |date=23 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103054117/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Mecca-for-young-aviators/Article1-749072.aspx |archive-date=3 January 2013 }}</ref> The airport functioned until 2001; however, in January 2002 the government closed the airport for flying activities because of security concerns following [[9/11|the New York attacks in September 2001]]. Since then, the club only carries out aircraft maintenance courses and is used for helicopter rides to Indira Gandhi International Airport for VIP including the president and the prime minister.<ref name="mecca" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Ministries in row over Safdarjung Airport land |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Ministries-in-row-over-Safdarjung-Airport-land/articleshow/7964868.cms |date=13 April 2011 |access-date=17 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127185501/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-04-13/delhi/29413456_1_ud-ministry-safdarjung-airport-aviation-ministry |archive-date=27 January 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Road ===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| align = left
| total_width = 400
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| image1 = Delhi Metro and CNG Buses in Azadpur Neighborhood.jpg
| caption1 = [[Compressed natural gas]] red- and green buses have low floors; orange has standard.{{efn|The elevated Delhi metro is seen above in [[Azadpur]].<ref name="cities.expressindia.com" /><ref>{{cite news
|title=Delhi's CNG success inspiring many countries: Naik
|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?gid=48&id=103516
|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]
|work=outlookindia.com
|publisher=Outlook Publishing (India) Private Limited
|date=11 December 2002
|access-date=2 November 2008
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201164114/https://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?gid=48&id=103516
|archive-date= 1 February 2009
}}</ref>}}
| image2 = Old Delhi rickshaw 2011.JPG
| caption2 = The [[cycle rickshaw]] and the [[auto rickshaw]] are commonly used in Delhi for travelling short distances.
}}

Delhi has the highest road density of 2103 km/100 km2 in India.<ref name="IND1">{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/the-road-that-larger-particles-travel/ |title=The road that larger particles travel |author=Pritha Chatterjee |date=6 April 2015 |access-date=7 November 2016 |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107174952/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/the-road-that-larger-particles-travel/ |archive-date=7 November 2016 }}</ref> It is connected to other parts of India by five [[National highways of India|National Highways]]: [[National Highway 1 (India, old numbering)|NH 1]], [[National Highway 2 (India, old numbering)|NH 2]], [[National Highway 8 (India, old numbering)|NH 8]], [[National Highway 10 (India, old numbering)|NH 10]] and [[National Highway 24 (India)|NH 24]]. The Delhi–Mumbai and Delhi–Kolkata prongs of the [[Golden Quadrilateral]] start from the city. The majority of the city's roads which are {{Convert|60|ft|abbr=on}} wide or above are maintained by the Public Works Department (PWD)<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Paras |date=12 April 2018 |title=Broken roads? You now know who you can call for help |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/broken-roads-you-now-know-who-you-can-call-for-help/articleshow/63720759.cms |work=The Times of India |access-date=29 October 2023 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029153337/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/broken-roads-you-now-know-who-you-can-call-for-help/articleshow/63720759.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> which is under the jurisdiction of the [[Government of Delhi]] while some are maintained by [[Delhi Development Authority]] and [[New Delhi Municipal Council]]<ref name="roadauth">{{cite web|url=https://www.gisdevelopment.net/proceedings/mapindia/2006/transportation/mi06tran_200.htm|title=GIS Based Maintenance Management System (GMMS) For Major Roads of Delhi|access-date=14 January 2007|author=I.Prasada Rao|author2=Dr. P.K. Kanchan|author3=Dr. P.K. Nanda|work=Map India 2006: Transportation|publisher=GISdevelopment.net|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426013600/https://www.gisdevelopment.net/proceedings/mapindia/2006/transportation/mi06tran_200.htm|archive-date=26 April 2012}}</ref> which are under the jurisdiction of the [[Government of India]]. Roads and streets less than {{Convert|60|ft|abbr=on}} wide are maintained by the [[Municipal Corporation of Delhi]]. Roads and streets in unauthorised colonies are maintained by the local [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Will have roads constructed in all unauthorised colonies by December 2024: Delhi CM |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/will-have-roads-constructed-in-all-unauthorised-colonies-by-december-2024-delhi-cm/article67228731.ece |work=The Hindu |date=23 August 2023 |access-date=29 October 2023 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029153336/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/will-have-roads-constructed-in-all-unauthorised-colonies-by-december-2024-delhi-cm/article67228731.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

Buses are the most popular means of road transport, catering to about 60% of Delhi's total demand.<ref name="ET">{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-traffic-chaos-costs-rs-60000-crore-annually/articleshow/56980296.cms|title=Delhi traffic chaos costs Rs 60,000 crore annually|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=5 February 2017|access-date=23 March 2017|author=Dipak K. Dash|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324092149/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-traffic-chaos-costs-rs-60000-crore-annually/articleshow/56980296.cms|archive-date=24 March 2017}}</ref> Delhi has one of India's largest bus transport systems. In 1998, the Supreme Court of India ruled that all public transport vehicles in Delhi must be fuelled by [[compressed natural gas]] (CNG) to tackle increasing vehicular pollution.<ref name=supremelaw>{{cite web|url=https://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles-69423_delhi_case.pdf |title=Introduction |access-date=14 January 2007 |author=Armin Rosencranz |author2=Michael Jackson |work=The Delhi Pollution Case: The Supreme Court of India and the Limits of Judicial Power |publisher=indlaw.com |page=3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614203640/https://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles-69423_delhi_case.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 }}</ref> The state-owned [[Delhi Transport Corporation]] (DTC) is a major bus service provider which operates the world's largest fleet of CNG-fuelled buses.<ref name=DTC>{{cite web|url=https://dtc.nic.in/ccharter.htm|title=Citizen Charter|access-date=21 December 2006|publisher=Delhi Transport Corporation|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070110171420/https://dtc.nic.in/ccharter.htm|archive-date=10 January 2007}}</ref><ref name="ND">{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/delhi-news/dtc-records-highest-single-day-collection-461251|title=DTC records highest single-day collection|publisher=[[NDTV]]|date=12 July 2011|access-date=23 March 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324174140/https://www.ndtv.com/delhi-news/dtc-records-highest-single-day-collection-461251|archive-date=24 March 2017}}</ref> In addition, cluster scheme buses are operated by [[Delhi Integrated Multi-Modal Transit System]] (DIMTS) with the participation of private concessionaires and DTC.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/drivers-call-off-protest-buses-on-roads-today/articleshow/63349483.cms|title=Cluster buses to be back on road today|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=18 March 2018|access-date=7 May 2018|place=New Delhi|agency=TNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508060320/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/drivers-call-off-protest-buses-on-roads-today/articleshow/63349483.cms|archive-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/cabinet-sets-ball-rolling-to-procure-1000-cluster-buses/articleshow/62435884.cms|title=Cabinet sets ball rolling to procure 1,000 cluster buses|newspaper=The Times of India|date=10 January 2018|access-date=7 May 2018|place=New Delhi|agency=TNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507223107/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/cabinet-sets-ball-rolling-to-procure-1000-cluster-buses/articleshow/62435884.cms|archive-date=7 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2017, the DTC and cluster buses carried over 4.19 million passengers per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/upswing-in-dtccluster-buses-daily-ridership-41-90-passengers-carried-per-day-sisodia-2534241.html|title=Upswing in DTC, Cluster buses daily ridership, 41.90 passengers carried per day: Sisodia|publisher=[[Moneycontrol.com]]|agency=Press Trust of India|date=22 March 2018|access-date=7 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407181056/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/upswing-in-dtccluster-buses-daily-ridership-41-90-passengers-carried-per-day-sisodia-2534241.html|archive-date=7 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Maharana Pratap Inter State Bus Terminus|Kashmiri Gate ISBT]], [[Swami Vivekanand Inter State Bus Terminus|Anand Vihar ISBT]] and [[Sarai Kale Khan Inter-State Bus Terminus|Sarai Kale Khan ISBT]] are the main bus terminals for outstation buses plying to neighbouring states. Delhi's rapid rate of economic development and population growth has resulted in an increasing demand for transport, creating excessive pressure on the city's transport infrastructure. To meet the transport demand, the State and Union government constructed a mass rapid transit system, including the Delhi Metro.<ref name=ecosurv12 /> [[Delhi Bus Rapid Transit System]] runs between [[Ambedkar Nagar]] and [[Delhi Gate, Delhi|Delhi Gate]]. As per February 2024, Delhi has around 1,650 [[electric bus]]es managed by the [[Delhi Transport Corporation]], the highest in India and the third highest in the world after [[Shenzhen]] and [[Santiago]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=350 e-buses launched in Delhi, highest overall among all cities, says Kejriwal |url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/350-e-buses-launched-in-delhi-highest-overall-among-all-cities-says-kejriwal/107706826 |work=Economic Times |agency=PTI |date=15 February 2024 |access-date=15 February 2024 |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215064621/https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/350-e-buses-launched-in-delhi-highest-overall-among-all-cities-says-kejriwal/107706826 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Delhi adds 350 more e-buses; 3rd biggest fleet in world: govt. |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-adds-350-more-e-buses-3rd-biggest-fleet-in-world-govt/article67846165.ece |work=The Hindu |date=14 February 2024 |access-date=15 February 2024 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214211607/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-adds-350-more-e-buses-3rd-biggest-fleet-in-world-govt/article67846165.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

Personal vehicles, especially cars also form a major chunk of vehicles plying on Delhi roads. {{As of|2007}}, private vehicles account for 30% of the total demand for transport.<ref name=ecosurv12>{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/12.pdf|title=Chapter 12: Transport|access-date=21 December 2006|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–2006|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|pages=130–146|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070116044119/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/12.pdf|archive-date=16 January 2007}}</ref> Delhi has the highest number of registered cars compared to any other metropolitan city in India.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Bengaluru-retains-second-place-after-Delhi-with-most-vehicles-on-roads/articleshow/52770425.cms|title=Bengaluru retains second place after Delhi with most vehicles on roads|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|place=Bengaluru|author=Aparajita Ray|date=16 June 2016|access-date=24 April 2018|agency=TNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614004506/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Bengaluru-retains-second-place-after-Delhi-with-most-vehicles-on-roads/articleshow/52770425.cms|archive-date=14 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Taxis, auto rickshaws, and cycle rickshaws also ply on Delhi roads in large numbers. {{As of|2008}}, the number of vehicles in the metropolitan region, Delhi NCR, was 11.2 million (11.2 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.igovernment.in/site/traffic-snarl-snaps-42-cr-man-hour-from-delhi-ncr-workers/ |title=Traffic snarl snaps 42 Cr man-hour from Delhi, NCR workers at iGovernment |publisher=Igovernment.in |access-date=3 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007124559/https://www.igovernment.in/site/traffic-snarl-snaps-42-cr-man-hour-from-delhi-ncr-workers/ |archive-date=7 October 2008 }}</ref> In 2008, there were 85 cars in Delhi for every 1,000 of its residents.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Every_12th_Delhiite_owns_a_car/articleshow/2667484.cms |title=Every 12th Delhiite owns a car |work=The Economic Times |access-date=3 November 2008 |date=2 January 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308001320/https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2008-01-02/news/28394976_1_private-cars-indian-automobile-manufacturers-indian-roads |archive-date=8 March 2012 }}</ref> In 2017, the number of vehicles in Delhi city alone crossed the ten million mark with the transport department of [[Government of Delhi|Delhi Government]] putting the total number of registered vehicles at 10,567,712 until 25 May of the year.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/miscellaneous/vehicle-numbers-cross-one-crore-mark-in-delhi/articleshow/58983958.cms|title=Vehicle numbers cross one crore mark in Delhi|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|place=New Delhi|agency=Press Trust of India|date=4 June 2017|access-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611121604/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/miscellaneous/vehicle-numbers-cross-one-crore-mark-in-delhi/articleshow/58983958.cms|archive-date=11 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Railway ===
[[File:New Delhi railway station 2.jpg|thumb|A passenger train at the [[New Delhi railway station]]. Freight awaits pick up or transportation to other destinations.]]
Delhi is a major junction in the Indian railway network and is the headquarters of the [[Northern Railway (India)|Northern Railway]]. The main railway stations are [[New Delhi railway station|New Delhi]], [[Delhi Junction Railway Station|Old Delhi]], [[Hazrat Nizamuddin Railway Station|Hazrat Nizamuddin]], [[Anand Vihar Railway Terminal|Anand Vihar]], [[Delhi Sarai Rohilla railway station|Delhi Sarai Rohilla]] and [[Delhi Cantonment railway station|Delhi Cantt]].<ref name=ecosurv12 /> The [[Delhi Metro]], a mass rapid transit system built and operated by [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]] (DMRC), serves many parts of Delhi and the neighbouring cities [[Ghaziabad]], [[Faridabad]], [[Gurgaon]] and [[Noida]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.delhimetrorail.com/press_reldetails.aspx?id=63aQSC8zmhslld |title=Faridabad Metro Corridor – Press Brief |publisher=Delhimetrorail.com |access-date=24 December 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101225813/https://www.delhimetrorail.com/press_reldetails.aspx?id=63aQSC8zmhslld |archive-date=1 January 2016 }}</ref> {{as of|2021|December|}}, the metro consists of [[List of Delhi Metro lines|ten operational lines]] with a total length of {{convert|348.12|km|mi|abbr=on}} and [[List of Delhi metro stations|254 stations]], and several other lines are under construction.<ref name="tie-10aug18">{{cite news |last1=Barman |first1=Sourav Roy |title=Since 2013, 99% of Delhi Metro trips have been on time |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/since-2013-99-of-delhi-metro-trips-have-been-on-time-5299822/ |work=The Indian Express |date=10 August 2018 |location=New Delhi |access-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811064615/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/since-2013-99-of-delhi-metro-trips-have-been-on-time-5299822/ |archive-date=11 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Phase-I was built at a cost of US$2.3 billion and the Phase-II was expected to cost an additional {{INRConvert|216|b}}.<ref name="Bloomberg.com: Opinion">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&refer=columnist_mukherjee&sid=afv8Sf2MUvac|title=Bloomberg.com: Opinion|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|access-date=3 November 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027123847/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&refer=columnist_mukherjee&sid=afv8Sf2MUvac|archive-date=27 October 2012}}</ref> Phase-II has a total length of {{Convert|128|km|abbr=on}} and was completed by 2010.<ref name="Economictimes.indiatimes.com">{{cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Shipping__Transport/Get_ready_for_revolution_on_wheels/articleshow/3332826.cms |title=Get ready for revolution on wheels |work=The Economic Times |access-date=3 November 2008 |date=6 August 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111203439/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Shipping__Transport/Get_ready_for_revolution_on_wheels/articleshow/3332826.cms |archive-date=11 January 2009 }}</ref> [[Delhi Metro]] completed 10 years of operation on 25 December 2012. It carries millions of passengers every day.<ref name="10 years of Delhi Metro">{{cite web|url=https://www.delhimetrorail.com/press_reldetails.aspx?id=c4kJd1nWTgMlld|title=10 years of Delhi Metro|publisher=delhimetrorail.com|date=24 January 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830032441/https://www.delhimetrorail.com/press_reldetails.aspx?id=c4kJd1nWTgMlld|archive-date=30 August 2013}}</ref> In addition to the Delhi Metro, a suburban railway, the [[Delhi Suburban Railway]] exists.<ref name="Indian Express">{{cite news |title=Changing Delhi map makes Ring Railway redundant |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/changing-delhi-map-makes-ring-railway-redundant/752994/0 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=22 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228113258/https://www.indianexpress.com/news/changing-delhi-map-makes-ring-railway-redundant/752994/0 |archive-date=28 February 2011 }}</ref>

=== Metro ===
[[File:DelhiMetroBlueLineBombardier.jpg|thumb|[[Delhi Metro]] is widely used in the [[National Capital Region (India)|NCR]].|left]]
The [[Delhi Metro]] is a rapid transit system serving Delhi, [[Ghaziabad]], [[Faridabad]], [[Gurgaon]] and [[Noida]] in the National Capital Region of India. It is the world's tenth-largest metro system by length of lines. It was India's second modern public transportation system. The network consists of [[#Network|10 colour-coded lines]]<ref name="present network">{{Cite web |title=Present Network |url=https://www.delhimetrorail.com/pages/en/present-network |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=www.delhimetrorail.com |archive-date=2 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102184258/https://www.delhimetrorail.com/pages/en/present-network |url-status=live }}</ref> serving [[List of Delhi Metro stations|255 stations]]{{efn|name=fn1|Transfer stations are counted more than once. There are 24 transfer stations. If transfer stations are counted only once, the result will be 230 stations. [[Ashok Park Main metro station|Ashok Park Main]] station, where the two diverging branches of [[Green Line (Delhi Metro)|Green Line]] share tracks/platforms, is anyway counted as a single station. Stations of [[Aqua Line (Noida Metro)|Noida Metro]] and [[Rapid Metro Gurgaon|Gurgaon Metro]] are not counted. If stations of [[Aqua Line (Noida Metro)|Noida Metro]] and [[Rapid Metro Gurgaon|Gurgaon Metro]] are counted, the result will be 286 stations<ref name="route map">{{Cite web |title=Route map |url=https://www.delhimetrorail.com/pages/en/network_map |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=www.delhimetrorail.com |archive-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503094904/https://www.delhimetrorail.com/pages/en/network_map |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="present network"/><ref name="introduction">{{Cite web |title=Introduction {{!}} DMRC |url=https://www.delhimetrorail.com/pages/en/introduction |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=www.delhimetrorail.com |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416024331/https://www.delhimetrorail.com/pages/en/introduction |url-status=live }}</ref>}} with a total length of {{convert|348.12|km|abbr=}}.{{efn|name=fn2|The total length of Delhi Metro is {{convert|348.12|km}}. The operations & maintenance of [[Rapid Metro Gurgaon|Gurgaon Metro]] and [[Noida Metro]] is currently undertaken by [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation|DMRC]], so the total length operated by DMRC is {{convert|390.14|km}}.<ref name="route map"/><ref name="introduction"/>}} The system has a mix of underground, at-grade, and elevated stations using both [[Broad-gauge railway|broad-gauge]] and [[Standard-gauge railway|standard-gauge]]. All stations have escalators, lifts, and tactile tiles to guide the visually impaired from station entrances to trains. There are 18 designated parking sites at the Metro stations. In March 2010, [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation|DMRC]] partnered with Google India (through Google Transit) to provide train schedule and route information to mobile devices with Google Maps. It has a combination of elevated, at-grade, and underground lines, and uses both broad gauge and standard gauge rolling stock. Four types of rolling stock are used: Mitsubishi–ROTEM Broad gauge, Bombardier MOVIA, Mitsubishi–ROTEM Standard gauge, and CAF Beasain Standard gauge. The Phase-I of Delhi Metro was built for US$2.3 billion and the Phase-II was expected to cost an additional {{INRConvert|216|b}}.<ref name="Bloomberg.com: Opinion" /> Phase-II has a total length of {{Convert|128|km|abbr=on}} and was completed by 2010.<ref name="Economictimes.indiatimes.com" /> [[Delhi Metro]] completed 10 years of operation on 25 December 2012. It carries millions of passengers every day.<ref name="10 years of Delhi Metro" />

Although the Delhi Metro was built and is operated by the [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited]] (DMRC), a state-owned company with equal equity participation of the governments of India and Delhi, it is under the administrative control of the Indian government's [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Ministry of Urban Development]]. Besides the construction and operation of the Delhi Metro, DMRC is also involved in the planning and implementation of metro rail, monorail, and high-speed rail projects in India and providing consultancy services to other metro projects in the country as well as abroad.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Ethnic groups in Delhi}}
[[File:NCT of Delhi population pyramid in 2011.svg|thumb|NCT of Delhi population pyramid in 2011]]

{{Historical population
| source = [[Government of India]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Census Tables |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/census-tables |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=6 January 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302113812/https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/census-tables |url-status=live }}</ref>
|1901 | 214115
|1911 | 237944
|1921 | 304420
|1931 | 373789
|1941 | 578813
|1951 | 1119870
|1961 | 2061758
|1971 | 3287883
|1981 | 5099539
|1991 | 7423193
|2001 | 9879172
|2011 | 11034555
|align = right
}}

=== Population growth ===
According to the [[2011 census of India]], the population of the NCT of Delhi is 16,753,235.<ref name="censusindia1">{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_delhi.html |title=Census of India: Provisional Population Totals for Census 2011: NCT of Delhi |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=2 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412141059/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_data_products_delhi.html |archive-date=12 April 2011 }}</ref> The corresponding population density was 11,297 persons per km2 with a sex ratio of 866 women per 1000 men, and a literacy rate of 86.34%. In 2004, the birth rate, death rate and infant mortality rate per 1000 population were 20.03, 5.59 and 13.08, respectively.<ref name="ecosurv3">{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/3.pdf|title=Chapter 3: Demographic Profile|access-date=21 December 2006|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–2006|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|pages=17–31|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614203710/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/3.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref> In 2001, the population of Delhi increased by 285,000 as a result of migration and by 215,000 as a result of natural population growth,<ref name="ecosurv3" /> which made Delhi one of the fastest-growing cities in the world. [[Dwarka, Delhi|Dwarka Sub City]], Asia's largest planned residential area, is located within the National Capital Territory of Delhi.<ref>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/Can-t-afford-to-fall-ill-in-Dwarka/Article1-432697.aspx Can't afford to fall ill in Dwarka] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027190146/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/Can-t-afford-to-fall-ill-in-Dwarka/Article1-432697.aspx |date=27 October 2014 }}, ''Hindustan Times'', 16 July 2009</ref>

[[Urban sprawl|Urban expansion]] has resulted in Delhi's urban area now being considered as extending beyond the NCT boundaries to incorporate the towns and cities of neighbouring states including [[Faridabad]] and [[Gurgaon]] in [[Haryana]], and [[Ghaziabad]] and [[Noida]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]], the total population of which is estimated by the United Nations to be over 28 million. According to the UN this makes Delhi urban area the world's [[List of urban areas by population|second-largest]] urban area after Tokyo,<ref name="UNcities2018" /> although [[Demographia]] declares the [[Jakarta]] urban area to be the second-largest.<ref name="Demographia">{{cite book|author1=Demographia|title=Demographia World Urban Areas|year=2016|edition=12th|url=https://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|access-date=17 November 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805030244/https://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-date=5 August 2011}}</ref>

The 2011 census provided two figures for urban area population: 16,314,838 within the NCT boundary,<ref name="Delhiuapop2011">{{cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/india2/Million_Plus_UAs_Cities_2011.pdf|title=Urban agglomerations/cities having population 1 million and above|year=2011|work=Provisional population totals, census of India 2011|publisher=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|access-date=26 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111215163132/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/india2/Million_Plus_UAs_Cities_2011.pdf|archive-date=15 December 2011}}</ref> and 21,753,486 for the ''Extended Urban Area''.<ref name="pibmumbai1">{{cite web|url=https://pibmumbai.gov.in/scripts/detail.asp?releaseId=E2011IS3|title=India Stats : Million plus cities in India as per Census 2011|work=pibmumbai.gov.in|access-date=7 September 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630112755/https://pibmumbai.gov.in/scripts/detail.asp?releaseId=E2011IS3|archive-date=30 June 2015}}</ref> The 2021 regional plan released by the [[Government of India]] renamed the ''Extended Urban Area'' from ''Delhi Metropolitan Area (DMA)'' as defined by the 2001 plan,<ref name="DMA">{{cite web|title=Evaluation Study of DMA Towns in National Capital Region|url=https://tcpomud.gov.in/divisions/mutp/dma/final_dma_report.pdf|website=Town and Country Planning Organisation|publisher=[[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Ministry of Urban Development]]|access-date=19 March 2017|date=September 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320052724/https://tcpomud.gov.in/divisions/mutp/dma/final_dma_report.pdf|archive-date=20 March 2017}}</ref> to ''[[National Capital Region (India)#Central National Capital Region|Central National Capital Region]] (CNCR)''.<ref name="DMA" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Regional Plan 2021, Chapter 4, Demographic Profile and Settlement Pattern|url=https://ncrpb.nic.in/pdf_files/Regional%20Plan%202021%20chapter/08_CH04%20demographic%20profile%20&%20settlement%20pattern.pdf|publisher=NCR Planning Board|access-date=19 March 2017|page=28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320055054/https://ncrpb.nic.in/pdf_files/Regional%20Plan%202021%20chapter/08_CH04%20demographic%20profile%20%26%20settlement%20pattern.pdf|archive-date=20 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Slums ===
As of 2012, around 49% of the population of Delhi lives in slums and unauthorised colonies without any civic amenities.<ref>{{cite web|author=Dhananjay Mahapatra|date=4 October 2012|title='Half of Delhi's population lives in slums'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Half-of-Delhis-population-lives-in-slums/articleshow/16664224.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414235944/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Half-of-Delhis-population-lives-in-slums/articleshow/16664224.cms|archive-date=14 April 2016|access-date=1 January 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The majority of these slums have inadequate provisions to the basic facilities and according to a DUSIB report, almost 22% of people engage in [[open defecation]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mayura Janwalkar|date=20 April 2015|title=Delhi: Slum shame|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/delhi-slum-shame/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112235218/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/delhi-slum-shame/|archive-date=12 January 2016|access-date=1 January 2016|work=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref>

=== Religions ===
[[Hinduism]] is Delhi's predominant religious faith, with 81.68% of Delhi's population, followed by [[Islam]] (12.86%), [[Sikhism]] (3.40%), [[Jainism]] (0.99%), Christianity (0.87%), and [[Buddhism]] (0.11%).<ref name="Religion PCA 2011">{{cite web|title=Religion PCA|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_pca/RL-0700.xlsx|website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Government of India]]|access-date=8 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160707231710/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Religion_pca/RL-0700.xlsx|archive-date=7 July 2016}}</ref> Other minority religions include [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼísm]] and Judaism.<ref name=Lonelyplanet>{{cite web|publisher= Census of India 2001| url= https://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070812011525/https://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/index.html| archive-date=12 August 2007|title=Data on Religion |page= 1|access-date=16 May 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi Hindu Muslim Population |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/religion/state/7-delhi.html |access-date=2025-03-22 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
| caption = Languages in NCT of Delhi (2011)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10201/download/13313/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-0700.XLSX |title=C-16: Population by mother tongue |website=Office Of The Registrar General & Census Commissioner India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809135008/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10201/download/13313/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-0700.XLSX |access-date=25 November 2023|archive-date=9 August 2022 }}</ref>
| label1 = [[Hindi]]
| value1 = 81.27
| color1 = orange
| label2 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| value2 = 5.20
| color2 = pink
| label3 = [[Urdu]]
| value3 = 5.17
| color3 = green
| label4 = [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]
| value4 = 1.35
| color4 = gold
| label5 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| value5 = 1.29
| color5 = orchid
| label6 = [[Maithili language|Maithili]]
| value6 = 0.73
| color6 = yellow
| label7 = [[Haryanvi language|Haryanvi]]
| value7 = 0.67
| color7 = darkred
| label8 = [[Tamil Language|Tamil]]
| value8 = 0.53
| color8 = royalblue
| label9 = [[Malayalam]]
| value9 = 0.49
| color9 = cornflowerblue
| label10 = [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]
| value10 = 0.46
| color10 = firebrick
| label11 = [[Garhwali language|Garhwali]]
| value11 = 0.43
| color11 = teal
| thumb = right
| value12 = 0.24
| value13 = 0.23
| value14 = 0.22
| value15 = 0.19
| value16 = 0.19
| value17 = 0.17
| value18 = 0.16
| value19 = 0.11
| value20 = 0.09
| value21 = 0.08
| value22 = 0.07
| value23 = 0.06
| value24 = 0.05
| color24 = purple
| color23 = darkslateblue
| color22 = maroon
| color21 = indianred
| color20 = coral
| color19 = lightgreen
| color18 = steelblue
| color17 = magenta
| color16 = turquoise
| color15 = limegreen
| color14 = Darkorange
| color13 = saddlebrown
| color12 = skyblue
| label12 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| label13 = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| label15 = [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]]
| label16 = [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]
| label17 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| label14 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
| label18 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| label19 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
| label20 = [[Mahasu Pahari|Pahari]]
| label21 = [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]]
| label22 = [[Marwari language|Marwari]]
| label24 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| label23 = [[Kannada]]
| color25 = grey
| label25 = Others
| value25 = 0.48
}}

=== Languages ===
According to the 50th report of the commissioner for linguistic minorities in India, which was submitted in 2014, [[Hindi]] is Delhi's most spoken language, with 80.94% speakers, followed by [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (7.14%), [[Urdu]] (6.31%) and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (1.50%). 4.11% speak other languages.<ref name="langminor">{{cite web|title=50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India|url=https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf|website=nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=8 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf|archive-date=8 July 2016|page=9}}</ref> Hindi is also the official language of Delhi while Urdu and Punjabi have been declared as additional official languages.<ref name="langminor" />

== Culture ==
{{See also|Culture of India}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| align = left
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Traditional pottery in Dilli Haat.jpg
| caption1 = Traditional pottery on display in ''[[Dilli Haat]]''
| image2 = Pragati Maidan, inside hall 18 (3).JPG
| caption2 = Pragati Maidan hosts the ''World Book Fair'' biennially.
}}

Delhi's culture has been influenced by its lengthy history and historic association as the capital of India. Although a strong [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] Influence can be seen in [[Punjabi language|language]], [[Punjabi clothing|dress]] and [[Punjabi cuisine|cuisine]] brought by the large number of refugees who came following the [[Partition of India|partition in 1947]] the recent migration from other parts of India has made it a [[melting pot]]. This is exemplified by many significant monuments in the city. The [[Archaeological Survey of India]] recognises 1,200 heritage buildings<ref>{{cite news |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Promote-lesser-known-monuments-of-Delhi/articleshow/4194014.cms |title=Promote lesser-known monuments of Delhi'-Delhi-Cities |date=27 February 2009 |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811134804/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-02-27/delhi/27996908_1_monuments-heritage-buildings-kashmiri-gate |archive-date=11 August 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref> and 175 monuments as national heritage sites.<ref name=asimonuments>{{cite web
|url = https://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_delhi.asp
|title = Delhi Circle (NCT of Delhi)
|access-date = 27 December 2006
|work = List of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains of National Importance
|publisher = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070514061700/https://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_delhi.asp
|archive-date = 14 May 2007}}</ref>

In the Old City, the Mughals and the Turkic rulers constructed several architecturally significant buildings, such as the [[Jama Masjid, Delhi|Jama Masjid]]—India's largest mosque<ref name="Jama">{{cite web| publisher=Terra Galleria| url=https://www.terragalleria.com/asia/india/delhi/picture.indi38660.html| title=Jama Masjid, India's largest mosque| access-date=13 March 2009| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304032037/https://www.terragalleria.com/asia/india/delhi/picture.indi38660.html| archive-date=4 March 2009}}</ref> built in 1656<ref>{{cite web | publisher= India.gov | url= https://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/culture_heritage.php?id=46 | title= Know India | access-date= 22 January 2010 | url-status=live | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150904034839/https://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/culture_heritage.php?id=46 | archive-date= 4 September 2015}}</ref> and the [[Red Fort]]. Three [[World Heritage Site]]s—the Red Fort, [[Qutab Minar|Qutub Minar]] and [[Humayun's Tomb]]—are located in Delhi.<ref name="whsite">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/in|title=Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List: India|access-date=13 January 2007|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502200152/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/in/|archive-date=2 May 2012}}</ref> Other monuments include the [[India Gate]], the [[Yantra Mandir (Delhi)|Jantar Mantar]]—an 18th-century astronomical observatory—and the [[Purana Qila]]—a 16th-century fortress. The [[Laxminarayan Temple]], [[Akshardham (Delhi)|Akshardham temple]], [[Gurudwara Bangla Sahib]], the [[Baháʼí Faith]]'s [[Lotus Temple]] and the [[ISKCON Temple Delhi|ISKCON temple]] are examples of modern architecture. [[Raj Ghat and associated memorials]] houses memorials of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and other notable personalities. New Delhi houses several government buildings and official residences reminiscent of British colonial architecture, including the Rashtrapati Bhavan, [[Secretariat Building, New Delhi|the Secretariat]], [[Rajpath]], the Parliament of India and [[Vijay Chowk]]. [[Tomb of Safdar Jang|Safdarjung's Tomb]] is an example of the [[Mughal gardens]] style. Some regal ''havelis'' (palatial residences) are in the Old City.<ref name="jacob">{{cite journal |last = Jacob |first = Satish |date = July 2002 |title = Wither, the walled city |journal = Seminar (Web Edition) |issue = 515 |url = https://www.india-seminar.com/2002/515/515%20satish%20jacob.htm |access-date = 19 January 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212133015/https://www.india-seminar.com/2002/515/515%20satish%20jacob.htm |archive-date = 12 December 2006}}</ref> [[Lotus Temple]] is a Baháʼí House of Worship completed in 1986. Notable for its flowerlike shape, it serves as the Mother Temple of the Indian subcontinent and has become a prominent attraction in the city. The [[National Museum, New Delhi|National Museum]] and [[National Gallery of Modern Art]] are some of the largest museums in the country. Other museums in Delhi include the [[National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi|National Museum of Natural History]], [[National Rail Museum, New Delhi|National Rail Museum]] and [[National Philatelic Museum, New Delhi|National Philatelic Museum]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

[[Chandni Chowk]], a 17th-century market, is one of the most popular shopping areas in Delhi for jewellery and ''Zari'' [[sari]]s.<ref name=Chandni>{{cite web| work=Delhi Tours| publisher=About Palace on Wheels| url=https://www.aboutpalaceonwheels.com/palace-on-wheels-destinations/shopping-in-delhi.html| title=Shopping in Delhi| access-date=4 January 2007| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426065550/https://www.aboutpalaceonwheels.com/palace-on-wheels-destinations/shopping-in-delhi.html| archive-date=26 April 2012}}</ref> Delhi's arts and crafts include, ''[[Zardozi]]''<ref>{{cite book|title=The Textile Book|via=Google Books|page=99|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1VR6wQTNAsC&q=Zardosi+work+in+delhi&pg=PA99|isbn=978-1-85973-512-1|date=1 May 2002|last1=Gale|first1=Colin|last2=Lahori|first2=Lajwanti|last3=Kaur|first3=Jasbir|publisher=Berg Publishers |access-date=2 October 2020|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413204006/https://books.google.com/books?id=K1VR6wQTNAsC&q=Zardosi+work+in+delhi&pg=PA99|url-status=live}}</ref>—an embroidery done with gold thread<ref>{{cite news|title=Ancient and modern metal craft works attract visitors|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Ancient-and-modern-metal-craft-works-attract-visitors/articleshow/14034680.cms|access-date=18 June 2012|date=12 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127185543/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-12/allahabad/32194194_1_metal-statues-jewellery|archive-date=27 January 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url-status=live}}</ref>—and ''[[Meenakari]]''<ref>{{cite web|title=Delhi Handicrafts |url=https://www.indian-handicrafts-suppliers.com/traditional-handicrafts/delhi-handicrafts.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601175713/https://www.indian-handicrafts-suppliers.com/traditional-handicrafts/delhi-handicrafts.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 June 2007 |publisher=Indian Handicrafts suppliars |access-date=18 June 2012 }}</ref>—the art of enamelling.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Birla Mandir Delhi.jpg|alt=The Birla temple in Delhi with its towers.|The Hindu [[Laxminarayan Temple|Laxminarayan Mandir]] was inaugurated by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] in 1933.
File:Jama Masjid - In the Noon.jpg|The [[Jama Masjid, Delhi|Jama Masjid]] was built by the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] between 1650 and 1656.
File:Interior-view-Gurudwara-Sis-Ganj-Sahib-Night-View.jpg|The prayer hall of Sikh [[Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib]] in [[Chandni Chowk]], [[Old Delhi]] which dates to 1783
</gallery>

=== Festivals ===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Chhath Puja Sandya Aragh-005.jpg
| caption1 = More than a quarter of the immigrants in Delhi are from [[Bihar]] and neighbouring states. [[Chhath]], a festival of Bihar is now popular in Delhi.<ref name=kapur-busstand-chhath>{{cite news|last=Kapur|first=Manavi|title=Patna in Delhi|work=Business Standard|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/patna-in-delhi-113112900834_1.html|date=30 November 2013|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028170253/https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/patna-in-delhi-113112900834_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| image2 = Basant Celebrations at Dargah.jpg
| caption2 = On [[Basant Panchmi]] eve, [[qawwali]] singers wearing yellow headbands gather at the [[dargah]] of [[Sufism|Sufi]] saint [[Nizamuddin Auliya]] to sing verses from [[Amir Khusrau]].<ref name=tiwari-wire-auliya>{{citation|last=Tiwari|first=Bharat S.|title=At Nizamuddin Auliya's Dargah, Basant is the Colour of Harmony|work=The Wire|url=https://thewire.in/culture/nizamuddin-auliyas-dargah-basant-panchami|date=12 February 2020|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027183536/https://thewire.in/culture/nizamuddin-auliyas-dargah-basant-panchami|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

Delhi's association and geographic proximity to the capital, New Delhi, has amplified the importance of national events and holidays like [[Republic Day (India)|Republic Day]], [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] (15 August) and ''[[Gandhi Jayanti]]''. On Independence Day, the Prime Minister addresses the nation from the Red Fort. The [[Delhi Republic Day parade|Republic Day Parade]] is a large cultural and military parade showcasing India's cultural diversity and military strength.<ref name=repmil>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2002/01/28/stories/2002012800060800.htm|title=R-Day parade, an anachronism?|access-date=13 January 2007|last=Ray Choudhury|first=Ray Choudhury|date=28 January 2002|newspaper=Business Line|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118160454/https://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2002/01/28/stories/2002012800060800.htm|archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref><ref name=repcul>{{cite web
|url=https://www.india-tourism.org/delhi-travel/delhi-fairs-festivals.html |url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319223442/https://www.india-tourism.org/delhi-travel/delhi-fairs-festivals.html
|archive-date=19 March 2007
|title=Fairs & Festivals of Delhi|access-date=13 January 2007|work=Delhi Travel|publisher=India Tourism.org}}</ref> Over the centuries, Delhi has become known for its composite culture, and a festival that symbolises this is the ''[[Phool Walon Ki Sair]]'', which takes place in September. Flowers and ''pankhe''—fans embroidered with flowers—are offered to the shrine of the 13th-century Sufi saint [[Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki]] and the [[Yogmaya Temple]], both situated in [[Mehrauli]].<ref>''Delhi: a portrait'', by [[Khushwant Singh]], [[Raghu Rai]], Published by [[Delhi Tourism and Transportation Development Corporation|Delhi Tourism Development Corp.]], 1983. {{ISBN|978-0-19-561437-4}}. p. 15.</ref>

Religious festivals include ''[[Diwali]]'' (the festival of lights), ''[[Mahavir Jayanti]]'', [[Guru Nanak's Birthday]], ''[[Raksha Bandhan]]'', ''[[Durga Puja]]'', ''[[Holi]]'', ''[[Lohri]]'', ''[[Chauth]]'', ''[[Krishna Janmastami]]'', ''[[Maha Shivratri]]'', [[Eid ul-Fitr]], ''[[Day of Ashura|Moharram]]'' and ''[[Buddha Jayanti]]''.<ref name=repcul /> The [[Qutub Festival]] is a cultural event during which performances of musicians and dancers from all over India are showcased at night, with the Qutub Minar as a backdrop.<ref name=qutubfest>{{cite news |first=Madhur |last=Tankha |title=It's Sufi and rock at Qutub Fest |url=https://www.hindu.com/2005/12/15/stories/2005121503090200.htm |date=15 December 2005 |access-date=13 January 2007 |location=Chennai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513084038/https://www.hindu.com/2005/12/15/stories/2005121503090200.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=13 May 2006 }}</ref> Other events such as Kite Flying Festival, [[International Mango Festival, Delhi|International Mango Festival]] and ''[[Vasant Panchami]]'' (the Spring Festival) are held every year in Delhi. The [[Auto Expo]], Asia's largest auto show,<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2008/01/09/stories/2008010953071500.htm |title=Front Page: Asia's largest auto carnival begins in Delhi tomorrow |date=9 January 2008 |access-date=3 November 2008 |location=Chennai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117072559/https://www.hindu.com/2008/01/09/stories/2008010953071500.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=17 January 2012 }}</ref> is held in Delhi biennially. The [[New Delhi World Book Fair]], held biennially at the [[Pragati Maidan]], is the second-largest exhibition of books in the world.<ref name="indiatimes1">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-Metro-records-10-rise-in-commuters/articleshow/3185626.cms |title=Delhi Metro records 10% rise in commuters|date=1 July 2008 |access-date=3 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508042058/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-01/delhi/27921191_1_ridership-delhi-metro-shahdara-dilshad-garden |archive-date=8 May 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref> Delhi is often regarded as the "Book Capital" of India because of high readership.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=313090 |title=Sunil Sethi: Why Delhi is India's Book Capital |work=Business Standard |author=Sunil Sethi / New Delhi 9 February 2008 |access-date=3 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101102116/https://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=313090 |archive-date=1 January 2009 }}</ref> [[India International Trade Fair]] (IITF), organised by [[India Trade Promotion Organisation|ITPO]] is the biggest cultural and shopping fair of Delhi which takes place in November each year and is visited by more than 1.5 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iitf.in/res/pdf/report-of-iitf-2014.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206103109/https://iitf.in/res/pdf/report-of-iitf-2014.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date= 6 February 2015 |title=Report of IITF 2014 }}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Indian cuisine}}

[[File:Karim's Hotel, Delhi(4).jpg|thumb|left|Kitchen, [[Karim's]], Old Delhi, a historic [[restaurant]], established 1913<ref>{{cite book |title=DK Eyewitness Top 10 Travel Guide: Delhi |page=65 |year=2012 |publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]] |isbn=9781409387008 }}</ref>]]
As India's national capital and centuries old [[Mughal empire|Mughal]] capital, Delhi influenced the food habits of its residents and is where [[Mughlai cuisine]] originated. Along with Indian cuisine, a variety of international cuisines are popular among the residents.<ref name="Narayan">{{cite book|title=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCX1UrCinO4C|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|pages=14–17|year=2006|first=M. R. Narayan|last=Swamy|isbn=978-981-232-996-7|access-date=23 June 2012|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413204002/https://books.google.com/books?id=VCX1UrCinO4C|url-status=live}}</ref> This variety of cuisines created a unique style of cooking which became popular throughout the world, with dishes such as ''[[Kebab]]'', ''[[biryani]]'', ''[[tandoor]]i''. The city's classic dishes include [[butter chicken]], ''[[dal makhani]]'', ''[[shahi paneer]]'', ''[[aloo chaat]]'', ''[[chaat]]'', ''[[dahi bhalla]]'', ''[[kachori]]'', ''[[Panipuri|gol gappe]]'', ''[[samosa]]'', ''[[chole bhature]]'', ''chole kulche'', ''[[gulab jamun]]'', ''[[jalebi]]'' and ''[[lassi]]''.<ref name="Narayan" /><ref name="commonwealth">{{cite web|title=Commonwealth games guide to Delhi|url=https://www.delhitourism.gov.in/delhitourism/pdf/Book1-complete.pdf|publisher=Delhi Tourism and Transportation Development Corporation Ltd|year=2010|first=Chetananand|last=Singh|access-date=23 June 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510032252/https://www.delhitourism.gov.in/delhitourism/pdf/Book1-complete.pdf|archive-date=10 May 2012}}</ref>{{rp|40–50, 189–196}}

The fast living habits of Delhi's people has motivated the growth of [[street food]] outlets.<ref name="commonwealth" />{{rp|41}} A trend of dining at local ''[[dhaba]]s'' is popular among the residents. High-profile restaurants have gained popularity in recent years, among the popular restaurants are the Karim Hotel, the Punjab Grill and Bukhara.<ref name="Telegraph">{{cite news|title=Delhi, India: hotels, restaurants and transport|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/citybreaks/8362383/Delhi-India-hotels-restaurants-and-transport.html|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|first=Fiona|last=Duncan|date=6 March 2011|access-date=23 June 2012|location=London|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314143015/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/citybreaks/8362383/Delhi-India-hotels-restaurants-and-transport.html|archive-date=14 March 2012}}</ref> The ''[[Gali Paranthe Wali]]'' (the street of fried bread) is a street in Chandni Chowk particularly for food eateries since the 1870s. Almost the entire street is occupied by fast food stalls or [[hawker (trade)|street vendors]]. Other Indian cuisines are also available in this area even though the street specialises in north Indian food.<ref name="commonwealth" />{{rp|40–50}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra|url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetraja00brow|url-access=limited|publisher=Lonely Planet|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetraja00brow/page/n7 20]–31|year=2008|first1=Lindsay|last1=Brown|first2=Amelia|last2=Thomas|location=Footscray, Vic.|isbn=978-1-74104-690-8|edition=second}}</ref>

== Education ==
{{Main|Education in Delhi|List of schools in Delhi}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Lady Hardinge Medical College and Hospital, Delhi; pharmacy. Wellcome V0029217.jpg
| caption1 = [[Lady Hardinge Medical College]] pharmacy, 1921
| image2 = IP COLLEGE FOR WOMEN.jpg
| caption2 = [[Indraprastha College for Women]], established in 1924
| image3 = Mohibul Hasan House, Faculty of Humanities and Languages, JMI.jpg
| caption3 = [[Jamia Millia Islamia]] est. 1920 by [[M. A. Ansari]] and [[Zakir Husain]]
| image4 = Delhiuni.jpg
| caption4 = [[University of Delhi]] was founded in 1922. Sir [[Maurice Gwyer]] served as its first [[vice-chancellor]].
| image5 = Anglo Arabic School's Hostel earlier known as Ghaziuddin Khan Madrasa.jpg
| caption5 = [[Dormitory]] of [[Anglo Arabic Senior Secondary School]], founded 1696, reorganised 1828
| image6 = Delhi Government School Student defining Happiness in Happiness Class.jpg
| caption6 = A Delhi government school student writing down the names of fruits and vegetables
| align =
| direction =
| alt1 =
}}

Private schools in Delhi—which use either English or Hindi as the language of instruction—are affiliated to one of three administering bodies, the [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations]] (CISCE), the [[Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE)<ref>{{cite web|title=Schools in Delhi |url=https://www.onlineschooladmissions.com/Delhi-schools-directory.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921165659/https://www.onlineschooladmissions.com/Delhi-schools-directory.html |archive-date=21 September 2012 }}</ref> or the [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS). In 2004–05, approximately 1,529,000 students were enrolled in primary schools, 822,000 in middle schools and 669,000 in secondary schools across Delhi.<ref name=ecosurv15 /> Female students represented 49% of the total enrolment. The same year, the Delhi government spent between 1.58% and 1.95% of its gross state domestic product on education.<ref name=ecosurv15 />

[[School#India|Schools]] and higher educational institutions in Delhi are administered either by the [[Delhi Directorate of Education|Directorate of Education]], the NCT government or private organisations. In 2006, Delhi had 165 colleges, five medical colleges and eight engineering colleges,<ref name=ecosurv15>{{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/15.pdf|title=Chapter 15: Education|access-date=21 December 2006|work=Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–06|publisher=Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi|pages=173–187|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614203748/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/Chpt/15.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref> seven major universities and nine [[Deemed University|deemed universities]].<ref name=ecosurv15 />

The premier management colleges of Delhi such as [[Faculty of Management Studies (Delhi)]] and [[Indian Institute of Foreign Trade]] rank the best in India. [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences Delhi]] is a premier medical school for treatment and research. [[National Law University, Delhi]] is a prominent law school and is affiliated with the [[Bar Council of India]]. The [[Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi]] situated in [[Hauz Khas]] is a premier engineering college of India and ranks as one of the top institutes in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=8 Indian universities feature in THE Asia Rankings top 100 list — and it's not just IITs|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/education/news/the-asia-rankings-2020-only-8-indian-universities-ranked-in-top-100/articleshow/76172447.cms|access-date=4 October 2020|website=Business Insider|archive-date=11 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011235811/https://www.businessinsider.in/education/news/the-asia-rankings-2020-only-8-indian-universities-ranked-in-top-100/articleshow/76172447.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=QS Asia Ranking 2019: 19 Indian Institutes In Top 200; IIT Bombay, IIT Delhi, IIT Kharagpur Improve Ranking|url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/qs-asia-ranking-2019-19-indian-institutes-in-top-200-iit-bombay-iit-delhi-iit-kharagpur-improve-rank-1937601|access-date=4 October 2020|website=NDTV.com|language=en|archive-date=9 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009010811/https://www.ndtv.com/education/qs-asia-ranking-2019-19-indian-institutes-in-top-200-iit-bombay-iit-delhi-iit-kharagpur-improve-rank-1937601|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Delhi Technological University]] (formerly Delhi College of Engineering), [[Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women]] (formerly Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology), [[Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology]], [[Netaji Subhas University of Technology]] (formerly Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology), [[Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University]] and [[National Law University]], Delhi are the only state universities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Home {{!}} NSIT |url=https://www.nsit.ac.in/ |website=Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology |access-date=1 February 2021 |archive-date=12 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012174351/https://coe.nsit.ac.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ugc.ac.in/stateuniversitylist.aspx?id=5&Unitype=2 |title=List of State Universities |access-date=11 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520070301/https://www.ugc.ac.in/stateuniversitylist.aspx?id=5&Unitype=2 |archive-date=20 May 2013 }}</ref> [[University of Delhi]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru University]] and [[Jamia Millia Islamia]] are the [[Central University (India)|central universities]], and [[Indira Gandhi National Open University]] is for [[distance education]].<ref name=Act>{{cite web|title=The Indira Gandhi National Open University Act, 198 |url=https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/IGNOUACT-1985.pdf |publisher=Government of India |access-date=17 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417134753/https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/IGNOUACT-1985.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2012 }}</ref> {{As of|2008}}, about 16% of all Delhi residents possessed at least a college graduate degree.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=325739 |title=outlookindia.com {{pipe}} wired |publisher=Outlookindia.com |access-date=3 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051104152936/https://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=325739 |archive-date= 4 November 2005 }}</ref>

According to the Directorate of Education and [[Government of Delhi|GNCTD]] the following languages are taught in schools in Delhi under the [[three-language formula]]:<ref>{{cite web |title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India |url=https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=15 February 2018 |website=nclm.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]] |page=18}}</ref>
* First language: [[Hindi]], [[Urdu]], [[English language|English]]
* Second language: [[English language|English]]
* Third language: [[Urdu]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Tamil Nadu|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], [[Kannada]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic]]

== Media ==
{{See also|Media of India}}
[[File:Pitampura TV Tower, Delhi, India.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pitampura TV Tower]] broadcasts to Delhi.|alt=Pitampura TV Tower with background of blue sky]]
As the capital of India, Delhi is the focus of political reportage, including regular television broadcasts of Parliament sessions. Many national media agencies, including the state-owned [[Press Trust of India]], Media Trust of India and [[Doordarshan]], are based in the city. Television programming includes two free terrestrial television channels offered by Doordarshan, and several Hindi, English, and regional-language [[cable television|cable]] channels offered by [[multi system operator]]s. [[Direct broadcast satellite|Satellite television]] has yet to gain a large number of subscribers in the city.<ref name=dthrediff>{{cite web
|url=https://www.rediff.com///money/2006/sep/05iycu.htm
|title=What is CAS? What is DTH?
|access-date=8 January 2007
|date=5 September 2006
|work=rediff news: Business
|publisher=[[Rediff.com]]
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531143055/https://www.rediff.com//news/apr/28bihar.htm
|archive-date=31 May 2010
}}</ref>

Print journalism remains a popular news medium in Delhi. The city's Hindi newspapers include ''[[Navbharat Times]]'', ''[[Hindustan Dainik]]'', ''[[Punjab Kesari]]'', ''Pavitra Bharat'', ''[[Dainik Jagran]]'', ''[[Dainik Bhaskar]]'', ''[[Amar Ujala]]'' and ''Dainik Desbandhu''. Among the English language newspapers, the ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', with a daily circulation of over a million copies, is the single largest daily.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biographical Data of Vir Sanghvi|url=https://www.virsanghvi.com/about-vir.aspx|access-date=17 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513021053/https://virsanghvi.com/about-vir.aspx|archive-date=13 May 2012}}</ref> Other major English newspapers include ''[[The Times of India]]'', ''[[The Hindu]]'', ''[[The Indian Express]]'', ''[[Business Standard]]'', ''[[The Pioneer (daily)|The Pioneer]]'', ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]'', and ''[[The Asian Age]]''. Regional language newspapers include the [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] daily ''[[Malayala Manorama]]'' and the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] dailies ''[[Dinamalar]]'' and ''[[Dinakaran]]''. [[Qaumi Duniya Daily]] was a local Urdu newspaper, which has since moved online.

Radio is a less popular mass medium in Delhi, although [[Frequency modulation|FM]] radio has gained popularity<ref name=radiomass>{{cite web|url=https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/india_sex_selection/Chapter4.pdf|title=Chapter4: Towards a Mass Media Campaign: Analysing the relationship between target audiences and mass media|access-date=8 January 2007|last=Naqvi|first=Farah|date=14 November 2006|work=Images and icons: Harnessing the Power of Mass Media to Promote Gender Equality and Reduce Practices of Sex Selection|publisher=BBC World Service Trust|pages=26–36|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415125927/https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/india_sex_selection/Chapter4.pdf|archive-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> since the inauguration of several new stations in 2006.<ref name=asiawaves>{{cite web|url=https://www.asiawaves.net/india/delhi-radio.htm|title=Delhi: Radio Stations in Delhi, India|access-date=7 January 2007|date=15 November 2006|work=ASIAWAVES: Radio and TV Broadcasting in South and South-East Asia|publisher=Alan G. Davies|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427155629/https://www.asiawaves.net/india/delhi-radio.htm|archive-date=27 April 2012}}</ref> A number of state-owned and private radio stations broadcast from Delhi.<ref>{{cite web|title=All India Radio |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/radio.php |publisher=Indian government |access-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505053343/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/radio.php |archive-date=5 May 2012 }}</ref><ref name=asiawaves/>

== Sports ==
{{Main|Sport in Delhi|1951 Asian Games|1982 Asian Games|2010 Commonwealth Games}}

{{See also|Culture of India}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| align = left
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Indian athletes at the First Asiad.png|thumb
| caption1 = Indian athletes marching into the [[Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium|National Stadium]] during the opening ceremony of the [[1951 Asian Games]]
| image2 = Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium CWG opening ceremony.jpg
| caption2 = [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]] on the night of the [[2010 Commonwealth Games]] opening ceremony
}}

Delhi hosted the first Asian Games in 1951 from 4 to 11 March. A total of 489 athletes representing 11 Asian [[National Olympic Committees]] participated in 57 events from eight [[Asian Games sports|sports and discipline]]. The Games was the successor of the [[Far Eastern Games]] and the revival of the [[Western Asiatic Games]]. On 13 February 1949, the [[Asian Games Federation]] was formally established in Delhi, with Delhi unanimously announced as the first host city of the [[Asian Games]]. [[Dhyan Chand National Stadium|National Stadium]] was the venue for all events.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ocasia.org/games/107-new-delhi-1951.html|title=OCA » New Delhi 1951|website=ocasia.org|access-date=23 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620010356/https://ocasia.org/games/107-new-delhi-1951.html|archive-date=20 June 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Over 40,000 spectators watched the opening ceremony of the Games in National Stadium.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yANFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4573,1745099&dq=1951+asian+games&hl=en|title=President Inaugurates First Asian Games|work=The India Express|access-date=14 May 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117040350/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yANFAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Z7cMAAAAIBAJ&pg=4573,1745099&dq=1951+asian+games&hl=en|archive-date=17 November 2015|location=Madras|page=5}}</ref>

Delhi hosted the ninth Asian Games for the second time in 1982 from 19 November to 4 December. This was the second time the city has hosted the Asian Games and was also the first Asian Games to be held under the aegis of the [[Olympic Council of Asia]]. A total of 3,411 athletes from 33 [[National Olympic Committee]]s participated in these games, competing in 196 events in 21 sports and 23 disciplines. The [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Delhi)|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]], which has a capacity of 60,000 people, was built purposely for the event and hosted its opening ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ocasia.org/games/99-new-delhi-1982.html|title=OCA » New Delhi 1982|website=ocasia.org|access-date=23 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702203732/https://ocasia.org/games/99-new-delhi-1982.html|archive-date=2 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

Delhi hosted the [[2010 Commonwealth Games|Nineteenth Commonwealth Games]] in 2010, which ran from 3 to 14 October and was the largest sporting event held in India.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/oct/03/commonwealth-games-opening-ceremony-delhi-india |title='India has arrived': spectacular ceremony opens Commonwealth Games |publisher=The Guardian, UK |date= 3 October 2010|access-date=5 October 2010 | location=London | first=Jason | last=Burke| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101006004503/https://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2010/oct/03/commonwealth-games-opening-ceremony-delhi-india| archive-date= 6 October 2010| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/commonwealthgames/8039988/Commonwealth-Games-2010-India-opens-doors-to-the-world-at-opening-ceremony.html |title=Commonwealth Games 2010: India opens doors to the world at opening ceremony |work=The Telegraph|date=3 October 2010|access-date=5 October 2010 | location=London | first=Simon | last=Hart| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101006045221/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/commonwealthgames/8039988/Commonwealth-Games-2010-India-opens-doors-to-the-world-at-opening-ceremony.html| archive-date= 6 October 2010| url-status=live}}</ref> The opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games was held at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]], the main stadium of the event, in New Delhi at 7:00 pm [[Indian Standard Time]] on 3 October 2010.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Biggest-ever-Commonwealth-Games-begins-in-Delhi/articleshow/6678262.cms |title=Biggest ever Commonwealth Games begins in Delhi|date=3 October 2010 |access-date=14 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103150529/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-03/delhi/28248198_1_cheers-and-jeers-commonwealth-games-federation-federation-president-mike-fennell |archive-date=3 November 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live }}</ref> The ceremony featured over 8,000 performers and lasted for two and a half hours.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.oneindia.com/2010/10/03/cwg-8000-artists-to-show-5000-year-old-culture.html |title= CWG: 8,000 artists to show 5,000-year-old culture |publisher= One India News |date = 3 October 2010|access-date= 4 September 2011|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120104153835/https://news.oneindia.in/2010/10/03/cwg-8000-artists-to-show-5000-year-old-culture.html|archive-date = 4 January 2012}}</ref> It is estimated that {{INRConvert|3.5|b}} were spent to produce the ceremony.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/randomaccess/the-cwg-opening-show-reality-rs-350-crore/ |title = The CWG opening show reality: Rs 350 crore |newspaper = The Times of India |date = 5 October 2010|access-date = 4 September 2011|url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110319040638/https://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/randomaccess/entry/the-cwg-opening-show-reality-rs-350-crore |archive-date = 19 March 2011}}</ref> Events took place at 12 competition venues. 20 training venues were used in the Games, including seven venues within [[Delhi University]].<ref name="Non-Competition Venues">{{cite web | title = Non-Competition Venues | publisher=Commonwealth Games Organising Committee | url = https://www.cwgdelhi2010.org/non_competition_venues | access-date =1 October 2010 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100927033237/https://www.cwgdelhi2010.org/non_competition_venues| archive-date= 27 September 2010| url-status=usurped}}</ref> The rugby stadium in Delhi University North Campus hosted rugby games for Commonwealth Games.<ref name="Non-Competition Venues" />

[[Cricket]] and [[Association football|football]] are the most popular sports in Delhi.<ref name="popular">{{cite web |url=https://www.aipsmedia.com/index.php?page=interview&cod=4 |title=Cricket may be included in the 2010 Games |access-date=7 January 2007|last=Camenzuli |first=Charles |work=Interview |publisher=International Sports Press Association |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929074954/https://www.aipsmedia.com/index.php?page=interview&cod=4 |archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> There are several cricket grounds, or ''[[wiktionary:maidan|maidans]]'', located across the city. The [[Arun Jaitley Stadium]] (known commonly as the ''Kotla'') is one of the oldest cricket grounds in India and is a venue for international cricket matches. It is the home ground of [[Delhi cricket team]] and the [[Indian Premier League]] franchise [[Delhi Capitals]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=All about Delhi Capitals {{!}} DC {{!}} The Official Website of Delhi Capitals |url=https://www.delhicapitals.in/about-us |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Delhi Capitals |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228045335/https://www.delhicapitals.in/about-us |url-status=live }}</ref> The Delhi cricket team represents the city in the Indian domestic tournaments.<ref name="ranji">{{cite web|url=https://content.cricinfo.com/india/content/story/261615.html|title=A Brief History: The Ranji Trophy|access-date=6 January 2007|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421162143/https://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/story/261615.html|archive-date=21 April 2012|date=2 October 2006}}</ref> It has produced several world-class international cricketers such as [[Virender Sehwag]], [[Virat Kohli]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/new-zealand-in-india-2016/virat-kohli-delhis-golden-boy-since-2002/articleshow/51667800.cms|title=Virat Kohli: Delhi's golden boy since 2002|work=The Times of India|date=3 April 2016 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427012859/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/icc-world-t20-2016/Virat-Kohli-Delhis-golden-boy-since-2002/articleshow/51667800.cms|archive-date=27 April 2016}}</ref> [[Gautam Gambhir]], [[Madan Lal]], [[Chetan Chauhan]], [[Shikhar Dhawan]], [[Ishant Sharma]], [[Manoj Prabhakar]] and [[Bishan Singh Bedi]] to name a few. The [[Railways cricket team|Railways]] and [[Services cricket team|Services]] cricket teams of domestic circuit also play their home matches in Delhi, at the [[Karnail Singh Stadium]] and the [[Palam A Stadium]], respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karnail Singh Stadium |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58045.html |access-date=28 February 2023 |website=Cricinfo |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228045334/https://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58045.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Ambedkar Stadium]], a football stadium in Delhi which holds 21,000 people, was the venue for the Indian football team's World Cup qualifier against UAE on 28 July 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ambedkar stadium to host India's World Cup qualifier|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/top-stories/Ambedkar-stadium-to-host-Indias-World-Cup-qualifier/articleshow/9027132.cms|access-date=17 May 2012|date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105200038/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-28/top-stories/29712461_1_dsa-vice-president-nk-bhatia-ambedkar-stadium-football-stadium|archive-date=5 November 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url-status=live}}</ref> Delhi hosted the Nehru Cup in [[2007 Nehru Cup|2007]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Bob Houghton's Boys made India proud with a superb victory over Syria |url=https://www.kolkatafootballs.com/ongc_nehru_2007.html |work=17 May 2012 |publisher=KolkataFootballs.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110183327/https://www.kolkatafootballs.com/ongc_nehru_2007.html |archive-date=10 November 2013 }}</ref> and [[2009 Nehru Cup|2009]], in both of which India defeated [[Syria]] 1–0.<ref>{{cite web|title=India vs Syria Nehru Cup 2009 Football Final Results, Highlights |url=https://www.clbuzz.com/india-vs-syria-nehru-cup-2009-football-final-results-highlights/ |publisher=CLbuzz |access-date=17 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008132055/https://www.clbuzz.com/india-vs-syria-nehru-cup-2009-football-final-results-highlights/ |archive-date=8 October 2011}}</ref> Delhi's professional association football club [[Delhi FC]] competes in [[I-League]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi FC secure maiden I-League berth|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/football/delhi-fc-secure-maiden-i-league-berth/article66898411.ece|access-date=6 July 2023|date=27 May 2023|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=6 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230706030319/https://www.thehindu.com/sport/football/delhi-fc-secure-maiden-i-league-berth/article66898411.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[Elite Football League of India]], Delhi's first professional [[American football]] franchise, the [[Delhi Defenders]] played its first season in [[Pune]].<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Sean |last=Gregory |url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2011/08/04/they-need-tv-product-why-american-football-is-coming-to-india/ |title='They Need TV Product': Why American Football Is Coming To India |magazine=Time |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125025255/https://newsfeed.time.com/2011/08/04/they-need-tv-product-why-american-football-is-coming-to-india/ |archive-date=25 November 2011 |date=4 August 2011}}</ref> [[Buddh International Circuit]] in Greater Noida, a suburb of Delhi, formerly hosted the [[Formula 1]] [[Indian Grand Prix]].<ref>{{cite news|title=India company says on track for 2011 F1 race|url=https://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-39048520090415?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0&sp=true|date=15 April 2009|work=Reuters|access-date=21 October 2009|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930185547/https://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-39048520090415?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0&sp=true|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== City-based clubs ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Club
!Sport
!League/Championship
!Homeground
!Founded
|-
|[[Dabang Delhi]]
|[[Kabaddi]]
|[[Pro Kabaddi League]]
|[[Thyagaraj Sports Complex]]
|2014
|-
|[[Delhi Dashers]]
|[[Badminton]]
|[[Premier Badminton League]]
|[[Siri Fort Sports Complex]]
|2016
|-
|[[Delhi Defenders]]
|[[American Football]]
|[[Elite Football League of India]]
|Defenders Stadium
|2011
|-
|[[Delhi Hurricanes RFC|Delhi Hurricanes Rugby Football Club]]
|[[Rugby union|Rugby]]
|[[All India & South Asia Rugby Tournament]]
|Vasant Kunj Sports Complex
|2004
|-
|[[Delhi Waveriders]]
|[[Field hockey|Hockey]]
|[[Hockey India League]]
|[[Shivaji Hockey Stadium]]
|2011
|-
|[[Delhi Capitals]]
|[[Cricket]]
|[[Indian Premier League]]
|[[Arun Jaitley Cricket Stadium]]
|2008
|-
| [[Delhi FC]]
| [[Association football|Football]]
| [[I-League]]
| [[Ambedkar Stadium]]
| 1994–present
|-
| [[Delhi SG Pipers]]
| [[Field hockey|Hockey]]
| [[Hockey India League]]
| [[Shivaji Hockey Stadium]]
| 2024
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Delhi metropolitan area]]
* [[List of people from Delhi]]
* [[List of twin towns and sister cities in India]]
* [[Smog tower]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist|40em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web|url=https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/ES2005-06.htm |title=Economic Survey of Delhi 2005–2006 |work=Planning Department. Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215014054/https://delhiplanning.nic.in/Economic%20Survey/ES%202005-06/ES2005-06.htm |access-date=12 February 2007|archive-date=15 February 2016 }}
* {{Cite book|last1 = Dalrymple|given1 = W|year = 2003|edition = 1|title=City of Djinns
| publisher = Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-200100-4}}
* {{Cite book|last1 = Dalrymple|given1 = W|year = 2003|edition = 1|title=Vidhya Society, (2009). Vidhya Society (NGO) is a leading charitable organization of Uttar Pradesh (India) established under society registration act 21–1860 on the special occasion of World Disable Year 2009. Director Mr. Pavan Upadhyay vidhyasociety.com | publisher = Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-200100-4}}
* {{Cite book|last1 = Prager|given1 = D|year = 2013|edition = 1|title=Delirious Delhi
| publisher = Arcade Publishing |isbn=978-1-61145-832-9}}
* {{Cite book|last1 = Brown|given1 = L|year = 2011|edition = 5|title = Lonely Planet Rajasthan, Delhi & Agra|publisher = Lonely Planet Publications|isbn = 978-1-74179-460-1|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781741794601}}
* {{Cite book|last1 = Rowe|given1 = P|surname2= Coster|given2= P|year = 2004|title=Delhi (Great Cities of the World)|publisher= World Almanac Library|isbn = 978-0-8368-5197-7}}
* {{Cite news|title=Metrocity Journal: Delhi's Changing Landscape|author=Four-part series on Delhi|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=2 June 2012|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/05/30/metrocity-journal-delhis-changing-landscape/|access-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709134834/https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2012/05/30/metrocity-journal-delhis-changing-landscape/|archive-date=9 July 2017|url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Delhi}}

* {{Official website|delhi.gov.in}}
* {{GovPubs|Delhi}}
* {{Britannica|156501}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Delhi}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|1942586}}

{{Geographic location
| Centre = Delhi
| North = [[Haryana]]
| East = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| South = [[Haryana]]
| West = [[Haryana]]
}}
{{Navboxes
| title = Articles Related to Delhi
| list =
{{Delhi}}
{{Neighborhoods of Delhi}}
{{Delhi landmarks}}
{{States and union territories of India}}
{{State and Union Territory capitals of India}}
{{Million-plus cities in India}}
{{Commonwealth Games Host Cities}}
{{Proposed states and territories of India}}
{{Capital districts and territories}}
{{Megacities}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Delhi| ]]
[[Category:6th-century BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:Capital districts and territories]]
[[Category:Capital cities in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in India by state or union territory]]
[[Category:Indian union territory capitals]]
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[[Category:New Delhi]]
[[Category:North India|*]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 6th century BC]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]
[[Category:Proposed states and union territories of India]]
[[Category:Union territories of India]]
[[Category:World Heritage Tentative List for India]]

Bharatpedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh

2026-03-05T01:35:45Z

EmilBarraza: done

{{shortcut|WP:INAP}}
{{WikiProject status|semi-active}}
The purpose of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|this project]] is to improve organisation and standardised look and feel of articles related to the [[India|Indian]] state of [[Andhra Pradesh]], by encouraging collaboration among the contributors.

If you would like to help, please see the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/to do|to-do list]].

==Scope==
The scope of this article fundamentally is loosely defined as all articles and sections relating to [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Almost all of these will be (eventually) categorised under [[:Category:Andhra Pradesh]]

===Goals===
# To produce high quality articles assessed at [[Wikipedia:Good articles|Good Articles level]] or above.
# Creation of a generally standard look and feel for all Andhra Pradesh-related articles.
# To improve Wikipedia coverage of Andhra Pradesh related articles by adding, expanding and improving.

==Hot articles==
{{/Hot articles}}

==Popular pages==
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Popular pages|Popular pages]]: A bot-generated list of pageviews, useful for focused cleanup of frequently viewed articles. (First monthly Bot update was 7 July 2023.‎)

== Active editors (not IP, not-bot,not-AWB etc)==
The links in this section are for Quarry tool. When you visit the tool page, if the data displayed is not latest, please fork the script and run.

===Weekly===
* Top editors of previous week (Monday-Sunday)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://quarry.wmcloud.org/query/73503 |title=Top editors of previous week with atleast 3 edits per week for WikiProject Andhra Pradesh articles|access-date=2023-05-03}} </ref>(Example: [[/active 20230424-20230430]])

===Monthly===
* Top editors of previous month <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://quarry.wmcloud.org/query/73500 |title=Top editors of previous month with atleast 30 edits per month for WikiProject Andhra Pradesh articles|access-date=2023-05-03}} </ref>(Example: [[/active 202304]])
** Active contributors pagewise of previous month.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://quarry.wmcloud.org/query/73501 |title=Top users of previous month pagewise with atleast 5 edits in month for WikiProject Andhra Pradesh articles] |access-date=2023-05-03}} </ref> (Example: [[/active pagewise 202304]])

===Yearly===
* Top editors of previous year <ref>{{Cite web| url=https://quarry.wmcloud.org/query/73502|title=Top human editors of pages for previous year based on talk page category |access-date=2023-04-03}} </ref> (Example: [[/active_in_enwp_2022]])

==Members==
Sign up or update your membership on [[/Signedup members|Signedup members]] page.

==Project context==

===Parentage===
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject India]]
**[[Wikipedia:WikiProject India/States|Indian states]]

===Descendant WikiProjects===
No descendant WikiProjects have been defined.

===Sister WikiProjects===
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Telangana|WikiProject Telangana]]

== Departments ==

=== Commons ===

Some of the Andhra Pradesh articles related to People, Places, Transport, Culture, Tourism do not have pictures to support them. We would like to encourage picture contributions to commons so that the articles will be more comprehensive. Please see the [[commons:Category:Andhra Pradesh|Andhra Pradesh Commons]] for the current collection.

===Assessment===
[[Wikipedia:WikiProject India/Assessment|WikiProject India assessment team]] is not active as of 2023-05-05. Please submit assessment requests by following the process described at [[Wikipedia:Peer review]]. See [[Wikipedia:Peer_review/Tirupati_district/archive1|a sample review]].

== Discussion ==
*[[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh]]
===Article alerts===

*[[/Article alerts|Article alerts]] page refreshed by bot everyday. It is useful to add this page to watchlist.
<div style="height: 500px; overflow:auto; border: 1.5px solid #242424; width: 98%; background: #ecd9bc; padding: 4px; text-align: left;">
{{Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Article alerts/Table}}
</div>

===Cleanup===
* {{WikiProject cleanup list}}

==Project standards==

===Naming conventions===
*[[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (Indic)]]

===Structure===
Refer to
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Indian_states#Sections]] for state articles
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Districts update - 2023]] for district articles, and [[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Indian_districts#Sections]] for additional information.
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Indian_cities#Sections]] for city articles

== Accomplishments ==

===Andhra Pradesh article statistics===
This list is generated automatically every night around 3 AM UTC. 
<div style="text-align:center; font-size:79%;">{{Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Andhra Pradesh articles by quality statistics}}</div>

===[[WP:FA|Featured articles]]===

*[https://wp1.openzim.org/#/project/Andhra_Pradesh/articles?quality=FA-Class FA-Class articles (dynamically updated)] (3 as of 2023-05-06)

===[[WP:GA|Good articles]]===
*[https://wp1.openzim.org/#/project/Andhra_Pradesh/articles?quality=GA-Class&importance= GA-Class articles (dynamically updated)] (49 as of 2023-05-06)

===Project assessment===
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/2006-2022 assessment|2006-2022 assessment]]

== Current sub projects/Special drives ==
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Districts update - 2026|Districts restructure - 2026 (Feb 2026-)]]

== Past sub projects==
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Coordinate Me 2024]] (May 2024)
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Districts update - 2023|Districts update - 2023 (April 2023-July 2023)]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Assembly constituencies update - 2023|Assembly constituencies update - 2023]]

== Notes from editors ==
This section is intended to capture the learnings from individual editors who focussed on improving particular aspect of Andhra Pradesh articles. Editors are requested to draft a note in their user name space and move it as a subpage of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Andhra_Pradesh/Notes]] after finalisation and list it there with the last updated content date. That page is transcluded here. As there is not much participation in projects, these notes can be helpful for future editors.
{{:Wikipedia:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh/Notes}}

==Project toolbox==

=== WikiProject Andhra Pradesh notice ===

Place this WikiProject notice [[Template:WP India]] at the top of an article's Talk page to direct editors to the WikiProject Andhra Pradesh for guidelines.

To use it, place
'''<nowiki>{{WP India|andhra=yes}}</nowiki>'''
at the top of an article's Talk page.
It will produce:
{{WP India|andhra=yes|category=no}}

===Stubs===
For Andhra Pradesh related stubs use the ''' {{tl|AndhraPradesh-stub}} ''' template. If it is about the geography of Andhra Pradesh, including any place or building, the ''' {{tl|AndhraPradesh-geo-stub}}''' should be used instead. The article will go into the [[:Category:Andhra Pradesh stubs]] category and [[:Category:Andhra Pradesh geography stubs]] respectively. Similarly, articles on politicians or schools should be tagged with '''{{tl|AndhraPradesh-politician-stub}}''' or '''{{tl|AndhraPradesh-school-stub}}'''.

===Member identification===
Members of WikiProject Andhra Pradesh should place one of the following lines of [[Help:Wikitext|Wikitext]] on their [[Special:MyPage|user page]] to add it to '''{{nobreak|[[:Category:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh participants]]}}'''.
{{yytop}}
{{yy|Template:User WP Andhra Pradesh}}
{{yyend}}

===Templates===

* {{tl|Andhra Pradesh}}
* {{tl|Andhra Pradesh topics}}
* {{tl|AndhraPradesh-stub}}
* {{tl|AndhraPradesh-geo-stub}}
* {{tl|History of Andhra Pradesh}}

==See also ==
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject India/Navigation]] for India related WikiProject info and guidance

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Wikipedia policies and guidelines|state=collapsed}}
{{WikiProject Footer}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Andhra Pradesh}}
[[Category:WikiProject Andhra Pradesh| ]]
[[Category:WikiProjects participating in Wikipedia 1.0 assessments]]

Badlapur (film)

2026-03-02T05:54:20Z

EmilBarraza: Article enhanced with better details

{{short description|2015 neo-noir action thriller film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Badlapur
| image = Badlapur Poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Sriram Raghavan]]
| producer = [[Dinesh Vijan]] Sunil Lullaa
| writer = Sriram Raghavan Arijit Biswas Pooja Ladha Surti
| starring = {{unbulleted list|[[Varun Dhawan]]|[[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]]|[[Huma Qureshi]]|[[Radhika Apte]]|[[Yami Gautam]]|[[Divya Dutta]]}}
| story = [[Massimo Carlotto]]
| based_on = ''Death's Dark Abyss'' by [[Massimo Carlotto]]
| music = [[Sachin–Jigar]]
| cinematography = [[Anil Mehta]]
| editing = Pooja Ladha Surti
| studio = [[Maddock Films]]
| distributor = [[Eros International]]
| released = {{Film date|2015|02|20|df=y}}
| runtime = 135 minutes<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bbfc.co.uk/releases/badlapur-2015|title=Badlapur|website=bbfc.co.uk|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223180653/https://bbfc.co.uk/releases/badlapur-2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}16 crore<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/4747096/Varun-Dhawans-Badlapur-is-a-Rs.-25-crore-film---The-complete-details |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223061756/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/4747096/Varun-Dhawans-Badlapur-is-a-Rs.-25-crore-film---The-complete-details |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 February 2015 |title=Varun Dhawan's Badlapur is a Rs. 25 crore film – The complete details |work=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=12 March 2015 |quote=The film has been made at around Rs. 16 crores...}}</ref>
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INR}}103 crore<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/badlapur/box-office/|title=Badlapur Box Office Collection &#124; India &#124; Day Wise &#124; Box Office - Bollywood Hungama|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=20 February 2015|access-date=23 February 2020|archive-date=23 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223074023/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/badlapur/box-office/|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

'''''Badlapur''''' (stylized as '''बदलाPUR''') ({{translation|City of Revenge}}), subtitled on screen as '''''Don't Miss The Beginning''''', is a 2015 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[crime thriller film]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/bollywood/badlapur-to-bhediya-must-watch-varun-dhawan-films-before-border-2-aa-ws-l-9852155.html|title=Badlapur To Bhediya, Must-Watch Varun Dhawan Films Before Border 2|website=[[CNN-News18]]|quote=Directed by Sriram Raghavan, Badlapur is a dark crime thriller following Raghu (Varun Dhawan), a man consumed by vengeance after his wife and son are killed in a bank robbery.}}</ref> directed by [[Sriram Raghavan]] and produced by [[Dinesh Vijan]] and Sunil Lulla under [[Maddock Films]] and [[Eros International]]. Based on the novel ''Death's Dark Abyss'' by Italian writer [[Massimo Carlotto]], the film stars [[Varun Dhawan]] and [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]], with [[Huma Qureshi]], [[Yami Gautam]], [[Vinay Pathak]], [[Kumud Mishra]], [[Divya Dutta]] and [[Radhika Apte]] in supporting roles. It is widely considered as the best performance of Varun Dhawan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/varun-dhawan-vinay-pathak-punch-badlapur-hairline-fracture-204524-2014-08-18|title=Oops moment: Varun Dhawan's punch lands Vinay Pathak in hospital|date=18 August 2014 |publisher=[[India Today]]|access-date=11 May 2019|archive-date=11 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511161322/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/varun-dhawan-vinay-pathak-punch-badlapur-hairline-fracture-204524-2014-08-18|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/badlapur-is-content-driven-and-entertaining-radhika-apte/|title='Badlapur' is content-driven and entertaining: Radhika Apte|date=18 February 2015|publisher=[[Indian Express]]|access-date=11 May 2019|archive-date=22 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122073220/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/badlapur-is-content-driven-and-entertaining-radhika-apte/|url-status=live}}</ref>

''Badlapur'' was released on 20 February 2015 to positive reviews from critics. The film grossed approximately {{INRConvert|103|c}} worldwide and became a commercial success. On 11 January 2016, the film was nominated for [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]] in the [[61st Filmfare Awards#Main Awards|61st Filmfare Awards]], as well as other categories.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merinews.com/article/badlapur-a-numerological-review-of-the-movie/15904320.shtml |title=Badlapur: A numerological review of the movie |work=merinews.com |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217143823/http://www.merinews.com/article/badlapur-a-numerological-review-of-the-movie/15904320.shtml |archive-date=17 February 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2666|title=Badlapur – Movie – Box Office India|website=boxofficeindia.com|access-date=6 March 2018|archive-date=7 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307022901/https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2666|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Plot==

Two friends, Liaq and Harman, rob a bank in [[Pune]] and steal a car belonging to Misha and her son Robin. During the chase that follows, Robin falls out of the car and Misha gets shot. According to their plan, Harman escapes while the police, led by Inspector Govind, arrest Liaq. Both Misha and Robin die, leaving Raghav "Raghu" Purohit, Misha's husband and Robin's father devastated. He attacks Liaq in prison and approaches a private detective who tells him about Liaq's girlfriend, a sex worker named Jhimli. Raghu offers all the insurance money he received from his son's death in exchange for Liaq's partner's name, but Jhimli refuses. Enraged, he sexually assaults her. Liaq is convicted for the robbery and sentenced to jail, while Raghu withdraws from society and begins living a reclusive life far from Pune.

Fifteen years later, Liaq becomes terminally ill and wishes to spend his remaining life with his mother Zeenat. Raghu is approached by a social worker, Shobha, who asks him to forgive Liaq, but he declines. Zeenat later catches up with Raghu and tells him Liaq's partner's name, wanting her son to be paroled on compassionate grounds. Liaq is paroled but trailed by one of Inspector Govind's subordinates in plainclothes form, so as to trace Harman. Raghu locates Harman and is invited to lunch by Harman's wife Kanchan "Koko" Khatri, where his true intentions are revealed. Harman denies having killed Misha and Robin and Koko pleads that he spare them. Raghu demands she sleep with him in exchange. He takes her to the bedroom and exacts revenge by making Koko strip and forcing her to scream to make Harman believe they're having sex.

Liaq contacts Harman for his share of the money but Raghu murders Koko and Harman with a hammer. He then goes to meet Shobha and pretends to be in love with her, creating the perfect alibi. Liaq learns that Zeenat gave Harman's name to Raghu in exchange for his freedom. Shobha is enraged to learn that Raghu told the cops they had sex. A fight ensues between Raghu and Liaq, culminating in the latter initially overpowering the former until he is himself subdued after Raghu gains an upper hand. Liaq reveals that he did kill Raghu's family but more in a moment sheer panic unlike Raghu, who he points out, planned his murders with a cool mind and without guilt.

Liaq goes to meet Jhimli, now the concubine of a local businessman, Patil, one last time before his death. Having circumstantial evidence against Raghu, Inspector Govind tries to blackmail him into giving him Liaq's share of the money. However, Liaq walks into the police station and takes the blame for Raghu's crimes, giving Raghu a second chance to live life while redeeming himself.

After seven months, Liaq succumbs to cancer in jail and Jhimli makes Raghu realize the futility of his revenge. She drives away with Patil, leaving Raghu standing in the rain.

== Cast ==
[[File:Varun Dhawan, Nawazuddin Siddiqui & Huma Qureshi at Trailer launch of 'Badlapur'.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|(L-R)Varun Dhawan, Huma Qureshi, Nawazuddin Siddiqui.]]
* [[Varun Dhawan]] as Raghav Purohit
* [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]] as Liaq
* [[Huma Qureshi]] as Janki "Jhimli" Dagaonkar, a sex-worker who is Liaq's girlfriend
* [[Yami Gautam]] as Misha Senthil Purohit, Raghu's wife
* [[Divya Dutta]] as Shobha
* [[Vinay Pathak]] as Harman
* [[Radhika Apte]] as Kanchan "Koko" Khatri
* [[Ashwini Kalsekar]] as Mrs. Joshi
* [[Murali Sharma]] as Michael Dada
* [[Pratima Kazmi]] as Zeenat Mohammed Tungrekar, Liaq's mother
* [[Zakir Hussain (actor)|Zakir Hussain]] as Shardul Patil, a businessman who later employs Jhimli as a concubine
* [[Kumud Mishra]] as Inspector Govind
*Neel Tyagi as Robin Purohit, Raghu's son

== Production ==
The film began shooting in May 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news-interviews/Varun-Dhawan-to-play-three-generations-in-Sriram-Raghavans-next/articleshow/32366526.cms |title=Varun Dhawan to play three generations in Sriram Raghavan's next |work=The Times of India |access-date=12 March 2015 |last1=Gupta |first1=Priya |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005211557/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news-interviews/Varun-Dhawan-to-play-three-generations-in-Sriram-Raghavans-next/articleshow/32366526.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2554486/Sriram-Raghavans-next-with-Varun-titled-Badlapur |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614005418/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2554486/Sriram-Raghavans-next-with-Varun-titled-Badlapur |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 June 2014 |title=Sriram Raghavan's next with Varun titled Badlapur |work=Bollywood Hungama |date=13 June 2014 |access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1822076/Varun-Dhawan-in-Sriram-Raghavans-next |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605060341/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1822076/Varun-Dhawan-in-Sriram-Raghavans-next |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 June 2014 |title=Varun Dhawan in Sriram Raghavan's next? |work=Bollywood Hungama |date=22 May 2013 |access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref>

The film prominently features several locations in [[Pune]]. Notable scenes include an intense car chase sequence filmed in the [[Pune Camp|Camp area]], and a pivotal moment where Yami Gautam’s character reveals her pregnancy to Varun Dhawan, which was shot at Cafe Columbia. The couple’s residence is depicted as being located on [[List of roads in Pune|Prabhat Road]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=Did you know? These Famous Films Were Shot in Pune – Find out here
|url=https://www.thebridgechronicle.com/lifestyle/did-you-know-these-famous-films-were-shot-in-pune-find-out-here
|website=The Bridge Chronicle
|date=5 June 2024
|access-date=22 July 2025
}}</ref>

Several jail scenes in the film were shot on location at Nashik Jail, where the cast and crew spent two days filming inside the institution alongside real inmates. Scenes were filmed in the jail kitchen, carpentry workshop, and laundry, drawing on the inmates’ knowledge of the facility to lend realism to the production.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Pathak
| first = Ankur
| title = Varun Dhawan shoots in Nashik jail
| url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/varun-dhawan-shoots-in-nashik-jail/articleshow/38967393.cms
| website = The Times of India
| date = 24 July 2014
| access-date = 22 July 2025
}}</ref>

== Reception ==

=== Critical reception ===
On [[review aggregator|review aggregation]] website [[Rotten Tomatoes]], the film has a rating of 92%, based on 8 reviews, with an average rating of 7/10.<ref name="RT">{{cite web |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/badlapur |title=Badlapur (2015) |website=Rotten Tomatoes |access-date=30 December 2017 |archive-date=5 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205122415/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/badlapur/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Raja Sen]] from [[Rediff.com]] rated it 4 out of 5 and said "''Badlapur'' is a dark, unflinching, fantastic film."<ref>{{cite web |date=20 February 2015 |title=Review: Badlapur is a dark, unflinching, fantastic film |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-badlapur-is-a-dark-unflinching-fantastic-film/20150220.htm |access-date=12 March 2015 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |archive-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226182839/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-badlapur-is-a-dark-unflinching-fantastic-film/20150220.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Sudhish Kamath from ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote that the film was "darkly ambitious and very well made."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/darkly-ambitious-and-very-well-made/article6916944.ece |title=Badlapur: Darkly ambitious, and very well made |first=Sudhish |last=Kamath |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=20 February 2015 |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414035121/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/darkly-ambitious-and-very-well-made/article6916944.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Rachit Gupta from ''[[Filmfare]]'' stated that it had "exhilarating performances, stellar storytelling."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filmfare.com/reviews/movie-review-badlapur-8476.html |title=Movie Review: Badlapur |work=[[Filmfare]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308164942/http://www.filmfare.com/reviews/movie-review-badlapur-8476.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saibal Chatterjee of [[NDTV]] rated it 3/5 and noted the pervasive contemptful treatment of women in the film, writing, "If one can ignore the overt [[misogyny]] on show all through the film, Badlapur throws up enough surprises to hold the viewer's interest right until the bitter end."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/badlapur-movie-review-1097 |title=Badlapur Movie Review |work=[[NDTV]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308195628/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/badlapur-movie-review-1097 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Mohar Basu of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated ''Badlapur'' 4 out of 5.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-review/Badlapur/movie-review/46296855.cms |title=Badlapur Movie Review |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-date=7 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307011809/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-review/Badlapur/movie-review/46296855.cms |url-status=live }}{{rating|4|5}}</ref> Shubhra Gupta of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' rated the movie 2.5 stars out of 5, describing it as riveting, but also noting that the film "comes off too contrived in many places, and leaves us hanging in others."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/badlapur-movie-review/ |title=Badlapur movie review – The Indian Express |date=20 February 2015 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020103948/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/badlapur-movie-review/ |url-status=live }}{{rating|2.5|5}}</ref> [[Rajeev Masand]] and Md Abidur Rahaman of [[CNN-IBN]] rated it 3.5 out of 5 and wrote: "The pace slackens post-intermission, plot contrivances are many, and you might say the film is misogynistic in its treatment of women ... [However], the film keeps you on your toes, curious to see where its twists and turns will lead."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/badlapur-review-it-keeps-you-on-your-toes-curious-to-see-where-its-twists-and-turns-will-lead/529665-47-84.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221232121/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/badlapur-review-it-keeps-you-on-your-toes-curious-to-see-where-its-twists-and-turns-will-lead/529665-47-84.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2015-02-21|title=News18.com: CNN-News18 Breaking News India, Jharkhand Election Live Results, Latest News Headlines, Live News Updates|website=News18}}</ref>

=== Box office ===
[[Box Office India]] reported that ''Badlapur'' grossed approximately {{INRConvert|103.3|c}} worldwide.<ref name="gross">{{cite web |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/topworldwidegrossers2015#.VQFyz9KUcl8 |title=Top Worldwide Grossers 2015 |publisher=Box Office India |date=12 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182347/http://boxofficeindia.com/Details/art_detail/topworldwidegrossers2015 |archive-date=14 March 2015}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Badlapur
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Sachin–Jigar]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2015|1|23}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 27:55
| language = [[Hindi]]
| label = [[Eros Music]]
| producer =
| prev_title = [[Ungli]]
| prev_year = 2014
| next_title = [[ABCD 2]]
| next_year = 2015
}}
The soundtrack and background score of ''Badlapur'' is composed entirely by [[Sachin–Jigar]], while the lyrics were written by [[Dinesh Vijan]] and Priya Saraiya; it marks the first Sriram Raghavan film since ''[[Ek Hasina Thi (film)|Ek Hasina Thi]]'' (2004) to feature the same composers on both aspects of the music. The first song, "Jee Karda", was released as a single on 9 December 2014. The song "[[Jeena Jeena]]" was released on 14 February 2015. Jeena Jeena reached number one on the Indian iTunes charts,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.apple.com/in/itunes/|title=iTunes|website=Apple (India)|access-date=27 February 2015|archive-date=21 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221113227/http://www.apple.com/in/itunes/|url-status=live}}</ref> Radio Mirchi charts,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radiomirchi.com/more/mirchi-top-20/|title=Latest Bollywood songs on Mirchi Top20 countdown.|website=www.radiomirchi.com|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=25 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425130612/http://www.radiomirchi.com/more/mirchi-top-20/|url-status=live}}</ref> for several weeks.

{{Track listing
| all_lyrics = [[Priya Saraiya]] & [[Dinesh Vijan]]
| all_music = [[Sachin–Jigar]]
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Jee Karda
| length1 = 4:01
| lyrics1 =
| extra1 = [[Divya Kumar (singer)|Divya Kumar]]
| title2 = [[Jeena Jeena]]
| note2 =
| length2 = 3:49
| writer2 =
| extra2 = [[Atif Aslam]]
| title3 = Jee Karda
| note3 = Rock Version
| length3 = 4:00
| writer3 =
| extra3 = [[Divya Kumar (singer)|Divya Kumar]]
| title4 = [[Judaai (song)|Judaai]]
| length4 = 4:32
| extra4 = [[Rekha Bhardwaj]], [[Arijit Singh]]
| title5 = [[Jeena Jeena]]
| note5 = Remix
| length5 = 3:39
| extra5 = [[Atif Aslam]]
| title6 = Badla Badla
| length6 = 3:13
| extra6 = [[Vishal Dadlani]], [[Jasleen Royal]], [[Suraj Jagan]]
| title7 = Sone Ka Paani
| length7 = 1:52
| extra7 = [[Priya Saraiya]]
| title8 = Badlapur Mashup
| extra8 = Various Artists
| length8 = 2:49
| total_length = 27:55
}}

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Award
! Category !! Recipients and nominees !! Result !! Ref.
|-
| rowspan=2 | [[8th Mirchi Music Awards]]
| [[Mirchi Music Award for Album of The Year|Album of The Year]]
| [[Sachin–Jigar]], [[Dinesh Vijan]], [[Priya Saraiya]]
| rowspan=2 {{nom}}
| rowspan=2 |<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mirchimusicawards.com/hindi-2015/Nomination/ |title=MMA Mirchi Music Awards |website=MMAMirchiMusicAwards |access-date=25 March 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330062839/http://www.mirchimusicawards.com/hindi-2015/Nomination/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| Best Song Producer (Programming & Arranging)
| Sachin–Jigar – "Jee Karda"
|-
| rowspan=6 | [[61st Filmfare Awards]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]] || [[Dinesh Vijan]], Sunil Lulla || rowspan=6 {{nom}}
| rowspan=6 |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-61st-britannia-filmfare-awards-11809.html |title=Nominations for the 61st Britannia Filmfare Awards |publisher=filmfare.com |date=11 January 2016 |access-date=22 April 2018 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413161505/http://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-61st-britannia-filmfare-awards-11809.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]] || [[Sriram Raghavan]]
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] || [[Varun Dhawan]]
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] || [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]]
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] || [[Huma Qureshi]]
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Singer – Male]] || [[Atif Aslam]] for "[[Jeena Jeena]]"
|-
|}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Nair |first1=Gayatri |last2=Tamang |first2=Dipti |title=Representations of rape in popular culture: ''Gone Girl'' and ''Badlapur'' |journal=[[International Feminist Journal of Politics]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=614–618 |doi=10.1080/14616742.2016.1226401 |date=2016 |s2cid=151645485 }}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|3678782}}
* {{Mojo title|badlapur}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama movie|badlapur}}

{{Sriram Raghavan}}

[[Category:2015 films]]
[[Category:2015 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2015 Indian films]]
[[Category:2015 action thriller films]]
[[Category:2015 crime drama films]]
[[Category:2015 crime thriller films]]
[[Category:2015 crime action films]]
[[Category:Films about criminals]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama films]]
[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian crime action films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Films based on Italian novels]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sriram Raghavan]]
[[Category:Films set in Pune]]
[[Category:Films set in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Maddock Films]]

Deva Raya II

2026-02-28T07:18:28Z

EmilBarraza: updated

{{Short description|Emperor of Vijayanagara from 1423 to 1446}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}{{Infobox royalty
| image = Devaraya II coin.png
| image_size = 250
| caption = bronze [[Pagoda (coin)|Pagoda]] of Deva Raya II
| succession = [[Emperor of Vijayanagara]]
| reign = 10 February 1423 – 24 May 1446<ref>{{Cite journal |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145214|last=Lakshmi|first=Kumari Jhansi|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1958|volume=21 |pages=290–297 |title=The Chronology of the Sangama Dynasty|jstor=44145214 }}</ref><ref name="p264">{{cite web | publisher=Kitabistam,Allahabad| title=Full text of "Historical Inscriptions Of Southern India" | website=Internet Archive | date=23 October 2016 | url=https://archive.org/stream/historicalinscri035270mbp/historicalinscri035270mbp_djvu.txt | access-date=27 February 2025}}</ref>
| predecessor = [[Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya|Bukka Raya III]]
| successor = [[Mallikarjuna Raya|Deva Raya III]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Vijayanagara]], [[Vijayanagara Empire]] (modern day [[Hampi]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]])
| death_date = 24 May 1446
| death_place = Vijayanagara, Vijayanagara Empire (modern-day [[Hampi]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]])
| issue = Deva Raya III
| house = [[Sangama dynasty|Sangama]]
| father = [[Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya| Bukka Raya III]]
| mother = unknown
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty =
}}
{{Vijayanagara empire}}
'''Deva Raya II''' (reigned 10 February 1423 – 24 May 1446) was an emperor of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. He is considered by many as the greatest of the [[Sangama dynasty]] rulers,<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=103–106}}</ref> he was an able administrator, warrior, and scholar. He authored well-known works in [[Kannada language|Kannada]] (''Sobagina Sone'' and ''Amaruka'') and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] (''Mahanataka Sudhanidhi'').<ref name="sone" /><ref name="invade">Kamath (1980), p.164</ref> He was patron to some of the most noted Kannada poets of the medieval period, including [[Chamarasa]] and [[Kumara Vyasa]],<ref name="jakka">Sastri (1955), pp.363-364</ref><ref name="rice">Rice E.P. (1921), p.68, p.70</ref> the Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima, and the noted [[Telugu language]] poet [[Srinatha]], whom the king honored with the title ''Kavisarvabhauma'' ("Emperor of poets").<ref name="bidar">Kamath (1980), p.163</ref> He supported development in secular literature as well as the noted South Indian mathematician [[Parameshvara]], from the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] in his empire.<ref name="Para">{{cite book|last=David Edwin Pingree|title=Census of the exact sciences in Sanskrit|publisher=American Philosophical Society|year=1981|volume=4|pages=187–192|isbn=978-0-87169-213-9}}</ref>

According to the historian Sastri, Deva Raya II had the title ''Gajabeteegara'', which literally means "Hunter of elephants", an honorific that explained his addiction to hunting elephants or a metaphor referring to his victories against enemies who were "as strong as elephants".<ref name="metaphor">Sastri (1955), p.244</ref> Despite some reversals, Deva Raya II extended and held territories up to the Krishna river. According to an account of the visiting Persian chronicler [[Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī|Abdur Razzak]], Deva Raya II's empire extended from [[Ceylon]] to [[Gulbarga]], and [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] to the [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]]. According to the historians Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmaniyan, the king maintained a fleet of ships which helped him in his overseas connections. From the account of the contemporary European explorer [[Niccolò Da Conti|Nicolo Conti]], the king levied tribute on Ceylon, [[Quilon]], [[Pegu]], [[Pulicat]] and [[Tenasserim Division|Tenasserim]].<ref name="ceylon">Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian (2003), p.32</ref><ref name="raz" />

==The empire==

===Wars with the Gajapati Kingdom===
[[File:Vijayanagara_1450s.png|thumb|right|250px|Extent of Vijayanagara empire at the end of Deva Raya II's reign{{Citation needed|reason=Contradicts mentioned, historical documentation of rule over ceylon and coastal states in Myanmar|date=April 2024}}]]
Deva Raya II's rule is the golden age in the history of South India and in particular, that of Karnataka. He succeeded his father [[Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya]] after his short uneventful two-year reign. Even as a crown prince in c. 1423, he had tasted success in battle against the [[Bahamani Sultanate]], forcing them to switch capitals to Bidar in c. 1426.<ref name="bidar">Kamath (1980), p.163</ref> Deva Raya II fought three important battles against the [[Gajapati Kingdom|Gajapati]] of [[Odisha]]: in c. 1427 against [[Eastern ganga dynasty#List of rulers|King Bhanudeva IV]] in the [[Battle of Kondavidu]], in c. 1436 against King [[Kapilendradeva|Kapilendra]] when the latter tried to conquer Rajamahendri, and again in c. 1441. An invasion by the Reddis of Kondavidu was also repulsed and by c. 1432, all the petty chiefs of the region were brought under the Vijayanagara control.<ref name="invade">Kamath (1980), p.164</ref><ref name="reddi">Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian (2003), p.31</ref><ref name="gaja">Sastri (1955), pp.244-245</ref>

===Sultanate affairs===
After a short period of peace, Vijayanagara was pulled into war with their traditional foes, the [[Bahamani Sultanate]]. These wars however brought mixed results. In c. 1436, Ala-ud-din II ascended the Bahamani throne and promptly sent his brother Muhammad to collect tribute. According to the Sastri, Deva Raya II had to pay a large tribute to buy peace. During this time, the Vijayanagara armies were consistently defeated by the Bahamani armies and Deva Raya II was hard pressed to find a solution, which eventually led to the inclusion of many skilled Muslim soldiers in the Vijayanagara army. In c. 1436, in a military altercation, some accounts suggest Deva Raya II lost the fort at Mudgal but according to the historian Kamath, a c. 1436 inscription at Mudgal shows the fort remained under Vijayanagara control. During an uncertain period that followed in c. 1443, when the king appears to have been a victim of an attempted assassination, some regions in the [[Tungabhadra River]]-[[Krishna River]] [[doab]] were lost to the Bahamani Sultanate.<ref name="invade"/>

There are conflicting accounts provided by contemporary Persian writers [[Ferishtah]] and Abdur Razzak regarding the events that led to the war. According to Ferishtah, Deva Raya II had bought peace earlier by paying a handsome tribute to the Bahamanis. He however refused to honor the agreement and this led to war. According to this account, with an intent of strengthening his army, Deva Raya II employed many expert Muslim archers and cavalry and this incited the war. But according to Razzak's account written in Calicut in c. 1443, the Sultans attempt to seize more Vijayanagara territory by taking advantage of the prevailing confusion (caused by the assassination attempt that he appeared to be aware of) was the cause of the war. According to Razzak who was eye witness to the episode, a brother of Deva Raya II invited the king and many important nobility to a feast and had most of the invitees beheaded. But finding that the king had not attended the dinner, he went to the royal palace and stabbed and wounded an unaided Deva Raya II. Seizing the opportunity, the Bahamani Sultan demanded seven [[lakh]] ''Varaha'' (700,000) ''[[Pagoda (coin)|Pagodas]]'' as tribute. Deva Raya II refused to pay and this led to war.<ref name="refuse">Sastri (1955), p.246</ref> According to Chopra et al., and Sastri the first battles was a success for Vijayanagara armies who captured [[Raichur]], [[Bankapura]] and marched up to [[Bijapur]]. But in the last three battles, Deva Raya II's son may have been killed in battle, and the Vijayanagara armies were pushed back to their original stronghold at [[Mudgal]]. Two Sultanate generals were taken prisoner but later released to end hostilities.<ref name="refuse">Sastri (1955), p.246</ref><ref name="mudgal">Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian (2003), p.32</ref>

===Success in the south and Ceylon===
Deva Raya II's empire included [[Kerala]] where he defeated the ruler of [[Kollam|Quilon]] as well as other chieftains in the region.<ref name="far">Farooqui (2011), p.118</ref> His able commander Lakkanna invaded Ceylon and collected rich tributes there.<ref name="far"/><ref name="invade">Kamath (1980), p.164</ref> The [[Zamorin of Calicut]] and even the kings of [[Burma]] ruling at Pegu and Tanasserim paid tribute. This information was obtained from the writings of Nuniz.<ref name="far"/> Though the Zamorin maintained his independence, from Razzak's account, he feared and respected Deva Raya II.<ref name="raz">Sastri (1955), p.245</ref>

===Accounts of foreign visitors===
It was during this time that the explorer Nicolo Conti and Persian chronicler Abdur Razzak arrived in South India. Conti wrote :"the king of Vijayanagar is more powerful than all the other kings in India."<ref name="satish"/> Razzak wrote :"the ear of intelligence had never been informed that there existed anything equal to Vijayanagara in the world and the pupil of eye has never seen a place like it" (on an interesting side note the two explorers also commented on Deva Raya II's large harem in which 4000 queens followed him everywhere he went). Razzaq who was also an ambassador at the court of Deva Raya II wrote:"This prince has in his dominions three hundred ports, each of which is equal to [[Calicut]] and his territories compromise a space of three months journey.<ref name="satish"/><ref name="invade"/> Both travelers concur that the country was thickly populated with numerous towns and villages. Razzaq wrote:"The country is for the most part well cultivated and very fertile. The troops amount in number to eleven [[Lakh]]s (1,100,000)." Razzaq considered Vijayanagara to be one of the most splendid of the cities in the world he had seen.<ref name="satish"/> Describing the city, he wrote: "It is built in such a manner that seven citadels and the same number of walls enclose each other. The seventh fortress, which is placed in the center of the others, occupy an area ten times larger than the market place of the city of Herat".<ref name="satish">Chandra (1997), pp.180-181</ref><ref name="invade">Kamath (1980), p.164</ref> With regards to the market places he wrote:"the jewelers sell publicly in the bazaar pearls, rubies, emeralds and diamonds in this agreeable locality and in the king's palace one sees numerous running streams and canals formed of chiseled stone, polished and smooth..."<ref name="ruby">Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian (2003), p.33</ref>

==Culture and the arts==
Deva Raya II's rule was a high point in the development of [[Kannada literature]],<ref name="develop">Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian, (2003), p.173</ref> when competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers was fierce and literary disputations between the two sects were common.<ref name="ganapathi">Sastri (1955), p.363</ref> Some of most noted Kannada writers of the 15th century, [[Chamarasa]] and [[Kumara Vyasa]]; Chandrashekara (Chrakavi) who wrote on secular topics; and the king's zealous Veerashaiva ministers and writers, Lakkana Dandesa and Jakkanarya (who himself patronized the Kannada poets Kumarabankanatha and Mahalingadeva) were in his court.<ref name="jakka"/><ref name="rice"/><ref name="pampa">Kotraiah in Sinopoli (2003), p. 131</ref> The king himself was no less a writer, the romantic stories ''Sobagina Sone'' (''lit'' "The Drizzle of Beauty") and ''Amaruka'' are assigned to him.<ref name="sone">Kotraiah in Sinopoli (2003) pp. 130-131, 134</ref>

In the Telugu realm, this was the age of Srinatha. With an unrivaled command on Telugu and Sanskrit languages, he is known to have defeated in a debate, the reputed Sanskrit scholar Dindima. Srinatha was honored with the title ''Kavisarvabhauma''. The king showed his appreciation with a ''kanakabhisheka'' ceremony (the "showering of gold coins on the head"). Srinatha is known to have lived a life of pleasure and moved on equal terms with the ministers in the king's court, though he died a poor man.<ref name="ceylon"/><ref name="invade">Kamath (1980), p.164</ref><ref name="king">Sastri (1955), p.370</ref>

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last1= Chopra|first1= P.N.|last2= Ravindran|first2= T.K.|last3=Subrahmanian|first3= N|title= History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 2|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher= Chand Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn= 81-219-0153-7}}
*{{cite book |last= Kamath|first= Suryanath U.|title= A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present|orig-year=1980|year= 2001|publisher= Jupiter books|location= Bangalore|oclc= 7796041 |lccn= 80905179}}
*{{cite book |last= Sastri|first= K.A. Nilakanta|title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Sinopoli|first= Carla M.|title= The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India c. 1350-1650|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-521-82613-6 }}
*{{cite book |last=Farooqui|first= Salma Ahmed|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century|orig-year=2011|year=2011|publisher=Pearson Education |location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-3202-1 }}
*{{cite book |last=Chandra|first= Satish|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526)|orig-year=1997|year=1997|publisher=Har-Anand |location=New Delhi|isbn=8124110646 }}
*{{cite book |last= Rice|first= E.P.|title= A History of Kanarese Literature|orig-year=1921|year=1982|publisher= Asian Educational Services|location= New Delhi|isbn= 81-206-0063-0}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060425045737/http://prabhu.50g.com/vijayngr/vij_sangama.html Prabhu:Sangama]

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[Vijayanagar empire]]|before=[[Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya]]|after=[[Mallikarjuna Raya]] |years=1424–1446}}
{{s-end}}

{{Karnataka topics}}

[[Category:15th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Vijayanagara emperors]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

Chandra Choodeswarar Temple

2026-02-26T22:16:17Z

EmilBarraza: Creating the location first draft...

{{Short description|Shiva temple in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{see also|Maragathambikai Chandrachoodesvarar Temple}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Chandra Choodeswarar Temple
| image = Oosor Hosur , Salem District.jpg
| alt = Chandra Choodeswarar Temple, Hosur
| caption = Chandra Choodeswarar Temple, Hosur - A photo from the year 1860
| coordinates = {{coord|12.7257938|77.8363817|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline}}
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Krishnagiri]]
| location = [[Hosur]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = Chandra Choodeswarar ([[Shiva]])
Maragathambal ([[Parvati]])
| website =
}}

The '''Chandra Choodeswarar Temple''' is an ancient Shiva temple located on a rocky hill in the city of [[Hosur]], Krishnagiri District, [[Tamil Nadu]].

Due to variations in the local languages ([[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]]) and dialects, the temple is also referred to as 'Chandira Choodeshwarar', 'Chandra Choodeshwara', 'Chandra Choodeshwar', 'Shri Choodeswarar' or 'Arulmigu Chandra Choodeshwarar'.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Sri Chandra Choodeswara Temple - History, Timings, Accommodation, Puja |url=https://www.rvatemples.com/listings/sri-chandra-choodeswara-temple/ |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=RVA Temples |language=en-US}}</ref>

The main deities of the temple are [[Shiva]], depicted as the Shiva [[linga]] and the Goddess [[Parvati]], depicted as 'Maragathambal'.

==Names of the main deities==

'Chandra Choodeswarar' means the Eshwara who wears the Moon (Chandra) as an ornament on his crest or tuft of hair on top of the head.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Jayaramiah |first=JMC Jaishankar |date=2021-07-27 |title=Hosur Sri Chandra Chudeswarar maintains strong presence in spiritual world |url=https://theonlook.com/2021/07/27/hosur-sri-chandra-chudeswarar-maintains-strong-presence-in-spiritual-world/ |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=The OnLook |language=en-US}}</ref>

Shiva's consort Parvathi is worshiped here as Maragathambal. ‘Maragatham’ means green and ‘Ambal’ means mother. This is in reference to the green plants and trees ([[Photosynthesis]]), which provide sustenance to all living beings.<ref name=":1" />

==Temple history==
[[File:Sri Chandra Choodeswara Temple.jpg|thumb|Sri Chandra Choodeswara Temple]]

The exact history of the temple as to when it was consecrated is not clearly documented. Considering that the Hosur region is mentioned in ancient Hindu texts like the 'Bhadragiri Mahatmyam', a part of [[Brahmanda Purana]], a shrine for Shiva is deemed to have existed here from ancient times.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhadragiri - Ancient Hosur temple |url=https://www.shaivam.org/hindu-hub/temples/place/473/badragiri-chudeshvarar-temple/#gsc.tab=0 |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=www.shaivam.org}}</ref>

The temple has grown during the time of the [[Cholas]], [[Hoysala]] and [[Vijayanagara]] Emperors. The Chandra Choodeshwara Temple structure may have been built by the Hoysala king, Thirupuvanamalla Barvatharaja Anthiyazhvar, in the year 1260. The 13th-century inscription found during Chandra Choodeshwara temple patronage Perumal Temple in Hosur and Bangalore Shiva Temple inscriptions tell the details of donations to Chandra Choodeshwara temple.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ஓசூர் சந்திரசூடேஸ்வரர் கோவிலில் 13ம் நூற்றாண்டு கல்வெட்டு Dinamalar |url=http://www.dinamalar.com/special_detail.asp?id=1729709&Print=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912192338/http://www.dinamalar.com/special_detail.asp?id=1729709&Print=1 |archive-date=2017-09-12 |access-date=2025-10-06 |website=www.dinamalar.com}}</ref> There are also inscriptions of [[Rajendra Chola]] in this ancient temple. The temple was renovated by Azhakiya Perumal Aathimoolam.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=CHANDRA CHOODASWARAR TEMPLE {{!}} Krishnagiri District, Government of Tamil Nadu {{!}} India |url=https://krishnagiri.nic.in/tourist-place/chandra-choodaswarar-temple/ |access-date=2025-10-06 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==In popular culture==

The Chandra Choodeshwarar Temple has been the subject of documentary in an episode of [[TV9 (Kannada)|TV9]]'s series ''Heegu Unte'' in 2013.

{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Name of Documentary !! Produced by !! Viewable at
|-
| 2013 || ''TV9: "Heegu Unte": Arulmigu ChandraChoodeshwarar Temple, Hosur'' || TV9 Television Channel || <ref>{{Citation|last=Tv9 Kannada|title=TV9 Heegu Unte : Miracle Of Arulmigu ChandraChoodeshwarar Temple, Hosur - Full|date=2013-08-07|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ykBnFBCw7LE|accessdate=2016-11-20}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File: A view of Ossoore.jpg
File: Ousoor in the Mysore.jpg
File: View of Ossoor.jpg
File: Henry Salt - View of Ossour.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://bangalorepress.blogspot.in/2013/02/pallakki-utsavam-at-chandrachoodeshwara.html Bangalore Press website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170912192338/http://www.dinamalar.com/special_detail.asp?id=1729709&Print=1 ஓசூர் சந்திரசூடேஸ்வரர் கோவிலில் 13ம் நூற்றாண்டு கல்வெட்டு | Dinamalar]

{{Portal bar|India|Hinduism}}

{{coord|12.7257938|N|77.8363817|E|source:ruwiki_region:IN_type:landmark|format=dms|display=title}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Krishnagiri district]]
[[Category:Shiva temples in Krishnagiri district]]
[[Category:13th-century Hindu temples]]

Mashafi

2026-02-26T17:26:46Z

EmilBarraza:

{{Short description|Indian Urdu poet (1751–1844)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox writer 
| name = Mashafi
| image = File:Mushafi-ghulam-hamdani.png
| imagesize =
| caption =
| pseudonym =
| birth_name = Ghulam Ali Hamdani
| birth_date = 1751
| birth_place = [[Amroha]], [[Mughal Empire]]<ref>Petievich, Carla. "Rekhti: Impersonating the feminine in Urdu poetry." (2001): 75-90.</ref><ref>Fatihi, A. R. "Semantic Space in Lesbian Lingo of REkhti."</ref> (present-day India)
| death_date = 1844 (aged 93)
| death_place = [[Lucknow]]
| occupation = [[Urdu poet]]
| period = [[Mughal era]]
| genre = [[Ghazal]]
| subject = [[Love]], [[philosophy]]
| movement =
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Ghulam Ali Hamdani'''{{Efn|{{langx|ur|غلام علی ہمدانی|Ghulām ʿAlī Hamdānī}}}} (1751–1844), commonly known by the {{Transliteration|ur|[[takhallus]]}} '''Mashafi''',{{Efn|{{langx|ur|مصحفی|translit=Maṣḥafī}}}} was an [[Urdu]] [[ghazal]] poet.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and poetics|date=26 August 2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=1499|isbn=978-0691154916|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MJVlZjIe5o8C&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi&pg=PA1499}}</ref>

== Works ==

Before his time, the language known as Hindi, Hindavi, Dehlavi, Dakhini, Lahori or Rekhta was commonly known as the ''Zaban-i-Ordu'',<ref>Maldonado Garcia, Maria Isabel. "The Urdu language reforms." Studies 26 (2011): 97.</ref> and commonly in local literature and speech, ''Lashkari Zaban'' or Lashkari.<ref>{{cite book|title=Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan|author=Alyssa Ayres|date=23 July 2009|page=19|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521519311}}</ref> Mashafi was the first person to simply shorten the later name to ''[[Urdu]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Marathwada Under the Nizams|author=P.V. Kate|year=1987|page=136|publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=9788170990178|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tjndiykddsIC&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi&pg=PA136 }}</ref> He migrated to [[Lucknow]] during the reign of [[Asaf-ud-Daula]]. According to one source, his ghazals are full of [[pathos]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Lucnow: the last phase of an oriental culture|date=12 May 1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=255|isbn=9780195633757|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NgcWAQAAMAAJ&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi }}</ref>

He wrote ''Tazkira E Hindi'' in [[Persian language]] which demonstrates his skill in that tongue.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-15 |title=Tazkira-e-Hindi by Mushafi Ghulam Hamdani {{!}} Rekhta |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/tazkira-e-hindi-mushafi-ghulam-hamdani-ebooks |access-date=2022-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015101456/https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/tazkira-e-hindi-mushafi-ghulam-hamdani-ebooks |archive-date=15 October 2022 }}</ref> He also wrote in [[Hindustani language|Hindavi]]:

{{cquote|''مصحفی'' ''فارسی کو طاق پہ رکھ''

''اب ہے اشعار ہندوی کا رواج''<ref>{{Cite web |title=مصحفی غلام ہمدانی - شعر |url=https://www.rekhta.org/couplets/mushafii-faarsii-ko-taaq-pe-rakh-mushafi-ghulam-hamdani-couplets?lang=ur |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=Rekhta |language=ur}}</ref>

''Mashafi farsi ko taq pe rakh''

''Ab hai ashaar- e-Hindavi ka rivaj''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-15 |title=A Historical Perspective of Urdu {{!}} National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language |url=https://www.urducouncil.nic.in/council/historical-perspective-urdu |access-date=2022-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015162643/https://www.urducouncil.nic.in/council/historical-perspective-urdu |archive-date=15 October 2022 }}</ref>
}}

There are ten extant collections of his poems, but it is believed that he allowed others for a fee to publish his poems under their own authorship.<ref>{{cite book|title=Muslim Attitudes towards British Rule…|author=Mujib Ashraf|year=1982|publisher=University of Michigan|page=203|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=smZuAAAAMAAJ&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi }}</ref> His personal life lacked discipline and his poetry reflects a level of sensuality.<ref>{{cite book|title=Urdu/Hindi: An Artificial Divide|author=Abdul Jamil Khan|year=2006|page=189|isbn=9780875864389|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nH1HBxdA1UIC&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi&pg=PA189 }}</ref> He excelled in lyrics but also composed odes and romances.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Literature Vol.1|year=1946|publisher=Philosophical Library|page=570|isbn=9780802215581 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=u1IGAQAAIAAJ&q=Ghulam+Hamdani+Mushafi }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of Urdu poets]]
* [[Rekhta]]
* [[Ghazal]]
* [[Masud Sa'd Salman]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mushafi}}
[[Category:Poets from the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Indian poets]]
[[Category:1751 births]]
[[Category:1824 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Akbarpur, Ambedkar Nagar]]
[[Category:Writers from Lucknow]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Poets from Uttar Pradesh]]

Goshpur Ezra

2026-02-24T06:55:44Z

EmilBarraza: Creating some article needs work...

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name =Goshpur Ezra
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
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| settlement_type =Gram Panchayat
| image_skyline =
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| pushpin_map = India Bihar#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bihar, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25|44|07.8|N|85|13|04.4|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Bihar]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Vaishali district|Vaishali]]
| subdivision_type3
=Assembly Constituency
| subdivision_name3
=[[Hajipur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Hajipur assembly constituency (AC.123)]]<ref>[http://ceobihar.nic.in/map/include/AC123.pdf The Chief Electoral Officer of Bihar official,hajipur pdf ]</ref>
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-BR]]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Goshpur Ezra''' is a [[Gram panchayat]] in [[Hajipur]], [[Vaishali district]], [[Bihar]]. The nearest city is [[Hajipur]], 6 km away.<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/(S(3ird4ricndfyzx45tkdber3h))/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/View_data/Village_Profile.aspx village profile census government official website ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108114001/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/View_data/Village_Profile.aspx |date=2008-01-08 }} State - Bihar, District- vaishali, Sub District - Hajipur</ref>

==Geography==
This panchayat is located at {{coord|25|44|07.8|N|85|13|04.4|E|type:panchayat}}

==Nearest major road highway or river==
SH 74 (State highway 74)
And [[gandak river]]<ref>[http://vaishali.bih.nic.in/vaishali%20MAP.jpg Map - vaishali district official government website ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104113148/http://vaishali.bih.nic.in/vaishali%20MAP.jpg |date=2014-11-04 }} file type: image/jpeg, size:13.9 MB</ref>

==Villages==
There are 7 villages:<ref>[http://panchayatdirectory.gov.in/adminreps/viewGPmapcvills.asp?gpcode=99318&rlbtype=V Reports of National Panchayat Directory Ministry of Panchayati Raj Government of India List of Census Villages mapped for Gauspur Izra Gram Panchayat, HAJIPUR, VAISHALI, BIHAR ]{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} Report printed on 26/09/2014 National Panchayat Portal, Panchayat Informatics Division</ref> Chaksama Urf Kazichak, Asdharpur (Astipur), Chakaraviya aka Raviya Chak, Paharpur, '''Gauspur Izra''', Latmara and Izra Shah Mian alias Maulnachak.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{panchayat of Hajipur block}}
{{Tirhut Division}}

[[Category:Gram panchayats in Bihar]]
[[Category:Villages in Vaishali district]]
[[Category:Vaishali district]]
[[Category:Hajipur]]

Sairee Chahal

2026-02-23T14:15:48Z

EmilBarraza: data

{{Short description|Indian Entrepreneur}}
{{advert|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sairee Chahal
| image =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Muzaffarnagar, [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| citizenship = Indian
| education = M. Phil in International Studies, PGDBM
| alma_mater = [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]] [[Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad]]
| occupation = Founder and CEO of [[SHEROES]], Mahila Money
}}

'''Sairee Chahal''' is a [[technology]] [[entrepreneur]] and the founder and CEO of SHEROES, a platform that supports women entrepreneurs.<ref name="founder">{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/startups/people/this-founders-helping-more-women-turn-entrepreneur/articleshow/64416982.cms|title=This founder’s helping more women do their own thing|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://inc42.com/features/sairee-chahal-the-sheroes-story-and-women-entrepreneurs-in-india/|title=In Sairee Chahal’s Shoes: The SHEROES Story And Backing Women Entrepreneurs In India|website=www.inc42.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://globalindianstories.com/index.php/2020/06/16/sairee-chahal-founder-of-sheroes-the-safe-online-social-space-that-empowers-women/|title=Sairee Chahal – Founder of Sheroes, the safe online social space that empowers women|website=www.globalindianstories.com|language=en-US|access-date=2021-06-21}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Chahal shifted to Delhi from her hometown, [[Muzaffarnagar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], for studies. She completed her M. Phil in International Studies from [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]]. She later obtained a PGDBM (Postgraduate Diploma in Business Management) at the [[Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad]]. Chahal is also a Cartier Award Alumni and an Aspen Fellow.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wow.outlookbusiness.com/sairee-chahal/|title=Sairee Chahal has built an online world for women from all walks of life to help each other start a career
|website=Outlook Business|language=en-US|access-date=2021-06-21}}</ref><ref name="founder"/>

==Career==
===Early days===
After graduating from college, Chahal gained her first experience in a start-up. In the year 1999, she got the opportunity to launch a newspaper for mariners. Sairee started working on her venture, Fleximoms, in 2012. Fleximoms helped women avail remote as well as office work opportunities.<ref name="founder"/>

===SHEROES===
Founded in 2014 as a phone helpline,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.healthcollective.in/2019/08/sheroes-helpline-empathy/|title=Five Years In, Sheroes Helpline Aims For High Empathy, Deep Impact|website=www.healthcollective.in|language=en-US|access-date=2020-08-26}}</ref> SHEROES has emerged as a social network dedicated to women. It operates as a large commerce ecosystem working for the betterment of entrepreneurship, employment and finance of women. Users can come on this platform to bridge the gender gap as well as avail interactions, recognition and growth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/newsbuzz/sairee-chahal-talks-about-sheroes-an-online-community-for-women/articleshow/64434117.cms|title=Sairee Chahal talks about Sheroes, an online community for women|website=[[The Economic Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/wpower-trailblazers/sairee-chahal-a-sense-of-identity/46167/1|title=Sairee Chahal: A sense of identity|website=[[Forbes]]|language=en-US|access-date=2018-03-11}}</ref>

===Mahila Money===
Founded by Chahal, Mahila Money offers small loans to women micro-entrepreneurs. The financial aid between Rs. 10,000 and Rs. 2,00,000 is provided under this initiative. One can apply for the loan and get approved within 48 hours. Those with rejected applications can stay within the community to learn more about finances and improve their financial stability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/money/mahila-money-visa-and-transcorp-launch-mahila-money-prepaid-card-for-women-entrepreneurs-details-here/2463545/|title=Mahila Money, Visa and Transcorp launch Mahila Money Prepaid Card for women entrepreneurs|website=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]|language=en-US|access-date=2022-06-11}}</ref> The [[Web portal|digital platform]] provides [[micro loans|microloans]] to [[women entrepreneurs]] to help with business set-up, business growth and employment opportunities. It focuses on supporting entrepreneurship as well as the financial literacy of women.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/mahila-money-to-launch-prepaid-card-to-support-women-entrepreneurs-11647424248587.html|title=Mahila Money to launch prepaid card to support women entrepreneurs|website=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|language=en-US|access-date=2022-06-18}}</ref> Mahila Money has also partnered with 60 women-focused organizations to gain more trust in the community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/business/startups/news/interview-after-six-months-of-lending-sheroes-founder-learns-it-is-tougher-than-it-looked/articleshow/88474677.cms|title=INTERVIEW: After six months of lending, Sheroes founder explains how tough it is|website=[[Business Insider]]|language=en-US|access-date=2022-01-18}}</ref>

===Paytm Payments Bank Ltd===
In 2019, [[Paytm Payments Bank]] appointed Chahal as a member of its board of directors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/people/paytm-payments-bank-appoints-sairee-chahal-to-board-of-directors-1555740199641.html|title=Paytm Payments Bank appoints Sairee Chahal to board of directors|website=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|language=en-US|access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref>

===Milaan Foundation===
Chahal is part of the board of directors of the Milaan Foundation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newscrab.com/lifestyle/Womens-Day-Special-How-much-do-you-know-about-the-founder/cid6683858.htm|title=Women's Day Special: How much do you know about the founder of SHEROES, SaireeChahal?|website=www.newscrab.com|language=en-US|access-date=2022-06-20}}</ref>

==Awards and honours==
* Cartier Award<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others-do-not-use/women-forum-hosts-cartier-awards-finalist-sairee-chahal/|title=Women forum hosts Cartier awards finalist Sairee Chahal
|website=[[The Indian Express]]|language=en-US|access-date=2013-06-20}}</ref>
* Femina Achievers Award<ref name="award">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fempower.in/media/sairee-chahal|title=Sairee Chahal|website=www.fempower.in|language=en-US|access-date=2022-06-20}}</ref>
* Devi Award<ref name="award"/>
* Most Powerful Women in Indian Business<ref name="award"/>
* Editor’s choice for L’Oreal Femina Women’s Award<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://globalindianstories.com/index.php/2020/06/16/sairee-chahal-founder-of-sheroes-the-safe-online-social-space-that-empowers-women/|title=Sairee Chahal – Founder of Sheroes, the safe online social space that empowers women|website=www.globalindianstories.com|language=en-US|access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chahal, Sairee}}
[[Category:Living people]]

[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian company founders]]
[[Category:People from Muzaffarnagar]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesswomen]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:Jawaharlal Nehru University alumni]]

Mariyappan Thangavelu

2026-02-20T22:30:42Z

EmilBarraza: slightly enhance section per sources

{{short description|Indian Paralympic high jumper and Paralympic medalist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| headercolor = gold
| full_name = Mariyappan Thangavelu
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1995|6|28}}
| birth_place = Periavadagampatti, [[Salem district]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| height =
| weight =
| image = Mariyappan Thangavelu.jpg
| caption = Mariyappan at the [[2016 Summer Paralympics]]
| country = {{IND}}
| sport = Athletics
| event = High Jump: T42 &T63
| paralympics = '''[[2016 Summer Paralympics]]''': High Jump (T42) – Gold & '''[[2020 Summer Paralympics]]''': High Jump (T63) – Silver
| medaltemplates = {{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalSport|Men's athletics}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Paralympic Games]]}}[[File:IPC logo (2019).svg|center|40px]]
{{MedalGold|[[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016 Rio]]|[[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Paralympics|High Jump T42]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2020 Summer Paralympics|2020 Tokyo]]|[[Athletics at the 2020 Summer Paralympics|High Jump T63]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2024 Summer Paralympics|2024 Paris]]|[[Athletics at the 2024 Summer Paralympics|High Jump T63]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[World Para Athletics Championships|World Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2024 World Para Athletics Championships|2024 Kobe]]|[[2024 World Para Athletics Championships – Men's high jump|High jump T63]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2019 World Para Athletics Championships|2019 Dubai]]|[[2019 World Para Athletics Championships – Men's high jump|High jump T63]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Para Games]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2022 Asian Para Games|2022 Hangzhou]]|[[Athletics at the 2022 Asian Para Games|High jump T63]]}}
}}

'''Mariyappan Thangavelu''' (born 28 June 1995)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/mariyappan-thangavelu-sharad-kumar-tokyo-2020-paralympics-high-jump-result |website=olympics.com |date=31 Aug 2021 |title=Mariyappan Thangavelu wins high jump silver at Tokyo Paralympics |access-date=4 September 2021 |archive-date=3 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903211400/https://olympics.com/en/news/mariyappan-thangavelu-sharad-kumar-tokyo-2020-paralympics-high-jump-result |url-status=live }}</ref> is an Indian [[Paralympic Games|Paralympic]] [[High Jump|high jumper]]. He is a triple Paralympics medalist having won the gold medal at [[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016 Rio]], the silver medal at [[2020 Summer Paralympics|2020 Tokyo]] and the bronze medal at [[2024 Summer Paralympics|2024 Paris]].<ref name="golden_leap">{{cite news|last1=Stalin|first1=J. Sam Daniel|title=Paralympian Mariyappan Thangavelu's Golden Leap From Poverty|url=http://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/news/262708-paralympian-mariyappan-thangavelu-s-golden-leap-from-poverty|access-date=10 September 2016|work=NDTV Sports|date=10 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910123616/http://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/news/262708-paralympian-mariyappan-thangavelu-s-golden-leap-from-poverty|archive-date=10 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> He has also been a double medalist at the [[World Para Athletics Championships|World Championships]] with one gold and one bronze. Additionally, he is an [[Asian Para Games]] silver medalist.

On 25 January 2017, the Government of India conferred him with the [[Padma Shri]] award for his contribution towards sports<ref>{{cite web|url=http://padmaawards.gov.in/PDFS/PadmaAwards-2017_25012017.pdf|title=PadmaAwards-2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129231739/http://www.padmaawards.gov.in/PDFS/PadmaAwards-2017_25012017.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-29}}</ref> and in the same year, he was also awarded the [[Arjuna Award]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/sports/national-sports-awards-centre-unveils-list-cricket-sensation-harmanpreet-kaur-to-receive-arjuna-award/819083/|title=National Sports Awards: Centre unveils list, cricket sensation Harmanpreet Kaur to receive Arjuna Award|date=22 August 2017|access-date=22 August 2017|publisher=Financial Express|archive-date=14 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214043349/https://www.financialexpress.com/sports/national-sports-awards-centre-unveils-list-cricket-sensation-harmanpreet-kaur-to-receive-arjuna-award/819083/|url-status=live}}</ref> He was awarded with the [[Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna]] in 2020.

==Early life==
Mariyappan was born in Periavadagampatti village, [[Salem district]], [[Tamil Nadu]], one of six children (four brothers and a sister). His father reportedly abandoned the family early on and his mother, Saroja, raised her children as a single mother, carrying bricks as a labourer until becoming a vegetable seller, earning {{INRConvert|100|r}} a day.<ref name="golden_leap"/> At the age of five, Mariyappan suffered permanent disability in his right leg when he was run over by a drunk bus driver while walking to school. The bus crushed his leg below the knee, causing it to become stunted.<ref name="not_beyond">{{cite news|last1=Chidananda|first1=Shreedutta|title=It's not beyond me, even gold is possible: Mariyappan|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/its-not-beyond-me-even-gold-is-possible-mariyappan/article8622655.ece|access-date=10 September 2016|work=The Hindu|date=20 May 2016|archive-date=20 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520002509/http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/its-not-beyond-me-even-gold-is-possible-mariyappan/article8622655.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite this setback, he completed secondary schooling. He says that he didn't see himself as different from able-bodied kids.<ref name="golden_leap"/>

==Athletic career==
Mariyappan enjoyed playing volleyball as a student; subsequently, his school physical education instructor encouraged him to try high jumping.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/athletics/10-things-need-know-about-indias-mariyappan-thangavelu|title=Mariyappan Thangavelu: 10 things you need to know about India's Paralympic Games gold medalist|date=2016-09-10|access-date=2018-02-16|archive-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216144129/https://www.sportskeeda.com/athletics/10-things-need-know-about-indias-mariyappan-thangavelu|url-status=live}}</ref> In his first competitive event, aged 14, he placed second among a field of able-bodied competitors, after which he received strong encouragement from his classmates and others in Salem district. In 2013, his current coach Satyanarayana, supported by the Sports Academy of India for the Differently-Abled, first noticed his performance at the Indian national para-athletics championships, and formally took him on as a student in 2015, bringing him to [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]] for further coaching.<ref name="not_beyond"/>

In March 2016, Mariyappan cleared a distance of {{cvt|1.78|m}} in the men's T-42 high jump event at the IPC Grand Prix in [[Tunisia]], qualifying him for the [[2016 Summer Paralympics]].<ref name="not_beyond"/> In Rio, he won the gold medal, again in the [[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Paralympics – Men's high jump#T42|T-42 category]], with a jump of {{cvt|1.89|m}}.<ref name="bag">{{cite news|title=Indians bag gold, bronze in men's high jump in Paralympics|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/mariyappan-thangavelu-wins-gold-in-mens-high-jump-at-rio-paralympics/article9093612.ece|access-date=10 September 2016|work=The Hindu|date=10 September 2016|archive-date=13 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913144011/http://www.thehindu.com/sport/mariyappan-thangavelu-wins-gold-in-mens-high-jump-at-rio-paralympics/article9093612.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

In November 2019, he cleared a distance of {{cvt|1.80|m}} min the Men's T-63 high jump event at the [[2019 World Para Athletics Championships]] in [[Dubai]] to win the bronze medal, behind fellow Indian [[Sharad Kumar (athlete)|Sharad Kumar]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dubai 2019 - Schedule & Results|url=https://www.paralympic.org/dubai-2019/schedule/info-live-results/atdu19/eng/zz/engzz_athletics-event-overview-men-s-high-jump-t63.htm|access-date=2021-08-26|website=International Paralympic Committee|language=en|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831131334/https://www.paralympic.org/dubai-2019/schedule/info-live-results/atdu19/eng/zz/engzz_athletics-event-overview-men-s-high-jump-t63.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2021, he won the silver medal in [[Athletics at the 2020 Summer Paralympics – Men's high jump#T63|men's T-63 high jump]] event at the [[2020 Summer Paralympics]], which was the second medal in his Paralympic career.

==Awards and recognition==
*[[Padma Shri]] (2017) - fourth highest Indian national honour<ref name="padma_awards_17">{{cite web|title=Ministry of Home Affairs: Padma Awards 2017|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/PadmaAwards-2017_25012017.pdf|website=mha.nic.in|access-date=25 January 2017}}{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*[[Arjuna Award]] (2017) - second highest Indian sporting honour, including a cash award of {{INRConvert|5|l}}<ref name="desperate">{{cite news|last1=Periwal|first1=Sunaina Rachel|title=Arjuna Award winner and Paralympic gold medalist Mariyappan Thangavelu desperate for stable job to sustain family|url=http://www.freepressjournal.in/latest-news/bhopal-1000-athletes-to-get-annual-scholarship-of-rs5-lakh-each-for-eight-years-rathore/1182458|access-date=26 December 2017|work=Sportskeeda|date=30 August 2017|archive-date=18 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818231508/http://www.freepressjournal.in/latest-news/bhopal-1000-athletes-to-get-annual-scholarship-of-rs5-lakh-each-for-eight-years-rathore/1182458|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{INRConvert|2|c}} from the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]]<ref name="crore">{{cite news|title=Rio Paralympics: Jayalalithaa announces Rs 2 crore award for gold medallist Mariyappan Thangavelu|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/paralympics-gold-medallist-mariyappan-thangavelu-jayalalithaa-cash-award-2-crore-3023852/|access-date=10 September 2016|work=The Indian Express|date=10 September 2016|archive-date=12 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912064351/http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/paralympics-gold-medallist-mariyappan-thangavelu-jayalalithaa-cash-award-2-crore-3023852/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{INRConvert|75|l}} from the [[Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports]]<ref name="crore"/>
*{{INRConvert|50|l}} from the [[Government of Madhya Pradesh]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Bhopal: 1,000 athletes to get annual scholarship of Rs5 lakh each for eight years: Rathore|url=http://www.freepressjournal.in/latest-news/bhopal-1000-athletes-to-get-annual-scholarship-of-rs5-lakh-each-for-eight-years-rathore/1182458|access-date=26 December 2017|work=The Free Press Journal|date=6 December 2017|archive-date=18 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818231508/http://www.freepressjournal.in/latest-news/bhopal-1000-athletes-to-get-annual-scholarship-of-rs5-lakh-each-for-eight-years-rathore/1182458|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{INRConvert|30|l}} from the [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Govt announces Rs 90L cash awards in total for Paralympics medal winners|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/govt-announces-rs-90l-cash-awards-in-total-for-paralympics-medal-winners/story-A4dIaHpm1t1tEZwD7uqjWM.html|access-date=1 October 2016|work=Hindustan Times|date=29 September 2016|archive-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001061609/http://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/govt-announces-rs-90l-cash-awards-in-total-for-paralympics-medal-winners/story-A4dIaHpm1t1tEZwD7uqjWM.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{INRConvert|15|l}} from fund established by [[Sachin Tendulkar]], various corporations.<ref>{{cite news|title=India's Rio 2016 Paralympics medal winners felicitated|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/indias-rio-2016-paralympics-medal-winners-felicitated-3063673/|access-date=3 October 2016|work=The Indian Express|date=3 October 2016|archive-date=3 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003194650/http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/indias-rio-2016-paralympics-medal-winners-felicitated-3063673/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{INRConvert|10|l}} from [[Yash Raj Films]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Yash Raj Films to honour Indian Paralympic medal winners|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/570337/yash-raj-films-honour-indian.html|access-date=14 September 2016|work=Deccan Herals|date=14 September 2016|archive-date=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916072657/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/570337/yash-raj-films-honour-indian.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{INRConvert|10|l}} from the Delhi Golf Club<ref>{{cite news|title=Delhi Golf club announces Rs 50 lakh in cash awards for Rio Olympics and Paralympics winners|url=http://www.firstpost.com/sports/delhi-golf-club-announces-rs-50-lakh-in-cash-awards-for-rio-olympics-and-paralympics-winners-3013334.html|access-date=1 October 2016|work=Firstpost Sports|date=21 September 2016|archive-date=10 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510091427/http://www.firstpost.com/sports/delhi-golf-club-announces-rs-50-lakh-in-cash-awards-for-rio-olympics-and-paralympics-winners-3013334.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*{{INRConvert|5|l}} from NRI businessman Mukkattu Sebastian<ref>{{cite news|title=NRI businessman announces cash prize for 2016 Rio paralympics heroes|url=http://www.newsnation.in/sports-news/other-sports/nri-businessman-announces-cash-prize-for-2016-rio-paralympics-heroes-article-158215.html|access-date=1 February 2017|work=News Nation|date=18 January 2017}}</ref>
*[[Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna]] (2020) - highest sporting honour of India.

==Personal life==
Mariyappan has an elder sister Sudha and two younger brothers Kumar and Gopi.<ref name="bag"/> In 2015, he completed a bachelor's degree in business administration.<ref name="bag"/>

Following his Paralympic triumph, Mariyappan used some of his prize money to buy his mother a paddy field, so his family could enjoy a more stable source of income, and also used his winnings to build a better house for his family,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/mariyappan-and-bhati-set-their-sights-on-higher-targets/article19582542.ece|title=Mariyappan and Bhati set their sights on higher targets|last=Ganesan|first=Uthra|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=26 December 2017|archive-date=29 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829222309/http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/mariyappan-and-bhati-set-their-sights-on-higher-targets/article19582542.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> depositing the remaining sums in an account. In August 2017, Mariyappan said that while it was "a good feeling" to be recognised and to have his neighbours treat him with great respect, he felt "a slight sadness" that even his friends now treated him with increased formality, which irritated him. In a separate interview that month, he said that though he remained committed to an athletic career, he had been living off his prize money, and was in desperate need of a steady job to support his family. He said he had requested help from the Tamil Nadu government, but had not received a reply.<ref name="desperate"/>

In October 2018, he was named as the flag bearer for the [[2018 Asian Para Games]] held in [[Jakarta]] that month.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/mariyappan-thangavelu-named-indias-flag-bearer-for-asian-para-games-5383422/|title=Mariyappan Thangavelu named India's flag-bearer for Asian Para Games|newspaper=The Indian Express|access-date=7 January 2019|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026235238/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/mariyappan-thangavelu-named-indias-flag-bearer-for-asian-para-games-5383422/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 7 December, he was offered a Group A post as a coach with the [[Sports Authority of India]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/sai-appoints-11-olympians-and-3-paralympians-as-coaches-and-assistant-coaches/|title=SAI appoints 11 Olympians and 3 Paralympians as coaches and assistant coaches|newspaper=The Indian Express|access-date=7 January 2019|archive-date=14 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414012644/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/sai-appoints-11-olympians-and-3-paralympians-as-coaches-and-assistant-coaches/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A petition to implead T Mariappan, recipient of gold medal in Para-Olympics competitions held recently, in a youth’s death case, has been filed in the Madras High Court. According to the petitioner, her son Sathish Kumar (19) faced the wrath of Mariappan for dashing his two-wheeler against the latter’s new Mahindra car on 3 June last. He was beaten up by Mariappan and his friends Sabari and Yuvaraj. When they snatched his mobile phone, Sathish Kumar ran behind them to get it back. Since then he was missing. However, he was found dead near the railway track the next day. She lodged a complaint with local police on the death of her son and also sought protection. As there was no effective action, she filed the present.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2017/oct/12/paralympic-hero-mariappan-accused-of-murdering-youth-who-collided-with-his-car-1671715.html | title=Paralympic hero Mariappan accused of murdering youth who collided with his car | date=12 October 2017 | newspaper=The New Indian Express | access-date=2 July 2020 | archive-date=29 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829121137/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2017/oct/12/paralympic-hero-mariappan-accused-of-murdering-youth-who-collided-with-his-car-1671715.html | url-status=live }}</ref>
Police has investigated the issue and dismissed the involvement of Mariyappan from this case.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IPC|mariyappan-thangavelu}}

{{Paralympic medalists for India}}
{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Sports}}
{{Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Awardees}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thangavelu, Mariyappan}}
[[Category:1995 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Athletes from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:People from Salem district]]
[[Category:Indian men high jumpers]]
[[Category:Paralympic athletes for India]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2016 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2020 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports]]
[[Category:Paralympic gold medalists for India]]
[[Category:Paralympic silver medalists for India]]
[[Category:Tamil sportspeople]]
[[Category:Paralympic medalists in athletics (track and field)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Khel Ratna Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2020 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2022 Asian Para Games]]
[[Category:Medalists at the World Para Athletics Championships]]
[[Category:World Para Athletics Championships winners]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2024 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2024 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Paralympic bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Para Games silver medalists for India]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2022 Asian Para Games]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2018 Asian Para Games]]

Dhakpura, Firozabad

2026-02-13T03:42:54Z

EmilBarraza: Creating the article from scratch

{{Short description|Village in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{other uses|Dhakpura}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Dhakpura
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Firozabad block Dhakpura.png
| map_caption = Map showing Dhakpura in Firozabad block
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|27.04025|N|78.47236|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Firozabad district|Firozabad]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Firozabad]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 1.259
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1259
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011 A"/>
| demographics_type1 =
| demographics1_title1 =
| demographics1_info1 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 322803
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Dhakpura''' ({{IAST|Ḍhakpurā}}) is a village in [[Firozabad]] block of [[Firozabad district]], Uttar Pradesh. It is located very close to the village of [[Sengai, India|Sengai]], to the south of Firozabad. As of 2011, it had a population of 1,259, in 214 households.

== Geography ==
Dhakpura is located southeast of Firozabad and is basically surrounded by flat farmland. The village of [[Sengai, India|Sengai]] is located very close to the east-southeast of Dhakpura. Other nearby villages include [[Jalalpur, Firozabad|Jalalpur]] to the west and [[Itora]] to the north.<ref name="Survey of India map G44A8">{{cite map |author=[[Survey of India]] |title=Open Series Map No. G44A8 |date=2005 |scale=1:50,000 |type=[[Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system|Universal Transverse Mercator]] projection |edition=1st}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
As of 2011, Dhakpura had a population of 1,259, in 214 households.<ref name="Census 2011 A"/>{{rp|126}} This population was 54.9% male (691) and 45.1% female (568). The 0–6 age group numbered 168 (77 male and 91 female), making up 13.3% of the total population. No residents were members of Scheduled Castes.<ref name="Census 2011 B">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Firozabad, Part B (Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1211/download/3858/DH_2011_0916_PART_B_DCHB_FIROZABAD.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=2 February 2026}}</ref>{{rp|116-7}}

The [[1981 Census of India|1981 census]] recorded Dhakpura as having a population of 747 people (395 male and 352 female), in 126 households and 126 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-B: Village & Town Directory, District Agra |date=1982 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28672/download/31854/28391_1981_AGR.pdf |access-date=2 February 2026}}</ref>{{rp|196-7}}

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Dhakpura as comprising 1 hamlet, with a total population of 468 people (247 male and 221 female), in 65 households and 52 physical houses. The area of the village was given as 191 acres.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (22 - Agra District) |date=1965 |location=Lucknow |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28472/download/31654/21841_1961_AGR.pdf |access-date=2 February 2026}}</ref>{{rp|xcvi}}

== Infrastructure ==
As of 2011, Dhakpura had 1 primary school; it did not have any healthcare facilities. Drinking water was provided by hand pump and tube well/bore well; there were no public toilets. The village did not have a post office or public library; there was at least some access to electricity for residential and agricultural (but not commercial) purposes. Streets were made of both ''[[Indian vernacular architecture#kachcha|kachcha]]'' and ''[[Indian vernacular architecture#pucca|pakka]]'' materials.<ref name="Census 2011 A">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Firozabad, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1210/download/3854/DH_2011_0916_PART_A_DCHB_FIROZABAD.pdf |website=Census of India |access-date=2 February 2026}}</ref>{{rp|126-31}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Firozabad district}}

[[Category:Villages in Firozabad district]]

Regional differences and dialects in Indian English

2026-01-30T23:53:46Z

EmilBarraza: minor rework details after review and added references

{{Short description|Variation in the English language spoken in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2012}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
[[Indian English]] has developed a number of dialects, distinct from the General/Standard [[Indian English]] that educators have attempted to establish and institutionalise, and it is possible to distinguish a person's sociolinguistic background from the dialect that they employ. These dialects are influenced by the different languages that different sections of the country also speak, side by side with English.
The dialects can differ markedly in their phonology, to the point that two speakers using two different dialects can find each other's accents mutually unintelligible.<ref name=SethiSethiDhamija2004 /><ref name=Sarangi2004 /><ref name=Schneider2007 />

Indian English is a "network of varieties", resulting from an extraordinarily complex linguistic situation in the country. (See [[Official languages of India]].) This network comprises both regional and occupational dialects of English. The widely recognised dialects include Tamil English, Malayali English, Telugu English, Maharashtrian English, Punjabi English, Bengali English, Hindi English, alongside several more obscure dialects such as [[Butler English]] (a.k.a. Bearer English), Babu English, and Bazaar English and several [[Code-switching|code-mixed]] varieties of English.<ref name=Schneider2007 /><ref name=Krishnaswamy2006 /><ref name=Kirkpatrick2007 /><ref name=Gargesh2006 />

The formation of these regional/socio-economic dialects is the same form of [[language contact]] that has given rise to [[Scottish English]].<ref name=Hickey2004 />

==General Indian English==
{{Main
|Indian English}}

'''General Indian English''' here refers to a variety originating outside of the eastern regions and southern regions, crossing regional boundaries throughout the Republic of India. As mentioned, '''Cultivated Indian English''' is almost entirely this General Indian dialect but with a few additional features derived from [[Received Pronunciation]].

This accent is closest to the educated people, used by news anchors, actors and upper-class people throughout the nation not just particular to any region.

== Babu English ==
'''Babu English''' (a.k.a. '''Baboo English'''), the name originally coming from the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] word for a gentleman, is a dialect of English that first developed as an occupational dialect, amongst clerks in the Bengali-speaking areas of pre-[[Partition of India|Partition]] India. Originally characterised as a markedly ornate form of administrative English, it is now no longer confined solely to clerks, and can be found in [[Nepal]], north India, and in some social circles in south India.<ref name=Kachru1 /><ref name=Bragg2006 />

The distinguishing characteristics of Babu English are the florid, excessively polite, and indirect manner of expression, which have been reported for amusement value, in works such as Cecil Hunt's ''Honoured Sir'' collections (see [[#Further reading|Further reading]]), and lampooned, in works such as F. Antesey's ''Baboo Jabberjee, B.A.'', for over a century.<ref name=Kachru1 /><ref name=Aravamudan2006 />

== Butler English ==
{{main|Butler English}}

Butler English, also known as Bearer English or Kitchen English, is a dialect of English that first developed as an occupational dialect in the years of the [[Madras Presidency]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kachru|first=Braj B.|date=1 December 1965|title=The Indianness in Indian English|journal=WORD|volume=21|issue=3|pages=391–410|doi=10.1080/00437956.1965.11435436|issn=0043-7956}}</ref> but that has developed over time and is now associated mainly with social class rather than occupation. It is still spoken in major metropolitan cities.

The dialect of Butler English is singular. Therefore, the present participle is used for the future indicative, and the preterite. For example, for the preterite indicative "done", "I telling" translates to "I will tell", "I done tell" to "I have told", and "done come" to "actually arrived". This form of Indian English was used both by masters for speaking to their servants as well as by servants to speak to their masters.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hobson-Jobson : the definitive glossary of British India|author=Yule, Henry, Sir|others=Burnell, A. C. (Arthur Coke), 1840-1882., Teltscher, Kate,, Teltscher, Kate, 1963-|year=2015 |isbn=978-0198718000|location=[Oxford]|oclc=913732430}}</ref>

== Hindi English ==
{{Main|Hinglish}}
[[Hinglish]] (the name is a combination of the words "Hindi" and "English") is a [[macaronic language]], a hybrid of [[British English]] and [[South Asian languages]] – it is a [[code-switching]] variety of these languages whereby they are freely interchanged within a sentence or between sentences. While the name is based on the [[Hindi language]], it does not refer exclusively to Hindi, but "is used in India, with English words blending with Punjabi, and Hindi, and also within [[British Asian]] families to enliven standard English." It is predominantly spoken in Northern India and some parts of Mumbai and Bangalore.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

{{IPA notice|section}}
Modern phonologists often divide Indian English into five major varieties.

==Assamese English==
'''Assamese English''' refers to the English spoken by [[Assamese language|Assamese speakers]].
Some major difference between Assamese English and British English are mostly seen in some consonants. In Assamese English all vowels are usually short.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Words
! Pronunciation in Assamese English
|-
|apple
|{{IPA|ɛpʊl}}
|-
|cold
|{{IPA|kol(d)}}
|-
|ball
|{{IPA|bɔl}}
|-
|cool
|{{IPA|kul}}
|-
|mango
|{{IPA|mɛŋɡɔ}}
|-
|father
|{{IPA|ɸadaɹ}}
|-
|cat
|{{IPA|kɛt}}
|-
|she
|{{IPA|si}}
|-
|China
|{{IPA|saɪna}}
|-
|verification
|{{IPA|bʱɛɹiɸikɛsɔn}}
|-
|intelligent
|{{IPA|intɛlizɛn}}
|-
|telephone
|{{IPA|telɪɸʊn}}
|-
|jewellery
|{{IPA|zʊɛlaɹi}}
|-
|think
|{{IPA|tʰiŋ}}
|-
|desk
|{{IPA|dɛks}}
|-
|road
|{{IPA|ɹʊd, ɹod}}
|-
|guardian
|{{IPA|ɡaɹzɛn}}
|-
|fish
|{{IPA|ɸis, pʰis}}
|-
|but
|{{IPA|bat}}
|-
|number
|{{IPA|nambaɹ}}
|-
|university
|{{IPA|iʊnibʱaɹsiti}}
|-
|ghost
|{{IPA|ɡʱos(t)}}
|-
|college
|{{IPA|kɔlɛz}}
|-
|pressure
|{{IPA|p(ɹ)saɹ}}
|-
|torch
|{{IPA|tɔ(ɹ)s}}
|-
|checkpoint
|{{IPA|sɛkpɔɪn}}
|-
|halfpant
|{{IPA|ɦappɛn}}
|}

==Bengali English==
'''Bengali English''' (or '''eastern Indian English''') here refers collectively to the varieties of the [[West Bengal]] state and neighbouring country of [[Bangladesh]], which has been greatly influenced by [[Bengali language|Bengali]]. Its main subdivisions are '''Calcutta English''' as well as '''Dhaka English'''. It is similar or even identical to [[Bangladeshi English]], also known as ''Banglish'' or ''Benglish''.

*{{IPAc-en|ɪ}} as raised, in the general vicinity of {{IPAblink|i}}.
*{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} as fronted, more closely approaching {{IPAblink|a}} but {{IPAblink|ɔ}} between nasal and velar e.g. '''mug'''.
*{{IPAc-en|ʊ}} and {{IPAc-en|uː}} both in the general vicinity of {{IPAblink|u}}.
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}, almost always, as [[monophthong]] {{IPAblink|e}}.
*{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}, almost always, as monophthong {{IPAblink|o}}.
*{{IPAc-en|f}} as {{IPAblink|ɸ}}.
*{{IPAc-en|v}} as {{IPAblink|β}}.

==West Indian English==
'''West Indian English''' here refers to a traditional variety spoken in the western part of India.
*{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|o|oː|}}.
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|eː}}.
*{{IPAc-en|ɛ}} as {{IPAblink|e}}.
*{{IPAc-en|æ}} as {{IPAblink|ɛ}}.
*{{IPAc-en|θ}} and {{IPAc-en|ð}}, respectively, as {{IPAblink|t̪|t̪(ʰ)}} and {{IPAblink|d̪}}.

==Cultivated Indian English==
'''Cultivated Indian English''' here refers collectively to non-localised, non-working class, and more recent varieties of India and the surrounding region of India. It includes mainstream Indian English, a widely common, upper-class variety that preserves a few local Indian features while setting the basis for an otherwise General Indian English accent as well as new Cultivated Indian English, a youthful variety beginning in the 2000s. However, both are found rarely in India.

== Southern Indian English==
{{See also|Tenglish|Tanglish|Kanglish}}
'''Southern Indian English''' here refers to broad varieties of Southern India.
*{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|o|oː|}}.
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} as [[monophthong]]al {{IPAblink|e|eː}}.
*{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} as {{IPAblink|ɑ}}
*{{IPAc-en|θ}} and {{IPAc-en|ð}}, respectively, as {{IPAblink|t̪|t̪(ʰ)|}} and {{IPAblink|d̪}}.

In addition to these, the alveolar stops {{IPAblink|t}} and {{IPAblink|d}} in words like ''water'' and ''door'' are often pronounced as their retroflex equivalents {{IPAblink|ʈ}} and {{IPAblink|ɖ}} respectively.

* Words spelt with double consonants may have the consonant geminated, eg. summer, happy, killing, bitter [sʌmmə hæːppi killiŋɡ biʈʈə~bittə]. Not generally done if the surrounding vowels are long unless its a affixed word eg. irrespective [irrispekʈiʋ]. The dg clusters as in judge, edge are also geminated.

An [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] y might be added to words starting with a front vowel and a w to words starting with a rounded vowel. Hypercorrection is also common, eg. letter "s" as yes and "yes" as es. {{Citation needed|date=January 2026}}

Tamil and Malayali speakers might voice the intervocalic and post nasal plosives or double them, eg. "simply" [simbɭi].

===Malayali===
* An epenthetic vowel {{IPA|[ə̆]}} maybe added to words ending with some consonants.
*{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} can be {{IPA|[ei̯, eji, aji]}} along with {{IPAblink|e|eː}}, e.g. ''name, jail'' {{IPA|[neim~nejim, d͡ʒajil]}}.
* {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} is {{IPA|[oː~ɔː]}} as in ''caught'' {{IPA|[kɔːʈ(ʈə̆)]}}.
* /Cwɪ, Cwi:/ maybe pronounced as [Cju, Cju:], e.g. ''quiz, queen'' {{IPA|[kjus(sə̆), kju:n]}}.
* Alveolar {{IPA|[t, nd, n, l]}} are used for /t, {nd, nt}, n, l/ after front vowels and their retroflex versions after other vowels, e.g. ''seat, suit, kind, count, peel, pool'' {{IPA|[siːt(tə̆), suːʈ(ʈə̆), kai̯nd(ə̆), kau̯ɳɖ(ə̆)~kau̯ɳʈ(ə̆), piːl, puːɭ]}}; plain {{IPAblink|d}} isn't there as Malayalam doesn't have it.
*{{IPAc-en|z}} is never taken as {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} as in rest of South Asia, its either {{IPA|s}} or {{IPA|z}}, e.g. ''zoo'' {{IPA|[suː~zuː]}}. {{IPAc-en|ʒ}} is mostly loaned as /ʃ/ (mostly ones spelt with 's') or as /dʒ, ɻ/, eg. "genre" [ɻoːɳɐr].
* In rhotic accents {{IPAc-en|r|s}} cluster is {{IPA|[ɻs]}} while other instances of {{IPAc-en|r}} can be {{IPAblink|r}} or {{IPAblink|ɾ}}, e.g. ''register, registers, carrot, orange'' {{IPA|[ɾedʒistɐr, ɾedʒisteːɻs(ə̆), kaːɾɐtːə̆, oːrɐɲdʒə̆]}}.

==See also==
* [[Code-switching]]
* [[English language]]
* [[Hinglish]]
* [[Kanglish]] or [[Bangalorean English]]
* [[Manglish]]
* [[Interlanguage]]
* [[List of dialects of the English language]]
* [[Tanglish]]
* [[Tenglish]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=SethiSethiDhamija2004>{{cite book|title=A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English|author1=J. Sethi |author2=Dhamija Sethi |author3=P. V. Dhamija |name-list-style=amp |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|year=2004|isbn=9788120314955|page=59}}</ref>
<ref name=Sarangi2004>{{cite book|title=Studies in ELT, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics|editor=Mohit Kumar Ray|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|year=2004|isbn=9788126903504|chapter=Indian Variety of English: A Socio-Linguistic Study|author=Jaydeep Sarangi|page=50}}</ref>
<ref name=Schneider2007>{{cite book|title=Postcolonial English|url=https://archive.org/details/postcolonialengl00schn|url-access=limited|author=Edgar W. Schneider|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780521831406|page=[https://archive.org/details/postcolonialengl00schn/page/n185 168]}}</ref>
<ref name=Krishnaswamy2006>{{cite book|title=the story of english in india|author1=N. Krishnaswamy |author2=Lalitha Krishnaswamy |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Foundation Books|year=2006|isbn=9788175963122}}</ref>
<ref name=Kirkpatrick2007>{{cite book|title=World Englishes|url=https://archive.org/details/worldenglishesim00kirk|url-access=limited|author=Andy Kirkpatrick|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9780521851473|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldenglishesim00kirk/page/n49 89]}}</ref>
<ref name=Gargesh2006>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of World Englishes|editor1=Braj B. Kachru |editor2=Yamuna Kachru |editor3=Cecil L. Nelson |author=Ravinder Gargesh|chapter=South Asian Englishes|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2006|isbn=9781405111850|page=92}}</ref>
<ref name=Hickey2004>{{cite book|title=Legacies of Colonial English|url=https://archive.org/details/legaciescolonial00hick_498|url-access=limited|editor=Raymond Hickey|chapter=South Asian Englishes|author=Raymond Hickey|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780521830201|page=[https://archive.org/details/legaciescolonial00hick_498/page/n563 543]}}</ref>
<ref name=Bragg2006>{{cite book|title=The Adventure of English|author=Melvyn Bragg|author-link=Melvyn Bragg|publisher=Arcade Publishing|year=2006|isbn=9781559707848|page=243}}</ref>
<ref name=Kachru1>{{cite book|title=World Englishes|editor1=Kingsley Bolton |editor2=Braj B. Kachru |chapter=English in South Asia|author=Braj B. Kachru|pages=267–269|publisher=Taylor & Francis UK|year=2006|isbn=9780415315074}} also printed as {{cite book|editor=Robert Burchfield|title=The Cambridge History of the English Language|volume=V. English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|pages=497–553|chapter=English in South Asia|author=Braj B. Kachru|isbn=9780521264785}}</ref>
<ref name=Aravamudan2006>{{cite book|title=Guru English: South Asian religion in a cosmopolitan language|author=Srinivas Aravamudan|author-link=Srinivas Aravamudan|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-691-11828-4|pages=133}}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal|journal=World Englishes|volume=25|issue=1|pages=91–104|year=2006|title=The influence of Gujarati and Tamil L1s on Indian English: a preliminary study|author1=Wiltshire|first=Caroline|author2=James D. Harnsberger|name-list-style=amp|doi=10.1111/j.0083-2919.2006.00448.x}}
* {{cite book|title=Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon|author=Braj B. Kachru|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=2005|isbn=9789622096660}}
* (Indian Novels in English: A Sociolinguistic Study) Jaydeep Sarangi, Prakash Book Depot, Bareilly, 2005 Pp 214.

=== Babu English ===
* {{cite book|author=Cecil Hunt|year=1931|title=Honoured Sir from Babujee|publisher=P. Allan & Co., Ltd}}
* {{cite book|author=Cecil Hunt|year=1935|title=Babuji Writes Home: being a new edition of 'Honoured sir' with many additional letters|publisher=P. Allan & Co., Ltd}}
* {{Gutenberg|no=25129|name=Baboo Jabberjee, B.A.}}
* {{cite book|title=Studies in ELT, Linguistics and Applied Linguistics|editor1-first=Mohit Kumar|editor1-last=Ray|publisher=Atlantic Publishers|year=2004|isbn=9788126903504|chapter=Babu English and Butler English|author1-first=S.|author1-last=Jagadisan|author2-first=S. Imtiaz|author2-last=Ali|pages=37–39}}

=== Malayali English ===
* {{cite thesis|author=Suchitra Sadanandan|year=1981|degree=MLitt|title=Stress in Malayalee English: A generative phonological approach|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}}

=== Tamilian English ===
* {{cite thesis|author=K. G. Vijayakrishnan|year=1978|degree=MLitt|title=Stress in Tamilian English: a study within the framework of generative phonology|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}}
* {{cite thesis|author=S. Upendran|year=1980|degree=MLitt|title=The intelligibility of English spoken by Tamilians|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}}

=== Punjabi English ===
* {{cite thesis|author=J. Sethi|year=1976|degree=Ph.D.|title=English spoken by educated Punjabi speakers in India: A phonological study|publisher=[[Punjabi University]]|location=[[Chandigarh]]}}
* {{cite journal|author=J. Sethi|year=1978|title=The vowel system in educated Punjabi speakers' English|journal=Bulletin of the Central Institute of English|volume=14|issue=2|pages=35–48}}
* {{cite journal|author=J. Sethi|year=1980|title=Word accent in educated Punjabi speakers' English|journal=Bulletin of the Central Institute of English|volume=16|issue=2|pages=31–55}}

=== Rajasthani English ===
* {{cite thesis|author=P. V. Dhamija|year=1976|degree=MLitt|title=A phonological analysis of Rajasthani English|publisher=Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}}

=== Telugu English ===
* {{cite thesis|author=B. A. Prabhakar Babu|year=1974|degree=Ph.D.|title=A phonological study of English spoken by Telugu speakers in Andhra Pradesh|publisher=[[Osmania University]]|location=[[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]}}
{{English dialects by continent}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Regional Differences And Dialects In Indian English}}
[[Category:Languages of India|Indian English]]
[[Category:Indian English]]

Kaalipotka

2026-01-30T08:38:48Z

EmilBarraza: put up some biography needs work

{{Infobox television
| image = Kaalipotka.jpeg
| image_size =
| caption =
| genre = [[Action thriller]]
| creator =
| director = Abhirup Ghosh
| writer = Abhirup Ghosh
| cinematography = Subhadeep Naskar
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Swastika Mukherjee]]
* [[Anirban Chakrabarti]]
* Sreya Bhattacharya
* Shruti Das
* Himika Bose
}}
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 7
| producer = Abhirup Ghosh
| company = Edgy Entertainment
| network = [[ZEE5]]
| released = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
}}

'''Kaalipotka''' is a 2026 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language action thriller web series directed and written by Abhirup Ghosh. Produced by Edgy Entertainment, the series stars [[Swastika Mukherjee]], [[Anirban Chakrabarti]], Sreya Bhattacharya, Shruti Das, and Himika Bose in the lead roles.<ref name="NewsNation3">{{cite news |date=14 January 2026 |title=Bangla ZEE5 Launches The Title Track Of a New Web Series Kaalipotka |url=https://www.newsnation360.com/post/bangla-zee5-launches-the-title-track-of-a-new-web-series-kaalipotka |access-date=21 January 2026 |work=News Nation 360}}</ref> The series premiered on [[ZEE5]] on 23 January 2026.<ref name="TOI2">{{cite news |last1=Staff |date=21 January 2026 |title=Kaalipotka brings stories of power and survival to the fore |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/kaalipotka-brings-stories-of-power-and-survival-to-the-fore/articleshow/126961798.cms |access-date=21 January 2026 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=21 January 2026 |title=সমাজের প্রান্তবাসীদের গল্প বললে গালমন্দ, যৌনতা থাকবেই! অহেতুক আমিও পছন্দ করি না: অনির্বাণ |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/why-anirban-chakraborty-agree-to-shoot-in-web-series-kali-potka-dgtl/cid/1662495 |work=Anandabazar Patrika}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=South & Regional OTT Releases This Week: Mark, Sirai, Cheekatilo, 45, Kaalipotka And More |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/web-series/south-regional-ott-releases-this-week-mark-sirai-cheekatilo-45-kaalipotka-and-more-ws-kl-9841423.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260120035712/https://www.news18.com/movies/web-series/south-regional-ott-releases-this-week-mark-sirai-cheekatilo-45-kaalipotka-and-more-ws-kl-9841423.html |archive-date=2026-01-20 |access-date=2026-01-22 |work=News18 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The series centres on four women from marginalised backgrounds whose lives intersect following an accidental death, leading them into a violent conflict involving organised crime and law enforcement.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Kaalipotka OTT release date: When and where to watch Swastika Mukherjee's Bengali action thriller |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/kaalipotka-ott-release-date-when-and-where-to-watch-swastika-mukherjees-bengali-action-thriller/4bddd8e7a7862 |access-date=2026-01-22 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>

== Premise ==
The narrative follows Srima, Rani, Rinku and Minoti—four women from disparate socio-economic backgrounds—who are drawn together by the accidental death of Minoti's husband. In their attempt to conceal the incident, they become entangled with Rana, a violent former convict, while simultaneously facing pressure from the local police. As events escalate, the women are forced to confront issues of power, survival and systemic exploitation.

== Cast ==

* [[Swastika Mukherjee]] as Srima
* [[Anirban Chakrabarti]] as Rana
* Sreya Bhattacharya as Minoti
* Shruti Das as Rani
* Himika Bose as Rinku
* Souman Bose as Mona

== Episodes ==

=== Season 1 ===
{{Episode table
|background = #9C958E
|overall = No.
|title = Title
|director = Directed by
|writer = Written by
|airdate = Original release date
|episodes =
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Barood
|DirectedBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|WrittenBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = Srima, Rani, Rinku, and Minoti share a close friendship while struggling to stay ahead of businessman Rana and loan agent Mona. Their fragile balance collapses after the sudden death of Minoti’s husband, setting off a dangerous chain of events.
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Deshlai
|DirectedBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|WrittenBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = Grieving and overwhelmed, Minoti leans on Srima for support, drawing Rani and Rinku into shared responsibilities. As hidden motives, money, and loyalty intertwine, their situation spirals rapidly out of control.
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Solte
|DirectedBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|WrittenBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = The police investigation intensifies with new discoveries that complicate the case. With suspicion tightening around Minoti, Srima crafts a risky plan with Rani and Rinku to redirect attention.
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|Title = Agun
|DirectedBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|WrittenBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = Financial strain and long-buried secrets push the bond between the four women to its breaking point. As investigators draw closer, Srima’s instincts are tested like never before.
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|Title = Phulki
|DirectedBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|WrittenBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = A shocking incident destroys the women’s attempt to rebuild their lives. Surrounded by eerie signs and growing fear, they confront unresolved trauma and question what the future holds.
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|Title = Shihoron
|DirectedBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|WrittenBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = Chaos erupts in Rani’s life when a masked attacker delivers a threatening warning. With no safe escape, the women reunite to face the danger that could change everything.
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 7
|Title = Dhamaka
|DirectedBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|WrittenBy = Abhirup Ghosh
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2026|01|23|df=y}}
|ShortSummary = Rana returns, fueled by vengeance, forcing the women into a final and unpredictable confrontation. With their lives on the line, survival becomes their only goal.
}}
}}

== Production ==
The series was produced by Abhirup Ghosh under the banner of Edgy Entertainment. Principal photography was conducted in West Bengal, with Subhadeep Naskar serving as the director of cinematography.<ref name=":0" /> The music for ''Kaalipotka'' was composed by Kuntal De, with lyrics written by Victor Mukherjee.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-10 |title=Music meets defiance in the title track of Kaalipotka |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/music-meets-defiance-in-the-title-track-of-kaalipotka/articleshow/126449554.cms |access-date=2026-01-22 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The title track, also titled Kaalipotka, features vocals by Jojo Mukherjee, along with rap performances by the lead actresses [[Swastika Mukherjee]], Shruti Das, Himika Bose and Sreya Bhattacharya.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 January 2026 |title=‘Kaalipotka’: Swastika Mukherjee, Shruti Das, Himika Bose and Sreya Bhattacharya rap in quirky title track |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/swastika-mukherjee-shruti-das-himika-bose-and-sreya-bhattacharya-rap-in-quirky-title-track/cid/2141986 |work=The Telegraph}}</ref><ref name="NewsNation3" />

== Release ==
The official trailer of the series was released on 16 January 2026.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-22 |title=Kaalipotka unveils a raw, female-centric narrative |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/kaalipotka-unveils-a-raw-female-centric-narrative/articleshow/127142870.cms |access-date=2026-01-22 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> ''Kaalipotka'' began streaming on [[ZEE5]] from 23 January 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Azad |first=Hardik |date=2026-01-19 |title=Kaalipotka OTT Release Date: Here’s where to watch this thriller Bengali web series online |url=https://newsroompost.com/entertainment/kaalipotka-ott-release-date-heres-where-to-watch-this-thriller-bengali-web-series-online/5352674.html |access-date=2026-01-22 |language=hi}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Reviewing the series for [[The Times of India]], Poorna Banerjee gave it 3.5 out of 5, remarking that the narrative loses momentum in its middle stretch but recovers toward the end. She described Kaalipotka as a compelling watch for audiences interested in bleak, female-centric storytelling.<ref>{{Cite AV media|title=Kaalipotka Season 1 Review: Women, violence, and the price of survival|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/bengali/kaalipotka/kaalipotka-season-1/seasonreview/127483463.cms|access-date=2026-01-30|via=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|first=Poorna|last=Banerjee}}</ref>

Aratrika Dey of ''[[Ei Samay]]'' observed that the series is not without flaws, but highlighted its performances and language as key strengths, adding that its impact builds slowly over the course of the narrative.<ref>{{Cite AV media|title=Kaalipotka Season 1 Review: Women, violence, and the price of survival|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/bengali/kaalipotka/kaalipotka-season-1/seasonreview/127483463.cms|access-date=2026-01-30|via=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|first=Poorna|last=Banerjee|last2=|first3=|last3=|last4=|first5=|last5=Ist}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{IMDb title|39334709}}
* [https://www.zee5.com/web-series/details/kaalipotka/0-6-4z5891763 ''Kaalipotka''] on [[ZEE5]]

[[Category:Indian thriller television series]]
[[Category:ZEE5 original programming]]
[[Category:Bengali-language web series]]

Sydney Percy-Lancaster

2026-01-29T19:24:15Z

EmilBarraza: stub

{{Short description|British-Indian landscape gardener (1886–1972)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
'''Sydney Percy-Lancaster''' {{postnominals|FLS|FRHS|MRAS}} (19 July 1886, [[Meerut]], [[India]] – 9 May 1972, New Delhi) was an English landscape gardener who worked in India. Both his father as well as his son worked as gardeners.

==Career==
Percy-Lancaster's father, [[Percy Lancaster|Percy Joseph Lancaster]], was a banker and a talented amateur gardener, who went on to become the secretary of the [[Agri Horticultural Society of India]] in [[Calcutta]], [[India]]. In 1902 Sydney Percy-Lancaster apprenticed at the Agri-Horticultural Society and on his father's death in 1904, he was appointed an assistant. He continued collecting and [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridising]] the Alipore [[Canna (plant)|Canna]] Collection, started by his father in 1892, they were the most popular garden plant in [[India]] at that time. It was said that every Canna cultivar growing in India had been derived from the Agri-Horticultural Society, where the collection was domiciled.<ref>{{cite journal| journal= Chronica Horticulturae| volume=54| issue=1| year=2014| pages=18–23|title=Percy-Lancasters – the Last Three Generations of British Horticulturists: the Renaissance of Indian Horticulture | author1=Roy, R.K|author2=Singh, S.}}</ref>

In 1910, he became an assistant secretary and then the secretary in 1914 until his retirement in October 1953, after a long service to the society and to Indian horticulture as a whole.
Unlike most of his countrymen who packed up and return to England in 1947, upon the independence of India from the [[British Empire]], Percy-Lancaster stayed on and made India his home.
In 1947, he was the last [[Englishman]] to hold the post of Superintendent of Horticultural Operations, Government of India.

In November 1953, he joined the [[National Botanical Research Institute|National Botanic Gardens]] at [[Lucknow]] as senior technical assistant because of his early life's association with [[Sikandar Bagh]]. He wished to spend the remainder of his life at Lucknow where the gardening traditions of his family began.
He served the [[National Botanical Research Institute|National Botanic Gardens of India]] until January 1959 when his son, [[Alick Percy-Lancaster]] pressed him to join the family at [[Harare|Salisbury]] ([[Southern Rhodesia]]), taking with him the family's Alipore Canna Collection for enjoyment in retirement.
In November 1961, after his wife's death in 1960 and Alick's death in 1961, he returned to the National Botanic Gardens, where he spent the last of his years.

==Horticultural achievements==
[[File:Memorial stone of Sydney Percy-Lancaster.jpg|thumb|Memorial stone of Sydney Percy-Lancaster inside [[Agri-Horticultural Society of India]] Garden at Alipore, Kolkata, India.]]
During the work of about half a century in [[Calcutta]], Mr. Percy-Lancaster introduced many new plants from abroad. He had a particular fascination for hybridization work and many plants found in Indian gardens owe their origin to him. A complete list of the hybrids is catalogued in the records of the Agri-Horticultural Society of India. He watched for worthwhile spontaneous mutations. He discovered many interesting mutants in: Acalypha, Canna, Codiaceum, Hibiscus, Malvaniscus, Panax and Sansevieria.
In the National Botanic Gardens at Lucknow, he had an opportunity to utilize his knowledge in horticulture for public use. He helped to beautify many parts of the garden, in particular the [[Conservatory (greenhouse)|conservatory]] with which he has an association as a boy.

==Hybridization==
<gallery>
Image:PercyLancaster 1727.JPG|''Canna'' (Crozy Group) 'Percy Lancaster', Sydney Percy-Lancaster
</gallery>
Percy-Lancaster had particular fascination for hybridization, and many plants found in Indian gardens originated from his work. His zoned Cosmos called 'Alipore Beauty' renamed 'RatHance' by the famous American seed's man, Bodgers, has been distributed all over the world. There are many Cosmos variations in cultivation, the choicest being the 'Bicolor White Crest'. He has also developed a beautiful pyramidal headed Hollyhock from a presumed cross between ''Alcea rosea'' and ''Malva sylvestris''. Repeating his father's cross between ''Cooperia'' and ''Zephyranthes'', he obtained a large number of colour variations in the ensuing hybrids named ''Cooperanthes''. These hybrids are far superior in colour and performance to either parent. ''Cooperanthes'' has now been merged in ''Zephyranthes'' proper.
He made a number of crosses at varietal and specific level in genera such as, ''[[Amaryllis]]'', ''[[Barleria]]'', ''[[Bauhinia]]'', ''[[Begonia]]'', ''[[Bougainvillea]]'', ''[[Canna (plant)|Canna]]'', ''[[Cassia (genus)|Cassia]]'', ''[[Chrysanthemum]]'', ''[[Crinum]]'', ''[[Hedychium]]'', ''[[Hemerocallis]]'', ''[[Hibiscus]]'', ''[[Ixora]]'', ''[[Lagerstroemia]]'', ''[[Petunia]]'', ''[[Poinsettia]]'', ''[[Rose|Rosa]]'', and ''[[Tecoma]]''.

==Recognitions==
In recognition of the service rendered by the Agri-Horticultural Society, King George V permitted to prefix the word 'Royal' to the society's name, but following India's Independence, the Society dropped the royal distinction to reflect that independence.
* In recognition of his success with ''Cooperanthes'', Prof. Hamilton P. Traub (Plant Life Society, USA) named in 1954 a horticultural genus ''×Sydneya'' after him. This genus is based on the hybrids from the cross ''Zephyranthes'' × ''Habranthus''.
* In horticulture several 'species' and 'varieties' arising from hybridisation or as mutations are named after Lancaster and his family. To quote a few of the important ones:
** ''[[Acalypha]] lancasteri''
** ''[[Antigonon]] lancasteri''
** ''Bougainvillea'' 'Alick Lancaster'
** ''B''. 'Enid Lancaster'
** ''B''. 'Mrs Lancaster'
** ''Cassia ×lancasteri''
** ''Crinum lancasteri''
** ''Hibiscus'' 'Percy-Lancaster'
** ''[[Panax]] lancasteri''
** ''[[Sansevieria]] tri-elfasciata lancasteri''
** ''Gephyranthes lancasteri''
* In 1939 he was awarded the [[The Herbert Medal|Herbert Medal]], which is the highest honour the [[International Bulb Society]] can bestow upon a person for meritorious achievement in advancing the knowledge of bulbous plants.

==Published works==
He authored and published several books,
* 1929, In an Indian Garden
* Everyday Gardening in India
* For over 60 years he wrote several hundred articles on various aspects of gardening and garden plants as a Gardening Correspondent to several Indian newspapers, monthly magazines, and foreign journals.
* He edited the material of the Royal Agri-Horticultural Society from 1904 to 1920, when this publication ceased. Thereafter, Annual Reports of the Society carried items of interest and short articles by him.
* He was also the author from 1935 to 1953 of the monthly "Garden News Sheet" that was regularly published, except for about two years during World War II.
* He has written 55 bulletins published by the National Botanic Gardens. This collection ranges from detailed accounts on ornamental plants to plant breeding simplified, sacred plants of Hindus, garden lay out, etc.
* He gave several broadcasts, lectures, and popular talks to gardening clubs, schools and institutions.
* Most of his friends did not know that he composed a large collection of poems that were published.

== References ==

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* [[Triloki Nath Khoshoo|Khoshoo, T.N.]] - A Dynasty of Indian Horticulturists
* Percy-Lancaster, S. - In an Indian Garden
* Percy-Lancaster, S. - Everyday Gardening in India

==External links==
* [http://www.agrihorticultureindia.com/ Agri Horticultural Society of India]
* [http://www.nbri-lko.org/ National Botanical Institute of India]
* [http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Lancasters-garden/233136/ Lancaster's Garden, Express India]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Percy-Lancaster, Sydney}}
[[Category:Indian horticulturists]]
[[Category:People from Meerut]]
[[Category:Floriculturists]]
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1972 deaths]]
[[Category:British people in British India]]

Mahabhashya

2026-01-29T06:09:18Z

EmilBarraza: further cleanup formatting based on references further

{{short description|Sanskrit work of commentary}}
{{italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2022}}

'''''Mahabhashya''''' ({{langx|sa|महाभाष्य}}, IAST: ''{{IAST|Mahābhāṣya}}''',''''' {{IPA|sa|mɐɦaːbʱaːʂjɐ|IPA}}, "Great Commentary"), attributed to [[Patañjali]], is a commentary on selected rules of [[Sanskrit grammar]] from [[Pāṇini]]'s treatise, the ''[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]'', as well as [[Kātyāyana]]'s ''Vārttika-sūtra'', an elaboration of Pāṇini's grammar. It is dated to the 2nd century BCE.{{Sfn|Kahrs|1998|p=13}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Philosophical elements in Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies | author = K. Kunjunni Raja | year = 1970 |editor=Harold G. Coward |editor-link=Harold Coward |editor2=K. Kunjunni Raja | volume = 5 (''The Philosophy of the Grammarians'') | pages = 115 | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ | isbn = 81-208-0426-0 }}</ref><ref name="Scharf1996p1">{{cite book |last=Scharf |first=Peter M. |title=The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qh4LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1 |year=1996 |publisher=American Philosophical Society |isbn=978-0-87169-863-6|pages=1–2}}</ref>{{sfn|Cardona|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=adWXhQ-yHQUC&pg=PA267 267]–268}}

== Overview ==

Patañjali is one of the three most famous Sanskrit grammarians of ancient India, other two being Pāṇini and Kātyāyana who preceded Patañjali (dated to c. 250 BCE). Kātyāyana's work (nearly 1500 verses on {{IAST|[[Pāṇini]]}}) is available only through references in Patañjali's work.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter M. Scharf|title=The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qh4LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1 |year=1996|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=978-0-87169-863-6|pages=1–2}}</ref>

It was with Patañjali that the Indian tradition of language scholarship reached its definite form. The system thus established is extremely detailed as to ''[[shiksha]]'' (phonology, including accent) and ''[[vyakarana]]'' (grammar and morphology). Syntax is scarcely touched, but ''[[nirukta]]'' (etymology) is discussed, and these etymologies naturally lead to [[semantics|semantic]] explanations. People interpret his work to be a defence of [[Pāṇini]], whose Sutras are elaborated meaningfully. Patañjali also examines Kātyāyana rather severely. But the main contributions of Patañjali lies in the treatment of the principles of grammar enunciated by him.{{Sfn|Cardona|1997|p=267–268}}{{verify source|date=September 2023|reason=speculative fix for referencing error}}

Kātyāyana introduced semantic discourse into grammar, which was further elaborated by Patañjali to such an extent that ''{{IAST|Mahābhāṣya}}'' can be called a mix of grammar as such as well as a ''philosophy'' of grammar.{{Sfn|Cardona|1997|p=245}} ''Kāśika-vritti'' by Jayāditya and Vāmana (mentioned by Itsing) included viewpoints of other grammarians also which did not conform to Patañjali's views.{{Sfn|Cardona|1997|p=280}}

The extant Mahābhāṣya text is available on 1228 of the 3981 sūtras of the Aṣṭādhyāyī. The Mahābhāṣya is divided into eighty five sections called āhnika consisting of subject matter of one day's study each.<ref>{{cite book|author=Madhusudan Penna|title=Vaiyakarana Bhusana Sara (Philosophy of Sanskrit Grammar)|url=https://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/vaiyakarana-bhusana-sara-philosophy-of-sanskrit-grammar-nak758/|year=2013|publisher=NEW BHARATIYA BOOK CORPORATION|isbn=9788183152136|pages=preface}}</ref>

==Mentions and commentaries==
*[[Satyapriya Tirtha]] (c. 1701 – c. 1744), a pīṭhadhipati of [[Uttaradi Matha]] belonging to [[Dvaita|Dvaita school of Vedanta]] wrote a commentary on ''Mahābhāṣya'' named ''Mahābhāṣya Vivarana''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC&pg=PA359|title=The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Volume 5|author=Sibajiban Bhattacharyya|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|year=1970|page=359|isbn=9788120804265}}</ref>
*[[James R. Ballantyne]] (c. 1813 – c. 1864) published the first part of the {{IAST|Mahābhāṣya}} of Patañjali in 1856, for the first time opening native Indian grammatical tradition to a wider European scholarly audience.{{Sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=23}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==

=== Editions ===
*{{cite book|first=Kielhorn|last=Franz|year=1892–1909|title=The Vyākaraṇa-Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali|edition=2|place=Bombay|publisher=Government Central Book depot}} In Sanskrit.

=== Secondary Literature ===
*{{cite book|first=George|last=Cardona|title=Pāṇini: A Survey of Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=adWXhQ-yHQUC|year=1997|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |isbn=978-81-208-1494-3}}
*{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fDA9HMjeRIgC|title=The Role of Divine Grace in the Soteriology of Śaṃkarācārya|first=Bradley J.|last=Malkovsky|publisher=BRILL|year=2001|isbn=9004120440}}
*{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z0_JQXYkG7IC|title=Indian Semantic Analysis: The Nirvacana Tradition|first=Eivind|last=Kahrs|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780521631884}}

== Further reading ==
* The ''{{IAST|Mahābhāṣya}}'' of Patañjali with annotation (Ahnikas I–IV), Translated by Surendranath Dasgupta, Published by Indian Council of Philosophical Research
* ''{{IAST|Mahābhāṣya}}'' of Patañjali (Śrīmadbhagavat-patañjali-muni-{{IAST|viracitaṃ Pātañjalaṃ Mahābhāṣyam) by Patañjali (in Sanskrit), Publisher: Vārāṇasī : Vāṇīvilāsa}} Prakāśana, 1987–1988., OCLC: 20995237
* [[Johannes Bronkhorst|Bronkhorst, Johannes]], 1992. Pāṇini's View of Meaning and its Western Counterpart. In, Maxim Stamenov (ed.) ''Current Advances in Semantic Theory''. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. (455–64)
* Scharfe, Hartmut, 1977. ''Grammatical Literature''. Vol. V, Fasc. 2, History of Indian Literature, (ed.) Jan Gonda. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
* Staal, J.F. (ed.), 1985. A Reader on Sanskrit Grammarians. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.

==External links==
* [http://sa.wikibooks.org/wiki/व्याकरणमहाभाष्य ''vyaakaraN mahaabhaaShya''] in Devanagari.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080302022125/http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gret_csx.htm#PatMBhas ''vyaakaraN mahaabhaaShya''] in CSX at GRETIL.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070819034059/http://hin.osaka-gaidai.ac.jp/cardona/ ''VyaakaraN Mahaabhaashya''] in Roman transliteration

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mahabhasya}}
[[Category:Vyakarana]]
[[Category:Sanskrit texts]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian grammar works]]

Chandrika Prasad Jigyasu

2025-12-31T07:37:36Z

EmilBarraza: Creating some entry from scratch...

{{Short description|Indian anti-caste intellectual, writer, and publisher}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
'''Chandrika Prasad 'Jigyasu'''' (1880s/1890s–1974) was an Indian anti-caste intellectual, Hindi-language writer, and publisher of [[Dalit literature]].

== Early life ==

Jigyasu was born in [[Lucknow]], in a relatively prosperous{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=38}} family belonging to the [[Kalwar (caste)|Kalwar]] caste.{{sfn|Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp|2011|p=204}} He was born sometime in the late 19th century: his biography by Angney Lal states his year of birth as 1889; anthropologist Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp states it to be 1885, and Sarah Beth Wilkerson (Hunt) states it to be 1899.{{sfn|John Stavrellis|2009|p=22}}

His father Jiya Lal{{sfn|John Stavrellis|2009|p=22}} or Jijalal{{sfn|Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp|2011|p=204}} was well-educated and was the headmaster at the American Mission School. Jigyasu studied [[English language|English]] and [[Sanskrit]] at school, and also began to learn [[Persian language|Persian]].{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=38}} However, he could not complete education beyond Class 10, after his father died when he was 11 years old.{{sfn|Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp|2011|p=204}}

As a young adult, Jigyasu came under the influence of the [[Hindu reform movements|Hindu reform movement]] [[Arya Samaj]].{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=38}} He adopted the [[pen name]] ''Jigyasu'' ("one who is curious" or "one who enquires").{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=72}}

At the age of 16, he wrote his first book, on [[Maharana Pratap]], which was published by the Arya Pustakalay from [[Bareilly]]. He worked on a translation of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' from [[Urdu]] into Hindi with commentary by [[Rama Tirtha|Swami Ramatirtha]]. Later, he worked as a translator and a proof-reader for several well-established Hindi journals (such as ''Madhuri'') and publishing houses (such as Ganga Pustak Mala) in Lucknow.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=38}}

== Nationalist literature ==

Inspired by the [[Indian independence movement]], Jigyasu moved from mainstream Hindi publishing to writing nationalist pamphlets. He founded his own press, the Hindu Samaj Sudhar Karyalay (Hindu Society Reform Office).{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=38}}

He printed nationalist-themed booklets of songs and poems. His booklet on the [[Indian National Congress]] leader [[Jawahar Lal Nehru]] - ''Vir Javahar'' - was proscribed by the government and went through twelve editions and 450,000 copies in one year. By 1931, the Hindu Samaj Sudhar Karyalay had published over 30 titles, as part of the ''Hindu Social Reform Series''. These included Nehru's tract ''Rashtriya Dhanka Athava Swadeshi Khadi'' (5th edition published in 1930); anti-alcoholism tracts; and various pamphlets (such as those on Congress, swadeshi, Gandhi and Motilal Nehru). Jigyasu's press was raided by the British Government five times, and he was jailed for several months for his nationalist writings.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=39}}

== Adi Hindu movement ==

In 1926, Jigyasu came into contact with [[Swami Achutanand]], a [[Chamar]] leader who had grown disillusioned with the Hindu reform of [[Arya Samaj]], and had established the independent Adi Hindu social reform movement popular with the untouchables. Jigyasu also became increasingly influenced by the Buddhist leader Swami Bodhanand, and wrote three books with him: ''Mul Bharatvasi aur Arya'', ''Bhagwan Gautam Buddha'', and ''Bauddhacharya-paddhati''. The 1930 book ''Mul Bharatvasi aur Arya'' ("The Original Inhabitants of India and the Aryans") became an important historical text of the Adi Hindu movement. Bodhanand introduced Jigyasu to the Dalit leader [[B.R. Ambedkar]], and Jigyasu gradually became disenchanted with the efforts of the [[Hindu reform movement]]. He changed the name of his press from Hindu Samaj Sudhar Karyalay to Bahujan Kalyan Prakashan ("[[Bahujan]] Welfare Press").{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=39}}

== Dalit literature ==

Jigyasu wrote ''Bharat ke Adi-Nivasiyon'' ("The Original Inhabitants of India"), a history of the Dalit community in ancient India based on Adi Hindu ideology, inspired by Achutanand.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=39}}

The first part of the book - ''Srishti aur Manav-Samaj ka Vikas'' ("Universe and the Development of Human Society") - was published in 1938. The second part - ''Bharat ke Adi-Nivasiyon ki Sabhyata'' ("The Civilization of the Original Inhabitants of India") was published several years later.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=40}}

He wrote multiple texts on Ravidas including ''Sant-Pravar Ravidas Sahab'' (1955, "The Eminent Sant Ravidas") and ''[[Ravidas|Sant Ravidas]] ka Jivan Darshan'' ("The Life Philosophy of Sant Ravidas"). These books present Ravidas as an Adi Hindu poet-sant who reminds the Dalit community of its ancient heritage as indigenous inhabitants of India.

Bahujan Kalyan Prakashan published works in Hindi throughout the 1940s–1960s on various Dalit issues, including works by Ambedkar, pamphlets on Buddhism, caste discrimination and reservation.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=40}}

Later, Jigyasu shifted his literary focus from historical themes of the ancient [[Dalit]] past and began to write pamphlets such as:{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=45, 251}}

* ''Bhartiye Ripablikan Parti Hi Kyon Avashyak Hai?'' (Why is the [[Republican Party of India]] Necessary?), undated
* ''Baba Saheb ki Bhavishya Vani'' ("The Prophesy of Baba Saheb"), 1956
* ''Baba Saheb ka Jivan Sangharsh'' ("Baba Saheb’s Life of Struggle"), 1961
* ''Baba Saheb ka Updesh-Adesh'' (Advice of Baba Saheb), undated
* Hindi translations of Ambedkar’s books such as ''[[Who Were the Shudras?]]'' (1946), ''The Untouchables'' (1948) and ''[[Annihilation of Caste]]'' (1982)

Jigyasu mainly published small Hindi-language pamphlets by Dalit authors, including songs, poems, dramas, ideological articles, and caste histories. These pamphlets were distributed at community gatherings (including annual ''melas'') and political events.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=26}} He wrote a biography of Achutanand: ''Swami Achutanand 'Harihar''' (1968).{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=35, 252}}

In 1973, Jigyasu published the thoughts of Periyar in Hindi, under the title ''Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy Nayakar: vyaktitva, vichar evan samajik kranti'' ("Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy Nayakar: personality, thought and social revolution").{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=102}}

Jigyasu thus became one of the earliest Dalit writers and publishers of north India. He ran his publishing business from his house in Lucknow, from the 1930s to the mid-1960s.

== Legacy ==

[[R. S. Khare]] described him as "a reformer, thinker, and critic" and a "rare intellectual bridge who ably connected the national with the local, the ancient with the contemporary, and the profound with the popular."{{sfn|Ravindra S. Khare|1984|p=xiii}}

He continually invested the little money he had into his publishing ventures.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=25}} His son [[Brahmanand Swami|Brahmanand]] and grandson Avinash Kumar continued his publishing business.{{sfn|Sarah Beth Hunt|2014|p=59}}

== Death ==
Jigyasu died in 1975.{{sfn|Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp|2011|p=203}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book |author=John Stavrellis |title=Chandrika Prasad Jigyasu and Bhikkhu Bodhananda |year=2009 |publisher=University of Wisconsin--Madison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2gOAQAAMAAJ |oclc=495803118 }}
* {{cite book |author=Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp |editor=Peter Schalf |title=Neuer Buddhismus als gesellschaftlicher Entwurf |year=2011 |publisher=Uppsala University |isbn=978-91-554-8076-9 |doi=10.1515/olzg-2015-0120 |s2cid=164806488 |url=https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:472905/FULLTEXT01.pdf }}
* {{cite book |author=Ravindra S. Khare |title=The Untouchable as himself: Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism Among the Lucknow Chamars |year=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521263146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPU8AAAAIAAJ }}
* {{cite book |author=Sarah Beth Hunt |title=Hindi Dalit Literature and the Politics of Representation |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-73629-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHc9BAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |author=Tapan Basu |title=Hindi Dalit Literature in the United Provinces: Swami Acchutanand and Chandrika Prasad Jigyasu, 1900-1930 |year=2021 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9789389867060 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JT9HzgEACAAJ }}
{{ref end}}

[[Category:19th-century births]]
[[Category:1974 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Indian social reformers]]
[[Category:People from Lucknow]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:Hindi-language Indian writers]]

Nawayathi language

2025-12-24T02:31:08Z

EmilBarraza: New

{{Short description|Indo-Aryan language in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Nawayathi
| altname = نوائطی
| states = [[India]]
| ethnicity = [[Nawayath]]s
| region = [[Bhatkal]]
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4 = [[Southern Indo-Aryan languages|Southern Zone]]
| fam5 = [[Marathi–Konkani languages|Marathi–Konkani]]
| script = [[Persian alphabet|Persian]]
| iso3 = none
| glotto = none
}}

'''Nawayathi''', also spelled '''Nawayati''', is a language similar to [[Konkani language|Konkani]] spoken by [[Nawayath]]s of the southwestern coast of [[India]]. It is an amalgam of [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]], with [[Konkani language|Konkani]] as its base.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://twocircles.net/2017jun24/411956.html |title=Connecting Konkan with Arabia via Iran: The history of Nawayathi, the language of Bhatkali Muslims |date=24 June 2017 |work=Two Circles |access-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> The Nawayathi language uses Persian script for writing.

==Proposed Inclusion of Nawayathi Script in Unicode==
[[File:Proposed Nawayathi script letters for inclusion in Unicode.svg|thumb|4 forms of three new letters in Nawayathi script, Top character which sounds between {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} and {{IPA link|s}}, Middle character which sounds {{IPA link|ɳ}} and Bottom character which sounds {{IPA link|ɭ}}.|class=skin-invert]]
In 2019, initiatives were undertaken to preserve the Nawayathi language and prevent its extinction through the inclusion of three additional characters in the Nawayathi script. A prototype keyboard incorporating these characters was also introduced to the public to facilitate digital use and promote the language's vitality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Anjana |first1=Vaswani |title=Hope for Nawayathi |url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/hope-for-nawayathi/articleshow/67402293.html |work=Mumbai Mirror |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Konkani language topics}}
{{Indo-Aryan languages}}

[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Konkani]]
[[Category:Southern Indo-Aryan languages]]

Kyide Nyimagon

2025-11-04T00:28:09Z

EmilBarraza: updated details for accuracy

{{Short description|Founder of the Tibetan Ngari Khorsum Dynasty (?-930)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox royalty
| embed =
| name = Kyide Nyimagon
| native_lang1 = bo
| native_lang1_name1 = སྐྱིད་ཨིདེ་ཉི་མ་མགོན
| title =
| titletext =
| more =
| image = Empire of King Nyimagon with three divisions about 975 .- 1000 CE.png
| image_size = 290px
| alt =
| caption = Empire of King Nyimagon in 975
| succession = Ngari Khorsum
| reign =
| reign-type = monarchy
| coronation =
| cor-type =
| predecessor =
| pre-type =
| successor =
| suc-type =
| succession1 = [[Maryul]]
| moretext1 =
| successor1 = [[Lhachen Palgyigon]]
| suc-type1 =

| succession2 = [[Purang-Guge Kingdom|Guge-Purang]]
| moretext2 =
| successor2 = [[Tashigön]]
| suc-type2 =

| succession3 = [[Zanskar]]
| moretext3 =
| successor3 = [[Detsukgön]]
| suc-type3 =

| birth_name = Khri-skyid-lding
| birth_date = 
| birth_place = [[Lhasa]]
| death_date = {{circa|930}}
| death_place = [[Tsaparang]]
| burial_date =
| burial_place =
| queen = 'K'or-skyon{{sfn|Petech|1977|p=15}}
| spouse = 
| spouse-type = 
| consort = 
| issue = 
| issue-link =
| issue-pipe =
| issue-type =
| full name =
| regnal name =
| posthumous name =
| temple name =
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| house-type =
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| father = [[Depal Khortsen]]
| mother =
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}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|title=Kyide Nyimagon
|c = {{linktext|lang=zh|吉|德|尼|玛|衮}}
|p = jídé nímǎgǔn
}}

'''Kyide Nyimagon'''{{sfn|Fisher|Rose|Huttenback|1963|p=18}}{{sfn|Powers|Templeman|2012|p=388}}{{sfn|Hāṇḍā|2001|p=128}} ({{bo|t=སྐྱིད་ལྡེ་ཉི་མ་མགོན|w=skyid lde nyi ma mgon|s=kyi dé nyi ma gön}}), whose original name was '''Khri-skyid-lding''', was a member of the [[Yarlung dynasty]] of [[Tibetan Empire|Tibet]] and a descendant of emperor [[Langdarma]]. He migrated to Western Tibet and founded the kingdom of '''Ngari Khorsum''' ("the three divisions of Ngari"){{sfn|Ryavec|2015|p=70}} around 912 CE. After his death in 930 CE, his large kingdom was divided among his three sons, giving rise to the three kingdoms of [[Maryul]] (Ladakh), [[Purang-Guge Kingdom|Guge-Purang]] and [[Zanskar]]-[[Spiti]].

== Family ==
After the assassination of the emperor [[Langdarma]], the Tibetan empire entered a period of civil war over succession by Langdarma's two sons {{ill|Yumtän|qid=Q10880716}} (Yum-brtan) and {{ill|Ösung|qid=Q10887423}} ('Odsrung), which divided the empire into two parts.{{sfn|Ryavec|2015|p=70}}
Ösung's son [[Depal Khortsen]] ({{circa|870}}–{{circa|910}}){{sfn|McKay|2003|p=57}} is believed to have controlled most or part of Central Tibet.{{sfn|Petech|1977|pp=14–15}}

Nyimagon was one of the sons of Depal Khortsen, the other being Trashi Tsentsän (''bKraśis-brtsegs-brtsan'').{{sfn|Petech|1977|p=15}} Both the sons fled [[Ü-Tsang]] (Central Tibet) in 910 when their father was murdered, at the end of the 3rd {{ill|revolt in Ü-Tsang|fr|révolte de l'Ü-Tsang}}, which is taken to mark the beginning of the Tibetan [[Era of Fragmentation]].

== Reign ==
[[File:Sculptures at Sheh, image of Maitreya.png|thumb|Sculptures of [[Maitreya]] at [[Shey]], possibly raised by Nyimagon circa 975 AD.{{sfn|Francke|1907|loc=p. [https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern00ahfr/page/n106/mode/1up 63]}}]]

According to [[Ladakhi chronicles]], Nyimagon reached Tö Ngari ("Upper Ngari") with only a hundred followers. But within a comparatively short time he established a large kingdom spanning Ladakh, Zanskar, Lahul, Spiti, Guge and Purang.{{sfn|Fisher|Rose|Huttenback|1963|p=18}}{{sfn|Petech|1977|p=15}}

Nyimagon established a small kingdom in [[Rala, Tibet|Rala]] ({{zh|c=热拉|p=Rè lā}}), near [[Shiquanhe]] in the [[Sengge Zangbo]] valley, in or around 912. He is said to have started by building a ''Kharmar'' (reddish fort) at Rala in the Horse year,{{efn|The ruins of a red fort claimed to have been built by Nyimagon are located at {{coord|32.48230|N|79.85917|E|name=Rala red fort}}.{{sfn|Ryavec|2015|p=73}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.57tibet.com/ngari-travel-notes/2418.html |script-title=zh:热拉红堡 |title=Rè lā hóng bǎo
|trans-title=Rala Red Fort |publisher=Ali Regional Tourism Bureau |via=57tibet.com |access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref> A close-up photograph was published in ''[[Chinese National Geography]]''.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://card.weibo.com/article/m/show/id/2309404509127534575816?_wb_client_=1&object_id=1022%3A2309404509127534575816&extparam=lmid--4509127537747797&luicode=10000011&lfid=1076031826594470&featurecode=newtitle%E5%96%9C%E6%AC%A2 |script-title=zh:西藏典角村，前方距印度碉堡仅600米 |title=Xīzàng diǎn jiǎo cūn, qiánfāng jù yìndù diāobǎo jǐn 600 mǐ |trans-title=Dianjiao Village in Tibet, only 600 meters away from the Indian Bunker in front |last1=Zhao |first1=Chunjiang |last2=Gao |first2=Baojun |editor-last=Lei |editor-first=Dongjun |date=May 2020 |magazine=[[Chinese National Geography]] |at=Image 7 |accessdate=19 July 2020}}</ref>}} another called ''Rtse-śp-rgya-ri'' in the Sheep year. The chronicles say he thought of causing many villages and hamlets to be built throughout the broad valleys of ''Dam'' and ''Lag'' (unidentified, but presumed to be connected to the Sutlej valley, later known as [[Guge]]). But he is said to have left [[Maryul]] (Ladakh) undisturbed.{{sfn|Ahmad|1963|p=36}}

After his establishment, ''Dge-bśes-btsan'' invited him to [[Burang Town|Purang]] and offered him his daughter '''Bro-za 'Khor-skyoṅ'' as wife. Nyimagon married her and had three sons.{{sfn|Ahmad|1963|p=36}}
[[August Hermann Francke]], who translated the Ladakhi Chronicles, proposed that '''Khor-skyoṅ'' must have been the only daughter of the king of Purang. After his death, Nyimagon must have inherited his kingdom in addition to his own territories.{{sfn|Fisher|Rose|Huttenback|1963|p=18}}

Scholar [[Luciano Petech]] noted that the king of Purang belonged to the powerful '''Bro'' family of western Tibet, which had survived from the old [[Zhangzhung]] empire, and supplied queens and ministers to the Yarlung kings. The influence of wife's family as well as his own royal lineage would have contributed to Nyimagon's success in building a large kingdom.{{sfn|Petech|1977|pp=15–16}}

The eldest son [[Palgyigon]] is seen to have expanded the kingdom to Ladakh, during the lifetime of his father. The land was at that time called [[Maryul]] and included [[Rudok]].{{sfn|Petech|1977|p=17}}{{sfn|Fisher|Rose|Huttenback|1963|p=19}}

== Succession ==
[[File:Era of Fragmentation in Tibet.png|thumb|right|270px|The three kingdoms of Ngari in fragmented Tibet]]

Nyimagon died around 930.{{sfn|Hāṇḍā|2001|p=128}}

He divided his kingdom across his three sons. He gave [[Palgyigon]] ({{bo|w=dpal gyi mgon}}), his eldest son, the kingdom of [[Maryul]] (now known as Ladakh).{{sfn|Francke|1992|p=94}} His other two sons, {{ill|Tashigön|fr}} ({{bo|w=bkra sis mgon}}), and {{ill|Detsukgön|fr}} ({{bo|w=lde gtsug mgon}}) received the paternal estate, consisting of [[Purang-Guge Kingdom|Guge-Purang]] and [[Zanskar]]-[[Spiti]] respectively. These three countries together came to be called "Ngari Khorsum".{{sfn|Fisher|Rose|Huttenback|1963|p=19}}{{sfn|Francke|1992|p=94}}

Tashigön's son [[Yeshe-Ö]], who inherited Guge-Purang in 967,{{sfn|Hāṇḍā|2001|p=209}} abdicated in 975 and became a lama. He founded the [[Tholing Monastery]], which became the premier centre for Buddhist learning and a key enabler of the [[Guge#Second diffusion of Buddhism|Second diffusion of Buddhism]] to Tibet.

In Ladakh, the Tibetan language and culture came to replace the culture of Brokpa and Mons, through the rule of Nyimagon's descendants as well as the influence of Tibetan Buddhism.{{sfn|Hāṇḍā|2001|p=128}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{citation |last=Ahmad |first=Zahiruddin |chapter=Tibet and Ladakh: A History |title=Far Eastern Affairs |series=St. Antony's Papers |volume=14 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |year=1963 |chapter-url=http://pahar.in/?wpfb_dl=20160}}
* {{citation |first1=Marialaura |last1=Di Mattia |title=Historical Profile of Ladakhi Religious Architecture |journal=The Tibet Journal |volume=21 |number=2, Shaping the Mind: Artistic Facets of Tibetan Civilization |date=Summer 1996 |pages=90–127 |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives |jstor=43302279 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43302279}}
* {{citation |first1=Margaret W. |last1=Fisher |first2=Leo E. |last2=Rose |first3=Robert A. |last3=Huttenback |year=1963 |title=Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh |publisher=Praeger | doi=10.2307/40199339 |jstor=40199339 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015010426792&view=1up&seq=7|hdl=2027/mdp.39015010426792 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{citation |first=August Hermann |last=Francke |author-link=August Hermann Francke |title=A History of Western Tibet: One of the Unknown Empires |year=1907 |publisher=S.W. Partridge & Co |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern00ahfr/page/n6/mode/2up}}
* {{citation |first1=August Hermann |last1=Francke |author-link=August Hermann Francke |year=1992 |orig-year=1926 |title=Antiquities of Indian Tibet |volume=38, Volume 50 of New imperial series |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=81-206-0769-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WG4J4IKd014C&pg=PA94}}
* {{citation |first1=Christian |last1=Jahoda |first2=Christiane |last2=Kalantari |title=Kingship in Western Tibet in the 10th and 11th Centuries |journal=Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie |volume=24 |year=2015 |pages=77–104 |publisher=École française d'Extrême-Orient |doi=10.3406/asie.2015.1315 |jstor=24906071 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24906071|url-access=subscription }}
* {{citation |first1=Om Chanda |last1=Hāṇḍā |year=2001 |title=Buddhist Western Himalaya: A Politico-Religious History |location=New Delhi |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-124-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4VuovXa5YUC&pg=PA209}}
* {{citation |editor1-first=Erberto |editor1-last=Lo Bue |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=Bray |chapter=Introduction |title=Art and Architecture in Ladakh: Cross-cultural Transmissions in the Himalayas and Karakoram |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |year=2014 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-27180-7 |ref={{sfnref|Lo Bue & Bray, Art and Architecture in Ladakh|2014}}}}
** {{citation |last1=Howard |first1=Neil |last2=Howard |first2=Kath |chapter=Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley, Eastern Ladakh, and a Consideration of Their Relationship to the History of Ladakh and Maryul |title=Ibid |year=2014 |pages=68–99 |isbn=9789004271807 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |ref={{sfnref|Howard & Howard, Historic Ruins in the Gya Valley|2014}}}}
* {{citation |last=Le |first=Huu Phuoc |title=Buddhist Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA88 |year=2010 |publisher=Grafikol |isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8 |ref={{sfnref|Le, Buddhist Architecture|2010}}}}
* {{citation |first=Alex |last=McKay |title=The History of Tibet, Vol. 1 |publisher=Routledge Curzon |year=2003 |isbn=9780415308427}}
* {{citation |last=Petech |first=Luciano |authorlink=Luciano Petech |title=The Kingdom of Ladakh, c. 950–1842 A.D. |publisher=Instituto Italiano Per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente |year=1977 |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/48901732/1977_Kingdom_of_Ladakh_c_950-1842_AD_by_Petech_s.pdf |via=academia.edu}}{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* {{citation |last1=Powers |first1=John |last2=Templeman |first2=David |title=Historical Dictionary of Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LVlyX6iSDEQC&pg=PA749 |year=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7984-3}}
* {{citation |last=Ryavec |first=Karl E. |title=A Historical Atlas of Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECYmCQAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-24394-8}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nyimagon, Kyide}}
[[Category:History of Ladakh]]
[[Category:10th-century Tibetan people]]
[[Category:People associated with Lahaul and Spiti district]]
[[Category:10th-century monarchs in Asia]]

Namchi district

2025-09-24T13:27:35Z

EmilBarraza:

{{short description|District in Sikkim, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Namchi district
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Sikkim|District]] of [[Sikkim]]
| image_skyline = Ravangla, Sikkim by Masum Ibn Musa (216).jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Mountain view at [[Ravangla]] in Namchi district, Sikkim
| image_flag =
| flag_alt =
| image_seal =
| seal_alt =
| image_shield =
| shield_alt =
| nickname =
| motto =
| mottoeng =
| image_map = {{maplink |frame=yes
|frame-width=225 |frame-height=225 |frame-align=center
|text= '''Namchi district'''
|type=shape |id=Q1805051
|stroke-colour=#C60C30
|stroke-width=2
|title= Namchi district of Sikkim
|type2=line|id2=Q1505|stroke-width2=1|stroke-colour2=#0000ff|title2=Sikkim
}}
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Sikkim
| coordinates = {{coord|27|10|N|88|22|E|region:IN-SK_type:adm2nd|display=inline,title}}
| coor_pinpoint =
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Government of Sikkim.svg}} [[Sikkim]]
| subdivision_type2 =
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| seat_type = [[Headquarters]]
| seat = [[Namchi]]
| government_footnotes =
| leader_party =
| leader_title = District Collector (DC)
| leader_name = Shri M. Bharani Kumar <ref> {{Cite web|title=District Collectors|url=https://sikkim.gov.in/mygovernment/whos-who/district-collectors|website=sikkim.gov.in}} </ref>
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 750
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent =
| area_note =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 146,850
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_note =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| timezone1_DST =
| utc_offset1_DST =
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = SK-04, SK-05
| area_code_type =
| area_code =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-SK]]
| website = {{URL|https://namchi.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Namchi district'''<ref> {{cite web | url = https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/two-new-districts-to-be-created-in-sikkim/cid/1842637| title=thetelegraph.com}} </ref> is a [[list of Indian districts|district]] of the [[India]]n [[states and territories of India|state]] of [[Sikkim]]. Its headquarters is at [[Namchi]].

== Geography ==
Namchi district lies at an altitude of 400 to 2000 metres and has a temperate climate for most of the year. Major urban centres include [[Namchi]], [[Ravangla]], [[Jorethang]] and [[Melli]].

===Assembly Constituencies===
The district was previously divided into eight [[assembly constituency|assembly constituencies]].
*[[Barfung (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Barfung]] (BL)
*[[Poklok-Kamrang (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Poklok-Kamrang]]
*[[Namchi-Singhithang (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Namchi-Singhithang]]
*[[Melli (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Melli]]
*[[Namthang-Rateypani (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Namthang-Rateypani]]
*[[Temi-Namphing (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Temi-Namphing]]
*[[Rangang-Yangang (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Rangang-Yangang]]
*Tumen-Lingi (BL)

=== National protected area ===
*[[Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary]]

== Economy ==
South Sikkim is the most industrialised district in the state, owing to the availability of flat land. Since the geology is stable the roads are in good condition as compared to other parts of the state which suffer from [[landslide]]s. The district is also known for [[Sikkim tea]], which is grown near Namchi.

== Demographics ==
According to the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Namchi district has a [[Demographics of India|population]] of 146,850,<ref name="districtcensus">{{cite web |title=District Census Hand Book – Sikkim |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/13990/download/17113/DH_2011_1100_PART_A_DCHB_SIKKIM.PDF |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> roughly equal to the nation of [[Saint Lucia]].<ref name="cia">{{cite web | author = US Directorate of Intelligence | title = Country Comparison:Population | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004507/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 13 June 2007 | access-date = 1 October 2011 | quote = Saint Lucia 161,557 July 2011 est. }}</ref> This gives it a ranking of 600th in India (out of a total of [[Districts of India|640]]).<ref name=districtcensus/> The district has a population density of {{convert| 196 |PD/sqkm|PD/sqmi}}.<ref name=districtcensus/> Its [[Family planning in India|population growth rate]] over the decade 2001–2011 was 11.57%.<ref name=districtcensus/> and has a [[sex ratio]] of 914 [[Women in India|females]] for every 1000 males,<ref name=districtcensus/> and a [[Literacy in India|literacy rate]] of 82.06%. 14.44% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 4.12% and 28.19% of the population respectively.<ref name=districtcensus/>

Namchi is one of the least populated regions of the state. The people are mainly of [[Nepalis|Nepali]] descent. Other ethnic groups include the [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] and [[Bhutia]] communities. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the most widely spoken language in the district. The district was under the occupation of the Nepalese for 30 years in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

===Religion===
{{bar box
|title = Religion in Namchi district (2011)<ref name="Religion"/>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|57.60}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|yellow|23.87}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|dodgerblue|14.61}}
{{bar percent|Other (mainly [[Kirat Mundhum]])|red|2.16}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|1.29}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.47}}
}}
Hinduism is followed by majority of the people in the South Sikkim district. Buddhism is followed by a considerable population.<ref name="Religion">{{Cite web|date=2011|title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: Sikkim |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11391/download/14504/DDW11C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

===Languages===
{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Namchi district (2011)
|label1 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] |value1 = 72.66 |color1 = lightcoral
|label2 = [[Sikkimese language|Bhotia]] |value2 = 3.88 |color2 = deepskyblue
|label3 = [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] |value3 = 3.61 |color3 = darkblue
|label4 = [[Limbu language|Limbu]] |value4 = 3.57 |color4 = lavender
|label5 = [[Hindi]] |value5 = 3.25 |color5 = orange
|label6 = [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]] |value6 = 3.19 |color6 = purple
|label7 = [[Tamang language|Tamang]] |value7 = 2.46 |color7 = skyblue
|label8 = [[Kiranti languages|Rai]] |value8 = 1.65 |color8 = limegreen
|label9 = [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] |value9 = 1.26 |color9 = gold
|label10 = Others |value10 = 4.47 |color10 = grey
}}
At the time of the [[2011 Census of India]], 72.66% of the population in the district spoke [[Nepali language|Nepali]], 3.88% [[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]], 3.61% [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]], 3.57% [[Limbu language|Limbu]], 3.25% [[Hindi]], 3.19% [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]], 2.46% [[Tamang language|Tamang]], 1.65% [[Rai languages|Rai]], 1.26% [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], 0.88% [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] and 0.83% [[Bengali language|Bengali]] as their first language.<ref name="languages">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Sikkim |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10221/download/13333/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1100.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

== Flora and fauna ==
The [[Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary]] was established in 1987. It has an area of {{convert|35|km2|mi2|abbr=on|1}}.<ref name=parks>{{cite web|author=Indian Ministry of Forests and Environment|title=Protected areas: Sikkim|url=http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/envis_pa_network/index.htm|access-date=25 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823163836/http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/envis_pa_network/index.htm|archive-date=23 August 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Divisions==
{{South Sikkim image map}}

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| caption_align = center
| footer_align = center
| width = 300
| footer = '''Scenes from the district'''
| image1 = Guru rimpoche at samdruptse.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Padmasambhāva|Padmasambhava]], the patron saint of Sikkim
| image2 = Temi Tea Garden Ravangla.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Tea garden
}}
Namchi district is divided into two sub-divisions:<ref>{{cite map |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |title=Sikkim Administrative Divisions |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/maps/administrative_maps/SIKIM.pdf |language=en |format=PDF |year=2011 |access-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" width=65% style="border:1px solid black"
|- bgcolor=#EDAFFF
| width="10%" | '''Name'''
| width="20%" | '''Headquarters'''
| width="20%" | '''Number of villages'''<ref name='MDDS'>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/MDDS/mdds_dir_Rural_11.pdf | title = MDDS e-Governance Code (Sikkim Rural) | access-date = 15 October 2011 | year = 2011 | format = PDF | publisher = Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref>
| width="10%" |'''Population (2011)'''
| width="10%" | '''Area'''
| width="10%" | '''Location'''
|- bgcolor=#EFE4B0
| Namchi|| [[Namchi]]|| || 98,895 || 296 || [[File:South Sikkim Subdivisions Namchi.png|80px|center]]
|- bgcolor=#EFE4B0
| Ravangla|| [[Ravangla]]|| || 47,955 || 454 || [[File:South Sikkim Subdivisions Ravong.png|80px|center]]
|}

== Villages ==


*[[Melli Dara]]
*[[Perbing]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Namchi district}}
*[https://southsikkim.nic.in/ Official district government website]
*{{Wikivoyage-inline|South Sikkim}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Namchi
|North = [[Mangan, India|Mangan]]
|Northeast =
|East = [[Gangtok]]
|Southeast =
|South = [[Darjeeling district]], [[West Bengal]]
|Southwest =
|West = [[Gyalshing]]
|Northwest =
}}

{{South Sikkim district |state=expanded}}
{{Sikkim}}

[[Category:Namchi district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of Sikkim]]

Neelam Pahalwan

2025-09-13T21:56:16Z

EmilBarraza: New

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Neelam Pahalwan
| term_start = 8 February 2025
| constituency = [[Najafgarh Assembly constituency|Najafgarh]]
| office = [[Delhi Legislative Assembly|Member of Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
| predecessor = [[Kailash Gahlot]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| image =
}}

'''Neelam Pahalwan''' is an Indian politician from the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]] in [[Delhi]]. She was elected as a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA) in the 8th Delhi Assembly from the Najafgarh Assembly constituency, becoming the first woman MLA from Najafgarh.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Najafgarh Election Results 2025: How Neelam Pahalwan, Tarun Kumar performed in Najafgarh constituency |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/delhi/delhi-assembly-elections-2025-results-how-neelam-pahalwan-tarun-kumar-performed-in-najafgarh-constituency-3396343 |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-08 |title=Najafgarh, Delhi Assembly Election Results 2025 Highlights: BJP's Neelam Pahalwan wins Najafgarh with 101708 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/najafgarh-delhi-assembly-election-results-2025-live-updates-aap-bjp-congress-daelb-2676405-2025-02-08 |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

Neelam Pahalwan submitted a proposal in the Delhi Assembly to rename the constituency name Najafgarh to 'Nahargarh'.<ref name="Delhi BJP MLAs raise proposal to rename Najafgarh, Mohammadpur">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Delhi BJP MLAs raise proposal to rename Najafgarh, Mohammadpur |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-bjp-mlas-raise-proposal-to-rename-najafgarh-mohammadpur/article69271738.ece |access-date=16 March 2025 |work=The Hindu |date=27 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316165440/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-bjp-mlas-raise-proposal-to-rename-najafgarh-mohammadpur/article69271738.ece |archive-date=16 March 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Political career ==
In the 2025 Delhi Assembly elections, Neelam Pahalwan won from Najafgarh as a BJP candidate, defeating Tarun Kumar of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] (AAP).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-10 |title=Who Is Neelam Pahalwan? First Woman MLA From Najafgarh |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/who-is-neelam-pahalwan-first-woman-mla-from-najafgarh-article-118121042/amp |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-10 |title=Is Delhi getting a woman CM? Who could it be? |url=https://www.firstpost.com/explainers/is-delhi-getting-a-woman-cm-who-could-it-be-13861810.html |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=Firstpost |language=en-us}}</ref>

She has proposed the renaming of Najafgarh to 'Nahargarh', citing historical reasons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BJP MLA Neelam Pahalwan Proposes Renaming Najafgarh To 'Nahargarh' In Delhi Assembly |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bjp-mla-neelam-pahalwan-proposes-renaming-najafgarh-to-nahargarh-in-delhi-assembly-7807448 |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=www.ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-02-27 |title=Najafgarh should be renamed 'Nahargarh': BJP MLA in Delhi assembly |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/najafgarh-should-be-renamed-nahargarh-bjp-mla-neelam-pahalwan-in-delhi-assembly/articleshow/118597703.cms |access-date=2025-03-01 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Neelam Pahalwan holds a Master of Arts (MA) in English. She is married to Krishan Kumar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neelam Pahalwan(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- NAJAFGARH(SOUTH-WEST) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/Delhi2025/candidate.php?candidate_id=56 |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pahalwan, Neelam}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Delhi MLAs 2025–2030]]

{{Delhi-BJP-politician-stub}}

Mamta

2025-09-12T16:00:21Z

EmilBarraza: Done

{{Wiktionary|Mamta}}
'''Mamta''' or '''Mamata''' may refer to:

==Films and television==
* [[Mamta (1936 film)|''Mamta'' (1936 film)]], see [[Bollywood films of the 1930s]]
* [[Mamta (1942 film)|''Mamta'' (1942 film)]], a 1942 Indian film
* [[Mamta (1952 film)|''Mamta'' (1952 film)]], a 1952 Indian film
* [[Mamta (1965 film)|''Mamta'' (1965 film)]], see Bollywood films of 1965
* [[Mamta (1966 film)|''Mamta'' (1966 film)]], a 1966 Indian film by Asit Sen
* [[Mamta (TV series)|''Mamta'' (TV series)]], a serial appearing on the Indian Zee TV satellite television network
* Mamata, a fictional character played by Mamata Shankar in the Indian films ''[[Agantuk]]'' (1991) and ''[[Agantuker Pore]]'' (2016)

==Given name==
* [[Mamta Kulkarni]], Indian actress in Hindi cinema
* [[Mamta Mohandas]], Indian actress in South Indian cinema
* [[Mamta Sagar]], Indian poet and playwright
* [[Mamata Bala Thakur]], Indian politician, former Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha from Bangaon
* [[Mamata Banerjee]], Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal and former Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha
* [[Mamata Bhunia]], Indian politician, member of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly
* [[Mamata Dash]], Indian poet writing in Odia
* [[Mamata Mohanta]], Indian politician, Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha from Odisha
* [[Mamata Roy]], Indian politician, former member of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly
* [[Mamata Shankar]], Indian actress and classical dancer in Bengali cinema

==Other uses==
* [[Mamta, Tibet]]

== See also ==
* [[Moumita (disambiguation)]]

{{Disambiguation|given name}}

Paithani (TV series)

2025-08-28T12:06:30Z

EmilBarraza: made a entry

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Paithani.jpeg
| caption = First look poster
| genre = Drama
| director = [[Gajendra Ahire]]
| starring = {{ubl|[[Mrinal Kulkarni]]|[[Eisha Singh]]|[[Shivam Bhaargava]]|Syed Zafar Ali|Sangeeta Balachandran}}
| writer = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange and Gajendra Ahire
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| producer = {{ubl|[[Zee Studios]]|Aarambh Entertainment}}
| network = [[ZEE5]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
}}
'''''Paithani''''' is a [[Hindi]] drama web series directed by [[Gajendra Ahire]] and produced by [[Zee Studios]] and Aarambh Entertainment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaushal |first=Ananya |title=Zee5's New Show 'Paithani' Celebrates Love, Legacy, And The Power Of Family |url=https://zeenews.india.com/television/zee5-s-new-show-paithani-celebrates-love-legacy-and-the-power-of-family-2817178.html |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref> It follows a mother and daughter as they face challenges while weaving their last [[Paithani]] saree. Starring [[Mrinal Kulkarni]], [[Eisha Singh]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paithani: Mrinal Kulkarni sends best wishes to co-star Eisha Singh for Bigg Boss 18; says 'It was heartwarming to...' {{!}} Exclusive |url=https://www.ottplay.com/interview/paithani-mrinal-kulkarni-on-working-with-eisha-singh-and-her-bigg-boss-18-journey/7178179c02987 |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> [[Shivam Bhaargava]], Syed Zafar Ali, and Sangeeta Balachandran,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eisha Singh, Mrinal Thakur's series Paithani to stream from Nov 15 on Zee 5 |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/entertainment/eisha-singh-mrinal-thakurs-series-paithani-to-stream-from-nov-15-on-zee-5-article-12860412.html |website=Moneycontrol}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=वयाच्या सोळाव्या वर्षी 'या'मालिकेत मी पहिल्यांदा पैठणी नेसली होती, भावुक झाल्या मृणाल कुलकर्णी |url=https://marathi.indiatimes.com/entertainment/interview/mrinal-kulkarni-interview-marathi-actress-talks-about-paithani-web-series-daughter-in-law-and-mother-death/articleshow/115171816.cms |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref> the trailer was released on 7 November 2024,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-07 |title=Mrinal Kulkarni and Eisha Singh to star in web series 'Paithani' |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/web-series/article/eisha-singh-mrinal-kulkarni-paithani-zee5-22nd-november-23424900 |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref> and the series premiered on [[ZEE5]] on 15 November 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khanam |first=Arshi |title=Paithani on ZEE5: Eisha Singh aka Kaveri becomes a determined daughter in new emotionally charged promo |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/paithani-on-zee5-eisha-singh-aka-kaveri-becomes-a-determined-daughter-in-new-emotionally-charged-promo/1dab42373a627 |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-10 |title=आई मुलीच्या नात्याची 'पैठणी' |url=https://www.loksatta.com/manoranjan/paithani-web-series-on-zee-5-ott-entertainment-news-amy-95-4700983/ |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}</ref>

== Plot summary ==
The series revolves around the life of Godavari, a renowned artisan known for her exquisite Paithani sarees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paithani on ZEE5: Eisha Singh aka Kaveri becomes a determined daughter in new emotionally charged promo |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/paithani-on-zee5-eisha-singh-aka-kaveri-becomes-a-determined-daughter-in-new-emotionally-charged-promo/1dab42373a627 |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> As she approaches retirement, her daughter, Kaveri, embarks on a mission to fulfill her mother's lifelong dream: to weave one last [[Paithani]] saree.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-07 |title=Mrinal Kulkarni and Eisha Singh to star in web series 'Paithani' |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/web-series/article/eisha-singh-mrinal-kulkarni-paithani-zee5-22nd-november-23424900 |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref> This journey takes them through a tapestry of emotions, challenges, and the enduring bond between a mother and daughter.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-08 |title=Paithani OTT Release Date: When and Where to Watch it Online? |url=https://www.gadgets360.com/entertainment/news/paithani-ott-release-date-zee5-s-new-show-exploring-love-legacy-and-family-strength-premieres-soon-6974401 |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=Gadgets 360 |language=en}}</ref>

== Cast ==

* [[Mrinal Kulkarni]] as Godavari
* [[Eisha Singh]] as Kaveri
* [[Shivam Bhaargava]] as Vinay Bhanushali
* Syed Zafar Ali as Nana
* Sangeeta Balachandran as Ganga Ajji

== Episodes ==
{{Episode table |background=##9C958E |overall= |title= |director= |writer= |airdate= |directorR= |writerR= |airdateR= |episodes={{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Phir Se Hui Subah Hai
|DirectedBy = Gajendra Ahire
|WrittenBy = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange and Gajendra Ahire
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
|ShortSummary = Godavari, an expert weaver, continues to create beautiful Paithani sarees despite her failing eyesight. Her daughter, Kaveri, who is a school teacher, dreams of presenting her mother with the final saree she weaves.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Dhagon Ke Bol
|DirectedBy = Gajendra Ahire
|WrittenBy = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange and Gajendra Ahire
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
|ShortSummary = Kaveri secures a loan to fund the Paithani and places an advance order. When the order goes missing, Kaveri's grandmother takes a significant step to recover the money.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Main Paithan Se Hoon
|DirectedBy = Gajendra Ahire
|WrittenBy = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange andGajendra Ahire
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
|ShortSummary = Kaveri's quest to retrieve the Paithani order brings her to the vendor responsible for the mix-up. She decides to travel to Mumbai to resolve the issue, with her mother reluctantly giving her blessing.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|Title = Sherni Hai Wo Sherni
|DirectedBy = Gajendra Ahire
|WrittenBy = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange and Gajendra Ahire
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
|ShortSummary = Kaveri faces numerous challenges in Mumbai, including losing her phone. Her determination, however, helps her recover the phone and get closer to finding the person who placed the order.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|Title = Sapne Aur Hunar
|DirectedBy = Gajendra Ahire
|WrittenBy = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange and Gajendra Ahire
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
|ShortSummary = Kaveri attempts to contact Vinay Bhanushali, the individual who ordered her mother's Paithani. Meanwhile, back home, Godavari is anxious about her daughter's safety.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|Title = Hum Dharohar Manne Wale Log Hai
|DirectedBy = Gajendra Ahire
|WrittenBy = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange and Gajendra Ahire
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
|ShortSummary = Kaveri tries to persuade Vinay to return the payment for the Paithani she wanted. At the same time, Godavari is faced with a tough decision when she receives a request for a contemporary design for the saree.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 7
|Title = Viraasat
|DirectedBy = Gajendra Ahire
|WrittenBy = Madhavi Wageshwari,Chetan Dange and Gajendra Ahire
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|df=yes|2024|11|15}}
|ShortSummary = Kaveri is torn when her brother has an accident, and she struggles to raise funds for his treatment. Concurrently, Godavari decides to personally deliver the saree she crafted for Vinay.
|LineColor = #9C958E
}}
}}

== Critical reception ==
Shaheen Irani from ''[[HT Media|OTT Play]]'' rated the show 1.5 stars out of 5, describing it as "sweet but extremely slow-paced." She noted that while the show romanticizes Mumbai, this is its primary offering, along with a focus on the intricate craft of Paithani saree making. Irani suggested that viewers could either skip it entirely or opt to watch only the final episode, if they don't mind the over-dramatization.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paithani review: Mrinal Kulkarni-Eisha Singh's series is sweet but very slow |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/paithani-review-mrinal-kulkarni-eisha-singhs-series-is-sweet-but-as-slow-as-saree-making/8ed4e5490d255 |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>

Tanmayi Savadi of ''[[Times Now]]'', on the other hand, gave the series 3 stars out of 5, praising the performances of Mrinal Kulkarni and Eisha Singh, calling the series "warm and delicate."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-15 |title=Paithani Review: Mrinal Kulkarni, Eisha Singh's Series Is Warm And Delicate |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/paithani-review-mrinal-kulkarni-eisha-singhs-series-is-warm-and-delicate-review-115341417 |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>

Smriti Kannan of ''Fugitives'' commented on Paithani by stating that it had the potential to be an emotional family drama exploring the deep cultural significance of the saree in Indian society. However, she felt that the show missed this opportunity, calling it "a lost chance."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-16 |title='Paithani' Web-Series Review: A Senseless Mother-Daughter Story That Lacks Basic Emotions {{!}} Film Fugitives |url=https://fugitives.com/paithani-web-series-review-2024/ |access-date=2024-11-18 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* ''[https://www.zee5.com/web-series/details/paithani/0-6-4z5649658 Paithani]'' on [[ZEE5]]

[[Category:2024 web series debuts]]
[[Category:ZEE5 original programming]]
[[Category:Hindi-language web series]]

Kamarajar Port

2025-08-14T13:17:41Z

EmilBarraza:

{{Advert|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox Port
| name = Kamarajar Port
| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption = Kamarajar Port Limited
| country = {{flagicon|India}} [[India]]
| location = [[Athipattu Pudunagar]], [[Ennore]], [[Chennai]]
| coordinates = {{coord|13.25164|N|80.32683|E|display=title,inline}}
| locode = IN ENR
| opened = 2001
| operated = Kamarajar Port Limited
| owner = Kamarajar Port Limited
| type = Seaport (Artificial)
| sizewater =
| sizeland =
| size =
| berths = 8
| wharfs =
| piers =
| employees = 96 (2023–24)<ref name="Kamarajar Port"/>
| leadershiptitle = Chairman and Managing Director
| leader = Sunil Paliwal, IAS
| blankdetailstitle1 =
| blankdetails1 =
| blankdetailstitle2 = Main trades
| blankdetails2 = Thermal Coal, Automobiles, Project Cargo, LPG, POL, Chemical, other liquids, other bulk and rock mineral products
| blankdetailstitle3 = UN/LOCODE
| blankdetails3 = INENR
| arrivals =
| cargotonnage = {{increase}} 45.28 million (2023–24)<ref name="Kamarajar Port"/>
| containervolume = {{increase}} {{formatnum:671393}} [[Twenty-foot equivalent unit|TEU]] (2023–24)<ref name="Kamarajar Port">{{cite web | url = https://www.kamarajarport.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Anr24.pdf | title = Administration Report 2023-24 | publisher = kamarajarport.in. | date = 29 October 2024| access-date = 29 October 2024}}</ref>
| cargovalue =
| passengertraffic =
| revenue = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|1081.44 |c}} (2023–24)<ref name="Kamarajar Port"/>
| profit = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|495.68 |c}} (2023–24)<ref name="Kamarajar Port"/>
| blankstatstitle1 = Vessels handled
| blankstats1 = 967 (2023–24)<ref name="Kamarajar Port"/>
| blankstatstitle2 =
| blankstats2 =
| blankstatstitle3 =
| blankstats3 =
| website = http://www.kamarajarport.in/
}}

'''Kamarajar Port''', formerly '''Ennore Port''',<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kumar|first=N. Ravi|date=2016-05-18|title=Ennore Port renamed as Kamarajar Port Ltd|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/ennore-port-renamed-as-kamarajar-port-ltd/article5728995.ece|access-date=2022-02-16|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> is located on the [[Coromandel Coast]], [[Chennai]] about 18 km north of [[Chennai Port]]. It is the 12th major [[Sea port|port]] of [[India]], and the first port in India which is a public company.<ref name="ennoreport">{{cite web|url=http://www.ennoreport.gov.in |title=Official site of Kamarajar Port Limited |publisher=Ennoreport.gov.in |access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> The Kamarajar Port Limited is the only corporatised major port and is registered as a company. [[Chennai Port Trust]] acquired around 67% stake of [[Government of India|Centre]] in the Kamarajar Port Limited on 27 March 2020. The remaining 23 percent was already held by the Chennai Port Trust.<ref>{{cite web|title=India: Government to Build Mega Container Terminal at Chennai|date=24 February 2011 |url=http://www.dredgingtoday.com/2011/02/24/india-government-to-build-mega-container-terminal-at-chennai/|url-access=limited|access-date=1 October 2011|publisher=DredgingToday.com}}</ref>

The port has been able to attract an investment of {{INR}}26,000 million by private entrepreneurs on various terminals and harbour craft.<ref name="PortPaysDividend" /> Kamarajar Port Limited, designed as Asia's energy port, is the first corporatised port in India and has only 86 employees. Envisaged being a satellite port to decongest and improve the environmental quality at the bustling Chennai Port, Kamarajar Port Limited is evolving itself into a full-fledged port with the capacity to handle a wide range of products. With a permissible [[Draft (hull)|draught]] of 13.5 m, the port handled a total volume of 11.01 million tonnes in 2010–11, up by 2.86 per cent from the previous year.

==History==
Ennore Port was originally conceived as a satellite port to the Chennai Port, primarily to handle thermal coal to meet the requirement of [[Tamil Nadu Electricity Board]] (TNEB), and was endowed with large chunks of land (about 2,000 acres). The scope was expanded taking into account subsequent developments such as the plan of [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] to set up a 1,880 mW LNG power project in association with a private consortium, a large [[petrochemical]] park and a [[naphtha]] cracker plant. Ennore Port was commissioned by the then Prime Minister of India [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] on 1 February 2001. The port was set up under the Companies Act, keeping it outside the scope of the Tariff Authority for Major Ports, the tariff regulator for 11 of the 12 ports owned by the Indian government.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Ennore port plans to raise Rs400 crore
| newspaper = Business Standard
| date = 7 January 2011
| url = http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/ennore-port-plans-to-raise-rs-400-crore/420974/
| access-date = 8 December 2011}}</ref> The port was declared as a major port under the Indian Ports Act, 1908 in March 1999 and incorporated as the Ennore Port Limited under the Companies Act, 1956 in October 1999. Commercial operations commenced with [[Handymax]] geared vessels for unloading of thermal coal on 22 June 2001. With the deployment of self-unloading and gearless vessels of 65,000/77,000 [[dead weight tonnage]] (DWT), full-fledged operations were started in December 2002.

With the acquisition of about 440 hectares of land, the first phase of the port consisted of the construction of a coal jetty, a wharf and an entrance channel and related dredging operations. The main construction work included two berths for handling coal vessels up to 65,000 DWT, dredging for the approach channel and harbour basin, onshore civil works, navigational aids, and two breakwaters—4 km in the north side and 1 km in the south—close to the NCTPS and the Ennore Creek.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Krishnakumar |first=Asha |title=Pulicat in peril |magazine=Frontline |volume=17 |issue=12 |date=10–23 June 2000 |url =http://hindu.com/fline/fl1712/17120660.htm |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708224425/http://hindu.com/fline/fl1712/17120660.htm |archive-date=8 July 2012 |df =dmy-all}}</ref> In 2014, the port was officially renamed as Kamarajar Port.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Kumar
| first = N. Ravi
| title = Ennore Port renamed as Kamarajar Port Ltd
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 26 February 2014
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/ennore-port-renamed-as-kamarajar-port-ltd/article5728995.ece
| access-date = 9 March 2014}}</ref>

==Location and geography==
{{Main|Geography of Chennai}}
Ennore Port lies on the northeastern corner of the [[Chennai]] City of Tamil Nadu State on a flat coastal plain known as the [[Eastern Coastal Plains]]. It is located on the east coast of the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian peninsula]] known as the [[Coromandel Coast]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] and is situated 2.6 km north of the [[Ennore Creek]]. Nearby railway station is [[Athipattu Pudunagar]]. Being coastal and situated on the [[thermal equator]] zone, the port experiences minimal variations in seasonal temperature ranging from a maximum of 38–42 °C in summer to a minimum of 18–20 °C in winter. The weather is hot and humid for most of the year, and the region features a [[Tropical savanna climate|tropical wet and dry]] climate. The northeast monsoon winds brings seasonal rainfall in the region from September to December, and occasionally cyclones. The annual rainfall in the region is about 1400 mm (55 in). The most prevailing winds are the southwesterly between April and October<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es2402/es2402page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization |title=NASA climate data visualized |publisher=Classzone.com |access-date=1 September 2010}}</ref> and the northeasterly during the rest of the year. The port is located on a region that falls under [[Seismic hazard|Seismic Zone III]] indicating a moderate risk of earthquake. The Ennore Creek in the south separates the port from the town of [[Ennore]].
[[Image:Ennore Creek sunset.jpg|400px|thumb|center|Ennore Creek]]

==Operations==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%" align=right
|-
!
! Nos.
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|'''Port crafts'''
|-
| Tugs (40 tonne Bollard pull) || 3 nos.
|-
| Pilot launches || 2 nos.
|-
| Mooring launches || 3 nos.
|-
| High-speed patrol boat || 1 no.
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|'''Navigational aids'''
|-
| Fairway buoy || 1 no.
|-
| Channel-marking buoy || 6 nos.
|-
| Transit light towers || 2 nos.
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"|'''Equipment profile (installed by TNEB over coal wharf)'''
|-
| Conveyors (4000 TPH each) || 2 nos.
|-
| Unloading equipments: Shore-based gantry-type grab (2000 TPH each) || 2 nos.
|-
| Mobile Hopper (to receive coal from crane hopper self-unloading ship at the rate of 4000 TPH) || 1 no.
|-
| Temporary hoppers (to receive coal from Handymax geared vessels) || 6 nos.
|}

Commissioned in 2001 and operating on a landlord port concept, it is outsourcing all services required for operation and maintenance, and new terminals are being developed with the participation of the private sector.<ref name="ennoreportadb">[http://www.adb.org/Documents/Periodicals/ADB_Review/2003/vol35_6/profitable_ports.asp Profitability of Ennore Port] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509072451/http://www.adb.org/Documents/Periodicals/ADB_Review/2003/vol35_6/profitable_ports.asp |date=9 May 2006 }}</ref> During the year of 2010–11, it handled a total cargo of 11.01 million tons. The port has effectively taken over all the ore movement from the [[Chennai Port]]. By 2016, the port is expected to have the capacity to handle over 80 million tons of cargo and its coal-handling capacity is expected to be about 43 million tons. The port is equipped to handle 16 million tonnes of coal per year from its two dedicated coal berths with 15 m alongside depth and staffed by TNEB, while its third berth promoted by Chettinad International Coal Terminal, is a common user facility that can handle 8 million tonnes per annum.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Sujatha
| first = S.
| title = India: Ennore Port on Expansion Mode
| newspaper = Deccan Chronicle
| publisher = Dredging Today
| date = 26 May 2011
| url = http://www.dredgingtoday.com/2011/05/26/india-ennore-port-on-expansion-mode/
| access-date = 8 December 2011}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%" align=left
|-
! Year
! Cargo (in million tonnes)<ref>{{cite web
| title = Traffic handled at major ports
| date = 24 September 2018
| publisher = Hindu Businessline
| url = https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/tn-to-import-20-lakh-tonnes-of-coal-for-power-plants/article25031077.ece
| format = url
| access-date = 24 September 2018}}</ref>
|-
| 2001–02 || 3.401 (from June 2001)
|-
| 2002–03 || 8.485
|-
| 2003–04 || 9.277
|-
| 2004–05 || 9.479
|-
| 2005–06 || 9.168
|-
| 2006–07 || 10.71
|-
| 2007–08 || 11.56
|-
| 2008–09 || 11.50
|-
| 2009–10 || 10.703
|-
| 2010–11 || 11.01
|-
| 2015–16 || 32.21
|-
| 2016–17 || 30.02
|-
| 2017–18 || 30.45
|-
| 2018–19 || 34.50
|}

The approach channel to the port is 3,775 m long. The minimum depth of the entrance channel is 16 m below chart datum (BCD) and the minimum width is 250 m. The [[turning basin]] is 600 m in diameter with a minimum depth of 15.5 m BCD.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Table 1.3 Topography of Major Ports
| publisher = Government of India, Ministry of Shipping
| year = 2009
| url = http://www.shipping.nic.in/writereaddata/l892s/Tab3-70151193.pdf
| access-date = 10 December 2011
}}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The breakwaters in the port are of rubble-mound type with accropode armour protection. The northern breakwater measures 3,080 m and the southern breakwater measures 1,070 m.

The port has adequate road and rail links. The Port has obtained an in-principle approval from [[Southern Railway Zone (India)|Southern Railways]] for providing rail connectivity to coal and iron ore stackyards. Ennore Port Limited (EPL) is also developing an 8-lane Northern Express Road, which would link the port with the National Highway No. 5. It has a {{convert|560|m|adj=on}}-long coal wharf for berthing two [[Panamax]]-size vessels and fully mechanised systems for handling 16 million tons of cargo a year. Designed as a world-class port, with two breakwaters—one in the north measuring {{convert|3080|m|abbr=on}} and the other in the south measuring {{convert|1070|m|abbr=on}} with a depth of {{convert|15|m|abbr=on}}—it has the capacity to develop 22 berths for handling a variety of bulk, liquid, and container cargo. The port is an artificial port with features including all-weather, round-the-clock operations and transport interface.

According to the Maritime Agenda 2010–20, the port traffic is projected to increase to 67.44 million tonnes in 2016–17 and 71.54 million tonnes in 2019–20.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Simhan
| first = T.E. Raja
| title = Ennore Port gets board nod to go public
| newspaper = Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 21 January 2011
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2011/01/21/stories/2011012150811800.htm
| access-date = 10 December 2011}}</ref> Against this projected traffic growth, the port's capacity is expected to increase from the existing 16 million tonnes (as on 31 March 2010) to 73 million tonnes in 2016–17. The major economic activities through which traffic and capacity will rise are development of LNG and coal terminals and expansion of outer harbour stage II and development of [[container terminal]], respectively. The target set for the port for 2010–11 is 13.20 million tonnes against a target of 12.45 million tonnes during the previous fiscal.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Traffic Targets
| publisher = Government of India, Ministry of Shipping
| url = http://www.shipping.nic.in/writereaddata/l892s/69638610-Traffic%20Targets.pdf
| access-date = 10 December 2011
}}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

During 2010–11, the port handled a total of 294 vessels, including 184 dry bulk, 87 liquid bulk, 22 break bulk and 1 container vessels against 273 vessels in 2009–10, registering a 7.69% increase.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Indian Ports Association, Performance Indicators
| publisher = Government of India, Ministry of Shipping
| url = http://www.shipping.nic.in/writereaddata/l892s/portperf-54592443.pdf
| access-date = 10 December 2011
}}{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Car exports took place through the port for the first time in 2010–11. A total of 54,264 cars were exported through the port by [[Renault-Nissan]] Automotive India Pvt. Ltd.

The Marine Liquid Terminal constructed at a cost of {{INR}} 2,500 million is already operational since January 2009.

Being a corporate port, Ennore Port is the only major port in the country paying dividend to the government. During the year 2010–11, the port reported a post-tax profit of {{INR}} 555.8 million as against {{INR}} 486.6 million in the previous year. The operating ratio of the port is the lowest among all the major ports in India at 33.56 per cent during 2010–11.<ref name="PortPaysDividend">{{Cite news
| title = Ennore Port pays Rs 7.4 cr dividend
| newspaper = Business Standard
| location = Chennai
| date = 30 September 2011
| url = http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/ennore-port-pays-rs-74-cr-dividend/450911/
| access-date = 1 October 2011 }}</ref>

Cargo handled by Ennore Port (in million tonnes):<ref name="CargoHandled">{{cite web
| title = Ninth Annual Report 2008-09
| publisher = Ennore Port Limited
| year = 2009
| url = http://www.ennoreport.gov.in/Annual%20Report%202008-09%20English.pdf
| access-date = 10 December 2011}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 90%"
|-
! Commodity
! 2007–08
! 2008–09
|-
| Thermal coal || 9.05 || 9.71
|-
| Iron ore || 2.19 || 1.11
|-
| Petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL) (including STS) || 0.32 || 0.68
|- class="sortbottom"
| Total || 11.56 || 11.50
|}

As of 2017, the port handled more than 200,000 cars, chiefly by [[Nissan]] and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], outnumbering the neighbouring Chennai Port.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Anand
| first = N.
| title = Chennai Port to pep up car exports
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 29 October 2017
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/chennai-port-to-pep-up-car-exports/article19939995.ece
| access-date = 29 October 2017}}</ref>

==Terminals==
The Chettinad International Coal Terminal (CICTL), the private terminal at the port capable of handling [[Panamax]] ships, commenced operations in January 2011 and is targeting to handle nearly 5 million tonnes of coal/coke by current financial year ending 31 March 2012. The terminal was completed with equipments and conveyor systems, yard and evacuations systems with capacity to handle 8 million tonnes of coal/coke annually at project outlay of about {{INR}} 4,000 million.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Simhan
| first = T.E. Raja
| title = Court order windfall: Chettinad coal terminal at Ennore may handle 5 mt this year
| newspaper = Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 23 August 2011
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/logistics/article2389506.ece
| access-date = 10 December 2011}}</ref>

The Ennore Container Terminal (ECT), also known as the Bay of Bengal Gateway Terminal, will have an eventual planned annual capacity of 2.4 million TEUs and will be capable of handling three mainline vessels simultaneously.<ref name="PortPaysDividend"/> The construction is expected to begin by end of 2011 at a cost of £207 million, allowing the first ships to be handled in 2013. The terminal for 6,000-to-8,000 TEU vessels will have a quay length of 1,000 m with 15 m water depth at the berths and will be able to handle three container vessels of up to 8,000 TEUs simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Simhan
| first = T. E. Raja
| title = Ennore container terminal to handle ships from 2013
| newspaper = The Hindu Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 26 August 2011
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/logistics/article2393063.ece
| access-date = 2 October 2011}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
|-
! Berth
! Capacity (MTPA)
! Max permissible length (m)
! Max permissible draught (m)
! Type of cargo
! Size (DWT)
! Type of vessels
|-
| Coal Berth 1 (CB1) || 8 || 240 || 13.5 || Thermal coal || 65,000–77,000 || Handymax and Panamax size vessels (both geared & gearless)
|-
| Coal Berth 2 (CB2) || 4 || 240 || 13.5 || Thermal coal || 65,000–77,000 || Handymax and Panamax size vessels (geared vessels only)
|-
| Marine Liquid Terminal 1 (MLT1) || 3 || 260 || 13.5 || POL/chemicals || Up to 1,50,000
|
|-
| Chettinad International Coal Terminal (CICT) || 8 || 260 || 13.5 || Coal (other than TNEB) || Up to 1,50,000
|
|}

The [[Indian Oil Corporation]] Ltd's (IOC) Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) import terminal at the port, which began in November 2015, is scheduled to open in October 2018. Built at a cost of {{INR}} 51,510 million, it has a capacity of 5 million tonnes per annum, with provisions to increase it to 6 million tonnes without any addition and to 10 million tonnes by the addition of two more tanks. At the initial stages, the plant would function at 20 to 25 percent of its capacity, supplying natural gas to industries in the Manali industrial area, including Madras Fertilizers Ltd., Chennai Petroleum Corporation and Tamil Nadu Petroproducts. Gas will reach the terminal in liquid form in order to ease transportation and it will be re-gassified before supplying it through pipelines to fertilizer industries to be used as gas-based feedstock, replacing [[naphtha]]. In would also be used to generate power or run furnace in other industries.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Ramakrishnan
| first = Deepa H.
| title = IOC's LNG import terminal in Ennore by October
| newspaper = The Hindu
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 30 April 2018
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/iocs-lng-import-terminal-in-ennore-by-october/article23722341.ece
| access-date = 15 October 2018}}</ref>

==Connectivity==
===Road link===
The highway authority is implementing a project for construction of {{convert|30.1|km|abbr=on}} segment of Chennai-Ennore Port connectivity.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Chabra
| first = Pawan
| title = Chennai-Ennore Port road connectivity project to be completed in two years
| newspaper = India Transport Portal
| date = 8 March 2011
| url = http://indiatransportportal.com/2011/03/chennai-ennore-port-road-connectivity-project-to-be-completed-in-two-years/
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110319054324/http://indiatransportportal.com/2011/03/chennai-ennore-port-road-connectivity-project-to-be-completed-in-two-years/
| url-status = usurped
| archive-date = 19 March 2011
| access-date = 10 December 2011}}</ref> Announced by the Tamil Nadu Government in 1998, the cost of the Chennai-Ennore Port Road Connectivity project, earlier called Ennore-Manali Road Improvement Project, has escalated by four times to {{INR}} 6,000 million. The project is to enable free flow of truck traffic from and to the Chennai port in North Chennai. The Ennore Port handles over 5,000 containers a day and trucks need to take this Ennore-Manali road for entry and exit to the port. The project is still in the "tendering" stage—previous tenders were cancelled for various reasons.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Chennai-Ennore Port project finally gets rolling
|newspaper=Deccan Chronicle
|location=Chennai
|date=20 January 2011
|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/chennai/chennai-ennore-port-project-finally-gets-rolling-786
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121000257/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/chennai/chennai-ennore-port-project-finally-gets-rolling-786
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=21 January 2011
|access-date=10 December 2011
}}</ref>

The project will commence in January 2011 and will be completed in 2 years.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Minister's promise to start work on Chennai road by Jan cheers trailer operators
| newspaper = Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 12 December 2010
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2010/12/12/stories/2010121252180300.htm
| access-date = 10 December 2011}}</ref>

The Union Government has decided to lay a {{convert|21.1|km|adj=on}}-long 4-laned national highway (port corridor) connecting Ennore with Thacchur at a cost of {{INR}} 3,740 million. The road runs from the northern gate of Ennore port to Panchetti near Thatchur on National Highway 5. The proposed road would provide direct access to NH 5 from the Ennore port and the upcoming port of L&T. The road between the Ennore port and Panchetti would have its alignment along nine villages, including Kattupalli, Ariyanvoyal, Nallur, Vellampakkam and Vannivakkam. Tiruvottiyur-Ponneri-Panchetti link road to be created would cover the villages of Kollatur, Nandiambakkam and Vallur.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Lakshmi
| first = K.
| title = Ennore port-NH 5 direct access proposed
| location = Chennai
| date = 22 May 2011
| url = http://www.hindu.com/2011/05/22/stories/2011052262020300.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110526005532/http://www.hindu.com/2011/05/22/stories/2011052262020300.htm
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 26 May 2011
| newspaper = [[The Hindu]]
| access-date = 12 December 2011}}</ref>

L&T Ship Building Ltd is likely to form a joint venture with Ennore Port and the Tamil Nadu Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO), to build a 25.5-km road that would connect Ennore and [[Kattupalli Shipyard|Kattupalli]] ports. The road project is estimated to cost {{INR}} 3,600 million. To implement the road project some 400 acres would need to be acquired.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Ramesh
| first = M.
| title = L&T to team up with TIDCO, Ennore Port for road project
| newspaper = Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 27 July 2011
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-others/tp-states/article2297072.ece
| access-date = 12 December 2011}}</ref>

===Rail link===
The port has 6-km-long rail link connecting the coal and iron ore stack yards and the [[North Chennai Thermal Power Station]] with [[Athipattu railway station|Athipattu]] and [[Athipattu Pudhunagar railway station|Athipattu-Pudhunagar]] railway stations. A 26 km Y-shaped single-track northern link from the port to the [[Anuppampattu railway station]], connecting the port with the Chennai-Gudur mainline, was proposed in 2012 at an estimated cost of {{INR}} 1,700 million. The link will have two arms at the port end, with one arm culminating at coal and iron ore stack yards and the other culminating at the upcoming container terminals. The link would eventually upgraded to a dual-track one.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Anand
| first = N.
| title = Ennore Port seeks one more rail link
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 5 March 2012
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/tamil-nadu/article2961105.ece
| access-date = 9 December 2012}}</ref> In-principle approval from the Indian Railways was obtained in September 2013.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Ennore port gets nod for north rail link
| newspaper = The New Indian Express
| location = Chennai
| publisher = Express Publications
| date = 22 September 2013
| url = http://newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Ennore-port-gets-nod-for-north-rail-link/2013/09/22/article1797035.ece
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160213224825/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Ennore-port-gets-nod-for-north-rail-link/2013/09/22/article1797035.ece
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 13 February 2016
| access-date = 23 September 2013}}</ref>

Rail connectivity project works to link coal and iron ore stackyards with [[Athipattu]] station on the Chennai–[[Vijayawada]] mainline are under the implementation at a cost of {{INR}} 516 million.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Ennore Port earns Rs.41.46 crores profit
| newspaper = NetIndian
| location = New Delhi
| publisher = NetIndian.in
| date = 18 September 2009
| url = http://netindian.in/news/2009/09/18/0003427/ennore-port-earns-rs-4146-crores-profit
| access-date = 12 December 2011}}</ref> Meanwhile, the coal and iron ore stackyards are being serviced through a new-line operationalised in November 2010.<ref name="PortPaysDividend"/>

==Awards==
Ennore Port has been conferred with the "memorandum of excellence certificate" by the Government of India for 2008–09. It is the second consecutive year that the port has been selected for the honour. The union ministry of heavy industries and public enterprises had granted MoU excellence awards and certificates for achieving "excellent" MoU rating.<ref name="Excellence award for Ennore port"/>

Government of India has accorded Category-I Mini Ratna status to Ennore Port Limited.

==The future==
The Planning Commission has approved a rail connectivity for Ennore Port to the coal, iron and container terminals. There is a US$230-million expansion for the port in progress. An iron ore terminal is currently in the process of construction by PSA Sical.<ref name="ennoreiron">{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/006200704020312.htm |title=Ennore Port Iron Ore Terminal |publisher=Hindu.com |date=2 April 2007 |access-date=22 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107204310/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/006200704020312.htm |archive-date=7 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| title = Ennore port to have iron ore terminal soon
| newspaper = Press Trust of India
| publisher = Steel Guru
| date = 7 June 2011
| url = http://www.steelguru.com/raw_material_news/Ennore_port_to_have_iron_ore_terminal_soon/208698.html
| access-date = 12 December 2011
| archive-date = 22 March 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120322141704/http://www.steelguru.com/raw_material_news/Ennore_port_to_have_iron_ore_terminal_soon/208698.html
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> The terminal will have a capacity for 12 million tonnes of cargo per year, expandable to 15/20 million tonnes per year. Facilities include a jetty, ship loader, mechanised handling system with conveyor, storage, and a wagon unloading system. The port is expanding its cargo handling capacity to 87 million tonnes a year in the next 5 years as mandated by the Union Government, according to a press release from Ennore Port Ltd.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
|-
!Terminal
!Capacity (million tonnes per annum)
!Estimated cost (in million)
!Alongside depth
!Jetty length
!Development & operation
!Date of commissioning
!Status
|-
| Iron ore terminal || 12.0 (6.0 in Phase I and 6.0 in Phase II) || {{INR}} 4,800 ({{INR}} 3,600 in Phase I and {{INR}} 1,200 in Phase II) || 15 m BCD (Phase I) (18 m depth deepening in progress) || 347.5 m || M/s SICAL Iron ore Terminals Ltd (Consortium of SICAL Logistics Ltd., MMTC Ltd. and L&T IDP Ltd.) || 28 January 2011 || Completed
|-
| Coal terminal || 8.0 || {{INR}} 3,991.3 || 15 m BCD || 325 m || M/s Chettinad International Coal Terminal (P) Ltd. (Consortium of SICL, Portia Management Services Ltd. and Navayuga Engineering Ltd.) || 28 January 2011 || Completed
|-
| General cargo berth || 0.5 (plus 200,000 cars per annum) || {{INR}} 1,100 || 12 m BCD || 250 m || || 28 January 2011 || Completed
|-
| Marine liquid terminal || 3.0 || {{INR}} 2,500 || 15 m BCD || 360 m || Ennore Tank Terminal Pvt. Ltd.(Consortium of IMC Pvt. Ltd. and L&T Ltd.) || January 2009 || Completed
|-
| Container terminal (Phase I) || 18.0 (1.5 million TEUs) || {{INR}} 14,070 || 15 m BCD || 1,000 m || Bay of Bengal Gateway Terminal Pvt. Ltd. || 2013–2014 || Ongoing<ref name="PortPaysDividend"/>
|-
| LNG terminal || 5.0 || Approx. {{INR}} 27,000 (including regassification plant) || 15 m BCD || 300 m || IOCL<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=80422&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1650261&highlight=|title=Foster Wheeler Awarded Contract for an LNG Receiving Terminal in India|date=18 January 2012|publisher=Foster Wheeler|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406202525/http://archive.amecfw.com/news/2012/foster-wheeler-awarded-contract-for-an-lng-receiving-terminal-in-india|archive-date=6 April 2019|url-status=dead|access-date=19 January 2012}}</ref>|| || Planned
|-
| Coal berth III for TNEB || 9.0 || || 15 m BCD || 290 m || Developed by Ennore Port and operated by TNEB || || Planned
|}

Though the port started as a dirty port to take over the coal and ore handling from the [[Chennai Port]], it has suggested a proposal for a modern container terminal. The facility would have a capacity to handle 1.5 million TEUs (18 million tonnes). The port has started competing with the Chennai Port on handling of container traffic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/2008/04/17010429/Chennai-Ennore-ports-fight-fo.html |title=Competition between Ports for Container Traffic |publisher=Livemint.com |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> Recently, the Nissan-Renault car manufacturing company picked it over the Chennai Port for the car exports.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2008/08/31/stories/2008083151120300.htm |title=Car export for Nissan-Renault |newspaper=The Hindu Business Line |date=31 August 2008 |access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> To facilitate this, a US$320-million expansion has been approved and will commence by March 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.portnews.ru/digest/814/ |title=Container Terminal in Ennore Port |publisher=En.portnews.ru |date=14 March 2008 |access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref> The port also won [[Toyota]] for its exports of cars manufactured near [[Bangalore]].<ref>{{cite web|author= 0120 hrs IST |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/toyota-set-to-export-cars-via-ennore-port/488923/ |title=Toyota to use Ennore Port for its exports |publisher=Financialexpress.com |date=14 July 2009 |access-date=22 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title =Toyota & Nissan to export from Ennore Port| newspaper =Indian Ports| date =n.d.| url =http://port.industry-focus.net/index.php/ennore-port/152-toyota-a-nissan-to-export-from-ennore-port.html| access-date =12 December 2011| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110813184553/http://port.industry-focus.net/index.php/ennore-port/152-toyota-a-nissan-to-export-from-ennore-port.html| archive-date =13 August 2011| df =dmy-all}}</ref> Mitsui is working on creating an auto yard in the port to facilitate the exports.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/Companies/SYZ6ir2hbC61OMfSjRyosI/Japan8217s-Mitsui-to-operate-car-yard-at-Ennore-with-Sica.html|title=Mitsui to operate a car yard at Ennore with Sical|last=Manoj|first=P.|date=4 August 2009|newspaper=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406203015/http://www.livemint.com/Companies/SYZ6ir2hbC61OMfSjRyosI/Japan8217s-Mitsui-to-operate-car-yard-at-Ennore-with-Sica.html|archive-date=6 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The port is also planning to build a four-lane road linking the new terminal with the national highway (NH-5).

Construction of a car export terminal with a capacity of handling 400,000 cars annually at the port has been completed, which Japanese car-maker [[Nissan Motors]] will use to export {{formatnum:180000}} cars per year once fully executed,<ref>{{cite web
|title=Chennai Port to create capacity to facilitate car exports
|publisher=Project Monitor
|date=24 February 2010
|url=http://www.projectsmonitor.com/PORT/chennai-port-to-create-capacity-to-facilitate-car-exports
|access-date=14 December 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928130238/http://www.projectsmonitor.com/PORT/chennai-port-to-create-capacity-to-facilitate-car-exports
|archive-date=28 September 2011
}}</ref> though exports are expected to commence from 28 January 2011. Construction of the terminal has cost {{INR}} 1,200 million and the facilities will include a berth, a 12-m draft after [[dredging]] of the basin and a parking yard of 175,000 sq.m. A coal terminal and iron ore terminal are also being developed at a total investment of {{INR}} 8,800 million.<ref name="TerminalDev">{{cite news
| title = Ennore Port to approach Shipping Ministry for IPO approval
| newspaper = The Economic Times
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Times Group
| date = 1 October 2010
| url = http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-10-01/news/27609107_1_ennore-port-terminal-ipo
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110812055449/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-10-01/news/27609107_1_ennore-port-terminal-ipo
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 12 August 2011
| access-date = 14 December 2011}}</ref> The coal terminal, constructed at a cost of {{INR}} 4,000 million with a capacity to handle 8 million tonnes of coal, is expected to commence on 28 January 2011. The iron ore terminal was constructed at a cost of {{INR}} 4,800 million with a capacity to handle 12 million tonnes annually and was opened in January 2011 but is yet to start commercial operations. However, since the Supreme Court put a blanket ban in July 2011 on mining in the mineral-rich Bellary-Hospet belt in Karnataka, on which the terminal is totally dependent on, to check environmental damage arising from rampant illegal mining, Sical Logistics is seeking to handle diversified cargo.<ref>{{Cite news
| last = Manoj
| first = P.
| title = Iron ore terminal at Ennore looks to diversify cargo after mining ban
| newspaper = livemint.com
| pages = 6
| date = 6 October 2011
| url = http://www.livemint.com/2011/10/05223344/Iron-ore-terminal-at-Ennore-lo.html?atype=tp
| access-date = 8 October 2011}}</ref> The container terminal will be built at a cost of {{INR}} 14,070 million (US$312 million)<ref>{{cite news
| title = Indian Shipping Ministry will award a Rs1,407-crore contract for building a container terminal at Ennore
| newspaper = Business Standard
| publisher = DredgingToday.com
| date = 30 December 2009
| url = http://www.dredgingtoday.com/2009/12/31/indian-shipping-ministry-will-award-a-rs-1407-crore-contract-for-building-a-container-terminal-at-ennore/
| access-date = 14 December 2011}}</ref> with an annual capacity of 1.5 million TEU. Work on the new Ennore Container Terminal is scheduled to take 33 months and it is expected to be operational by the end of 2013. The concession will be awarded on a build, operate and transfer (BOT) basis for a period of 30 years. The terminal will have a quay length of 1,000 m and an estimated throughput of 1.5 million TEUs annually. The terminal will provide 15-m water depth at the berths and will be able to handle three container vessels of up to 8,000 TEUs simultaneously.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Eredene-backed Group Wins $312M Ennore Port Container Terminal Bid
| newspaper = VCCircle
| publisher = vccircle.com
| date = 28 June 2010
| url = http://www.vccircle.com/500/news/eredene-backed-group-wins-312m-ennore-port-container-terminal-bid
| access-date = 14 December 2011}}</ref>

The port is awaiting the [[Government of India|Central Government]]'s permission to start a capital dredging work.<ref name="portexp">{{cite news
| title = Ennore Port to boost cargo handling capacity to 87 mt
| newspaper = Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 3 April 2007
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/bline/2007/04/03/stories/2007040301862100.htm
| access-date = 14 December 2011}}</ref> There is a [[special economic zone]] (SEZ) coming up near the port covering {{convert|3000|acre|km2}} to take advantage of the proximity to the port. It is for engineering, information technology, auto components, garments and leather products. It would have container freight station facilities and free trade warehousing zone.<ref name="ennoresez">{{cite web
| title = Ennore SEZ
| publisher = TIDCO
| date = n.d.
| url = http://www.tidco.com/sez2.html
| access-date = 14 December 2011
| archive-date = 8 November 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111108124432/http://www.tidco.com/sez2.html
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

With the inauguration of three new terminals to handle non-TNEB coal, iron ore and cars in 2010, the installed capacity of the port had doubled from 15 million tonnes to 30 million tonnes.<ref name="Excellence award for Ennore port">{{cite news
| title = Excellence award for Ennore port
| location = Chennai
| date = 21 February 2011
| url = http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-21/chennai/28618251_1_ennore-port-excellence-award-certificate
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121104211840/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-21/chennai/28618251_1_ennore-port-excellence-award-certificate
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 4 November 2012
| newspaper = [[The Times of India]]
| access-date = 12 December 2011}}</ref>

A {{INR}} 1,700-million capital dredging project to create necessary depths to handle larger vessels was commenced at the port on 26 February 2011. With this, the port's channel depth has been increased from 16 m CD to 18 m CD.<ref name="PortPaysDividend"/>

In December 2011, Manali Petrochemicals Ltd entered into an agreement to set up storage and handling facility at the port for bulk import of [[propylene oxide]], a major input for the derivative plants of the company. The facility is expected to be ready in about a year.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Manali Petro
| newspaper = MoneyControl.com
| location = Chennai
| date = 21 December 2011
| url = http://www.moneycontrol.com/stocks/stock_market/corp_notices.php?autono=507789
| access-date = 28 December 2011}}</ref>

As of 2013, Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (CPCL) is considering setting up a [[Single buoy mooring|single buoy mooring (SBM)]] at the Port, estimated to cost in excess of {{INR}} 12,000 million, as one of the options available for transporting crude, which would help the company bring in very large crude carriers.<ref name="Hindu_OptionsToReplacePipeline">{{cite news
| last = Kumar
| first = N. Ravi
| title = CPCL mulls options to replace ageing pipeline
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 9 February 2013
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/cpcl-mulls-options-to-replace-ageing-pipeline/article4394391.ece
| access-date = 11 February 2013}}</ref>

==Environmental threats and illegal actions==
[[Ennore Creek]] is located adjacent to the Ennore Port. It is part of a lagoon ecosystem that plays a vital role in balancing the coastal ecosystem in the area. Ennore Creek drains two important rivers, Kosasthalaiyar in the South and Aranaiyar in the North into the Bay of Bengal through the Ennore Estuary.<ref name=" Ennore Creek - Ecology and Violations ">{{cite web
| url = https://storyofennore.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/ennore-ecology-and-violations.pdf
| title = Ennore Creek – Ecology and Violations
| date = January 2016
| publisher = The Coastal Resource Centre – Chennai
| access-date = 13 July 2017
}}</ref>
The creek prevents floods and storm surges and is essential to secure ground water reservoirs from [[saltwater intrusion]].
The port poses a huge threat to the creek. Shorelines changes have led to the closure of one of the two creek mouths and are assumed to have taken place due to the construction of the port.<ref name="NIOT">{{cite web
| url = http://www.icmam.gov.in/EnnoreWLA.PDF
| title = Waste Load Allocation & Waster Assimilative Capacity Studies for Ennore Creek & North Chennai Coastal Waters
| date = June 2004
| publisher = National Institute of Ocean Technology
| access-date = 13 July 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120401221353/http://www.icmam.gov.in/EnnoreWLA.PDF
| archive-date = 1 April 2012
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
This makes it more difficult for water to drain from the creek into the Bay of Bengal and increases the risk of flooding in the area. Additionally the Kamarajar Port Limited is dumping dredged material into the Ennore Creek, a violation of the [[Coastal Regulation Zone]] Rules and the Water Act. The dumped material hinders and blocks the water flow of the creek, which is crucial to be free of encroachments in case of floods. Recently the Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board issued a notice to Kamarajar port instructing the port to remove the illegally dumped materials.<ref name=" Pollution board issues notice to Kamarajar port ">{{cite news
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/port-officials-pulled-up-for-polluting-creek/article19213144.ece
| title = Pollution board issues notice to Kamarajar port
| date = 5 July 2017
| newspaper = The Hindu
| access-date = 13 July 2017
}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Chennai Port]]
* [[Kattupalli Shipyard]]
* [[Ports in India]]
* [[2017 Ennore oil spill]]
{{Portal bar|India|Transport|Engineering}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.kamarajarport.in Official site of Ennore Port]
* [http://www.tidco.com/sez2.html Ennore Special Economic Zone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108124432/http://www.tidco.com/sez2.html |date=8 November 2011 }}
* [https://shipmin.gov.in/ Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, Govt. of India]

{{Adani Group}}
{{Chennai Topics|left}}
{{Transport in Chennai}}
{{Transport in Tamil Nadu}}
{{Major ports in India}}

[[Category:Economy of Chennai]]
[[Category:Companies based in Chennai]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Transport in Chennai]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 2001]]
[[Category:2001 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Transport infrastructure completed in 2001]]
[[Category:Adani Group]]

Rag Lalit

2025-07-26T15:19:28Z

EmilBarraza: made bio.

{{about|the music album|the raga|Lalit (raga)}}
{{Infobox album
| name = Rāg Lalit
| type = studio
| artist = [[Ram Narayan]]
| cover = Lalita - The Goddess Tripurasundari.jpg
| caption = album cover art
| released = 1989
| recorded = December 3, 1987
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Hindustani classical music]]
| length = 73:43
| label = [[Nimbus Records|Nimbus]]
| producer =
}}
'''''Rāg Lalit''''' is a [[studio album]] by Indian classical musician [[Ram Narayan]], released in 1989. Recorded December 3, 1987, in [[Wyastone Leys]] near [[Monmouth]], [[Wales]], the album features a performance of the serene dawn [[raga]] [[Lalit (raga)|Lalit]] on [[sarangi]]. Narayan performs a long non-metrical introduction to unfold the raga, during which he adds a pulse, until he is joined by [[tabla]] to perform a composition.

==Origin==
{{main|Lalit (raga)}}
The album consists of a single track performance of the [[raga]] [[Lalit (raga)|Lalit]]. Lalit is commonly described as calm and devotional and is performed at dawn.<ref name="Bor104">{{cite book |title=The Raga Guide |last=Bor |first=Joep |author2=Rao, Suvarnalata |author3=Van der Meer, Wim |author4=Harvey, Jane |year=1999 |publisher=[[Nimbus Records]] |isbn=0-9543976-0-6 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YEbxAAAACAAJ}}</ref> Neil Sorrel portrayed Lalit as conveying a feeling of instability and connects this to the performance time, when night changes into day.<ref name="liner">{{cite AV media notes |title=Rāg Lalit |others=[[Ram Narayan]] |year=1989 |first=Neil |last=Sorrell |type=CD booklet |publisher=[[Nimbus Records]] |id=NI 5183 |location=[[England]] }}</ref>

==Recording and artwork==
{{Listen |filename = Ram Narayan - Lalit excerpt.ogg |title = Rāg Lalit |description = A sample from the gat section}}
''Rāg Lalit'' was recorded in a single take in Wyastone Leys near [[Monmouth]], [[Wales]], on December 3, 1987, and includes the tuning of the sarangi's [[sympathetic string]]s through plucking.<ref name="liner" /> In the performance, Narayan plays a long [[alap]] (non-metrical introduction) and a [[jor (music)|jor]] (performance with pulse) that increases in speed and range and makes use of [[gamak]]s (note oscillations).<ref name="liner" /> [[Suresh Talwalkar]], a frequent accompanist of Narayan, joins in playing a gat (composition with rhythmic pattern provided by the [[tabla]]) in the rhythmic 16-beat cycle [[tintal]], which is separated into four groups of four beats.<ref name="liner" /> When Talwalkar plays a solo, the sarangi repeats the melody.<ref name="liner" /> The performance was mastered in England, but not edited.<ref name="liner" /> In the same session that produced ''Rāg Lalit'', the 1987 album ''Rāg Bhūpāl Toṛī, Rāg Paṭdīp'' was recorded.<ref name="AMG" />

The album cover features a 19th-century painting of the goddess [[Tripura Sundari]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Goddess Tripurasundari|publisher=[[Bridgeman Art Library]]|url=http://www.bridgemanimages.com/en-GB/asset/14010/indian-school-19th-century/the-goddess-tripurasundari|access-date=2015-01-30}}</ref> also called Lalita. A picture of Narayan playing the sarangi is on the back of the album, along with a quote of [[Yehudi Menuhin]] praising Narayan.

==Reception==
{{Album ratings
| rev1 =[[Allmusic]]
| rev1Score ={{Rating|5|5}}<ref name="AMG">{{cite web |first=Ken |last=Hunt |title=RÆg Lalit - Review|url={{AllMusic|class=album|id=r98535|pure_url=yes}} |website=[[Allmusic]] |access-date=2009-06-30}}</ref>
| rev2 =''[[New Straits Times]]''
| rev2Score =(favorable)<ref name="NST">{{cite news|last=Murthi|first=R. S.|title=Rhythm of the universe|newspaper=[[New Straits Times]]|date=1992-06-07|page=11|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ILoTAAAAIBAJ&pg=4875,2944507}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
}}
[[Allmusic]] critic Ken Hunt gave the album a maximum five star rating and called it "a magical performance",<ref name="AMG" /> and R. S. Murthi of the ''[[New Straits Times]]'' argued that Narayan utilized his musical knowledge on the album to "stunning effect".<ref name="NST" />

==Track listing==
# "Rāg Lalit" – 73:43

==Personnel==
* [[Ram Narayan]] – [[sarangi]]
* [[Suresh Talwalkar]] – [[tabla]]
* Neil Sorrell – [[Tanpura (instrument)|tambura]]
* Elizabeth Haddon – tambura

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|title=Rag Lalit|publisher=[[Nimbus Records]]|url=http://www.wyastone.co.uk/rag-lalit-211.html}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1989 albums]]
[[Category:Ram Narayan albums]]

S.H.M.B Noor Chowdhury

2024-10-07T16:30:47Z

EmilBarraza: quick adjust structure per sources and updated info for consistency

#REDIRECT [[S. H. M. B. Noor Chowdhury]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Lalgudi railway station

2024-08-25T09:44:59Z

EmilBarraza: added info

{{Short description|Railway station in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Lalgudi
| other_name =
| style = Indian Railways
| type = [[Indian Railways]] station
| image = File:Lalgudi Railway Station.jpg
| address = [[Lalgudi]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|10.8756|78.8152|display=inline,title|region:IN_type:railwaystation}}
| map_type = India#India Tamil Nadu
| elevation = {{convert|60|m|ft}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]]
| line =
| platform = 3
| tracks = 4
| other =
| accessible =
| bicycle = No
| depth =
| levels =
| parking = No
| structure = Standard (on-ground station)
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = LLI
| zone = [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Tiruchirappalli}}
}}
| status = Double electric line
| closed =
| former =
| opened =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = Yes
| passengers =
| mpassengers =
| pass_system =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| services = 
| image_size =
| image_caption =
}}
'''Lalgudi railway station''' (station code: LLI) is an NSG–5 category [[List of railway stations in India|Indian railway station]] in [[Tiruchirappalli railway division]] of [[Southern Railway zone]].<ref name="sr_stn">{{cite web |title=SOUTHERN RAILWAY LIST OF STATIONS AS ON 01.04.2023 (CATEGORY- WISE) |url=https://sr.indianrailways.gov.in/cris//uploads/files/1686913242750-SR%20-LIST%20OF%20STATIONS-2023.pdf |website=Portal of Indian Railways |publisher=Centre For Railway Information Systems |access-date=3 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323095403/https://sr.indianrailways.gov.in/cris//uploads/files/1686913242750-SR%20-LIST%20OF%20STATIONS-2023.pdf |archive-date=23 March 2024 |page=7 |date=1 April 2023}}</ref> It is a small railway station in [[Lalgudi]], [[Tiruchirappalli district]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. The station consists of two platforms. The platforms are not well sheltered. It lacks many facilities including water and sanitation.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://indiarailinfo.com/arrivals/2375?stptype=6| title=LLI/Lalgudi| website=India Rail Info}}</ref>

== Projects and development ==
It is one of the 73 stations in Tamil Nadu to be named for upgradation under ''Amrit Bharat Station Scheme'' of Indian Railways.<ref>{{cite news |title=AMRIT BHARAT STATIONS |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1897980 |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=Press Information Bureau |date=10 Feb 2023 |location=New Delhi}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Transport in Tiruchirappalli}}
{{Railway stations in Tamil Nadu}}
{{Portal bar|Transport|Engineering}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Tiruchirappalli]]

{{TamilNadu-railstation-stub}}

1868 in India

2024-08-21T10:35:41Z

EmilBarraza:

{{short description|none}} 
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Year in India|1868}}
Events in the year '''1868 in India'''.

==Incumbents==
*Sir [[John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence|John Lawrence]], Viceroy

==Events==
* [[Tata Group]] is founded By Jamsethji Tata.
* [[Dadabhai Naroji]] computed the National Income of India ( Annual Per capita Income ) to be Rs. 20.

==Law==
*Indian Railway Companies Act (British statute)
*Documentary Evidence Act (British statute)
*Indian Prize Money Act (British statute)

==Births==
* [[Ardeshir Godrej]], an 1868 Indian businessman, (died [[1936 in India|1936]]).

==Death==
* 18 February – [[Acharya Maharajshree Ayodhyaprasad Pande]], Acharya of [[Swaminarayan Sampraday]] (born [[1809 in India|1809]]).

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{India year nav}}
{{Year in Asia|1868}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1868 In India}}
[[Category:1868 in India| ]]
[[Category:1868 by country|India]]
[[Category:Years of the 19th century in India]]
[[Category:1868 in Asia]]
[[Category:1860s in India]]

{{India-year-stub}}

Gurjangjhora Tea Garden

2024-06-30T07:28:37Z

EmilBarraza: Creating the article added tags

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Gurjangjhora Tea Garden
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline = File:গুর্জংঝোড়া চা জমি ১.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|26.90934|N|88.7275|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 2423
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 735223
| area_code_type = Telephone/[[Subscriber trunk dialing|STD]] code
| area_code = 03562
| registration_plate = WB
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Jalpaiguri (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jalpaiguri]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Mal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mal]]
| website = {{URL|jalpaiguri.gov.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Gurjangjhora Tea Garden''' (also written as Gurjang Jhora) is a village in the [[Mal (community development block)|Mal]] [[Community development blocks in India|CD block]] in the [[Malbazar subdivision]] of the [[Jalpaiguri district]] in the state of [[West Bengal]], [[India]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=410| height=350| zoom=10
| coord={{coord|26|50|0|N|88|44|0|E}}| float=left|caption='''Places and tea estates in Malbabazar subdivision (including Mal, Nagrakata and Matiali CD blocks) in Jalpaiguri district''' CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre, N: neighbourhood, NP: national park/ wildlife sanctuary, TE: tea estate Abbreviations used in names – TG for Tea Garden (town/village), TE for Tea Estate, JRS: junction railway station Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1={{coord|26|52|30|N|88|44|10|E}}| label-pos1=top|label1= Malbazar| numbered1=CT| mark-title1= [[Malbazar]] (CT)|label-color1= #800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #A40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|26|53|1|N|88|47|53|E}}| label-pos2=top|label2=Chalsa| numbered2=CT| mark-title2= [[Chalsa, India]] (CT)
|mark-coord3={{coord|26|52|6|N|88|48|16|E}}| label-pos3=bottom|label3= Mangalbari| numbered3=CT| mark-title3= [[Mangalbari]] (CT)
|mark-coord4={{coord|26|43|6|N|88|45|57|E}}| label-pos4=bottom|label4= Lataguri| numbered4=CT| mark-title4= [[Lataguri]] (CT)
|mark-coord5={{coord|26|56|49|N|88|48|44|E}}| label-pos5=right|label5= Matelli| numbered5=CT| mark-title5= [[Matialihat]] (CT)
|mark-coord6={{coord|26|52|20|N|88|37|17|E}}| label-pos6=left|label6= Odlabari| numbered6=CT| mark-title6= [[Odlabari]] (CT)
|mark-coord7={{coord|26|50|20|N|88|37|1|E}}| label-pos7=right|label7= Dakshin Odlabari| numbered7=CT| mark-title7= [[Dakshin Odlabari]] (CT)
|mark-coord8={{coord|26|53|40|N|88|35|4|E}}| label-pos8=left|label8=Bagrakote| numbered8=R| mark-title8= [[Bagrakote]] (R)|shape-color8= #A42222
|mark-coord9={{coord|26|50|20|N|88|47|43|E}}| label-pos9=bottom|label9=Batabari TG| numbered9=R| mark-title9= [[Batabari Tea Garden]] (R)|shape-color9= #A42222
|mark-coord10={{coord|26|52|10|N|88|40|1|E}}| label-pos10=top|label10=Dam Dim| numbered10=R| mark-title10= [[Dam Dim]] (R)|shape-color10= #A42222
|mark-coord11={{coord|26|45|5|N|88|35|8|E}}| label-pos11=left|label11=Gajoldoba| numbered11=R| mark-title11= [[Gajoldoba]] (R)|shape-color11= #A42222
|mark-coord12={{coord|26|54|25|N|88|43|45|E}}| label-pos12=left|label12=Gurjangjhora TG| numbered12=R| mark-title12= Gurjangjhora Tea Garden (R)|shape-color12=black| label-size12=13|label-color12=black
|mark-coord13={{coord|26|50|15|N|88|49|31|E}}| label-pos13=right|label13=Murti| numbered13=R| mark-title13= [[Murti, Jalpaiguri]] (R)|shape-color13= #A42222
|mark-coord14={{coord|26|53|12|N|88|54|55|E}}| label-pos14=right|label14=Nagrakata| numbered14=R| mark-title14= [[Nagrakata]] (R)|shape-color14= #A42222
|mark-coord15={{coord|26|59|24|N|88|48|42|E}}| label-pos15=left|label15=Samsing| numbered15=R| mark-title15= [[Samsing]] (R)|shape-color15= #A42222
|mark-coord16={{coord|26|51|52|N|88|54|23|E}}| label-pos16=right|label16=Sulkapara| numbered16=R| mark-title16= [[Sulkapara]] (R)|shape-color16= #A42222
|mark-coord17={{coord|26|56|30|N|88|46|14|E}}| label-pos17=left|label17=Zurantee TG| numbered17=R| mark-title17= [[Zurantee Tea Garden]] (R)|shape-color17= #A42222
|mark-coord18={{coord|26|55|13|N|88|41|3|E}}| label-pos18= left |label18= Meenglas TE | numbered18=TE| mark-title18= [[Meenglas and Leesh River Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color18=#87A96B
|mark-coord19={{coord|26|51|34|N|88|35|21|E}}| label-pos19= left |label19= Leesh River TE | numbered19=TE| mark-title19= [[Meenglas and Leesh River Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color19=#87A96B
|mark-coord20={{coord|26|58|0|N|88|55|10|E}}| label-pos20= bottom |label20= Hope TE | numbered20=TE| mark-title20= [[Hope and Jiti Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color20=#87A96B
|mark-coord21={{coord|26|58|54|N|88|55|39|E}}| label-pos21= right |label21= Jiti TE | numbered21=TE| mark-title21= [[Hope and Jiti Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color21=#87A96B
|mark-coord22={{coord|26|57|47|N|88|46|59|E}}| label-pos22= left |label22= Chalouni TE | numbered22=TE| mark-title22= [[Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color22=#87A96B
|mark-coord23={{coord|26|55|0|N|88|47|10|E}}| label-pos23= right |label23= Aibheeli TE | numbered23=TE| mark-title23= [[Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color23=#87A96B
|mark-coord24={{coord|26|56|3|N|88|50|15|E}}| label-pos24= right |label24= Chalsa TE | numbered24=TE| mark-title24= [[Chalouni, Aibheel and Chalsa Tea Estates]] (TE)| shape-color24=#87A96B
|mark-coord25={{coord|26|46|20|N|88|48|0|E}}| label-pos25=bottom|label25=Gorumara |labela25= National| labelb25= Park| numbered25=NP| mark-title25= [[Gorumara National Park]] (NP)| shape-color25=#228B22
|mark-coord26={{coord|26|54|20|N|88|51|18|E}}| label-pos26=bottom|label26=Chapramari |labela26= Wildlife| labelb26= Sanctuary| numbered26=NP| mark-title26= [[Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary]] (NP)| shape-color26=#228B22
|mark-coord27={{coord|26|39|40|N|88|38|40|E}}|label27= Teesta River| label-color27 = #77A1CB| label-angle27=60| label-pos27=top| label-size27=10| mark-size27=0| mark-title27=none
|mark-coord28={{coord|26|49|0|N|88|57|0|E}}|label28= Gatia River| label-color28 = #77A1CB| label-angle28=-45| label-pos28=top| label-size28=10| mark-size28=0| mark-title28=none
|mark-coord29={{coord|26|41|0|N|88|53|0|E}}|label29= Jaldhaka River| label-color29 = #77A1CB| label-angle29=80| label-pos29=top| label-size29=10| mark-size29=0| mark-title29=none
|arc-coordA={{coord|27|1|0|N|88|55|0|E}}|arc-textA= BHUTAN| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=20| arc-gapA=3.5| arc-radiusA=0.4}}

===Location===
Gurjangjhora Tea Garden is located at {{coord|26.9034|N|88.7275|E|display=inline}}.

===Area overview===
[[Gorumara National Park]] has overtaken traditionally popular [[Jaldapara National Park]] in footfall and [[Malbazar]] has emerged as one of the most important towns in the [[Dooars]]. Malbazar subdivision is presented in the map alongside. It is a predominantly rural area with 88.62% of the population living in rural areas and 11.32% living in the urban areas.<ref name="admin">{{cite web | url = http://jalpaiguri.gov.in/district-profile| title = Jalpaiguri | work =District Profile | publisher = District administration |accessdate = 13 July 2020 }}</ref><ref name="handbook">{{cite web |url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Jalpaiguri |work = Tables 2.2, 2.4b |publisher = Department of Planning and Statistics, Government of West Bengal |accessdate = 13 July 2020 |archive-date = 21 January 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |url-status = dead }}</ref> Tea gardens in the [[Dooars]] and [[Terai]] regions produce 226 million kg or over a quarter of India's total tea crop.<ref>{{cite web| url =https://www.indiatea.org/tea_growing_regions |title = Tea Growing Regions | work= Dooars and Terai|publisher= Indian Tea Association | accessdate = 13 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.teaboard.gov.in/TEABOARDCSM/MTA=|title = Dooars-Terai |publisher= Tea Board India | accessdate = 13 July 2020}}</ref> Some tea gardens were identified in the 2011 census as [[census town]]s or villages.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/pcadata/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = 2011 Census – Primary Census Abstract Data Tables | work= West Bengal – District-wise |publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | accessdate = 13 July 2020 }}</ref> Such places are marked in the map as CT (census town) or R (rural/ urban centre). Specific tea estate pages are marked TE.

Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in the subdivision. All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map.

==Demographics==
As per the [[2011 Census of India]], Gurjang Jhora Tea Garden had a total population of 2,423. There were 1,224 (51%) males and 1,199 (49%) females. There were 278 persons in the age range of 0 to 6 years. The total number of literate people in Gurjang Jhora was 1,469 (68.48% of the population over 6 years).<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = C.D. Block Wise Primary Census Abstract Data(PCA) | work= West Bengal – District-wise CD Blocks|publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | accessdate = 6 July 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
Gurjangjhora Tea & Industries Ltd., now a part of the Kalyani group, was incorporated in 1882. Located 3 km from [[Malbazar]], it covers a gross area of 806 acres and produces 1.2 million kgs of tea annually. One of the oldest tea companies in India, it employs 700 workers. other tea estates of the Kalyani group in the Dooars region are Saraswatipur Tea Estate and Choulbari Tea Estate.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://kalyanitea.com/aboutus.html | title =Gurjangjhora Tea & Industries Ltd. | publisher = Kalyanitea.com |accessdate = 8 March 2020}}</ref>

==Dooars-Terai tea gardens==
{{main|Dooars-Terai tea gardens}}
Tea gardens in the [[Dooars]] and [[Terai]] regions produce 226 million kg or over a quarter of India's total tea crop. The Dooars region contains wild-life rich tropical forests, undulating plains and low hills. Innumerable streams and rivers descend from the mountains of Bhutan and flow through the fertile plains in the Dooars region. The elevation of the Dooars area ranges from {{convert|90 to 1750|m}} and it receives around 350 cm of rain. The Dooars-Terai tea is characterized by a bright, smooth and full-bodied liquor that's a wee bit lighter than [[Assam tea]]. Cultivation of tea in the Dooars was primarily pioneered and promoted by the British but there was significant contribution of Indian entrepreneurs.<ref>{{cite web| url =https://www.indiatea.org/tea_growing_regions |title = Tea Growing Regions | work= Dooars and Terai|publisher= Indian Tea Association | accessdate = 6 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.teaboard.gov.in/TEABOARDCSM/MTA=|title = Dooars-Terai |publisher= Tea Board India | accessdate = 6 July 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Jalpaiguri district}}

[[Category:Villages in Jalpaiguri district]]
[[Category:Tea estates in West Bengal]]

Devi Pora

2023-09-20T13:02:04Z

EmilBarraza: Creating first biography w/ refs

{{Short description|Village in India}}
{{Orphan|date=September 2022}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Devi Pora
| other_name = Devipora
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ur
| settlement_type = [[List of villages in India|Village]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = Jammu and Kashmir#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Jammu and Kashmir, India
| coordinates = {{coord|33.7281|75.2526|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of Jammu and Kashmir|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Anantnag district|Anantnag]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 =
| area_total_ha = 240.4
| elevation_m = 1639
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 1509
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_note =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Urdu]], [[Hindi]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[English language|English]]<ref name="OfficialLang">{{cite web |url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2020/222037.pdf |title=The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020 |publisher=The Gazette of India |date=27 September 2020 |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019215035/http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2020/222037.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020 | publisher=[[Rising Kashmir]] | date=23 September 2020 | url=http://risingkashmir.com/news/parliament-passes-jk-official-languages-bill-2020 | access-date=2 September 2022 | archive-date=24 September 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924141909/http://risingkashmir.com/news/parliament-passes-jk-official-languages-bill-2020 | url-status=live }}</ref>
| timezone1 = [[Indian standard time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| timezone1_DST =
| utc_offset1_DST =
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 192201
| area_code_type = [[2011 Census of India|Census]] code
| area_code = 003669
| iso_code =
| website = 
| footnotes =
}}

'''Devi Pora''', commonly known as '''Devipora''', is a village in the [[Anantnag]] tehsil of [[Anantnag district]] in the [[Kashmir Valley]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India. It is situated 17 km away from the town of [[Achabal]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kashmir |first=India Superintendent of Census Operations, Jammu and |title=District Census Handbook, Jammu & Kashmir: Anantnag |year=1966 |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |pages=148 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nb3UAAAAMAAJ&q=Hardu+Toru+Kashmir+-wikipedia |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kashmir (India) |first=Jammu and |title=The Jammu and Kashmir Government Gazette |year=1964 |publisher=[[University of California]] |pages=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U_lbpk82yOMC&q=Hardu+Toru+Anantnag+-wikipedia |language=en}}</ref>

==Demographics==
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], ''Devi Pora'' village has a total population of 1,509 people including 851 males and 658 females; and has a literacy rate of 53.74%.<ref name="handbook">{{Cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/0114_PART_B_DCHB_ANANTNAG.pdf |title=District Census Handbook Anantnag |work=[[Census of India 2011]] |pages=94 |access-date=5 September 2022 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116054309/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/0114_PART_B_DCHB_ANANTNAG.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Primary census abstract at town, village and ward level, Jammu and Kashmir - District Anantnag - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/6205/download/9282/DDW_PCA0114_2011_MDDS%20with%20UI.xlsx |website=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=5 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819112618/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/6205/download/9282/DDW_PCA0114_2011_MDDS%20with%20UI.xlsx |archive-date=19 August 2022}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Population
!Total
!Male
!Female
|-
|Total Population
|1,509
|851
|658
|-
|Literate Population
|811
|517
|294
|-
|Illiterate Population
|698
|334
|364
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{JammuKashmir-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Geography of Jammu and Kashmir]]

Depressed classes

2023-08-21T23:59:42Z

EmilBarraza: Redirect article

#REDIRECT [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]]

[[Category:Social class in India]]