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Sapna Babul Ka... Bidaai

2026-05-04T13:24:18Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating new entry

{{Short description|Indian television series}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Sapna Babul Ka Bidaai Logo.jpg
| caption =
| genre = [[Drama]]
| creator = [[Director Kut's Productions]]
| writer = [[Zama Habib]] Garima Goyal Virendra Shahaney Aparna Shahaney Anjali Bahura Misra Bahnishikha Das Reshma Khan Sonali Jaffar M P Anamika
| director = Rajan Shahi Romesh Kalra Sunand Baranwal Neeraj Baliyan Sharad Pandey Mayank Gupta Ismail Umar Khan
| creative_director = Shefali Lal Madhura Rapsang Richa Singh Gautam Garima Dimri Meet Kohli RItu Goel
| starring = [[#Cast|See below]]
| opentheme = "Bidaai" by Manish Tripathi
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 739
| producer = Rajan Shahi
| cinematography = Arjun Rao Bappi Mangal
| editor = Sameer Gandhi
| runtime = 25 minutes
| company = [[Director Kut's Productions]]
| network = [[StarPlus]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=yes|2007|10|8}}
| last_aired = {{End date|df=yes|2010|11|13}}
}}
'''''Sapna Babul Ka... Bidaai''''' is an [[Indian soap opera|Indian soap drama]] that aired from 8 October 2007 to 13 November 2010 on [[STAR Plus]] during weekdays.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Everyone cried on the last day of Bidaai|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/report/parul-chauhan-on-bidaai-tv/20101119.htm|work=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> It tells the story of a father and his two daughters and explores the social impacts of skin colour. The series was replaced by ''Gulaal''. In August 2022, rerun of the series started on [[StarPlus]]'s sister channel [[Star Bharat]].

==Plot==
Ragini and Sadhna are cousins where Sadhna’s mother dies due to her illness in the first few episodes, and Sadhna’s father is unable to save her owing to a lack of funds. Sadhana's father promises to fly to the USA in order to accumulate more wealth, and she is left with her maternal uncle, Prakashchand Sharma. Sadhana is now residing in [[Agra]] and her father is in California. Sadhana's father's greatest wish is to see her as a bride. Sadhana, on the other hand, is desperate to see her father. She succeeds to win Ragini's and Prakashchand’s hearts while living with the Sharmas. However, Ragini's mother, Kaushalya, is concerned because her daughter, Ragini, and Sadhana have different complexions. Eventually, Sadhana’s father decides to return from California and take her back to [[Udaipur]]. Everyone is ecstatic. However, a tragic twist of fate puts an end to all hope. Sadhana's father's plane crashes due to bad weather and he dies. Sadhana is devastated by the news. She eventually ends up staying with the Sharmas.

Meanwhile, efforts to find Ragini a groom are on. Ragini is having difficulty finding a suitable match given her dark complexion, as she is always rejected in favour of the lighter-skinned Sadhana. One proposal is eventually finalised, and Kaushalya and Ragini's maternal grandmother decide to keep Sadhana hidden. Sadhana eventually arrives at Ragini's wedding venue owing to unforeseen circumstances, and the boy's family rejects Ragini once more in favour of Sadhana, causing Kaushalya to attempt suicide, but Prakashchand saves her. Everything returns to normal slowly, as Ragini takes dancing lessons and Sadhana gets a job.

Sadhana begins working as a tutor at the Rajvansh family. Ranveer is one of the Rajvansh sons who studies in the USA and has returned for the time being. He has a mentally ill brother named Alekh. Vasundhara, Alekh's mother, believes that marriage will help Alekh improve. She decides on Sadhana as a bride and puts the proposal to her. But, Sadhana rejects the proposal citing the fact that Ragini, who is elder to her, has not been married yet. In the backdrop of all this, the Sharmas are facing serious financial difficulties and the possibility of losing their home. Vasundhara offers to help them out. Sadhana eventually agrees to marry Alekh, however, Sadhana also puts forth a demand of her own.

Sadhana demands that Vasundhara get Ranveer married to Ragini in exchange. She does so after witnessing Ranveer protecting Ragini's honour after few hooligans make fun of her dark complexion, and she believes that he will make a wonderful life partner for Ragini, and she for him.

At first, Vasundhara is affronted and rejects this demand right away. Then, Vasundhara deceives Sadhana by seemingly agreeing to her demand, but this was just a sham. She sends Ranveer back to the USA while Sadhana marries Alekh. Vasundhara offers to marry Ranveer and Ragini when the former returns. Sadhana marries Alekh, but Ragini and Ranveer's marriage does not work out as Ranveer falls in love with Sonia. Sonia, on the other hand, is revealed to be a gold digger who is just interested in Ranveer's money. Ranveer is devastated by this news and begins to stat depressed. In a strange twist of destiny, Ragini is the one who saves him when she dials his number by accident and tells him to move on with his life in wonderful words. Ranveer is completely charmed by her perspective, and the two gradually begin conversing on the phone on a regular basis, oblivious of each other's identities. They go by the names, Anmol, and Anamika. Sadhana eventually figures it out, but she does not reveal them and instead trusts God to decide the fate of their phone friendship. She, however, lets Alekh in on the secret.

Ranveer and Ragini slowly develop feelings for each other and resolve to meet. However, when they meet, they are both taken aback, and due to Vasundhara's interference (who always refused to accept Ragini as her daughter-in-law owing to her dark complexion), Ranveer believes Ragini was aware of his true identity all along, but chose to deceive him in order to marry into a wealthy family. Meanwhile, Ragini is taken aback when she learns that Ranveer is Anmol, and she is distraught when he seemingly appears to reject her. Sadhana knew about their true identities all along, and both, Ranveer, and Ragini, are disappointed in her for keeping it hidden from them.

However, misunderstandings eventually get cleared up after Ranveer realises that he truly loves Ragini when he learns that very much like him, she had no idea of his real identity and had truly loved him all along as well. He decides that his life is not complete without her and fights tooth and nail to win her love after leaving her heartbroken. Slowly but surely, their love wins over their families, especially their opposing mothers, and they eventually marry. After their marriage, they decide to help Sadhana cure Alekh so that she can experience a fulfilling marital life as well. They hire a therapist for Alekh, Shlok, who happens to have been an old friend of his, and improvements begin to show in Alekh's health until Alekh begins to think Sadhana and Shlok have feelings for each other. This manifests itself when Sadhana is shot in the streets and is attended to by Shlok. Meanwhile, Alekh and Sadhana’s families are planning a formal wedding for the two now that Alekh is showing improvement. However, at the wedding, Alekh tells Shlok that he would be a better husband for Sadhana and dresses him up as himself and tries to get him married to Sadhana. However, Shlok, wanting the best for Alekh, ends up revealing himself in the end and reunites him with Sadhana and they have a happy marriage. Ranveer starts investigating what happened with him a fateful Diwali night so he, Ragini, and Sadhana plan to recreate that Diwali night once again. Alekh relives it and remembers that Ambika killed his grandfather and was told by Ambika that his grandfather was killed by Vasundhara. Alekh feels very humiliated and apologizes to Vasundhra. The next day Ambika and Sathyen leave the Rajvansh house and Ambika curses that history will repeat itself and this time it will be Ragini and Sadhana. Slowly, Alekh starts living a normal life. So, they are successful in their quest. Misunderstandings develop between Sadhana and Alekh after his recovery, however, they get cleared up as it becomes clear that much like Ranveer and Ragini, Alekh and Sadhana are also made for one another. They all live happily together for a while. Ragini and Sadhana soon become pregnant and the whole family is overjoyed. However, nine months later, tragedy strikes as Sadhana dies in a bomb blast. The whole family is devastated by Sadhana's death. Ragini decides to raise Sadhana's daughter up as well along with hers.

===7 years later===

Ragini is shown bringing her daughter Tamanna up along with Khushi, who is Sadhana's daughter. Ragini and the family commemorate the seventh anniversary of Sadhana's death. It is revealed that Ranveer died, too, in a rock avalanche while saving his friend Anmol's life. Anmol promised Ranveer to look after his family, therefore, he lives in the Rajvansh household as Ragini’s husband and Tamanna's father. After Sadhana and Ranveer's deaths, Alekh also loses his mental balance once again, but eventually recovers with the help of Shlok, and especially for his daughter. He also becomes close to a girl named Sakshi. The show ends with Anmol and Ragini, and Alekh and Sakshi, getting married. Both couples take deceased Ranveer and Sadhana’s blessings and perform the Bidaai (farewell) ritual.

==Cast==
===Main===
*[[Parul Chauhan]] as Ragini Rajvansh: Kaushalya and Prakash's daughter; Vineet and Sadhana’s sister; Ranveer's widow; Anmol's wife; Tamanna's mother (2007–2010)
*[[Sara Khan (actress, born 1989)|Sara Khan]] as Sadhana Awasthy Rajvansh: Sulekha and Kishan's daughter; Ragini and Vineet’s sister. Alekh's first wife; Khushi's mother (2007–2010)<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Generation-leap-as-Sadhana-passes-away/articleshow/6085329.cms|title=Generation leap as Sadhana passes away|website=The Times of India|date=24 June 2010 }}</ref> (Dead)
*[[Kinshuk Mahajan]] as Ranveer Rajvansh: Vasundhara and Inderjit's younger son; Alekh's brother; Ragini's first husband; Tamanna's father (2008–2010) (dead)
*[[Angad Hasija]] as Alekh Rajvansh: Vasundhara and Inderjit's elder son; Ranveer's brother; Sadhana's widower; Sakshi's husband; Khushi's father (2008–2010)
*[[Apurva Agnihotri]] as Anmol Sareen: Ranveer's friend; Ragini's second husband; Tamanna's adoptive father (2010)
*[[Sulagna Panigrahi]] as Sakshi Narang Rajvansh: Alekh's second wife; Khushi's adoptive mother (2010)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/apurva-agnihotri-in-bidaai/637076/|title=Apurva Agnihotri in Bidaai|website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

===Recurring===
*Nirali Desai as Tamanna Rajvansh: Ragini and Ranveer's daughter; Anmol's adoptive daughter; Khushi and Kavyansh's cousin (2010)
*Divya Naaz as Khushi Rajvansh: Sadhana and Alekh's daughter; Sakshi's adoptive daughter; Tamanna and Kavyansh's cousin (2010)
*[[Amardeep Jha]] as Sumitra Bajpai: Kaushalya's mother; Ragini and Vineet's grandmother; Kavyansh and Tamanna's great-grandmother (2007–2010)
*[[Mahesh Thakur]] as Kishan Chand Awasthy: Sulekha’s husband; Sadhana's father; Khushi's grandfather (2007)
*[[Alok Nath]] as Prakash Chandra Sharma: Sulekha’s brother; Kaushalya's husband; Ragini and Vineet's father; Sadhna’s maternal uncle; Kavyansh and Tamanna's grandfather (2007–2010)
*[[Vibha Chibber]] as Kaushalya Sharma: Prakash's wife; Ragini and Vineet's mother; Kavyansh and Tamanna's grandmother (2007–2010)
*[[Ashita Dhawan]] as Malti Sharma: Vineet's wife; Kaushalya and Prakash’s daughter in law; Ragini and Sadhana’s sister in law; Kavyansh's mother (2007–2010)
*[[Naveen Saini]] as Vineet Sharma: Kaushalya and Prakash's son; Ragini's brother; Sadhana's cousin; Malti's husband; Kavyansh's father (2007–2010)
*Siddharth Kumar as Kavyansh "Kavya" Sharma: Malti and Vineet's son; Tamanna and Khushi's cousin (2010)
*Shambhavi Sharma as Gujri: Servant at Kaushalya Nivas (2007–2008)
* [[Seema Kapoor]] as Vasundhara Rajvansh: Indrajeet's wife; Ranveer, Alekh and Dolly’s mother; Ambika’s younger sister; Tamanna and Khushi's grandmother (2008–2010)
* [[Avinash Wadhawan]] as Indrajeet Rajvansh: Vasundhara's husband; Ranveer, Alekh and Dolly’s father; Tamanna and Khushi's grandfather (2008–2010)
*Natasha Rana as Ambika Rajvansh: Satyen's wife; Naveen’s mother; Vasundhara’s elder sister (2008–2009)
*Aliraza Namdar as Satyendra (Satyen) Rajvansh: Indrajeet’s younger brother; Naveen’s father(2008–2009)
*Vimarsh Roshan as Naveen Rajvansh: Satyen and Ambika’s son; Guni and Pratham’s father; Avni’s husband (2008–2010)
*[[Preeti Puri]] as Avni Naveen Rajvansh (2008–2010)
*[[Rajeev Verma]] as Harshvardhan Rajvansh (Dadaji), Father of Inderjit and Satyen (2009)
*[[Sulakshana Khatri]] as Gayatri Devi (Bua Dadi), Harshvardhan's younger sister (2009)
*[[Sunita Shirole]] as the lady in Gayatri Devi's old age home (2009)
*Rahul Lohani as Karan Inderjit Rajvansh (2010)
*[[Navina Bole]] as Guni Rajvansh (2009-10)
*[[Shafaq Naaz]] as Guni Rajvansh (2010)
*Shabana Mullani as Dolly Rajvansh: Vasundhara and Indrajeet’s daughter; Ranveer and Alekh’s sister (2008)
*[[Manish Raisinghan]] as Saket (2007)
*Utkarsha Naik as Sulakshana (2007)
*Kartik Sabharwal as Shailendra (2007)
*[[Rajendra Chawla]] as Kamlesh Awasthy, Sadhna's uncle, Kishanchand's brother (2007)
*Pragati Mehra as Sadhna's aunt, Kamlesh's wife (2007)
*Sheela David as Sadhna’s aunt, Kamlesh’s sister (2007)
*[[Sadiya Siddiqui]] as Aradhana, Ragini's dance teacher (2007)
*[[Vishal Singh (actor, born 1974)|Vishal Singh]] as Rajveer (2007)
*[[Rucha Gujarathi]] as Sonia (2007)
*[[Madhura Naik]] as Sonia Singh/ Sonia Chopra: Ranveer’s ex girlfriend (2008)
*[[Manish Naggdev]] as Shishir Tripathi (2008)
*[[Eva Grover]] as Sheetal Rai Singhania: Vasundhara’s best friend from Canada (2009)
*[[Payal Nair]] as Gayathri (2009)
*[[Anupam Bhattacharya]] as Madhavan (2009)
*Puneet Tejwani as Dr. Shlok: Alekh’s childhood friend; Malti’s cousin (2009)
*Aruna Singhal as Shakuntala; Malti’s mother (2009)
*[[Amar Upadhyay]] as Advocate Dhananjay Singhania (2009)
*[[Prerna Wanvari]] as Shivani (2010)
*[[Kamalika Guha Thakurta]] as Vidyashree Shasthry (2010)
*[[Rajshree Thakur]] as Nishtha Vasudev (2009)
*Smrity Sinha as Malika Mehra (2010)
*Amit Singh Thakur as Mr. Mehra (2010)
*Seerat Ain Alam as Isha (2010)
*Puneet Sachdev as Tarun (2010)
*[[Rajesh Khattar]] as Bittu: Malti’s cousin (2007)

===Guests===
*[[Hema Malini]] as chief guest of [[Taj Mahotsav]] (2008)
*[[Hansika Motwani]] as Chief Guest of Natraj Mahotsav (2010)<ref name=":68">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newkerala.com/news/fullnews-17185.html|title=Hansika Replaces Deepika Padukone |website=New Kerala.com}}</ref>
*[[Neha Bamb]] as herself from ''[[Maayka]]'' (2008)
*[[Dalljiet Kaur]] as herself from ''[[Santaan]]'' (2008)
*[[Additi Gupta]] as Heer from ''[[Kis Desh Mein Hai Meraa Dil]]'' (2009)
*[[Harshad Chopda]] as Prem Juneja from ''[[Kis Desh Mein Hai Meraa Dil]]'' (2009)
*[[Puja Banerjee]] as Vrinda from ''[[Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna (2008 TV series)|Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna]]'' (2009)
*[[Drashti Dhami]] as Geet from ''[[Geet – Hui Sabse Parayi]]'' (2010)
*[[Gurmeet Choudhary]] as Maan from ''[[Geet – Hui Sabse Parayi]]'' (2010)
*[[Karan Tacker]] as Shantanu from ''[[Rang Badalti Odhani]]'' (2010)
*[[Hina Khan]] as Akshara from ''[[Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai]]'' (2010)
*[[Karan Mehra]] as Naitik from ''[[Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai]]'' (2010)
*[[Ragini Khanna]] as Suhana from ''[[Sasural Genda Phool]]'' (2010)
*[[Jay Soni]] as Ishaan from ''[[Sasural Genda Phool]]'' (2010)
*[[Pooja Gor]] as Pratigya from ''[[Mann Kee Awaaz Pratigya]]'' (2010)
*[[Manasi Parekh]] as Gulaal to promote the show ''Zindagi Ka Har Rang... Gulaal'' (2010)
*[[Vivian Dsena]] as Abhayendra "Abhay" Raichand from "[[Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani]]" (2010)
*[[Sukirti Kandpal]] as Priyal "Priya" Dobriyal Raichand from "[[Pyaar Kii Ye Ek Kahaani]]" (2010)
* [[Akshay Kumar]] from '' [[Tees Maar Khan (2010 film)|Tees Maar Khan]]'' (2010)
* [[Katrina Kaif]] from '' [[Tees Maar Khan (2010 film)|Tees Maar Khan]]'' (2010)
* [[Abhishek Bachchan]] from " [[Dostana (2008 film)|Dostana]]" (2008)
* [[John Abraham]] from "[[Dostana (2008 film)|Dostana]] " (2008)
* [[Ranbir Kapoor]] from " [[Bachna Ae Haseeno]]" (2008)
* [[Deepika Padukone]] from " [[Bachna Ae Haseeno]] (2008)
* [[Shahrukh Khan]] from " [[Ra.One]]" (2011)
* [[Kareena Kapoor]] from " [[Ra.One]]" (2011)
* [[Hrithik Roshan]] from " [[Agneepath (2012 film)|Agneepath]]" (2012)
* [[Barun Sobti]] as Arnav Singh Raizada from ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon]]'' (2011)
* [[Sanaya Irani]] as Khushi Gupta Singh Raizada from ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon]]'' (2011)
* [[Emraan Hashmi]] from '' [[Murder 2]]'' (2011)
* [[Jacqueline Fernandez]] from '' [[Murder 2]]'' (2011)
* [[Ajay Devgn]] from "[[Singham]]" (2011)
* [[Kajal Aggarwal]] from "[[Singham]]" (2011)
* [[Karan Tacker]] as Viren from ''[[Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai]]'' (2012)
* [[Kushal Tandon]] as Virat from ''[[Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai]]'' (2012)
* [[Krystle D'Souza]] as Jeevika from ''[[Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai]]'' (2012)
* [[Nia Sharma]] as Maanvi from ''[[Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai]]'' (2012)
* [[Saif Ali Khan]] from " [[Agent Vinod (2012 film)|Agent Vinod]]" (2012)
* [[Aditya Roy Kapoor]] from '' [[Aashiqui 2]]'' (2013)
* [[Shraddha Kapoor]] from '' [[Aashiqui 2]]'' (2013)
* [[Anas Rashid]] as Sooraj from ''[[Diya Aur Baati Hum]]'' (2013)
* [[Deepika Singh Goyal]] as Sandhya from '' [[Diya Aur Baati Hum]]'' (2013)
* [[Mohammad Nazim]] as Ahem from ''[[Saath Nibhaana Saathiya]]'' (2014)
* [[Jennifer Winget]] as Kumud Desai Vyas from ''[[Saraswatichandra (TV series)|Saraswatichandra]]'' (2014)
* [[Gautam Rode]] as Saraswatichandra Vyas from ''[[Saraswatichandra (TV series)|Saraswatichandra]]'' (2014)
* [[Varun Kapoor]] as Danny Vyas from ''[[Saraswatichandra (TV series)|Saraswatichandra]]'' (2014)
* [[Shiny Doshi]] as Kusum Desai Vyas from ''[[Saraswatichandra (TV series)|Saraswatichandra]]'' (2014)
* [[Ashish Kapoor]] as Kabir Vyas from ''[[Saraswatichandra (TV series)|Saraswatichandra]]'' (2014)
* [[Srishty Rode]] as Anushka Vyas from ''[[Saraswatichandra (TV series)|Saraswatichandra]]'' (2014)
* [[Devoleena Bhattacharjee]] as Gopi from '' [[Saath Nibhaana Saathiya]]'' (2014)
* [[Karan Patel]] as Raman Bhalla from ''[[Yeh Hai Mohabbatein]]'' (2014)
* [[Divyanka Tripathi]] as Ishita Iyer Bhalla from ''[[Yeh Hai Mohabbatein]]'' (2014)
* [[Avinash Sachdev]] as Shlok Agnigotri from ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]]'' (2014)
* [[Shrenu Parikh]] as Astha Shlok Agnigotri from ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]]'' (2014)
* [[Sidharth Malhotra]] from '' [[Ek Villain]]'' (2014)
* [[Shraddha Kapoor]] from '' [[Ek Villain]]'' (2014)
* [[Priyanka Chopra]] from '' [[Gunday]]'' (2014)
* [[Ranveer Singh]] from '' [[Gunday]]'' (2014)
* [[Arjun Kapoor]] from '' [[Gunday]]'' (2014)
* [[Parineeti Chopra]] from " [[Hasee Toh Phasee]]" (2014)

==Adaptations==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%; margin-right:0;"
! style="background:LightBlue; width:20%;"| Language
! style="background:LightBlue; width:24%;"| Title
! style="background:LightBlue; width:13%;"| Original release
! style="background:LightBlue; width:16%;"| Network(s)
! style="background:LightBlue; width:12%;"| Last aired
! style="background:LightBlue; width:12%;"| Notes
|-
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| ''[[Pirivom Santhippom (TV series)|Pirivom Santhippom]]'' பிரிவோம் சந்திப்பொம்
| 4 April 2011
| [[Star Vijay]]
| 4 May 2012
| Remake
|}

==Production==
===Development===
Bidaai is the first offering of Producer Rajan Shahi under [[Director's Kut Productions|Director's Kut Production]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bidaai season 2 on its way?|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/bidaai-season-2-on-its-way/story-gb7KqXAUpKBsVlpHHjN4cJ.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> The initial phase of the series is inspired from the Bollywood film ''[[Vivah]]'' of [[Rajshri Productions]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Women on top|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/women-on-top/476071/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Whose idea is it anyway?|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/whose-idea-is-it-anyway-/435645/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

===Casting===
Speaking about his role, male lead [[Angad Hasija]] said, "My character Alekh was a [[Schizophrenia|Schizophrenic]]. Initially, I had a problem, but I really worked hard to build the character,"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.easterneye.biz/angad-hasija-hit-soap-bidaai-popularity-indonesia/|title=Angad Hasija on his hit soap Bidaai and its popularity in Indonesia!|website=[[Eastern Eye]]|date=9 October 2017 }}</ref> Initially, Hasija was rejected for the role by Producer Rajan Shahi considering his long hair and physique appearance not suitable. After working on those, Shahi accepted him for the role of Alekh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Angad became Vidaai's Alekh|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/tv/20080423.htm|work=Rediff.com}}</ref>

In October 2007, shooting of the series was stalled for a while when the Labour Union protested for hiring men for erecting the sets from outside rather than the members from the Film Studio Setting and Allied Mazdoor Union as per the rules.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bidaai blues|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-bidaai-blues-1129873|website=Daily News and Analysis}}</ref>

In October 2008, a special sequence of celebrating ''[[Taj Mahotsav]]'' was shot in Agra where [[Hema Malini]] was roped for a guest appearance as the chief guest of the event.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Enter Hema Malini|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/enter-hema-malini/story-0pfTAoAMEgCG7HcyhKWCLO.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Besides, [[Shweta Tiwari]] and [[Anjali Abrol]] appeared as the performers of that event and [[Vivan Bhatena]] also made a special appearance for the event.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cameo, dance with me|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/cameo-dance-with-me/story-MhrKWgloniREvUQ5rHdD2L.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

In November 2008, the shootings and telecast of all the Hindi television series including this series and films were stalled on 8 November 2008 due to dispute by the technician workers of [[Federation of Western India Cine Employees|FWICE]] (Federation of Western India Cine Employees) for increasing the wages, better work conditions and more breaks between shootings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cine technicians go on strike|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/cine-technicians-go-on-strike/368228/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> FWICE first took a strike on 1 October 2008 when they addressed their problems with the producers and production was stalled.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Work hit as 1.5 lakh cine workers strike work|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/work-hit-as-15-lakh-cine-workers-strike-work/10878|website=Outlook India}}</ref> A contract was signed after four days discussions and shooting were happening only for two hours content in a day then after which differences increased between them while channels gave them time until 30 October 2008 to sort it out.<ref name=":3" /> Failing to do so lead to protests again from 10 November 2008 to 19 November 2008 during which channels blacked out new broadcasts and repeat telecasts were shown from 10 November 2008.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Strike off, TV shooting to resume|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/strike-off-tv-shooting-to-resume/387871/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=No more repeat of TV soaps as TV industry strike ends|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/no-more-repeat-of-tv-soaps-as-tv-industry-strike-ends-33649-2008-11-19|website=India Today|date=19 November 2008 }}</ref> On 19 November 2008, the strike was called off after settling the disputes and the production resumed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=No more repeat telecast of TV soaps as strike ends|url=https://www.livemint.com/Consumer/lFsrye8ynEtEnU4oD9NEdL/No-more-repeat-telecast-of-TV-soaps-as-strike-ends.html|website=Live Mint}}</ref> The new episodes started to telecast from 1 December 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New look return|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/new-look-return/cid/515296|website=The Telegraph}}</ref> Shahi reported about ₹7 Lakh losses due to the stalling of production and telecast.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cine workers on strike, TV shooting schedules worst hit|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/cine-workers-on-strike-tv-shooting-schedules-worst-hit/368593/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

In December 2009, the shoot of the series was stalled for three hours due to the morcha by some group of women when the lead sisters Sadhna and Ragini were shown developing differences between them in their marital home in the series which they condemned. However, they were pacified by Producer Rajan Shahi, Sara Khan and Parul Chauhan playing Sadhna and Ragini and the shootings resumed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Morcha on the sets of Bidaai|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/morcha-on-the-sets-of-bidaai/548560/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

In January 2009, [[Eva Grover]] was cast as Sheetal for a small cameo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bollywood cameos for soaps|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/bollywood-cameos-for-soaps/story-g5KegT1IT2HSb8Qivm0a0N.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Good response her role made it to be extended.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eva Grover back in Bidaai|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/eva-grover-back-in-bidaai/421636/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> In February 2009, the honeymoon track of the characters Sadhna and Alekh, Ragini and Ranbir was filmed in [[Kerala]] where [[Payal Nair]] and Anupam Bhattacharya were cast as Gayathri and Madhavan for a cameo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yet another cameo in Bidaai|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/yet-another-cameo-in-bidaai/story-WcAZ5jbUmFQfe32DrNhYYN.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Initially they were supposed to go to Switzerland for the honeymoon sequence which could not as Sara Khan playing Sadhna did not have passport and time to arrange for it which was required soon and Kerala was finalized for it.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Sara is not disappointed|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Sara-is-not-disappointed/articleshow/4047288.cms|website=The Times of India|date=30 January 2009 }}</ref> A sequence during the last day shoot in a beach in Kerala was stalled in between due to dispute between the production unit and the local fishermen there and thus being cut during telecast.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Honeymoon sequence stalled!|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-honeymoon-sequence-stalled-1235300|website=Daily News and Analysis}}</ref>

In February 2010, film actress [[Hansika Motwani]] was seen in a cameo as the chief guest of the dance competition event ''Natraj Mahotsav'' in the series.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hansika's Bidaai|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/hansikas-bidaai/72799|website=Mid Day}}</ref> Besides [[Mouli Ganguly]] played the cameo of host, [[Sangita Ghosh]] and [[Sanjeeda Sheikh]] being the performers in the event.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Moulli, Sangeeta, Sanjeeda in Bidaai|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/moulli-sangeeta-sanjeeda-in-bidaai/580487/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> In June 2010, to increase the ratings, one of the main characters was killed, causing [[Sara Khan (actress, born 1989)|Sara Khan]] to exit the series.<ref name=":1" /> Soon, when a generation leap followed, one of the male leads [[Kinshuk Mahajan]] quit where his character was also killed and [[Apurva Agnihotri]] was cast as the new male lead opposite [[Parul Chauhan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/apoorva-agnihotri-in-kinshuk-mahajan-out/story-yGKrZY6fy3vLPLwK0mdpXI.html|title=Apoorva Agnihotri in, Kinshuk Mahajan out|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Following it, in August 2010 [[Sulagna Panigrahi]] was cast as Sakshi opposite Hasija.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Sulagna-Panigrahi-enters-Bidaai/articleshow/6235950.cms|title=Sulagna Panigrahi enters Bidaai|website=The Times of India|date=30 July 2010 }}</ref>

===Filming===
The series is based on the backdrop of [[Agra]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Small town winners|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/media/story/20080204-small-town-winners-735231-2008-01-25|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606102650/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/media/story/20080204-small-town-winners-735231-2008-01-25|archive-date=6 June 2020|website=India Today|date=25 January 2008 }}</ref> The series was mainly filmed in [[Mumbai]] at the sets in [[Mira Road]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=TV'S fresh face|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/leisure/story/20090504-tv-s-fresh-face-739600-2009-04-24|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710100900/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/leisure/story/20090504-tv-s-fresh-face-739600-2009-04-24|archive-date=10 July 2020|website=India Today|date=24 April 2009 }}</ref> Besides, some scenes were filmed in and on the outskirts of Agra including [[Taj Mahal]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Producers ditch cities for picturesque rural locales as back|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/2009/feb/10/producers-ditch-cities-for-picturesque-rural-locales-as-back-24732.html|website=The New Indian Express|date=15 May 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Aaj ki Taj khabar!|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/aaj-ki-taj-khabar/articleshow/15747605.cms|website=Mumbai Mirror}}</ref>

===Cancellation===
The end of the series was first planned six months before it went off air when the ratings were declining. Otherwise, shifting it to an afternoon slot was not considered as they thought it might degrade its popularity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/bidaai-for-sapnaa-babul-ka-bidaai/story-Ok6fFc4H8FI56m5zIUrpsO.html|title=Bidaai for Sapnaa Babul Ka Bidaai?|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> The channel prompted the producer to introduce twists like the death of the character Sadhna and a time leap after which the ratings rose.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/bidaai-for-bidaai-seasonal-break-/713066/1|title=Bidaai for Bidaai seasonal break?|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> However, the series went off air on 13 November 2010. Speaking about the reason for ending, executive director of Star channel Vivek Bahl stated: "The show has run its course, and both, the channel and the producer, didn't feel the need to stretch the story. We didn't want to end the show once the number started falling. Bidaai has been a top show, and deserves to go like a top show,"<ref name=":0" /> Producer Rajan Shahi stated that they wanted the series to end on a high note.<ref name=":0" />

After its end, there were also many reports for the second season being in progress.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/141314/not-just-over-yet.html|title=Not just over yet|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/bidaai-season-2-on-its-way/story-gb7KqXAUpKBsVlpHHjN4cJ.html|title=Bidaai season 2 on its way?|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> However Shahi denied it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/amrit-manthan-not-sequel-bidaai-174925472.html|title=It's Amrit Manthan and it's not a sequel to Bidaai|website=[[Yahoo News]]|date=3 August 2011 }}</ref>

==Crossover==
In 2009, they had a crossover episode with ''[[Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai]]''. Gulaal which replaced the series in its slot had a crossover with it during the end of Bidaai.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-is-integration-between-two-shows-working-1678364|title=Is integration between two shows working?|website=Daily News and Analysis}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Critics===
On Bidaai's success, ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'' stated, "''Bidaai'' didn't turn out to be too ''hatke (out of the box)'', but the identifiable characters and slice-of-life situations struck a chord."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Telly's top 10|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/telly-s-top-10/cid/524150|website=The Telegraph}}</ref>

Praising the two shows ''Bidaii'' and ''[[Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai]]'' of Rajan Shahi's Director's Kut Production as game changers of Starplus which do not have excessive camera moves and mother in law – daughter in law melodramas unlike previously aired dramas, ''[[The Times of India]]'' stated, "The shows adequately highlighted the quintessential emotions with loads of romanticism and simplicity in story-telling."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Star Plus ruling the roost again|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Star-Plus-ruling-the-roost-again/articleshow/5651270.cms|website=The Times of India|date=7 March 2010 }}</ref>

===Ratings===
Bidaai started off with 4.7 TVR during its premiere in October 2007 featuring in top 10 shows.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=The fabulous|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/the-fabulous/1034739/3|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> Soon, in December 2007, it rose 5.4 TVR.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title='I'm on ground zero now'|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/i-m-on-ground-zero-now/story-A5aqkb3B8UComkAndsobvO.html|website=Hindustan Times}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

It also became the first Hindi GEC to beat ''[[Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi]]'' to the top position at that time garnering 5.28 TVR during first week January 2008.<ref name=":7" /> Until March 2008, it shuffled in and out of top ten shows.<ref name=":8" /> In March 2008, it got 6 TVR on one of the leads Sadhana and Alekh's wedding track. Since April 2008 to September 2008, it was consistently the number one series except twice in June 2008, when it was pushed to second by ''[[Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi]]'' and ''Star Parivaar Awards''.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=Bidaai: STAR Plus' winning card|url=https://www.afaqs.com/news/media/23062_bidaai-star-plus-winning-card|website=Afaqs|date=12 January 2009 }}</ref> In the week during 5 to 11 October 2008, it was second most watched after ''[[Balika Vadhu]]'' with 6 TVR.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Are new channels threatening old players?|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/comment-are-new-channels-threatening-old-players-1200411|website=Daily News and Analysis}}</ref> Its highest rating garnered in the year was 8.8 TVR for the [[Taj Mahotsav]] sequence in October 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fragmentation impacts TV's cost effectiveness|url=https://www.livemint.com/Consumer/IVIx63BTgKBZV1j7GDr9hN/Fragmentation-impacts-TV8217s-cost-effectiveness.html|website=Live Mint}}</ref> In November 2008 overall, it was the second most watched Hindi show with averaging between 5 and 6 TVR.<ref>{{Cite web|title=TV toppers|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/tv-toppers/cid/489910|website=The Telegraph}}</ref>

In January 2009, it recorded its highest rating of 9.6 TVR during lead characters Ragini and Ranveer's marriage.<ref name=":0" /> In week 9 of 2009, it occupied second position with 6.3 TVR.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ekta show opens well, Colors loses momentum|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/ekta-show-opens-well-colors-loses-momentum/439348/2|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> When the nine-year dominant number one position of [[StarPlus]] channel was beaten by [[Colors TV]] channel in week ending 11 April 2009, Bidaai and ''[[Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai]]'' were the top watched Hindi shows with 7.4 and 7 TVR.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Colors pips Star Plus as top entertainment channel|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/media/colors-pips-star-plus-as-top-entertainment-channel/articleshow/4411905.cms|website=The Economic Times|date=17 April 2009 }}</ref> Overall in the year, it was the third most watched with 9.5 TVR.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GEC 2009: Changing trends and confused leadership|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/special/y2k10/gec_yearender.php|website=Indian Television dot com}}</ref>

As in February 2010, it maintained its top position with 5 to 6 TVR.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Films down, daily soaps rock|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/films-down-daily-soaps-rock/580470/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> In early March, it occupied second position after ''Yeh Rishta'' with 6.8 TVR.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Star Plus overtakes Colors, Zee TV|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/star-plus-overtakes-colors-zee-tv/story-YVwXpo1Ie54iFu4iD27jtI.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Until June 2010, it ranged between 5 and 7 TVR. However, when the series took a leap in June 2010, ratings dipped and it went out of top 5 watched Hindi programs to 10th position.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|date=28 August 2010|title=Sapna Babul Ka – Bidaai's ratings slip|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/sapna-babul-ka-bidaai-s-ratings-slip/story-YPH0NYIUEIhDEVeD3VZagI.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722111912/https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/sapna-babul-ka-bidaai-s-ratings-slip/story-YPH0NYIUEIhDEVeD3VZagI.html|archive-date=22 July 2018|access-date=22 July 2018|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> Between June and July it ranged between 2 and 5 TVR.<ref name=":6" /> From October to November 2010 it ranged 2 to 3 TVR while the last episode of two hours duration aired on 13 November 2010 garnered 6.06 TVR, becoming the second most watched Hindi GEC in that week.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Bidaai gets grand farewell from viewers|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/marketing/mam/bidaai-gets-grand-farewell-from-viewers|website=Indian Television dot com|date=17 November 2010 }}</ref>

== Impact ==
Writer Shoma Munshi in their book ''Prime time soap operas on Indian Television had'' included the series among her five specific serials chosen for analysis stating, "I chose ''Saat Phere… Saloni Ka Safar'' and ''Sapna Babul Ka… Bidaai'' as a counterfoil, because they were the first to challenge the K soaps' supremacy, and both were issue-based, focusing on the dark skin/fair skin thesis."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Television soaps play a role in empowering women|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/37364/television-soaps-play-role-empowering.html|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agw0m5m9oS8C&q=%22shoma+munshi%22+%22yeh+rishta%22&pg=PA223|title=Prime Time Soap Operas on Indian Television|isbn=9781136516191|access-date=12 September 2015|last1=Munshi|first1=Shoma|date=26 July 2012|publisher=Routledge|archive-date=30 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030165610/https://books.google.com/books?id=agw0m5m9oS8C&q=%22shoma+munshi%22+%22yeh+rishta%22&pg=PA223#v=snippet&q=%22shoma%20munshi%22%20%22yeh%20rishta%22&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2008, creative head of [[Zee TV]] and the writer of ''[[Saat Phere: Saloni Ka Safar]]'' accused ''Bidaai'' as a copy of ''Saat Phere'', where both of them deals with the story of a dark complexion girl with different story lines for which Producer Rajan Shahi stated, "Why is the comparison being made after four months of Bidaai's launch? Is it because our show is doing better?".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Copy shop|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv/copy-shop/articleshow/15774549.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710103325/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv/Copy-Shop/articleshow/15774549.cms?|archive-date=10 July 2020|website=Mumbai Mirror}}</ref>

Dialogue from the episode aired on 6 October 2009, was said by Angad Hasija on [[Valmiki]] to have offended the Valmiki community and the series telecast had a black out in Punjab for 2 months.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Notice Show 'Cause...|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/notice-show-cause/story-kpLJRqH1sstuHGMZpvtlUN.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Star Plus serial Bidaai under scanner|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/star-plus-serial-bidaai-under-scanner/story-Yvh9H2F80k309mgWRFerEL.html|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> When Punjab police came to arrest the actor and Producer Rajan Shahi after a FIR was filed on them, but they got interim bail.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Bidaai in trouble for Valmiki remark|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Bidaai-in-trouble-for-Valmiki-remark/articleshow/5167439.cms|website=The Times of India|date=27 October 2009 }}</ref> In September 2009, [[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Information and broadcasting ministry]] sent a notice to Star regarding it. When Star and Producer approached [[Punjab and Haryana High Court]] to quash the FIR stating that they did not intend to hurt the feelings of Valmiki Community and the FIR was due to the out of context misinterpretation of that dialogue.<ref>{{Cite web|title='Won't interfere in TV serial case'|url=https://www.asianage.com/india/won-t-interfere-tv-serial-case-921|website=[[The Asian Age]]|date=24 August 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=SC refuses to cancel FIR for hurting Valmikis' sentiments|url=https://m.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/sc-refuses-to-cancel-fir-for-hurting-valmikis%E2%80%99-sentiments-284612|website=The Tribune}}</ref> However, court dismissed their queries and stated them to face the trial. When it was taken over to [[Supreme court]], they also dismissed stating the same.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Producer, TV Channel Must Stand Trial For Serial 'Bidaai': Supreme Court|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/producer-tv-channel-must-stand-trial-for-serial-bidaai-supreme-court-1449374|publisher=[[NDTV]]}}</ref> Later, on arguments in the court, the FIR was finally quashed and the petition was dismissed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Star India Pvt limited Vs State of Punjab|url=https://www.casemine.com/judgement/in/56b494aa607dba348f00def6}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|tt3892312}}
{{Star Plus Shows}}

[[Category:2007 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2010 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:StarPlus original programming]]
[[Category:Indian television soap operas]]
[[Category:Indian television shows based on films]]
[[Category:Live action television shows based on films]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Television shows about racism]]

Interio by Godrej

2026-05-04T12:50:58Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

{{Short description|Indian furniture company}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{COI|date=September 2025}}
{{Notability|1=Companies|date=September 2025}}
{{Promotional|date=September 2025}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Interio by Godrej
| logo =
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| former_name = Godrej Interio
| type = [[Privately held company|Private]]
| industry = [[Retail]], [[Furniture]]
| founded = 1923
| founder = 
| defunct = 
| hq_location = [[Mumbai]]
| hq_location_country = [[India]]
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = Swapneel Nagarkar (Business Head)
| production_year = 
| parent = [[Godrej Enterprises Group]]
| website = www.interio.com
}}

'''Interio by Godrej''' is a furniture and design brand for homes and workspaces in India, from the [[Godrej Enterprises Group]]. It offers residential interiors including furniture, kitchens, soft furnishings, and services and commercial and institutional environments including offices, schools, hospitals, laboratories, and turnkey AV solutions. It has a market share of 15 percent in the organised furniture segment.

Interio has the largest retail footprint across the country with 1000+ retail stores and serves customers both online and offline. It operates five manufacturing facilities at [[Mumbai]], [[Khalapur]] and [[Shirwal]] in [[Maharashtra]] and, [[Haridwar]] and [[Bhagwanpur, Uttarakhand|Bhagwanpur]] in [[Uttarakhand]].

The brand has been recognised with 75+ design awards and has secured 900+ registered designs.

== History ==
The company started manufacturing furniture in 1923, with the Godrej Storwel cupboard.<ref>{{cite news |title=The ad that made Godrej Storwel a family essential in the 1970s and '80s|url=https://theprint.in/feature/brandma/the-ad-that-made-godrej-storwel-a-family-essential-in-the-1970s-and-80s/361559/ |publisher=[[ThePrint]] |date=9 September 2020}}</ref> In the year 2006, Interio was established as a business unit of [[Godrej Enterprises Group]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ashthana |first1=Shivangi |title=Create Closet of Memories with Godrej Almirahs |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/338257 |publisher=[[Entrepreneur (magazine)|Entrepreneur]] |date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Godrej & Boyce furniture, interiors under a roof |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/g-companies/godrej-consumer-products/godrej-boyce-furniture-interiors-under-a-roof/articleshow/1967517.cms |publisher=[[The Economic Times]] |date=8 September 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Godrej & Boyce announces launch of Godrej Interio |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/durables/godrej-boyce-announces-launch-of-godrej-interio/articleshow/1983801.cms?from=mdr |publisher=[[The Economic Times]] |date=12 September 2006}}</ref>

The brand unveiled its refreshed brand identity in September 2025.<ref>{{cite news|title= Interio by Godrej unveils new brand identity, eyes ₹10,000 crore revenue in 3 years|url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/interio-by-godrej-unveils-new-brand-identity-eyes-10000-revenue-in-3-years/article70030325.ece |publisher=[[ The Hindu]] |date=10 September 2025}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal |Companies|India}}
* [[Godrej Enterprises Group]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Godrej Group]]
[[Category:Furniture companies of India]]
[[Category:Indian brands]]
[[Category:Furniture retailers of India]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1923]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1923]]

Chanchal (actress)

2026-04-29T06:14:25Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

{{short description|Indian former film actress}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox actress
| name = Chanchal
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Zeb Ataullah
| birth_date = 1934
| birth_place = [[Delhi]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| relatives = [[Madhubala]] (sister) [[Kishore Kumar]] (brother-in-law)
| spouse = S. K. Prabhakar (died) Ibrahim
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1950–1961
| works = [[Chanchal (actress)#Filmography|See below]]
}}

'''Zeb Ataullah'''<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wY6AQAAIAAJ |title=Asian Film Directory and Who's who |date=1952 |pages=363, 370 |language=en}}</ref> (born 1934), better known by the stage name '''Chanchal''',<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |title=मधुबाला की बहन ने राज कपूर के साथ किया था काम, सुनील दत्त की बनी थी पत्नी, ऑस्कर के लिए गई थी फिल्म |url=https://ndtv.in/bollywood/madhubala-sister-had-worked-with-raj-kapoor-was-sunil-dutt-wife-in-film-mother-india-film-went-for-oscar-8092084/amp/1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250406235001/https://ndtv.in/bollywood/madhubala-sister-had-worked-with-raj-kapoor-was-sunil-dutt-wife-in-film-mother-india-film-went-for-oscar-8092084/amp/1 |archive-date=2025-04-06 |access-date=2025-09-06 |work=NDTV |language=hi}}</ref> is a former Indian actress who appeared in [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]]-language films. The sister of [[Madhubala]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gahlot |first=Deepa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JEqwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT134 |title=Take-2: 50 Films That Deserve a New Audience |date=2015-10-01 |publisher=Hay House, Inc |isbn=978-93-84544-85-0 |language=en}}</ref> she is best known for portraying Rupa in [[Mehboob Khan]]'s blockbuster ''[[Mother India]]'' (1957).

== Early life ==
Born as Zeb Ataullah<ref name=":4" /> in 1934 in [[Delhi]], Chanchal was one of eleven children of Ataullah Khan and Ayesha Begum. Her parents were of [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[Pashtuns|Pathan]] descent.<ref name=":3" /> Chanchal's five sisters included Mumtaz, better known by her stage name [[Madhubala]], who became one of the most celebrated Bollywood actresses of the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Madhubala's sister, Madhur Bhushan, reveals the most shocking details about the late actor's life {{!}} Filmfare.com |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/madhubalas-sister-madhur-bhushan-reveals-the-most-shocking-details-about-the-late-actors-life-25267.html |access-date=2025-09-06 |website=www.filmfare.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Shashi Bhan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxjgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |title=India's Past and Present |date=2023-10-31 |publisher=Blue Rose Publishers |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
Chanchal appeared in four films headlined by Madhubala: ''[[Pardes (1950 film)|Pardes]]'' (1950), ''[[Naata (film)|Naata]]'' (1955), ''[[Mehlon Ke Khwab]]'' (1960) and ''[[Jhumroo]]'' (1961).<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Akbar |first=Khatija |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SRlAAAAMAAJ |title=Madhubala: Her Life, Her Films |date=1997 |publisher=UBS Publishers' Distributors |isbn=978-81-7476-153-8 |pages=61 |language=en}}</ref> Of these, ''Naata'' and ''Mehlon Ke Khwab'' were produced by Madhubala and Ataullah Khan. Chanchal's work in the former was praised by critics, with a reviewer for ''Thought'' noting her "lively" performance despite poor direction.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBbmAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA48-PA19 |title=Thought |date=1955 |publisher=Siddhartha Publications |pages=19 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> However, in ''Mehlon Ke Khwab'' she drew criticism from ''[[filmindia]]'''s [[Baburao Patel]], who remarked that she "just fills the role of a crazy looking filly".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5dKj4D84egC |title=Filmindia |date=1960 |publisher=Filmindia Publications |pages=56 |language=en}}</ref> In 1960, Chanchal finished another film produced by Khan, ''Ghar Jawai'', opposite [[Kishore Kumar]]; however, it failed to garner any distributor interest and remained unreleased.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhar |first=Parthiv |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=A_KIEAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=kishore+kumar&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=kishore%20kumar&f=false |title=Kishore Kumar: The Ultimate Biography, Winner of the National Award for Best Book on Cinema, 2022 |last2=Bhattacharjee |first2=Anirudha |date=27 October 2022 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-93-5629-172-0 |pages=267 |language=en}}</ref>

Chanchal's most prominent roles were in [[Mehboob Khan]]'s ''[[Mother India]]'' (1957), as Sukhilala's "wild and tempestuous" daughter Rupa,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExhlAAAAMAAJ |title=Mehboob, India's DeMille: The First Biography |date=1994 |publisher=Indus |isbn=978-81-7223-153-8 |pages=218 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Gayatri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MiXODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |title=Mother India |date=2020-05-14 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83871-967-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref> and in ''[[Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai]]'' (1960), in which she played the village ''belle'' Bijli.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xdlAAAAMAAJ |title=Raj Kapur, the Fabulous Showman: An Intimate Biography |date=1988 |publisher=National Film Development Corporation |isbn=978-81-85304-03-8 |pages=131 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajendra |first=Ashish |date=25 February 2025 |title=बड़ी बहन मधुबाला की तरह छोटी ने भी सिनेमा में किया था राज, ऑस्कर के लिए नॉमिनेट हुई थी फिल्म |url=https://www.jagran.com/entertainment/bollywood-madhubala-sister-chanchal-well-known-actress-of-bollywood-her-movie-was-nominated-for-oscar-awards-23890464.html |access-date=6 September 2025 |website=[[Dainik Jagran]] |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tomar |first=Nancy |date=25 February 2025 |title=Madhubala की बहन की वो फिल्म, जो Oscar के लिए हुई नॉमिनेट, साइड रोल से जीता था दर्शकों का दिल |url=https://hindi.news24online.com/entertainment/madhubala-sister-chanchal-film-mother-india-oscar-nominated/1083366/ |access-date=6 September 2025 |website=News24 Hindi |language=hi}}</ref>

After Madhubala became ill in the early 1960s, Chanchal completed the filming of ''[[Boy Friend (1961 film)|Boy Friend]]'' (1961) as Madhubala's body double.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patel |first=Bhaichand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6yQYcxZ8wmsC&pg=PT111 |title=Bollywood's Top 20: Superstars of Indian Cinema |date=2016-01-15 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-81-8475-598-5 |language=en}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Chanchal first married S. K. Prabhakar, a film director and editor, of [[Hindus|Hindu]] background.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deep |first=Mohan |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=DCVlAAAAMAAJ |title=The Mystery and Mystique of Madhubala |date=1996 |publisher=Magna Books |pages=14 |language=en}}</ref> Prabhakar had worked alongside Madhubala in the films ''[[Kal Hamara Hai (film)|Kal Hamara Hai]]'' and ''[[Do Ustad (1959 film)|Do Ustad]]'' (both 1959).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Kal Hamara Hai (1959) |url=https://k-amarnath-movie-producer-director.com/kal-hamara-hai-1959/ |access-date=6 September 2025 |website=K. Amarnath Productions |date=17 November 2018 }}</ref> He died early due to a [[ventricular septal defect]].<ref name=":5" />

Chanchal later married Ibrahim.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Dr Ravinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mFlCEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA157 |title=Did You Know Indian Film Industry Interesring Facts Circa 1913 And After |date=2025-01-29 |publisher=OrangeBooks Publication |pages=157 |language=en}}</ref> As of 2017, she resided in [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name=":0" />

== Filmography ==
* ''[[Pardes (1950 film)|Pardes]]'' (1950) as Chanchal
* ''[[Nazneen (film)|Nazneen]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Naata (film)|Naata]]'' (1955) as Beena<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y2UPAQAAIAAJ |title=Swatantra |date=1955 |pages=47–48 |language=en}}</ref>
* ''[[Teerandaz (film)|Teerandaz]]'' (1955)
* ''[[Mother India]]'' (1957) as Rupa
* ''[[Mehlon Ke Khwab]]'' (1960) as Bela
* ''[[Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai]]'' (1960) as Bijli
* ''[[Jhumroo]]'' (1961) as Chamki<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1977-IA1213 |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |date=2014-07-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-94325-7 |pages=1977 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|0151266}}

[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses from Delhi]]
[[Category:Pashtun actresses]]
[[Category:Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian people of Pashtun descent]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Possibly living people]]

Leela Majumdar

2026-04-29T04:35:08Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Made first details more to come

{{Short description|Indian writer (1908–2007)}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Leela Majumdar
| image = LeelaMajumdarPic.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1908|02|26|df=y}}<ref name = "Times">Ray, Prasadranjan, ''Remembering Lila Majumadar, Mejopishi, As I Saw Her'', Times of Indian Kolkata edition, 8 April 2007.</ref>
| birth_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2007|04|05|1908|02|26|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| occupation = Writer
| period = 1922–1994
| genre = Children's books
| spouse = {{marriage|Sudhir Kumar Majumdar|1934|1984|reason=died}}
| children = 2
}}

'''Leela Majumdar''' ({{IPA|bn|lila mod͡ʒumdar}}; née '''Ray'''; 26 February 1908<ref name = "Times"/> – 5 April 2007) was an Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language writer.

==Early life==
Born to Surama Devi and Pramada Ranjan Ray (who was the younger brother of [[Upendrakishore Ray|Upendra Kishor Ray Choudhuri]]), Leela spent her childhood days at [[Shillong]], where she studied at the Loreto Convent.<ref name = "Statesman"/> Surama Devi had been adopted by Upendra Kishor Ray Choudhuri. Lila's grandfather had left his younger two daughters in care of his friends after his wife died. The eldest daughter was sent to a boarding house. Her maternal grandfather was Ramkumar Bhattacharya, who later became a sannyasi and was christened Ramananda Bharati. He was the first among Indians to visit Kailash and Mansarovar and wrote a travelogue ''Himaranya''. In 1919, her father was transferred to Calcutta, and she joined St. John's Diocesan School from where she completed her matriculation examination.<ref name = "Times"/> She ranked second among the girls in the matriculation examinations in 1924. She stood first in [[English studies|English]] (literature) both in her honours (graduation) and [[Master of Arts]] examination at the [[University of Calcutta]]. The family she belonged to made a notable contribution towards children's literature.<ref name = "Statesman">'' The beyond beckons Lila Majumdar'', ''The Statesman'', 6 April 2007</ref><ref name = "AnandaBazar">''Shri Lila Majumdar (1908–2007) '', ''Ananda Bazar Patrika'' {{in lang|bn}}, 6 April 2007</ref> [[Sunil Gangopadhyay]] says that while the [[Tagore family]] enthused everybody with drama, songs and literature for adults, the Ray Chaudhuri family took charge of laying the foundations of children's literature in Bengali.<ref name = "Sunil">Sunil Gangopadhyay, ''Riju, Sabalil Bhasa, Tate Agagora Snighdha Ras'', ''Ananda Bazar Patrika'' {{in lang|bn}}, 6 April 2007</ref>

==Formative years==
She joined Maharani Girls' School at Darjeeling as a teacher in 1931.<ref name = "Statesman"/> On an invitation from [[Rabindranath Tagore]] she went and joined the school at [[Santiniketan]], but she stayed only for about one year. She joined the women's section of [[Asutosh College]] in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] but again did not continue for long. Thereafter, she spent most of her time as a writer. After two decades as a writer, she joined [[All India Radio]] as a producer and worked for about seven-eight years.<ref name = "AnandaBazar"/>

Her first story, ''Lakhi Chele'', was published in ''[[Sandesh (magazine)|Sandesh]]'' in 1922. It was also illustrated by her.<ref name = "Statesman"/> The children's magazine in Bengali was founded by her uncle, Upendra Kishore Ray Chaudhuri in 1913 and was later edited by her cousin [[Sukumar Ray]] for some time after the death of Upendra Kishore in 1915.<ref name = "andhracafe">{{cite web
| url = http://www.andhracafe.com/index.php?m=show&id=21267
| title = ''Children's writer Leela Majumdar dies''
| access-date = 6 April 2007
| last =
| first =
| publisher = andhracafe.com
| archive-date = 13 May 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080513032204/http://www.andhracafe.com/index.php?m=show&id=21267
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> Together with her nephew [[Satyajit Ray]] and her cousin Nalini Das, she edited and wrote for ''Sandesh'' throughout her active writing life.<ref name = "Telegraph">''Children's tales never outgrown'', ''The Telegraph'', 6 April 2007</ref> Until 1994 she played an active role in the publication of the magazine.<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070226/asp/calcutta/story_7440754.asp
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130105093841/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070226/asp/calcutta/story_7440754.asp
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 5 January 2013
| title = ''Splendid centurion – Darling of the young and young at heart reaches age milestone''
| access-date = 6 April 2007
| last =
| first =
| work =
| publisher = The Telegraph, 26 February 2007
| location=Calcutta, India
| date=26 February 2007
}}</ref>

==Creative efforts==
An incomplete bibliography lists 125 books including a collection of short stories, five books under joint authorship, 9 translated books and 19 edited books.<ref name = "Times"/>

Her first published book was ''Boddi Nather Bari'' (1939) but her second compilation ''Din Dupere'' (1948) brought her considerable fame from the 1950s, her incomparable children's classics followed. Although humor was her forte, she also wrote detective stories, ghost stories and fantasies.<ref name = "Times"/>

Her autobiographical sketch ''Pak Dandi'' provides an insight into her childhood days in Shillong and also her early years at Santiniketan and with All India Radio.<ref name = "Statesman"/>

Apart from her glittering array of children's literature, she wrote a cookbook, novels for adults (''Sreemoti'', ''Cheena Lathan''), and a biography of Rabindranath Tagore. She lectured on [[Abanindranath Tagore]] and translated his writings on art into English. She translated [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' and [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' into Bengali.<ref name = "Telegraph"/>

Satyajit Ray had thought of filming ''Podi Pishir Bormi Baksho''.<ref name = "Sunil"/> [[Arundhati Devi]] made it into the film ''[[Padi Pishir Barmi Baksha]]'' in 1972. [[Chhaya Devi]] played the role of the young hero, Khoka's famed aunt Padipishi.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.upperstall.com/chhayadevi.html
| title = Chhaya Devi (1914–2001)
| access-date = 6 April 2007
| last =
| first =
| publisher =upperstall.com
}}</ref>

For a special Mahila Mahal (women's section) series of All-India Radio, dealing with the "natural and ordinary problems" in the everyday life of a girl growing up in a typical, middle-class, Bengali family, she created ''Manimala'', the story of a "very ordinary girl" whose grandmother starts writing to her from when she turns 12, continuing into her marriage and motherhood.<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070308/asp/opinion/story_7484392.asp
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130204021150/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070308/asp/opinion/story_7484392.asp
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 4 February 2013
| title = ''Seize The Day, And Just Get on With Things''
| access-date = 6 April 2007
| last =
| first =
| work =
| publisher = The Telegraph, 8 March 2007
| location=Calcutta, India
| date=8 March 2007
}}</ref>

==Family==
In 1933 she married Dr. Sudhir Kumar Majumdar (1897-1984), a renowned dentist who was a graduate of the Harvard Dental School. Their son Ranjan was a medical doctor and a dentist. Daughter Kamala was married to Monishi Chatterjee, an oil engineer and grandson of the first female painter of the Bengal school, [[Sunayani Devi]]. Apart from her children, she had, at the time of her death, two grandsons, two granddaughters and three great-grandchildren.<ref name = "Times"/>

==Works==

===Juvenile Literature Books===
# ''Boddi Nather Bori'' (first published book, published in 1939)
# ''Din Dupure'' (published in 1948)
# ''Podi Pishir Bormi Baksho'' (published in 1953)
# ''Holde Pakhir Palok'' (published in 1957)
# ''Haati Haati'' (published in 1957)
# ''Bagher Chokh'' (published in 1959)
# ''Gupir Gupta Khata'' (published in 1959)
# ''Bak Badh Pala'' (published in 1959)
#''Bok Dharmik'' (published in 1960)
#''Tong Ling'' (published in 1963)
#''Lanka Dahan Pala'' (published in 1964)
#''Haoyar Danri'' (published in 1964)
#''Maaku'' (published in 1968)
#''Nepor Boi'' (published in 1969)
#''Naaku Gama'' (published in 1973)
#''Batashbari'' (published in 1974)
#''Bhootor Diary'' (published in 1979)
#''Kaag Noy'' (published in 1981)
#''Sob Bhuture'' (published in 1983)
#''Gupi-Panu'r Keertikolaap'' (published in 1983)
#''Khonja'' (published in 1991)
#''Beraler Boi'' (published in 1996)

===Books for Adults===
# ''Manimala'' (published in 1956)
# ''Jonaki'' (published in 1958)
#<ref name = "Statesman"/>''Sreemoti'' (published in 1958)
#''Cheena Lanthan'' (published in 1963)

===Autobiography and Memoirs===
#''Aar Konokhane'' (published in 1967)
#''Kheror Khata'' (published in 1982)
#''Pakdandi'' (published in 1986)

===Biographies===
#''Ei Ja Dekha'' (published in 1961)
#''Kabi Katha'' (published in 1961)
#''Upendrakishore'' (published in 1963)
#''Abanindranath'' (published in 1966)
#''Sukumar'' (published in 1989)

===Cookbook===
#''Rannar Boi'' (published in 1979)

===Other Works===
#''Chhotoder Srestho Galpo''
#''Taka Gaachh''
#''Basher Phul''
#''Moyna''
#''Shalikh''
#''Bhuter Bari''
#''Aaguni Beguni''
#''Tipur Upor Tipuni''
#''Patka Chor''
#''Aashare Galpo''
#''Chiching Phank''
#''Je Jai Boluk''
#''Chhotoder Tal Betal''
#''Batash Bari''
#''Bagh Shikari Bamun''
#''Baghyar Galpo''
#''Shibur Diary''
#''Howrahr Dari''
#''Ferari''
#''Ei Je Dekha''
#<ref name = "Telegraph"/>''Moni Manil''
#''Naatghar''
# ''Istkutum''
#''Lal Neel Deslai''
#<ref name = "Times"/> Megher Sari Dhorte Nari
#Pori didir Bor
#Pesha Bodol
#Batas Bari
#Monimala
#Ilshe Ghai

==Awards==
''Holde Pakhir Palok'' won the state award for children's literature, ''Bak Badh Pala'' won the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] from the [[Government of India]] in 1963, ''Aar Konokhane'' won [[Rabindra Puraskar]] from the [[Government of West Bengal]] in 1969. She had also won the Suresh Smriti Puraskar, Vidyasagar Puraskar, Bhubaneswari Medal for lifetime achievement,<ref name = "Times"/> and Ananda Puraskar.<ref name = "Telegraph"/> She has been awarded the Deshikottama by [[Visva-Bharati University|Visva Bharati]], and honorary D.Litt. by Burdwan, [[University of North Bengal|North Bengal]] and [[University of Calcutta|Calcutta]] Universities.<ref name = "Times"/>

==Legacy==
In 2019, a documentary film has been made on Lila Majumdar entitled ''"Peristan - The World of Lila Majumdar"''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://filmfreeway.com/PeristanTheWorldofLilaMajumdar|title=Peristan - the World of Lila Majumdar}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ray family}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Majumdar, Leela}}
[[Category:1908 births]]
[[Category:2007 deaths]]
[[Category:Bengali writers]]
[[Category:Bengali-language writers]]
[[Category:Bengali detective fiction writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Rabindra Puraskar]]
[[Category:Bengali–English translators]]
[[Category:English–Bengali translators]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Calcutta]]
[[Category:Indian children's writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian translators]]
[[Category:Women writers from West Bengal]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Novelists from West Bengal]]
[[Category:People associated with Shillong]]
[[Category:People from Shillong]]
[[Category:Writers from Meghalaya]]
[[Category:Satyajit Ray]]
[[Category:Bengali-language science fiction writers]]
[[Category:Women science fiction and fantasy writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women novelists]]

Ganges

2026-04-27T13:12:08Z

ElenaEbersbacher: minor edit

{{short description|Major river in Asia}}
{{about|the river|other uses}}
{{redirect|Ganga|the goddess|Ganga (goddess)|other uses|Ganga (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Ganges (Ganga)
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| name_other =
| name_etymology = [[Ganga (goddess)]]
| image = Varanasiganga.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| image_caption = The Ganges in [[Varanasi]]
| map = Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basins.jpg
| map_size = 300px
| map_caption = Map of the combined drainage basins of the Ganges (yellow), Brahmaputra (violet) and Meghna (green)
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[India]] (as Ganga), [[Bangladesh]] (as Padma)
| subdivision_type2 = Bhagirathi
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
| subdivision_name5 = '''[[Uttarakhand]]''': [[Rishikesh]] & [[Haridwar]]

'''[[Uttar Pradesh]]''': [[Bijnor]], [[Garhmukteshwar]], [[Anupshahr]], [[Farrukhabad]], [[Fatehgarh]], [[Kannauj]], [[Kanpur]], [[Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh|Fatehpur]], [[Kunda, India|Kunda]], [[Prayagraj]], [[Mirzapur]], [[Varanasi]], [[Mughalsarai]], [[Ghazipur]] & [[Ballia]]

'''[[Bihar]]''': [[Chausa]], [[Buxar]], [[Chhapra]], [[Danapur]], [[Patna]], [[Hajipur]], [[Barh]], [[Mokama]], [[Begusarai]], [[Munger]], [[Sultanganj, Bihar|Sultanganj]], [[Bhagalpur]] & [[Manihari]]

'''[[Jharkhand]]''': [[Sahibganj]]

'''[[West Bengal]]''': [[Murshidabad]], [[Palashi]], [[Nabadwip]], [[Shantipur]], [[Kolkata]], [[Serampore]], [[Chinsurah]], [[Baranagar]], [[Diamond Harbour]], [[Haldia]], [[Budge Budge]], [[Howrah]], [[Uluberia]] & [[Barrackpore]]

'''[[Rajshahi Division]]''': [[Rajshahi]], [[Pabna]], [[Ishwardi Upazila|Ishwardi]]

'''[[Khulna Division]]''': [[Kushtia]], [[Shilaidaha]]

'''[[Dhaka Division]]''': [[Dhaka]], [[Narayanganj]], [[Gazipur]], [[Munshiganj Sadar Upazila|Munshiganj]], [[Faridpur, Bangladesh|Faridpur]]

'''[[Chittagong Division]]''': [[Chandpur Sadar Upazila|Chandpur]], [[Noakhali Sadar Upazila|Noakhali]]

'''[[Barisal Division]]''': [[Bhola Sadar Upazila|Bhola]]
| length = {{cvt|2525|km|mi}}{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007}}
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge3_location = [[Farakka Barrage]]{{sfn|Kumar|Singh|Sharma|2005}}
| discharge3_min = {{cvt|180|m3/s|cuft/s}}
| discharge3_avg = {{cvt|16,648|m3/s|cuft/s}}
| discharge3_max = {{cvt|70,000|m3/s|cuft/s}}
| discharge2_location = [[Ganges Delta]], [[Bay of Bengal]]
| discharge2_min =
| discharge2_avg =(Ganges without Brahmaputra and Meghna) {{cvt|18,691|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="cbsharma">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nufdUc0Ps0C&dq=Ganga+river+18,691+m3/s&pg=PA45 |title=Applied Environmental Sciences & Engineering |author=C B Sharma |publisher=BFC Publications |date=11 January 2021 |isbn=978-0-313-38007-5 |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220111532/https://books.google.com/books?id=-nufdUc0Ps0C&dq=Ganga+river+18,691+m3/s&pg=PA45 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| discharge2_max =
| source1 = Confluence at [[Devprayag]], [[Uttarakhand]] of the [[Alaknanda River|Alaknanda river]] (the [[River source|source stream]] in [[hydrology]] because of its greater length) and the [[Bhagirathi River|Bhagirathi river]] (the source stream in [[Hinduism|Hindu tradition]]). The headwaters of the river include: [[Mandakini River|Mandakini]], [[Nandakini]], [[Pindar River|Pindar]] and the [[Dhauliganga River|Dhauliganga]], all tributaries of the Alaknanda.<ref name=ganges-britannica>{{citation |last1=Lodrick |first1=Deryck O. |last2=Ahmad |first2=Nafis |title=Ganges River |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=28 January 2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=7 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507172054/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River |url-status=live }}</ref>
| source1_location = Devprayag, the beginning of the [[main stem]] of the Ganges
| source1_coordinates =
| source1_elevation =
| mouth = [[Bay of Bengal]]
| mouth_location = [[Ganges Delta]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{Coord|22.0|N|90.9|E|type:river|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation =
| progression =
| waterfalls =
| river_system =
| basin_size = {{cvt|1,999,000|km2|mi2}}<ref name="cbsharma"/>
| tributaries_left = [[Ramganga]], [[Garra River|Garra]], [[Gomti River|Gomti]], [[Tamsa River (East)|Tamsa]] [[Ghaghara River|Ghaghara]], [[Gandak River|Gandak]], [[Burhi Gandak River|Burhi Gandak]], [[Koshi River|Koshi]], [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]]
| tributaries_right = [[Yamuna]], [[Tamsa River|Tamsa]] (also known as Tons River), [[Karmanasa River|Karamnasa]], [[Sone River|Sone]], [[Punpun River|Punpun]], [[Falgu River|Falgu]], [[Kiul River|Kiul]], [[Chandan River|Chandan]], [[Ajay River|Ajay]], [[Damodar River|Damodar]], [[Rupnarayan River|Rupnarayan]]
| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
| mapframe = yes
| discharge1_location = [[Ganges Delta|Mouth of the Ganges]]
| discharge1_avg =Total runoff into the Bay of Bengal
(Period: 1921–1985){{cvt|43,704|m3/s|cuft/s}}<ref name="Spatial and temporal runoff oscillation analysis of the main rivers
of the world during the 19th–20th centuries">[http://www.adbarno.it/rep/biblio/Pekarova.pdf](PDF; 773  KB)</ref>
(Period: 1990–2020){{cvt|1,350|km3/year|m3/s}}<ref name="Variation of Satellite-Based Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Estuary from 1990 to 2020">{{cite journal |journal=Remote Sensing |title=Variation of Satellite-Based Suspended Sediment Concentration in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Estuary from 1990 to 2020 |last1=Hanquan |first1=Yang |last2=Tianshen |first2=Mei |last3=Xiaoyan |first3=Chen |volume=16 |doi=10.3390/rs16020396 |date=2024 |issue=2 |page=396 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024RemS...16..396Y }}</ref>
(dry period 38,129 m³/s,{{sfn|Kumar|Singh|Sharma|2005}} wet period 53,170 m³/s;<ref name="cbsharma"/><ref name="Spatial and temporal runoff oscillation analysis of the main rivers
of the world during the 19th–20th centuries">[http://www.adbarno.it/rep/biblio/Pekarova.pdf](PDF; 773  KB)</ref>)
}}

The '''Ganges''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|dʒ|iː|z}} {{respell|GAN|jeez}}; in India: '''Ganga''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|ŋ|ɡ|ɑː}} {{respell|GUNG|gah}}; in Bangladesh: '''Padma''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ʌ|d|m|ə}} {{respell|PUD|mə}})<ref name=salman-uprety>{{harvnb|Salman|Uprety|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA129 129]}}. "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international {{wikidata|property|P31}} which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China."</ref><ref name=swain-ganges>{{citation |last=Swain |first=Ashok |title=Managing Water Conflict: Asia, Africa, and the Middle East |publisher=Routledge |page=54 |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-135-76883-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IHpYZtKzXMC&pg=PA54 |quote=The Ganges is an international river that flows through the territories of India and Bangladesh. In the Indian side, the Ganges is called the Ganga. ... India's Ganga then becomes Padma for a Bangladeshi. }}</ref><ref name=PCGN-Ganges>{{citation |title=India: Factfile |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/936421/India_Factfile.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024202519/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/936421/India_Factfile.pdf |archive-date=24 October 2021 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use|Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN)]] |page=11 |quote=PCGN recommended name=Ganges; Local Names: Padma (Bangladesh), Ganga (India); Feature type: River }}</ref><ref name=uslcsh34-ganges>{{citation |title=US Library of Congress Subject Headings, thirty-fourth edition (LCSH 34) |url=https://www.loc.gov/aba/publications/Archived-LCSH34/lcshintro.pdf |chapter=Subject headings: G |chapter-url=https://www.loc.gov/aba/publications/Archived-LCSH34/G.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020339/http://loc.gov/aba/publications/Archived-LCSH34/G.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2016 |url-status=live |year=2012 |page=23 |quote=Ganges River (India and Bangladesh); UF (use for) Gangā River (India and Bangladesh); BT (broader term) Rivers—Bangladesh, Rivers—India; NT (narrower term) Padma River (Bangladesh) }}</ref> is a [[trans-boundary river]] of Asia which flows through [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The {{convert|2525|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} river rises in the western [[Himalayas]] in the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Uttarakhand]]. It flows south and east through the [[Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plain]] of [[North India]], receiving the right-bank tributary, the [[Yamuna]], which also rises in the western Indian Himalayas, and several left-bank tributaries from [[Nepal]] that account for the bulk of its flow.<ref name=swain-ganges-2>{{cite book |last=Swain |first=Ashok |title=Managing Water Conflict: Asia, Africa, and the Middle East |publisher=Routledge |page=54 |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-135-76883-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IHpYZtKzXMC&pg=PA54 |quote=This river originates on the southern slope of the Himalayan range, and on its way receives supplies from seven major tributaries. Three of them - the Gandak, Karnali (Ghagara) and Kosi — pass through the Himalayan 'Hindu' Kingdom of Nepal, and they supply the major portion of the Ganges flow. |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172558/https://books.google.com/books?id=0IHpYZtKzXMC&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Salman|Uprety|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA129 129]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA130 130]}} "The tributaries that originate in Nepal and China, including the Kosi, Gandaki, Kamala, Bagmati, Kamali and Mahakali, account for about 45 percent of the Ganges flow."</ref> In [[West Bengal]], India, a feeder canal taking off from its right bank diverts 50% of its flow southwards, artificially connecting it to the [[Hooghly River]]. The Ganges continues into [[Bangladesh]], its name changing to the [[Padma River|Padma]]. It is then joined by the [[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna]], the lower stream of the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], and eventually the [[Meghna River|Meghna]], forming the major estuary of the [[Ganges Delta]], and emptying into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna system is the [[List of rivers by discharge|second-largest river on earth by discharge]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=World of Change: Padma River – NASA Earth Observatory |date=31 July 2018 |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/PadmaRiver |access-date=5 December 2021 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530220940/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/PadmaRiver |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ganges River Basin |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ganges-river-basin/ |date=1 October 2019 |publisher=National Geographic Society |language=en |access-date=18 May 2020 |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528230116/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ganges-river-basin/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[main stem]] of the Ganges begins at the town of [[Devprayag]],<ref name=ganges-britannica/> at the confluence of the [[Alaknanda River|Alaknanda]], which is the [[River source|source stream]] in [[hydrology]] on account of its greater length, and the [[Bhagirathi River|Bhagirathi]], which is considered the source stream in [[Hindu mythology]].

The Ganges is a lifeline to hundreds of millions of people who live in its basin and depend on it for their daily needs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0gYQrebGwY |title=The Mighty River {{vbar}} Ganga: River From The Skies {{vbar}} National Geographic |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |date=29 April 2020 |access-date=9 November 2023 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109062104/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0gYQrebGwY |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals such as [[Pataliputra]],<ref name="Ghosh">{{cite book |last=Ghosh |first=A. |title=An encyclopaedia of Indian archaeology |year=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=law3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA334 |access-date=27 April 2011 |publisher=BRILL |oclc=313728835 |isbn=978-90-04-09264-8 |page=334 }}</ref> [[Kannauj]],<ref name="Ghosh"/> [[Sonargaon]], [[Dhaka]], [[Bikrampur]], [[Kara (Kaushambi)|Kara]], [[Munger]], [[Varanasi|Kashi]], [[Patna]], [[Hajipur]], [[Kanpur]], [[Delhi]], [[Bhagalpur]], [[Murshidabad]], [[Baharampur]], [[Kampilya]], and [[Kolkata]] located on its banks or those of its tributaries and connected waterways. The river is home to approximately 140 species of fish, 90 species of [[amphibian]]s, and also [[reptile]]s and [[mammal]]s, including [[critically endangered]] species such as the [[gharial]] and [[South Asian river dolphin]].<ref name="Rice2012">{{citation |last=Rice |first=Earle |title=The Ganges River |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdeXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 |year=2012 |publisher=Mitchell Lane Publishers, Incorporated |isbn=978-1-61228-368-5 |page=25 |access-date=22 March 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172550/https://books.google.com/books?id=vdeXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ganges is the most sacred river to [[Hindus]].<ref name="Alter2001">{{citation |last=Alter |first=Stephen |title=Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage Up the Ganges River to the Source of Hindu Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qb9yQgAACAAJ |access-date=30 July 2013 |year=2001 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Trade & Reference Publishers |isbn=978-0-15-100585-7 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324113652/https://books.google.com/books?id=qb9yQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is worshipped as the goddess ''[[Ganga in Hinduism|Ganga]]'' in [[Hinduism]].<ref name="BhattacharjiBandyopadhyay1995">{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharji |first1=Sukumari |last2=Bandyopadhyay |first2=Ramananda |title=Legends of Devi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B0j0hRgWsg8C&pg=PA54 |access-date=27 April 2011 |year=1995 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-0781-4 |page=54 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172609/https://books.google.com/books?id=B0j0hRgWsg8C&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Pollution of the Ganges|Ganges is threatened by severe pollution]]. This not only poses a danger to humans but also to many species of animals. The levels of [[fecal coliform]] bacteria from [[human waste]] ([[human feces|feces]] and [[urination|urine]]) in the river near [[Varanasi]] are more than 100 times the Indian government's official limit.<ref name="Rice2012"/> The [[Ganga Action Plan]], an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been considered a failure{{efn|name=haberman}}{{efn|name=gardner}}<ref name=cleanperish>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111103162858/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-19/edit-page/28148254_1_national-river-conservation-plan-ganga-action-plan-ganga-and-yamuna "Clean Up Or Perish"], ''[[The Times of India]]'', 19 March 2010</ref> which is variously attributed to [[corruption]], a lack of care from the government, poor technical expertise,{{efn|name=sheth}} poor [[environmental planning]],{{efn|name=singh}} and a lack of support from religious authorities.{{efn|name=puttick}}

== Course ==
[[File:HeadwatersGanges1.jpg|thumb|305px|The Himalayan headwaters of the Ganges River in the [[Garhwal division|Garhwal]] region of Uttarakhand, India.]]
[[File:Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.JPG|thumb|Bhagirathi River at [[Gangotri]].]]
[[File:Devprayag - Confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda.JPG|thumb|Devprayag, confluence of Alaknanda (right) and Bhagirathi (left), and beginning of the Ganges.]]
[[File:Boat Sailing up Padma River Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|right|A sailboat on the main distributary of the Ganges in Bangladesh, the [[Padma River]].]]
[[File:Ganges Delta ESA22274217.jpeg|thumb|right|The [[Ganges Delta]] in a 2020 satellite image.]]
[[File:Ganga at Sultanganj.jpg|thumb|right|The Ganges at [[Sultanganj]].]]

The upper phase of the river Ganges begins at the [[confluence]] of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers in the town of [[Devprayag]] in the Garhwal division of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. The Bhagirathi is considered to be the [[Source (river or stream)|source]] in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and therefore, hydrologically the source stream.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Ganges |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |edition=Online Library |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River |access-date=23 April 2011 |archive-date=7 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507172054/https://www.britannica.com/place/Ganges-River |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Penn2001">{{cite book |last=Penn |first=James R. |title=Rivers of the world: a social, geographical, and environmental sourcebook |url=https://archive.org/details/riversofworldsoc00penn |url-access=registration |access-date=23 April 2011 |year=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-042-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/riversofworldsoc00penn/page/n117 88] }}</ref> The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snow melt from peaks such as [[Nanda Devi]], [[Trisul]], and [[Kamet]]. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of [[Gangotri Glacier]] at [[Gomukh]], at an elevation of {{cvt|4356|m|ft}} and was mythologically referred to as residing in the matted locks of [[Shiva]]; symbolically Tapovan, which is a meadow of ethereal beauty at the feet of Mount Shivling, just {{cvt|5|km|mi}} away.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gangotri-tapovan-trek.com/ |title=Gangotri Tapovan Trek, Gangotri Gaumukh Trek, Gangotri Tapovan Trekking |website=www.gangotri-tapovan-trek.com |access-date=13 November 2019 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113002243/https://www.gangotri-tapovan-trek.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Krishna Murti|1991|p=19}}

Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, [[Dhauliganga River|Dhauliganga]], [[Nandakini]], [[Pindar River|Pindar]], [[Mandakini River|Mandakini]] and Bhagirathi. Their confluences, known as the [[Panch Prayag]], are all along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream order, [[Vishnuprayag]], where the Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda; [[Nandprayag]], where the Nandakini joins; [[Karnaprayag]], where the Pindar joins; [[Rudraprayag]], where the Mandakini joins; and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges.<ref name="Britannica"/>

After flowing for {{cvt|256.90|km|mi}}{{sfn|Krishna Murti|1991|p=19}} through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at [[Rishikesh]], then [[debouch]]es onto the Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of [[Haridwar]].<ref name="Britannica"/> At Haridwar, a [[headworks]] diverts some of its water into the [[Ganges Canal]], which irrigates the ''[[Doab]]'' region of [[Uttar Pradesh]],<ref name=stone-head-works>{{harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=35–36}}: "Nowhere is this more in evidence than in the construction of the canal headwork's and particularly the Ganges canal head at Hardwar. The advantage of choosing this site for the headworks was that it took off at a high point (where the river emerges from the hills) and thus avoided the problem of constructing a dam on the sandy bed of the river (the bed was still rocky at Hardwar) and of 'lifting', via embankments, the canal out of the '' khadir'' several miles wide through which the Ganges river flowed at a lower level than the [[Doab]] plains."</ref> whereas the river, whose course has been roughly southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern India.

The Ganges river follows a {{cvt|900|km|mi|adj=on}} arching course passing through the cities of [[Bijnor]], Kannauj, [[Farukhabad]], and [[Kanpur]]. Along the way it is joined by the [[Ramganga]], which contributes an average annual flow of about {{cvt|495|m3/s|cuft/s}} to the river.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|p=341}} The Ganges joins the {{cvt|1444|km|mi}} long River [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]] at the [[Triveni Sangam]] at [[Prayagraj]] (previously Allahabad), a confluence considered holy in Hinduism. At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges contributing about 58.5% of the combined flow,{{sfn|Gupta|2007|page=347}} with an average flow of {{cvt|2948|m3/s|cuft/s}}.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|p=341}}

Now flowing east, the river meets the {{cvt|400|km|mi}} long [[Tamsa River]] (also called ''Tons''), which flows north from the [[Kaimur Range]] and contributes an average flow of about {{cvt|187|m3/s|cuft/s}}. After the Tamsa, the {{cvt|625|km|mi}} long [[Gomti River]] joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an average annual flow of about {{cvt|234|m3/s|cuft/s}}. Then the {{cvt|1156|km|mi}} long [[Ghaghara River]] (Karnali River), also flowing south from the Himalayas of Tibet through Nepal joins. The Ghaghara (Karnali), with its average annual flow of about {{cvt|2991|m3/s|cuft/s}}, is the largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge. After the Ghaghara confluence, the Ganges is joined from the south by the {{cvt|784|km|mi}} long [[Son River]], which contributes about {{cvt|1008|m3/s|cuft/s}}. The {{cvt|814|km|mi}} long [[Gandaki River]], then the {{cvt|729|km|mi}} long [[Kosi River]], join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about {{cvt|1654|m3/s|cuft/s}} and {{cvt|2166|m3/s|cuft/s}}, respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges by discharge, after Ghaghara (Karnali) and Yamuna.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|p=341}} The Kosi merges into the Ganges near Kursela in [[Bihar]].

Along the way between Prayagraj and [[Malda, West Bengal|Malda]], [[West Bengal]], the Ganges river passes the towns of [[Chunar]], [[Mirzapur]], [[Varanasi]], [[Ghazipur]], [[Arrah|Ara]], [[Patna]], [[Chhapra|Chapra]], [[Hajipur]], [[Mokama]], [[Begusarai]], [[Munger]], [[Sahibganj]], [[Rajmahal]], [[Bhagalpur]], [[Ballia]], [[Buxar]], [[Simaria]], [[Sultanganj]], and [[Farakka]]. At Bhagalpur, the river begins to flow south-southeast and at Farakka, it begins its attrition with the branching away of its first [[distributary]], the {{cvt|408|km|mi}} long [[Hooghly River|Bhāgirathi-Hooghly]], which goes on to become the [[Hooghly River]]. Just before the border with Bangladesh the [[Farakka Barrage]] controls the flow of Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it relatively silt-free. The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the Bhagirathi River and [[Ajay River]] at [[Katwa]], and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own. The largest is the [[Damodar River]], which is {{cvt|625|km|mi}} long, with a drainage basin of {{cvt|25820|km2|sqmi}}.{{sfn|Dhungel|Pun|2009|p=215}} The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near [[Sagar Island]].{{sfn|Chakrabarti|2001| pp=126–27}} Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly river passes the towns and cities of [[Murshidabad]], [[Nabadwip]], Kolkata and [[Howrah]].

After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges river is known as the [[Padma River|Padma]]. The Padma is joined by the [[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna River]], the largest distributary of the [[Brahmaputra]]. Further downstream, the Padma joins the [[Meghna River]], the converged flow of [[Surma-Meghna River System]] taking on the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which empties into the Bay of Bengal. Here it forms the {{cvt|1430|by|3000|km|mi}} [[Bengal Fan]], the world's largest [[submarine fan]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shanmugam, G. |title=Submarine fans: A critical retrospective (1950–2015) |year=2016 |journal=Journal of Palaeogeography |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=110–184 |doi=10.1016/j.jop.2015.08.011 |bibcode=2016JPalG...5..110S |doi-access=free |issn=2095-3836 }}</ref> which alone accounts for 10–20% of the global burial of [[organic carbon]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Galy, V. |author2=O. Beyssac |author3=C. France-Lanord |author4=T. Eglinton |title=Recycling of graphite during erosion: A geological stabilization of carbon in the crust |year=2008 |journal=Science |volume=322 |issue=5903 |pages=943–945 |doi=10.1126/science.1161408 |pmid=18988852 |bibcode=2008Sci...322..943G |s2cid=5426352 }}</ref>

The [[Ganges Delta]], formed mainly by the large, sediment-laden flows of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, is the world's largest delta, at about {{cvt|64000|km2|sqmi}}.{{sfn|Parua|2009}} It stretches {{cvt|400|km|mi}} along the [[Bay of Bengal]].{{sfn|Arnold|2000}}

Only the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[Congo River|Congo]] rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river system.{{sfn|Arnold|2000}} In full flood only the Amazon is larger.{{sfn|Elhance|1999| pp=156–58}}

==Geology==
The [[Indian subcontinent]] lies atop the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]], a minor plate within the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} Its defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], it began a northeastwards [[Plate tectonics|drift]]—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the [[Eurasian Plate]] and [[subduction]] under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountain ranges.{{sfn|Ali|Aitchison|2005}} In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast [[trough (geology)|trough]], which, having gradually been filled with sediment borne by the [[Indus River|Indus]] and its tributaries and the Ganges and its tributaries,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=7|Ref=dikshit }}</ref> now forms the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Prakash |first=B. |author2=Sudhir Kumar |author3=M. Someshwar Rao |author4=S. C. Giri |title=Holocene tectonic movements and stress field in the western Gangetic plains |journal=Current Science |volume= |issue= |year= |pages=438–49 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504075319/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf |archive-date=4 May 2011 }}</ref>

The Indo-Gangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or [[foreland basin]].<ref name="Dmowska2003">{{cite book |last=Dmowska |first=Renata |title=Advances in Geophysics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ikFcqh1u1Q0C&pg=PA14 |year=2003 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-018846-8 |page=14 }}</ref>

==Hydrology==
[[File:GangesValley&Plain.jpg|thumb|A 1908 map showing the course of the Ganges and its tributaries.]]
Major left-bank tributaries include the Gomti River, Ghaghara River, Gandaki River and Kosi River; major right-bank tributaries include the Yamuna River, Son River, [[Punpun]] and Damodar. The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated, especially in the Ganges Delta region. One result is different ways to determine the river's length, its [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]], and the size of its [[drainage basin]].
[[File:River Ganga with Howrah bridge in the backdrop.jpg|thumb|The River Ganges at Kolkata, with [[Howrah Bridge]] in the background]]
[[File:Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|Lower Ganges in Lakshmipur, Bangladesh]]

The name ''Ganges'' is used for the river between the confluence of the [[Bhagirathi]] and Alaknanda rivers, in the Himalayas, and the first [[River bifurcation|bifurcation]] of the river, near the Farakka Barrage and the India-Bangladesh Border. The length of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over {{cvt|2600|km|mi}} long, about {{cvt|2601|km|mi}},<ref name="Merriam-WebsterInc1997">{{cite book |author=Merriam-Webster |title=Merriam-Webster's geographical dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA412 |year=1997 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-546-9 |page=412 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172554/https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA412#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> {{cvt|2525|km|mi}}{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=347}}{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|pp=334–342}} or {{cvt|2650|km|mi}}.{{sfn|Berga|2006| p=1304}} In these cases the river's source is usually assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River, Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh and its mouth being the mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=347}}<ref name="Merriam-WebsterInc1997"/>{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|pp=334–342}}{{sfn|Berga|2006| p=1304}} Sometimes the source of the Ganges is considered to be at Haridwar, where its Himalayan headwater streams debouch onto the Gangetic Plain.{{sfn|Dhungel|Pun|2009|p=210}}

In some cases, the length of the Ganges is given by its Hooghly River distributary, which is longer than its main outlet via the Meghna River, resulting in a total length of about {{cvt|2704|km|mi}}, if taken from the source of the Bhagirathi,{{sfn|Parua|2009}} or {{cvt|2321.50|km|mi}}, if from Haridwar to the Hooghly's mouth.{{sfn|Dhungel|Pun|2009}} In other cases the length is said to be about {{cvt|2304|km|mi}}, from the source of the Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to ''Padma''.{{sfn|Mirza|2004}}

For similar reasons, sources differ over the size of the river's drainage basin. The basin covers parts of four countries, India, [[Nepal]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], and Bangladesh; eleven Indian states, [[Himachal Pradesh]], Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, [[Chhattisgarh]], Bihar, [[Jharkhand]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], Haryana, [[Rajasthan]], West Bengal, and the Union Territory of [[Delhi]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Ganges Water Machine |author1=Roger Revelle |author2=V. Lakshminarayan |journal=Science |date=9 May 1975 |volume=188 |issue=4188 |pages=611–16 |doi=10.1126/science.188.4188.611 |pmid=17740017 |bibcode=1975Sci...188..611R }}</ref> The Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins, is about {{cvt|1080000|km2|sqmi}}, of which {{cvt|861000|km2|sqmi}} is in India (about 80%), {{cvt|140000|km2|sqmi}} in Nepal (13%), {{cvt|46000|km2|sqmi}} in Bangladesh (4%), and {{cvt|33000|km2|sqmi}} in China (3%).{{sfn|Suvedī|2005|p=61}} Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra–Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about {{cvt|1600000|km2|sqmi}}{{sfn|Elhance|1999| pp=156–58}} or {{cvt|1621000|km2|sqmi}}.{{sfn|Arnold|2000}} The combined Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh, [[Bhutan]], India, Nepal, and China.<ref name="ServatSystems2002">{{cite book |author1=Eric Servat |author2=IAHS International Commission on Water Resources Systems |title=FRIEND 2002: Regional Hydrology: Bridging the gap between research and practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9NxqSD-V-acC&pg=PA308 |year=2002 |publisher=IAHS |isbn=978-1-901502-81-7 |page=308 }}</ref>

The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the [[Transhimalaya]] in the north, to the northern slopes of the [[Vindhya]] range in the south, from the eastern slopes of the [[Aravalli Range|Aravalli]] in the west to the [[Chota Nagpur plateau]] and the [[Sunderbans]] delta in the east. A significant portion of the discharge from the Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya, the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200 km from the Yamuna-Satluj divide along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the [[Indus]] basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including [[Mount Everest]] which is the high point of the Ganges basin.<ref name="evepkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10640 |title=Mount Everest, China/Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222035808/http://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10640 |url-status=live }}</ref> The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin are [[Kangchenjunga]],<ref name="kangchpkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10653 |title=Kāngchenjunga, India/Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908215406/https://www.peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10653 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lhotse]],<ref name="lhotpkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10642 |title=Lhotse, China/Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615145939/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10642 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Makalu]],<ref name="makalpkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10649 |title=Makalu, China/Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615144432/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10649 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Cho Oyu]],<ref name="choopkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10634 |title=Cho Oyu, China/Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908164635/https://www.peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10634 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Dhaulagiri]],<ref name="dhaulapkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10620 |title=Dhaulāgiri, Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416200702/http://peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10620 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Manaslu]],<ref name="manaslpkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10627 |title=Manaslu, Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=20 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920061902/http://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10627 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Annapurna]]<ref name="annappkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10621 |title=Annapūrna, Nepal |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615151440/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10621 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Shishapangma]].<ref name="shishpkbgr">{{cite web |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10631 |title=Shishapangma, China |access-date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416200702/http://peakbagger.com/Peak.aspx?pid=10631 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south-eastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the entire state of Uttarakhand, the entire country of Nepal and the extreme north-western portion of the state of West Bengal.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source. Frequently, discharge is described for the mouth of the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganges with the Brahmaputra and Meghna. This results in a total average annual discharge of about {{cvt|38000|m3/s|cuft/s}},{{sfn|Arnold|2000}} or {{cvt|42470|m3/s|cuft/s}}.{{sfn|Parua|2009}} In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about {{cvt|16650|m3/s|cuft/s}} for the Ganges, about {{cvt|19820|m3/s|cuft/s}} for the Brahmaputra, and about {{cvt|5100|m3/s|cuft/s}} for the Meghna.{{sfn|Jain|Agarwal|Singh|2007|pp=334–342}}

[[File:Hardinge Bridge Bangladesh (4).JPG|thumb|[[Hardinge Bridge]], Bangladesh, crosses the Ganges-Padma River. It is one of the key sites for measuring streamflow and discharge on the lower Ganges.]]
The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges, as recorded at [[Hardinge Bridge]] in Bangladesh, exceeded {{cvt|70000|m3/s|cuft/s}}.{{sfn|Krishna Murti|1991|p=10}} The minimum recorded at the same place was about {{cvt|180|m3/s|cuft/s}}, in 1997.{{sfn|Salman|Uprety|2002|p=133}}

The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the [[Monsoon of Indian subcontinent|Southwest Monsoon]]. About 84% of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to September. Consequently, [[streamflow]] in the Ganges is highly seasonal. The average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured at [[Hardinge Bridge]]. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource development in the region.{{sfn|Mirza|2004}} The seasonality of flow is so acute it can cause both drought and [[flood]]s. Bangladesh, in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry season and regularly suffers extreme floods during the monsoon.{{sfn|Salman|Uprety|2002|p=133}}

In the Ganges Delta, many large rivers come together, both merging and [[River bifurcation|bifurcating]] in a complicated network of [[Channel (geography)|channels]]. The two largest rivers, the Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining the Bay of Bengal. But this current channel pattern was not always the case. Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta have often [[Avulsion (river)|changed course]], sometimes altering the network of channels in significant ways.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Island area changes in the Sundarban region of the abandoned western Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna Delta, India and Bangladesh |date=2023 |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108482 |last1=Bandyopadhyay |first1=Sunando |last2=Kar |first2=Nabendu Sekhar |last3=Dasgupta |first3=Susmita |last4=Mukherjee |first4=Dipanwita |last5=Das |first5=Abhijit |journal=Geomorphology |volume=422 |article-number=108482 |bibcode=2023Geomo.42208482B }}</ref>

Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganges and the Padma was only a minor spill-channel. The main flow of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly River but rather by the [[Adi Ganga]]. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, the Bhagirathi-Hooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant. After the 16th century, the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganges.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|2001| pp=126–27}} It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma River. By the end of the 18th century, the Padma had become the main distributary of the Ganges.{{sfn|Parua|2009}} One result of this shift to the Padma was that the Ganges now joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The present confluence of the Ganges and Meghna was formed very recently, about 150 years ago.<ref name="Catling1992">{{cite book |last=Catling |first=David |title=Rice in deep water |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N5JxwKx1RAgC&pg=PA175 |year=1992 |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |isbn=978-971-22-0005-2 |page=175 }}</ref>

Also near the end of the 18th century, the course of the lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically, significantly altering its relationship with the Ganges. In 1787 there was a great flood on the [[Teesta River]], which at the time was a tributary of the Ganges-Padma River. The flood of 1787 caused the Teesta to undergo a sudden change course, an [[Avulsion (river)|avulsion]], shifting east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift its course south, cutting a new channel. This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna River. It flows south to join the Ganges-Padma. During ancient times, the main flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly, passing by the city of [[Mymensingh]] and joining the Meghna River. Today this channel is a small distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.<ref name="Britannica-Brahmaputra">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Brahmaputra River |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |edition=Online Library |url=http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-48056 |access-date=25 April 2011 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172525/https://library.eb.com/?target=%2Feb%2Farticle-48056 |url-status=live }}</ref> The site of the old Brahmaputra-Meghna confluence, in the locality of [[Langalbandh]], is still considered sacred by Hindus. Near the confluence is a major early historic site called [[Wari-Bateshwar ruins|Wari-Bateshwar]].{{sfn|Chakrabarti|2001|pp=126–127}}

In the rainy season of 1809, the lower channel of the Bhagirathi, leading to Kolkata, had been entirely shut; but in the following year it opened again and was nearly of the same size as the upper channel but both however suffered a considerable diminution, owing probably to the new communication opened below the Jalanggi on the upper channel.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Robert |title=The History, Antiquities, Topography, and Statistics of Eastern India. Vol-II: Bhagulpoor, Goruckpoor, and Dinajepoor |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283662 |year=1838 |pages=Book 1, Chapter 1, Page 9 }}</ref>

==Discharge==

Discharge of the Ganges River at [[Farakka Barrage]] (period from 1998/01/01 to 2023/12/31):<ref name="The Flood Observatory">{{cite web |url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/51.htm |title=The Flood Observatory |access-date=15 February 2024 |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215134146/https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/51.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" |Year
! colspan="3" |Discharge (m3/s)
! rowspan="2" |Year
! colspan="3" |Discharge (m3/s)
|-
!''Annual average''
!Average minimum
!Average maximum
!''Annual average''
!Average minimum
!Average maximum
|-
|1998
|''21,200''
|11,260
|32,139
|2011
|''8,315''
|4,942
|15,648
|-
|1999
|''20,227''
|12,308
|27,275
|2012
|''10,531''
|5,529
|16,404
|-
|2000
|''18,953''
|11,558
|26,789
|2013
|''14,350''
|8,559
|19,534
|-
|2001
|''14,825''
|9,371
|19,872
|2014
|''12,409''
|7,118
|17,682
|-
|2002
|''10,495''
|5,636
|16,783
|2015
|''12,104''
|7,256
|17,030
|-
|2003
|''12,580''
|6,881
|19,516
|2016
|''15,220''
|9,035
|23,490
|-
|2004
|''9,735''
|5,468
|14,631
|2017
|''11,919''
|6,856
|17,604
|-
|2005
|''12,200''
|7,019
|18,397
|2018
|''11,967''
|6,176
|18,805
|-
|2006
|''11,522''
|7,741
|16,718
|2019
|''14,923''
|7,079
|24,757
|-
|2007
|''14,816''
|9,574
|20,325
|2020
|''15,882''
|9,837
|23,491
|-
|2008
|''16,183''
|9,968
|22,870
|2021
|''17,818''
|9,543
|27,003
|-
|2009
|''9,241''
|4,524
|13,282
|2022
|''14,142''
|7,148
|22,569
|-
|2010
|''7,148''
|3,343
|12,375
|2023
|''9,417''
|1,645
|18,744
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
| colspan="5" |'''''Average''' (1998/01/01 to 2023/12/31):''
|'''''13,389.3'''''
|''7,514.4''
|''20,143.6''
|}

==History==

=== Bronze and Iron Age (c. 3300 – 200 BCE)===
During the mature phase of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], the Ganges was not the primary center of urban life, as the larger settlements were concentrated in the [[Indus River]] basin. However, due to climate shifts and the drying of the [[Saraswati River]] around 1900 BCE, populations began a gradual eastward migration toward the more humid [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. This period marked the transition from Bronze Age urbanism to the "Ganga Culture," characterized by the [[Painted Grey Ware culture|Painted Grey Ware (PGW)]] settlements.<ref>{{cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |title=The Indus Civilization |publisher=Tulika Books |year=2015 |isbn=978-93-82381-53-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rajesh |first1=S. V. |last2=Abhayan |first2=G. S. |last3=Kumar |first3=Ajit |last4=Nayar |first4=Preeta |title=Archaeological Investigations in the Gomti Basin, Middle Ganga Plain |journal=Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology |volume=7 |year=2019 |publisher=Department of Archaeology, University of Kerala |url=https://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/JournalPDF/Volume7/7.pdf |access-date=4 February 2026 }}</ref>

By the late [[Vedic period]], the Ganges became the central sacred geography of South Asia. The river facilitated the rise of the [[Mahajanapadas]], particularly [[Magadha]]. The river served as a vital trade artery for the [[Mauryan Empire]]. The city of [[Pataliputra]] (modern-day Patna) was established at the confluence of the Ganges and Son rivers to control riverine commerce.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 }}</ref>

The first European traveller to mention the Ganges was the Greek envoy [[Megasthenes]] (ca. 350–290 BCE). He did so several times in his work [[Indica (Megasthenes)|Indica]]: "India, again, possesses many rivers both large and navigable, which, having their sources in the mountains which stretch along the northern frontier, traverse the level country, and not a few of these, after uniting with each other, fall into the river called the Ganges. Now this river, which at its source is 30 [[Stadion (unit)|stadia]] broad, flows from north to south, and empties its waters into the ocean forming the eastern boundary of the [[Gangaridai]], a nation which possesses a vast force of the largest-sized elephants." (Diodorus II.37).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Alexander and the Ganges |author=W. W. Tarn |journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies |year=1923 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=93–101 |jstor=625798 |doi=10.2307/625798 |s2cid=164111602 }}</ref>

=== Classical and Medieval Age (200 BCE – 1500 CE)===

During this era, the Ganges was personified as the goddess [[Ganga in Hinduism|Ganga]], becoming a focal point for pilgrimage and the development of cities like [[Varanasi]] and [[Haridwar]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |title=India: A Sacred Geography |publisher=Harmony |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-385-53190-0 }}</ref>

In the eastern delta, the [[Pala Empire]] (8th–12th century) utilized the Ganges for maritime trade with [[Southeast Asia]]. The subsequent [[Sena dynasty]] further solidified the river's sanctity in Bengal, establishing the "Kulinism" social structure centered around the riverine heartlands.<ref>{{cite book |last=Majumdar |first=R. C. |title=History of Ancient Bengal |publisher=Tulika Books |year=1971 |isbn=978-81-89150-10-5 }}</ref>

With the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the Ganges served as both a strategic barrier and a logistics corridor. The river acted as a natural defense for the Sultanate against Mongol incursions from the northwest. Control over the "Doab" (the fertile land between the Ganges and Yamuna) became the primary source of tax revenue (''[[Iqta']]'') for the Sultans of Delhi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 }}</ref>

The Ganges provided a path for Sufi saints and traders to penetrate deep into rural Bengal. The city of [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauḍa]], located on the banks of the Ganges, rose to prominence as a major medieval metropolis and the capital of the [[Bengal Sultanate]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-520-20507-9 }}</ref>

=== Modern Age (1500 – Present)===

Historically, the Ganges flowed through the western part of the delta via the [[Hooghly River|Hooghly-Bhagirathi]] channel. However, starting around the 16th century, a major tectonic tilt of the Bengal basin caused the main volume of the river to shift eastward into the [[Padma River]] channel. This shift rejuvenated the eastern delta, facilitating massive agricultural expansion and the rise of new urban centers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |page=194-197 |isbn=978-0-520-20507-9 }}</ref>

The expansion of agriculture led to the systematic clearing of subtropical forests. [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] records, including those of [[Babur]], indicate that rhinoceroses and wild elephants were common in the Gangetic prairies as late as the 16th century, before habitat loss drove them to extinction in the region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rangarajan |first=Mahesh |title=India's Wildlife History |publisher=Permanent Black |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-7824-140-1 }}</ref>

By the 1840s, the [[British East India Company]] began the first large-scale "taming" of the river. The [[Ganges Canal]] (1854) was an unprecedented intervention, spanning over 500 miles to divert water for irrigation. While it mitigated regional famines, it fundamentally altered the river's natural flooding cycles and water table.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Ian |title=Canal Irrigation in British India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-521-52332-5 }}</ref>

The [[Radcliffe Line]] divided the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, leaving West Bengal in India and East Bengal in [[East Pakistan]]. This created immediate complexities regarding riparian rights. Following the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in 1971, the Ganges became a transnational river shared by India and [[Bangladesh]].

The construction of the [[Farakka Barrage]] (1975) by India to desilt the [[Kolkata]] port led to significant downstream concerns in Bangladesh regarding water scarcity and salinity. This resulted in the [[Ganga Water Sharing Treaty]] of 1996, a 30-year agreement aimed at regulating flow during the dry season.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sengupta |first=Nitish |title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |publisher=Penguin UK |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 }}</ref> The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence, they state that if the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than {{cvt|2000|m3/s}} then India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each receiving at least {{cvt|1000|m3/s}} for alternating ten-day periods. However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average, making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water. In March 1997, flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever, {{cvt|180|m3/s}}. Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the years following, but efforts are ongoing to address the problem.<ref name="BanglaOutlook2024">{{cite news |title=India set to renegotiate Ganga Water Treaty with Bangladesh amid rising domestic demands |url=https://en.banglaoutlook.org/news/235654 |work=Bangla Outlook |date=13 November 2024 |access-date=4 February 2026 }}</ref><ref name="EcoBusiness2024">{{cite news |last=Hasan |first=Mahmudul |title=Water for peace: What Bangladesh wants from the Ganga Water Treaty |url=https://www.eco-business.com/opinion/water-for-peace-what-bangladesh-wants-from-the-ganga-water-treaty/ |work=Eco-Business |date=22 March 2024 |access-date=4 February 2026 }}</ref><ref name="Nature2025">{{cite news |last=Mallapaty |first=Smriti |title=Ganga's worst dry spell in 1300 years |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d44151-025-00180-5 |work=Nature |date=29 January 2025 |doi=10.1038/d44151-025-00180-5 |access-date=4 February 2026 }}</ref><ref name="PNAS2025">{{cite journal |last1=Hossain |first1=F. |last2=Islam |first2=A. |title=Recent drying of the Ganga River is unprecedented in the last 1,300 years |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=122 |issue=6 |article-number=e2424613122 |date=4 February 2025 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2424613122 |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424613122 |access-date=4 February 2026 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Religious and cultural significance==
{{See also|Ganga in Hinduism}}

===Embodiment of sacredness===
[[File:IndianWomanFloatingLampsGanges.jpg|thumb|right|Chromolithograph, ''Indian woman floating lamps on the Ganges'', by William Simpson, 1867]]
The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length. All along its course, Hindus bathe in its waters,<ref name=eck1982-p212>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=212 }}</ref> paying homage to their ancestors and their gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it, and letting it fall back into the river; they offer flowers and rose petals and float shallow clay dishes filled with oil and lit with wicks (diyas).<ref name=eck1982-p212/> On the journey back home from the Ganges, they carry small quantities of river water with them for use in rituals; Ganga Jal, literally "the water of the Ganges".<ref name=eck1982-p212-213>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=212–13 }}</ref>

The Ganges is the embodiment of all [[sacred waters]] in [[Hindu mythology]].<ref name=eck1982-p214>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=214 }}</ref> Local rivers are said to be ''like'' the Ganges and are sometimes called the local Ganges.<ref name=eck1982-p214/> The [[Godavari River]] of [[Maharashtra]] in Western India is called the Ganges of the South or the 'Dakshin Ganga'; the Godavari is the Ganges that was led by the sage [[Gautama Maharishi|Gautama]] to flow through Central India.<ref name=eck1982-p214/> The Ganges is invoked whenever water is used in Hindu ritual and is therefore present in all sacred waters.<ref name=eck1982-p214/> Despite this, nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in the actual river, which is thought to remit sins, especially at one of the famous [[Tirtha and Kshetra|tirthas]] such as [[Varanasi]], [[Gangothri|Gangotri]], [[Haridwar]], or the [[Triveni Sangam]] at [[Prayagraj]].<ref name=eck1982-p214/> The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganges is one of the few things that Hindus, even their skeptics, have agreed upon.<ref name=eck1982-p214-215>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=214–15 }}</ref> Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganges.<ref name=eck1982-p214-215/> "The Ganga", he wrote in his will, "is the river of India, beloved of her people, round which are intertwined her racial memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age-long culture and civilization, ever-changing, ever-flowing, and yet ever the same Ganga."<ref name=eck1982-p214-215/>

===''Avatarana'' – Descent of Ganges===
[[File:Ravi Varma-Descent of Ganga.jpg|thumb|upright|''Descent of Ganga'', painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] c. 1910]]

In late May or early June every year, Hindus celebrate the ''karunasiri'' and the rise of the Ganges from earth to heaven.<ref name=eck1998-p144>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=144 }}</ref> The day of the celebration, ''Ganga Dashahara'', the ''Dashami'' (tenth day) of the [[waxing moon]] of the [[Hindu calendar]] month [[Jyestha|Jyeshtha]], brings throngs of bathers to the banks of the river.<ref name=eck1998-p144/> A dip in the Ganges on this day is said to rid the bather of ten sins (dasha = Sanskrit "ten"; hara = to destroy) or ten lifetimes of sins.<ref name=eck1998-p144/> Those who cannot journey to the river, however, can achieve the same results by bathing in any nearby body of water, which, for the true believer, takes on all the attributes of the Ganges.<ref name=eck1998-p144/>

The ''karunasiri'' is an old theme in Hinduism with a number of different versions of the story.<ref name=eck1998-p144/> In the [[Vedas|Vedic]] version, [[Indra]], the Lord of [[Svarga]] ([[Heaven]]) slays the celestial serpent, [[Vritra]], releasing the celestial liquid, ''[[soma (drink)|soma]]'', or the nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance.<ref name=eck1998-p144/>

In the [[Vaishnava]] version of the myth, the heavenly waters were then a river called ''Vishnupadi'' ([[Sanskrit]]: "from the foot of Vishnu").<ref name=eck1998-p144/> As Vishnu as the avatar [[Vamana]] completes his celebrated three strides —of earth, sky, and heaven— he stubs his toe on the vault of heaven, punches open a hole and releases the ''Vishnupadi'', which until now had been circling the cosmic egg.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|pp=144–45 }}</ref> Flowing out of the vault, she plummets down to Indra's heaven, where she is received by [[Dhruva]], once a steadfast worshipper of Vishnu, now fixed in the sky as the [[Pole star]].<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/> Next, she streams across the sky forming the [[Milky Way]] and arrives on the moon.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/> She then flows down earthwards to [[Brahma]]'s realm, a divine lotus atop [[Mount Meru]], whose petals form the earthly continents.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/> There, the divine waters break up, with one stream, the Bhagirathi, flowing down one petal into [[Names for India|Bharatavarsha]] (India) as the Ganges.<ref name=eck1998-p144-145/>

It is [[Shiva]], however, among the major deities of the Hindu pantheon, who appears in the most widely known version of the ''avatarana'' story.<ref name=eck1998-p145>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=145 }}</ref> Told and retold in the ''[[Ramayana]]'', the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and several [[Puranas]], the story begins with a sage, [[Kapila]], whose intense meditation has been disturbed by the sixty thousand sons of King [[Sagara (Vedic king)|Sagara]]. Livid at being disturbed, Kapila sears them with his angry gaze, reduces them to ashes, and dispatches them to the netherworld. Only the waters of the Ganges, then in heaven, can bring the dead sons their salvation. A descendant of these sons, King [[Bhagiratha]], anxious to restore his ancestors, undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize of Ganges's descent from heaven. However, since her turbulent force would also shatter the earth, Bhagiratha persuades Shiva in his abode on [[Mount Kailash]] to receive the Ganges in the coils of his tangled hair and break her fall. The Ganges descends, is tamed in Shiva's locks, and arrives in the Himalayas. She is then led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains at Haridwar, across the plains first to the confluence with the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi, and eventually to Ganges Sagar (Ganges delta), where she meets the ocean, sinks to the netherworld, and saves the sons of Sagara.<ref name=eck1998-p145/> In honour of Bhagirath's pivotal role in the ''avatarana'', the source stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named Bhagirathi, (Sanskrit, "of Bhagiratha").<ref name=eck1998-p145/>

===Redemption of the Dead===
[[Image:HinduCremationVaranasi1903.jpg|thumb|upright|Preparations for cremations on the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi, 1903. The dead are being bathed, wrapped in cloth, and covered with wood. The photograph has a caption, "Who dies in the waters of the Ganges obtains heaven."]]
As the Ganges had descended from heaven to earth in the Hindu tradition, she is also considered the vehicle of ''ascent'', from earth to heaven.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|pp=145–46 }}</ref> As the ''Triloka-patha-gamini'', (Sanskrit: ''triloka'' = "three worlds", ''patha'' = "road", ''gamini'' = "one who travels") of the tradition, she flows in [[Svarga|heaven]], [[Prithvi|earth]], and the [[Patala|netherworld]], and, consequently, is a "tirtha" or crossing point of all beings, the living as well as the dead.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> It is for this reason that the story of the ''avatarana'' is told at ''[[Śrāddha|Shraddha]]'' ceremonies for the deceased in Hinduism, and Ganges water is used in [[Vedic rituals after death]].<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> Among all hymns devoted to the Ganges, there are none more popular than the ones expressing the worshipper's wish to breathe his last surrounded by her waters.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> The ''Gangashtakam'' expresses this longing fervently:<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/><blockquote>O Mother! ... Necklace adorning the worlds! Banner rising to heaven! I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks, Drinking your water, rolling in your waves, Remembering your name, bestowing my gaze upon you.<ref>Quoted in: {{Harvnb|Eck|1998|pp=145–46 }}</ref></blockquote>
No place along her banks is more longed for at the moment of death by Hindus than Varanasi, the Great Cremation Ground, or ''[[Shmashana|Mahashmshana]]''.<ref name=eck1998-p145-146/> Those who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of the Ganges, and are granted instant salvation.<ref name=eck1982-p215>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=215 }}</ref> If the death has occurred elsewhere, salvation can be achieved by immersing the ashes in the Ganges.<ref name=eck1982-p215/> If the ashes have been immersed in another body of water, a relative can still gain salvation for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges, if possible during the lunar "fortnight of the ancestors" in the Hindu calendar month of [[Ashwin]] (September or October), and performing the ''Shraddha'' rites.<ref name=eck1982-p215/>

Hindus also perform ''[[Pinda (riceball)|pinda]] pradana'', a rite for the dead, in which balls of rice and sesame seed are offered to the Ganges while the names of the deceased relatives are recited.<ref name=eck1982-p215-216>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=215–16 }}</ref> Every sesame seed in every ball thus offered, according to one story, assures a thousand years of heavenly salvation for each relative.<ref name=eck1982-p215-216/> Indeed, the Ganges is so important in the rituals after death that the ''Mahabharata'', in one of its popular ''ślokas'', says, "If only (one) bone of a (deceased) person should touch the water of the Ganges, that person shall dwell honoured in heaven."<ref>Quoted in: {{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=216 }}</ref> As if to illustrate this truism, the ''Kashi Khanda'' (Varanasi Chapter) of the [[Skanda Purana]] recounts the remarkable story of ''Vahika'', a profligate and unrepentant sinner, who is killed by a tiger in the forest. His soul arrives before [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]], the Lord of Death, to be judged for the afterworld. Having no compensating virtue, Vahika's soul is at once dispatched to [[Naraka (Hinduism)|hell]]. While this is happening, his body on earth, however, is being picked at by vultures, one of whom flies away with a foot bone. Another bird comes after the vulture, and in fighting him off, the vulture accidentally drops the bone into the Ganges below. Blessed by this event, Vahika, on his way to hell, is rescued by a celestial chariot which takes him instead to heaven.<ref name=eck1982-p216>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=216 }}</ref>

===The Purifying Ganges===
[[Image:BathingGhatBanares1885.jpg|right|thumb|Women and children at a bathing [[ghat]] on the Ganges in Banares (Varanasi), 1885.]]
Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure and purifying.<ref name=eck1982-p216-217>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=216–217 }}</ref> Regardless of all scientific understanding of its waters, the Ganges is always ritually and symbolically pure in Hindu culture.<ref name=eck1982-p216-217/> Nothing reclaims order from disorder more than the waters of the Ganga.<ref name=eck1982-p217>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|pp=217 }}</ref> Moving water, as in a river, is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it is thought to both absorb impurities and take them away.<ref name=eck1982-p217/> The swiftly moving Ganga, especially in its upper reaches, where a bather has to grasp an anchored chain to not be carried away, is especially purifying.<ref name=eck1982-p217/> What the Ganges removes, however, is not necessarily physical dirt, but symbolic dirt; it wipes away the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a lifetime.<ref name=eck1982-p217/>

A popular paean to the Ganga is the ''Ganga Lahiri'' composed by a 17th-century poet Jagannatha who, legend has it, was turned out of his Hindu [[Brahmin]] caste for carrying on an affair with a Muslim woman. Having attempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold, the poet finally appeals to Ganga, the hope of the hopeless, and the comforter of last resort. Along with his beloved, Jagannatha sits at the top of the flight of steps leading to the water at the famous ''Panchganga'' [[Ghat]] in Varanasi. As he recites each verse of the poem, the water of the Ganges rises one step until in the end it envelops the lovers and carries them away.<ref name=eck1982-p217/> "I come to you as a child to his mother", begins the ''Ganga Lahiri''.<ref name=eck1982-p218>Quoted in {{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=218 }}</ref> <blockquote> I come as an orphan to you, moist with love. I come without refuge to you, giver of sacred rest. I come a fallen man to you, uplifter of all. I come undone by disease to you, the perfect physician. I come, my heart dry with thirst, to you, ocean of sweet wine. Do with me whatever you will.<ref name=eck1982-p218/></blockquote>

===Consort, Shakti, and Mother===
Ganga is a consort to all three major male deities of Hinduism.<ref name=eck1982-p219>{{Harvnb|Eck|1982|p=219 }}</ref> As Brahma's partner she always travels with him in the form of water in his [[kamandalu]] (water-pot).<ref name=eck1982-p219/> She is also [[Vishnu]]'s consort.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> Not only does she emanate from his foot as ''Vishnupadi'' in the ''avatarana'' story, but is also, with [[Sarasvati]] and [[Lakshmi]], one of his co-wives.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> In one popular story, envious of being outdone by each other, the co-wives begin to quarrel. While Lakshmi attempts to mediate the quarrel, Ganga and Sarasvati, heap misfortune on each other. They curse each other to become rivers, and to carry within them, by washing, the sins of their human worshippers. Soon their husband, Vishnu, arrives and decides to calm the situation by separating the goddesses. He orders Sarasvati to marry Brahma, Ganga to marry Shiva, and Lakshmi, as the blameless conciliator, to remain as his own wife. Ganga and Sarasvati, however, are so distraught at this dispensation, and wail so loudly, that Vishnu is forced to take back his words. Consequently, in their lives as rivers they are still thought to be with him.<ref name=eck1998-p146>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=146 }}</ref>

[[Image:Gangadhara.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Shiva]], as ''Gangadhara'', bearing the Descent of the [[Ganges river|Ganges]], as the goddess [[Parvati]], the sage [[Bhagiratha]], and the bull [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] look on (circa 1740).]]
It is [[Shiva]]'s relationship with Ganga, that is the best-known in Ganges mythology.<ref name=eck1998-p147>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=147 }}</ref> Her descent, the ''avatarana'' is not a one-time event, but a continuously occurring one in which she is forever falling from heaven into his locks and being forever tamed.<ref name=eck1998-p147/> Shiva, is depicted in Hindu iconography as ''Gangadhara'', the "Bearer of the Ganga", with Ganga, shown as spout of water, rising from his hair.<ref name=eck1998-p147/> The Shiva-Ganga relationship is both perpetual and intimate.<ref name=eck1998-p147/> Shiva is sometimes called ''Uma-Ganga-Patiswara'' ("Husband and Lord of Uma (Parvati) and Ganga"), and Ganga often arouses the jealousy of Shiva's better-known consort.<ref name=eck1998-p147/>

Ganga is the ''[[shakti]]'' or the moving, restless, rolling energy in the form of which the otherwise reclusive and unapproachable Shiva appears on earth.<ref name="eck1982-p219"/> As water, this moving energy can be felt, tasted, and absorbed.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> The war-god [[Murugan|Skanda]] addresses the sage [[Agastya]] in the ''Kashi Khand'' of the ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' in these words:<ref name=eck1982-p219/> <blockquote>One should not be amazed ... that this Ganges is really Power, for is she not the Supreme Shakti of the Eternal Shiva, taken in the form of water? This Ganges, filled with the sweet wine of compassion, was sent out for the salvation of the world by Shiva, the Lord of the Lords. Good people should not think this Triple-Pathed River to be like the thousand other earthly rivers, filled with water.<ref name=eck1982-p219/></blockquote>

The Ganga is also the mother, the ''Ganga Mata'' (''mata''="mother") of Hindu worship and culture, accepting all and forgiving all.<ref name=eck1982-p218/> Unlike other goddesses, she has no destructive or fearsome aspect, destructive though she might be as a river in nature.<ref name=eck1982-p218/> She is also a mother to other gods.<ref name=eck1998-p149>{{Harvnb|Eck|1998|p=149 }}</ref> She accepts Shiva's incandescent seed from the fire-god [[Agni]], which is too hot for this world and cools it in her waters.<ref name=eck1998-p149/> This union produces Skanda, or Kartikeya, the god of war.<ref name=eck1998-p149/> In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', she is married to [[Shantanu]], and the mother of heroic warrior-patriarch, [[Bhishma]].<ref name=eck1998-p149/> When Bhishma is mortally wounded in battle, Ganga comes out of the water in human form and weeps uncontrollably over his body.<ref name=eck1998-p149/>

The Ganges is the distilled lifeblood of the Hindu tradition, of its divinities, holy books, and enlightenment.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> As such, her worship does not require the usual rites of invocation (''avahana'') at the beginning and dismissal (''visarjana'') at the end, required in the worship of other gods.<ref name=eck1982-p219/> Her divinity is immediate and everlasting.<ref name=eck1982-p219/>

===Ganges in classical Indian iconography===
{{Gallery
|width = 130
|align = center
|File:GangaBeshnagarBhopalStateCloseUp.jpg|alt1=|Photograph (1875) of goddess Ganga (Gupta period, 5th or 6th century CE) from [[Vidisha#Historic Places and Monuments|Besnagar]], Madhya Pradesh, now in [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]].
|File:GangaElloraRameshwarCaveCloseUp.jpg|alt2=|Goddess Ganga with left hand resting on a dwarf attendant's head from the [[Ellora Caves#Other Hindu caves|Rameshwar Temple]], [[Ellora Caves]], Maharashtra (6th century)
|File:GangaTerracottaAhichchhatra.JPG|alt3=|The goddess Ganga stands on her mount, the ''[[makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]]'', with a ''[[kumbha]]'', a full pot of water, in her hand, while an attendant holds a parasol over her. Terracotta, [[Ahichatra]], Uttar Pradesh, [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]], 5th century, now in [[National Museum, New Delhi]]
|File:GoddessGangaInTribhangaWithRetinue.JPG|alt4=|The goddess Ganga (right) in [[tribhanga]] pose with retinue. [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]], 10th century, now in [[National Museum, New Delhi]]
}}

Early in ancient Indian culture, the river Ganges was associated with fecundity, its redeeming waters, and its rich silt providing sustenance to all who lived along its banks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blurton|1993|p=100 }}</ref> A counterpoise to the dazzling heat of the Indian summer, the Ganges came to be imbued with magical qualities and to be revered in anthropomorphic form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wangu|2003|p=90 }}</ref> By the 5th century CE, an elaborate mythology surrounded the Ganges, now a goddess in her own right, and a symbol for all rivers of India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wangu|2003|p=90}}, {{Harvnb|Pal|1997|p=43 }}</ref> Hindu temples all over India had statues and reliefs of the goddess carved at their entrances, symbolically washing the sins of arriving worshippers and guarding the gods within.<ref name=pal-1997-p43>{{Harvnb|Pal|1997|p=43 }}</ref> As protector of the [[sanctum sanctorum]], the goddess soon came to be depicted with several characteristic accessories: the ''[[Makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]]'' (a crocodile-like undersea monster, often shown with an elephant-like trunk), the ''[[kumbha]]'' (an overfull vase), various overhead parasol-like coverings, and a gradually increasing retinue of humans.<ref name=darian2001-p114>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=114 }}</ref>

Central to the goddess's visual identification is the ''makara'', which is also her ''[[vahana]]'', or mount. An ancient symbol in India, it pre-dates all appearances of the goddess Ganga in art.<ref name=darian2001-p114/> The ''makara'' has a dual symbolism. On the one hand, it represents the life-affirming waters and plants of its environment; on the other, it represents fear, both fear of the unknown which it elicits by lurking in those waters, and real fear which it instils by appearing in sight.<ref name=darian2001-p114/> The earliest extant unambiguous pairing of the ''makara'' with Ganga is at the [[Udayagiri Caves]] in Central India (circa 400 CE). Here, in the [[Udaygiri Caves#Description|Cave V]], flanking the main figure of Vishnu shown in his boar incarnation, two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna appear atop their respective mounts, ''makara'' and ''[[kurma]]'' (a turtle or tortoise).<ref name=darian2001-p114/>

The ''makara'' is often accompanied by a ''[[gana]]'', a small boy or child, near its mouth, as, for example, shown in the Gupta period relief from [[Vidisha#Historic Places and Monuments|Besnagar]], Central India, in the left-most frame above.<ref name=darian-2001-p118>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=118 }}</ref> The ''gana'' represents both posterity and development (''udbhava'').<ref name=darian-2001-p118/> The pairing of the fearsome, life-destroying ''makara'' with the youthful, life-affirming ''gana'' speaks to two aspects of the Ganges herself. Although she has provided sustenance to millions, she has also brought hardship, injury, and death by causing major floods along her banks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|pp=119–20 }}</ref> The goddess Ganga is also accompanied by a dwarf attendant, who carries a cosmetic bag, and on whom she sometimes leans, as if for support.<ref name=pal-1997-p43/> (See, for example, frames 1, 2, and 4 above.)

The ''purna kumbha'' or full pot of water is the second most discernible element of the Ganga iconography.<ref name=darian-2001-p125>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=125 }}</ref> Appearing first also in the relief in the Udayagiri Caves (5th century), it gradually appeared more frequently as the theme of the goddess matured.<ref name=darian-2001-p125/> By the 7th century it had become an established feature, as seen, for example, in the [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh#Dashavatara temple|Dashavatara temple]], Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh (7th century), the [[Badoli Temples|Trimurti temple]], [[Badoli]], [[Chittor Fort|Chittorgarh]], Rajasthan, and at the [[Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh#Tourist attractions|Lakshmaneshwar temple]], [[Kharod]], [[Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh]],<ref name=darian-2001-p125/> (9th or 10th century), and seen very clearly in frame 3 above and less clearly in the remaining frames. Worshipped even today, the full pot is emblematic of the formless [[Brahman]], as well as of woman, of the womb, and of birth.<ref name=darian-2001-p126>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=126 }}</ref> Furthermore, The river goddesses Ganga and Saraswati were both born from Brahma's pot, containing the celestial waters.<ref name=darian-2001-p126/>

In her earliest depictions at temple entrances, the goddess Ganga appeared standing beneath the overhanging branch of a tree, as seen as well in the Udayagiri caves.<ref name=darian-2001-p130>{{Harvnb|Darian|2001|p=130 }}</ref> However, soon the tree cover had evolved into a ''[[Chatra (umbrella)|chatra]]'' or parasol held by an attendant, for example, in the 7th-century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh.<ref name=darian-2001-p130/> (The parasol can be clearly seen in frame 3 above; its stem can be seen in frame 4, but the rest has broken off.) The cover undergoes another transformation in the temple at Kharod, Bilaspur (9th or 10th century), where the parasol is lotus-shaped,<ref name=darian-2001-p130/> and yet another at the Trimurti temple at Badoli where the parasol has been replaced entirely by a lotus.<ref name=darian-2001-p130/>

As the iconography evolved, sculptors, especially in central India, were producing animated scenes of the goddess, replete with an entourage and suggestive of a queen en route to a river to bathe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Los Angeles County Museum of Art|Pal|1988|p=33 }}</ref> A relief similar to the depiction in frame 4 above, is described in {{Harvnb|Pal|1997|p=43}} as follows: <blockquote> A typical relief of about the ninth century that once stood at the entrance of a temple, the river goddess Ganga is shown as a voluptuously endowed lady with a retinue. Following the iconographic prescription, she stands gracefully on her composite ''makara'' mount and holds a water pot. The dwarf attendant carries her cosmetic bag, and a ... female holds the stem of a giant lotus leaf that serves as her mistress's parasol. The fourth figure is a male guardian. Often in such reliefs, the ''makara''{{'s}} tail is extended with great flourish into a scrolling design symbolizing both vegetation and water.<ref name=pal-1997-p43/></blockquote>

===Kumbh Mela===
[[File:Kumbh Mela2001.JPG|thumb|A procession of [[Akhara]]s marching over a makeshift bridge over the Ganges River. Kumbh Mela at [[Prayagraj]], 2001.]]
{{main|Kumbh Mela}}
Kumbh Mela is a mass Hindu [[pilgrimage]] in which Hindus gather at the Ganges River. The normal Kumbh [[Mela]] is celebrated every 3 years, the ''Ardh'' (half) Kumbh is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and [[Prayagraj]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,828666,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025060100/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,828666,00.html |archive-date=25 October 2007 |title=The Urn Festival |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=8 February 1960 |access-date=10 May 2013}} {{subscription required }}</ref> the ''Purna'' (complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years<ref name=hydro/> at four places ([[Triveni Sangam]] (Prayagraj), Haridwar, [[Ujjain]], and [[Nashik]]). The ''Maha'' (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is held at Prayagraj.<ref name=hydro>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JI65-MygMm0C&pg=PA165 |title=The Basis of Civilization: Water Science? |publisher=International Association of Hydrological Science |page=165 |isbn=978-1-901502-57-2 |year=2004 |editor=J. C. Rodda |editor2=Lucio Ubertini }}</ref>

The major event of the festival is [[Ritual purification|ritual bathing]] at the banks of the river. Other activities include religious discussions, devotional singing, mass feeding of holy men and women and the poor, and religious assemblies where doctrines are debated and standardized. Kumbh Mela is the most sacred of all the pilgrimages.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25 |magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] |title=A Million Hindus Wash Away Their Sins |date=1 May 1950 |volume=18 |pages=25–29 |access-date=27 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172555/https://books.google.com/books?id=-UwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.tt/columnist/2012-10-25/kumbh-mela-most-sacred-hindu-pilgrimages |title=Kumbh Mela, most sacred of Hindu pilgrimages |work=The Guardian |date=25 October 2012 |access-date=10 May 2013 |author=Maharaj |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808035132/http://www.guardian.co.tt/columnist/2012-10-25/kumbh-mela-most-sacred-hindu-pilgrimages |url-status=live }}</ref> Thousands of holy men and women attend, and the auspiciousness of the festival is in part attributable to this. The [[sadhu]]s are seen clad in saffron sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per the requirements of ancient traditions. Some called ''[[Dashanami Sampradaya#Naga Sadhus|naga sanyasis]]'', may not wear any clothes.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/The-17-shringars-of-Naga-sadhus/articleshow/18421671.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222063810/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-02-09/allahabad/37007389_1_naga-sadhu-shringar-shahi-snan |url-status=live |archive-date=22 February 2013 |title=The 17 'shringars' of Naga sadhus |work=[[The Times of India]] |location=Allahabad |date=9 February 2013 |access-date=10 May 2013 |author=Mani, Rajiv }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSWDL6AMKrc |title=Kumbha Mela Video: Amazing and Magical Celebration of Life |website=[[YouTube]] |date=27 March 2021 |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=10 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810040847/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jSWDL6AMKrc |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Irrigation==
The Ganges and its all tributaries, especially the Yamuna, have been used for irrigation since ancient times.{{sfn|Singh|2005|pp=69–79}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://archive.thedailystar.net/2005/04/14/d5041401065.htm |title=Water board to carry out inflated project |date=14 April 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://en.barta24.com/details/national-en/187841/farmers-are-disoriented-due-to-lack-of-water |title=GK projects' irrigation pumps shut; farmers are disoriented due to lack of water |date=21 September 2023 }}</ref> Dams and canals were common in the Gangetic plain by the 4th century BCE.{{sfn|Hill|2008}} The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin has a huge [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] potential, on the order of 200,000 to 250,000 megawatts, nearly half of which could easily be harnessed. As of 1999, India tapped about 12% of the hydroelectric potential of the Ganges and just 1% of the vast potential of the Brahmaputra.{{sfn|Elhance|1999|p=163}}

===Canals===
[[File:Headworks ganges canal haridwar1860.jpg|thumb|Head works of the Ganges canal in Haridwar (1860). Photograph by [[Samuel Bourne]].]]
Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer who visited India during the 3rd century BCE when Mauryans ruled India described the existence of canals in the Gangetic plain. Kautilya (also known as [[Chanakya]]), an advisor to [[Chandragupta Maurya]], the founder of [[Maurya Empire]], included the destruction of dams and levees as a strategy during the war.{{sfn|Hill|2008}} [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]] had many canals built, the longest of which, {{cvt|240|km|mi}}, was built in 1356 on the Yamuna River. Now known as the Western Yamuna Canal, it has fallen into disrepair and been restored several times. The [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] built an irrigation canal on the Yamuna River in the early 17th century. It fell into disuse until 1830, when it was reopened as the Eastern Yamuna Canal, under British control. The reopened canal became a model for the Upper Ganges Canal and all following canal projects.{{sfn|Singh|2005|pp=69–79}}
[[File:GangesCanal2.jpg|thumb|The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the Ganges River in Haridwar and its confluences with the Jumna (Yamuna) River in [[Etawah]] and with the Ganges in [[Cawnpore]] (now Kanpur).]]
The first British canal in India (which did not have Indian antecedents) was the [[Ganges Canal]] built between 1842 and 1854.<ref name="stone2002-p16">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=16 }}</ref>
Contemplated first by Col. [[John Russell Colvin]] in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir [[Proby Thomas Cautley]], who balked at the idea of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land to reach the drier upland destination. However, after the [[Agra famine of 1837–38]], during which the [[East India Company]]'s administration spent [[Rs.]] 2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the company's budget-conscious Court of Directors. In 1839, the [[Governor General of India]], [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], with the Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire [[Doab]] region.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ce8FpJzR-4C&pg=PA103 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Knowledge |first=C. L. |last=Khanna |date=1 September 2010 |publisher=Upkar Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7482-408-0 }}</ref>

The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short-lived. Auckland's successor as Governor-General, [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]], appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for the project. Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General, [[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|Lord Hardinge]], was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project. Although the intervening impasse had seemingly affected Cautley's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in the United Kingdom and Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the [[North-Western Provinces]], with [[James Thomason (British colonial governor)|James Thomason]] as Lt. Governor, and in [[British India]] with [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] as Governor-General. Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went into full swing. A {{cvt|350|mi|km|order=flip}} long canal, with another {{cvt|300|mi|km|order=flip}} of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in Haridwar, splitting into two branches below [[Aligarh]], and its two confluences with the Yamuna (Jumna in map) [[Mainstem (hydrology)|mainstem]] in [[Etawah]] and the Ganges in Kanpur (Cawnpore in map). The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £2.15 million, was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie.{{sfn|Prakash|1999|p=162}} According to historian Ian Stone: <blockquote>It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigation lines of [[Lombardy]] and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the [[Pennsylvania Canal]].</blockquote>

===Dams and barrages===
A major [[Barrage (dam)|barrage]] at Farakka was opened on 21 April 1975,{{sfn|Brichieri-Colombi|Bradnock|2003}} It is located close to the point where the main flow of the river enters Bangladesh, and the tributary Hooghly (also known as Bhagirathi) continues in West Bengal past
Kolkata. This barrage, which feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a {{cvt|26|mi|km|adj=on|order=flip}} long feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a long-lingering source of dispute with Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Ganges Water Dispute: An Appraisal of a Third Party Settlement |author=M. Rafiqul Islam |journal=Asian Survey |year=1987 |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=918–34 |doi=10.2307/2644864 |jstor=2644864 }}</ref> [[Sharing the water of the Ganges|Indo-Bangladesh Ganges Water Treaty]] signed in December 1996 addressed some of the water sharing issues between India and Bangladesh.{{sfn|Brichieri-Colombi|Bradnock|2003}} There is [[Lav Khush Barrage]] across the River Ganges in Kanpur.

[[Tehri Dam]] was constructed on [[Bhagirathi]] River, a tributary of the Ganges. It is located 1.5 km downstream of Ganesh Prayag, the place where Bhilangana meets Bhagirathi. Bhagirathi is called the Ganges after Devprayag.{{sfn|Sharma|Bahuguna|Chauhan|2008}} Construction of the dam in an earthquake-prone area{{sfn|Brune|1993}} was controversial.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The dam that should not be built |author1=Fred Pearce |author2=Rob Butler |journal=New Scientist |date=26 January 1991 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917534.600--the-dam-that-should-not-be-built-india-is-building-the-largest-dam-in-asia-in-a-valley-beset-by-earthquakes-and-landslips-seismologists-say-the-site-is-too-dangerous-but-engineers-are-using-discredited-data-to-push-ahead-with-construction--.html |access-date=28 August 2017 |archive-date=22 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022182636/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917534.600--the-dam-that-should-not-be-built-india-is-building-the-largest-dam-in-asia-in-a-valley-beset-by-earthquakes-and-landslips-seismologists-say-the-site-is-too-dangerous-but-engineers-are-using-discredited-data-to-push-ahead-with-construction--.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Bansagar Dam]] was built on the [[Sone River]], a tributary of the Ganges for both irrigation and [[hydroelectric]] power generation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/anu228556756739.pdf |title=Bansagar Dam project |access-date=27 April 2011 |publisher=Government of India Ministry of Water Sources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008223133/http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/anu228556756739.pdf |archive-date=8 October 2011 }}</ref> Ganges floodwaters along with Brahmaputra waters can be supplied to most of its right side basin area along with central and south India by constructing a [[coastal reservoir]] to store water on the Bay of Bengal sea area.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sasidhar |first=Nallapaneni |date=May 2023 |title=Multipurpose Freshwater Coastal Reservoirs and Their Role in Mitigating Climate Change |url=https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i1/A1842053123.pdf |access-date=15 August 2023 |journal=Indian Journal of Environment Engineering |issn=2582-9289 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.54105/ijee.A1842.053123 |s2cid=258753397 |archive-date=11 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611114313/https://www.ijee.latticescipub.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/v3i1/A1842053123.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:A girl selling plastic containers for carrying Ganges water, Haridwar.jpg|thumb|upright|A girl selling plastic containers in Haridwar for carrying Ganges water.]]

The [[Ganges Basin]] with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural economies of India and Bangladesh. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a perennial source of irrigation to a large area. Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, [[sugarcane]], [[lentil]]s, [[oil seed]]s, potatoes, and wheat. Along the banks of the river, the presence of [[swamp]]s and lakes provides a rich growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies, mustard, sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are also many fishing opportunities along the river, though it remains highly polluted. Also, the major industrial towns of [[Unnao]] and Kanpur, situated on the banks of the river with the predominance of tanning industries add to the pollution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/pollution%20caused%20by%20leather%20tannery%20industry%20in%20Unnao%20district.pdf |title=Report of the committee on pollution caused by leather tanning industry to the water bodies / ground water in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh |type=PDF |access-date=23 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140822200701/http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/pollution%20caused%20by%20leather%20tannery%20industry%20in%20Unnao%20district.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2014 }}</ref>

===Tourism===
Tourism is another related activity. Three towns holy to Hinduism—Haridwar, Prayagraj, and Varanasi—attract millions of pilgrims to its waters to take a dip in the Ganges, which is believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation. The rapids of the Ganges are also popular for [[rafting|river rafting]] in the town of Rishikesh, attracting adventure seekers in the summer months. Several cities such as Kanpur, Kolkata and Patna have also developed riverfront walkways along the banks to attract tourists.<ref name=Behteri1>{{cite news |author=Sushovan Sircar |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140311/jsp/calcutta/story_18037449.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424060712/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140311/jsp/calcutta/story_18037449.jsp |archive-date=24 April 2014 |title=Take a walk along the Hooghly |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |date=11 March 2014 |access-date=24 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name=Behteri3>{{cite news |author=Piyush Kumar Tripathi |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130803/jsp/bihar/story_17188971.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424210840/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1130803/jsp/bihar/story_17188971.jsp |archive-date=24 April 2014 |title=Funds flow for riverfront project |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |date=3 August 2013 |access-date=24 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name=Behteri2>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-pathway-to-be-complete-in-three-years/articleshow/34068161.cms |title=Ganga pathway to be complete in three years |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=22 April 2014 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914064419/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-pathway-to-be-complete-in-three-years/articleshow/34068161.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/Central-govt-approval-to-KDAs-riverfront-development-project/articleshow/45304859.cms |title=Central govt approval to KDA's riverfront development project |newspaper=The Times of India |date=28 November 2014 |publisher=The Times of India Mobile Site |access-date=7 August 2016 |archive-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622080137/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/central-govt-approval-to-kdas-riverfront-development-project/articleshow/45304859.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Ecology and environment==

[[File:Bangladesh tmo 2011313.jpg|thumb|''Ganges from Space'']]
Human development, mostly agriculture, has replaced nearly all of the original natural vegetation of the Ganges basin. More than 95% of the upper Gangetic Plain has been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas. Only one large block of relatively intact habitat remains, running along the Himalayan foothills and including [[Rajaji National Park]], [[Jim Corbett National Park]], and [[Dudhwa National Park]].<ref name=wwf0166>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0166 |name= Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests|access-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref> As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper Gangetic Plain harboured impressive populations of wild [[Asian elephant]]s (''Elephas maximus''), [[Bengal tiger]]s (''Panthera t. tigris''), [[Indian rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros unicornis''), [[gaur]]s (''Bos gaurus''), [[barasingha]]s (''Rucervus duvaucelii''), [[sloth bear]]s (''Melursus ursinus'') and [[Indian lion]]s (''Panthera leo leo'').<ref name=wwf0166/> In the 21st century there are few large wild animals, mostly deer, [[wild boar]]s, [[wildcat]]s, and small numbers of [[Indian wolf|Indian wolves]], [[golden jackal]]s, and [[Red fox|red]] and [[Bengal fox]]es. Bengal tigers survive only in the [[Sundarbans]] area of the Ganges Delta.<ref name=Britannica/> The Sundarbands freshwater swamp ecoregion, however, is nearly extinct.<ref name=wwf0162>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0162 |name= Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests|access-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref> The [[Heritiera fomes|Sundarbans mangroves]] (''Heritiera fomes'') also grow in the Sundarbans area of the Ganges Delta.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=The Sundarbans |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/ |access-date=24 June 2022 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=8 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208015435/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Threatened species|Threatened]] mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger, elephant, sloth bear, and [[four-horned antelope]] (''Tetracerus quadricornis'').<ref name=wwf0166/>

[[File:Florican, 1781.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Lesser florican]] (''Sypheotides indicus'')]]

Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as [[myna]], ''[[Psittacula]]'' parakeets, [[crow]]s, [[Kite (bird)|kites]], [[partridge]]s, and [[fowl]]s. [[Duck]]s and [[snipe]]s migrate across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland areas.<ref name=Britannica/> There are no [[Endemism|endemic]] birds in the upper Gangetic Plain. The [[great Indian bustard]] (''Ardeotis nigriceps'') and [[lesser florican]] (''Sypheotides indicus'') are considered globally threatened.<ref name=wwf0166/>

The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty. There are a few small patches of forest left, and they suggest that much of the upper plains may have supported a [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist deciduous forest]] with sal (''[[Shorea robusta]]'') as a [[climax species]].<ref name=wwf0166/>

A similar situation is found in the lower Gangetic Plain, which includes the lower Brahmaputra River. The lower plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by ''[[Bombax ceiba]]'' in association with ''[[Albizzia procera]]'', ''[[Duabanga grandiflora]]'', and ''[[Sterculia vilosa]]''. There are early [[seral]] forest communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species sal (''Shorea robusta'') if forest succession was allowed to proceed. In most places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes.<ref name=wwf0120>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0120 |name= Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests|access-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref> The forests of the lower Gangetic Plain, despite thousands of years of human settlement, remained largely intact until the early 20th century. Today only about 3% of the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block, south of Varanasi, remains. There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but over half of these are less than {{cvt|100|km2|sqmi}}.<ref name=wwf0120/> The fauna of the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains, with the addition of a number of other species such as the [[smooth-coated otter]] (''Lutrogale perspicillata'') and the [[large Indian civet]] (''Viverra zibetha'').<ref name=wwf0120/>

===Fish===
[[File:Catla catla India.jpg|thumb|The [[catla]] (''Catla catla'') is one of the Indian carp species that support major fisheries in the Ganges.]]

It has been estimated that about 350 fish species live in the entire Ganges drainage, including several [[Endemism|endemics]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Allen, D.J. |editor2=S. Molur |editor3=B.A. Daniel |title=The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalaya |year=2010 |publisher=IUCN |page=23 |isbn=978-2-8317-1324-3 }}</ref> In a major 2007–2009 study of fish in the Ganges basin (including the river itself and its tributaries, but excluding the Brahmaputra and Meghna basins), a total of 143 fish species were recorded, including 10 non-native [[introduced species]].<ref name=Sarkar2012>{{cite journal |author1=Sarkar |author2=Pathak |author3=Sinha |author4=Sivakumar |author5=Pandian |author6=Pandey |author7=Dubey |author8=Lakra |title=Freshwater fish biodiversity in the River Ganga (India): changing pattern, threats and conservation perspectives |year=2012 |journal=Rev Fish Biol Fisheries |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=251–272 |doi=10.1007/s11160-011-9218-6 |bibcode=2012RFBF...22..251S |s2cid=16719029 }}</ref> The most diverse orders are [[Cypriniformes]] (barbs and allies), [[Siluriformes]] (catfish) and [[Perciformes]] (perciform fish), each comprising about 50%, 23% and 14% of the total fish species in the drainage.<ref name=Sarkar2012/>

There are distinct differences between the different sections of the river basin, but [[Cyprinidae]] is the most diverse throughout. In the upper section (roughly equalling the basin parts in Uttarakhand) more than 50 species have been recorded and Cyprinidae alone accounts for almost 80% those, followed by [[Balitoridae]] (about 15.6%) and [[Sisoridae]] (about 12.2%).<ref name=Sarkar2012/> Sections of the Ganges basin at altitudes above {{cvt|2400-3000|m|ft}} above sea level are generally without fish. Typical genera approaching this altitude are ''[[Schizothorax]]'', ''[[Tor (fish)|Tor]]'', ''[[Barilius]]'', ''[[Nemacheilus]]'' and ''[[Glyptothorax]]''.<ref name=Sarkar2012/> About 100 species have been recorded from the middle section of the basin (roughly equalling the sections in Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar) and more than 55% of these are in family Cyprinidae, followed by [[Schilbeidae]] (about 10.6%) and [[Clupeidae]] (about 8.6%).<ref name=Sarkar2012/> The lower section (roughly equalling the basin in parts of Bihar and West Bengal) includes major floodplains and is home to almost 100 species. About 46% of these are in the family Cyprinidae, followed by Schilbeidae (about 11.4%) and [[Bagridae]] (about 9%).<ref name=Sarkar2012/>

The Ganges basin supports major fisheries, but these have declined in recent decades. In the [[Prayagraj]] region in the middle section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 424.91 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 38.58 metric tons in 2001–2006, and catches of catfish fell from 201.35 metric tons in 1961–1968 to 40.56 metric tons in 2001–2006.<ref name=Sarkar2012/> In the [[Patna]] region in the lower section of the basin, catches of carp fell from 383.2 metric tons to 118, and catfish from 373.8 metric tons to 194.48.<ref name=Sarkar2012/> Some of the fish commonly caught in fisheries include [[catla]] (''Catla catla''), [[golden mahseer]] (''Tor putitora''), [[tor mahseer]] (''Tor tor''), [[rohu]] (''Labeo rohita''), [[walking catfish]] (''Clarias batrachus''), [[pangas catfish]] (''Pangasius pangasius''), [[Bagarius|goonch catfish]] (''Bagarius''), [[Snakehead (fish)|snakeheads]] (''Channa''), [[bronze featherback]] (''Notopterus notopterus'') and [[milkfish]] (''Chanos chanos'').<ref name=Britannica/><ref name=Sarkar2012/>

The Ganges basin is home to about 30 fish species that are listed as threatened with the primary issues being [[overfishing]] (sometimes illegal), pollution, water abstraction, [[siltation]] and [[invasive species]].<ref name=Sarkar2012/> Among the threatened species is the [[critically endangered]] [[Ganges shark]] (''Glyphis gangeticus'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fishbase.org/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?genusname=Glyphis&speciesname=gangeticus |title=Glyphis gangeticus, Ganges shark |publisher=[[FishBase]] |access-date=7 May 2011 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328172528/https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/summary/Glyphis-gangeticus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Several fish species [[Fish migration|migrate]] between different sections of the river, but these movements may be prevented by the building of dams.<ref name=Sarkar2012/>

===Crocodilians and turtles===
[[File:Gavialis gangeticus, ZOO Praha 045.jpg|thumb|The threatened [[gharial]] (''Gavialis gangeticus'') is a large fish-eating [[crocodilian]] that is harmless to humans<ref>{{cite web |title=Gharial biology |publisher=Gharial Conservation Alliance |url=http://www.gharialconservationalliance.org/?page_id=216 |access-date=12 September 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414200745/http://www.gharialconservationalliance.org/?page_id=216 |archive-date=14 April 2013 }}</ref>]]

The main sections of the Ganges River are home to the [[gharial]] (''Gavialis gangeticus'') and [[mugger crocodile]] (''Crocodylus palustris''), and the Ganges delta is home to the [[saltwater crocodile]] (''C. porosus''). Among the numerous aquatic and semi-aquatic turtles in the Ganges basin are the [[northern river terrapin]] (''Batagur baska''; only in the lowermost section of the basin), [[three-striped roofed turtle]] (''B. dhongoka''), [[red-crowned roofed turtle]] (''B. kachuga''), [[black pond turtle]] (''Geoclemys hamiltonii''), [[Brahminy river turtle]] (''Hardella thurjii''), [[Indian black turtle]] (''Melanochelys trijuga''), [[Indian eyed turtle]] (''Morenia petersi''), [[brown roofed turtle]] (''Pangshura smithii''), [[Indian roofed turtle]] (''Pangshura tecta''), [[Indian tent turtle]] (''Pangshura tentoria''), [[Indian flapshell turtle]] (''Lissemys punctata''), [[Indian narrow-headed softshell turtle]] (''Chitra indica''), [[Indian softshell turtle]] (''Nilssonia gangetica''), [[Indian peacock softshell turtle]] (''N. hurum'') and [[Cantor's giant softshell turtle]] (''Pelochelys cantorii''; only in the lowermost section of Ganges basin).<ref name=turtles>{{cite book |editor1=Rhodin |editor2=Pritchard |editor3=Dijk |editor4=Saumure |editor5=Buhlmann |editor6=Iverson |editor7=Mittermeier |title=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group |author1=van Dijk |author2=Iverson |author3=Rhodin |author4=Shaffer |author5=Bour |s2cid=88824499 |chapter=Turtles of the World, 7th Edition: Annotated Checklist of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution with Maps, and Conservation Status |year=2014 |publisher=IUCN |volume=5 |doi=10.3854/crm.5.000.checklist.v7.2014 |series=Chelonian Research Monographs |isbn=978-0-9653540-9-7 }}</ref> Most of these are seriously threatened.<ref name=turtles/>

===Ganges river dolphin===
[[File:GangeticDolphin.jpg|thumb|The Gangetic dolphin in a sketch by Whymper and P. Smit, 1894.]]
The river's most famed faunal member is the freshwater [[Ganges river dolphin]] (''Platanista gangetica gangetica''),<ref name=wwf0166/> which has been declared India's [[List of national animals|national aquatic animal]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wildpolitics.net/2010/01/19/ganges-river-dolphin-declared-indias-national-aquatic-animal/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902103154/http://wildpolitics.net/2010/01/19/ganges-river-dolphin-declared-indias-national-aquatic-animal/ |archive-date=2 September 2011 |title=Ganges River Dolphin Declared India's National Aquatic Animal |publisher=WildPolitics.net |access-date=6 May 2011 }}</ref>

This dolphin used to exist in large schools near urban centres in both the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers but is now seriously threatened by pollution, dam construction and improper fishing methods.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2023/01/banned-but-abundant-gillnets-pose-main-threat-to-bangladeshs-river-dolphins/ |title=Banned but abundant, gillnets pose main threat to Bangladesh's river dolphins |access-date=14 April 2024 }}</ref> Their numbers have now dwindled to a quarter of their numbers of fifteen years before, and they have become extinct in the Ganges' main tributaries.{{efn|name=puttick|1= {{harvtxt|Puttick|2008}} "Sacred ritual is only one source of pollution. The main source of contamination is organic waste—sewage, trash, food, and human and animal remains. Around a billion liters of untreated raw sewage are dumped into the Ganges each day, along with massive amounts of agricultural chemicals (including DDT), industrial pollutants, and toxic chemical waste from the booming industries along the river. The level of pollution is now 10,000 percent higher than the government standard for safe river bathing (let alone drinking). One result of this situation is an increase in waterborne diseases, including cholera, hepatitis, typhoid, and amoebic dysentery. An estimated 80 percent of all health problems and one-third of deaths in India are attributable to waterborne illnesses." (p. 247) "There have been various projects to clean up the Ganges and other rivers, led by the Indian government's Ganga Action Plan launched in 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi, grandson of Jawaharlal Nehru. Its relative failure has been blamed on mismanagement, corruption, and technological mistakes, but also lack of support from religious authorities. This may well be partly because the Brahmin priests are so invested in the idea of the Ganges' purity and afraid that any admission of its pollution will undermine the central role of the water in ritual, as well as their own authority. There are many temples along the river, conducting a brisk trade in ceremonies, including funerals, and sometimes also the sale of bottled Ganga Jal. The more traditional Hindu priests still believe that blessing Ganga Jal purifies it, although they are now a very small minority given the scale of the problem." (p. 248) "Wildlife is also under threat, particularly the river dolphins. They were one of the world's first protected species, given special status under the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. They're now a critically endangered species, although protected once again by the Indian government (and internationally under the CITES convention). Their numbers have shrunk by 75 per cent over the last 15 years, and they have become extinct in the main tributaries, mainly because of pollution and habitat degradation." (p. 275)
----}} A 2012 survey by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] found only 3,000 left in the water catchment of both river systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/cetaceans/about/river_dolphins/ganges_river_dolphin/ |title=Ganges River dolphin |publisher=WWF |website=wwf.panda.org |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415221525/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/cetaceans/about/river_dolphins/ganges_river_dolphin/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Ganges river dolphin is one of only five true [[freshwater dolphin]]s in the world. The other four are the [[baiji]] (''Lipotes vexillifer'') of the [[Yangtze River]] in China, now likely extinct; the [[Indus River dolphin]] of the Indus River in Pakistan; the [[Amazon river dolphin]] of the Amazon River in South America; and the [[Araguaian river dolphin]] (not considered a separate species until 2014<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hrbek |first1=Tomas |last2=Da Silva |first2=Vera Maria Ferreira |last3=Dutra |first3=Nicole |last4=Gravena |first4=Waleska |last5=Martin |first5=Anthony R. |last6=Farias |first6=Izeni Pires |editor1-last=Turvey |editor1-first=Samuel T. |title=A New Species of River Dolphin from Brazil or: How Little Do We Know Our Biodiversity |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0083623 |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=e83623 |date=22 January 2014 |pmid=24465386 |pmc=3898917 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...983623H |doi-access=free }}</ref>) of the [[Tocantins River|Araguaia–Tocantins]] basin in Brazil. There are several marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats, but these five are the only dolphins who live only in freshwater rivers and lakes.<ref name=wwf0120/>

=== Effects of climate change ===
The [[Tibetan Plateau]] contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:

{{blockquote|Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world. ... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows ... In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges. Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril.<ref>{{cite web |author=AFP |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5g1eE4Xw3njaW1MKpJRYOch4hOdLQ |title=Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official |work=Google News |date=17 August 2009 |access-date=28 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123192540/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5g1eE4Xw3njaW1MKpJRYOch4hOdLQ |archive-date=23 January 2010 }}</ref>}}

In 2007, the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), in its Fourth Report, stated that the Himalayan glaciers which feed the river were at risk of melting by 2035.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR4/website/10.pdf |title=See s. 10.6 of the WGII part of the report at |access-date=28 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124044114/http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR4/website/10.pdf |archive-date=24 November 2010 }}</ref> The IPCC has now withdrawn that prediction, as the original source admitted that it was speculative and the cited source was not a peer-reviewed finding.{{efn|1= The IPCC report is based on a non-peer-reviewed work by the World Wildlife Federation. They, in turn, drew their information from an interview conducted by ''New Scientist'' with Hasnain, an Indian glaciologist, who admitted that the view was speculative. See: {{cite journal |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20527432.800-sifting-climate-facts-from-speculation.html |title=Sifting climate facts from speculation |date=13 January 2010 |journal=New Scientist}} and {{cite news |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/health/pachauri-calls-indian-govt-report-on-melting-himalayan-glaciers-as-voodoo-science_100301232.html |title=Pachauri calls Indian govt. report on melting Himalayan glaciers as 'voodoo science' |date=9 January 2010 |publisher=Thaindian News |access-date=20 January 2010 |archive-date=28 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128104205/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/health/pachauri-calls-indian-govt-report-on-melting-himalayan-glaciers-as-voodoo-science_100301232.html}} On the IPCC statement withdrawing the finding, see: {{cite news |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/presentations/himalaya-statement-20january2010.pdf |title=IPCC statement on the melting of Himalayan glaciers |date=20 January 2010 |publisher=IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |access-date=20 January 2010 |archive-date=15 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215024454/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/presentations/himalaya-statement-20january2010.pdf}}
----}} In its statement, the IPCC stands by its general findings relating to the Himalayan glaciers being at risk from global warming (with consequent risks to water flow into the Gangetic basin). Many studies have suggested that [[climate change]] will affect the water resources in the Ganges river basin including increased summer (monsoon) flow, and peak runoff could result in an increased risk of flooding.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Impact of climate change on the hydrological regime of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins: a review of the literature |first1=Santosh |last1=Nepal |first2=Arun Bhakta |last2=Shrestha |date=3 April 2015 |journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=201–218 |doi=10.1080/07900627.2015.1030494 |bibcode=2015IJWRD..31..201N |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Pollution and environmental concerns==
{{main|Pollution of the Ganges}}
[[File:Cremation in Varanasi.jpg|thumb|Burning ''[[Ghats in Varanasi|ghats]]'' in [[Varanasi]]; the ashes of the dead are released along the banks of the Ganges.<ref name="Natgeo 2014">{{cite magazine |last=McBride |first=Pete |date=7 August 2014 |title=The Pyres of Varanasi: Breaking the Cycle of Death and Rebirth |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/the-pyres-of-varanasi-breaking-the-cycle-of-death-and-rebirth |magazine=[[National Geographic]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |issn=0027-9358 |oclc=643483454 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425202234/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/the-pyres-of-varanasi-breaking-the-cycle-of-death-and-rebirth |archive-date=25 April 2022 |access-date=1 October 2022 }}</ref>]]
[[File:Clothing by the river.jpg|thumb|People bathing and washing clothes along the banks of the Ganges in Varanasi]]

The Ganges suffers from extreme pollution levels,<ref>{{cite journal |title=River Ganga pollution: Causes and failed management plans |journal=Environment International |volume=126 |pages=202–206 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.033 |pmid=30802637 |date=May 2019 |last1=Chaudhary |first1=M. |last2=Walker |first2=T. R. |doi-access=free }}</ref> caused by the 400 million people who live close to the river.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cleanganga.com/newsletter/index.php |title=June 2003 Newsletter |publisher=Clean Ganga |access-date=16 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518135014/http://www.cleanganga.com/newsletter/index.php |archive-date=18 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1581251,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126170535/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1581251,00.html |archive-date=26 January 2007 |magazine=Time |title=The World's Dirty Rivers |date=22 January 2007 |access-date=3 May 2010 |first=Elisabeth |last=Salemme }}</ref> Sewage from many cities along the river's course, industrial waste and religious offerings wrapped in non-degradable plastics add large amounts of pollutants to the river as it flows through densely populated areas.<ref name=cleanperish/>{{sfn|Abraham|2011}}<ref name=Behteri4>{{cite news |author=Akanksha Jain |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/draw-plan-to-check-ganga-pollution-by-sugar-mills/article5939897.ece |title=Draw plan to check Ganga pollution by sugar mills |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=23 April 2014 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819064050/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/draw-plan-to-check-ganga-pollution-by-sugar-mills/article5939897.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/447339-delivering-clean-water-to-vulnerable-communities-on-the-ganga |title=Delivering clean water to vulnerable communities on the Ganga |access-date=14 April 2024 |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203215049/https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/447339-delivering-clean-water-to-vulnerable-communities-on-the-ganga |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=A comprehensive assessment of macro and microplastics from Rivers Ganga and Yamuna: Unveiling the seasonal, spatial and risk factors |date=2024 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133926 |last1=Gupta |first1=Priyansha |last2=Saha |first2=Mahua |last3=Naik |first3=Akshata |last4=Kumar |first4=M. Manish |last5=Rathore |first5=Chayanika |last6=Vashishth |first6=Shrish |last7=Maitra |first7=Shukla Pal |last8=Bhardwaj |first8=K.D. |last9=Thukral |first9=Harsh |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume=469 |article-number=133926 |pmid=38484661 |bibcode=2024JHzM..46933926G }}</ref> The problem is exacerbated by the fact that many poorer people rely on the river on a daily basis for bathing, washing, and cooking.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}} The [[World Bank]] estimates that the health costs of [[water pollution in India]] equal three percent of India's GDP.{{efn|name=bharati}} It has also been suggested that eighty percent of all illnesses in India and one-third of deaths can be attributed to water-borne diseases.{{efn|name=puttick}}

Varanasi, a city of one million people that many pilgrims visit to take a "holy dip" in the Ganges, releases around 200 million liters of untreated human sewage into the river each day, leading to large concentrations of [[fecal coliform]] bacteria.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}} According to official standards, water safe for bathing should not contain more than 500 fecal coliforms per 100 ml, yet upstream of [[Ghats in Varanasi|Varanasi's ghats]] the river water already contains 120 times as much, 60,000 fecal coliform bacteria per 100 ml.<ref name="economist2008-ganges-pollution">[http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11751397 "India and pollution: Up to their necks in it"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612093603/http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11751397 |date=12 June 2009 }}, ''[[The Economist]]'', 27 July 2008.</ref><ref name=nomoreabuse>{{cite news |title=Ganga can bear no more abuse |date=18 July 2009 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/Ganga-can-bear-no-more-abuse/articleshow/4792921.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103163826/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-07-18/varanasi/28183373_1_ganga-action-plan-river-water-sewage-treatment-plants |url-status=live |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=3 November 2011 }}</ref>

After the [[cremation]] of the deceased at Varanasi's ghats, the bones and ashes are immersed into the Ganges. However, in the past thousands of uncremated bodies were thrown into the Ganges during [[cholera]] epidemics, spreading the disease. Even today, holy men, pregnant women, people with [[leprosy]] or [[chicken pox]], people who have been bitten by snakes, people who have committed suicide, the poor, and children under 5 are not cremated at the ghats but are left to float free, to decompose in the waters. In addition, those who cannot afford the large amount of wood needed to incinerate the entire body, leave behind many half-burned body parts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travelpod.co.uk/travel-blog-entries/miller-stone/1/1293729235/tpod.html#ixzz1W7q8JJhI |title=Miller-stone's Travel Blog: Varanasi: The Rich, The Poor, and The Afterlife |date=14 December 2010 }}</ref>

After passing through Varanasi, and receiving 32 streams of raw sewage from the city, the concentration of fecal coliforms in the river's waters rises from 60,000 to 1.5 million,<ref name="economist2008-ganges-pollution"/><ref name=nomoreabuse/> with observed peak values of 100 million per 100 ml.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}} Drinking and bathing in its waters therefore carries a high risk of infection.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}}

Between 1985 and 2000, [[Indian rupee|Rs.]] 10 billion, around US$226 million, or less than 4 cents per person per year,<ref>{{cite news |title=Journey of River Ganga, from Purest to the Dirtiest river of the World – |publisher=Mobile Site India TV News |url=http://m.indiatvnews.com/news/india/river-ganga-purest-river-dirtiest-river-37927.html/page/7 |work=m.indiatvnews.com |language=en |access-date=28 February 2017 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808033348/http://m.indiatvnews.com/news/india/river-ganga-purest-river-dirtiest-river-37927.html/page/7 }}</ref> were spent on the [[Ganga Action Plan]],<ref name=cleanperish/> an environmental initiative that was "the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world".{{efn|name=singh}} The Ganga Action Plan has been described variously as a "failure"<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/indias-long-term-effort-to-clean-up-pollution-in-sacred-ganga-river |title=India's effort to clean up sacred but polluted Ganga River |publisher=pbs.org |date=16 December 2009 |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212170449/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/indias-long-term-effort-to-clean-up-pollution-in-sacred-ganga-river |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=mandal/>{{efn|1= {{harvtxt|Caso|Wolf|2010}} "Chronology: 1985 *India launches Phase I of the Ganga Action Plan to restore the Ganges River; most deem it a failure by the early 1990s." (p. 320)
----}}{{efn|1= {{harvtxt|Dudgeon|2005}} "To reduce the water pollution in one of Asia's major rivers, the Indian Government initiated the Ganga Action Plan in 1985. The objective of this centrally funded scheme was to treat the effluent from all the major towns along the Ganges and reduce pollution in the river by at least 75%. The Ganga Action Plan built upon the existing but weakly enforced, 1974 Water Prevention and Control Act. A government audit of the Ganga Action Plan in 2000 reported limited success in meeting effluent targets. Development plans for sewage treatment facilities were submitted by only 73% of the cities along the Ganges, and only 54% of these were judged acceptable by the authorities. Not all the cities reported how much effluent was being treated, and many continued to discharge raw sewage into the river. Test audits of installed capacity indicated poor performance, and there were long delays in constructing planned treatment facilities. After 15 yr. of implementation, the audit estimated that the Ganga Action Plan had achieved only 14% of the anticipated sewage treatment capacity. The environmental impact of this failure has been exacerbated by the removal of large quantities of irrigation water from the Ganges which offset any gains from effluent reductions."
----}} and a "major failure".{{efn|name=haberman|1= {{harvtxt|Haberman|2006}} "The Ganga Action Plan, commonly known as GAP, was launched dramatically in the holy city of Banares (Varanasi) on 14 June 1985, by Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]], who promised, {{'}}We shall see that the waters of the Ganga become clean once again.{{'}} The stated task was {{'}}to improve water quality, permit safe bathing all along the 2,525 kilometers from the Ganges's origin in the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal, and make the water potable at important pilgrim and urban centres on its banks.{{'}} The project was designed to tackle pollution from twenty-five cities and towns along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal by intercepting, diverting, and treating their effluents. With the GAP's Phase II, three important tributaries—Damodar, Gomati, and Yamuna—were added to the plan. Although some improvements have been made to the quality of the Ganges's water, many people claim that the GAP has been a major failure. The environmental lawyer M. C. Mehta, for example, filed public interest litigation against the project, claiming {{'}}GAP has collapsed.{{'}}"
----}}{{efn|name=gardner|1={{harvtxt|Gardner|2003}} "The Ganges, also known as the Ganga, is one of the world's major rivers, running for more than 2,500 kilometres from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal. It is also one of the most polluted, primarily from sewage, but also from animal carcasses, human corpses, and soap, and other pollutants from bathers. Indeed, scientists measure fecal coliform levels at thousands of times what is permissible and levels of oxygen in the water are similarly unhealthy. Renewal efforts have centred primarily on the government-sponsored Ganga Action Plan (GAP), started in 1985 intending to clean up the river by 1993. Several western-style sewage treatment plants were built along the river, but they were poorly designed, poorly maintained, and prone to shut down during the region's frequent power outages. The GAP has been a colossal failure, and many argue that the river is more polluted now than it was in 1985." (p. 166)
----}}{{efn|name=bharati|1= {{harvtxt|Bharati|2006}} "The World Bank estimates the health costs of water pollution in India to be equivalent to three per cent of the country's gross domestic product. With Indian rivers being severely polluted, interlinking them may actually increase these costs. Also, with the widely recognised failure of the Ganga Action Plan, there is a danger that contaminants from the Gangetic basin might enter other basins and destroy their natural cleansing processes. The new areas that will be river-fed after the introduction of the scheme may experience crop failures or routing due to alien compounds carried into their streams from the polluted Gangetic basin streams." (p. 26)
----}}

According to one study,<ref name=mandal>{{Citation |last=Mandal |first=R. B. |title=Water Resource Management |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-8069-318-2 }}</ref> <blockquote>
The Ganga Action Plan, which was taken on priority and with much enthusiasm, was delayed for two years. The expenditure was almost doubled. But the result was not very appreciable. Much expenditure was done on political propaganda. The concerning governments and the related agencies were not very prompt to make it a success. The public of the areas was not taken into consideration. The release of urban and industrial wastes in the river was not controlled fully. The flowing of dirty water through drains and sewers were not adequately diverted. The continuing customs of burning dead bodies, throwing carcasses, washing of dirty clothes by washermen, and immersion of idols and cattle wallowing were not checked. Very little provision of public latrines was made and the open defecation of [[lakh]]s of people continued along the riverside. All these made the Action Plan a failure.</blockquote>

The failure of the Ganga Action Plan has also been variously attributed to "environmental planning without proper understanding of the human-environment interactions",{{efn|name=singh|1= {{harvtxt| Singh|Singh|2007}} "In February 1985, the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India launched the Ganga Action Plan, an environmental project to improve the river water quality. It was the largest single attempt to clean up a polluted river anywhere in the world and has not achieved any success in terms of preventing pollution load and improvement in the water quality of the river. Failure of the Ganga Action Plan may be directly linked with environmental planning without proper understanding of the human-environment interactions. The bibliography of selected environmental research studies on the Ganga River is, therefore, an essential first step for preserving and maintaining the Ganga River ecosystem in future."
----}} Indian "traditions and beliefs",{{efn|1= {{harvtxt|Tiwari|2008}} "Many social traditions and customs are not only helping in environmental degradation but are causing obstruction to environmental management and planning. The failure of the Ganga Action Plan to clean the sacred river is partly associated with our traditions and beliefs. The disposal of dead bodies, the immersion of idols, and public bathing are part of Hindu customs and rituals which are based on the notion that the sacred river leads to the path of salvation, and under no circumstances its water can become impure. Burning of dead bodies through wood, bursting of crackers during Diwali, putting thousands of tonnes of fuelwood under fire during Holi, immersion of Durga and Ganesh idols into rivers and seas, etc. are part of Hindu customs and are detrimental to the environment. These and many other rituals need rethinking and modification in the light of contemporary situations." (p. 92)
----}} "corruption and a lack of technical knowledge"{{efn|name=sheth|1= {{harvtxt|Sheth|2008}} "But the Indian government, as a whole, appears typically ineffective. Its ability to address itself to a national problem like environmental degradation is typified by the 20-year, $100 million Ganga Action Plan, whose purpose was to clean up the Ganges River. Leading Indian environmentalists call the plan a complete failure, due to the same problems that have always beset the government: poor planning, corruption, and a lack of technical knowledge. The river, they say, is more polluted than ever." (pp. 67–68)
----}} and "lack of support from religious authorities".{{efn|name=puttick}}

In December 2009 the World Bank agreed to loan India US$1 billion over the next five years to help save the river.<ref name=BBC_Ganges_World_Bank>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8392118.stm |title=World Bank loans India $1bn for Ganges river clean up |work=BBC News |date=3 December 2009 |access-date=28 November 2010 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822112135/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8392118.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to 2010 Planning Commission estimates, an investment of almost Rs. 70 billion (Rs. 70 billion, approximately US$1.5 billion) is needed to clean up the river.<ref name=cleanperish/>

In November 2008, the Ganges, alone among India's rivers, was declared a "National River", facilitating the formation of a [[National Ganga River Basin Authority]] that would have greater powers to plan, implement and monitor measures aimed at protecting the river.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081108084537/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081105/jsp/nation/story_10065466.jsp "Ganga gets a tag: national river – Vote whiff in step to give special status"], ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'', 5 November 2008</ref>

In July 2014, the Government of India announced an integrated Ganges-development project titled ''Namami Gange Programme'' and allocated {{INR}}2,037 [[crore]] for this purpose.<ref>{{cite web |title=Namami Ganga development Project gets 2037 crores |url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/namami-ganga-development-project-gets-2037-crores/ |work=IANS |publisher=news.biharprabha.com |access-date=10 July 2014 |archive-date=31 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531074720/http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/namami-ganga-development-project-gets-2037-crores/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The main objectives of the Namami Gange project is to improve the water quality by the abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of river Ganga by creating infrastructures like sewage treatment plants, river surface cleaning, biodiversity conservation, afforestation, and public awareness.<ref>{{cite web |title=Namami Gange Programme |url=https://nmcg.nic.in/NamamiGanga.aspx |website=nmcg.nic.in |access-date=27 November 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817190528/https://nmcg.nic.in/NamamiGanga.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2017 the [[High Court of Uttarakhand]] declared the Ganges River a [[Legal personality|legal "person"]], in a move that according to one newspaper, "could help in efforts to clean the pollution-choked rivers".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Trivedi |first1=Anupam |last2=Jagati |first2=Kamal |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/uttarakhand-hc-says-ganga-is-india-s-first-living-entity-grants-it-rights-equal-to-humans/story-VoI6DOG71fyMDihg5BuGCL.html |title=Uttarakhand HC declares Ganga, Yamuna living entities, gives them legal rights |location=Dehradun/Nainital |work=Hindustan Times |date=22 March 2017 |access-date=5 April 2017 |archive-date=6 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406111433/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/uttarakhand-hc-says-ganga-is-india-s-first-living-entity-grants-it-rights-equal-to-humans/story-VoI6DOG71fyMDihg5BuGCL.html |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2017|04|06}}, the ruling has been commented on in Indian newspapers to be hard to enforce,<ref name=mint>{{citation needed|date= April 2017}}{{cite news |url=http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/gsttRTScpIuLTXreHqwvkN/Rights-of-rivers-hard-to-enforce.html |last=De Sarkar |first=Dipankar |title=Rights of rivers, hard to enforce |date=24 March 2017 |newspaper=Live Mint |access-date=6 April 2017 |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820101010/http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/gsttRTScpIuLTXreHqwvkN/Rights-of-rivers-hard-to-enforce.html |url-status=live }}</ref> that experts do not anticipate immediate benefits,<ref name= mint/> that the ruling is "hardly game changing",<ref name=hindu>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-river-as-being/article17669377.ece |last=Ghosh |first=Shibani |title=The river as being |date=27 March 2017 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=6 April 2017 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822112135/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-river-as-being/article17669377.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> that experts believe "any follow-up action is unlikely",<ref name=econtimes>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/will-granting-legal-rights-to-rivers-like-the-ganga-change-on-ground-situation/articleshow/57818653.cms |last=Goswami |first=Urmi |title=Will granting legal rights to rivers like the Ganga, change the on-ground situation? |date=25 March 2017 |newspaper=Economic Times |access-date=6 April 2017 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830203814/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/will-granting-legal-rights-to-rivers-like-the-ganga-change-on-ground-situation/articleshow/57818653.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> and that the "judgment is deficient to the extent it acted without hearing others (in states outside Uttarakhand) who have stakes in the matter."<ref name=outlook>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/by-making-ganga-yamuna-living-entities-did-high-court-unwittingly-open-the-door-/298319 |last=Bhaskar |first=B. R. P. |title=By Making Ganga, Yamuna Living Entities, Did High Court Unwittingly Open The Door For River Pollution Victims To Sue For Damages? |date=24 March 2017 |magazine=Outlook |access-date=6 April 2017 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822112116/https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/by-making-ganga-yamuna-living-entities-did-high-court-unwittingly-open-the-door-/298319 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The incidence of water-borne and [[enteric]] diseases—such as [[gastrointestinal disease]], cholera, [[dysentery]], [[hepatitis A]] and [[typhoid]]—among people who use the river's waters for bathing, washing dishes and brushing teeth is high, at an estimated 66% per year.{{sfn|Abraham|2011}}

Recent studies by [[Indian Council of Medical Research]] (ICMR) say that the river is so full of killer pollutants that those living along its banks in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal are more prone to cancer than anywhere else in the country. Conducted by the National Cancer Registry Programme under the ICMR, the study throws up shocking findings indicating that the river is thick with heavy metals and lethal chemicals that cause cancer. According to Deputy Director-General of NCRP A. Nandkumar, the incidence of cancer was highest in the country in areas drained by the Ganges and stated that the problem would be studied deeply and with the findings presented in a report to the health ministry.<ref>"Ganga is now a deadly source of cancer, study says", ''Anirban Ghosh'' 17 October 2012, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-a-deadly-source-of-cancer-now-Study/articleshow/16858510.cms {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626224323/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-a-deadly-source-of-cancer-now-Study/articleshow/16858510.cms |date=26 June 2017 }} [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-a-deadly-source-of-cancer-now-Study/articleshow/16858510.cms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626224323/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Ganga-a-deadly-source-of-cancer-now-Study/articleshow/16858510.cms |date=26 June 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Springer2025">{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=M. M. |title=Emerging Pollutants in the River Ganga and its Tributaries – Current Status, Future Impacts and Fate of Riverine Ecosystems |journal=Discover Environment |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=15 January 2025 |doi=10.1007/s44177-025-00101-2 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44177-025-00101-2 |access-date=4 February 2026 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Apart from that, many NGOs have come forward to rejuvenate the river Ganges. Vikrant Tongad, an Environmental specialist from SAFE Green filed a petition against Simbhaoli Sugar Mill (Hapur UP) to NGT. NGT slapped a fine of Rs. 5 crores to Sugar Mill and a fine of Rs. 25 lakhs to Gopaljee Dairy for discharging untreated effluents into the Simbhaoli drain.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/ngt-slaps-rs-5-cr-fine-on-sugar-mills/article6509417.ece |title=NGT slaps Rs. 5 cr. fine on sugar mills |first=Akanksha |last=Jain |newspaper=The Hindu |date=17 October 2014 |via=www.thehindu.com |access-date=13 November 2019 |archive-date=26 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826202653/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/ngt-slaps-rs-5-cr-fine-on-sugar-mills/article6509417.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Water shortages===
Along with ever-increasing pollution, water shortages are getting noticeably worse. Some sections of the river are already completely dry. Around Varanasi, the river once had an average depth of {{cvt|60|m|ft}}, but in some places, it is now only {{cvt|10|m|ft}}.<ref>"How India's Success is Killing its Holy River". Jyoti Thottam. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. 19 July 2010, pp. 12–17.</ref>

{{blockquote|To cope with its chronic water shortages, India employs electric groundwater pumps, diesel-powered tankers, and coal-fed power plants. If the country increasingly relies on these energy-intensive short-term fixes, the whole planet's climate will bear the consequences. India is under enormous pressure to develop its economic potential while also protecting its environment—something few, if any, countries have accomplished. What India does with its water will be a test of whether that combination is possible.<ref>"How India's Success is Killing its Holy River". Jyoti Thottam. ''Time''. 19 July 2010, p. 15.</ref>}}

===Mining===
[[Illegal mining in India#Illegal mining and stone crushing in the Ganges river bed|Illegal mining in the Ganges river bed]] for stones and sand for construction work has long been a problem in [[Haridwar district]], Uttarakhand, where it touches the plains for the first time. This is despite the fact that quarrying has been banned in [[Kumbh Mela]] area zone covering 140 km2 area in Haridwar.<ref name=tri>{{cite news |title=Looting the Ganga shamelessly |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110616/main5.htm |newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |date=16 June 2011 |access-date=7 July 2011 |archive-date=27 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727091533/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110616/main5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==In art and literature==
* {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838/The Ganges|The Ganges]]}} A painting of the Ganges entering the plains near [[Haridwar]] by William Purser with a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838.<ref>{{cite book |last=Landon |first=Letitia Elizabeth |title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA110 |section=picture |year=1837 |publisher=Fisher, Son & Co. |access-date=20 December 2022 |archive-date=20 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220211543/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA108 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Landon |first=Letitia Elizabeth |title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838 |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA112 |section=poetical illustration |pages=33–34 |year=1837 |publisher=Fisher, Son & Co. |access-date=20 December 2022 |archive-date=20 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220211544/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=49BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA108 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839/Colgong on the Ganges|Colgong on the Ganges]]}} A painting of the Ganges near [[Kahalgaon]] by [[J. M. W. Turner]] with a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839.<ref>{{cite book |last=Landon |first=Letitia Elizabeth |title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839 |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA28 |section=picture |year=1838 |publisher=Fisher, Son & Co. |access-date=6 February 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231014/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA28 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Landon |first=Letitia Elizabeth |title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839 |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA31 |section=poetical illustration |page=17 |year=1838 |publisher=Fisher, Son & Co. |access-date=6 February 2023 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307231013/https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10-IA31 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Features as a level in the 1998 video game [[Tomb Raider III]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Kip |title=Tomb raider III: adventures of Lara Croft: Prima's official strategy guide |date=1998 |publisher=Prima Pub |isbn=978-0-7615-1858-7 |location=Rocklin, Calif}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Environmental personhood]]
* [[Fair river sharing]]
* [[Ganga Pushkaram]]
* [[Gangaputra Brahmin]]
* [[Ganga Talao]]
* [[Ganga Lake (Mongolia)]]
* [[List of most-polluted rivers]]
* [[List of rivers by discharge]]
* [[List of rivers by length]]
* [[List of rivers of India]]
* [[Mahaweli Ganga]]
* [[National Waterway 1]]
* [[Pollution of the Ganges]]
* [[River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts]]
* [[Sacred waters]]
* [[Sankat Mochan Foundation]]
* [[Ganga (goddess)]]
* [[Peninsular River System]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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* {{citation |last=Maclean |first=Kama |title=Pilgrimage and power: the Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, 1765–1954 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MALacgnsroMC |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-533894-2 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405133233/https://books.google.com/books?id=MALacgnsroMC |url-status=live}}
* {{citation |last1=Markandya |first1=Anil |last2=Murty |first2=Maddipati Narasimha |title=Cleaning-up the Ganges: a cost-benefit analysis of the Ganga Action Plan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MefsAAAAMAAJ |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-564945-1}}
* {{cite book |first1=M. Monirul Qader |last1=Mirza |title=The Ganges water diversion: environmental effects and implications |volume=49 |date=2004 |location=Dordecht |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-481-6665-7 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-2792-5 |series=Water Science and Technology Library |oclc=853267663}}
* {{citation |last=Newby |first=Eric |title=Slowly down the Ganges |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4sBAAAACAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-0-86442-631-4}}
* {{citation |last=Pal |first=Pratapaditya |title=Divine images, human visions: the Max Tanenbaum collection of South Asian and Himalayan art in the National Gallery of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMUp4nxAqwwC |year=1997 |publisher=National Gallery of Canada |isbn=978-1-896209-05-0}}
* {{citation |last1=Parua |first1=Pranab Kumar |title=The Ganga: water use in the Indian subcontinent |chapter='''14''' Necessity of Regional Co-operation |pages=267–72 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yUc7Cus2a-MC |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-481-3102-0}}
* {{cite book |first1=Gyan |last1=Prakash |title=Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/anotherreasonsci0000prak |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter='''6''' Technologies of Government |isbn=978-0-691-00453-2 |date=1999 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/anotherreasonsci0000prak}}
* {{Citation |last=Puttick |first=Elizabeth |chapter=Mother Ganges, India's Sacred River |year=2008 |title=The Healing Power of Water |editor1-last=Emoto |editor1-first=Masaru |editor1-link=Masaru Emoto |publisher=Hay House |pages=241–52 |isbn=978-1-4019-0877-5}}
* {{citation |last=Rahaman |first=M.M. |year=2009 |url=http://www.iwaponline.com/wp/01102/wp011020168.htm |title=Integrated Ganges Basin Management: conflicts and hope for regional development |journal=Water Policy |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=168–90 |doi=10.2166/wp.2009.012 |bibcode=2009WaPol..11..168R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927060952/http://www.iwaponline.com/wp/01102/wp011020168.htm |archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{citation |last=Rahaman |first=M.M. |year=2009 |title=Principles of transboundary water resources management and Ganges Treaties: An Analysis |journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=159–73 |doi=10.1080/07900620802517574 |bibcode=2009IJWRD..25..159R |s2cid=155016224}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JI65-MygMm0C&q=Kumbh+Mela&pg=PA165 |title=The Basis of Civilization: Water Science? |series=IAHS publication no. 286 |publisher=International Association of Hydrological Sciences, IAHS International Commission on Water Resources Systems |location=Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK |page=165 |isbn=978-1-901502-57-2 |date=2004 |first1=John C. |last1=Rodda |first2=Lucio |last2=Ubertini}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Sack DA, Sack RB, Nair GB, Siddique AK |title=Cholera |journal=Lancet |volume=363 |issue=9404 |pages=223–33 |year=2004 |pmid=14738797 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15328-7 |s2cid=208793200}}
* {{cite book |last1=Salman |first1=Salman M. A. |last2=Uprety |first2=Kishor |title=Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia's International Rivers: A Legal Perspective |publisher=Kluwer Law International |location=London, The Hague, New York |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8213-5352-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC}} {{cite web |title=Alternate copy |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/15171/multi0page.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=27 April 2011 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407170309/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/15171/multi0page.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |title=Periphytonic diversity in Bhagirathi:Preimpoundment study of Tehri dam reservoir |first1=Ramesh C. |last1=Sharma |first2=Manju |last2=Bahuguna |first3=Punam |last3=Chauhan |journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering |date=2008 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=255–62 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26758173 |pmid=19697759}}
* {{cite book |last=Sheth |first=Jagdish N. |title=Chindia Rising |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-07-065708-3}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Munendra |last2=Singh |first2=Amit K. |title=Bibliography of Environmental Studies in Natural Characteristics and Anthropogenic Influences on the Ganga River |journal=Environ Monit Assess |year=2007 |volume=129 |issue=1–3 |pages=421–32 |doi=10.1007/s10661-006-9374-7 |pmid=17072555 |bibcode=2007EMnAs.129..421S |s2cid=39845300}}
* {{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Nirmal T. |title=Irrigation and soil salinity in the Indian subcontinent: past and present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a4RCXuoMotAC&pg=PA69 |date=2005 |publisher=Lehigh University |location=Bethlehem, PA |isbn=978-0-934223-78-2}}
* {{citation |last=Stone |first=Ian |title=Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WLUWxIcyogC |year=2002 |publisher=CUP |isbn=978-0-521-52663-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Suvedī |first=Sūryaprasāda |title=International watercourses law for the 21st century: the case of the river Ganges basin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vn4OSPZXo3QC |date=2005 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-4527-6}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Image of the Barbarian in Early India |first1=Romila |last1=Thapar |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |date=October 1971 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=408–36 |jstor=178208 |doi=10.1017/s0010417500006393 |s2cid=143480731}}
* {{Citation |last=Tiwari |first=R. C. |chapter=Environmental Scenario in India |title=Explorations in Applied Geography |editor-last=Dutt |editor-first=Ashok K. |publisher=PHI Learning |isbn=978-81-203-3384-0 |year=2008}}
* {{citation |last=Wangu |first=Madhu Bazaz |title=Images of Indian goddesses: myths, meanings, and models |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k8y-vKtqCmIC |year=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-416-5}}
* {{cite journal |title=From the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean: Medieval History in Geographic Perspective |first1=André |last1=Wink |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |date=2002 |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=416–45 |jstor=3879375 |doi=10.1017/s001041750200021x |s2cid=144649820}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Main|Bibliography of Ganges}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Christopher de Bellaigue]], "The River" (the Ganges; review of [[Sunil Amrith]], ''Unruly Waters: How Rains, Rivers, Coasts, and Seas Have Shaped Asia's History''; [[Sudipta Sen]], ''Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River''; and Victor Mallet, ''River of Life, River of Death: The Ganges and India's Future''), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 15 (10 October 2019), pp. 34–36. "[I]n 1951 the average Indian [inhabitant of India] had access annually to 5,200 cubic meters of water. The figure today is 1,400 ... and will probably fall below 1,000 cubic meters – the [[UN]]'s definition of '[[water scarcity]]' – at some point in the next few decades. Compounding the problem of lower summer rainfall ... India's [[water table]] is in freefall [due] to an increase in the number of [[tube well]]s ... Other contributors to India's seasonal dearth of water are [[canal]] leaks [and] the continued sowing of thirsty crops" (p. 35.)
* {{cite book |last=Berwick |first=Dennison |title=A Walk Along the Ganges |publisher=Dennison Berwick |isbn=978-0-7137-1968-0 |title-link=A Walk Along the Ganges |year=1987}}
* {{cite book |last=Cautley |first=Proby Thomas |author-link=Proby Thomas Cautley |title=Ganges canal. A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges of Jumna canals, North-western Provinces |url=https://archive.org/stream/gangescanaladis01cautgoog#page/n7/mode/1up |year=1864 |publisher=London, Printed for Private circulation}}
* {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=James Baillie |author-link=James Baillie Fraser |title=Journal of a tour through part of the snowy range of the Himala Mountains, and to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges |url=https://archive.org/stream/journaloftourthr00fras#page/n3/mode/2up |year=1820 |publisher=Rodwell and Martin, London}}
* {{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Francis |title=An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches |url=https://archive.org/stream/accountoffishesf00hami#page/n7/mode/2up |year=1822 |publisher=A. Constable and company, Edinburgh}}
* {{cite book |title=Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River |year=2018 |first=Sudipta |last=Sen |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11916-9}}
* {{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Indra Bir |title=Geological Evolution of the Ganga Plain |journal=Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India |volume=41 |year=1996 |pages=99–137 |doi=10.1177/0971102319960113}}
* Tandon, S.K., and R. Sinha. The Ganga River: A Summary View of a Large River System of the Indian Sub-Continent, in Sen Singh, Dhruv (Ed.), The Indian Rivers: Scientific and Socio-Economic Aspects. Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018, pp. 61–74. ISBN 978-981-10-2983-7
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

* [https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_138.gif Ganga in the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909]
* [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/photo/gallery/070607/GAL-07Jun07-77064/index.html Melting Glaciers Threaten Ganga]
* [http://www.hydrology.nl/mainnews/1-latest-news/331-the-impacts-of-water-infrastructure-and-climate-change-on-the-hydrology-of-the-upper-ganges-river-basin.html The impacts of water infrastructure and climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Ganga River Basin] IWMI research report
* [https://www.npr.org/series/9358334/the-ganges-a-journey-into-india ''The Ganges: A Journey into India''] ([[NPR]])
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iF3PVnfvB8&t=52s ''Ganga Ma: A Pilgrimage to the Source''] 58 min Documentary
* [https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/earthquake-2500-years-ago-abruptly-changed-ganga-river-course/article68488930.ece?cx_testId=78&cx_testVariant=cx_1&cx_artPos=1&cx_experienceId=EXPO56ZDYSGX&cx_experienceActionId=showRecommendationsTOBNV60LJD3H24#cxrecs_s Earthquake 2,500 years ago abruptly changed Ganga river's course]

{{Subject bar|India|d=y|auto=1}}
{{Waters of India}}
{{Waters of South Asia}}
{{Symbols of India}}
{{India Rivers}}
{{Bangladesh topics}}
{{Hinduism footer small}}
{{Hydrography of Uttarakhand}}
{{Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Rivers in Bihar}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ganges| ]]
[[Category:Ganges basin|.]]
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Bangladesh–India border]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:Sacred rivers]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bihar]]
[[Category:Rivers of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Rivers of Delhi]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rivers of West Bengal]]
[[Category:National symbols of India]]
[[Category:Rigvedic rivers]]
[[Category:Rivers in Buddhism]]
[[Category:Environmental personhood]]
[[Category:Braided rivers in India]]

K. S. G. Haja Shareef

2026-04-23T06:50:24Z

ElenaEbersbacher: New The Page W/ Infobox - done

{{Short description|Indian industrialist and politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = [[Leader of the Opposition (India)|Leader of the Opposition]] of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
| predecessor = [[M. Karunanidhi]]
| 1blankname = Chief Minister
| 1namedata = [[M. G. Ramachandran]]
| successor = [[O. Subramanian]]
| term_start = 29 August 1983
| term_end = 15 November 1984
| office1 = Member of the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency1 = [[Triplicane Assembly constituency|Triplicane]]
| term_start1 = 1980
| term_end1 = 1984
| predecessor1 = [[M. Aranganathan]]
| successor1 = [[A. K. A. Abdul Samad]]
| office2 = Member of the [[Madras Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency2 = [[Harbour Assembly constituency|Harbour]]
| term_start2 = 1962
| term_end2 = 1967
| predecessor2 = [[U. Krishna Rao]]
| successor2 = [[Habibullah Baig]]
| constituency3 = [[Triplicane Assembly constituency|Triplicane]]
| term_start3 = 1957
| term_end3 = 1962
| predecessor3 = [[A. M. Sambandam]]
| successor3 = [[V. R. Nedunchezhiyan]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
}}

'''K. S. G. Haja Shareef''' was an Indian industrialist and politician from [[Tamil Nadu]]. Shareef served in the [[Madras Legislative Assembly]] and its successor body, the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]], from 1957 to 1967 and from 1980 to 1984. A member of the [[Indian National Congress]], Shareef was the [[Leader of the Opposition (India)|Leader of the Opposition]] in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly from 1983 until 1984.

== Political career ==
Shareef was first elected to represent the [[Triplicane Assembly constituency]] in the [[1957 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]. Although Shareef was a [[Rowther]] [[Tamil Muslim]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sadaqathullah |first=Shaikh |title=The National Chamber of Commerce |url=http://www.sadaqathullah.com/ncc.html |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=www.sadaqathullah.com}}</ref> the [[Indian Union Muslim League]] led by [[M. Muhammad Ismail]], supported independent Hindu candidates against Shareef after an alliance negotiation between the IUML and INC failed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Theodore P. |date=1966 |title=The Muslim League in South India since Independence: A Study in Minority Group Political Strategies |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1952972 |journal=[[American Political Science Review]] |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=579–599 |doi=10.2307/1952972 |jstor=1952972 |s2cid=143572105 |issn=0003-0554 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Shareef received a narrow plurality with 36% of the vote, with his closest opponent at 33%.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Madras |publisher=Election Commission of India|year=1957 |location=New Delhi |page=181 |access-date=June 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127200447/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Madras_1957.pdf |archive-date=January 27, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Shareef supported [[U. Krishna Rao]] for speaker of the legislative assembly in 1957.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanumanthappa |first=T. |url=https://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/2nd_1957/Review_2-1957-62.pdf |title=Madras Legislative Assembly 1957–1962: A Review |publisher=Legislative Assembly Department |year=1962 |location=Madras |page=13 |access-date=June 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217022413/https://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/2nd_1957/Review_2-1957-62.pdf |archive-date=February 17, 2022 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

For the [[1962 Madras Legislative Assembly election]], Shareef ran in the [[Harbour Assembly constituency]] instead of in Triplicane. He defeated [[C. P. Chitrarasu]] of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]], receiving 50% of the vote to Chitrarasu's 44%. However, in the [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election]], Shareef was defeated by [[Habibullah Baig]], an independent candidate associated with the Muslim League.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/39266265/tamil-nadu-assembly-election-results-saidai-duraisamys-manidha- |title=Tamil Nadu Assembly Election Results |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |location=Chennai |pages=7, 17 |access-date=June 9, 2022 |via=[[Yumpu]]}}</ref>

Shareef ran again in the [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]], winning in Triplicane with 53% of the vote.<ref name=":0" /> In 1981, [[Sadiq Ali (freedom fighter)|Sadiq Ali]], the [[governor of Tamil Nadu]], announced that Shareef was to be disqualified from the assembly due to his appointment as the Honorary Consul General of [[Turkey]] in [[Madras]], as the [[Election Commission of India]] concluded that this meant he was in allegiance to a foreign state. However, Shareef was ultimately not disqualified from office.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patil |first=S.H |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34akDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Haja+Shareef%22+tamil+nadu&pg=PA345 |title=The Constitution, Government and Politics in India |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |isbn=978-93-259-9411-9 |location=New Delhi |pages=345 |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

On 29 August 1983, Shareef became the [[Leader of the Opposition (India)|Leader of the Opposition]] in the legislative assembly, leading the INC opposition against the government of [[M. G. Ramachandran]] of the [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEVENTH ASSEMBLY |url=https://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/7th_1980/overview.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606082428/https://assembly.tn.gov.in/archive/7th_1980/overview.html |archive-date=June 6, 2021 |access-date=June 9, 2021 |website=[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]}}</ref> Shareef served in this role until his defeat by [[A. K. A. Abdul Samad]] of the DMK in the [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]].<ref name=":0" />

Shareef was later elected to be the president of the [[Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry]] for 1987.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FICCI Past Presidents |url=https://ficci.in/about-Past-President.asp |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=[[Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry]] |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927044004/https://ficci.in/about-Past-President.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> He was also a longtime member of [[Rotary International]] and was the president of the South India Chamber of Commerce.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=August 1987 |title=The Rotarian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDYEAAAAMBAJ&dq=K.S.G.+Haja+Shareeff&pg=PA54 |journal=[[The Rotarian]] |pages=54 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Marthandam |first=Nambi |date=March 31, 1976 |title=Prices of shares in Madras Stock Exchange took a upward trend shortly after the Budget |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19760331-prices-of-shares-in-madras-stock-exchange-took-a-upward-trend-shortly-after-the-budget-819102-2015-04-02 |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=[[India Today]] |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shareef, K. S. G. Haja}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Place of death missing]]
[[Category:Madras MLAs 1962–1967]]
[[Category:Madras MLAs 1957–1962]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 1980–1984]]
[[Category:Leaders of the opposition in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Politicians from Chennai]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian industrialists]]
[[Category:Tamil Muslims]]

Sankar Malakar

2026-04-21T09:43:28Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating new stub

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sankar Malakar
| image =
| caption =
| office = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2011
| term_end = 2021
| constituency = [[Matigara-Naxalbari (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Matigara-Naxalbari]]
| predecessor = Assembly was Created
| successor = [[Anandamoy Barman]]
| birth_place = Siliguri
| birth_date = 1954 or 1955
| spouse =
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]]
| other_party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| alma_mater = [[University of North Bengal]]
| profession = Politician
| education =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Sankar Malakar''' (born 1954 or 1955)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=Sankar Malakar (Indian National Congress (INC)): Constituency- Matigara-Naxalbari (SC) (Darjeeling) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/WestBengal2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=1050 |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[West Bengal]]. He is a former member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from [[Matigara-Naxalbari Assembly constituency]], which is reserved for Scheduled Caste community, in [[Darjeeling district]].

== Early life and education ==
Malakar is from [[Siliguri]], Darjeeling district, West Bengal. He is the son of late Rajendra Malakar. He studied BA under open schooling system at [[Indira Gandhi National Open University]] from 2017.<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Malakar first became an MLA winning the [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] from Matigara Naxalbari Assembly constituency representing the Indian National Congress. He polled 74,334 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Jharen Roy of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], by a margin of 6,833 votes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Matigara-naxalbari Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/matigara-naxalbari-west-bengal-assembly-constituency |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref> He retained the seat for the Congress winning the 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election where he polled 86,441 votes and defeated his closest opponent, Amar Sinha of the [[Trinamool Congress]], by a margin of 18,627 votes.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-02 |title=Matigara-Naxalbari Election Result 2021 LIVE: How to check Matigara-Naxalbari assembly (Vidhan Sabha) election winners, losers, vote margin, news updates - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/matigara-naxalbari-election-result-2021-live-how-to-check-matigara-naxalbari-assembly-vidhan-sabha-election-winners-losers-vote-margin-news-updates-9126661.htm |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref> He lost the [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] finishing third behind winner, [[Anandamoy Barman]] of the Bharatiya Janata Party and Rajen Sundas of the TMC, who finished second.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-22 |title=West Bengal Assembly election 2021, Matigara-Naxalbari profile: Congress' Sankar Malakar seeks third term |url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021-matigara-naxalbari-profile-congress-sankar-malakar-seeks-third-term-9284841.html |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=Firstpost |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matigara-naxalbari Election Results 2021 LIVE, Vote Counting, Leading, Trailing , Winners West bengal Matigara-naxalbari Constituency Election News LIVE |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/west-bengal-election-results-2021/wb-matigara-naxalbari-constituency-25.html |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2019, he also contested and lost from the [[Darjeeling Lok Sabha constituency]], which was won by [[Raju Bista]] of the BJP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=sankar malakar Lok Sabha Election 2024: Latest News Updates, Statement, Photos, Videos |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/candidates/elections_candidateshow/cntnm-sankar-malakar.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=The Economic Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Darjeeling Constituency Lok Sabha Election Result: Candidates Profiles, Map, Total Votes, Past Results {{!}} Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/west-bengal/darjeeling |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-24 |title=Darjeeling Election Result 2019: BJP's Raju Bisht has won by 4,13,443 votes and will be Darjeeling MP |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/darjeeling-wb-election-2019-darjeeling-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage-cpim-trinamool-congress-bjp-congress-saman/407031 |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=www.timesnownews.com |language=en}}</ref>He was elected as the President of Darjeeling District Congress Committee. He joined [[Trinamool Congress]] in 4th June 2025

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malakar, Sankar}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:People from Darjeeling district]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2011–2016]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2016–2021]]
[[Category:Indira Gandhi National Open University alumni]]

Jit Arolkar

2026-04-19T18:59:04Z

ElenaEbersbacher: New Basic Stub W/ Refs - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Jit Arolkar
| birth_name = Jit Vinayak Arolkar
| caption = Arolkar in 2024
| image = Jit Arolkar.png
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = Member of [[Goa Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Mandrem (Goa Assembly constituency)|Mandrem]]
| term_start = 10 March 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Dayanand Sopte]]
| successor =
| party = [[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party]]
| other_party =
| spouse =
| children =
| education = 10th Pass
| alma_mater = Manguirish Vidyalaya English High School
| profession = Business
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}
'''Jit Vinayak Arolkar''' is an Indian politician from [[Goa]] and a member of the [[Goa Legislative Assembly]]. Arolkar won the [[Mandrem (Goa Assembly constituency)|Mandrem Assembly constituency]] on the [[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party]] ticket in the [[2022 Goa Legislative Assembly election]]. He defeated [[Dayanand Sopte]] of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] by 715 votes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-elections-2019/goa/news/constable-volleyball-player-neta-arolkar-is-goas-richest-candidate/articleshow/68896529.cms|title=Constable, volleyball player, neta… Jit Arolkar is Goa's richest candidate ..|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=16 April 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/india/mandrem-goa-election-2022-result-live-update-candidates-winner-runner-up-r8i1gc|title=MGP's Jit Vinayak Arolkar clinches Mandrem
|website=Asianetnews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://myneta.info/goa2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=21|title=Jit Arolkar (Criminal & Asset Declaration)|website=My Neta.com}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arolkar, Jit}}
[[Category:1982 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Goa MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party politicians]]
[[Category:Politicians from North Goa district]]

{{Goa-politician-stub}}

E. K. Pillai

2026-04-19T06:26:53Z

ElenaEbersbacher: new initial entry v1.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{One source|date=February 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = E. K. Pillai
| image =
| birth_name =
| image_size =
| caption =
| office = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member]] of the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Pathanapuram (State Assembly constituency)|Pathanapuram]]
| term_start = 1977
| term_end = 1982
| predecessor = [[P. K. Raghavan]]
| successor = A. George
| salary =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1926|5|4}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2000|7|12|1926|5|4}}
| death_place =
| party = [[Communist Party of India]]
| father =
| mother =
| spouse =
| children =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date = November 28
| year = 2011
| source = http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/members/m503.htm Niyamasabha
}}
'''E. K. Pillai''' (4 May 1926 – 12 July 2000) was an [[Indian people|Indian]] politician and leader of [[Communist Party of India]]. He represented [[Pathanapuram (State Assembly constituency)|Pathanapuram]] constituency in 5th and 6th [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/members/m503.htm|title = Members - Kerala Legislature}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pillai, E. K.}}
[[Category:Communist Party of India politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1977–1979]]
[[Category:Kerala MLAs 1980–1982]]
[[Category:Politicians from Kollam district]]

{{Kerala-CPIndia-politician-stub}}

Kolathur, Tamil Nadu Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:49:56Z

ElenaEbersbacher: New A Info Initial Version

{{For|state legislative assembly constituencies in Tamil Nadu|Kolathur Assembly constituency}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| established = 1977
| district = [[Pudukkottai district|Pudukkottai]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Pudukkottai (Lok Sabha constituency)|PudukkottaI]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| party = All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
| mla = N. Subramanian
| name = Kolathur, Pudukkottai
| electors= 1,97,012
| reservation =
| abolished= 2008
}}
'''Kolathur''', கொளத்தூர் (புதுக்கோட்டை) (சட்டமன்றத் தொகுதி - 190) was former state assembly constituency in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Formed in the year 1977, it was a part of [[Pudukkottai Lok Sabha constituency]] until the [[Electoral boundary delimitation|Delimitation]] of Constituencies, 2008. In the 2006 Assembly election, it had a total of 1,97,012 voters out of which 97,346 were male and 99,666 were female voters. After the delimitation, Kolathur (SC) was dissolved and its territories were shared between the newly formed [[Gandarvakottai Assembly constituency|Gandarvakottai]] and [[Viralimalai Assembly constituency|Viralimalai]] constituencies.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Winner
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
| [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| [[V. Chinnaiah]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| [[T. Marimuthu]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1984]]
| T. Marimuthu
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| [[V. Raju]]
|
| [[Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (Jayalalitha)]]
|-
| [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
| [[C. Kulandaivelu]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| [[Selvaraj (politician)|Selvaraj]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
| [[A. Karuppayee]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
| [[N. Subramanian]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|}
==Election results==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#2006|2006]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|46.41}}
{{bar percent|[[#2001|2001]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|61.98}}
{{bar percent|[[#1996|1996]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|54.88}}
{{bar percent|[[#1991|1991]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|76.51}}
{{bar percent|[[#1989|1989]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|39.98}}
{{bar percent|[[#1984|1984]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|62.72}}
{{bar percent|[[#1980|1980]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|57.25}}
{{bar percent|[[#1977|1977]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|36.55}}
}}

===2006===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = 2006 Election Statistical Report | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf | access-date = 12 May 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007200819/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf | archive-date = 7 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[N. Subramanian]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=68,735 |percentage=46.41% |change=-15.56% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Paranjothi |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=62,467 |percentage=42.18% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Udayakumar |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=7,990 |percentage=5.40% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Velusamy |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=4,827 |percentage=3.26% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Murugesan |party=Independent politician |votes=2,304 |percentage=1.56% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Palanivelu |party=Independent politician |votes=1,082 |percentage=0.73% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Raju |party=Independent politician |votes=685 |percentage=0.46% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,268 |percentage=4.23% |change=-31.72% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=148,090 |percentage=75.17% |change= 12.95% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 197,012 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -15.56% }}
{{Election box end}}

===2001===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web |title = Statistical Report on General Election 2001 |url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf |date = 12 May 2001 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006173934/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=Dr. A. Karuppayee |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=80,855 |percentage=61.98% |change=25.33% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Palaniappan Alias Purachi Kavidasan |party=Puthiya Tamilagam |votes=33,956 |percentage=26.03% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Mookaiah Alias Nilavudasan |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=9,764 |percentage=7.48% |change=2.04% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Thangavelu |party=Independent politician |votes=3,313 |percentage=2.54% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. Sivagnanam |party=Independent politician |votes=2,572 |percentage=1.97% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=46,899 |percentage=35.95% |change=17.71% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=130,460 |percentage=62.22% |change= -10.81% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 209,726 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 7.09% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1996===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = 1996 Election Statistical Report | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007221700/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf | archive-date = 7 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[Selvaraj (politician)|Selvaraj Alias Kavithaipithan]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=72,706 |percentage=54.88% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Karuppayee |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=48,550 |percentage=36.65% |change=-39.87% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Gunasekaran |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=7,209 |percentage=5.44% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Mathimaran |party=All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) |votes=1,831 |percentage=1.38% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. C. Kalimuthu |party=Independent politician |votes=462 |percentage=0.35% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Chennasamy |party=Independent politician |votes=450 |percentage=0.34% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. S. Eluvan |party=Independent politician |votes=306 |percentage=0.23% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Ravi |party=Independent politician |votes=300 |percentage=0.23% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Panneerselvam |party=Independent politician |votes=236 |percentage=0.18% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Selvarasu |party=Independent politician |votes=207 |percentage=0.16% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Parivalal |party=Independent politician |votes=139 |percentage=0.10% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=24,156 |percentage=18.23% |change=-36.47% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=132,474 |percentage=73.03% |change= 2.05% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 191,515 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -21.63% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1991===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1991 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007161404/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf | archive-date = 7 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=C. Kulandaivelu |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=91,350 |percentage=76.51% |change=36.54% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. Raju |party=Thayaga Marumalarchi Kazhagam |votes=26,038 |percentage=21.81% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Selvaraj |party=Tharasu Makkal Mandram |votes=741 |percentage=0.62% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. Samiayyah |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=609 |percentage=0.51% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Mariappan |party=Janata Party |votes=461 |percentage=0.39% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Natesan |party=Independent politician |votes=190 |percentage=0.16% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=65,312 |percentage=54.71% |change=44.46% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=119,389 |percentage=70.99% |change= -7.13% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 174,949 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 36.54% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1989===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1989 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/StatisticalReportTamilNadu89.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006153620/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/StatisticalReportTamilNadu89.pdf | archive-date = 6 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=V. Raju |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=47,624 |percentage=39.98% |change=-22.74% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Selvaraj (politician)|Selvaraj Alias Kavithaipithan]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=35,419 |percentage=29.73% |change=-4.99% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=I. Sivananthan |party=Independent politician |votes=19,027 |percentage=15.97% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Jambulingam |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=15,539 |percentage=13.04% |change=-49.68% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. S. Elavan |party=Independent politician |votes=1,011 |percentage=0.85% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Radhakrishnan |party=Independent politician |votes=505 |percentage=0.42% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=12,205 |percentage=10.25% |change=-17.75% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=119,125 |percentage=78.12% |change= -1.20% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 155,855 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -22.74% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1984===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1984 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1984/StatisticalReportTamilNadu84.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121208/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1984/StatisticalReportTamilNadu84.pdf | archive-date = 17 Jan 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[T. Marimuthu]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=62,391 |percentage=62.72% |change=5.47% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Keerai A. Thamizhselvan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=34,544 |percentage=34.73% |change=-7.19% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Marudhan |party=Independent politician |votes=1,986 |percentage=2.00% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Kulliah |party=Indian National Congress (Jagjivan) |votes=551 |percentage=0.55% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=27,847 |percentage=27.99% |change=12.66% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=99,472 |percentage=79.32% |change= 8.76% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 134,345 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 5.47% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1980===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1980 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu%201980.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006231656/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu%201980.pdf | archive-date = 6 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[T. Marimuthu]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=50,810 |percentage=57.25% |change=26.39% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Keerai A. Thamizhselvan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=37,200 |percentage=41.91% |change=19.69% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. E. Ramasamy |party=Independent politician |votes=417 |percentage=0.47% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=G. Rasu |party=Independent politician |votes=327 |percentage=0.37% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,610 |percentage=15.33% |change=9.64% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=88,754 |percentage=70.56% |change= 8.44% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 127,362 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 20.70% }}
{{Election box end}}

===1977===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Kolathur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1977 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu77.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007141448/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu77.pdf | archive-date = 7 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=V. Chinnaiah |party=Indian National Congress |votes=27,071 |percentage=36.55% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. Marimuthu |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=22,853 |percentage=30.86% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Keerai Thamizhselvan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=16,459 |percentage=22.22% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Sundaravelu |party=Janata Party |votes=4,722 |percentage=6.38% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Mathimaran |party=Independent politician |votes=2,957 |percentage=3.99% |change= }}

{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,218 |percentage=5.70% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=74,062 |percentage=62.12% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 120,684 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Indian National Congress |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=Statistical reports of assembly elections |accessdate=8 July 2010 |publisher=Election Commission of India |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |archivedate=5 October 2010 }}

{{Defunct assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}

{{coord|11.51|N|77.45|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Politics of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Pudukkottai district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1977]]
[[Category:1977 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

Balh Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:38:46Z

ElenaEbersbacher: added new entry

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Himachal Pradesh State, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Balh
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 34
| map_image = 34-Balh constituency.svg
| state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| district = [[Mandi district|Mandi]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Mandi Lok Sabha constituency|Mandi]]
| established = 1967
| reservation = SC
| mla = [[Inder Singh (politician)|Inder Singh]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| electors = {{formatnum:81597}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14751-himachal-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Himachal Pradesh General Legislative Election 2012 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=22 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|1}}
}}
'''Balh''' is one of the 68 constituencies in the [[Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] a northern state of [[India]]. [[Balh]] is also part of [[Mandi Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sitting and previous MLAs from Balh Assembly constituency |url=http://www.elections.in/himachal-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/balh.html |work=Elections.in |access-date= November 2, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=DELIMITATION OF PARLIAMENTARY AND ASSEMBLY CONSTITUENCIES ORDER, 2008 |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |work=Election commission of India |access-date= November 2, 2017 }}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!Picture
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[1967 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Piru Ram
|
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1972 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|rowspan="2"| [[Tulsi Ram]]
|rowspan="2"|
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|-
|[[1977 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1982 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|rowspan="2"|Piru Ram
|rowspan="2"|
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1985 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|-
|[[1990 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| Damodar Dass
|
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1993 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|Nek Ram
|
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1998 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|Prakash Chaudhary
|
|{{Full party name with color|Himachal Vikas Congress}}
|-
|[[2003 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
| Damodar Dass
|
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2007 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|rowspan="2"|Prakash Chaudhary
|rowspan="2"|
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2012 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|-
|[[2017 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| [[Inder Singh Gandhi]]<ref name=election2017/>
|
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Inder Singh Gandhi]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=31,792 |percentage=49.12% |change={{decrease}}9.92 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Prakash Chaudhary|party=Indian National Congress|votes=30,485|percentage=47.10%|change={{increase}}9.85}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Tara Chand|party=Aam Aadmi Party|votes=1,406|percentage=2.17%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Nota|party=None of the above|votes=498|percentage=0.77%|change={{increase}}0.08}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,307 |percentage=2.02% |change= {{decrease}}19.78 }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=64,726|percentage=79.32%|change={{decrease}}3.16}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 81,597 |ref = |change= {{increase}}14.51 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}9.92 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2017 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3815-himachal-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Himachal Pradesh General Legislative Election 2017 |author=Election Commission of India |access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Inder Singh Gandhi]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=34,704 |percentage=59.04% |change={{increase}}25.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Prakash Chaudhary|party=Indian National Congress|votes=21,893|percentage=37.25%|change={{decrease}}1.98}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Prof. Prem Kumar Hawal|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|votes=466|percentage=0.79%|change={{decrease}}0.16}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=None of the Above|party=None of the above|votes=403|percentage=0.69%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=12,811 |percentage=21.80% |change= {{increase}}15.70 }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=58,778|percentage=82.49%|change={{increase}}4.43}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 71,259 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.87 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}19.81 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2012 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Prakash Chaudhary |party=Indian National Congress |votes=20,043 |percentage=39.23% |change={{decrease}}1.46 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Inder Singh Gandhi]]|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=16,927|percentage=33.13%|change={{decrease}}3.83}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Mahant Ram|party=Independent politician|votes=9,023|percentage=17.66%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Sanjay Kumar Surehali|party=Independent politician|votes=2,487|percentage=4.87%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Paras Ram|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|votes=600|percentage=1.17%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Netar Singh|party=Himachal Lokhit Party|votes=518|percentage=1.01%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Parshotam Ram|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|votes=488|percentage=0.96%|change={{decrease}}19.60}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Padam Singh|party=Himachal Swabhiman Party|votes=343|percentage=0.67%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Shakuntala Devi|party=Trinamool Congress|votes=339|percentage=0.66%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,116 |percentage=6.10% |change= {{increase}}2.37 }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=51,091|percentage=78.06%|change={{increase}}0.81}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 65,451 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}17.51 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}1.46 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2007 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Prakash Chaudhary |party=Indian National Congress |votes=24,941 |percentage=40.69% |change={{increase}}28.69 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Damodar Dass |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=22,653 |percentage=36.96% |change={{increase}}4.15 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mahant Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=12,599 |percentage=20.55% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ramesh Chand |party=Independent politician |votes=489 |percentage=0.80% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dev Kant |party=Lok Jan Shakti Party |votes=334 |percentage=0.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,288 |percentage=3.73% |change= {{increase}}3.40 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=61,295 |percentage=77.25% |change= {{decrease}}1.23 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 79,342 |ref = |change= {{increase}}11.09 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}7.88 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2003 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2003 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111191922/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Damodar Dass |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=18,392 |percentage=32.81% |change={{increase}}3.03 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prakash Chaudhary |party=Himachal Vikas Congress |votes=18,204 |percentage=32.48% |change={{decrease}}13.65 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mahant Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=9,143 |percentage=16.31% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kashmir Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=6,724 |percentage=12.00% |change={{decrease}}4.06 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Lal Singh |party=Loktantrik Morcha Himachal Pradesh |votes=1,827 |percentage=3.26% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Prashotam Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=836 |percentage=1.49% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Padam Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=477 |percentage=0.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chaman Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=451 |percentage=0.80% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=188 |percentage=0.34% |change= {{decrease}}16.01 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=56,054 |percentage=78.49% |change= {{increase}}3.29 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 71,419 |ref = |change= {{increase}}20.29 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Himachal Vikas Congress |swing= {{decrease}}13.31 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1998 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1998 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111191922/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Parkash |party=Himachal Vikas Congress |votes=20,594 |percentage=46.12% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Damodar Dass |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=13,295 |percentage=29.78% |change={{decrease}}8.47 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gangbir |party=Indian National Congress |votes=7,170 |percentage=16.06% |change={{decrease}}32.97 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanshi Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,704 |percentage=3.82% |change={{decrease}}0.43 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sukh Dev |party=Communist Party of India |votes=767 |percentage=1.72% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chaman Rahi |party=Independent politician |votes=669 |percentage=1.50% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Surender Kumar |party=Republican Janata Party |votes=450 |percentage=1.01% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,299 |percentage=16.35% |change= {{increase}}5.56 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=44,649 |percentage=75.89% |change= {{increase}}5.07 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 59,374 |ref = |change= {{increase}}7.16 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Himachal Vikas Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}2.90 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1993 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1993 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1993 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111133700/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Nek Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=19,050 |percentage=49.03% |change={{increase}}18.95 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Damodar Dass |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=14,860 |percentage=38.24% |change={{decrease}}28.22 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narpat Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,651 |percentage=4.25% |change={{increase}}2.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chaman Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=1,256 |percentage=3.23% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hira Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,059 |percentage=2.73% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajinder Mohan |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=451 |percentage=1.16% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,190 |percentage=10.78% |change= {{decrease}}25.60 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=38,855 |percentage=70.77% |change= {{decrease}}3.24 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 55,406 |ref = |change= {{increase}}12.15 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}17.43 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1990 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1990 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statisticall%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114181905/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statisticall%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Damodar Dass |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=24,088 |percentage=66.46% |change={{increase}}21.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Piru Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,900 |percentage=30.07% |change={{decrease}}16.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanshi Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=711 |percentage=1.96% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Puran Chand |party=Doordarshi Party |votes=314 |percentage=0.87% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,188 |percentage=36.39% |change= {{increase}}35.38 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=36,243 |percentage=73.96% |change= {{decrease}}1.58 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 49,402 |ref = |change= {{increase}}34.25 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}20.34 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1985 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/StatisticalReport%201985%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114090530/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/StatisticalReport%201985%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Piru Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,719 |percentage=46.12% |change={{decrease}}3.71 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Damoder Dass |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=12,440 |percentage=45.11% |change={{decrease}}2.68 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nek Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=1,541 |percentage=5.59% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Karam Singh |party=Communist Party of India |votes=266 |percentage=0.96% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dharam Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=234 |percentage=0.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anant Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=201 |percentage=0.73% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Minku Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=178 |percentage=0.65% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=279 |percentage=1.01% |change= {{decrease}}1.03 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=27,579 |percentage=75.79% |change= {{increase}}3.61 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 36,798 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.06 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}3.71 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1982 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1982 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1982 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1982/Statistical%20Report%201982%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117041754/eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1982/Statistical%20Report%201982%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Piru Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,334 |percentage=49.83% |change={{increase}}8.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Damodar Dass |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=11,828 |percentage=47.79% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narpat Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=369 |percentage=1.49% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anant Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=220 |percentage=0.89% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=506 |percentage=2.04% |change= {{decrease}}0.06 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=24,751 |percentage=72.38% |change= {{increase}}8.06 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 34,696 |ref = |change= {{increase}}17.92 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}6.02 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1977 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319174923/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=19 March 2016|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Tulsi Ram]] |party=Janata Party |votes=8,157 |percentage=43.81% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Piroo Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=7,765 |percentage=41.70% |change={{decrease}}6.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nek Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=2,531 |percentage=13.59% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gatu Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=111 |percentage=0.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=392 |percentage=2.11% |change= {{decrease}}1.31 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=18,619 |percentage=64.41% |change= {{increase}}11.69 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 29,424 |ref = |change= {{increase}}0.37 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Janata Party |loser=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |swing= {{decrease}}7.36 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3802-himachal-pradesh-1972/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=10 February 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Tulsi Ram]] |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=7,738 |percentage=51.17% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nek Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=7,221 |percentage=47.75% |change={{decrease}}3.33 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Dass |party=Independent politician |votes=164 |percentage=1.08% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=517 |percentage=3.42% |change= {{decrease}}6.56 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=15,123 |percentage=53.42% |change= {{increase}}5.48 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 29,315 |ref = |change= {{increase}}19.14 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}0.09 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Balh<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117081612/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201967.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Piru Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=5,795 |percentage=51.08% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=T. Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=4,663 |percentage=41.10% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=B. Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=888 |percentage=7.83% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,132 |percentage=9.98% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=11,346 |percentage=49.29% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 24,606 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Indian National Congress |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Balh]]
* [[Mandi district]]
* [[List of constituencies of Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Himachal Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/74-himachal-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh|state=expanded}}
{{Himachal Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}
{{Mandi district}}

{{coord|31.89|76.95|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Mandi district]]
[[Category:Politics of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Himachal Pradesh]]

Ambala Cantonment Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:38:31Z

ElenaEbersbacher: added post.

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Ambala Cantt. Assembly constituency
| type = SLA
| map_image = Ambala Cantt Assembly constituency map.svg
| state = [[Haryana]]
| established = 1967
| abolished =
| electors = 2,04,314
| mla = [[Anil Vij]]
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| constituency_no = 4
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| district = [[Ambala district|Ambala]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Ambala Lok Sabha constituency|Ambala]]
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image = Anil Vij - Kolkata 2016-10-07 8190.JPG
}}

'''[[Ambala Cantonment]] Assembly constituency''' is one of the 90 [[Haryana Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies in the state of [[Haryana]]. Ambala city is a part of [[Ambala district]]. [[Anil Vij]] is current MLA.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://haryanaelections.in/ambala-city-assembly-constituency-candidate-name-result-haryana-assembly-election-2014-inld-congress-bjp/ |title=haryanaelections |access-date=24 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212122906/http://haryanaelections.in/ambala-city-assembly-constituency-candidate-name-result-haryana-assembly-election-2014-inld-congress-bjp/ |archive-date=12 February 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.travelindia-guide.com/assembly-elections/haryana/constituency-results/ambala-city.php travelindia-guide]</ref><ref>[http://www.mapsofindia.com/assemblypolls/haryana/ambala-city.html mapsofindia]</ref>

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1967 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|D. R. Anand
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1968 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1968]]
|Bhagwan Das
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jan Sangh}}
|-
|[[1972 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Hans Raj Suri
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|[[Sushma Swaraj]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1982 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|Ram Dass Dhamija
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1987 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|[[Sushma Swaraj]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|1990^
|[[Anil Vij]]
|-
|[[1991 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|Brij Anand
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1996 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Anil Vij]]
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2000 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
|-
|[[2005 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|Devender Kumar Bansal
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2009 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Anil Vij]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[2014 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|-
|[[2019 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
|-
|[[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|-
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2024===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2024 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/statewiseS071.htm |title=State wise result |work=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date=8 October 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Vij]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=59,858 |percentage=44.90% |change={{decrease}}8.15 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Chitra Sarwara|party=Independent politician|votes=52,581|percentage=39.44%|change={{increase}} 2.96}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Parvinder Pal Pari|party=Indian National Congress|votes=14,469|percentage=10.85%|change={{increase}}3.84}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Onkar Singh|party=Indian National Lok Dal|votes=2,863|percentage=2.15%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Avtar Singh|party=Jannayak Janta Party|votes=809|percentage=0.61%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Dharmesh Sood Rinku|party=Independent politician|votes=764|percentage=0.57%|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=None of the Above|party=None of the above|votes=641|percentage=0.48%|change={{decrease}}0.35}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,277 |percentage=5.46% |change= {{decrease}}11.11 }}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,33,323|percentage=64.63%|change={{increase}}2.80}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,04,314 |ref = |change= {{increase}}4.78 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}8.15 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2019 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2019 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.<ref name=results2019>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11697-haryana-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Haryana Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 - Haryana - Election Commission of India |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate= 2 February 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate= [[Anil Vij]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=64,571 |percentage=53.04 |change=+0.55 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate= [[Chitra Sarwara]] |party=Independent politician|votes=44,406|percentage=36.48|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Venu Singla|party=Indian National Congress|votes=8,534|percentage=7.01|change=-33.30}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Rajesh Kumar|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|votes=1,938|percentage=1.59|change=0.89}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the above]]|party=None of the above|votes=1,013|percentage=0.83|change=0.04}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=20,165 |percentage=16.56 |change=+4.38}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,21,735|percentage=61.84|change=-10.80}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,96,870 |change =+12.69}}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party|swing=+0.55}}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Vij]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=66,605 |percentage=52.49 |change=+3.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ch. Nirmal Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=51,143 |percentage=40.31|change=-2.57 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Suraj Parkash Jindal |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=5,407 |percentage=4.26 |change=+2.07 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[None of the above]] |party=None of the above |votes=1,007 |percentage=0.79 |change=''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Charan Singh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=885 |percentage=0.70 |change=-2.37 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=15,462 |percentage=12.19 |change=+5.85 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,26,888 |percentage=72.63|change=+4.79}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,74,704 |change =+18.50}}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= +3.28}}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2009 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2009 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Vij]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=49,219 |percentage=49.21 |change=+33.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nirmal Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=42,881 |percentage=42.87|change=+12.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Parveen Chauhan |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=3,065 |percentage=3.06 |change=+2.07}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. K. D. Sharma |party=Indian National Lok Dal |votes=2,189 |percentage=2.19 |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,338 |percentage=6.34 |change=+5.28 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,00,018 |percentage=67.84 |change= -0.71 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,47,434 |change =+73.18}}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= +18.84}}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2005 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2005 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Devender Kumar Bansal |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,723 |percentage=30.37 |change=7.71 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Vij]] |party=Independent politician |votes=17,108 |percentage=29.32 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hira Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=13,369 |percentage=22.91 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ravi Sehgal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=9,155 |percentage=15.69 |change=-13.40 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Maya Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=583 |percentage=1.00 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=615 |percentage=1.05 |change=-15.42 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=58,359 |percentage=68.55 |change= 5.43 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 85,131 |change =-2.97 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician |swing= -15.20 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2000 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2000 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Vij]] |party=Independent politician |votes=25,045 |percentage=45.57 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kabir Dev |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=15,988 |percentage=29.09 |change=6.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sudershan Dua |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,452 |percentage=22.66 |change=-6.70 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shiv Om |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes=666 |percentage=1.21 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pardeep Chauhan |party=Independent politician |votes=323 |percentage=0.59 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,057 |percentage=16.48 |change=5.74 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=54,963 |percentage=63.13 |change= -4.04 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 87,741 |change =1.14 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Independent politician |swing= -9.28 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1996 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1996 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Vij]] |party=Independent politician |votes=22,735 |percentage=40.10 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Raj Rani |party=Indian National Congress |votes=16,645 |percentage=29.36 |change=-25.49 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kabir Dev |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=12,573 |percentage=22.17 |change=-16.61 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shiv Kumar |party=All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) |votes=1,700 |percentage=3.00 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sewa Singh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,414 |percentage=2.49 |change=0.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pushpa |party=Communist Party of India |votes=454 |percentage=0.80 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,090 |percentage=10.74 |change=-5.32 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=56,700 |percentage=67.17 |change= 1.93 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 86,756 |change =11.72 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -14.75 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1991 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1991 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Brij Anand |party=Indian National Congress |votes=27,377 |percentage=54.85 |change=23.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anil Kumar |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=19,360 |percentage=38.79 |change=-9.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Satish |party=Janata Party |votes=1,447 |percentage=2.90 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohinder Bir Singh |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=834 |percentage=1.67 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sudesh |party=Janata Dal |votes=350 |percentage=0.70 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,017 |percentage=16.06 |change=-1.18 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=49,912 |percentage=65.24 |change= -5.94 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 77,658 |change =18.25 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= 6.26 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1987 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1987 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sushma Swaraj]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=22,473 |percentage=48.59 |change=28.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Dass Dhamija |party=Indian National Congress |votes=14,501 |percentage=31.35 |change=-4.56 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Brij Anand |party=Independent politician |votes=7,574 |percentage=16.38 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vijay Pal |party=Independent politician |votes=550 |percentage=1.19 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Naresh Kumar |party=Independent politician |votes=483 |percentage=1.04 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,972 |percentage=17.24 |change=1.73 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=46,248 |percentage=71.18 |change= -2.63 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 65,675 |change =19.10 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 12.68 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1982 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1982 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Dass Dhamija |party=Indian National Congress |votes=14,382 |percentage=35.92 |change=4.21 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Swami Agnivaish |party=Janata Party |votes=8,171 |percentage=20.41 |change=-43.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Som Prakash |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=8,036 |percentage=20.07 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagwan Dass |party=Independent politician |votes=7,147 |percentage=17.85 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shiv Prakash |party=Independent politician |votes=751 |percentage=1.88 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ajmer Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=373 |percentage=0.93 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=331 |percentage=0.83 |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Om Prakash |party=Independent politician |votes=246 |percentage=0.61 |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,211 |percentage=15.51 |change=-16.23 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=40,043 |percentage=73.81 |change= 5.99 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 55,145 |change =19.62 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Janata Party |swing= -27.53 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1977 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sushma Swaraj]] |party=Janata Party |votes=19,639 |percentage=63.45 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dev Raj Anand |party=Indian National Congress |votes=9,815 |percentage=31.71 |change={{decrease}}24.87 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bansi Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=830 |percentage=2.68 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narendar Datt |party=Independent politician |votes=295 |percentage=0.95 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,824 |percentage=31.74 |change= {{increase}}15.47 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=30,953 |percentage=67.82 |change= {{decrease}}2.36 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 46,099 |ref = |change= {{increase}}15.56 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}6.87 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Hans Raj Suri |party=Indian National Congress |votes=15,687 |percentage=56.57 |change={{increase}}10.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagwan Dass |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=11,175 |percentage=40.30 |change={{decrease}}11.31 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Virender Kumar Syal |party=Independent politician |votes=616 |percentage=2.22 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hari Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=250 |percentage=0.90 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,512 |percentage=16.27 |change= {{increase}}10.71 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=27,728 |percentage=71.00 |change= {{increase}}8.46 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 39,893 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}3.36 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |swing= {{increase}}4.96 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1968 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1968 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagwan Dass |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=13,009 |percentage=51.62 |change={{increase}}11.79 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dev Raj Anand |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,606 |percentage=46.05 |change={{increase}}4.4 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Karam Vir Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=258 |percentage=1.02 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Avtar Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=227 |percentage=0.90 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sham Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=103 |percentage=0.41 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,403 |percentage=5.57 |change= {{increase}}3.74 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=25,203 |percentage=62.07 |change= {{decrease}}8.90 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 41,282 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.03 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}9.97 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Haryana Legislative Assembly election]]: Ambala Cantt.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haryana Assembly Election Results in 1967|url=https://www.elections.in/haryana/assembly-constituencies/1967-election-results.html/|access-date=2021-06-20|website=Elections in India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228150129/https://www.elections.in/haryana/assembly-constituencies/1967-election-results.html/|archive-date=28 February 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Dev Raj Anand |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,343 |percentage=41.65 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=P. Nath |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=10,845 |percentage=39.82 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Nath |party=Independent politician |votes=3,331 |percentage=12.23 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=G. Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=1,003 |percentage=3.68 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Lall |party=Independent politician |votes=711 |percentage=2.61 |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=498 |percentage=1.83 |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=27,233 |percentage=72.00 |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 38,934 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Indian National Congress |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.elections.in/haryana/assembly-constituencies/ambala-city.html Ambala City]

{{Haryana constituencies}}
{{Haryana}}

[[Category:Ambala]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Haryana|Ambala]]
[[Category:Politics of Haryana]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:Ambala district]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Haryana]]

Nakur Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:30:50Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Made first data v1

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Nakur
| constituency_no = 2
| map_image = 2-Nakur.svg
| mla = [[Mukesh Choudhary (politician)|Mukesh Choudhary]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janta Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Saharanpur district|Saharanpur]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 329,580 (2017)
| type= SLA
}}
'''Nakur Assembly constituency''' is one of the 403 constituencies of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]], [[India]]. It is a part of the [[Saharanpur district|Saharanpur]] district and one of the five assembly constituencies in the [[Kairana Lok Sabha constituency]]. First election in this assembly constituency was held in 1952 after the "DPACO (1951)" (delimitation order) was passed in 1951.<ref name="DPACO (1951)">{{cite news|title=DPACO (1951)|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] official website|access-date=12 Jul 2016|url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/eci_publications/books/deli/DPACO-51.pdf}}</ref> After the "Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order" was passed in 2008, the constituency was assigned identification number 2.<ref name="Uttar Pradesh Delimitation Old & New, 2008">{{cite news|title= Uttar Pradesh Delimitation Old & New, 2008|publisher= [[Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh]]|access-date= 12 Jul 2016|url= http://ceouttarpradesh.nic.in/Instructions/delimitation_Old_New.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111113181505/http://ceouttarpradesh.nic.in/Instructions/delimitation_Old_New.pdf|archive-date= 13 November 2011|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref name="Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008">{{cite news|title= Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] official website|access-date=12 Jul 2016|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf}}</ref><ref name="All MLAs from Assembly constituency">{{cite news|title=All MLAs from Assembly constituency|publisher=Elections.in|access-date=12 Jul 2016|url=http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/nakur.html}}</ref><ref name="Member list">{{cite news|title=Member list|publisher=[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] website|access-date=12 Jul 2016|url=http://uplegisassembly.gov.in/ENGLISH/member-list.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630050217/http://uplegisassembly.gov.in/ENGLISH/member-list.htm|archive-date=30 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Wards and areas==
Extent of Nakur Assembly constituency is KCs Nakur, Sarsawa, Sultanpur, Sarsawa NPP, Nakur NPP and Chilkana Sultanpur NP of Nakur-Tehsil.<ref name="Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008"/>

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Name<ref name="election2022">{{cite web |title=Nakur Assembly constituency Election Result 2022 - Candidates, MLAs, Live Updates & News |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/nakur.html |access-date= |website=www.elections.in}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1952 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| rowspan="2" |Data Ram
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1957 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|-
|[[1962 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Yashpal Singh
|-
|[[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|N.Singh
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|[[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Qazi Masood
|-
|[[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
| rowspan="3" |Yashpal Singh
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|-
|[[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
|[[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Ram Sharan
|style="background-color: {{party color|Lok Dal}}" |
|[[Lok Dal]]
|-
|[[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| rowspan="2" |Kunwar Pal Singh
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|[[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
|[[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|Yashpal Singh
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|Kunwar Pal Singh
|style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}" |
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|2000^
|[[Pradeep Choudhary]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Rashtriya Lok Dal}}" |
|[[Rashtriya Lok Dal]]
|-
|[[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|Sushil Chaudhary
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|Mahipal Singh
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Dharam Singh Saini]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janta Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janta Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Mukesh Choudhary (politician)|Mukesh Choudhary]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Nakur<ref name="election2022"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Mukesh Choudhary (politician)|Mukesh Choudhary]]
|votes = {{formatnum:104114}}
|percentage = 38.47
|change = +1.54
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Dr. [[Dharam Singh Saini]]
|votes = {{formatnum:103799}}
|percentage = 38.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Sahil Khan
|votes = {{formatnum:55112}}
|percentage = 20.36
|change = -5.21
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
|candidate = Rizwana
|votes = {{formatnum:3593}}
|percentage = 1.33
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:710}}
|percentage = 0.26
|change = -0.22
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:315}}
|percentage = 0.12
|change = -1.46
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:270652}}
|percentage = 76.1
|change = -1.43
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{main|Seventeenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Nakur}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Dharam Singh Saini]]
|votes = {{formatnum:94375}}
|percentage = 36.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Imran Masood]]
|votes = {{formatnum:90318}}
|percentage = 35.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Naveen Choudhary
|votes = {{formatnum:65328}}
|percentage = 25.57
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1232}}
|percentage = 0.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:4057}}
|percentage = 1.58
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:255532}}
|percentage = 77.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Bahujan Samaj Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{main|Sixteenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Nakur<ref name="All MLAs from Assembly constituency"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = [[Dharam Singh Saini]]
|votes = 89,187
|percentage = 38.65
|change = -2.94
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Imran Masood
|votes = 84,623
|percentage = 36.67
|change = +32.04
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Firoz Aftab
|votes = 29,503
|percentage = 12.79
|change = -16.87
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent politician
|candidate = Govind Chaudhary
|votes = 14,226
|percentage = 6.17
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Mela Ram
|votes = 6,634
|percentage = 2.87
|change = +0.36
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 4,564
|percentage = 1.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 230,751
|percentage = 77.18
|change = +13.81
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bahujan Samaj Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2007===
{{main|Fifteenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Election box begin | title=[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Nakur<ref name="All MLAs from Assembly constituency"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = [[Mahipal Singh]]
|votes = 71,246
|percentage = 41.59
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Pradeep Kumar
|votes = 50,808
|percentage = 29.66
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Lok Dal
|candidate = Indarsain
|votes = 29,421
|percentage = 17.17
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Dr Sushil Chaudhary
|votes = 7,947
|percentage = 4.63
|change = -
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Ramesh Chand
|votes = 4,300
|percentage = 2.51
|change = -
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 20,438
|percentage = 11.93
|change = -
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 171,298
|percentage = 63.37
|change = -
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bahujan Samaj Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==

*[[Kairana Lok Sabha constituency]]
*[[Saharanpur district]]
*[[Sixteenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh]]
*[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Vidhan Bhawan]]
{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh|state=collapsed}}
{{Uttar Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Saharanpur district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]

Lakhdhirji Waghji

2026-04-09T13:30:53Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Made first details v1

{{short description|Maharaja of Morvi from 1922 to 1948}}
{{infobox royalty
| name = Lakhdhirji Waghji
| title = [[Maharaja]]
| succession = [[Maharaja]] of [[Morvi State|Morvi]]
| reign = 11 June 1922 {{Sndash}}{{Avoid wrap|21 January 1948}}
| predecessor = [[Waghji II Rawaji]]
| successor = [[Mahendrasinhji]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1876|12|26|df=yes}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1957|05|04|1876|12|26|df=yes}}
| issue = {{ubl|[[Mahendrasinhji]]|Kalikakumarsinhji}}
| issue-link = #Early_life,_family,_and_education
| father = [[Waghji II Rawaji]]
| mother = Bajirajba Kunverba
| spouse 2 = {{Marriage|Suraj Kunverba|1898|1945|reason=d}}
| spouse 1 = {{Marriage|Nand Kunverba|1898|1915|reason=d}}
| spouse 3 = {{Marriage|Kesar Kunverba|1908}}
}}
'''Lakhdhirji Waghji''' (26 December 1876{{Sndash}}4 May 1957) was  [[Maharaja]] of [[Morvi State|Morvi]] from 11 June 1922 until his abdication in 1948.

==Early life, family, and education==
He was born on 26 December 1876 to [[Waghji II Rawaji]] and his wife Bajirajba Kunverba.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Soszynski |first=Henry |title=MORVI |url=http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/m/morvi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709232016/http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/m/morvi.html |archive-date=2017-07-09 |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=members.iinet.net.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=Nripendra Nath |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45829 |title=The Indian Annual Register Vol. 1 (1944) |date=1944 |pages=18}}</ref> He was educated privately in [[India]] and [[England]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Not Available |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.83776 |title=Whos Who Among Indian Princes And Chiefs |date=1933 |pages=1147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Printing Press |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.207711 |title=Interviews With His Excellency Lord Willngdon-1931-1936 |pages=10–11}}</ref> He married three times: first, in 1898, to Nand Kunverba, daughter of Gambhirsinhji Varisalji, the ruler of [[Rajpipla State|Rajpipla]]; second, in the same year, to Suraj Kunverba, daughter of Mansinhji Prithvirajji, the ruler of [[Baria State|Baria]]; and third, in 1908, to Kesar Kunverba, daughter of Sarvaiya Bawaji Ranaji, the talukdar of Ranigam and Datha.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Not Available |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35767 |title=The Ruling Princes Chiefs And Leading Personages |date=1928 |pages=48}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=Royal |date=2026-04-07 |title=Morvi (Princely State) |url=https://oroyalarchives.com/morvi/ |access-date=2026-04-07 |website=Royal Archives |language=en-US}}</ref> His first wife died in 1915, and his second in 1945.<ref name=":8" /> By his first wife, he had three sons and two daughters, but none of them lived long.<ref name=":10" /> By his second wife, he had a son, Kalikakumarsinhji, who was born in November 1918.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":8" /> By his third wife, he had a son, [[Mahendrasinhji]], born on 1 January 1918, and another son who died young.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":8" />

==Reign==
Lakhdhirji acceded to the throne of Morvi upon his father’s death on 6 June 1922.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5196 |title=Collection of treaties, engagements and sanads: relating to india and neighbouring countries vol.6 |date=1932 |publisher=Central Publication Branch, Calcutta |pages=100–101}}</ref> He personally examined the details of every department of the state administration.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=The Imperial Publishing Co. |first=Lahore |url=http://archive.org/details/TwiK_his-imperial-majesty-king-george-5-and-the-princes-of-india-and-the-indian-empir |title=His Imperial Majesty King George 5 And The Princes Of India And The Indian Empire ( Historical Biographical) Compiled By K. R. Khosla, 1937, Lahore The Imperial Publishing Co., Lahore |pages=112–113}}</ref> In 1924, he converted the narrow-gauge railway line between [[Wankaner]] and [[Morbi|Morvi]] to [[Metre-gauge railway|metre gauge]], and in 1926, he oversaw the construction of a branch line from [[Thangadh|Than]] to [[Chotila]].<ref name=":2" /> He also took a keen interest in advancing education within his state. In 1923, he made both [[Primary education|primary]] and [[Secondary education|secondary]] education completely free.<ref name=":3" /> Prior to his reign, in 1921–1922, Morvi had 29 schools with 1,276 students enrolled; by 1936–1937, these figures had increased to 99 schools and 4,545 students.<ref name=":3" /> He established several scholarships, including the Nand Kunverba Fund and the Bajirajba Kunverba Fund.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Feudatory_and_zemindari_India/lBQnAQAAIAAJ |title=The Feudatory and zemindari India |date=1926 |pages=105 |language=en}}</ref> The latter provided twelve scholarships with a combined monthly value of Rs. 250 for students pursuing academic and technical studies, on the condition that recipients would serve Morvi after completing their education.<ref name=":4" /> He also founded the Shri Sir Waghji Bahadur Loan Scholarship Fund in memory of his father, which awarded twelve scholarships with a combined annual value of Rs. 5,000 for collegiate education in cities such as [[Mumbai]] and [[Pune]].<ref name=":4" />

Between 1922 and 1936, Lakhdhirji spent over Rs. 5,300,000 on public works and water supply.<ref name=":3" /> He opened the boring department in 1925, which expended Rs. 600,000 by 1936 and constructed 500 wells, 400 of which were intended for agricultural use.<ref name=":3" /> Between 1932 and 1936, he remitted approximately Rs. 3,000,000 in land revenue and wrote off outstanding peasant debts amounting to about Rs. 1,000,000.<ref name=":3" /> To improve [[agriculture]], he granted cultivators permanent occupancy rights upon payment of a nominal fee, established an agricultural bank, and created a new department to bring uncultivated land under cultivation, construct new wells, repair and deepen existing ones, and expand irrigation schemes.<ref name=":3" /> He also set aside Rs. 2,500,000 to support agriculturists during periods of famine.<ref name=":3" />

He donated Rs. 100,000 to [[Banaras Hindu University]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=University |first=Banaras Hindu |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Proceedings_of_the_Special_Silver_Jubile/eF8mCCuq6N8C |title=Proceedings of the Special Silver Jubilee Convocation of the Benares Hindu University Held on Vasant Panchami, the 21st January 1942 |date=1942 |publisher=Printed at the Benares Hindu University Press |pages=35 |language=en}}</ref> In 1926, he was granted the hereditary title of [[Maharaja]] by the [[British government of India|Government of India]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Indian_India/hpM3zCWNGZwC |title=Indian India |date=1945 |publisher=Director of Public Relations, Chamber of Princes |pages=18 |language=en}}</ref>.

==Abdication==
He abdicated as ruler of Morvi on 21 January 1948.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jindal |first=K. B. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Thus_Spake_Their_Lordships/1BNYAAAAMAAJ |title=Thus Spake Their Lordships: A Compilation of 300 Judgments on Income-tax Law Delivered by the Supreme Court of India |date=1963 |publisher=Kitab Mahal |pages=368 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Income_Tax_Reports/Oow5AAAAIAAJ |title=The Income Tax Reports |date=1984 |publisher=Company Law Institute of India |pages=268 |language=en}}</ref> He was succeeded by his son [[Mahendrasinhji]].<ref name=":0" /> Although Lakhdhirji possessed a substantial fortune, Mahendrasinhji began providing him with a monthly allowance in 1949, which continued until Lakhdhirji’s death.<ref name=":1" />

==Death==
He died on 4 May 1957.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Who_was_who/Wg7YAAAAMAAJ |title=Who was who |date=1961 |publisher=A. & C. Black |pages=794 |language=en}}</ref>

== Honours ==
He was appointed a [[Knight Commander]] of the [[Order of the Star of India]] on 1 January 1930.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35384/ |title=Memoranda on the Indian States, 1938 (Corrected up to the 1st January 1938). |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1938 |location=Delhi |pages=334}}</ref> He was later appointed a [[Knight Grand Cross]] of the [[Order of the British Empire]] on 8 June 1939.<ref name=":9" /> On 21 January 1942, [[Banaras Hindu University]] conferred upon him the [[honorary degree]] of [[Doctor of Laws]] at its Special Silver Jubilee Convocation.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9" /> The degree was awarded in [[Award in absentia|absentia]].<ref name=":7" />

==References==
<references />
[[Category:1876 births]]
[[Category:1957 deaths]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:People from Morbi district]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Monarchs who abdicated]]
[[Category:Indian knights]]

Jigris

2026-04-07T10:12:10Z

ElenaEbersbacher: New Some Entry First Draft - done

{{Short description|2025 Indian Telugu film by Harish Reddy Uppula}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Jigris
| image = Jigris.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Harish Reddy Uppula
| producer = Krishna Vodapalli
| writer = Harish Reddy Uppula
| starring = {{plain list|
* [[Krishna Burugula]]
* Ram Nitin
* Mani Vaka
* Dheeraj Athreya
}}
| music = Syed Kamran
| cinematography = Esvaradithyaa Yedida
| editing = Chanakya Reddy Toorupu
| studio = Mount Meru Pictures
| distributor = Vaasudeva Movie Creations
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2025|11|14}}
| runtime =
| language = Telugu
| country = India
| budget = ₹2 crores
| gross = ₹5 crores
}}
'''''Jigris''''' is a 2025 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[Buddy film|buddy]] [[Comedy film|comedy]] film written and directed by Harish Reddy Uppula.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-15 |title=Sandeep Reddy Vanga Steals The Show At ‘Jigris’ Teaser Launch |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/sandeep-reddy-vanga-steals-the-show-at-jigris-teaser-launch-1897709 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref> The film stars [[Krishna Burugula]], Ram Nitin, Mani Vaka and Dheeraj Athreya in lead roles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-10 |title=Jigris trailer: A Goa trip reunion goes haywire for four buddies |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2025/Nov/10/jigris-trailer-a-goa-trip-reunion-goes-haywire-for-four-buddies |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>

For his performance in the film, [[Krishna Burugula]] received the Best Comedian award at the 2026 Telangana Gaddar Film Awards (TGFA)

The film was released on 14 November 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Telugu |first=ntv |date=2025-10-23 |title=Jigris Movie: ప్రభాస్‌కు విషెష్ చెబుతూ.. రిలీజ్‌ డేట్‌ అనౌన్స్ చేసిన ‘జిగ్రీస్’ టీమ్! |url=https://ntvtelugu.com/news/jigris-movie-release-date-locked-on-prabhas-birthday-883440.html |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=NTV Telugu |language=te-IN}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=November 2025}}

== Cast ==
* [[Krishna Burugula]] as Karthik
* Ram Nitin as Praveen
* Mani Vaka as Prashanth
* Dheeraj Athreya as Vinay
* [[Mast Ali]] as Bilal, mechanic
* [[Muralidhar Goud]] as Karthik's father

== Music ==
The background score and songs were composed by Syed Kamran.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sistu |first=Suhas |date=2025-11-04 |title=‘Meerela’ from ‘Jigris’ out now; wins hearts |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/meerela-from-jigris-out-now-wins-hearts-1020483 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

{{Tracklist
| headline = Track listing
| total_length =
| all_lyrics = Harish Reddy Uppula
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Thirige Bhoomi
| extra1 = Eknath Kiran, Junaid Kumar, J. V. Sudhanshu
| length1 = 4:16
| title2 = Meereley
| extra2 = Eknath Kiran
| length2 = 3:24
| title3 = Kannulundaga
| extra3 = Hymath Mohammed
| length3 = 2:29
}}

==Release and reception==
''Jigris'' was released on 14 November 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-13 |title=Jigris movie Review: ‘జిగ్రీస్’ మూవీ రివ్యూ, రామ్ నితిన్‌తో పాటు యంగ్ హీరోలకు.. |url=https://telugu.timesnownews.com/entertainment/jigris-movie-review-ram-nithin-krishna-burugula-dheeraj-athreya-mani-vaka-starrer-youthful-entertainer-article-153143496 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=Times Now Telugu |language=te}}</ref>

Suhas Sistu of [[The Hans India|''The Hans India'']] rated the film 3 out of 5 and wrote that "''Jigris'' doesn’t promise a complex storyline, nor does it attempt to. It focuses squarely on humor, friendship, and relatable moments".''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sistu |first=Suhas |date=2025-11-14 |title=Jigris: A fun, nostalgic ride of friendship |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/jigris-a-fun-nostalgic-ride-of-friendship-1023362 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Andhra Jyothi|Chithra Jyothi]]'' rated the film 2.5 out of 5 and appreciated the lead cast performances.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |date=2025-11-14 |title=Jigris Movie Review: జిగ్రీస్ మూవీ రివ్యూ.. సినిమా ఎలా ఉందంటే? {{!}} Jigris Movie Review: Backed by Sandeep Reddy Vanga, a Raw Tale of Friendship And Chaos srk |url=https://www.chitrajyothy.com/2025/film-reviews/jigris-movie-review-backed-by-sandeep-reddy-vanga-a-raw-tale-of-friendship-and-chaos-srk-67797.html |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=Chitrajyothy Telugu News |language=te}}</ref>

== Awards ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Recipient
!Result
!Ref.
|-
|2026
|Telangana Gaddar Film Awards
|Best Comedian
|[[Krishna Burugula]]|| {{won}}
|<ref name="TGFA2026">{{cite news |last=Sistu |first=Suhas |date=27 March 2026 |title=Krishna Burugula turns bold promise into reality |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/krishna-burugula-turns-bold-promise-into-reality-1060203 |access-date=7 April 2026 |work=[[The Hans India]]}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|37495011|Jigris}}

[[Category:2025 films]]
[[Category:2025 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2025 Indian films]]
[[Category:2020s buddy comedy films]]
[[Category:2025 comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian buddy comedy films]]
[[Category:Films set in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films set in Goa]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Telugu-language comedy films]]

Billboard Hot 100

2026-03-27T02:47:52Z

ElenaEbersbacher: slightly refined structure per standard format and improved wording

{{Short description|American song chart}}
{{Redirect|Hot 100}}
{{Pp|small=yes}}
{{Italic title|string=Billboard}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2025}}
[[File:Billboard Hot 100 logo (2025 March design).png|thumb|The current ''Billboard'' Hot 100 logo|240x240px]]

The '''''Billboard'' Hot 100''', also known as simply the '''Hot 100''', is the [[music industry]] standard [[record chart]] in the United States for songs, published weekly by ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' magazine. Chart rankings are based on sales (physical and [[Music download|digital]]), [[online streaming]], and [[radio airplay]] in the U.S.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=May 1, 2018|title=Billboard Finalizes Changes to How Streams Are Weighted for Billboard Hot 100 & Billboard 200|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8427967/billboard-changes-streaming-weighting-hot-100-billboard-200|access-date=August 4, 2021|magazine=Billboard|archive-date=January 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129082928/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8427967/billboard-changes-streaming-weighting-hot-100-billboard-200|url-status=live}}</ref>

A new chart is compiled and released online to the public by ''Billboard''{{'}}s website on Tuesdays but post-dated to the following Saturday, when the printed magazine first reaches newsstands.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=January 23, 2013 |title=Billboard Charts Legend |url=https://www.billboard.com/billboard-charts-legend/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=January 27, 2023 |archive-date=October 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031031911/https://www.billboard.com/p/billboard-charts-legend |url-status=live }}</ref> Since July 2015, the weekly tracking period for sales has been Friday–Thursday. It was initially Monday–Sunday when [[Nielsen Holdings PLC|Nielsen]] started tracking sales in 1991. This tracking period also applies to the compilation of online streaming data. Radio airplay is readily available in real time, unlike sales figures and streaming, but is also tracked on the same Friday–Thursday cycle, effective with the chart dated July 17, 2021.<ref name="Radio Airplay Friday to Thursday">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9599515/bts-butter-number-one-seventh-week-hot-100/|title=BTS' 'Butter' Leads Hot 100 for Seventh Week, Lil Nas X's 'Montero' Returns to Top Five|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|last=Trust|first=Gary|date=July 12, 2021|access-date=July 12, 2021|archive-date=July 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712172956/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9599515/bts-butter-number-one-seventh-week-hot-100/|url-status=live}}</ref> Previously, radio was tracked Monday–Sunday and, before July 2015, Wednesday–Tuesday.<ref name="tracking">{{cite magazine|date=June 24, 2015|title=Billboard to Alter Chart Tracking Week for Global Release Date|magazine=Billboard|url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/billboard-alter-chart-tracking-week-global-release-date/|access-date=June 24, 2015|archive-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150720083618/http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6605842/billboard-alter-chart-tracking-week-global-release-date|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first number-one song of the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 was "[[Poor Little Fool]]" by [[Ricky Nelson]], on August 4, 1958.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.umgcatalog.com/news/ricky-nelson-rules-first-ever-hot-100-poor-little-fool|title = Ricky Nelson Rules First-Ever Hot 100 with 'Poor Little Fool'| work=UMe |date = August 4, 2019|access-date = August 3, 2021|archive-date = August 3, 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210803223404/https://www.umgcatalog.com/news/ricky-nelson-rules-first-ever-hot-100-poor-little-fool|url-status = live}}</ref> As of the issue for the week ending on March 28, 2026, the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 has had 1,189 different number-one entries. The current number-one song on the chart is "[[Choosin' Texas]]" by [[Ella Langley]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/lists/ella-langley-choosin-texas-number-1-hot-100-fourth-week/|title=Ella Langley Leaps Past Taylor Swift for Country History as 'Choosin' Texas' Tops Hot 100 for 4th Week|last=Trust|first=Gary|magazine=Billboard|date=March 23, 2026|access-date=March 23, 2026}}</ref>

== History ==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width =
| image1 = Billboard Hot 100 logo.svg
| caption1 =
| image2 = 1958 Billboard Hot 100 logo.svg
| caption2 = Previous iterations of the logo
}}
The first chart published by ''Billboard'' was "Last Week's Ten Best Sellers Among the Popular Songs", a list of best-selling sheet music, in July 1913. Other charts listed popular song performances in theatres and recitals. In 1928, "Popular Numbers Featured by Famous Singers and Leaders" appeared, which added radio performances to in-person performances. On January 4, 1936, Billboard magazine published "Ten Best Records for Week Ending", which listed the 10 top selling records of three leading record companies, as reported by the companies themselves. In October 1938, a review list, "The Week's Best Records", was retitled "The Billboard Record Buying Guide" by incorporating airplay and sheet music sales, which would eventually become the first trade survey of record popularity.<ref name="chart history">{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT149 |title=The Chart in Evolution: A Chronicle |magazine=Billboard |page=RS-110 |date=May 21, 1977 |access-date=November 1, 2022 |archive-date=November 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101111027/https://books.google.com/books?id=XCMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT149 |url-status=live }}</ref> This led to the full-page "Billboard Music Popularity Chart" for the week ending July 20, 1940, and published in the July 27 issue, with lists covering jukebox play, retail sales, sheet music sales, and radio play. Listed were 10 songs of the national "Best Selling Retail Records", which was the fore-runner of today's pop chart, with "[[I'll Never Smile Again]]" by [[Tommy Dorsey]] its first number one.<ref name="retail records">{{cite magazine |url=https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Billboard/40s/1940/Billboard-1940-07-27.pdf |title=Billboard Music Popularity Chart |page=11 |magazine=Billboard |date=July 27, 1940 |access-date=November 12, 2022 |archive-date=August 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818125047/https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Billboard/40s/1940/Billboard-1940-07-27.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Starting on March 24, 1945, ''Billboard''{{'}}s lead popularity chart was the ''Honor Roll of Hits''. This chart ranked the most popular songs regardless of performer (it combined different versions of the same song by different artists) based on record and sheet sales, disk jockey, and jukebox performances as determined by ''Billboard''{{'}}s weekly nationwide survey.<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=April 24, 1954|title=Billboard Honor Roll of Hits Represents Culmination of Disk's Life on the Charts|url=https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Billboard/50s/1954/Billboard%201954-04-24.pdf|magazine=Billboard|pages=34|access-date=September 18, 2019|archive-date=June 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610051235/https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Billboard/50s/1954/Billboard%201954-04-24.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> At the start of the rock era in 1955, there were three charts that measured songs by individual metrics:<ref name="NPR">{{cite news|last1=Molanphy|first1=Chris|title=How The Hot 100 Became America's Hit Barometer|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2013/08/16/207879695/how-the-hot-100-became-americas-hit-barometer|access-date=March 14, 2018|work=All Things Considered|publisher=NPR|date=August 1, 2013|archive-date=August 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803093057/http://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2013/08/16/207879695/how-the-hot-100-became-americas-hit-barometer|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''Best Sellers in Stores'' was the best seller chart first established in July 1940. This chart ranked the biggest selling singles in retail stores, as reported by merchants surveyed throughout the country (20 to 50 positions).
* ''Most Played by Jockeys'' was ''Billboard''{{'}}s original airplay chart. It ranked the most played songs on United States radio stations, as reported by radio DJs and radio stations (20 to 25 positions).
* ''Most Played in Jukeboxes'' ranked the most played songs in [[jukebox]]es across the United States (20 positions). This was one of the main outlets of measuring song popularity with the younger generation of music listeners, as many radio stations resisted adding [[rock and roll]] music to their playlists for many years.

''Billboard''{{'}}s primary chart among these was the ''Best Sellers in Stores'' chart, and the magazine refers to that when discussing a song's performance before the creation of the Hot 100.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Chart Beat Chat |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/60472/chart-beat-chat|magazine=Billboard|access-date=July 15, 2020|date=December 2, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928024313/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/60472/chart-beat-chat|archive-date=September 28, 2015|quote=The main chart was Best Sellers in Stores, and that's the list Billboard uses as THE pre-Hot 100 chart.}}</ref> In its issue of November 12, 1955, ''Billboard'' published '''The Top 100''' for the first time (for the survey weeks ending October 26 and November 2).<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Top 100 for survey week ending November 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCEEAAAAMBAJ&q=top+100+sides |magazine=Billboard |access-date=July 22, 2023 |date=November 12, 1956 |archive-date=July 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722174258/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCEEAAAAMBAJ&q=top+100+sides |url-status=live }}</ref> ''The Top 100'' combined all aspects of a single's performance (sales, airplay and jukebox activity), based on a point system that typically gave sales (purchases) more weight than radio airplay. The first No. 1 in that chart was "[[Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing (song)|Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing]]" by [[The Four Aces]].<ref name="chart history"/> The ''Best Sellers in Stores'', ''Most Played by Jockeys'' and ''Most Played in Jukeboxes'' charts continued to be published concurrently with the new ''Top 100'' chart.

On June 17, 1957, ''Billboard'' discontinued the ''Most Played in Jukeboxes'' chart, as the popularity of jukeboxes waned and radio stations incorporated more and more rock-oriented music into their playlists. The week of July 28, 1958, had the final ''Most Played by Jockeys'' and ''Top 100'' charts, both of which had [[Perez Prado]]'s instrumental version of "[[Patricia (Perez Prado song)|Patricia]]" ascending to the top.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Bvm2rnwUDIC&pg=PA879 |title=The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits, 9th Edition |first=Joel |last=Whitburn |date=2012 |isbn=9780307985125 |publisher=Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed |page=879 |access-date=November 10, 2022 |archive-date=November 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110160037/https://books.google.com/books?id=1Bvm2rnwUDIC&pg=PA879 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On August 4, 1958, ''Billboard'' premiered one main all-genre singles chart: the ''Hot 100'', with "[[Poor Little Fool]]" by [[Ricky Nelson]] its first No. 1.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Hot 100 55th Anniversary: Every No. 1 Song (1958–2013) |url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/hot-100-55th-anniversary-every-no-1-song-1958-2013/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=December 26, 2021 |date=August 2, 2013 |archive-date=December 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226144301/https://www.billboard.com/pro/hot-100-55th-anniversary-every-no-1-song-1958-2013/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-100/1958-08-02/ |title=Billboard Hot 100 |magazine=Billboard |date=August 4, 1958 }}</ref> The Hot 100 quickly became the industry standard and ''Billboard'' discontinued the ''Best Sellers In Stores'' chart on October 13, 1958.

The Hot 100 was created by journalists Tom Noonan, [[Paul Ackerman]], and [[Seymour Stein]]; Stein did not recall who chose the name.<ref>{{cite magazine|first=Gary|last=Trust|title=Seymour Stein on His Billboard Beginning & How the Hot 100 Was Born on Aug. 4, 1958|url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/hot-100-co-creator-seymour-stein-interview/|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|date=August 4, 2021|access-date=October 1, 2022|url-access=subscription|quote=Tom [Noonan] could have come up with the name. I certainly did not. It might have been one of the reporters, or Paul Ackerman. I just don't remember.|archive-date=October 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002004233/https://www.billboard.com/pro/hot-100-co-creator-seymour-stein-interview/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ''Billboard'' Hot 100 is still the standard by which a song's popularity is measured in the United States. The Hot 100 is ranked by radio airplay audience impressions as measured by Nielsen BDS, sales data compiled by [[Nielsen Soundscan]] (both at retail and digitally) and streaming activity provided by online music sources.<ref name="NPR"/>

There are several component charts that contribute to the overall calculation of the Hot 100. They are:
* [[Radio Songs (chart)|Radio Songs]]: ''(per Billboard)'' approximately 1,000 stations, "composed of [[adult contemporary]], [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]], [[hip hop]], [[Country music|country]], [[Rock music|rock]], [[Gospel music|gospel]], [[Latin music (genre)|Latin]] and [[Christian music|Christian]] formats, digitally monitored twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. Charts are ranked by number of gross audience impressions, computed by cross-referencing exact times of radio airplay with [[Arbitron]] listener data."
* [[Digital Song Sales]]: Digital sales are tracked by Nielsen SoundScan and are included as part of a title's sales points.
* [[Streaming Songs]]: a collaboration between ''Billboard'', Nielsen SoundScan and [[National Association of Recording Merchandisers]] which measures the top streamed radio songs, on-demand songs and videos on leading online music services.
* [[Hot Singles Sales]] (1984–2017): [[single (music)|physical single]] sales were tracked by Nielsen SoundScan.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|+ ''Billboard'' Hot 100 component charts
|-
! scope="col" | Period
! scope="col" | [[Hot Singles Sales]] {{nobold|([[Record sales|physical single sales]])}}
! scope="col" | [[Radio Songs (chart)|Radio Songs]] {{nobold|([[Airplay|song airplay]])}}
! scope="col" | [[Digital Song Sales]] {{nobold|([[Music download|song downloads]])}}
! scope="col" | [[Streaming Songs]] {{nobold|([[Music streaming service|song streams]])}}
|-
| 1984–2005 || {{active}} || {{active}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|-
| 2005–2013 || {{active}} || {{active}} || {{active}} || {{n/a}}
|-
| 2013–2017 || {{active}} || {{active}} || {{active}} || {{active}}
|-
| 2017–present || {{n/a|Defunct}} || {{active}} || {{active}} || {{active}}
|}

== Compilation ==
The tracking week for sales, streaming and airplay begins on Friday and ends on Thursday (airplay used to have a tracking week from Monday to Sunday, but effective with the chart dated July 17, 2021, the week was adjusted to align with the other two metrics<ref name="Radio Airplay Friday to Thursday"/>). A new chart is compiled and officially released to the public by ''Billboard'' on Tuesday. Each chart is post-dated with the "week-ending" issue date four days after the charts are refreshed online (i.e., the following Saturday).<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/billboard-chart-magazine-dates-release-week-change/|title=Billboard Chart & Magazine Dates Now to Align Closer to Release Week|magazine=Billboard|date=December 19, 2017|access-date=January 1, 2018|archive-date=April 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413064413/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/8071011/billboard-chart-magazine-dates-release-week-change|url-status=live}}</ref> For example:
* Friday, January 1 – tracking-week begins for sales, streaming and airplay
* Thursday, January 7 – tracking-week ends for sales, streaming and airplay
* Tuesday, January 12 – new chart released, with issue post-dated Saturday, January 16

== Policy changes ==
The methods and policies by which this data is obtained and compiled have changed many times throughout the chart's history.

Although the advent of a singles music chart spawned chart historians and chart-watchers and greatly affected [[popular culture|pop culture]] and produced countless bits of trivia, the main purpose of the Hot 100 is to aid those within the music industry: to reflect the popularity of the "product" (the singles, the albums, etc.) and to track the trends of the buying public. ''Billboard'' has (many times) changed its methodology and policies to give the most precise and accurate reflection of what is popular. A very basic example of this would be the ratio given to sales and airplay. During the Hot 100's early history, singles were the leading way by which people bought music. At times, when singles sales were robust, more weight was given to a song's retail points than to its radio airplay.

=== Double-sided singles ===
''Billboard'' has also changed its Hot 100 policy regarding "two-sided singles" several times. The pre-Hot 100 chart "Best Sellers in Stores" listed popular A- and-B-sides together, with the side that was played most often (based on its other charts) listed first. One of these was [[Elvis Presley]]'s "Don't Be Cruel" / "Hound Dog". During the Presley single's chart run, top billing was switched back and forth between the two sides several times. But on the concurrent "Most Played in Juke Boxes", "Most Played by Jockeys" and the "Top 100", the two songs were listed separately, as was true of all songs. With the initiation of the Hot 100 in 1958, A- and-B-sides charted separately, as they had on the former Top 100.

Starting with the Hot 100 chart for the week ending November 29, 1969, this rule was altered; if both sides received significant airplay, they were listed together. This started to become a moot point by 1972, as most major record labels solidified a trend they had started in the 1960s by putting the same song on both sides of the singles provided to radio.

More complex issues began to arise as the typical A- and-B-side format of singles gave way to [[12 inch singles]] and maxi-singles, many of which contained more than one B-side. Further problems arose when, in several cases, a B-side would eventually overtake the A-side in popularity, thus prompting record labels to release a new single, featuring the former B-side as the A-side, along with a "new" B-side.

The inclusion of album cuts on the Hot 100 put the double-sided hit issues to rest permanently.

=== Album cuts ===
As many Hot 100 chart policies have been modified over the years, one rule remained constant for over four decades: songs were not eligible to enter the Hot 100 unless they were available to purchase as a single. This was discontinued on December 5, 1998, when the Hot 100 changed from being a "singles" chart to a "songs" chart.<ref name="NPR"/> During the 1990s, a growing trend in the music industry was to promote songs to radio without ever releasing them as singles. It was claimed by major record labels that singles were cannibalizing album sales, so they were slowly phased out.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leeds |first=Jeff |date=February 24, 2001 |title=Record Industry Says Napster Hurt Sales |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-feb-24-fi-29694-story.html |access-date=June 3, 2024 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times }}</ref> During this period, accusations began to fly of [[chart manipulation]] as labels would hold off on releasing a single until airplay was at its absolute peak, thus prompting a top ten or, in some cases, a number-one debut. In many cases, a label would delete a single from its catalog after only one week, thus allowing the song to enter the Hot 100, make a high debut and then slowly decline in position as the one-time production of the retail single sold out.

It was during this period that several popular mainstream hits never charted on the Hot 100, or charted well after their airplay had declined. During the period that they were not released as singles, the songs were not eligible to chart. Many of these songs dominated the [[Radio Songs (chart)|Hot 100 Airplay]] chart for extended periods of time:
* 1995 [[The Rembrandts]]: "[[I'll Be There for You (The Rembrandts song)|I'll Be There for You]]" (number one for eight weeks)
* 1996 [[No Doubt]]: "[[Don't Speak]]" (number one for 16 weeks)
* 1997 [[Sugar Ray]] featuring [[Super Cat]]: "[[Fly (Sugar Ray song)|Fly]]" (number one for six weeks)
* 1997 [[Will Smith]]: "[[Men in Black (song)|Men in Black]]" (number one for four weeks)
* 1997 [[The Cardigans]]: "[[Lovefool]]" (number two for eight weeks)
* 1998 [[Natalie Imbruglia]]: "[[Torn (Ednaswap song)#Natalie Imbruglia version|Torn]]" (number one for 11 weeks)
* 1998 [[Goo Goo Dolls]]: "[[Iris (Goo Goo Dolls song)|Iris]]" (number one for 18 weeks)

As debate and conflicts occurred more and more often, ''Billboard'' finally answered the requests of music industry artists and insiders to include airplay-only songs (or "album cuts") in the Hot 100, while the retail component was reduced from 40% to 25%.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LgoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA129 |pages=3, 129 |title=A New Hot 100 Reflects Changes in Music Business |magazine=Billboard |date=December 5, 1998 |access-date=August 30, 2023 |archive-date=August 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830211836/https://books.google.com/books?id=LgoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA129 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== EPs ===
[[Extended play]] (EP) releases were listed by ''Billboard'' on the Hot 100 and in pre-Hot 100 charts (Top 100) until the mid-to-late 1960s. With the growing popularity of albums, it was decided to move EPs (which typically contain four to six tracks) from the Hot 100 to the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]], where they are included to this day.

=== Digital downloads, online streaming and bundles ===
Since February 12, 2005, the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 tracks paid digital downloads from such internet services as [[iTunes Store|iTunes]], [[Musicmatch]], and [[Rhapsody (online music service)|Rhapsody]]. ''Billboard'' initially started tracking downloads in 2003 with the [[Hot Digital Tracks]] chart. However, these downloads did not count towards the Hot 100 and that chart (as opposed to [[Hot Digital Songs]]) counted each version of a song separately. This was the first major overhaul of the Hot 100's chart formula since December 1998.

The change in methodology has shaken up the chart considerably, with some songs debuting on the chart strictly with robust online sales and others making drastic leaps. In recent years, several songs have been able to achieve 80-to-90 position jumps in a single week as their digital components were made available at online music stores. Since 2006, the all-time record for the biggest single-week upward movement was broken nine times.

In the issue dated August 11, 2007, ''Billboard'' began incorporating weekly data from [[streaming media]] and on-demand services into the Hot 100. The first two major companies to provide their statistics to Nielsen BDS on a weekly basis were [[AOL]] Music and [[Yahoo! Music]].<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Geoff |last=Mayfield |title=Billboard Hot 100 To Include Digital Streams |url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1050326/billboard-hot-100-to-include-digital-streams |magazine=Billboard |date=August 4, 2007 |access-date=July 30, 2007 |archive-date=June 14, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614022316/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1050326/billboard-hot-100-to-include-digital-streams |url-status=live }}</ref> On March 24, 2012, Billboard premiered its On-Demand Songs chart, which ranks web radio streams from services such as [[Spotify]], as well as on-demand audio titles.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/502020/hot-100-impacted-by-new-on-demand-songs-chart|magazine=Billboard|title=Hot 100 Impacted by New On-Demand Songs Chart|first=Gary|last=Trust|date=March 14, 2012|access-date=March 14, 2012|archive-date=March 23, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323231310/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/502020/hot-100-impacted-by-new-on-demand-songs-chart|url-status=live}}</ref> Its data was then incorporated into the equation that compiles the Hot 100, and this was expanded to a broader [[Streaming Songs]] chart in January 2013.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1510640/new-danceelectronic-songs-chart-launches-with-william-britney-at-no-1|magazine=Billboard|title=New Dance/Electronic Songs Chart Launches With Will.i.am & Britney at No. 1|first=Silvio|last=Pietroluongo|date=January 17, 2013|access-date=February 19, 2012|archive-date=November 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110034638/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1510640/new-danceelectronic-songs-chart-launches-with-william-britney-at-no-1|url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2013, U.S. views for a song on [[YouTube]] were added to the Hot 100 formula. "[[Harlem Shake (song)|Harlem Shake]]" was the first song to reach number one after the changes were made.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sisario|first=Ben|title=What's Billboard's No. 1? Now YouTube Has a Say|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/21/arts/music/billboard-makes-youtube-part-of-hot-100-formula.html|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=February 20, 2013|date=February 20, 2013|archive-date=March 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322101647/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/21/arts/music/billboard-makes-youtube-part-of-hot-100-formula.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2020, ''Billboard'' announced that they would no longer allow sales of physical/digital bundles to be reported as digital sales. This refers to songs being bought along with [[merchandising|merchandise]], either from an artists website or through another vendor. The magazine stated that this was a tactic generally used by certain artists to boost their chart positions. Instead, such physical releases are now only counted when they are shipped to the consumer, rendering the tactic "ineffectual".<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/9417842/billboard-new-chart-rules-no-more-merch-ticket-bundles|title=Billboard Announces New Chart Rules: No More Merch & Ticket Bundles|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|last=Eggertsen|first=Chris|date=July 13, 2020|access-date=July 16, 2020|archive-date=July 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713233156/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/9417842/billboard-new-chart-rules-no-more-merch-ticket-bundles|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Remixes ===
A growing trend early in the first decade of the 21st century was to issue a song as a "remix" that was so different in structure and lyrical content from its original version that it was essentially a whole new song. Under normal circumstances, airplay points from a song's album version, "radio" mix or [[dance music]] remix, etc. were all combined and factored into the song's performance on the Hot 100, as the structure, lyrics and melody remained intact. Criticisms began when songs were being completely re-recorded to the point that they no longer resembled the original recording. The first such example of this scenario is [[Jennifer Lopez]]'s "[[I'm Real (Jennifer Lopez song)|I'm Real]]". Originally entering the Hot 100 in its album version, a "remix" was issued in the midst of its chart run that featured rapper [[Ja Rule]]. This new version proved to be more popular than the album version and the track was propelled to number one.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

To address this issue, ''Billboard'' now separates airplay points from a song's original version and its remix, if the remix is determined to be a "new song". Since administering this new chart rule, several songs have charted twice, normally credited as "Part 1" and "Part 2". The remix rule is still in place.

=== Recurrents ===
''Billboard'', in an effort to allow the chart to remain as current as possible and to give representation to new and developing artists and tracks, has (since 1991) removed titles that have reached certain criteria regarding its current rank and number of weeks on the chart. Recurrent criteria have been modified several times and (from 2015 up until October 25, 2025), a song was permanently moved to "recurrent status" if it had spent 20 weeks on the Hot 100 and fallen below position number 50. Additionally, descending songs were removed from the chart if ranking below number 25 after 52 weeks.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/pro/adele-tops-hot-100-fourth-week-justin-bieber-alessia-cara/|magazine=Billboard|title=Adele Tops Hot 100 for Fourth Week; Justin Bieber, Alessia Cara Hit Top 10|first=Gary|last=Trust|date=November 23, 2015|access-date=November 23, 2015|archive-date=November 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124143342/http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6770427/adele-tops-hot-100-fourth-week-justin-bieber-alessia-cara|url-status=live}}</ref> Exceptions were made to re-releases and sudden resurgence in popularity of tracks that had taken a very long time to gain mainstream success. These rare cases are still handled on a case-by-case basis and ultimately determined by ''Billboard''{{'}}s chart managers and staff. Older songs were allowed to re-enter the Hot 100 provided they charted higher than number 50.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Zellner |first1=Xander |title=Every Song to Re-Enter the Billboard Hot 100 in the Top 10 |url=https://www.billboard.com/lists/billboard-hot-100-top-10-re-entries/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=April 30, 2024 |date=December 1, 2022}}</ref> Christmas songs in particular started to become a regular presence on the Hot 100 each December since the relaxation of recurrent rules in 2015, culminating in [[Mariah Carey]]'s 1994 recording "[[All I Want for Christmas Is You]]" reaching No. 1 on the chart in December 2019.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Wish Come True: Mariah Carey's 'All I Want for Christmas Is You' Hits No. 1 on Hot 100 After 25-Year Wait |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/chart-beat/8546418/mariah-carey-all-i-want-for-christmas-is-you-number-one |magazine=Billboard |access-date=December 17, 2019 |archive-date=December 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216180915/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/chart-beat/8546418/mariah-carey-all-i-want-for-christmas-is-you-number-one |url-status=live }}</ref>

Stricter changes were made to the recurrent rules, however, effective with the chart dated October 25, 2025, the start of the 2026 chart year for ''Billboard''. While songs that fall below the top 50 with at least 20 weeks still go recurrent, if they are not making any gains in points, ''Billboard'' instituted new tiers for recurrency for the top 25 and top 50, introducing ones for the top 10 and top 5. Songs that fall below the top 25 and have at least 26 weeks (previously 52 weeks) go recurrent; those that fall below the top 10 with at least 52 weeks, as well as those that fall below the top five with at least 78 weeks, under the new rule, also go recurrent. Songs that are still gaining below those markers will be eligible to remain on the Hot 100 on a case-by-case basis. Plus, holiday songs will qualify to return above No. 50 regardless of total chart weeks, and then be subject to the rules noted above upon their descents. The same applies for newly-surging non-holiday catalog songs, with those without significant chart history eligible to debut at any rank, as considered individually.<ref name=Hot100Ophelia/>

This new recurrent rule was enacted due to the takeover of streaming, as the Hot 100 started reflecting repeat listening more than ever before, as well as radio stations keeping popular songs in heavy rotation for longer than ever before, as reflected in ''Billboard''{{'}}s airplay charts. That shift resulted in charts to move considerably slower than in the past. Upon this change in late 2025, ''Billboard'' informed that especially in recent years, songs have logged some of the longest Hot 100 runs to date, led by [[Teddy Swims]]' "[[Lose Control (Teddy Swims song)|Lose Control]]", which left the October 25 chart after a record 112-week stay.<ref name=Hot100Ophelia>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/lists/taylor-swift-hot-100-fate-of-ophelia-number-one-second-week/|title=Taylor Swift's 'The Fate of Ophelia' Tops Billboard Hot 100 for Second Week|last=Trust|first=Gary|magazine=Billboard|date=October 20, 2025|access-date=October 20, 2025}}</ref>

=== Adjustment of tracking week ===
''Billboard'' altered its tracking-week for sales, streaming and radio airplay to conform to a new Global Release Date, which now falls on Fridays in all major-market territories (United States product was formerly released on Tuesdays before June 2015). This modified tracking schedule took effect in the issue dated July 25, 2015.<ref name="tracking"/>

== Year-end charts ==
''Billboard''{{'}}s "chart year" runs from the first week of December to the final week in November. This altered calendar allows for ''Billboard'' to calculate [[Billboard Year-End|year-end charts]] and release them in time for its final print issue in the last week of December.

Before Nielsen SoundScan, year-end singles charts were calculated by an inverse-point system based solely on a song's performance on the Hot 100 (for example, a song would be given one point for a week spent at position 100, two points for a week spent at position 99 and so forth, up to 100 points for each week spent at number one). Other factors including the total weeks a song spent on the chart and at its peak position were calculated into its year-end total.

After ''Billboard'' began obtaining sales and airplay information from Nielsen SoundScan, the year-end charts are now calculated by a very straightforward cumulative total of yearlong sales, streaming, and airplay points. This gives a more accurate picture of any given year's most popular tracks, as the points accrued by one song during its week at number one in March might be less than those accrued by another song reaching number three in January. Songs at the peak of their popularity at the time of the November/December chart-year cutoff many times end up ranked on the following year's chart as well, as their cumulative points are split between the two chart-years, but often are ranked lower than they would have been had the peak occurred in a single year.

== Use in media ==
The Hot 100 served for many years as the data source for the weekly radio countdown show ''[[American Top 40]]''. This relationship ended on November 30, 1991, as ''American Top 40'' started using the [[Billboard Hot 100 Airplay|airplay-only side of the Hot 100]] (then called '''Top 40 Radio Monitor'''). The ongoing splintering of [[Contemporary hit radio|Top 40 radio]] in the early 1990s led stations to lean into specific formats, meaning that practically no station would play the wide array of genres that typically composed each weekly Hot 100 chart.

An artist or band's ability to have hits in the Hot 100 across multiple decades is recognized as a sign of longevity and being able to adapt to changing musical styles. Only five artists had a Hot 100 Top 40 hit in each of the four decades from the 1980s through the 2010s: [[Michael Jackson]], [[Madonna]], [["Weird Al" Yankovic]], [[U2]], and [[Kenny G]].<ref>{{cite magazine | url = https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/chart-beat/8542554/kenny-g-top-40-hits-four-decades-kanye-west-use-this-gospel | title = Thanks to Kanye, Kenny G Is Just the Fifth Act With Hot 100 Top 40 Hits in Each of the Last Four Decades | first = Gary | last = Trust | date = November 4, 2019 | access-date = November 6, 2019 | magazine = [[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] | archive-date = November 12, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191112131002/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/chart-beat/8542554/kenny-g-top-40-hits-four-decades-kanye-west-use-this-gospel | url-status = live }}</ref> [[Mariah Carey]] is the first artist to have a number-one single in four different decades.<ref>{{cite magazine | url = https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/chart-beat/8547157/mariah-carey-number-one-hot-100-four-decades-all-i-want-for-christmas-is-you | title = Mariah Carey Becomes First Artist at No. 1 on Billboard Hot 100 in Four Decades, Thanks to 'All I Want for Christmas' | first = Gary | last = Trust | date = December 30, 2019 | access-date = December 30, 2019 | magazine = [[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] | archive-date = December 31, 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191231213359/https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/chart-beat/8547157/mariah-carey-number-one-hot-100-four-decades-all-i-want-for-christmas-is-you | url-status = live }}</ref>

[[Pop2K|SiriusXM Pop2K]] uses the Hot 100 charts for the 2000s for the "Pop2Kountdown", where radio personality Rich Davis plays the top 30 songs on the Hot 100 from that specific week in a specific year from the 2000s. [['90s on 9]] also does a similar countdown show called the "Back in the Day Replay Countdown" hosted by [[Downtown Julie Brown]]; however, this focuses on the Hot 100 charts from the 1990s.

== Similar charts ==
A new chart, the [[Pop 100]], was created by ''Billboard'' in February 2005 to answer criticism that the Hot 100 at the time was too dominated by hip hop and R&B. It was discontinued in June 2009 due to the charts becoming increasingly similar.

The [[Canadian Hot 100]] was launched June 16, 2007. Like the Hot 100 chart, it uses sales and airplay tracking compiled by Nielsen SoundScan and [[Broadcast Data Systems]].<ref>{{cite magazine | title = Billboard Launches Canadian Hot 100 Chart | url = http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1051685/billboard-launches-canadian-hot-100-chart | magazine = Billboard | date = June 7, 2007 | access-date = June 4, 2010 | archive-date = May 19, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170519122810/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1051685/billboard-launches-canadian-hot-100-chart | url-status = live }}</ref>

The [[Billboard Japan Hot 100|''Billboard'' Japan Hot 100]] was launched in the issue dated May 31, 2008, using the same methodologies as the Hot 100 charts for the U.S. and Canada, using sales and airplay data from SoundScan Japan and radio tracking service Plantech.<ref>{{cite magazine | first = Gary | last = Trust | title = Billboard Japan Hot 100 Finds Global Audience | url = http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1045309/billboard-japan-hot-100-finds-global-audience | magazine = Billboard | date = May 21, 2008 | access-date = June 4, 2010 | archive-date = June 23, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130623023528/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1045309/billboard-japan-hot-100-finds-global-audience | url-status = live }}</ref>

The Vietnamese edition of Hot 100, [[Billboard Vietnam Hot 100|''Billboard'' Vietnam Hot 100]], was launched on January 14, 2022.<ref>{{cite magazine | title = Billboard Vietnam Hot 100 | url = https://billboardvn.vn/billboard-vietnam-hot-100/ | magazine = Billboard | date = January 20, 2022 | access-date = January 19, 2022 | archive-date = May 5, 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230505051239/https://billboardvn.vn/billboard-vietnam-hot-100/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=22em}}
* ''[[American Top 40]]''
* [[Bestseller (music)|Bestseller]]
* [[Billboard charts|''Billboard'' charts]]
* [[Billboard Global 200|''Billboard'' Global 200]]
* [[Billboard Music Awards|''Billboard'' Music Awards]]
* [[Chart-topper]]
* [[List of artists who reached number one in the United States]]
* [[List of best-selling music artists]]
* [[List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones|List of ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones]]
* [[List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of the 2020s|List of ''Billboard'' Hot 100 number-one singles of the 2020s]]
* [[List of Billboard Hot 100 top-ten singles|List of ''Billboard'' Hot 100 top-ten singles]]
* [[Lists of Billboard number-one singles|Lists of ''Billboard'' number-one singles]]
* [[Single certifications]]
* [[Rolling Stone Top 100|''Rolling Stone'' Top 100]]

{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* [[Fred Bronson|Bronson, Fred]]. ''Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition'' ({{ISBN|0-8230-7677-6}})
* Feldman, Christopher G. ''The Billboard Book of No. 2 Singles'' ({{ISBN|0-8230-7695-4}})
* [[Joel Whitburn|Whitburn, Joel]]. ''Top Pop Singles 1955–2008, 12 Edition'' ({{ISBN|0-89820-180-2}})
* [[Joel Whitburn|Whitburn, Joel]]. ''The Billboard Pop Charts, 1955–1959'' ({{ISBN|0-89820-092-X}})
* [[Joel Whitburn|Whitburn, Joel]]. ''The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Sixties'' ({{ISBN|0-89820-074-1}})
* [[Joel Whitburn|Whitburn, Joel]]. ''The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Seventies'' ({{ISBN|0-89820-076-8}})
* [[Joel Whitburn|Whitburn, Joel]]. ''The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Eighties'' ({{ISBN|0-89820-079-2}})
* [[Joel Whitburn|Whitburn, Joel]]. ''The Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Nineties'' ({{ISBN|0-89820-137-3}})
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite news |first=Tom |last=Breihan |title=The Number Ones |date=2018–2024 |work=Stereogum}} – retrospective reviews of every song to top the ''Billboard'' Hot 100

== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-100}}

{{Number-one singles in the United States}}
{{USTop10s}}
{{Billboard charts}}
{{Music industry}}
{{Hot 100 year-end charts}}

[[Category:Billboard charts|Hot 100]]
[[Category:Top lists]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles| ]]
[[Category:1958 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:1958 introductions]]

World War II

2026-03-23T09:08:39Z

ElenaEbersbacher: General cleanup and content improvements

{{Short description|1939–1945 global conflict}}
{{Redirect2|WWII|The Second World War|other uses|World War II (disambiguation)|and|WWII (disambiguation)|and|The Second World War (disambiguation)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = World War II
| image = {{multiple image|border=infobox|perrow=2/2/2|total_width=300
| image1=Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-646-5188-17, Flugzeuge Junkers Ju 87.jpg
| alt1=
| image2=Matilda tanks on the move outside the perimeter of Tobruk, Libya, 18 November 1941. E6600.jpg
| alt2=
| image3=Nagasakibomb.jpg
| alt3=in the
| image4=Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R76619, Russland, Kesselschlacht Stalingrad.jpg
| alt4=
| image5=Raising a flag over the Reichstag - Restoration.jpg
| alt5=
| image6=USS Pennsylvania moving into Lingayen Gulf.jpg
| alt6=}}From top to bottom, left to right: {{flatlist|
* German [[Junkers Ju 87|Stuka]] dive bombers on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]], 1943
* British [[Matilda II]] tanks during the [[North African campaign]], 1941
* US [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Nagasaki]] in Japan, 1945
* Soviet troops at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], 1943
* Soviet soldier [[Raising a Flag over the Reichstag|raising a flag]] over the [[Reichstag building|Reichstag]] after the [[Battle of Berlin]], 1945
* US warships in [[Invasion of Lingayen Gulf|Lingayen Gulf]] in the [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|Philippines]], 1945
}}
| date = 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945{{efn|While [[#Start and end dates|various other dates]] have been proposed as the date on which World War{{nbsp}}II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited.}} ({{Age in years and days|1 September 1939|2 September 1945}})
| place = [[List of theaters and campaigns of World War II|Global]]
| result = {{ubl|[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory}}
| combatants_header = [[World War II by country|Participants]]
| combatant1 = [[Allies of World War II|'''Allies''']]
| combatant2 = [[Axis powers|'''Axis''']]
| commander1 = '''[[Allied leaders of World War II|Main Allied leaders]]:'''{{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|USSR|1936|size=22px}} [[Joseph Stalin]] 
* {{flagicon|United States|1912|size=22px}} [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom|size=22px}} [[Winston Churchill]]
* {{flagicon|Republic of China (1912–1949)|size=22px}} [[Chiang Kai-shek]]}}
| commander2 = '''[[Axis leaders of World War II|Main Axis leaders]]:'''{{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany|size=22px}} [[Adolf Hitler]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan|size=22px}} [[Hirohito]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy|size=22px}} [[Benito Mussolini]]
}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox World War II}}
| casualties_header =
| casualties3 = 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian)
}}
{{TopicTOC-World War II}}

'''World War II''',{{efn|Often abbreviated as '''WWII''' or '''WW2'''}} or the '''Second World War''' (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945), was a [[World war|global conflict]] between two [[coalition]]s: the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and the [[Axis powers]]. [[World War II by country|Nearly all of the world's countries]] participated. [[Tanks in World War II|Tanks]] and [[Air warfare of World War II|aircraft played major roles]], the latter enabling the [[strategic bombing]] of cities and delivery of the only [[nuclear weapon]]s used in war. World War II was the [[List of wars by death toll|deadliest conflict]] in history, causing the death of 60 to 75 million people. Millions died in [[genocide]]s, including [[the Holocaust]], and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]], [[Allied-occupied Austria|Austria]], [[Occupation of Japan|Japan]], and [[Division of Korea#Post–World War II|Korea]] were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were tried for [[War crime|war crimes]].

The [[causes of World War II]] included unresolved tensions in the [[aftermath of World War I]], and the rise of [[fascism in Europe]] and [[Japanese militarism|militarism in Japan]]. Key events preceding the war included [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|Japan's invasion of Manchuria]] in 1931, the [[Spanish Civil War]], the outbreak of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] in 1937, and Germany's [[Anschluss|annexations of Austria]] and [[Munich Agreement|the Sudetenland]]. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when [[Nazi Germany]], under [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]], after which the [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)|United Kingdom]] and [[French declaration of war on Germany (1939)|France declared war]] on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the [[Soviet Union]] in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]. In 1940, the Soviet Union [[Occupation of the Baltic states|annexed the Baltic states]] and [[Winter War|parts of Finland]] and [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Romania]], while Germany [[Norwegian campaign|conquered Norway]], [[German invasion of Denmark (1940)|Denmark]], [[German invasion of Belgium (1940)|Belgium]], [[German invasion of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]], and the [[German invasion of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]. After the [[Battle of France|fall of France]] in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by [[Fascist Italy]], and the [[British Empire]]/[[British Commonwealth]], with [[Balkans campaign (World War II)|fighting in the Balkans]], [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Mediterranean, and Middle East]], [[East African campaign (World War II)|East Africa]], the aerial [[Battle of Britain]] and [[the Blitz]], and the naval [[Battle of the Atlantic]]. By mid-1941, [[World War II in Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Axis occupation of Greece|Greece]] had also been defeated by [[Axis powers|Axis]] countries. In June 1941, Germany [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]], opening the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]].

In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories [[Pacific War#Japanese offensives, 1941–1942|in Asia and the Pacific]], including [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor in Hawaii]], leading the [[United States]] to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and [[Southeast Asia]], but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the [[Battle of Midway]]. In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated [[North African campaign|in North Africa]] and [[Battle of Stalingrad|at Stalingrad]] in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the [[Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy|fall of its fascist regime]], and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies [[Normandy landings|invaded France at Normandy]], and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in [[Battle of West Hunan|South-Central China]] and [[Burma campaign|Burma]].

The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of [[German-occupied Europe|German-occupied territories]] and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the [[Battle of Berlin|fall of Berlin]] to Soviet troops, and [[German Instrument of Surrender|Germany's unconditional surrender]] on [[Victory in Europe Day|8 May 1945]]. On 6 and 9 August, the US [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|dropped atomic bombs]] on [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in Japan. Japan announced its [[Surrender of Japan|unconditional surrender]] on 15 August, and signed [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|a surrender document]] on [[Victory over Japan Day|2 September 1945]]. World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The [[United Nations]] was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] of its [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]]. The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival [[superpower]]s, setting the stage for the [[Cold War]]. In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the [[decolonisation of Africa]] and [[Decolonisation of Asia|of Asia]]. Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards [[Post–World War II economic expansion|economic recovery and expansion]].

== Start and end dates ==
{{See also|List of timelines of World War II}}
{{WWII timeline}}

Most historians agree that World War II began with the [[German invasion of Poland]] on 1 September 1939 and the [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)|British]] and [[French declaration of war on Germany (1939)|French]] declarations of war on Germany two days later.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=6}} Dates for the beginning of the [[Pacific War]] include the start of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] on 7 July 1937, or the earlier [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]] on 18 September 1931.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ferris |first1=John |last2=Mawdsley |first2=Evan |title=The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=[[Cambridge]] |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Förster|Gessler|2005|p=64}} <ref>Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) ''Imperial Japan's World War Two''. Transaction Publishers, pp. 7, 30.</ref><ref>Polmar, Norman; Allen, Thomas B. (1991) ''[[iarchive:worldwariiameric00polm|World War II: America at War, 1941–1945]]''. {{ISBN|978-0-3945-8530-7}}</ref> Other proposed starting dates include the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italian invasion of Abyssinia]] on 3 October 1935.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ben-Horin|1943|p=169}}; {{Harvnb|Taylor|1979|p=124}}; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). ''Asian and African Studies'', p. 191. For 1941 see {{Harvnb|Taylor|1961|p=vii}}; Kellogg, William O. (2003) ''[[iarchive:americanhistorye00kell|American History the Easy Way]]''. Barron's Educational Series, p. 236. {{ISBN|978-0-7641-1973-6}}. There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II were part of the same "[[European Civil War]]" or "[[Second Thirty Years' War]]": {{Harvnb|Canfora|2006|p=155}}; {{Harvnb|Prins|2002|p=11}}.</ref> The British historian [[Antony Beevor]] views the beginning of World War II as the [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol]] fought between [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] and the forces of [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]] and the [[Soviet Union]] from May to September 1939.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=10}} Others view the [[Spanish Civil War]] as the start or prelude to World War II.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 March 2017 |title=In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII' |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/03/10/519462137/in-many-ways-author-says-spanish-civil-war-was-the-first-battle-of-wwii |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416013707/https://www.npr.org/2017/03/10/519462137/in-many-ways-author-says-spanish-civil-war-was-the-first-battle-of-wwii |archive-date=16 April 2021 |access-date=16 April 2021 |work=[[Fresh Air]] |publisher=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frank |first=Willard C. |date=1987 |title=The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40105814 |url-status=live |journal=The International History Review |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=368–409 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449 |jstor=40105814 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201143429/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40105814 |archive-date=1 February 2022 |access-date=17 February 2022 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ([[Victory over Japan Day|V-J Day]]), rather than with the formal [[surrender of Japan]] on 2 September 1945, which officially [[End of World War II in Asia|ended the war in Asia]]. A [[Treaty of San Francisco|peace treaty between Japan and the Allies]] was signed in 1951.{{sfn|Masaya|1990|p=4}} A 1990 [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|treaty regarding Germany's future]] allowed the [[German reunification|reunification of East and West Germany]] to take place.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 1990 |title=Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany |url=https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/2plusfour8994e.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180629/https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/2plusfour8994e.htm |archive-date=7 May 2012 |access-date=6 May 2012 |publisher=usa.usembassy.de}}</ref> No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the [[Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956]], which also restored full diplomatic relations between them.<ref>{{cite web |url-status=live |url=https://asiatimes.com/article/fact-box-japan-russia-never-signed-wwii-peace-treaty/ |title=Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180604072306/https://www.atimes.com/article/fact-box-japan-russia-never-signed-wwii-peace-treaty |archive-date=4 June 2018 |website=Asia Times |agency=Reuters |date=15 December 2016}}</ref><ref name=nyt>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1956/10/20/archives/texts-of-sovietjapanese-statements-peace-declaration-trade-protocol.html |title=Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209133402/https://www.nytimes.com/1956/10/20/archives/texts-of-sovietjapanese-statements-peace-declaration-trade-protocol.html |archive-date=9 December 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |page=2 |date=20 October 1956 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Background ==
{{Main|Causes of World War II}}

=== Aftermath of World War I ===
{{stack|[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-09042, Genf, Völkerbund, Sitzungssaal.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[League of Nations]] assembly, held in [[Geneva]], Switzerland (1930)]]}}

[[World War I]] radically altered the European political map. The most prominent nations of the [[Central Powers]] each lost territory in their respective peace treaties at the conclusion of the conflict. New [[Nation state|nation-states]] were created out of the dissolution of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], and [[Russian Empire|Russian Empires]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mintz |first=Steven |title=Historical Context: The Global Effect of World War I |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teaching-resource/historical-context-global-effect-world-war-i |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304193001/https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teaching-resource/historical-context-global-effect-world-war-i |archive-date=4 March 2024 |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2025}}

To prevent a future world war, the [[League of Nations]] was established in 1920 by the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]]. The organisation's primary function was to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and [[Washington Naval Treaty|naval disarmament]], as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gerwarth |first=Robert |title=Paris Peace Treaties failed to create a secure, peaceful and lasting world order |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/paris-peace-treaties-failed-to-create-a-secure-peaceful-and-lasting-world-order-1.3745849 |date=Jan 21, 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814213229/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/paris-peace-treaties-failed-to-create-a-secure-peaceful-and-lasting-world-order-1.3745849 |archive-date=14 August 2021 |access-date=29 October 2021 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |language=en}}</ref>

Despite strong pacifist sentiment [[Aftermath of World War I|after World War{{nbsp}}I]], [[Irredentism|irredentist]] and [[Revanchism|revanchist]] [[nationalism]] had emerged in several European states.{{sfn|Ingram|2006|pp=[{{GBurl|id=bREQibN9i-sC|p=76}} 76–78]}} These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all [[German colonial empire|its overseas possessions]], while German annexation of other states was prohibited, [[World War I reparations|reparations]] were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's [[Reichswehr|armed forces]].{{sfn|Kantowicz|1999|p=149}}

=== Germany and Italy ===
The [[German Empire]] was dissolved in the [[German revolution of 1918–1919]], and a democratic government, later known as the [[Weimar Republic]], was created. The [[interwar period]] saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the [[Treaty of London (1915)|promises made]] by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the [[Italian fascism|fascist]] movement led by [[Benito Mussolini]] seized power in Italy with a nationalist, [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]], and [[class collaboration]]ist agenda that abolished [[representative democracy]], repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire."{{sfn|Shaw|2000|p=35}}

[[File:Nürnberg Reichsparteitag Hitler retouched.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Adolf Hitler]] at a German [[Nazism|Nazi]] political rally in [[Nuremberg]], August 1933]]
[[Adolf Hitler]], after an [[Beer Hall Putsch|unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government]] in 1923, eventually [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|became the chancellor of Germany]] in 1933 when President [[Paul von Hindenburg]] and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself ''Führer'' of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a [[New Order (Nazism)|radical, racially motivated revision of the world order]], and soon began a massive [[German rearmament|rearmament campaign]].{{sfn|Brody|1999|p=4}} France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, [[Franco-Italian Agreement of 1935|allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia]], which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the [[Territory of the Saar Basin]] was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.{{sfn|Zalampas|1989|p=62}}

=== European treaties ===
The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the [[Stresa Front]] in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards [[Military globalization|military globalisation]]; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement|independent naval agreement]] with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's [[Drang nach Osten|goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe]], drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the [[Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance|Franco-Soviet pact]] was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mandelbaum|1988|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Record|2005|p=50}}.</ref> The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s|Neutrality Act]] in August of the same year.{{sfn|Schmitz|2000|p=124}}

Hitler defied the Versailles and [[Locarno Treaties]] by [[Remilitarisation of the Rhineland|remilitarising the Rhineland]] in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of [[appeasement]].{{sfn|Adamthwaite|1992|p=52}} In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the [[Axis powers|Rome–Berlin Axis]]. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], which Italy joined the following year.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=298–299}}

=== Asia ===
The [[Kuomintang]] party in China launched a [[Northern Expedition|unification campaign]] against [[Warlord Era|regional warlords]] and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in [[Chinese Civil War|a civil war]] against its former [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) allies and [[Central Plains War|new regional warlords]].{{sfn|Preston|1998|p=104}} In 1931, an [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|increasingly militaristic]] [[Empire of Japan]], which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's [[Hakkō ichiu|right to rule Asia]], staged the [[Mukden incident]] as a pretext to [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|invade Manchuria]] and establish the [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]].{{sfn|Myers|Peattie|1987|p=458}}{{sfn|Smith|Steadman|2004|p=28}}

China appealed to the [[League of Nations]] to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being [[Lytton Report|condemned]] for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in [[January 28 incident|Shanghai]], [[Battle of Rehe|Rehe]], and [[Defense of the Great Wall|Hebei]], until the [[Tanggu Truce]] was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in [[Pacification of Manchukuo|Manchuria]], and [[Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)|Chahar and Suiyuan]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Coogan|1993}}: "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies."</ref> After the 1936 [[Xi'an Incident]], the Kuomintang and [[Chinese Communist Party|CCP]] forces agreed on a ceasefire to present [[Second United Front|a united front]] to oppose Japan.{{sfn|Busky|2002|p=10}}

== Pre-war events ==

=== Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) ===
{{Main|Second Italo-Ethiopian War}}

[[File:Mussolini truppe Etiopia.jpg|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] inspecting troops during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italo-Ethiopian War]], 1935]]

The [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] was a [[colonial war]] that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the [[Ethiopian Empire]] (also known as [[Etymology of Ethiopia|Abyssinia]]) by the armed forces of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] ({{lang|it|Regno d'Italia}}), which was launched from [[Italian Somaliland]] and [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Stanton |first1=Andrea L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC |title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia |last2=Ramsamy |first2=Edward |last3=Seybolt |first3=Peter J. |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-4129-8176-7 |page=308 |access-date=6 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201327/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC |archive-date=7 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The war resulted in the [[military occupation]] of Ethiopia and its [[annexation]] into the newly created colony of [[Italian East Africa]] ({{lang|it|Africa Orientale Italiana}}); in addition it exposed the weakness of the [[League of Nations]] as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, [[Appeasement|but the League did little]] when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's [[Covenant of the League of Nations|Covenant]].{{sfn|Barker|1971|pp=131–132}} The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=289}} Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing [[Federal State of Austria|Austria]].{{sfn|Kitson|2001|p=231}}

=== Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) ===
{{Main|Spanish Civil War}}

When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalist rebels]], led by General [[Francisco Franco]]. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.{{sfn|Neulen|2000|page=25}} The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the [[Second Spanish Republic|Spanish Republic]]. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the [[International Brigades]], also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this [[proxy war]] as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War{{nbsp}}II but [[Spain during World War II|generally favoured the Axis]].{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=271}} His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of [[Blue Division|volunteers]] to fight on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]].{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=146}}

=== Japanese invasion of China (1937) ===
{{Main|Second Sino-Japanese War}}
[[File:Taierzhuang.jpg|thumb|[[National Revolutionary Army|Chinese soldiers]] battle the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] in [[Taierzhuang]], 1938]]

In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of [[Beijing|Peking]] after instigating the [[Marco Polo Bridge incident]], which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|tension]] and [[January 28 incident|low-level]] [[Suiyuan campaign|conflicts]].{{sfn|Eastman|1986|pp=547–551}} The Soviets quickly signed a [[Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact with China]] to lend [[materiel]] support, effectively ending China's [[China–Germany relations (1912–1949)|prior cooperation with Germany]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Sarah |title=The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

From September to November, the Japanese attacked [[Battle of Taiyuan|Taiyuan]], engaged the [[National Revolutionary Army|Kuomintang Army]] [[Battle of Xinkou|around Xinkou]], fought [[Chinese Communist Party|Communist forces]] [[Battle of Pingxingguan|in Pingxingguan]],Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" and wrestled control over China's northern railway network.<ref name="Tucker2009">{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA1873 |title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-8510-9672-5 |access-date=27 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201303/https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA1873 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |url-status=live |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Hsu & Chang 1971 221">{{Harvnb|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=195–200}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dorn |first=Frank |title=The Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1941 |date=1974 |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> Nationalist [[Generalissimo]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]] deployed his [[List of German-trained divisions of the National Revolutionary Army|best army]] to [[Battle of Shanghai|defend Shanghai]], but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, [[Battle of Nanking|capturing the capital Nanking]] in December 1937.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Wakabayashi |first=Bob |title=The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture |date=2007 |publisher=Berghahn Books |pages=384}}</ref><ref>Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. ''The Massacre in History''. 1999, pp. 223–224</ref><ref name="tot">Totten, Samuel. ''Dictionary of Genocide''. 2008, 298–299.</ref>

In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their [[Battle of Taierzhuang|first major victory at Taierzhuang]], but [[Battle of Xuzhou|ultimately lost control of the city]] of [[Xuzhou]] in May.{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=221–230}} In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by [[1938 Yellow River flood|flooding the Yellow River]]; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at [[Wuhan]] at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the [[Battle of Wuhan|city was taken]] by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River.{{sfn|Eastman|1986|p=566}}

Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to [[Chongqing]] and continued the war.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=150–152}}{{sfn|Sella|1983|pp=651–687}} Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began [[Bombing of Chongqing|striking cities in the Sichuan basin]] in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitter |first=Rana |title=Forgotten Ally |date=2013 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Sarah |title=The Wars for Asia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=185}}</ref>

=== Soviet–Japanese border conflicts ===
{{Main|Soviet–Japanese border conflicts}}

In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in [[Manchukuo]] had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]]. The Japanese doctrine of [[Hokushin-ron]], which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|Khalkin Gol]] in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=342}} Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact|Neutrality Pact]] in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of [[Nanshin-ron]], promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Goldman |first=Stuart D. |date=28 August 2012 |title=The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/the-forgotten-soviet-japanese-war-of-1939 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629092821/https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/the-forgotten-soviet-japanese-war-of-1939 |archive-date=29 June 2015 |access-date=26 June 2015 |magazine=The Diplomat}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Neeno |first=Timothy |title=Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War |url=https://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/20thcentury/articles/nomonhan.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124070956/https://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/20thcentury/articles/nomonhan.aspx |archive-date=24 November 2005 |access-date=26 June 2015 |publisher=MilitaryHistoryOnline.com}}</ref>

=== European occupations and agreements ===
[[File:Munich Agreement Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R69173.jpg|thumb|[[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], [[Édouard Daladier|Daladier]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], and [[Galeazzo Ciano|Ciano]] pictured just before signing the [[Munich Agreement]], 29 September 1938]]

In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany [[Anschluss|annexed Austria]], again provoking [[Appeasement|little response]] from other European powers.{{sfn|Collier|Pedley|2000|p=144}} Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the [[Sudetenland]], an area of [[Czechoslovakia]] with a predominantly [[Germans|ethnic German]] population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] and conceded this territory to Germany in the [[Munich Agreement]], which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|pp=121–122}} Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to [[First Vienna Award|cede additional territory]] to Hungary, and Poland annexed the [[Trans-Olza]] region of Czechoslovakia.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=157}}

Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 [[Plan Z|secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy]] to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, [[Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)|Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia]] and subsequently split it into the German [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] and a pro-German [[client state]], the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]].{{sfn|Davies|2006|loc=pp. 143–144 (2008 ed.)}} Hitler also delivered an [[1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania|ultimatum to Lithuania]] on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the [[Klaipėda Region]], formerly the German ''Memelland''.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=461–462}}

Following further demands from Hitler regarding the [[Free City of Danzig]] and the [[Polish corridor]], the United Kingdom and France [[Anglo-Polish alliance#British assurance to Poland|guaranteed their support for Polish independence]]. When [[Italian invasion of Albania|Italy conquered Albania]] in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the [[Kingdom of Romania|Kingdoms of Romania]] and [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]].{{sfn|Lowe|Marzari|2002|p=330}} Shortly after the [[Franco-Polish alliance|Franco]]-[[Anglo-Polish alliance|British]] pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the [[Pact of Steel]].{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=234}} Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to encircle Germany and renounced the [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement]] and the [[German–Polish declaration of non-aggression]].{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=471}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27337, Moskau, Stalin und Ribbentrop im Kreml.jpg|right|thumb|upright|German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] (right) and the Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]] after signing the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], 23 August 1939]]
The situation became a crisis in late August as Germany concentrated its forces near the Polish border. On 23 August, the Soviet Union signed [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|a non-aggression pact]] with Germany, after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled.{{sfn|Shore|2003|p=108}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Watson |first=Derek |date=2000 |title=Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=695–722 |doi=10.1080/713663077 |jstor=153322 |s2cid=144385167}}</ref> This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet spheres of influence: Lithuania for Germany; Finland, [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Bessarabia]] for the Soviet Union; and Poland to be partitioned between the two powers.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=608}} The pact ensured that Germany would not face a war with the Soviet Union when it invaded Poland. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.{{Sfn|Weinberg|1995|pp=37-42}}

Germany offered Britain an alliance if Britain helped Germany gain Danzig, the Polish corridor and its former colonies, but Britain replied that it would honour its guarantee to Poland.{{Sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=216}} On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish [[plenipotentiary]] travel to Berlin by the following day to negotiate a solution to the crisis, but Britain rejected the timeline as unreasonable. On the night of 30–31 August, the British ambassador [[Nevile Henderson]] met German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]]. Ribbentrop handed him Hitler's demands regarding Poland then announced that the deadline for Poland's acceptance had already passed.{{Sfn|Kershaw|2001|pp=218-219}}

== Course of the war ==
{{For timeline|List of timelines of World War II}}
{{See also|Diplomatic history of World War II|World War II by country}}

=== War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) ===
{{Main|European theatre of World War II}}

[[File:Germans at Polish Border (1939-09-01).jpg|thumb|A [[Propaganda in Nazi Germany|German propaganda]] photograph reenacting the removal of the Polish border crossing in [[Sopot]]<ref>{{cite web | title=Historyczna fotografia było pozowaną "ustawką"! | website=PolskieRadio.pl | url=https://www.polskieradio.pl/10/512/artykul/715295,historyczna-fotografia-bylo-pozowana-ustawka | language=pl | access-date=2025-03-18 | archive-date=3 July 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703014357/https://www.polskieradio.pl/10/512/artykul/715295,historyczna-fotografia-bylo-pozowana-ustawka | url-status=live }}</ref>]]
On 1 September 1939, Germany [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] after [[Operation Himmler|having staged]] several [[Gleiwitz incident|false flag border incidents]] as a pretext to initiate the invasion.{{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=1–2}} The first German attack of the war came [[Battle of Westerplatte|against the Polish defences at Westerplatte]].<ref name="Zabecki2015">{{Cite book |last=Zabecki |first=David T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mq_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1663 |title=World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-1358-1242-3 |page=1663 |quote=The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate |access-date=17 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201256/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mq_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1663 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The United Kingdom responded with an [[ultimatum]] for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.{{efn|[[United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)|The UK declared war on Germany]] at 11 am. [[French declaration of war on Germany (1939)|France followed 6 hours later]] at 5 pm.}} During the [[Phoney War]] period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a [[Saar Offensive|cautious French probe into the Saarland]].<ref name="Keegan 1997 35">{{Harvnb|Keegan|1997|p=35}}. {{Harvnb|Cienciala|2010|p=128}}, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War{{nbsp}}II{{nbsp}}... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so."</ref> The Western Allies also began a [[Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)|naval blockade of Germany]], which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=32}}; {{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=248–249}}; {{Harvnb|Roskill|1954|p=64}}.</ref> Germany responded by ordering [[Submarine warfare#World War II|U-boat warfare]] against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the [[Battle of the Atlantic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of the Atlantic |url=https://www.history.co.uk/history-of-ww2/battle-of-the-atlantic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520073745/https://www.history.co.uk/history-of-ww2/battle-of-the-atlantic |archive-date=20 May 2022 |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=Sky HISTORY TV channel |language=en}}</ref>
On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of [[Warsaw]]. The [[Battle of the Bzura|Polish counter-offensive]] to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''. Remnants of the Polish army broke through to [[Siege of Warsaw (1939)|besieged Warsaw]]. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|cease-fire with Japan]], the [[Soviet invasion of Poland|Soviet Union invaded Poland]]{{sfn|Zaloga|2002|pp=80, 83}} under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ginsburgs |first=George |date=1958 |title=A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939 |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=69–84 |doi=10.2307/2195670 |jstor=2195670 |s2cid=146904066}}</ref> On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and [[Independent Operational Group Polesie|the last large operational unit of the Polish Army]] [[Battle of Kock (1939)|surrendered on 6{{nbsp}}October]]. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the [[Polish government-in-exile]] and a [[Polish Underground State|clandestine state apparatus remained]] in occupied Poland.{{sfn|Hempel|2005|p=24}} A significant part of Polish military personnel [[Romanian Bridgehead|evacuated to Romania]] and Latvia; many of them later [[Military history of Poland during World War II|fought against the Axis]] in other theatres of the war.{{sfn|Zaloga|2002|pp=88–89}}

Germany [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|annexed western]] Poland and [[General Government|occupied central Poland]]; the Soviet Union [[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|annexed eastern Poland]]. Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to [[Territorial evolution of Poland#World War II|Lithuania]] and [[Slovak invasion of Poland|Slovakia]]. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected<ref name="ibiblio1939">{{Cite web |title=Major international events of 1939, with explanation |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1939.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310103815/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1939.html |archive-date=10 March 2013 |access-date=9 May 2013 |publisher=Ibiblio.org}}</ref> and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,<ref>Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible."</ref> which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather.{{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Bullock|1990|loc=pp. 563–564, 566, 568–569, 574–575 (1983 ed.)}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=[[Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk]] |first=Len |last=Deighton |author-link=Len Deighton |publisher=Jonathan Cape |date=1979 |isbn=978-0-2240-1648-3 |pages=186–187}} Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place."</ref>

[[File:Karelian Isthmus 13 March 1940.png|thumb|[[Mannerheim Line]] and [[Karelian Isthmus]] on the last day of the [[Winter War]], 13 March 1940]]
After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]] with military invasion, forcing the three [[Baltic states|Baltic countries]] to sign [[Background of the occupation of the Baltic states#Soviet ultimatums and occupation|pacts]] allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.{{sfn|Smith|Pabriks|Purs|Lane|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=55–56}} [[Finland]] refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. [[Winter War#Soviet invasion|The Soviet Union invaded Finland]] in November 1939,{{sfn|Spring|1986|pp=207–226}} and was subsequently expelled from the [[League of Nations]] for this crime of aggression.<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Dyke |first=Carl |title=The Soviet Invasion of Finland |date=1997 |publisher=Frank Cass Publishers |isbn=978-0-7146-4753-1 |location=Portland, Oregon |page=71}}</ref> Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the [[Winter War]] was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with [[Moscow Peace Treaty|some Finnish concessions of territory]].{{sfn|Hanhimäki|1997|p=12}}

In June 1940, the Soviet Union [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|occupied]] the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}} as well as the Romanian regions of [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region]]. In August 1940, Hitler imposed the [[Second Vienna Award]] on Romania which led to the transfer of [[Northern Transylvania]] to Hungary.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=745, 975}} In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded [[Southern Dobruja]] from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the [[Treaty of Craiova]].<ref name="Haynes-2000">{{Cite book |last=Haynes |first=Rebecca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_I-AQAAIAAJ |title=Romanian policy towards Germany, 1936–40 |date=2000 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0-3122-3260-3 |page=205 |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201243/https://books.google.com/books?id=b_I-AQAAIAAJ |archive-date=7 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against [[Carol II of Romania|King Carol II]], turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal [[Ion Antonescu]], with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.<ref>Deletant, pp. 48–51, 66; Griffin (1993), p. 126; Ornea, pp. 325–327</ref> Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation{{sfn|Ferguson|2006|pp=367, 376, 379, 417}}{{sfn|Snyder|2010|pp=118ff}} gradually stalled,{{sfn|Koch|1983|pp=912–914, 917–920}}{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=56}} and both states began preparations for war.{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=59}}

=== Western Europe (1940–1941) ===
{{Main|Western Front (World War II)}}

[[File:WWIIEuropeMay40.gif|thumb|upright=1.4|German advance into Belgium and Northern France, 10 May{{snd}}4 June 1940, sweeping past the [[Maginot Line]] (shown in dark red)]]

In April 1940, [[Operation Weserübung|Germany invaded Denmark and Norway]] to protect shipments of [[Swedish iron-ore industry during World War II|iron ore from Sweden]], which the Allies were [[Operation Wilfred|attempting to cut off]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=57–63}}.</ref> [[German invasion of Denmark (1940)|Denmark capitulated after six hours]], and [[Norwegian campaign|despite Allied support]], Norway was conquered within two months.{{sfn|Commager|2004|p=9}} [[Norway Debate|British discontent over the Norwegian campaign]] led to the resignation of Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]], who was replaced by [[Winston Churchill]] on 10{{spaces}}May 1940.{{sfn|Reynolds|2006|p=76}}

On the same day, Germany [[Battle of France|launched an offensive against France]]. To circumvent the strong [[Maginot Line]] fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of [[German invasion of Belgium (1940)|Belgium]], [[German invasion of the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], and [[German invasion of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]].{{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=122–123}} The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the [[Ardennes]] region,{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=59–60}} which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.{{sfn|Regan|2004|p=152}}{{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|p=48}} By successfully implementing new ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' tactics, the ''Wehrmacht'' rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able [[Dunkirk evacuation|to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops]] from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment.{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=66–67}}

On 10 June, [[Italian invasion of France|Italy invaded France]], declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=207}} The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and [[Paris in World War II|Paris]] fell to them on 14{{spaces}}June. Eight days later [[Armistice of 22 June 1940|France signed an armistice with Germany]]; it was divided into [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German]] and [[Italian occupation of France|Italian occupation zones]],{{sfn|Umbreit|1991|p=311}} and an unoccupied [[rump state]] under the [[Vichy France|Vichy Regime]], which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir|the United Kingdom attacked]] on 3{{spaces}}July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany.{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=198}}

[[File:St Paul destroyed.jpg|thumb|London's [[St Paul's Cathedral]] after the German [[The Blitz|Blitz]] on December 29, 1940]]

The air [[Battle of Britain]]{{sfn|Keegan|1997|p=[{{GBurl|id=TF8kcx9hTssC|p=72}} 72]}} began in early July with [[Kanalkampf|Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours]].<ref name="Murray_BoB">{{harvnb|Murray|1983|loc=[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-2.html#cn70 The Battle of Britain].}}</ref> The [[Adlertag|German campaign for air superiority]] started in August but its failure to defeat [[RAF Fighter Command]] forced the indefinite postponement of the [[Operation Sea Lion|proposed German invasion of Britain]]. The German [[strategic bombing]] offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in [[the Blitz]], but largely ended in May 1941{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=108–109}} after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort.{{r|Murray_BoB}}

Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy [[Battle of the Atlantic#'The Happy Time' (June 1940 – February 1941)|enjoyed success]] against an over-extended [[Royal Navy]], using [[U-boat]]s against British shipping [[Battle of the Atlantic|in the Atlantic]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldstein|2004|p=35}}</ref> The British [[Home Fleet]] scored a significant victory on 27{{spaces}}May 1941 by [[Last battle of Bismarck|sinking the German battleship ''Bismarck'']].<ref>{{Harvnb|Steury|1987|p=209}}; {{Harvnb|Zetterling|Tamelander|2009|p=282}}.</ref>

In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s|Neutrality Act]] to allow "[[Cash and carry (World War II)|cash and carry]]" purchases by the Allies.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|pp=328–330}} In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the [[United States Navy]] was [[Two-Ocean Navy Act|significantly increased]]. In September the United States further agreed to a [[Destroyers-for-bases deal|trade of American destroyers for British bases]].{{sfn|Maingot|1994|p=52}} Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.{{sfn|Cantril|1940|p=390}} In December 1940, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an "[[Arsenal of Democracy|arsenal of democracy]]" and promoting [[Lend-Lease]] programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]] by Germany.<ref name="ibiblio_1940">{{Cite web |title=Major international events of 1940, with explanation |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1940.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525060313/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1940.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |publisher=Ibiblio.org}}</ref> The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Skinner Watson |first=Mark |title=Coordination With Britain |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Plans/USA-WD-Plans-12.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430001549/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Plans/USA-WD-Plans-12.html |archive-date=30 April 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations}}</ref>

At the end of September 1940, the [[Tripartite Pact]] formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the [[Axis powers]]. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.{{Sfn|Bilhartz|Elliott|2007|p=179}} The Axis expanded in November 1940 when [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]], [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovakia]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] joined.{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=877}} [[Romania in World War II|Romania]] and [[Hungary in World War II|Hungary]] later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|territory ceded to the Soviet Union]].{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=745–746}}

=== Mediterranean (1940–1941) ===
{{Main|Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II}}

In early June 1940, the Italian ''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'' [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|attacked and besieged Malta]], a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy [[Italian invasion of British Somaliland|conquered British Somaliland]] and made an [[Italian invasion of Egypt|incursion into British-held Egypt]]. In October, [[Greco-Italian War|Italy attacked Greece]], but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.{{sfn|Clogg|2002|p=118}} To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=146, 152}}; {{Harvnb|US Army|1986|pp=[http://web.archive.org/web/20250123181154/https://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/20_260_1.htm 4–6]}}</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0109-11, Nordafrika, Panzer III in Fahrt.jpg|thumb|German [[Panzer III]] of the [[Afrika Korps]] advancing across the North African desert, April 1941]]
In December 1940, British Empire forces began [[Operation Compass|counter-offensives]] against Italian forces in Egypt and [[East African campaign (World War II)|Italian East Africa]].{{sfn|Jowett|2001|pp=9–10}} The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The [[Regia Marina|Italian Navy]] also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a [[Battle of Taranto|carrier attack at Taranto]], and neutralising several more warships at the [[Battle of Cape Matapan]].{{sfn|Jackson|2006|p=106}}

Italian defeats prompted Germany to [[Operation Sonnenblume|deploy an expeditionary force]] to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, [[Erwin Rommel]]'s [[Afrika Korps]] [[Western Desert campaign|launched an offensive]] which drove back Commonwealth forces.{{sfn|Laurier|2001|pp=7–8}} In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and [[Siege of Tobruk|besieged the port of Tobruk]].{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=263–276}}

By late March 1941, [[Tsardom of Bulgaria (1908–1946)|Bulgaria]] and [[Yugoslavia]] signed the [[Tripartite Pact]]; however, the Yugoslav government was [[Yugoslav coup d'état|overthrown two days later]] by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both [[Invasion of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[German invasion of Greece|Greece]], commencing on 6 April 1941 with a [[German bombing of Belgrade|massive bombing of Belgrade]]; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|pages=174–175}} The airborne [[Battle of Crete|invasion of the Greek island of Crete]] at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|pages=184–187}} Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the [[World War II in Yugoslavia|Axis occupation of Yugoslavia]], which continued until the end of the war.{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|pages=208, 575, 604}}

In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces [[Anglo-Iraqi War|quashed an uprising in Iraq]] which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Syria]].{{sfn|Watson|2003|p=80}} Between June and July, British-led forces [[Syria–Lebanon campaign|invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon]], assisted by the [[Free France|Free French]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Morrisey |first=Will |title=Winston Churchill |date=2019 |pages=119–126 |chapter=What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780429027642-6 |isbn=978-0-4290-2764-2 |s2cid=189257503}}</ref>

=== Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) ===
{{Main|Eastern Front (World War II)}}

[[File:Second world war europe animation large de.gif|thumb|upright=1.2|[[European theatre of World War II]] animation map, 1939–1945 – Red: [[Allies of World War II|Western Allies]] and the Soviet Union after 1941; Green: [[Soviet Union]] before 1941; Blue: [[Axis powers]]]]

With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in [[Southeast Asia]], the two powers signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] in April 1941.{{sfn|Garver|1988|p=114}} By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=195}}

Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany.{{sfn|Murray|1983|p=[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-3.html 69]}} On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]], the [[Baltic states]] and [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussia]].<ref name="GSWW4_26">{{Harvnb|Förster|1998|p=26}}.</ref> However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.<ref name="GSWW4_38">{{Harvnb|Förster|1998|pp=38–42}}.</ref> In November 1940, [[German–Soviet Axis talks|negotiations took place]] to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=810–812}}
On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]], with Germany accusing the Soviets of [[Soviet offensive plans controversy|plotting against them]]; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.<ref name="Events1941">{{Citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |date=1944 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214113907/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events |archive-date=14 December 2013 |url-status=live |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |at=pp. 267–312 ([https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |place=Washington, DC |publisher=US Government Printing Office |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn}}</ref> The primary targets of this surprise offensive{{sfn|Sella|1978|p=555}} were the [[Baltic region]], Moscow and Ukraine, with the [[Strategic goal (military)|ultimate goal]] of ending the 1941 campaign near the [[A–A line|Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line]]—from the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] to the [[White Sea]]s. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate [[communism]], generate ''[[Lebensraum]]'' ("living space"){{sfn|Kershaw|2007|pp=66–69}} by [[Generalplan Ost|dispossessing the native population]],{{sfn|Steinberg|1995}} and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.{{sfn|Hauner|1978}}
[[File:Einsatzgruppen murder Jews in Ivanhorod, Ukraine, 1942.jpg|thumb|A member of the [[Einsatzgruppen]] prepares to shoot a Jewish mother holding her child, [[Ivanhorod|Ivangorod]], Ukraine]]

Although the [[Red Army]] was preparing for strategic [[counter-offensive]]s before the war,{{sfn|Roberts|1995}} Operation Barbarossa forced the [[Stavka|Soviet supreme command]] to adopt [[strategic defence]]. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive [[Encirclement|encirclements]] around [[Battle of Białystok–Minsk|Minsk]], [[Battle of Smolensk (1941)|Smolensk]], and [[Battle of Uman|Uman]].

[[Commissar Order|Nazi policy]] entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the [[Commissar Order]], and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be [[German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war|deliberately starved to death]]. By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate.{{sfn|Snyder|2010|pp=176-180}}

By mid-August, however, the German [[Oberkommando des Heeres|Army High Command]] decided to [[Battle of Smolensk (1941)|suspend the offensive]] of a considerably depleted [[Army Group Centre]], and to divert the [[2nd Panzer Army|2nd Panzer Group]] to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.{{sfn|Wilt|1981}} The [[Battle of Kiev (1941)|Kiev offensive]] was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further [[Crimean campaign|advance into Crimea]] and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the [[First Battle of Kharkov]]).{{sfn|Erickson|2003|pp=114–137}}

The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=9}} prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its [[grand strategy]].{{sfn|Farrell|1993}} In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a [[Anglo-Soviet Agreement|military alliance against Germany]]{{sfn|Keeble|1990|p=29}} and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the [[Atlantic Charter]], which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=220}} In late August the British and Soviets [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|invaded neutral Iran]] to secure the [[Persian Corridor]], Iran's [[oil fields]], and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India.{{sfn|Bueno de Mesquita|Smith|Siverson|Morrow|2003|p=425}}

[[File:RIAN archive 2153 After bombing.jpg|thumb|Russian civilians leaving destroyed houses after a German bombardment during the [[siege of Leningrad]] ([[Saint Petersburg]]), 10 December 1942]]

By October, Axis powers had achieved [[operational objective]]s in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of [[siege of Leningrad|Leningrad]]{{sfn|Kleinfeld|1983}} and [[Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)|Sevastopol]] continuing.{{sfn|Jukes|2001|p=113}} A major [[Battle of Moscow|offensive against Moscow]] was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=26}}: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½ million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions."</ref> were forced to suspend the offensive.{{sfn|Reinhardt|1992|p=227}} Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet [[Military capability|capability to resist]] was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The ''blitzkrieg'' [[Phase (combat)|phase]] of the war in Europe had ended.{{sfn|Milward|1964}}

By early December, freshly mobilised [[Military reserve force|reserves]]{{sfn|Rotundo|1986}} allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=26}} This, as well as [[Richard Sorge#Wartime intelligence|intelligence data]] which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese [[Kwantung Army]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deighton |first=Len |url=https://archive.org/details/bloodtearsfollyo0000deig_v3m3 |title=Blood, Tears and Folly |date=1993 |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=978-0-7126-6226-0 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodtearsfollyo0000deig_v3m3/page/479 479]}}</ref> allowed the Soviets to begin a [[Winter campaign of 1941–1942|massive counter-offensive]] that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops {{convert|100|-|250|km|mi}} west.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|1998|pp=41–42}}; {{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=213–214}}, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before.{{nbsp}}... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse."</ref>

=== War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) ===
{{main|Pacific War}}

[[File:228 regiment in HK.jpg|thumb|Japanese soldiers [[Battle of Hong Kong|entering Hong Kong]], 8 December 1941]]

Following the Japanese [[false flag]] [[Mukden incident]] in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American [[USS Panay incident|gunboat USS ''Panay'']] in 1937, and the 1937–1938 [[Nanjing Massacre]], [[Japan–United States relations#1937–1941|Japanese-American relations deteriorated]]. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the [[Export Control Act]]s—which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.{{r|ibiblio_1940}}<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1983 |title=Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw |url-status=live |journal=U.S. Department of State Publication |issue=1983 |pages=87–97 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114073007/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw |archive-date=14 January 2022 |access-date=17 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Maechling, Charles. ''Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War''. History Today. December 2000</ref> During 1939 Japan launched its [[Battle of Changsha (1939)|first attack against Changsha]], but was repulsed by late September.{{sfn|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=14}} Despite [[1939–1940 Winter Offensive|several offensives]] by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina|occupied northern Indochina]] in September 1940.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=289}}

Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale [[1939–1940 Winter Offensive|counter-offensive]] in early 1940. In August, [[Chinese Communist Party|Chinese communists]] launched an [[Hundred Regiments Offensive|offensive in Central China]];{{sfn|Frank|2020|p=161}} in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the [[Three Alls policy|Three Alls Policy]], a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation..<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Sarah |title=The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=155}}</ref>{{sfn|Joes|2004|p=224}} Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces [[New Fourth Army incident|culminated in armed clashes in January 1941]], effectively ending their co-operation.{{sfn|Fairbank|Goldman|2006|p=320}} In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the [[Battle of Shanggao]].{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|p=30}} In September, Japan attempted to [[Battle of Changsha (1941)|take the city of Changsha]] again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|p=33}}

German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in [[Southeast Asia]]. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the [[Dutch East Indies]], but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 – July 1941 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-2.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106021700/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-2.html |archive-date=6 January 2013 |access-date=15 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years |pages=45–66}}</ref> In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil [[Economic sanctions|embargo]].{{sfn|Anderson|1975|p=201}}{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|2012|p=456}} At the same time, Japan was [[Kantokuen|planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East]], intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coox |first=Alvin |title=Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 |date=1985 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-1835-6 |location=Stanford, California |pages=1046–1049}}</ref>

Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.<ref name="USAWWIIcp5">{{Cite web |title=The decision for War |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525064812/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |access-date=15 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategy, and Command: The First Two Years |pages=113–127}}</ref> At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.<ref name="USAWWIIcp4">{{Cite web |title=The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-4.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109144920/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-4.html |archive-date=9 November 2012 |access-date=15 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=63–96}}</ref> Roosevelt reinforced [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|the Philippines]] (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries".{{r|USAWWIIcp4}}

Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor [[Hirohito]], after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,{{Sfn|Bix|2000|pages=399–414}} began to favour Japan's entry into the war.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kitano |first=Ryuichi |date=6 December 2021 |title=Diary: Hirohito prepared for U.S. war before Pearl Harbor attack |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14496398 |url-status=live |journal=The Asahi Shimbun |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417192302/https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14496398 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |access-date=8 June 2022}}</ref> As a result, Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe]] resigned.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fujiwara |first=Akira |title=Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō |date=1991 |page=126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary}}</ref>{{Sfn|Bix|2000|pages=417–420}} Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint [[Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni]] in his place, choosing War Minister [[Hideki Tojo]] instead.{{Sfn|Bix|2000|page=418}} On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] to the Emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wetzler |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWqEkwH1KRMC&pg=PA29 |title=Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan |date=1998 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1925-5 |pages=29, 35 |access-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315182053/https://books.google.com/books?id=BWqEkwH1KRMC&pg=PA29 |archive-date=15 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.{{Sfn|Bix|2000|page=424}} On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.{{r|USAWWIIcp5}} The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.<ref>[https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/app-d.html#363 The United States Replies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429222741/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/app-d.html#363 |date=29 April 2013}}. Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack.</ref> That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;<ref>{{Harvnb|Painter|2012|p=26}}: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to US pressure."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Wood|2007|p=9}}, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic."</ref> the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.{{sfn|Lightbody|2004|p=125}}

[[File:The USS Arizona (BB-39) burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor - NARA 195617 - Edit.jpg|thumb|right|The {{USS|Arizona|BB-39|6}} was a total loss in the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese surprise air attack]] on the [[United States Pacific Fleet]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], Sunday 7 December 1941]]

Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=310}}</ref> To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the [[United States Pacific Fleet]] and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.{{sfn|Wood|2007|pp=11–12}} On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous [[Japanese expansion (1941–42)|offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific]].{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–343}} These included an [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor]] and [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|the Philippines]], as well as invasions of [[Battle of Guam (1941)|Guam]], [[Battle of Wake Island|Wake Island]], [[Malayan campaign|Malaya]],{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–343}} [[Japanese invasion of Thailand|Thailand]], and [[Battle of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]].<ref>[[John Keegan|Keegan, John]] (1989) ''The Second World War''. New York: Viking. pp. 256–257. {{isbn|978-0-3995-0434-1}}</ref>

These attacks led the [[United States declaration of war on Japan|United States]], [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan|United Kingdom]], China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dunn|1998|p=157}}. According to {{Harvnb|May|1955|p=155}}, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front."</ref> Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States<ref>[[s:Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States|Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States]] in Wikisource.</ref> in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.{{r|Events1941}}<ref>{{Citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |date=1944 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214113907/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events |archive-date=14 December 2013 |url-status=live |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |at=p. 310 ([https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |place=Washington, DC |publisher=US Government Printing Office |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn}}</ref>

=== Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) ===
On 1 January 1942, the [[Four Policemen|Allied Big Four]]{{sfn|Bosworth|Maiolo|2015|pp=313–314}}—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the [[Declaration by United Nations]], thereby affirming the [[Atlantic Charter]]{{sfn|Mingst|Karns|2007|p=22}} and agreeing not to sign a [[separate peace]] with the Axis powers.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=904}}

During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate [[grand strategy]] to pursue. All agreed that [[Europe first|defeating Germany]] was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, [[Operation Sledgehammer|large-scale attack]] on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering [[Resistance during World War II|resistance forces]]; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-5.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109145033/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-5.html |archive-date=9 November 2012 |access-date=16 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=97–119}}</ref> Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-12.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430013447/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-12.html |archive-date=30 April 2013 |access-date=16 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=266–292}}</ref>

At the [[Casablanca Conference]] in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the [[unconditional surrender]] of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Casablanca – Beginning of an Era: January 1943 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525075310/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-1.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |access-date=16 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=18–42}}</ref> Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Trident Conference – New Patterns: May 1943 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525100621/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-6.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |access-date=16 May 2013 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=126–145}}</ref>

=== Pacific (1942–1943) ===
[[File:Second world war asia 1937-1942 map en6.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of Japanese military advances through mid-1942]]

By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally [[Thailand in World War II|Thailand]] had almost conquered [[Japanese invasion of Burma|Burma]], [[Malayan campaign|Malaya]], [[Dutch East Indies campaign|the Dutch East Indies]], [[Fall of Singapore|Singapore]], and [[Battle of Rabaul (1942)|Rabaul]], inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the [[Sook Ching|Sook Ching Massacre]] in Singapore.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=247–267, 345}}

Despite stubborn [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|resistance by Filipino and US forces]], the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippine Commonwealth]] was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a [[Bataan Death March|42km death march]], resulting in thousands of deaths.{{sfn|Lewis|1953|loc=p. 529 (Table 11)}} On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the [[Battle of Yenangyaung]] and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.{{sfn|Slim|1956|pp=71–74}} Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|South China Sea]], [[Battle of the Java Sea|Java Sea]], and [[Indian Ocean raid|Indian Ocean]],{{sfn|Grove|1995|p=362}} and [[Bombing of Darwin|bombed the Allied naval base]] at [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese [[Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)|victory at Changsha]].{{sfn|Ch'i|1992|p=158}} These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended.{{sfn|Perez|1998|p=145}}

[[File:Japanese torpedo bombers fly past USS Yorktown (CV-5) on 4 June 1942.jpg|thumb|Japanese torpedo bombers fly past the [[USS Yorktown (CV-5)|USS Yorktown]] during the [[Battle of Midway]], June 4, 1942]]

In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to [[Operation Mo|capture Port Moresby]] by [[amphibious warfare|amphibious assault]] and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]].{{sfn|Maddox|1992|pp=111–112}} Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier [[Doolittle Raid]], was to seize [[Midway Atoll]] and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to [[Aleutian Islands campaign|occupy the Aleutian Islands]] in Alaska.{{sfn|Salecker|2001|p=186}} In mid-May, Japan started the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign]] in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schoppa|2011|p=28}}.</ref><ref>[{{GBurl|id=lILltXBTo8oC|p=19}} Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004], p. 19.</ref> In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken [[Japanese naval codes]] in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive [[Battle of Midway|victory at Midway]] over the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ropp|2000|p=368}}.</ref>

With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture [[Port Moresby]] by an [[Kokoda Track campaign|overland campaign]] in the [[Territory of Papua]].{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=339}} The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern [[Solomon Islands]], primarily [[Guadalcanal]], as a first step towards capturing [[Rabaul]], the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Adrian |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000gilb/page/259 |title=The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day |date=2003 |publisher=Globe Pequot |isbn=978-1-5922-8027-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000gilb/page/259 259] |access-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719123035/https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000gilb/page/259 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the [[Guadalcanal campaign|Battle for Guadalcanal]] took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the [[Oro Province|northern part of the island]], where they faced Australian and United States troops in the [[Battle of Buna–Gona]].{{sfn|Swain|2001|p=197}} Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paine |first=Sarah |title=The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949 |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=174}}</ref> By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and [[Operation Ke|withdrew their troops]].{{sfn|Hane|2001|p=340}} In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous [[Arakan campaign (1942–1943)|offensive into the Arakan region]] in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.{{sfn|Marston|2005|p=111}} The second was the [[Operation Longcloth|insertion of irregular forces]] behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.{{sfn|Brayley|2002|p=9}}

=== Eastern Front (1942–1943) ===
Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in [[Central Russia|central]] and [[southern Russia]], keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=31}} In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the [[Battle of the Kerch Peninsula|Kerch Peninsula]] and at [[Second Battle of Kharkov|Kharkov]].{{sfn|Read|2004|p=764}} The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bellamy |first=Chris |title=Absolute War |date=2008}}</ref>

In June 1942 Germany launched its main [[Case Blue|summer offensive]] against southern Russia, to seize the [[Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan|oil fields of the Caucasus]] and occupy the [[Kuban]] [[steppe]], while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split [[Army Group South]] into two groups: [[Army Group A]] advanced to the lower [[Don (river)|Don River]] and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while [[Army Group B]] headed towards the [[Volga|Volga River]]. The Soviet Union decided to make its stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.{{sfn|Davies|2006|loc=p. 100 (2008 ed.)}}[[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Red Army]] soldiers on the counterattack during the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], February 1943]]

By mid-November, the Germans had [[Battle of Stalingrad|nearly taken Stalingrad]] in bitter [[urban warfare|street fighting]]. The Soviet Union began its second winter counter-offensive, starting with an [[Operation Uranus|encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad]],{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=239–265}} and an assault on the [[Operation Mars|Rzhev salient near Moscow]], though the latter failed.{{sfn|Black|2003|p=119}} By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=383–391}} and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another [[Third Battle of Kharkov|attack on Kharkov]], creating a [[Salient (military)|salient]] in their front line around the Soviet city of [[Kursk]].{{sfn|Erickson|2001|p=142}}

=== Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) ===
[[File:8th AF Bombing Marienburg.JPEG|right|thumb|American [[Eighth Air Force]] [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]] bombing raid on the Focke-Wulf factory in Germany, 9 October 1943]]

Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, [[Second Happy Time|the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast]].{{sfn|Milner|1990|p=52}} By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, [[Operation Crusader]], and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=224–228}} The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the [[Battle of Gazala#Gazala line|Gazala line]] by early February,{{sfn|Molinari|2007|p=91}} followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.{{sfn|Mitcham|2007|p=31}} Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in [[French Madagascar|Vichy-held Madagascar]] caused the British to [[Battle of Madagascar|invade the island]] in early May 1942.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=380–381}} An Axis [[Battle of Gazala|offensive in Libya]] forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were [[First Battle of El Alamein|stopped at El Alamein]].{{sfn|Rich|1992|p=178}} On the Continent, raids of Allied [[commando]]s on strategic targets, culminating in the failed [[Dieppe Raid]],{{sfn|Gordon|2004|p=129}} demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.{{sfn|Neillands|2005|p=60}}

In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a [[Battle of Alam el Halfa|second attack against El Alamein]]{{sfn|Keegan|1997|p=277}} and, at a high cost, managed to [[Operation Pedestal|deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta]].{{sfn|Smith|2002}} A few months later, the Allies [[Second Battle of El Alamein|commenced an attack of their own]] in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.{{sfn|Thomas|Andrew|1998|p=8}} This attack was followed up shortly after by [[Operation Torch|Anglo-American landings in French North Africa]], which resulted in the region joining the Allies.{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}} Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the [[Case Anton|occupation of Vichy France]];{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}} although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to [[Scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon|scuttle their fleet]] to prevent its capture by German forces.{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}}{{sfn|Bonner|Bonner|2001|p=24}} Axis forces in Africa withdrew into [[Tunisia]], which was [[Tunisian campaign|conquered by the Allies]] in May 1943.{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}}{{sfn|Collier|2003|p=11}}

In June 1943, the British and Americans began [[Combined Bomber Offensive|a strategic bombing campaign]] against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and "[[Dehousing|de-house]]" the civilian population.<ref>[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/ETO-Summary.html#tc "The Civilians"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105044932/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/ETO-Summary.html#tc |date=5 November 2013}} the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War)</ref> The [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|firebombing of Hamburg]] was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre.{{sfn|Overy|1995|pp=119–120}}

=== Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) ===
[[File:SBD VB-16 over USS Washington 1943.jpg|thumb|[[United States Navy|US Navy]] [[Douglas SBD Dauntless|SBD-5]] [[scout plane]] flying patrol over {{USS|Washington|BB-56|6}} and {{USS|Lexington|CV-16|6}} during the [[Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign]], 1943]]

After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to [[Aleutian Islands campaign#Allied response|eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians]].{{sfn|Thompson|Randall|2008|p=164}} Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to [[Operation Cartwheel|isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands]], and [[Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign|breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2001|p=610}} By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also [[Operation Hailstone|neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk]] in the [[Caroline Islands]]. In April, the Allies launched an operation to [[Western New Guinea campaign|retake Western New Guinea]].{{sfn|Rottman|2002|p=228}}

In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in [[central Russia]]. On 5 July 1943, Germany [[Battle of Kursk|attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge]]. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|1986}}; {{Harvnb|Glantz|1989|pp=149–159}}.</ref> and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=592}} This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' [[Allied invasion of Sicily|invasion of Sicily]] launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the [[Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy|ousting and arrest of Mussolini]] later that month.{{sfn|O'Reilly|2001|p=32}}

[[File:Soviet troops and T-34 tanks counterattacking Kursk Voronezh Front July 1943.jpg|thumb|[[Red Army]] troops in a counter-offensive on German positions at the [[Battle of Kursk]], July 1943]]

On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own [[Operation Kutuzov|counter-offensives]], thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,{{sfn|Bellamy|2007|p=595}} giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.{{sfn|O'Reilly|2001|p=35}}{{sfn|Healy|1992|p=90}} The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified [[Panther–Wotan line]], but the Soviets broke through it at [[Smolensk operation|Smolensk]] and the [[Battle of the Dnieper|Lower Dnieper Offensive]].{{sfn|Glantz|2001|pp=50–55}}

On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies [[Allied invasion of Italy|invaded the Italian mainland]], following [[Armistice of Cassibile|Italy's armistice with the Allies]] and the ensuing German occupation of Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|p=45}}</ref> Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by [[Operation Achse|disarming Italian forces]] that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,{{sfn|Mazower|2008|p=362}} and creating a series of defensive lines.{{sfn|Hart|Hart|Hughes|2000|p=151}} German special forces then [[Gran Sasso raid|rescued Mussolini]], who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the [[Italian Social Republic]],{{sfn|Blinkhorn|2006|p=52}} causing an [[Italian Civil War|Italian civil war]]. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the [[Winter Line|main German defensive line]] in mid-November.{{sfn|Read|Fisher|2002|p=129}}

German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By [[Black May (1943)|May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective]], the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Padfield|1998|pp=335–336}}.</ref> In November 1943, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and Winston Churchill met with [[Chiang Kai-shek]] [[Cairo Conference|in Cairo]] and then with Joseph Stalin [[Tehran Conference|in Tehran]].<ref name="Kolko 1990 211,235,267_268">{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|pp=211, 235, 267–268}}.</ref> The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory<ref name="Iriye 1981 154">{{Harvnb|Iriye|1981|p=154}}.</ref> and the military planning for the [[Burma campaign]],{{sfn|Mitter|2014|p=286}} while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.<ref name="polley148">{{Harvnb|Polley|2000|p=148}}.</ref>

From November 1943, during the seven-week [[Battle of Changde]], the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.<ref name="Beevor 2012 268_274">{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=268–274}}.</ref><ref name="H161">{{Harvnb|Ch'i|1992|p=161}}.</ref><ref name="Hsu Chang 412-416">{{Harvnb|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=412–416, Map 38}}</ref> In January 1944, the Allies launched a [[Battle of Monte Cassino|series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino]] and tried to outflank it with [[Battle of Anzio|landings at Anzio]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|pp=660–661}}.</ref>

On 27 January 1944, [[Leningrad Front|Soviet]] troops launched [[Siege of Leningrad#Soviet relief of the siege|a major offensive]] that expelled German forces from the [[Leningrad Oblast|Leningrad region]], thereby ending the [[List of battles by casualties#Sieges and urban combat|most lethal siege in history]].<ref name="Glantz 2002 327_366">{{Harvnb|Glantz|2002|pp=327–366}}.</ref> The [[Leningrad–Novgorod offensive|following Soviet offensive]] was [[Battle of Narva (1944)|halted on the pre-war Estonian border]] by the German [[Army Group North]] aided by [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II#Estonians in Nazi German military units|Estonians]] hoping to [[Estonian government-in-exile#Failure to reestablish independence|re-establish national independence]]. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the [[Baltic Sea]] region.<ref name="Glantz 2002 367_414">{{Harvnb|Glantz|2002|pp=367–414}}.</ref> By late May 1944, the Soviets had [[Crimean offensive|liberated Crimea]], [[Dnieper–Carpathian offensive|largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine]], and made [[First Jassy–Kishinev offensive|incursions into Romania]], which were repulsed by the Axis troops.<ref name="Chubarov 2001 122">{{Harvnb|Chubarov|2001|p=122}}.</ref> The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holland|2008|pp=169–184}}; {{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=568–573}}. The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ({{Harvnb|Mazower|2008|pp=500–502}}). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at [[Civitella in Val di Chiana|Civitella]] ({{Harvnb|de Grazia|Paggi|1991}}; {{Harvnb|Belco|2010}}), [[Ardeatine massacre|Fosse Ardeatine]] ({{Harvnb|Portelli|2003}}), and [[Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre|Sant'Anna di Stazzema]] ({{Harvnb|Gordon|2012|pp=10–11}}), and is capped with the [[Marzabotto massacre]].</ref>

The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, [[Operation U-Go|an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India]],<ref name="Lightbody 2004 224">{{Harvnb|Lightbody|2004|p=224}}.</ref> and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at [[Battle of Imphal|Imphal]] and [[Battle of Kohima|Kohima]].<ref name="Zeiler">{{Harvnb|Zeiler|2004|p=60}}.</ref> In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,<ref name="Zeiler"/> and Chinese forces that had [[Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan|invaded northern Burma]] in late 1943 [[Siege of Myitkyina|besieged Japanese troops]] in [[Myitkyina]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=555–560}}.</ref> The [[Operation Ichi-Go|second Japanese invasion]] of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ch'i|1992|p=163}}.</ref> By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of [[Henan]] and begun a [[Battle of Changsha (1944)|new attack on Changsha]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Coble|2003|p=85}}.</ref>

=== Allies Offensives (1944) ===
[[File:Approaching Omaha.jpg|thumb|American troops approaching [[Omaha Beach]] during the [[Operation Overlord|invasion of Normandy]] on [[Normandy landings|D-Day]], 6 June 1944]]

On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as [[Normandy landings|D-Day]]), after three years of Soviet pressure,<ref name="rees406">{{Harvnb|Rees|2008|pp=406–407}}: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war."</ref> the Western Allies [[Operation Overlord|invaded northern France]]. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also [[Operation Dragoon|attacked southern France]].<ref name="Weinberg 2005 695">{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=695}}.</ref> These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the [[Falaise pocket|German Army units in France]]. [[Paris]] was [[Liberation of Paris|liberated]] on 25 August by the [[French Resistance|local resistance]] assisted by the [[Free French Forces]], both led by General [[Charles de Gaulle]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Badsey|1990|p=91}}.</ref> and the Western Allies continued to [[Siegfried Line campaign|push back German forces]] in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by [[Operation Market Garden|a major airborne operation]] in the Netherlands failed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=562}}.</ref> After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but [[Operation Queen|failed to cross the Roer river]]. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the [[Gothic Line|last major German defensive line]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Forrest|Evans|Gibbons|2012|p=191}}</ref>

On 22 June, the Soviets launched [[Operation Bagration|a strategic offensive in Belarus]] that nearly destroyed the German [[Army Group Centre]].<ref name="Zaloga 1996 7">{{Harvnb|Zaloga|1996|p=7}}: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II."</ref> Soon after that, [[Lvov–Sandomierz offensive|another Soviet strategic offensive]] forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the [[Praga]] district on the other side of the [[Vistula]] as the Germans quelled the [[Warsaw Uprising]] initiated by the [[Home Army]] (the main faction of the [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish resistance]], loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Berend|1996|p=8}}.</ref> The [[Slovak National Uprising|national uprising]] in [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovakia]] was also quelled by the Germans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Slovak National Uprising 1944 |url=https://www.mzv.sk/documents/10182/2369491/BROZURA_70_VYROCIE_SNP_indd.pdf/007d0f33-4aa1-4e3a-95ae-5ef5096360d3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519024459/https://www.mzv.sk/documents/10182/2369491/BROZURA_70_VYROCIE_SNP_indd.pdf/007d0f33-4aa1-4e3a-95ae-5ef5096360d3 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |access-date=27 April 2020 |website=Museum of the Slovak National Uprising |publisher=Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic}}</ref> The Soviet [[Red Army]]'s [[Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive|strategic offensive in eastern Romania]] cut off and destroyed the [[Army Group South Ukraine|considerable German troops there]] and triggered [[1944 Romanian coup d'état|a successful coup d'état in Romania]] and [[1944 Bulgarian coup d'état|in Bulgaria]], followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{Cite web |title=Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation |url=https://countrystudies.us/romania/23.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430001849/https://countrystudies.us/romania/23.htm |archive-date=30 April 2011 |access-date=14 November 2009 |publisher=US Library of Congress |quote=The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow}}</ref>

[[File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|[[General (United States)|General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] returns to the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippines]] during the [[Battle of Leyte]], 20 October 1944]]

In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into [[Democratic Federal Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups [[Army Group E|E]] and [[Army Group F|F]] in [[Axis occupation of Greece|Greece]], [[German occupation of Albania|Albania]], and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.<ref name="Evans 2008 653">{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=653}}.</ref> By this point, the communist-led [[Yugoslav Partisans|Partisans]] under Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]], who had led an [[World War II in Yugoslavia|increasingly successful guerrilla campaign]] against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern [[Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia|Serbia]], the Soviet [[Red Army]], with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint [[Belgrade offensive|liberation of the capital city of Belgrade]] on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a [[Budapest offensive|massive assault]] against [[Operation Panzerfaust|German-occupied]] Hungary that lasted until [[Siege of Budapest|the fall of Budapest]] in February 1945.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wiest|Barbier|2002|pp=65–66}}.</ref> Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, [[Continuation War|bitter Finnish resistance]] to the [[Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive|Soviet offensive]] in the [[Karelian Isthmus]] denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a [[Moscow Armistice|Soviet-Finnish armistice]] on relatively mild conditions,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wiktor |first=Christian L |title=Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995 |date=1998 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-9-0411-0584-4 |page=426}}</ref> although Finland was obligated to [[Lapland War|fight their German former allies]].{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=1085}}

By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in [[Assam]], pushing the Japanese back to the [[Chindwin River]]<ref name="Marston 2005 120">{{Harvnb|Marston|2005|p=120}}.</ref> while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces [[Battle of Mount Song|captured Mount Song]] and reopened the [[Burma Road]].<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 |trans-title=The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors |url=https://www.china1931.cn/China/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID%3D7648 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224203/https://www.china1931.cn/China/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=7648 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=16 March 2013 |language=zh}}</ref> In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally [[Battle of Changsha (1944)|captured Changsha]] in mid-June and the city of [[Battle of Hengyang|Hengyang]] by early August.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=8}}.</ref> Soon after, they invaded the province of [[Guangxi]], winning major engagements against Chinese forces at [[Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou|Guilin and Liuzhou]] by the end of November<ref>{{Harvnb|Howard|2004|p=140}}.</ref> and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.<ref name="Drea 2003 54">{{Harvnb|Drea|2003|p=54}}.</ref>

In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their [[Mariana and Palau Islands campaign|offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands]] and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]]. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, [[Hideki Tojo]], and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces [[Battle of Leyte|invaded the Filipino island of Leyte]]; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], one of the largest naval battles in history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cook|Bewes|1997|p=305}}.</ref>

=== Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) ===
[[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|[[Yalta Conference]] held in February 1945, with [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Joseph Stalin]]]]

On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch [[Battle of the Bulge|a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes]] and [[Operation Northwind (1944)|along the French-German border]], hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at [[Antwerp]]. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.<ref name="parkerxiii">{{Harvnb|Parker|2004|pp=xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330}}</ref> In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, [[Vistula–Oder offensive|pushing from the Vistula to the Oder]] river in Germany, and [[East Prussian offensive|overran East Prussia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=85}}.</ref> On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the [[Yalta Conference]]. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=709–722}}.</ref>

In February, the Soviets [[Silesian offensives|entered Silesia]] and [[East Pomeranian offensive|Pomerania]], while the [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|Western Allies entered western Germany]] and closed to the [[Rhine]] river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine [[Operation Plunder|north]] and [[Remagen|south]] of the [[Ruhr (river)|Ruhr]], [[Ruhr pocket|encircling the German Army Group B]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched [[Operation Spring Awakening|its last major offensive]] against Soviet troops near [[Lake Balaton]]. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to [[Vienna offensive|Vienna]], and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops [[Battle of Königsberg|captured Königsberg]], while the Western Allies finally [[Spring 1945 offensive in Italy|pushed forward in Italy]] and swept across western Germany capturing [[Capture of Hamburg|Hamburg]] and [[Battle of Nuremberg (1945)|Nuremberg]]. [[Elbe Day|American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river]] on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin.

Soviet troops [[Battle of Berlin|stormed and captured Berlin]] in late April.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|pp=793–829}} In Italy, [[Surrender of Caserta|German forces surrendered]] on 29 April, while the [[Italian Social Republic]] capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the [[Reichstag building|Reichstag]] was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany.<ref name="Shepardson 1998">{{Harvnb|Shepardson|1998}}</ref>

Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, [[Harry S. Truman]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Glass |first=Andrew |date=2016-04-12 |title=President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies at age 63, April 12, 1945 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2016/04/this-day-in-politics-april-12-1945-221722 |access-date=2025-01-26 |website=[[Politico]] |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329062410/https://www.politico.com/story/2016/04/this-day-in-politics-april-12-1945-221722 |url-status=live }}</ref> Benito Mussolini [[Death of Benito Mussolini|was killed]] by [[Italian resistance movement|Italian partisans]] on 28 April.<ref name="O'Reilly 2001 244">{{Harvnb|O'Reilly|2001|p=244}}.</ref> On 30 April, [[Death of Adolf Hitler|Hitler committed suicide]] in his [[Führerbunker|headquarters]], and was succeeded by [[Grand Admiral]] [[Karl Dönitz]] (as [[President of Germany (1919–1945)|President of the Reich]]) and [[Joseph Goebbels]] (as [[Chancellor of the Reich]]). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by [[Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk]], in what would later be known as the [[Flensburg Government]]. [[German Instrument of Surrender|Total and unconditional surrender]] in Europe was signed [[Victory in Europe Day|on 7{{nbsp}}and 8{{nbsp}}May]], to be effective by the end of [[Victory Day (9 May)|8 May]].<ref name="Evans 2008 737">{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=737}}.</ref> German Army Group Centre [[Prague offensive|resisted in Prague]] until 11 May.<ref name="Glantz 1998 34">{{Harvnb|Glantz|1998|p=24}}.</ref> On 23 May, all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in [[Flensburg]]. On 5 June, all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the [[Berlin Declaration (1945)|Berlin Declaration]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Selby |first=Scott A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SQ_EAAAQBAJ |title=The Axmann Conspiracy: The Nazi Plan for a Fourth Reich and How the U.S. Army Defeated It |date=28 July 2021 |publisher=Scott Andrew Selby |page=8 |language=en |access-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240504072215/https://books.google.com/books?id=7SQ_EAAAQBAJ |archive-date=4 May 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Japanese atrocities. Philippines, China, Burma, Japan - NARA - 292598.jpg|thumb|A Filipino woman and child killed by Japanese troops in [[Manila]], 1945]]

In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippine Commonwealth]] advanced [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|in the Philippines]], [[Battle of Leyte|clearing Leyte]] by the end of April 1945. They [[Battle of Luzon|landed on Luzon]] in January 1945 and [[Battle of Manila (1945)|recaptured Manila]] in March, during which Japanese forces [[Manila massacre|killed 100,000 Filipino civilians]] in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, [[Battle of Mindanao|Mindanao]], and other islands of the Philippines until the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of the war]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chant |first=Christopher |title=The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II |date=1986 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |isbn=978-0-7102-0718-0 |page=118}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the [[United States Army Air Forces]] launched [[Air raids on Japan|a massive firebombing campaign]] of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating [[Bombing of Tokyo|bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March]] was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Long |first=Tony |date=9 March 2011 |title=March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/03/0309incendiary-bombs-kill-100000-tokyo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323180239/https://www.wired.com/2011/03/0309incendiary-bombs-kill-100000-tokyo |archive-date=23 March 2017 |access-date=22 June 2018 |magazine=Wired |publisher=Wired Magazine |quote=1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless.}}</ref>

In May 1945, Australian troops [[Borneo campaign|landed in Borneo]], overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern [[Burma campaign|Burma]] in March, and the British pushed on to reach [[Yangon|Rangoon]] by 3 May.<ref name="Drea 2003 57">{{Harvnb|Drea|2003|p=57}}.</ref> Chinese forces started a counterattack in the [[Battle of West Hunan]] that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima]] by March, and [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]] by the end of June.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=6}}.</ref> At the same time, a naval blockade by [[Allied submarines in the Pacific War|submarines]] was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces.<ref name="results of german and american submarines">{{Cite web |last=Poirier |first=Michel Thomas |date=20 October 1999 |title=Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II |url=https://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/wwii-campaigns.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409052122/https://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/wwii-campaigns.html |archive-date=9 April 2008 |access-date=13 April 2008 |publisher=U.S. Navy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zuberi |first=Matin |date=August 2001 |title=Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki |journal=Strategic Analysis |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=623–662 |doi=10.1080/09700160108458986 |s2cid=154800868}}</ref>

On 11 July, Allied leaders [[Potsdam Conference|met in Potsdam, Germany]]. They [[Potsdam Agreement|confirmed earlier agreements]] about Germany,<ref name="Williams 2006 90">{{Harvnb|Williams|2006|p=90}}.</ref> and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that "[[Potsdam Declaration|the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction]]".<ref name="Miscamble 2007 201">{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|p=201}}.</ref> During this conference, the United Kingdom [[1945 United Kingdom general election|held its general election]], and [[Clement Attlee]] replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.<ref name="Miscamble 2007 203_204">{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|pp=203–204}}.</ref>

[[File:Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the Instrument of Surrender, officially ending the Second World War.jpg|thumb|Japanese foreign affairs minister [[Mamoru Shigemitsu]] signs the [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender]] on board {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}}, 2 September 1945]]

The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.<ref>Ward Wilson. "The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima". ''International Security'', Vol. 31, No. 4 (Spring 2007), pp. 162–179.</ref> In early August, the United States [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|dropped atomic bombs]] on the Japanese cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, [[Soviet–Japanese War|declared war on Japan]], [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invaded Japanese-held Manchuria]] and quickly defeated the [[Kwantung Army]], which was the largest Japanese fighting force.<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2005}}.</ref> These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.<ref name="Pape 1993">{{Harvnb|Pape|1993}} "The principal cause of Japan's surrender was the ability of the United States to increase the military vulnerability of Japan's home islands, persuading Japanese leaders that defence of the homeland was highly unlikely to succeed. The key military factor causing this effect was the sea blockade, which crippled Japan's ability to produce and equip the forces necessary to execute its strategy. The most important factor accounting for the timing of surrender was the Soviet attack against Manchuria, largely because it persuaded previously adamant Army leaders that the homeland could not be defended.".</ref> The Red Army also captured the [[Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin|southern part of Sakhalin Island]] and the [[Invasion of the Kuril Islands|Kuril Islands]]. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito ordered the Japanese cabinet to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the [[Potsdam Declaration]].{{Sfn|Bix|2000|pages=525–526}} On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ([[Hirohito surrender broadcast|''Gyokuon-hōsō'']], literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice").{{Sfn|Bix|2000|pages=526–528}} On 15 August 1945, [[Surrender of Japan|Japan surrendered]], with the [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|surrender documents]] finally signed at [[Tokyo Bay]] on the deck of the American battleship {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}} on 2 September 1945, ending the war.<ref name="Beevor 2012 776">{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=776}}.</ref>

== Aftermath ==
{{Main|Aftermath of World War II|Consequences of Nazism}}

[[File:Proces Neurenberg, Bestanddeelnr 901-2065.jpg|thumb|Defendants at the [[Nuremberg trials]], where the Allied forces prosecuted prominent members of the political, military, judicial, and economic leadership of [[Nazi Germany]] for [[crimes against humanity]]]]

The Allies established occupation administrations in [[Allied-occupied Austria|Austria]] and [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]], both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the [[Trizone|western]] and [[Soviet occupation zone in Germany|eastern occupation zones]] officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]].<ref name="Wettig 2008 96_100">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|pp=96–100}}.</ref> In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A [[denazification]] program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the [[Nuremberg trials]] and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.<ref name="Frei 2002 41_66">{{Harvnb|Frei|2002|pp=41–66}}.</ref>

Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, [[Silesia]], [[Neumark]] and most of [[Pomerania]] were taken over by Poland,<ref name="Eberhardt-2015">{{Cite journal |last=Eberhardt |first=Piotr |date=2015 |title=The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality |url=https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/9928.html |url-status=live |journal=Geographia Polonica |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=77–105 |doi=10.7163/GPol.0007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503111248/https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/9928.html |archive-date=3 May 2018 |access-date=3 May 2018 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[East Prussia]] was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsion to Germany]] of the nine million Germans from these provinces,<ref name="Eberhardt-2006">{{Cite book |last=Eberhardt |first=Piotr |url=https://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf |title=Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948 |date=2006 |publisher=Didactica |isbn=978-1-5361-1035-7 |location=Warsaw |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626151411/https://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Eberhardt-2011">{{Cite book |last=Eberhardt |first=Piotr |url=https://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf |title=Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950) |date=2011 |publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences |isbn=978-8-3615-9046-0 |location=Warsaw |access-date=3 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520220409/https://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf |archive-date=20 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> as well as three million Germans from the [[Sudetenland]] in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the [[Curzon Line]],<ref name="Eberhardt-2012">{{Cite journal |last=Eberhardt |first=Piotr |date=2012 |title=The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background |url=https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/7563.html |url-status=live |journal=Geographia Polonica |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503111001/https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/7563.html |archive-date=3 May 2018 |access-date=3 May 2018}}</ref> from which [[Polish population transfers (1944–1946)|two million Poles were expelled]].<ref name="Eberhardt-2011"/><ref name="stalinswars43">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=43}}.</ref> Northeastern Romania,<ref name="stalinswars55">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=55}}.</ref><ref name="shirer794">{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=794}}.</ref> parts of eastern Finland,<ref name="ckpipe">{{Harvnb|Kennedy-Pipe|1995}}.</ref> and the [[Baltic states]] were [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|annexed into the Soviet Union]].<ref name="Wettig 2008 20_21">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|pp=20–21}}.</ref><ref name="Senn 2007 ?">{{Harvnb|Senn|2007|p=?}}.</ref> Italy [[1946 Italian institutional referendum|lost its monarchy]], [[Italian Empire|colonial empire]], and some [[Treaty of Paris between Italy and the Allied Powers|European territories]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Italy since 1945 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Italy-since-1945 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005052527/https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Italy-since-1945 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |access-date=2 October 2023 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

In an effort to maintain [[world peace]],<ref name="Yoder 1997 39">{{Harvnb|Yoder|1997|p=39}}.</ref> the Allies formed the [[United Nations]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the UN |url=https://www.un.org/un70/en/content/history/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215170453/https://www.un.org/un70/en/content/history/index.html |archive-date=15 December 2021 |access-date=17 January 2022 |website=United Nations}}</ref> which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the UN |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218221016/https://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |archive-date=18 February 2010 |access-date=25 January 2010 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> and adopted the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in 1948 as a common standard for all [[Member states of the United Nations|member nations]].<ref name="Waltz 2002">{{Harvnb|Waltz|2002}}. The UDHR is viewable here [https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703093353/https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/|date=3 July 2017}}</ref> The [[great powers]] that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] of the UN's [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]].<ref name="The UN Security Council">{{Citation |title=The UN Security Council |url=https://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html |access-date=15 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620101548/https://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html |archive-date=20 June 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|between]] the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] and the [[China|People's Republic of China]] in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its [[Succession of states|successor state]], the [[Russia|Russian Federation]], following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.<ref name="Kantowicz 2000 6">{{Harvnb|Kantowicz|2000|p=6}}.</ref>

[[File:EasternBloc BorderChange38-48.svg|thumb|Post-war border changes in [[Central Europe]] and creation of the [[Communism|Communist]] [[Eastern Bloc]]]]
Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet [[spheres of influence]].<ref name="Trachtenberg 1999 33">{{Harvnb|Trachtenberg|1999|p=33}}.</ref> Most eastern and central European countries fell into the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet sphere]], which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, [[East Germany]],<ref name="Applebaum 2012">{{Harvnb|Applebaum|2012}}.</ref> [[Polish People's Republic|Poland]], [[Hungarian People's Republic|Hungary]], [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]], and [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]]<ref name="Naimark 2010">{{Harvnb|Naimark|2010}}.</ref> became Soviet [[Satellite state#Soviet satellite states|satellite states]]. Communist [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] conducted a fully [[Non-Aligned Movement|independent policy]], causing [[Tito–Stalin split|tension with the Soviet Union]].<ref name="Swain 1992">{{Harvnb|Swain|1992}}.</ref> A [[Greek Civil War|communist uprising in Greece]] was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Greek Civil War |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Greek-Civil-War |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324172645/https://www.britannica.com/event/Greek-Civil-War |archive-date=24 March 2023 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led [[NATO]] and the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]].<ref name="Borstelmann 2005 318">{{Harvnb|Borstelmann|2005|p=318}}.</ref> The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the [[Cold War]]—would be accompanied by an unprecedented [[arms race]] and number of [[proxy war]]s throughout the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leffler|Westad|2010}}.</ref>

In Asia, the United States led the [[occupation of Japan]] and [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands|administered Japan's former islands]] in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed [[South Sakhalin]] and the [[Kuril Islands]].<ref name="Weinberg 2005 911">{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=911}}.</ref> [[Korea]], formerly [[Korea under Japanese rule|under Japanese colonial rule]], was [[Division of Korea|divided and occupied]] by the Soviet Union in the [[North Korea|North]] and the United States in the [[South Korea|South]] between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the [[Korean War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Stueck|2010|p=71}}.</ref>

In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed [[Chinese Civil War|the civil war]] in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to [[Taiwan]] in 1949.<ref name="Lynch 2010 12_13">{{Harvnb|Lynch|2010|pp=12–13}}.</ref> In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] and the [[creation of Israel]] marked the escalation of the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]]. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their [[colonial empire]]s, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to [[Decolonization|decolonisation]].<ref name="JMRoberts 1996 589">{{Harvnb|Roberts|1997|p=589}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|2007|pp=441–443, 464–68}}.</ref>

The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a [[Mid-20th century baby boom|baby boom]], and by 1950 its [[gross domestic product]] per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=1006}}; {{Harvnb|Harrison|1998|pp=34–55}}.</ref> The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of [[Allied plans for German industry after World War II|industrial disarmament in Western Germany]] from 1945 to 1948.<ref name="Balabkins 1964 207">{{Harvnb|Balabkins|1964|p=207}}.</ref> Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Petrov|1967|p=263}}.</ref><ref name="Balabkins 1964 208,209">{{Harvnb|Balabkins|1964|pp=208–209}}.</ref>

At the [[Bretton Woods Conference]] in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD), which later became part of the [[World Bank Group]]. The [[Bretton Woods system]] lasted until 1973.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 January 2008 |title=The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/98681.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417233116/https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/98681.htm |archive-date=17 April 2022 |access-date=18 April 2022 |publisher=United States Department of State}}</ref> Recovery began with the mid-1948 [[Deutsche Mark|currency reform in West Germany]], and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US [[Marshall Plan]] economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.<ref>{{Harvnb|DeLong|Eichengreen|1993|pp=190–191}}</ref><ref name="Balabkins 1964 212">{{Harvnb|Balabkins|1964|p=212}}.</ref> The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the [[Wirtschaftswunder#West Germany|German economic miracle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wolf|1993|pp=29–30, 32}}</ref> Italy also experienced an [[Italian economic miracle|economic boom]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Bull|Newell|2005|pp=20–21}}</ref> and the [[Trente Glorieuses|French economy rebounded]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ritchie|1992|p=23}}.</ref> By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,<ref>{{Harvnb|Minford|1993|p=117}}.</ref> and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,<ref>{{Harvnb|Schain|2001}}.</ref> it continued in relative economic decline for decades.<ref>{{Harvnb|Emadi-Coffin|2002|p=64}}.</ref> The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era,<ref name="Smith 1993 32">{{Harvnb|Smith|1993|p=32}}.</ref> having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from its satellite states.{{efn|Reparations were exacted from [[East Germany]], [[Hungarian People's Republic|Hungary]], [[Romanian People's Republic|Romania]], and [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the [[Marshall Plan]]."}}<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in {{Cite book |url={{GBurl|id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ|pg=PT174}} |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |date=2014 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-1188-9024-0 |editor-last=Larresm |editor-first=Klaus |page=79}}</ref> Japan recovered much later.<ref>{{Harvnb|Neary|1992|p=49}}.</ref> China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Genzberger |first=Christine |url=https://archive.org/details/chinabusinesspor0000genz/page/4 |title=China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China |date=1994 |publisher=World Trade Press |isbn=978-0-9631-8643-0 |location=Petaluma, CA |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinabusinesspor0000genz/page/4 4]}}</ref>

== Impact ==
{{Main|Historiography of World War II}}

=== Casualties ===
{{Main|World War II casualties}}
[[File:Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg|thumb|Bodies of Chinese civilians killed by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] during the [[Nanjing Massacre]] in December 1937]]
An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease.{{Sfn|Beevor|2012|p=1}}{{Sfn|Hastings|2011|pp=669-670}}{{Sfn|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=147}}{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|p=470}} Civilian deaths have been estimated to comprise 67%{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2017|p=528}} to 80%{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|p=38}} of all direct and indirect deaths from the war. The Soviet Union had the highest overall death toll (estimated at 20 million to 28 million),<ref>{{Multiref||{{harvnb|Hanson|2017|p=485|ps=. Hanson estimates there were 20-27 million Soviet dead}}.|{{Harvard citation no brackets|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=146}}.}}</ref> followed by China (at least 15 million),{{Sfn|Hastings|2011|pp=669-670}}{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|p=487}}{{Sfn|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=146}} Germany (6 million to 8.7 million){{Sfn|Hanson|2017|p=488|ps=. Hanson cites 6 million to 7 million German dead.}}{{Sfn|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=146}} and Poland (5 million to 6.5 million).{{Sfn|Hastings|2011|pp=669-670}}{{Sfn|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=146}}

The countries which sustained the most military deaths were the Soviet Union (about 8.7 million),<ref name="Ell&Mak 19942">{{Harvnb|Ellman|Maksudov|1994}}.</ref> Germany (around 5.3 million),{{Sfn|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=152}} China (2 million to 3 million){{Sfn|Mitter|2013|p=381|ps=. Mitter cites Arne Westad's figure of 2 million Chinese military deaths.}}{{Sfn|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=148}} and Japan (1.7 million to 2.5 million).{{Sfn|Hastings|2011|pp=669-670}}{{Sfn|Aubin|Bernard|Guillerat|2019|p=148}} Of the 20 million to 25 million military deaths in the war, the majority were of German and Soviet soldiers, including prisoners of war (POWs), on the Eastern Front.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|p=473}}

The high civilian death toll relative to military deaths was unusual for major wars up to that time.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|p=469}} Some 10 million to 15 million people died of starvation and disease in China and the Soviet Union, and 8 million to 10 million in India and under Japanese occupation elsewhere in Asia and the Pacific.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|pp=472-473}} Around 15 million civilians died in genocides and other deliberate killings, while millions in total died in concentration camps, aerial bombings and in combat zones.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|pp=474-475, 481-485}}

=== Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity ===
[[File:Czeslawa Kwoka - Brasse.jpg|thumb|[[Czesława Kwoka|Prisoner identity photograph of a Polish girl]] taken by the German [[SS]] in [[Auschwitz]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/colorized-photo-of-girl-at-auschwitz-strikes-chord-on-social-media/a-43033478 |title=Color photo of girl at Auschwitz strikes chord |first=Alexander |last=Pearson |date=19 March 2018 |access-date=12 July 2023 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |quote=Kwoka was murdered with a phenol injection to the heart a few weeks later. |archive-date=19 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319065203/https://www.dw.com/en/colorized-photo-of-girl-at-auschwitz-strikes-chord-on-social-media/a-43033478 |url-status=live }}</ref> Approximately 230,000 children were held prisoner and used in forced labour and [[Nazi human experimentation|Nazi medical experiments]].]]

In [[List of Axis war crime trials|trials following the war]], representatives of the Axis powers and their accomplices were convicted of numerous [[War crime|war crimes]], [[crimes against humanity]] and complicity in [[Genocide|genocides]].{{Sfn|Davies|2014}} The Nazis killed about 6 million Jews in a racially motivated genocide known as the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]]. They also killed millions of [[Slavs]], over 130 thousand [[Romani people|Romani]], and members of other groups that they considered racially inferior.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|pp=474-477}}{{Sfn|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|pp=55-60}} Almost 300,000 people with mental and physical disabilities were also [[Aktion T4|systematically killed]] in Germany and its occupied territories.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Das Bundesarchiv |title=Euthanasie im Dritten Reich |url=https://www.bundesarchiv.de/im-archiv-recherchieren/archivgut-recherchieren/nach-themen/euthanasie-im-dritten-reich/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260121093949/https://www.bundesarchiv.de/im-archiv-recherchieren/archivgut-recherchieren/nach-themen/euthanasie-im-dritten-reich/ |archive-date=21 January 2026 |access-date=21 January 2026 |website=Das Bundesarchiv |language=de |trans-quote="Between 1939 and 1945, approximately 200,000 women, men, and children from psychiatric institutions in the German Reich were murdered in several covert operations through gassing, drugging, or malnutrition. Nearly 100,000 additional murders of psychiatric patients occurred in occupied or annexed territories. Around one-third of the patient murders in the Reich took place during the so-called T4 program in its first, centrally directed phase."}}</ref>

The killing of civilians and POWs through massacres and deliberate starvation was especially common in the Eastern European and Asia-Pacific theatres. German forces on the Eastern Front destroyed or confiscated available food, massacred civilians in reprisals and routinely shot prisoners.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|pp=471-472}}{{Sfn|Davies|2014}} The Japanese killed millions of civilians in occupied areas through massacres and [[scorched earth]] strategies; for example, in their "[[Three Alls policy|kill all, burn all, loot all]]" policy in China.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|pp=470-472}}{{Sfn|Mitter|2013|pp=289-290}} In the [[Nanjing Massacre|Nanking Massacre]], between 40,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Wakabayashi |first=Bob |title=The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture |date= |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2007 |isbn=9781-84545-500-2 |editor-last=Wakabayashi |editor-first=Bob Tadashi |location=New York and London |pages=384 |chapter=Postscript}}</ref> Japan also [[Unit 731|used biological weapons in China]] and in [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|early conflicts against the Soviets]].<ref name=":43">{{Harvnb|Harris|2002|p=74}}.</ref>{{Sfn|Hastings|2011|pp=428-429}} The Soviet Union was responsible for imprisoning, deporting and often [[NKVD prisoner massacres|executing]] hundreds of thousands of civilians and POWs from occupied or annexed territories.'''{{Sfn|Akashi|Davies|Service|2014}}'''<ref name=":47">Robert Gellately (2007).'' Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe''. Knopf, {{ISBN|978-1-4000-4005-6}} pp. 391-396</ref> This included the [[Katyn massacre]] of 22,000 Polish officers and intellectuals.{{Sfn|Dimbleby|2022|pp=81-82}}

War crimes were also committed in civil wars and conflicts between resistance groups in occupied territories. In Yugoslavia, numerous war crimes, including the massacre of civilians and prisoners, were committed by Axis forces and the Axis-aligned Croatian [[Ustaše]]. The main resistance groups, the Serbian-Nationalist [[Chetniks]] and the Communist-led [[Yugoslav Partisans|partisans]], also committed massacres and persecutions of their enemies.{{Sfn|Davies|2014}}{{Sfn|Wheeler|2014}} In Poland, about 100,000 Poles were killed by the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] in the [[Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia|Volhynia massacres]] between 1943 and 1945. About 10,000 Ukrainians were killed by Poles in reprisal attacks.<ref>{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|1840045393}} |last1=Portnov |first1=Andrii |title=Clash of victimhoods: the Volhynia Massacre in Polish and Ukrainian memory |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/clash-of-victimhood-1943-volhynian-massacre-in-polish-and-ukrainian-culture/ |work=openDemocracy |date=16 November 2016 |archive-date=26 January 2025 |access-date=11 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126133729/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/clash-of-victimhood-1943-volhynian-massacre-in-polish-and-ukrainian-culture/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In Greece, Axis forces were mainly responsible for civilian deaths through deliberate starvation and reprisal massacres, although the major resistance forces, [[ELAS]] and [[EDES]], also committed war crimes.{{Sfn|Clogg|2014}}{{Sfn|Davies|2014}}

The Soviet Union, Japan and Germany inflicted high death rates on POWs through executions, starvation, forced labour and other mistreatment. The Soviet Union and Japan had not ratified the [[Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War|Geneva Convention]] on treatment of POWs, and Germany regarded itself as exempt from the convention on the Eastern Front.{{Sfn|Davies|2014}} About a third of those taken prisoner by the Japanese died, as did almost 60 per cent of Soviet prisoners of the Germans. About a third of Germans taken prisoner by the Soviet Union died in captivity. The mortality rate of German and Japanese prisoners of the Western allies was 1 to 2 per cent.{{Sfn|Hanson|2017|p=482}}{{Sfn|Dimbleby|2022|p=501}}
[[File:The_Liberation_of_Bergen-belsen_Concentration_Camp,_April_1945_BU4031.jpg|thumb|[[Schutzstaffel]] (SS) female camp guards removing prisoners' bodies from lorries and carrying them to a mass grave, inside the German [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]], 1945]]
Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union made extensive use of forced labour of foreign civilians and POWs. In greater Germany, there were 7.6 million foreign workers (including POWs undertaking forced labour) and about 500,000 slave labourers in concentration camps by late 1944.{{Sfn|Herbert|2014}} Those civilians and POWs from Soviet-occupied territories who were deported to the Soviet Union were usually imprisoned in the Soviet forced labour camps, known as the [[gulag]]'''.{{Sfn|Akashi|Davies|Service|2014}}''' Between 200,000 and one million Soviet POWs and civilians repatriated from German camps were also sent to the gulag as alleged Axis collaborators<ref name=":61">Zemskov V. N. ''On repatriation of Soviet citizens''. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also [https://scepsis.ru/library/id_1234.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014134645/https://scepsis.ru/library/id_1234.html|date=14 October 2011}} (online version), and {{Harvnb|Bacon|1992}}; {{Harvnb|Ellman|2002}}.</ref>{{Sfn|Davies|2014}} where many died from malnutrition, the harsh climate and overwork.'''<ref name=":47" />{{Sfn|Akashi|Davies|Service|2014}}''' The Japanese conscripted millions of foreign civilians and POWs to undertake forced labour in Japan and its occupied territories where they suffered harsh treatment and high death rates.{{Sfn|Kratoska|2015|p=xv}}{{Sfn|Jacob|2018|pp=5-7}} Up to 200,000 Korean and Chinese women were forced into sex slavery.{{Sfn|Jacob|2018|p=6}}

While all the major belligerents committed rapes, the rape of civilians was particularly widespread among the German, Japanese and Soviet military. The post-war international military tribunals found the evidence of rape by German forces "overwhelming". Twenty-nine Japanese defendants, mostly generals, were convicted of complicity in mass rape.{{Sfn|Neumann|2013|pp=553-554}} Soviet soldiers also committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially Germany.{{Sfn|Cherry|2013|pp=556-557}}<ref name="Bird">{{Cite journal |last=Bird |first=Nicky |date=October 2002 |title=Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor |journal=International Affairs |volume=78 |pages=914–916 |number=4 |institution=Royal Institute of International Affairs}}</ref>

War crimes were committed by the Western Allied powers, but not on the same scale as those of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union.{{Sfn|Davies|2014}} The Western Allies prosecuted a number of war crimes committed by their own forces, but Allied war crimes were not prosecuted by the post-war international military tribunals.{{Sfn|Hastings|2011|pp=445-446, 671-672}}{{Sfn|Davies|2014}} There has been continued debate over whether the [[Area bombardment|area bombing]] of cities in Germany and Japan, and the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], were war crimes.{{Sfn|Grayling|2014|pp=1-2}}{{Sfn|Davies|2014}}

=== Occupation ===
{{Main|German-occupied Europe|Resistance during World War II|Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|Collaboration with Imperial Japan|Nazi plunder}}

[[File:Palmiry before execution.jpg|thumb|Polish civilians wearing blindfolds photographed just before being massacred by German soldiers in [[Palmiry massacre|Palmiry forest]], 1940]]

In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia|annexed portions of Czechoslovakia]]) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the [[Nazi plunder|plunder]] of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberman|1996|p=42}}.</ref> Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.<ref name="Milward 1979 138">{{Harvnb|Milward|1992|p=138}}.</ref>

In the East, the intended gains of ''[[Lebensraum]]'' were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet [[scorched earth]] policies denied resources to the German invaders.<ref name="Milward 1992 148">{{Harvnb|Milward|1992|p=148}}.</ref> Unlike in the West, the [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Nazi racial policy]] encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the "[[Untermensch|inferior people]]" of [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] descent; most German advances were thus followed by [[Generalplan Ost|mass atrocities and war crimes]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barber|Harrison|2006|p=232}}.</ref> The Nazis [[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles]] in addition to Polish-Jewish [[victims of the Holocaust]].<ref>Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski and Szarota. p. 9 ''"Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000"''.</ref> Although by 1942 [[Resistance during World War II|resistance groups]] formed in most occupied territories,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cooke |first1=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrLNDwAAQBAJ |title=European Resistance in the Second World War |last2=Shepherd |first2=Ben H. |date=2020-01-31 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-4738-3162-9 |page=24 |language=en |quote=From 1942 in particular, then, resistance across occupied Europe was an active and burgeoning phenomenon}}</ref> the assessments of the effectiveness of [[Soviet partisans]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Hill|2005|p=5}}.</ref> and [[French Resistance]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Christofferson|Christofferson|2006|p=156}}</ref> suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943.

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-031-2436-03A, Russland, Hinrichtung von Partisanen retouched.jpg|thumb|[[Soviet partisans]] hanged by the German army. The [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] reported in 1995 that [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|civilian victims in the Soviet Union]] at German hands totalled 13.7 million dead, twenty percent of the 68 million people in the occupied Soviet Union.]]

In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]], essentially a Japanese [[hegemony]] which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Radtke|1997|p=107}}.</ref> Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, [[Japanese war crimes]] frequently turned local public opinion against them.<ref name="GSWW6_266">{{Harvnb|Rahn|2001|p=266}}.</ref> During Japan's initial conquest, it captured {{convert|4000000|oilbbl}} of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to {{convert|50|e6oilbbl}} of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate.<ref name="GSWW6_266"/>

=== Home fronts and production ===
{{Main|Military production during World War II|Home front during World War II}}

[[File:World_War_II_Allies_to_Axis_GDP_Ratio.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|400px|Allies to Axis GDP ratio throughout the war]]
In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leith |first=C. K. |author-link=Charles Kenneth Leith |title=The Struggle for Mineral Resources |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1021443 |url-status=live |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |publication-date=July 1939 |volume=204, Democracy and the Americas |pages=42–48 |jstor=1021443 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126024338/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1021443 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |access-date=26 January 2024 |quote=...{{nbsp}}mineral raw materials{{nbsp}}... are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power.{{nbsp}}... England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass.}}</ref>

In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.<ref name="6Econ3">{{Harvnb|Harrison|1998|p= 3}}.</ref> In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.<ref name="6Econ3"/>

The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.<ref>Compare:
{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Mark R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcqADAAAQBAJ |title=Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II |date=2016 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-9354-8 |edition=reprint |series=American Business, Politics, and Society |location=Philadelphia |page=2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201318/https://books.google.com/books?id=AcqADAAAQBAJ |archive-date=7 March 2023 |access-date=19 December 2019 |quote=By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy'{{nbsp}}..}}</ref> Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of [[Attrition warfare|attrition]].<ref name="6Econ2">{{Harvnb|Harrison|1998|p=2}}.</ref> While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the [[Workforce|labour force]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Bernstein|1991|p= 267}}.</ref> Allied [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic bombing]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffith |first=Charles |title=The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II |date=1999 |publisher=Diane Publishing |isbn=978-1-5856-6069-8 |page=203}}</ref> and Germany's late shift to a [[war economy]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Overy|1994|p= 26}}.</ref> contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.<ref>{{Harvnb|BBSU|1998|p= 84}}; {{Harvnb|Lindberg|Todd|2001|p= 126}}.</ref> Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union used millions of [[Slavery|slave labourers]] in war-related industries.{{Sfn|Herbert|2014}}{{Sfn|Kratoska|2015|p=xv}}{{Sfn|Davies|2014}}

=== Advances in technology and its application ===
{{Main|Technology during World War II}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1978-Anh.026-01, Peenemünde, V2 beim Start.jpg|thumb|A [[V-2 rocket]] launched from a fixed site in [[Peenemünde]], 21 June 1943]]

Aircraft were used for [[Reconnaissance aircraft|reconnaissance]], as [[fighter aircraft|fighters]], [[bomber]]s, and [[close air support|ground-support]], and each role developed considerably. Innovations included [[airlift]] (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);<ref name="EncWWII_76">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=76}}.</ref> and [[strategic bombing]] (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).<ref>{{Harvnb|Levine|1992|p=227}}.</ref> [[Anti-aircraft warfare|Anti-aircraft weaponry]] also advanced, including defences such as [[radar]] and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the [[proximity fuze]]. The use of the [[jet aircraft]] was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Klavans|Di Benedetto|Prudom|1997}}; {{Harvnb|Ward|2010|pp=247–251}}.</ref>

Advances were made in nearly every aspect of [[naval warfare]], most notably with [[aircraft carrier]]s and [[submarine]]s. Although [[Aeronautics|aeronautical]] warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, [[Battle of Taranto|actions at Taranto]], [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]], and the [[Battle of the Coral Sea|Coral Sea]] established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).<ref name="EncWWII_163">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=163}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Chris |title=Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft |last2=Chant |first2=Chris |date=2004 |publisher=Silverdale Books |isbn=978-1-8450-9079-1 |location=Wigston, Leics |page=7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chenoweth |first1=H. Avery |title=Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines |last2=Nihart |first2=Brooke |date=2005 |publisher=Main Street |isbn=978-1-4027-3099-3 |location=New York |page=180}}</ref> In the Atlantic, [[escort carrier]]s became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the [[Mid-Atlantic gap]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Sumner|Baker|2001|p=25}}.</ref> Carriers were also more economical than [[battleship]]s due to the relatively low cost of aircraft<ref>{{Harvnb|Hearn|2007|p=14}}.</ref> and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardiner|Brown|2004|p=52}}.</ref> Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the [[World War I|First World War]],<ref name="Bur&Ryd 1995 15">{{Harvnb|Burcher|Rydill|1995|p=15}}.</ref> were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on [[Anti-submarine warfare|anti-submarine]] [[anti-submarine weapon|weaponry]] and tactics, such as [[sonar]] and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the [[Type VII submarine]] and [[Wolfpack (naval tactic)|wolfpack]] tactics.<ref name="Bur&Ryd 1995 16">{{Harvnb|Burcher|Rydill|1995|p=16}}.</ref> Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the [[Leigh Light]], [[Hedgehog (weapon)|Hedgehog]], [[Squid (weapon)|Squid]], and [[Mark 24 mine|homing torpedoes]] proved effective against German submarines.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burns |first=R. W. |date=September 1994 |title=Impact of technology on the defeat of the U-boat September 1939 – May 1943 |url=https://digital-library.theiet.org/doi/abs/10.1049/ip-smt%3A19949918 |journal=IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology |volume=141 |issue=5 |pages=343–355|doi=10.1049/ip-smt:19949918 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:Trinity device readied.jpg|thumb|Nuclear ''Gadget'' being raised to the top of the detonation "shot tower", at [[Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range|Alamogordo Bombing Range]]; [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity nuclear test]], [[New Mexico]], July 1945]]
[[Land warfare]] changed from the static frontlines of [[trench warfare]] of World War I, which had relied on improved [[artillery]] that outmatched the speed of both [[infantry]] and [[cavalry]], to increased mobility and [[combined arms]]. The [[tank]], which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.<ref name="EncWWII_125">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=125}}.</ref> In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War{{nbsp}}I,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dupuy |first=Trevor Nevitt |title=The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare |date=1982 |publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]] |isbn=978-0-7106-0123-0 |page=231}}</ref> and [[Tanks in World War II|advances continued throughout the war]] with increases in speed, armour and firepower.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Vital Role Of Tanks In The Second World War |url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-vital-role-of-tanks-in-the-second-world-war |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325104344/https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-vital-role-of-tanks-in-the-second-world-war |archive-date=25 March 2022 |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=Imperial War Museums |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castaldi |first1=Carolina |last2=Fontana |first2=Roberto |last3=Nuvolari |first3=Alessandro |date=1 August 2009 |title='Chariots of fire': the evolution of tank technology, 1915–1945 |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Economics |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=545–566 |doi=10.1007/s00191-009-0141-0 |issn=1432-1386 |s2cid=36789517 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10419/89322}}</ref> At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.<ref name="EncWWII_108">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=108}}.</ref> This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.<ref name="EncWWII_125"/> Many means of [[Anti-tank warfare|destroying tanks]], including [[Indirect fire|indirect artillery]], [[anti-tank gun]]s (both towed and [[Self-propelled artillery|self-propelled]]), [[Anti-tank mine|mines]], short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.<ref name="EncWWII_108"/> Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,<ref name="EncWWII_734">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=734}}.</ref> and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.<ref name="Comp_221">{{Harvnb|Cowley|Parker|2001|p=221}}.</ref> The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German [[MG 34]], and various [[submachine gun]]s which were suited to [[close combat]] in urban and jungle settings.<ref name="Comp_221"/> The [[assault rifle]], a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sprague |first1=Oliver |last2=Griffiths |first2=Hugh |date=2006 |title=The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/act30/011/2006/en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228130914/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/act30/011/2006/en |archive-date=28 December 2018 |access-date=14 November 2009 |publisher=controlarms.org |page=1 |format=PDF}}</ref>

Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large [[codebook]]s for [[cryptography]] by designing [[cipher]]ing machines, the most well-known being the German [[Enigma machine]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ratcliff|2006|p=11}}.</ref> Development of [[SIGINT]] (''sig''nals ''int''elligence) and [[cryptanalysis]] enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of [[Japanese naval codes]]<ref name="Schoenherr">{{Cite web |last=Schoenherr |first=Steven |date=2007 |title=Code Breaking in World War I |url=https://history.sandiego.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/espionage.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509054959/https://history.sandiego.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/espionage.htm |archive-date=9 May 2008 |access-date=15 November 2009 |publisher=History Department at the University of San Diego}}</ref> and British [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]], a [[Bombe#The British Bombe|pioneering method]] for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the [[Cipher Bureau (Poland)#Gift to allies|Polish Cipher Bureau]], which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |date=10 December 2010 |title=Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory |work=The Times |location=London |page=27 |id={{Gale|IF0504159516}}}}</ref> Another component of [[military intelligence]] was [[deception]], which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as [[Operation Mincemeat|Mincemeat]] and [[Operation Bodyguard|Bodyguard]].<ref name=Schoenherr/><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Rowe |first1=Neil C. |last2=Rothstein |first2=Hy |title=Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare |url=https://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/nps/mildec.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123031630/https://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/nps/mildec.htm |archive-date=23 November 2010 |access-date=15 November 2009 |website=Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School |publisher=Air University}}</ref>

Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ([[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], and [[ENIAC]]), [[V-1 flying bomb|guided missiles]] and [[V-2 rocket|modern rockets]], the [[Manhattan Project]]'s development of [[nuclear weapon]]s, [[operations research]], the development of [[Mulberry harbour|artificial harbours]], and [[Operation Pluto|oil pipelines under the English Channel]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Scientific and Technological Advances of World War II|url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/scientific-and-technological-advances-world-war-ii|publisher=The National WWII Museum|place=New Orleans|access-date=2025-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302230336/https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/scientific-and-technological-advances-world-war-ii|archive-date=2024-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=World War – II |url=https://www.insightsonindia.com/world-history/world-war-i/world-war-ii |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711080947/https://www.insightsonindia.com/world-history/world-war-i/world-war-ii |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=17 September 2022 |work=Insights Ias – Simplifying Upsc Ias Exam Preparation |language=en-US}}</ref> Although [[penicillin]] was discovered before the war, the [[History of penicillin|development]] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|number=5|date=May 2017|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556 |pmc=5403050 |bibcode=2017EIDis..23..849G }}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{anl|Greatest Generation}}
* [[Opposition to World War II]]
* [[Lists of World War II topics]]
* {{anl|World War III}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{See also|Bibliography of World War II}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
{{reflist|21em}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{Cite journal |last=Ellman |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Ellman |date=2002 |title=Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments |url=https://artukraine.com/old/famineart/SovietCrimes.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=1151–1172 |doi=10.1080/0966813022000017177 |jstor=826310 |s2cid=43510161 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122071204/https://artukraine.com/old/famineart/SovietCrimes.pdf |archive-date=22 November 2012}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20130115023408/https://www.docstoc.com/docs/81203576/Soviet-Repression-Statistics-Some-Comments Copy]
* {{Cite journal |last1=Ellman |first1=Michael |last2=Maksudov |first2=S. |author-mask1=3 |date=1994 |title=Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note |url=https://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-War_Deaths.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=671–680 |doi=10.1080/09668139408412190 |jstor=152934 |pmid=12288331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213194518/https://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-War_Deaths.pdf |archive-date=13 February 2022 |access-date=17 February 2022}}
* {{Cite book |last=Emadi-Coffin |first=Barbara |title=Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance |date=2002 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-19540-9 |location=London & New York}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Liberman |first=Peter |title=Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies |date=1996 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-02986-3 |location=Princeton, New Jersey}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A. J. P. |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor |title=The Origins of the Second World War |date=1961 |publisher=[[Hamish Hamilton]] |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A. J. P. |title=How Wars Begin |date=1979 |publisher=[[Hamish Hamilton]] |isbn=978-0-241-10017-2 |location=London |author-mask=3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jay |url=https://archive.org/details/generalissimochi00tayl |title=The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China |date=2009 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-03338-2 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Nigel |title=German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans |last2=Andrew |first2=Stephen |date=1998 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-85532-640-8 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=John Herd |url=https://archive.org/details/canadaunitedsta00thom |title=Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies |last2=Randall |first2=Stephen J. |author-link2=Stephen Randall (political scientist) |date=2008 |publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]] |isbn=978-0-8203-3113-3 |edition=4th |location=Athens, Georgia}}
* {{Cite book |last=Trachtenberg |first=Marc |author-link=Marc Trachtenberg |title=A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 |date=1999 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-00273-6 |location=Princeton, New Jersey}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |author-link1=Spencer C. Tucker |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_p0k0 |title=Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla Mary |date=2004 |publisher=ABC-CIO |isbn=978-1-57607-999-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Umbreit |first=Hans |title=Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe |date=1991 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-822885-1 |editor-last=P. S. Falla |volume=2 |location=Oxford |pages=227–326 |chapter=The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe}}
* {{Cite book |last=United States Army |author-link=United States Army |url=https://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/intro.htm |title=The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) |date=1986 |publisher=[[Department of the Army]] |location=Washington, D.C. |ref=CITEREFUS_Army1986 |access-date=17 February 2022 |orig-date=1953 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117141003/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/intro.htm |archive-date=17 January 2022 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Waltz |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Waltz |date=2002 |title=Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=437–448 |doi=10.1080/01436590220138378 |jstor=3993535 |s2cid=145398136}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Thomas A. |title=Aerospace Propulsion Systems |date=2010 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-0-470-82497-9 |location=Singapore}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watson |first=William E. |author-link=William E. Watson |title=Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World |date=2003 |publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Praeger]] |isbn=978-0-275-97470-1 |location=Westport, Connecticut}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weinberg|first=Gerhard L.|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-521-55879-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weinberg |first=Gerhard L. |author-link=Gerhard Weinberg |title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II |date=2005 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-85316-3 |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge}}; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy
* {{Cite book |last=Wettig |first=Gerhard |title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 |date=2008 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6 |location=Lanham, Maryland}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to World War II |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191727603 |editor-last=Dear |editor-first=I. C. B. |doi=10.1093/acref/9780198604464.001.0001 |editor-last2=Foot |editor-first2=M. R. D. |last=Wheeler |first=Mark |chapter=Yugoslavia}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Wiest |first1=Andrew |title=Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare |last2=Barbier |first2=M. K. |date=2002 |publisher=[[MBI Publishing Company]] |isbn=978-0-7603-1401-2 |location=St Paul, Minnesota}}
* {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Andrew |title=Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished |date=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-35980-1 |location=Abingdon & New York}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wilt |first=Alan F. |author-link=Alan F. Wilt |date=1981 |title=Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941 |journal=Military Affairs |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=187–191 |doi=10.2307/1987464 |jstor=1987464}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wohlstetter |first=Roberta |author-link=Roberta Wohlstetter |url=https://archive.org/details/pearlharborwarni0000wohl |title=Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision |date=1962 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Palo Alto, California |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wolf |first=Holger C. |title=Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today |date=1993 |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-04136-2 |editor-last=Rudiger Dornbusch |location=Cambridge |pages=29–56 |chapter=The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951 |editor-last2=Wilhelm Nölling |editor-last3=Richard Layard}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wood |first=James B. |title=Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? |date=2007 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0-7425-5339-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yoder |first=Amos |title=The Evolution of the United Nations System |date=1997 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-56032-546-8 |edition=3rd |location=London & Washington, D.C.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zalampas |first=Michael |title=Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 |date=1989 |publisher=Bowling Green University Popular Press |isbn=978-0-87972-462-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |author-link=Steven Zaloga |title=Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre |date=1996 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-85532-478-7 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zaloga |first=Steven J. |title=Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg |date=2002 |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-84176-408-5 |location=Oxford |author-mask=3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zeiler |first=Thomas W. |title=Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II |date=2004 |publisher=Scholarly Resources |isbn=978-0-8420-2991-9 |location=Wilmington, Delaware}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Zetterling |first1=Niklas |title=''Bismarck'': The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship |last2=Tamelander |first2=Michael |date=2009 |publisher=[[Casemate Publishers|Casemate]] |isbn=978-1-935149-04-0 |location=Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |last=Buchanan |first=Andrew |date=7 February 2023 |title=Globalizing the Second World War |journal=Past & Present |issue=258 |pages=246–281 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtab042 |issn=0031-2746}} also see [https://hdiplo.org/to/AR1180 online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240504072231/https://hdiplo.org/to/AR1180 |date=4 May 2024}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gerlach |first=Christian |title=Conditions of Violence |date=2024 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-1115-6873-7 |language=en}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=World War II|World War II|collapsible=collapsed}}
* [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-europe West Point Maps of the European War]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323092741/https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-europe |date=23 March 2019}}.
* [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-asia West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323092715/https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-asia |date=23 March 2019}}.
* [[s:Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in Semimonthly Phases to August 15 1945|Atlas of the World Battle Fronts]] (July 1943 – August 1945)

{{World War II}}
{{WWII history by nation}}
{{Western world}}
{{Eastern world}}
{{Authority control}}

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Star Jalsha

2026-03-22T20:48:06Z

ElenaEbersbacher: improved intro after review

{{Short description|Indian Bengali-language television channel}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox television channel
| name = Star Jalsha
| logo = Star Jalsha logo 2023.png
| logo_size =
| logo_caption = Logo used since {{Start date and age|df=y|2019|2|17}}
| launch_date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2008|09|08}}
| owner = [[JioStar]]
| network = [[JioStar]]
| picture_format = [[1080i]] [[HDTV]] (downscaled to [[letterboxed]] [[576i]] for the [[SDTV]] feed)
| country = India
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| headquarters = [[Kolkata, West Bengal]], [[India]]
| area = India Bangladesh
| sister_channels = [[Disney Star#Owned channels|JioStar channels]]
| website = {{URL|https://www.hotstar.com/channels/star-jalsha|Star Jalsha}}
}}

'''Star Jalsha''' is an Indian [[Bengali language]] [[general entertainment]] [[pay television]] channel owned by [[JioStar]], a joint venture between [[Viacom18]] and [[Disney India]]. It primarily broadcasts [[Indian television drama|family dramas]], [[comedies]], [[reality shows]] and films. It launched its own [[High-definition television|HD]] feed on 14 April 2016.

==History==
Star Jalsha was officially launched on 8 September 2008 and is the first non-regional, non-Hindi and non-English channel of Star Network.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Star's Bengali channel from September 8|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/star-39-s-bengali-channel-from-september-8-108082201116_1.html|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=22 August 2008|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=25 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625231225/https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/star-39-s-bengali-channel-from-september-8-108082201116_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Dr. Paramveer Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ncg7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110|title=Indian Silver Screen|date=5 August 2021|access-date=3 August 2022|publisher=K.K. Publications|page=110|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052731/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ncg7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110|url-status=live}}</ref> This was Star India's second Bengali-language television channel of [[STAR India|Star India]] after [[ABP Ananda|Star Ananda]]. In 2011, it was launched on the [[OSN]] platform in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web|title=1st Bengali entertainment channel, STAR Jalsha launches in the Middle East on the Pehla platform|url=https://www.startv.com/newsroom/1st-bengali-entertainment-channel-star-jalsha-launches-in-the-middle-east-on-the-pehla-platform/?page=418|website=Star TV|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=23 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623121459/https://www.startv.com/newsroom/1st-bengali-entertainment-channel-star-jalsha-launches-in-the-middle-east-on-the-pehla-platform/?page=418|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 17 June 2012, during a special event Cholo Paltai, it rebranded with a new diamond star logo and graphics for the first time since its launch.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Regional TV gets competitive|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/regional-tv-gets-competitive/969901/|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> On 22 November 2012, the channel was launched in [[United Kingdom|UK]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Star launches Bengali channel in UK|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/star-launches-bengali-channel-in-uk-112111900166_1.html|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=19 November 2012|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=26 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626191550/https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/star-launches-bengali-channel-in-uk-112111900166_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The channel launched its own high-definition feed, along with [[Jalsha Movies]] HD, on 14 April 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Star India to back its Bengali HD launch with aggressive marketing and adequate content|url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/television/tv%E2%88%92channels/regional/star%E2%88%92india%E2%88%92to%E2%88%92back%E2%88%92its%E2%88%92star%E2%88%92jalsha%E2%88%92and%E2%88%92jalsha%E2%88%92movies%E2%88%92hd%E2%88%92launch%E2%88%92with%E2%88%92aggressive%E2%88%92marketing%E2%88%92and%E2%88%92adequate%E2%88%92content%E2%88%92160411|publisher=[[Indian Television]]|access-date=15 April 2016|archive-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506154721/http://www.indiantelevision.com/television/tv%E2%88%92channels/regional/star%E2%88%92india%E2%88%92to%E2%88%92back%E2%88%92its%E2%88%92star%E2%88%92jalsha%E2%88%92and%E2%88%92jalsha%E2%88%92movies%E2%88%92hd%E2%88%92launch%E2%88%92with%E2%88%92aggressive%E2%88%92marketing%E2%88%92and%E2%88%92adequate%E2%88%92content%E2%88%92160411|url-status=live}}</ref> They were the first [[Bengali-language]] HD channels in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.televisionpost.com/television/star−to−launch−hd−versions−of−bengali−channels/|title=Star to launch HD versions of Bengali channels|website=Television Post}}{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 2018, Sagnik Ghosh became the head of the channel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exchange4media.com/media-tv-news/sagnik-ghosh-to-now-head-star-jalsha-88429.html|title=Sagnik Ghosh to now head Star Jalsha|website=Exchange4media|access-date=2 October 2019|archive-date=9 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209050038/https://www.exchange4media.com/media-tv-news/sagnik-ghosh-to-now-head-star-jalsha-88429.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 17 February 2019, during a special event called Jalsha Doshe Dosh (Meaning Ten-on-Ten), on account of Star Jalsha's 10th birthday, the channel rebranded for the second time from a white logo with red accents to a red logo with blue accents. It also introduced new coloured graphics after almost 7 years, which are not red and white in the history of the channel, but predominantly turquoise blue with the hints of golden and yellow. The serials also no longer use their own logo. Instead, they use the Kohinoor font for the name of the serial in the cover picture of a particular serial. However, in recent past, the reality shows and events have featured their own logos in the channel with Star Jalsha's Bengali [[font]] Kohinoor Bangla.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Star Jalsha unveils new brand identity & new 'Happy Weekend' slot|url=https://www.bizasialive.com/star-jalsha-unveils-new-brand-identity-new-happy-weekend-slot/|website=Biz Asia|date=21 February 2019|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=26 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626140427/https://www.bizasialive.com/star-jalsha-unveils-new-brand-identity-new-happy-weekend-slot/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 2 October 2021, Star Jalsha, along with other foreign television channels that did not provide [[Clean feed (television)|clean feeds]], was temporarily suspended from broadcasting in Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Dozens of foreign television stations in Bangladesh go black|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/dozens-of-foreign-television-stations-in-bangladesh-go-black/2380813|date=2 October 2021|access-date=3 April 2022|work=[[Anadolu Agency]]|archive-date=15 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115072644/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/dozens-of-foreign-television-stations-in-bangladesh-go-black/2380813|url-status=live}}</ref> However, on 18 October 2021, Star Jalsha resumed broadcasts in the country with clean feed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bangladeshlivenews.com/en/entertainment/details/bangladesh-viewers-can-start-viewing-star-jalsha |title=Bangladesh viewers can start viewing Star Jalsha |date=2021-10-17 |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Bangladesh Live News |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202162350/https://www.bangladeshlivenews.com/en/entertainment/details/bangladesh-viewers-can-start-viewing-star-jalsha |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Former broadcast==
=== Drama series ===
*''[[Aalta Phoring]] (2022–2023)''
*''[[Aay Tobe Sohochori]] (2021–2022)''
*''[[Adwitiya]] (2011–2012)''
*''[[Ardhangini (2018 TV series)|Ardhangini]] (2018)''
*''[[Ami Sirajer Begum]] (2018–2019)''
*''[[Agnijal]] (2016–2017)''
*''[[Anurager Chhowa]] (2022–2025)''
*''Bhaktir Sagar (2024)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-10-16 |title=এক মাসেই বন্ধ হচ্ছে ভক্তির সাগর! প্রতীকের 'উড়ান' আসায় কপাল পুড়ল রোহন-অঙ্গনার |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/exclusive-star-jalsha-bhaktir-sagar-to-go-off-air-on-26th-may-pratik-sens-uraan-to-replace-tumi-ashe-pashe-thakle-31715494541377.html |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=bn |archive-date=14 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240514235355/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/exclusive-star-jalsha-bhaktir-sagar-to-go-off-air-on-26th-may-pratik-sens-uraan-to-replace-tumi-ashe-pashe-thakle-31715494541377.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>''
*''[[Bangla Medium]] (2022–2023)''
*''[[Behula (TV series)|Behula]] (2010–2011)''
*''[[Bouma Ekghor]] (2022)''
*''[[Bhaggolokkhi]] (2020–2021)''
*''[[Bhoomikanya]] (2018–2019)''
*''[[Bijoyinee]] (2018–2019)''
*''[[Bodhuboron]] (2013–2017)''
*''[[Bodhu Kon Alo Laaglo Chokhe]] (2012–2014)''
*''[[Bojhena Se Bojhena (TV series)|Bojhena Se Bojhena]] (2013–2016)''
*''[[Boron (TV series)|Boron]] (2021–2022)''
*''[[Bou Kotha Kao]] (2009–2012)''
*''[[Care Kori Na]] (2012–2013)''
*''[[Checkmate (Indian TV series)|Checkmate]] (2012)''
*''[[Chuni Panna]] (2019–2020)''
*''[[Debi Choudhurani]] (2018–2019)''
*''[[Debipaksha (TV series)|Debipaksha]] (2017)''
*''[[Desher Maati]] (2021)''
*''[[Dhrubatara]] (2020–2021)''
*''[[Dhulokona]] (2021–2022)''
*''[[Durga (TV series)|Durga]] (2008–2010)''
*''[[Durga Durgeshwari]] (2019–2020)''
*''[[Ekhane Aakash Neel (2008 TV series)|Ekhane Aakash Neel]] (2008–2010)''
*''[[Ekhane Aakash Neel (2019 TV series)|Ekhane Aakash Neel]] (2019–2020)''
*''[[Ekka Dokka]] (2022–2023)''
*''[[Falna (TV series)|Falna]] (2021–2022)''
*''[[Gaaner Oparey]] (2010–2011)''
*''[[Geeta LL.B]] (2023–2025)''
*''[[Gaatchora]] (2021–2023)''
*''[[Ghore Pherar Gaan]] (2012–2013)''
*''[[Gramer Rani Binapani]] (2021–2022)''
*''[[Gangaram (TV series)|Gangaram]] (2020–2022)''
*''[[Godhuli Alap]] (2022–2023)''
*''[[Guddi (TV series)|Guddi]] (2022–2023)''
*''[[Guriya Jekhane Guddu Sekhane]] (2019–2020)''
*''[[Horogouri Pice Hotel]] (2022–2025)''
*''[[Ichche Nodee]] (2015–2017)''
*''[[Irabotir Chupkotha]] (2018–2020)''
*''[[Ishti Kutum]] (2011–2015)''
*''[[Jai Kali Kalkattawali]] (2017–2019)''
*''Jibon Jyoti (2018)<ref>{{Cite news|title=A new show on martial arts to hit TV screens|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/a-new-show-on-martial-arts-to-hit-tv-screens/articleshow/63284257.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=13 March 2018|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=1 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301152428/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/a-new-show-on-martial-arts-to-hit-tv-screens/articleshow/63284257.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>''
*''[[Jol Nupur]] (2013–2015)''
*''[[Kanamachi (TV series)|Kanamachi]] (2014–2015)''
*''[[Kapalkundala (TV series)|Kapalkundala]] (2019–2020)''
*''[[Ke Apon Ke Por]] (2016–2020)''
*''[[Khelaghor]] (2020–2022)''
*''[[Khokababu (TV series)|Khokababu]] (2016–2018)''
*''[[Khorkuto]] (2020–2022)''
*''[[Khukumoni Home Delivery]] (2021–2022)''
*''[[Kiranmala (TV series)|Kiranmala]] (2014–2016)''
*''[[Kora Pakhi]] (2020–2021)''
*''[[Kothha]] (2023–2025)''
*''[[Kunjochhaya]] (2019–2020)''
*''[[Kusum Dola]] (2016–2018)''
*''[[Mahapeeth Tarapeeth]] (2019–2022)''
*''[[Maa....Tomay Chara Ghum Ashena]] (2009–2014)''
*''[[Mahanayak (TV series)|Mahanayak]] (2016)''
*''[[Mayurpankhi]] (2018–2019)''
*''[[Membou]] (2016–2017)''
*''[[Milon Tithi]] (2015–2017)''
*''[[Mohor (TV series)|Mohor]] (2019–2022)''
*''[[Mon Niye Kachakachi]] (2015)''
*''[[Mon Phagun]] (2021–2022)''
*''[[Nojor]] (2019)''
*''[[Ogo Bodhu Sundori (TV series)|Ogo Bodhu Sundori]] (2009–2010)''
*''[[Ogo Nirupoma]] (2020–2021)''
*''[[Om Namah Shivay (2018 TV series)|Om Namah Shivay]] (2018)''
*''[[Phagun Bou]] (2018–2019)''
*''[[Ponchomi]] (2022-2023)''
*''[[Potol Kumar Gaanwala]] (2015–2017)''
*''[[Pratidaan]] (2017–2018)''
*''[[Punyi Pukur]] (2015–2017)''
*''[[Prothoma Kadambini]] (2020–2021)''
*''[[Rakhi Bandhan]] (2016–2019)''
*''[[Saanjher Baati]] (2019–2021)''
*''[[Shree Krishna Bhakto Meera]] (2021)''
*''[[Sanyashi Raja]] (2017–2018)''
*''[[Shaheber Chithi]] (2022–2023)''
*''[[Sreemoyee]] (2019–2021)''
*''[[Tekka Raja Badshah]] (2018–2019)''
*''[[Thik Jeno Love Story]] (2014–2015)''
*''[[Tomay Amay Mile]] (2013–2016)''

=== Acquired series ===
*''[[Ramayan (1987 TV series)|Ramayan]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Ramanand Sagar's Ramayan now to be dubbed and telecast in Bengali and marathi|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/ramanand-sagar-s-ramayan-now-to-be-dubbed-and-telecast-in-bengali-and-marathi-1682084-2020-05-26|website=[[India Today]]|date=26 May 2020|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310140914/https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/ramanand-sagar-s-ramayan-now-to-be-dubbed-and-telecast-in-bengali-and-marathi-1682084-2020-05-26|url-status=live}}</ref>''
*''Mahaprabhu<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.adgully.com/bengal-s-iconic-show-mahaprabhu-now-on-star-jalsha-93040.html|title=Bengal's iconic show Mahaprabhu now on Star Jalsha|date=15 May 2020|access-date=3 August 2022|work=Adgully|archive-date=3 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803063613/https://www.adgully.com/bengal-s-iconic-show-mahaprabhu-now-on-star-jalsha-93040.html|url-status=live}}</ref>''
*''Oye Golu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.animationxpress.com/latest-news/bengali-channel-star-jalsha-to-air-animated-series-oye-golu-from-tomorrow-30-may/|title=Bengali channel, Star Jalsha to air animated series 'Oye Golu' from tomorrow, 30 May|date=29 May 2020|access-date=20 June 2022|website=AnimationXpress|archive-date=20 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620060253/https://www.animationxpress.com/latest-news/bengali-channel-star-jalsha-to-air-animated-series-oye-golu-from-tomorrow-30-may/|url-status=live}}</ref>''
*''Sri Ramkrishna<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.adgully.com/star-jalsha-brings-back-shri-ramakrishna-93292.html|title=Star Jalsha brings back "Shri Ramakrishna"|date=25 May 2020|access-date=3 August 2022|work=Adgully|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172431/https://www.adgully.com/star-jalsha-brings-back-shri-ramakrishna-93292.html|url-status=live}}</ref>''
*''[[Super V]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.adgully.com/star-jalsha-presents-a-best-in-class-animated-series-super-v-92830.html|title=Star Jalsha presents a best in class animated Series "Super V"|date=8 May 2020|access-date=20 June 2022|website=Adgully|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920174137/https://www.adgully.com/star-jalsha-presents-a-best-in-class-animated-series-super-v-92830.html|url-status=live}}</ref>''

=== Reality shows ===
*''1000 Ghonta (2011)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Indraneil enjoys his new avatar as anchor!|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/Indraneil-enjoys-his-new-avatar-as-anchor/articleshow/8100685.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=4 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404184303/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/Indraneil-enjoys-his-new-avatar-as-anchor/articleshow/8100685.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>''
*''Ebar Jombe Moja (2019)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ebar Jombe Moja: Suman Gain and Sakrit Mukherjee emerge as the winner|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/ebar-jombe-moja-suman-gain-and-sakrit-mukherjee-emerge-as-the-winner/articleshow/69513682.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=27 May 2019 }}</ref>''
*''[[Super Singer (Bengali TV series)|Super Singer]] (2019–2023)''

==Sister Channels==
===Jalsha Movies===
''Jalsha Movies'' (also known as ''Star Jalsha Movies'') is a Bengali-language movie channel owned by Disney Star, a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company India. Launched on December 16, 2012, it serves as a sister channel to the general entertainment channel Star Jalsha. The channel primarily broadcasts a wide array of Bengali films, ranging from classic cinema to contemporary releases.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-15 |title=Jalsha Movies brings to you World TV Premiere of Bogla Mama Jug Jug Jiyo |url=https://www.adgully.com/jalsha-movies-brings-to-you-world-tv-premiere-of-bogla-mama-jug-jug-jiyo-148071.html |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.adgully.com}}</ref>

===Jalsha Josh===
''Jalsha Josh'' (also known as ''Star Jalsha Josh'') is an upcoming [[Bengali language]] youth entertainment television channel from the broadcaster.<ref>{{Cite web|date=16 October 2021|title=Disney Star India rejigs its Channel bouquet, to rebrand and add new Channels while Bindass and Star World to go off-air|url=https://www.medianews4u.com/disney-star-india-rejigs-its-channel-bouquet/|access-date=5 June 2022|website=MediaNews4U|archive-date=17 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017012114/https://www.medianews4u.com/disney-star-india-rejigs-its-channel-bouquet/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was originally planned to be launched on 1 December 2021, but was postponed due to issues involving the implementation of the [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India]]'s New Tariff Order 2.0.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.exchange4media.com/media-tv-news/star-defers-new-channel-launches-till-further-intimation-117089.html|title=Star defers new channel launches till further intimation|date=30 November 2021|access-date=3 August 2022|work=Exchange4Media|archive-date=10 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210073415/https://www.exchange4media.com/media-tv-news/star-defers-new-channel-launches-till-further-intimation-117089.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Reception==
Within its launch of 3 years, Star Jalsha became the most watched Indian Bengali-language channel in April 2011.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Star Jalsa emerges numero uno|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/star-jalsa-emerges-numero-uno-109051400107_1.html|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=14 May 2009|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=25 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625184406/https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/star-jalsa-emerges-numero-uno-109051400107_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{official website}}
* {{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/@starjalsha |title=Star Jalsha |website=YouTube}}

{{Bengali-language television channels in India|state=collapsed}}
{{Bengali-language television channels|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bengali-language television channels in India]]
[[Category:Television stations in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2008]]
[[Category:Disney Star]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in West Bengal]]

Chand dynasty

2026-03-15T20:17:19Z

ElenaEbersbacher: new first entry initial version

{{Short description|Medieval Indian Chand dynasty of Kumaon (700–1790 C.E.)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Chand dynasty
| common_name = Chand dynasty
| native_name = ''Kurmanchal''
| image_coat=
| status = [[Sovereign state]]
| status_text =
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| leader1 = Som Chand (legendary)
| leader2 = Garur Gyan Chand
| leader3 = Kirti Chand
| leader4 = Balo Kalyan Chand
| leader5 = Baz Bahadur Chand
| leader6 = Mahendra Chand
| year_leader1 = 700 CE – 721 CE (legendary){{sfn|Pandey|1993|pp=197–332}}
| year_leader2 = 1374–1419 CE{{sfn|Pandey|1993|pp=197–332}}
| year_leader3 = 1488–1503 CE{{sfn|Pandey|1993|pp=197–332}}
| year_leader4 = 1560–1568 CE{{sfn|Pandey|1993|pp=197–332}}
| year_leader5 = 1638–1678 CE{{sfn|Pandey|1993|pp=197–332}}
| year_leader6 = 1788–1790 CE{{sfn|Pandey|1993|pp=197–332}}
| title_leader = Raja (King)
| event_start =
| year_start = 11th century
| event_end =
| date_end =
| year_end = 1790 CE
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| event2 =
| date_event2 =
| event3 =
| date_event3 =
| p1 = Khasas
| p2 = Kuninda kingdom
| p3 = Katyuri kingdom
| s1 = Khasa Malla Kingdom
| s2 = Kingdom of Nepal
| s3 =
| s4 =
| flag_s1 =
| coat_alt =
| image_map =
| image_map_caption =
| capital = [[Baijnath, Uttarakhand|Baijnath]] (600–1200) [[Champawat]] (1200–1563) [[Almora]] (1563–1791)
| national_anthem =
| common_languages = [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]], [[Sanskrit]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| demonym =
| legislature =
| today = [[India]] [[Nepal]]
| area_km2 =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
}}

[[File:Fort and the capital city of Kali Kumaon, Champawat, 1815.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Fort and the capital city of Kali Kumaon, [[Champawat]], 1815.]]
The '''Chand dynasty''' was a kingdom that ruled the [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]] area in present-day [[Uttarakhand]] state of India, after the decline of the [[Katyuri kingdom]].<ref name="NT_1991"/> At times, their rule also extended to the western parts of present-day [[Nepal]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Acharya |first=Baburam |title=King Prithvi Narayan Shah |year=1976 |journal=Regmi Research Series |pages=225 |url=https://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/regmi/pdf/Regmi_08.pdf }}</ref> Somchand established the dynasty, establishing his capital at Rajbunga in present-day [[Champawat]].<ref name="NT_1991">{{Cite book|last=Tyagi |first=Nutan |year=1991 |title= Hill Resorts of U.P. Himalaya |publisher=Indus |page=63 |isbn=9788185182629 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcrieQdY3Y0C&dq=Chand+dynasty+rajput&pg=PA63}}</ref>

The traditional genealogical lists of the Chand dynasty date their founder's ascension to as early as the 7th century, but historical evidence suggests that the Chand rule began only in the early 11th century.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|pp=88-90}} Their rule ended in 1790, when [[Prince Bahadur Shah of Nepal|Bahadur Shah of Nepal]] invaded the region, forcing the last king - Mahendra Chand - to flee.{{sfn|Handa|2002|p=103}}

== History ==
=== Origin ===
Several traditional genealogical lists (''vamshavali''s) of the Chand dynasty are available, but these are not completely reliable, having been compiled in the mid-19th century.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|pp=88, 90}} According to such traditional lists and chronicles, Som (or Soma) Chand established the Chand dynasty in the 7th century. Based on this, an 1849 [[British Raj]]-era report assigned the start of the Chand rule to 685 CE (742 [[Vikrama Samvat|VS]]). However, historians dispute this date, as it contradicts the chronology of the [[Katyuri kingdom]], who are known to have ruled Kumaon until the third quarter of the 10th century.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|p=88}} For example, the Pandukeshwar [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper-plate inscription]] attests that the Katyuri king Lalita Sura Deva was ruling Kumaon during the 9th century, and held the imperial title ''Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja Parmaeshvara''. It also attests that his descendants continued to rule the region in the 10th century.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|p=89}}

By the first quarter of the thirteenth century, the Chand kings appear to have been ruling in Kumaon as feudatories. For example, the 1223 CE [[Baleshwar Temple]] inscription of [[Khasa Kingdom|Krachalla Deva]], a conqueror from present-day Nepal, lists his ten counsellors and feudatories. The names of three of these men suggest that they may have belonged to the Chand family: Chandra Deva, Vinaya Chand and Vidya Chand. Vina Chand, whom the three principal genealogical lists name as the 8th Chand king, was probably same as Vinaya Chand of the inscription.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|p=90}}

The tradition states that Som Chand was an immigrant from [[Jhusi]], a relative of the king of Kannauj, and a contemporary of the last Katyuri king Brahma Deva.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|p=89}} Based on this, historian Krishna Pal Singh theorizes that Som Chand may have migrated to Kumaon amid the political upheaval resulting from the [[Ghaznavid campaigns in India|Ghaznavid invasion]] of the Kannauj kingdom during 1018-1019 CE. Singh, therefore, dates the beginning of the Chand rule to 1019-1021 CE. This dates aligns with Katyuri chronology and with the placement of the eighth Chand king Vina (Vinaya) Chand in 1223 CE.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|pp=89-90}}

=== Early rule ===

Som Chand continued to call his state Kurmanchal, and established its capital in [[Champawat]] in Kali Kumaon, called so, due to its vicinity to [[Kali River (Uttarakhand)|river Kali]]. Many temples built in this former capital city, during the 11th and 12th century exist today, this include the Baleshwar and Nagnath temples.{{sfn|Handa|2002}}{{page needed|date=February 2024}} Later their capital was shifted to [[Almora]] by ''Raja Kalyan Chand'' in 1563, when he laid the foundation of a town name 'Alam Nagar', which was also called, 'Rajapur',<ref>[http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/indexcity.html?history.html History of Almora city] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425091847/http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/indexcity.html?history.html |date=25 April 2009 }}{{unreliable source inline|date=March 2026}}</ref><ref name=Champa>[http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=019WDZ000004471U00000000 Champawat] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209012129/http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=019WDZ000004471U00000000 |date=9 February 2012 }} British Library.</ref> a name that still used and has been found inscribed on a number of copper plates of the time.<ref>[http://almora.nic.in/kumaun.htm Kumaon] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513183439/http://almora.nic.in/kumaun.htm |date=13 May 2008 }} Official website of [[Almora district]].</ref>

In 1581, the Chand King, Rudra Chand (1565–1597), son of Raja Kalyan Chand seized Sira defeating Raika king Hari Malla and attacked the [[Garhwal Kingdom]] for the first time, though this attack was repulsed by then king, Dularam Sah,{{cn|date=March 2026}} and so were his subsequent attacks. Rudra Chand was a contemporary of [[Akbar]], and even paid him a visit in [[Lahore]] in 1587, as a mark of his obeisance. [[Akbarnama]] mentions him as "one of the great landlords of India", and further talks about his initial hesitation in approaching the court of Akbar, it was only [[Raja Todar Mal]] himself, sent his son Kalyan Das to assure him, did his proceed to meet Akbar. Subsequently, the two met and agreed on a concord,<ref>[http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D00701023%26ct%3D195%26rqs%3D410 Rudra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209041217/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile=00701023&ct=195&rqs=410 |date=9 February 2012 }} [[Akbarnama]] of Abu Fazl, Volume 3, chpt. 196.p807, "On 9 Āẓar he received the felcity..."1588</ref> and thus [[Ain-e-Akbari]], written during period of Akbar, also mentions the ''Sarkar of Kumaon'', containing 21 Mahals (a geographical unit of the times) and the revenue collected.<ref>[http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D00702052%26ct%3D191 Sarkár of Kumáon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209041143/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile=00702052&ct=191 |date=9 February 2012 }} [[Ain-e-Akbari]] Vol II, pp. 289.</ref>

After death of Rudra Chand in 1597, his son, Lakshmi Chand, also continued attacks of Garhwal for many years, though he too was repulsed. He also constructed the '[[Bagnath Temple|Bagnath temple]]' at [[Bageshwar]] in 1602.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

=== Peak ===
One of the most powerful rulers of the Chand dynasty was [[Baz Bahadur Chand]] (1638–78), who met [[Shahjahan]] in Delhi, and in 1655 joined forces with him to attack Garhwal, which was under its king, Pirthi Sah, and subsequently captured the [[Terai]] region including [[Dehradun]], which was hence separated from the Garhwal kingdom. Baz Bahadur extended his territory east to Karnali river.

In 1672, Baz Bahadur started a poll tax, and its revenue was sent to Delhi as a tribute. Baz Bahadur also built the [[Golu Devata]] Temple, at Ghorakhal, near [[Bhimtal]],<ref name=Chand>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V18_330.gif History of Nainital District] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]] 1909, v. 18, p. 324-325.</ref> after Lord Golu, a general in his army, who died valiantly at war.<ref>[http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/indexvisitor.html Chitai Temple] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413011854/http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/indexvisitor.html |date=13 April 2009 }}</ref> He also built the Bhimeshwara Mahadev Temple at Bhimtal.<ref>[http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=019PHO000000883U00007000 Bhimtal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618174145/http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=019PHO000000883U00007000 |date=18 June 2008 }} British Library.</ref>

Towards the end of 17th century, Chand Rajas again attacked the Garhwal kingdom, and in 1688 Udyot Chand erected several temples at Almora, including Tripur Sundari, Udyot Chandeshwer and Parbateshwer, to mark his victory over Garhwal and Doti. The Pabateshwar temple was renamed twice, to become the present Nanda Devi temple.<ref name=Temple>[http://www.uttaranchal.org.uk/almoratemples.php Almora Temples] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304225503/http://www.uttaranchal.org.uk/almoratemples.php |date=4 March 2016 }} www.uttaranchal.org.</ref> Later, Jagat Chand (1708–20), defeated the Raja of Garhwal and pushed him away from [[Srinagar, Uttarakhand|Srinagar]], and his kingdom was given to a Brahmin.<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_171.gif History of Garhwal District] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]] 1909, v. 12, p. 165-166.</ref> However, a subsequent king of Garhwal, Pradip Shah (1717–72), regained control over Garhwal and retained Doon till 1757, when [[Rohilla]] leader [[Najib-ul-Daula]] established himself there, though he was ousted soon by Pradip Shah.

The Chand kings also defeated the [[Rajbar|Rajwars]] of [[Askot]], though the latter were allowed to hold their land on the payment of a tribute.<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V06_020.gif Askot] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]] 1909, v. 6, p. 14.</ref>

The hill station of [[Binsar]], 30 km from Almora was a summer retreat of the Chand kings.<ref>[http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/indexvisitor.html Almora] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413011854/http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/indexvisitor.html |date=13 April 2009 }} [[Almora]] city official website.</ref>

In the coming years, Jagat Chand's successor, Debi Chand (1720-6) took part in the wars of [[Rohilla]]s of [[Rohilkhand]], and was defeated by the British troops.<ref name=Chand />

=== Decline ===
In 1744, [[Ali Mohammed Khan]], the Rohilla leader, sent a force into the Chand territory and penetrated through Bhimtal in the Nainital district to [[Almora]]; the resistance of Chand army, under its ruler, Kalyan Chand, was weak and ineffective, and Almora fell to the Rohillas, who stayed here for seven short months, though they were ultimately driven out, an exit made possible by paying them a sum of three lakh rupees, and hastened by the harsh terrain of the region.

This peace didn't last long as after just three months, unhappy over his lieutenants, Ali Mohammed Khan attacked again, though this time, he was stopped right at the entrance to the hills, at Barakheri, and defeated; and he made no further attempts to conquer the Kumaon kingdom, nor did the Muslim rulers of Delhi, and this remained the first and the last attack by Muslim rulers on the region. Reconciliation subsequently came into effected; troops from the hills, under Dip Chand, fought side by side with the Rohillas at [[Third Battle of Panipat]] in 1761.<ref name=Chand />

In 1760, he renamed the old Parbateshwer temple as Dipchandeshwar temple.<ref name=Temple />

During British rule, then divisional commissioner of Kumaon, George William Trail, got the statue of the Nanda Devi, which had been relocated to the Udyot Chandeshwar temple, from the 'Malla Mahal' (Upper Court) of Chand kings, where the present collectorate exists, and in time, the temple started being called the 'Nanda Devi temple'. The 'Talla Mahal' (Lower Court) of Chand rulers now houses the District Hospital.<ref>. [http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/29worship.html#Nanda Devi Temple Nanda Devi Temple] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625030520/http://210.212.78.56/almora/English/29worship.html#Nanda |date=25 June 2008 }} website of Almora city.</ref>

Due to internal strife, in the coming thirty years the kings lost most of the land they had previously ruled in the plains, and retained only the [[Bhabar|Bhabhar]] region.

In early 1790, the [[Gurkhas]] invaded the Kumaon hills and Almora, they advanced by crossing [[Kali River (Uttarakhand)|River Kali]], through Gangoli; and the Chands, under the titular Chand Raja, were driven to the Bhabhar and finally expelled.

The [[Terai]] and [[Kashipur, Uttarakhand|Kashipur]] were ceded to the [[United Kingdom|British]] by the [[Nawab of Awadh]] in 1801, along with the rest of [[Rohilkhand]].

Nepalese rule lasted for<ref>[http://www.uttaranchal.org.uk/coinhistory.php Cruel Gurkha Regime] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907185020/http://www.uttaranchal.org.uk/coinhistory.php |date=7 September 2017 }} www.uttaranchal.org.</ref> twenty-four years. The end came because of their repeated intrusion into British territories in the [[Terai]] from 1800 onwards. [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Lord Moira]], the [[Governor-General of India]], decided to attack Almora in December 1814, marking the beginning of the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]].<ref name=Champa /> After the war, the old Lal Mandi fort, near Almora (present cantonment), was renamed ‘Fort Moira’.<ref>[http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=019WDZ000004473U00000000 Almora] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209012135/http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=019WDZ000004473U00000000 |date=9 February 2012 }} British Library.</ref>

Harak Deo Joshi, the minister of the last Chand Raja,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kashipur.in/content/ancestors|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416052727/http://kashipur.in/content/ancestors|url-status=dead|title=Chand Rajas in Kashipur|archivedate=16 April 2009}}</ref> took the side of the British, a force of 4500 men marched from [[Kashipur, Uttarakhand|Kashipur]] in February, 1815. Champawat was first taken in March from [[Pilibhit]], through the Kali River. Within two months, a strong British army under Colonel Nichols attacked and captured Almora, on 26 April 1815.<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V05_253.gif History of Almora District] [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]] 1909, v. 5, p. 245-246.</ref> A truce was called the same day, and with the ratification of [[Sugauli Treaty|Treaty of Sugauli]] on 4 March 1816, Kumaon and Garhwal became a part of the [[British Raj]].

== Titles ==
Chand princes used Maharajkumar, Kunwar or Gusain as title. Maharajkumar was at the start of the name, while Kunwar or Gusain was used at the end. [[Doti]] princes used Rainka. [[Katyuri kings|Katyuris]] and Chands also used Rajwar as titles.(Chand's are also referred to as (६ पल्ल्या रजबार). A Rajbar who wears a "Janev" made of 6 threads (Maximum allowed for a Hindu)).

The Kings used titles such as Sri Raja, Sri Rajadhiraj or Rajadhiraja Maharaj and sometimes Maharajadhiraj Sri Raja etc. and name ended with Deo . This Deo was used by Katyuris as well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=Pawan |title=A Concise History of Uttarakhand |publisher=Aflatoon Publishing |year=2022 |isbn=978-81-955862-0-2 |edition=2nd |location=Dehradun |pages=109}}</ref>

== List of rulers ==

[[Badri Datt Pandey]], in his book ''Kumaun Ka Itihaas'' lists the Chand kings as following.{{sfn|Pandey|1993|pp=197–332}} Pandey, relying on Pandit Rudra Datta Pant, places Som Chand's ascension to 700 CE (757 [[Vikrama Samvat|VS]]). However, this date does not tally with the [[Katyuri dynasty|Katyuri]] chronology, and historical evidence suggests that Som Chand's rule began much later, probably around 1019-1021 CE.{{sfn|Krishna Pal Singh|1973|p=88-90}}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
!width="150" rowspan="1"| King
!rowspan="1"|Reign
!rowspan="1"|Notes
|-
| Som Chand
| 700–721
|
|-
| Atm Chand
| 721–740
|
|-
| Purn Chand
| 740–758
|
|-
| Indra Chand
| 758–778
| Opened Silk Factories
|-
| Sansar Chand
| 778–813
|
|-
| Sudha Chand
| 813–833
|
|-
| Hamir Chand
| 833–856
|
|-
| Vina Chand
| 856–869
| Lost to Khas Kings
|-
| Vir Chand
| 1065–1080
|
|-
| Rup Chand
| 1080–1093
|
|-
| Laxmi Chand
| 1093–1113
|
|-
| Dharm Chand
| 1113–1121
|
|-
| Karm Chand
| 1121–1140
|
|-
| Ballal Chand
| 1140–1149
|
|-
| Nami Chand
| 1149–1170
|
|-
| Nar Chand
| 1170–1177
|
|-
| Nanaki Chand
| 1177–1195
|
|-
| Ram Chand
| 1195–1205
|
|-
| Bhishm Chand
| 1205–1226
|
|-
| Megh Chand
| 1226–1233
|
|-
| Dhyan Chand
| 1233–1251
|
|-
| Parvat Chand
| 1251–1261
|
|-
| Thor Chand
| 1261–1275
|
|-
| Kalyan Chand II
| 1275–1296
|
|-
| Trilok Chand
| 1296–1303
| Conquered Chhakhata Built a fort at [[Bhimtal]]
|-
| Damaru Chand
| 1303–1321
|
|-
| Dharm Chand
| 1321–1344
| Defeated One Lakh Army of [[Delhi]] Sultan [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Muhammad Bin Tughluq]] under Khusrau Malik in his [[Qarachil Expedition]]
|-
| Abhay Chand
| 1344–1374
|
|-
| Garur Gyan Chand
| 1374–1419
| Established authority over [[Bhabar]] and [[Udham Singh Nagar district|Terai]]; later lost them to nawab of [[Sambhal]], Recaptured it by defeating Turkish Nawab of [[Sambhal]] under General Nilu Kathait
|-
| Harihar Chand
| 1419–1420
|
|-
| Udyan Chand
| 1420–1421
| built [[Baleshwar Temple]] at [[Champawat]] Captured Chaugarkha
|-
| Atma Chand II
| 1421–1422
|
|-
| Hari Chand II
| 1422–1423
|
|-
| Vikram Chand
| 1423–1437
| Completed [[Baleshwar Temple]]
|-
| Bharati Chand
| 1437–1450
| Defeated [[Doti]]
|-
| Ratna Chand
| 1450–1488
| Defeated Bams of [[Pithoragarh|Sor]], defeated [[Doti]] again
|-
| Kirti Chand
| 1488–1503
| annexed [[Almora district|Barahmandal]], [[Dwarahat|Pali]] and Faldakot, Conquered [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] by defeating Ajaypal and made it vassal state of Kumaon
|-
| Pratap Chand
| 1503–1517
|
|-
| Tara Chand
| 1517–1533
|
|-
| Manik Chand
| 1533–1542
|
|-
| Kalyan Chand III
| 1542–1551
|
|-
| Purna Chand
| 1551–1555
|
|-
| Bhishm Chand
| 1555–1560
| laid foundation stone of [[Almora|Alamnagar]] lost [[Almora district|Barahmandal]] to Khas Sardar ''Gajuwathinga''
|-
| Balo Kalyan Chand
| 1560–1568
| recaptured [[Almora district|Barahmandal]] moved capital to Alamnagar and renamed it [[Almora]] Annexed [[Mankot]] and [[Bageshwar district|Danpur]]
|-
| Rudra Chand
| 1568–1597
| Successfully defended [[Udham Singh Nagar district|Terai]] from nawab of [[Shahjahanpur|Kath and Gola]] founded the city of [[Rudrapur, Uttarakhand|Rudrapur]] Annexed [[Didihat|Sira]]- Battle of Basantpur
|-
| Laxmi Chand
| 1597–1621
| built Laxmeswar and [[Bagnath Temple]] at [[Almora]] and [[Bageshwar]] respectively
|-
| Dilip Chand
| 1621–1624
|
|-
| Vijay Chand
| 1624–1625
|
|-
| Trimal Chand
| 1625–1638
|
|-
| [[Baz Bahadur Chand]]
| 1638–1678
| Captured [[Dehradun]] and Hindu Pilgrimage [[Kailash Mansarovar]] defeated [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] and [[Tibet]], has his kingdom from ton river till karnali
|-
| Udyot Chand
| 1678–1698
| Defeated combined armies of [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] and Doti [[Kumaon invasion of Garhwal (1678)]]
[[Kumaon invasion of Chandpur garh (1679)]]
|-
| Gyan Chand
| 1698–1708
| Defeated [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] and expelled fateh shah from Srinagar
|-
| [[Jagat Chand]]
| 1708–1720
| Invaded [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] and captured its capital [[Srinagar, Uttarakhand|Srinagar]], defeated army of [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]]
|-
| Devi Chand
| 1720–1726
| Made Afghani Daud Khan General of [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]], looted [[Moradabad]], [[Mughal Empire]] and captured villages of Mughals
|-
| Ajit Chand
| 1726–1729
|
|-
| Kalyan Chand V
| 1729–1747
| Defeated [[Rohilla]]s
|-
| Deep Chand
| 1747–1777
| Defeated [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] King Pradip Shah left him embarrassed; joined with the Afghans and Rohillas and against the Marathas in the Third battle of Panipat.
|-
| Mohan Chand
| 1777–1779
| Defeated by King Lalit Shah of [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] due to treason of Joshis
|-
| Pradyumn Chand
| 1779–1786
| Son of king Lalit Shah of [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]]
|-
| Mohan Chand
| 1786–1788
| Overthrew Pradyumn Shah; Became king for second time
|-
| Shiv Chand
| 1788
|
|-
| Mahendra Chand
| 1788–1790
| Defeated by [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkhas]]
|}

'''Panchpurviya'''

Five Rajput Clans namely: ''Deopa'' (Village Roba, [[Garkha]] Paspa), ''Serari'' (Village Sangor, Sorari Talli Malli), ''Puruchuda'' (Village Rundakot, Garkha Puruchudi), ''Chiral'' (Village Chhawati Chiral) and ''Paderu'' (Garkha Paderu) were known as Panch-purviyas. They were introduced in Doti and settled in Kumaon by King Ratan Chand (1450–1488) after granting them jagirs. These Five kind of Rajputs were relatives of the Chand kings and had matrimonial relations amongst each other. They are considered to be subcastes/clans of the Chands. After some time the Chiral family went back to Doti but other clans stayed.{{sfn|Pandey|1993}}{{page needed|date=February 2024}}

== Legacy ==
The first capital of Chand rulers, [[Champawat]], in the stronghold popularly known as Kali Kumaon, is now a district headquarters town, and hold many remnants of once powerful Chand reign, including a medieval fort, [[Baleshwar temple]], [[Nagnath Temple]], etc. Other temples of their reign are [[Golu Devata]] Temple, at [[Ghorakhal]], near Bhimtal, and Bhimeshwara Mahadev Temple at Bhimtal.

== See also ==
*[[Kumauni people]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |author=Krishna Pal Singh |title=The Chand Epoch |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=34 |issue=1 |year=1973 |pages=88–92 |publisher=Indian History Congress |jstor=44138597 }}
* {{cite book |title=History of Kumaun |last=Pandey |first=B. D. |author-link=Badri Datt Pandey |year=1993 |location=Almora, India |publisher=Shyam Prakashan : Shree Almora Book Depot}} English version of "Kumaun ka itihas".
* {{cite book |title=History of Uttaranchal |first=Umachand |last=Handa |publisher=Indus |year=2002 |isbn=81-7387-134-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7_Ct9gzvkDQC&dq=Chand+Kings&pg=PA45 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |title=Source Materials of Kumauni History |first=Nityananda |last=Misra |publisher=Shree Almora Book Depot |year=1994 |isbn=81-85865-24-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Administrative History of Uttarakhand (Kumaon and Garhwal), During the Rule of the East India Company, 1815–1857 |first=Ajay |last=Arora |publisher=Eastern Book Linkers |year=1996 |isbn=81-86339-33-7}}

{{Uttarakhand}}

[[Category:History of Kumaon]]
[[Category:Medieval Indian monarchies]]
[[Category:Champawat]]
[[Category:Almora]]
[[Category:11th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:17th-century disestablishments in India]]

Competition climbing in India

2026-03-15T11:39:11Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

{{Infobox sport overview
| title = Sport Climbing in India
| image = Rock Climbing Practice On Artificial Rock Wall at Indian Mountaineering Foundation,Delhi.jpg
| caption = [[Top roping]] on a [[climbing wall]] at the [[Indian Mountaineering Foundation]], [[Delhi]]
| union = Sport Climbing in India
| noncountry =
}}
'''Sport climbing''' was introduced in India in 1991. It is governed by the [[Indian Mountaineering Foundation]] (IMF).[1] A founder member of International Federation of Sport Climbing(now, World Climbing). Col.Vijay Singh, VSM is the president and Shri. Keerthi Pais is the secretary of IMF.

Pune, Kolkata, Delhi, Jamshedpur, Jammu and [[Bangalore]] are prominent with athletes participating in [[competition climbing]] in India.[2] The Indian Mountaineering Foundation, The [[Nehru Institute of Mountaineering]], Jawahar Institute of Mountaineering, National institute of Mountaineering and Allied Sports and General Thimayya National Academy of Adventure conducts short term courses in Sport Climbing.[3]

==Indian competition climbers==
[[File:Brigadier MP Yadav with India Sport Climbing Team.jpg|thumb|Indian Sport Climbing Team and international climbers during a World Cup event in Navi Mumbai]]
India has bagged 67 international medals in the last 30 years. The recent being, 7 medals at Asian K(U15) Championship in December 2025. At the world ranking at the end of December 2025, Bharath Periera is ranked 68 in Boulder and Joga Purty is ranked 68 in Speed. They are the highest-ranked Indian competition climbers. Deepu Mallesh (5.31 Sec)and Joga Purty(7.88 Sec) hold the national record in speed climbing.

==Asian Games==
India sent a seven-member sport climbing contingent to the [[2023 Asian Games]] in Hangzhou, China. Bharath Periera, Aman Verma, Dhiraj Birajdar, Shivpreet Pannu,Anisha Verma and Shivani Charak participated in the Asian Games. However, the athletes did not win any podium places.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://fisc-climbing.org/ https://share.ptinews.com/press-release/dr-rajmohan-pillai-elected-as-new-president-of-sport-climbing-federation-of-india/1606016]
* [https://www.dtnext.in/news/chennai/chennai-to-host-its-first-ever-open-national-bouldering-championship-841318 Open National Bouldering Championship 2025]
{{Sport in India}}
[[Category:Sport in India by sport]]
[[Category:Competition climbing]]

Quran

2026-03-13T15:38:14Z

ElenaEbersbacher: clean up

{{Short description|Central religious text of Islam}}
{{About|the central religious text of Islam||Quran (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox religious text
| religion = [[Islam]]
| image = Birmingham Quran manuscript full.jpg
| alt = Quran opened, resting on a stand
| language = [[Classical Arabic]]
| chapters = 114 ([[List of chapters in the Quran#Table|list]]) ''See [[sūrah]]''
| period = 610–632 CE
| name = Quran
| caption = Two [[folio]]s of the [[Birmingham Quran manuscript]], an [[Early Quranic manuscripts|early manuscript]] written in [[Hijazi script]] on parchment [[carbon-dated]] to {{circa|568–645}}, overlapping [[Muhammad]]'s lifetime
| subheader = {{Lang|ar|الْقُرْآن}} {{Transliteration|ar|al-Qurʾān}}
| native_wikisource = القرآن الكريم
| orig_lang_code = ar
| wikisource = Quran
|verses=6,348 (including the ''[[basmala]]'') 6,236 (excluding the ''basmala'') ''See [[Āyah]]''}}
{{Quran|expanded=all}}
The '''Quran'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|k|U|ˈ|r|ɑː|n}}, {{Respell|kuurr|AHN|'}}; the English pronunciation varies: {{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|r|ɑː|n}}, {{IPAc-en|-|ˈ|r|æ|n}}, {{IPAc-en|k|ɔː|-}}, {{IPAc-en|k|oʊ|-}};<ref>dictionary.reference.com: [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Koran koran]</ref> especially with the spelling ''quran'' {{IPAc-en|k|ʊ|ˈ|r|ɑː|n}}, {{IPAc-en|-|ˈ|r|æ|n}};<ref>dictionary.reference.com: [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Quran quran]</ref> including British English {{IPAc-en|k|ɒ|ˈ|r||ɑː|n}}.<ref>Cambridge dictionary: [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/the-koran koran]</ref><ref>Cambridge dictionary: [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/the-qur-an?q=qur%27an quran]</ref>}} ({{langx|ar| }}{{Lang|ar|الْقُرْآن}},{{efn|[[Classical Arabic|Quranic Arabic]]: {{Script/Arabic|الۡقُرۡءَان}}, {{transliteration|ar|al-Qurʾān}}}}{{efn|{{nowrap|{{IPA|ar|alqurˈʔaːn}}}}. The Arabic pronunciation can be [[phonemic transcription|transcribed phonemically]] as {{IPA|/al.qurˈʔaːn/}}. The actual pronunciation in [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] varies regionally. The first vowel varies from {{IPAblink|o}} to {{IPAblink|ʊ}}, while the second vowel varies from {{IPAblink|æ}} to {{IPAblink|a}} to {{IPAblink|ɑ}}. For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is {{IPA|[qorˈʔɑːn]}} and in Central East Arabia {{IPA|[qʊrˈʔæːn]}}.}} {{literal translation|the recitation|the lecture}}), also [[Romanization of Arabic|romanized]] '''Qur'an''' or '''Koran''',{{efn|(English spelling) The form '''Alcoran''' (and its variants) was usual before the 19th century when it became obsolete.<ref>{{Cite OED1|Alcoran|volume=1|page=[https://archive.org/stream/oed01arch#page/210/mode/1up 210]|year=1888}}</ref><ref name="Ngram">{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=Alcoran%2CKoran%2CQuran%2C+Qur%27an&year_start=1700&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&direct_url=t1%3B%2CAlcoran%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CKoran%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CQuran%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2CQur%27an%3B%2Cc0t1 |title=Google Books Ngram Viewer |website=Google Books |access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref> The form '''Koran''' was most predominant from the second half of the 18th century until the 1980s, when it has been superseded by either '''Qur'an''' or '''Quran'''.<ref name="Ngram" /><ref>{{Cite OED1|Koran|volume=5|page=[https://archive.org/stream/newenglishdict05murrmiss#page/753/mode/1up 753]|year=1901}}</ref><ref name="OED-Koran">{{OED|Koran}}</ref><ref name="OED-Quran">{{OED|Quran}}</ref> Other transliterations include ''al-Coran'', ''Coran'', ''Kuran'' and ''al-Qur'an''. The adjectives vary as well and include ''Koranic'', ''Quranic'' and ''Qur'anic'' (sometimes in lowercase).<ref name="MWD-Koran">{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Koran}}</ref>}} is the central [[religious text]] of [[Islam]], believed by [[Muslims]] to be a [[Waḥy|revelation]] directly from [[God in Islam|God]] (''[[Allāh]]''). It is organized in 114 chapters ({{Transliteration|ar|[[sūrah]]}}, {{pl.}} {{Transliteration|ar|suwar}}) which consist of individual verses (''{{Transliteration|ar|[[āyah]]}}''). Besides its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in [[Arabic literature]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Guillaume |first=Alfred |title=Islam |publisher=Penguin books |year=1954 |location=Edinburgh |page=74 |quote=It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.}}</ref><ref name="Alpha">{{Cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |title=Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions |last2=Buckles |first2=Luke |date=2004 |publisher=Alpha |isbn=978-1-59257-222-9 |location= |page=126 |oclc= |quote=Muslims believe that Muhammad's many divine encounters during his years in Mecca and Medina inspired the remainder of the Qur'an, which, nearly fourteen centuries later, remains the Arabic language's preeminent masterpiece.}}</ref><ref name="Esposito">{{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-539600-3 |edition=4th |page=21 |quote=Throughout history, many Arab Christians as well have regarded it as the perfection of the Arabic language and literature.}}</ref> and has significantly influenced the [[Arabic language]].

Muslims believe the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] through the [[Angel#Islam|angel]] [[Gabriel#Islam|Gabriel]] incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on the [[Night of Power|Laylat al-Qadr]], when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important [[Islamic view of miracles|miracle]], a proof of his [[prophets and messengers in Islam|prophethood]], and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to the first Islamic prophet [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], including the [[Islamic holy books|holy books]] of the [[Torah in Islam|Torah]], [[Zabur|Psalms]], and [[Gospel in Islam|Gospel]] in Islam. The Quran is believed by Muslims to be God's own divine speech providing a complete code of conduct across all facets of life. This has led [[Schools of Islamic theology|Muslim theologians]] to fiercely debate whether the Quran was "[[Quranic createdness|created or uncreated]]". According to tradition, several of Muhammad's [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]] served as scribes, recording the revelations. Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was compiled on the order of the first caliph [[Abu Bakr]] ({{Reign|632|634}}) by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph [[Uthman]] ({{Reign|644|656}}) established a standard version, now known as the [[Uthmanic codex]], which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, [[Qira'at|variant readings]], with some differences in meaning. It is the object of a modern field of academic research known as [[Quranic studies]].

The Quran describes itself as a guide for humanity ({{qref|2|185|pl=y}}). It alludes to significant narratives found in the [[Biblical canon|Biblical]] and [[Apocrypha|apocryphal texts]]. While it devotes considerable space to some of these narratives, it does not quote any paragraph from these sources directly,{{efn|The absence of direct quotations in the Qurʾān of Jewish and Christian scriptures and texts is presented as the basic sign of orally transmitted Biblical knowledge. Accordingly, it is stated that “‘the author’ of the Qurʾān would have heard only descriptions or paraphrases of such texts rendered into Arabic orally, most likely from some form of the Semitic language known as Aramaic.”<ref>https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2323473</ref>}} but summarizes and uses [[Biblical and Quranic narratives|different versions of some in different sections]]. Islamic theorists tend to explain this situation as the Quran's focus on the [[Islamic ethics|moral lessons]] to be drawn from events. This allusive style and summarization entail many explanatory efforts ([[exegesis]]). In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on [[tafsir]], or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text. Furthermore, [[hadiths]], which are valued in most [[Islamic schools and branches|Islamic schools of thought]] for their role in establishing [[Islamic laws]] and regulations, are oral traditions that were later written down and are believed to reflect the words and actions of Muhammad, serving as additional guidance alongside the Quran for most Muslims. During [[Prayer#Islam|prayers]], the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a {{transliteration|ar|[[Hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]]}}. Ideally, verses are recited with a special kind of [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] reserved for this purpose called {{transliteration|ar|[[tajwid]]}}. It is a tradition for some Muslims to recite the entire Quran during the {{transliteration|ar|[[tarawih]]}} prayers throughout the [[month of Ramadan]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ramadan {{!}} Islam, Fasting, Timing, Traditions, Rules, Meanings, Iftar, & Eid al-Fitr {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260212110725/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |archive-date=12 February 2026 |access-date=2026-02-22 |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Etymology and meaning ==
The word {{transliteration|ar|ALA|qur'ān}} appears about 70 times in the Quran itself,<ref name="Wheeler2002">{{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Brannon M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qIDZIep-GIQC |title=Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis |date=2002 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-8264-4957-3 |page=2}}</ref> assuming various meanings. It is a [[verbal noun]] ([[Arabic verbs#Verbal noun (maṣdar)|{{transliteration|ar|ALA|maṣdar}}]]) of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] verb {{transliteration|ar|ALA|qara'a}} ({{lang|ar|{{Script/Arabic|size=100%|قرأ}}}}) meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] equivalent is {{transliteration|syc|qeryānā}} ({{lang|syc|ܩܪܝܢܐ|}}), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'.<ref name="Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon">{{cite web |title=The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon |url=http://cal.huc.edu/searchroots.php?pos=N&lemma=qryn |publisher=[[Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion]] |access-date=31 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018134645/http://cal.huc.edu/searchroots.php?pos=N&lemma=qryn |archive-date=18 October 2017}}</ref> While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is {{transliteration|ar|ALA|qara'a}} itself.<ref name="Britannica">{{harvnb|Nasr|2007}}</ref> Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime.<ref name="Britannica" /> An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it ({{transliteration|ar|ALA|qur'ānahu}})."<ref>{{qref|75|17|b=y}}</ref>

In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]'. Its [[liturgy|liturgical]] context is seen in a number of passages, for example: "So when {{transliteration|ar|ALA|al-qur'ān}} is recited, listen to it and keep silent."<ref>{{qref|7|204|b=y}}</ref> The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the [[Tawrat|Torah]] and [[Injil|Gospel]].<ref>See "Ķur'an, al-", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online'' and {{qref|9|111}}</ref>

The term also has closely related [[synonym]]s that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of {{transliteration|ar|ALA|qur'ān}} in certain contexts. Such terms include {{transliteration|ar|kitāb}} ('book'), {{transliteration|ar|[[ayah|āyah]]}} ('sign'), and {{transliteration|ar|[[Sura|sūrah]]}} ('scripture'); the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a [[definite article]] ({{transliteration|ar|al-}}), the word is referred to as the {{transliteration|ar|[[wahy|waḥy]]}} ('revelation'), that which has been "sent down" ({{transliteration|ar|[[tanzil|tanzīl]]}}) at intervals.<ref>{{qref|20|2|b=y}} cf.</ref><ref>{{qref|25|32|b=y}} cf.</ref> Other related words include: {{transliteration|ar|ALA|[[dhikr]]}} ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and {{transliteration|ar|[[hikmah|ḥikmah]]}} ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.<ref name=Britannica />{{efn|According to Welch in the ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', the verses pertaining to the usage of the word {{transliteration|ar|hikma}} should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that "Muhammad is to judge ({{transliteration|ar|tahkum}}) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him."}}

The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' ({{transliteration|ar|al-furqān}}), 'the mother book' ({{transliteration|ar|umm al-kitāb}}), 'the guide' ({{transliteration|ar|huda}}), 'the wisdom' ({{transliteration|ar|hikmah}}), 'the remembrance' ({{transliteration|ar|dhikr}}), and 'the revelation' ({{transliteration|ar|tanzīl}}; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place).<ref name=Jaffer>{{cite book|first1=Abbas |last1=Jaffer |first2=Masuma |last2=Jaffer |title=Quranic Sciences|publisher=ICAS press|year=2009|isbn=978-1-904063-30-8|pages=11–15}}</ref> Another term is {{transliteration|ar|ALA|al-kitāb}} ('The Book'), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term {{transliteration|ar|[[mus'haf]]}} ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.<ref name="Britannica" />

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Quran|Historiography of early Islam}}

=== Prophetic era ===
[[Sīrah|Islamic tradition]] relates that [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] received [[Muhammad's first revelation|his first revelation]] in 610 CE in the [[Jabal al-Nour|Cave of Hira]] on the [[Night of Power]]<ref name="surah al-qadr">{{qref|97|c=y}}</ref> during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to {{Transliteration|ar|[[hadith]]}} (traditions ascribed to Muhammad)<ref name="handbook">{{Cite book |last1=Sandıkcı |first1=Özlem |title=Handbook of Islamic Marketing |last2=Rice |first2=Gillian |date=2011 |publisher=Edward Elgar |isbn=978-1-84980-013-6 |page=38}}</ref>{{efn|Hadith are primarily from Muhammad but some are from those closest to him. Muslim scholars have worked carefully to authenticate them; see [[Hadith studies#Evaluating authenticity]].}} and [[History of Islam|Muslim history]], after Muhammad and his followers [[Hijra (Islam)|immigrated to Medina]] and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his [[sahabah|companions]] to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the [[Quraysh]] who were taken prisoners at the [[Battle of Badr]] regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became [[Literacy|literate]]. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most [[Surah|suras]] (also usually transliterated as Surah) were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]] sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632 at age 61–62.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="LivRlgP338">{{Cite book |last=Fisher |first=Mary Pat |author-link=Mary Pat Fisher |title=Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths |date=1997 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris Publishers|I. B. Tauris Publishers]] |edition=Rev. |location=London |page=338}}</ref><ref>{{qref|17|106|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Tabatabae|1988|p=98}}</ref><ref name=watt>{{cite book|last=Richard Bell (Revised and Enlarged by W. Montgomery Watt)|title=Bell's introduction to the Qur'an|year=1970|publisher=Univ. Press|isbn=978-0-85224-171-4|pages=31–51}}</ref><ref name=chi>{{cite book|last=P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis|title=The Cambridge history of Islam|year=1970|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|isbn=978-0-521-29135-4|page=32|edition=Reprint.}}</ref> There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.<ref name=denffer>{{cite book|last=Denffer|first=Ahmad von|title=Ulum al-Qur'an: an introduction to the sciences of the Qur an|year=1985|publisher=Islamic Foundation|isbn=978-0-86037-132-8|page=37|edition=Repr.}}</ref>
[[File:Iqra.jpg|thumb|200px|Traditionally believed to be [[Muhammad]]'s first revelation, [[Al-Alaq|Sura Al-Alaq]], later placed 96th in the Quranic regulations, in current writing style]]

{{Transliteration|ar|[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]}} narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and [[A'isha]] reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."{{efn|"God's Apostle replied, 'Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says.' ʻAisha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the Sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/001-sbt.php |title=Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110054749/http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/001-sbt.php |archive-date=10 January 2012 |website=Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement |publisher=University of Southern California}}</ref>}} Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power,"<ref>{{qref|53|5|b=y}}</ref> the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer."<ref name=watt /><ref>{{qref|53|6-9|b=y}}</ref> The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'' that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a [[Clairvoyant|soothsayer]], or a [[magician (paranormal)|magician]] since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|ancient Arabia]]. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Buhl |first=Fr. |orig-date=1913–1936 |date=2012 |article=Muhammad |title-link=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |edition=1 |editor-link1=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |editor-first1=M. Th. |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-link2=Thomas Walker Arnold |editor-first2=T. W. |editor-last2=Arnold |editor-first3=R. |editor-last3=Basset |editor-first4=R. |editor-last4=Hartmann |doi=10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_4746 |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6}} </ref>

The Quran describes Muhammad as "{{Transliteration|ar|ummi}}",<ref>{{qref|7|157|b=y}}</ref> which is traditionally interpreted as 'illiterate', but the meaning is more complex. Medieval commentators such as [[al-Tabari]] ({{Died in|923}}) maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]], if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as [[W. Montgomery Watt]] prefer the second meaning of {{Transliteration|ar|ummi}}—they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts.<ref name=watt /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Günther|first=Sebastian|title=Muhammad, the Illiterate Prophet: An Islamic Creed in the Quran and Quranic Exegesis|journal=Journal of Quranic Studies|year=2002|volume=4|issue=1|pages=1–26|doi=10.3366/jqs.2002.4.1.1| issn=1465-3591}}</ref>

The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]] in the year 10 [[Hijri year|A.H.]], a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after [[Event of Ghadir Khumm|the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm]].

According to Islamic tradition, the Quran was revealed to Muhammad in seven different {{Transliteration|ar|[[ahruf]]}} (meaning letters; however, it could mean dialects, forms, styles or modes).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an |url=https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/the-origins-of-the-variant-readings-of-the-quran |access-date=2024-08-15 |website=Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research |language=en}}</ref> Most Islamic scholars agree that these different {{Transliteration|ar|ahruf}} are the same Quran revealed in seven different Arabic [[dialect]]s and that they do not change the meaning of the Quran, the purpose of which was to make the Quran easy for recitation and memorization among the different Arab [[tribe]]s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Philips |first=Abu Ameenah Bilal |title=Tafseer Soorah Al -Hujurat |publisher=International Islamic Publishing House |year=2006 |isbn=9960-9677-0-0 |edition=New Revised Edition 2 |pages=50–54}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2023-02-15 |title=Qira't and the 7 Ahruf: All You Need To Know |work=Arabian Tongue |url=https://www.arabiantongue.com/qirat-and-the-7-ahruf/ |access-date=2024-08-15 |language=en-US |archive-date=15 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815070349/https://www.arabiantongue.com/qirat-and-the-7-ahruf/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Academy |first=Ulum Al-Azhar |date=2024-08-13 |title=What Is Ahruf And Qirat? {{!}} A Full Guide - Ulum Al Azhar |url=https://ulumalazhar.com/what-is-ahruf-and-qirat/ |access-date=2024-08-15 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Background of 7 Ahruf (Dialects) of the Quran |url=https://www.rizqankareem.com/introduction-to-the-quran-ndash-revelation-compilation-memorization--preservation/the-7-dialects-ahruf-in-which-the-quran-was-revealed |access-date=2024-08-15 |website=Rizqan Kareem - Most Excellent Sustenance |language=en}}</ref> While Sunni Muslims believe in the seven {{Transliteration|ar|ahruf}}, some Shia reject the idea of seven Quranic variants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=معهد الفتح الإسلامي يرحب بكم |url=https://www.alfatihonline.com/en/articles/ahruf.htm |access-date=2024-08-15 |website=www.alfatihonline.com}}</ref> A common misconception is that the seven {{Transliteration|ar|ahruf}} and the {{Transliteration|ar|[[qira'at]]}} are the same.

=== Compilation and preservation ===
[[File:Bifolium from the "Nurse's Qur'an" (Mushaf al-Hadina) MET DP167065.jpg|thumb|A page from the [[Nurse's Quran]], written in [[Kairouani calligraphy]]. (1020 AD)]]
{{Main|Canonization of Islamic scripture|Ahruf|Qira'at}}

Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who memorized the Quran were killed in the [[Battle of al-Yamama]] by [[Musaylima]]. The first caliph, [[Abu Bakr]] ({{Reign|632|634}}), subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved.<ref name="jecampo" /> [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] ({{Died in|655}}) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle".<ref name="Donner-Companion">{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Donner |first=Fred |date=2006 |author-link=Fred Donner |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |pages=31–33 |article=The historical context}}</ref> Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones (collectively known as {{Transliteration|ar|suhuf}}, any written work containing divine teachings)<ref name="demyth-62">{{cite journal |author=Roslan Abdul-Rahim |title=Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an |journal=Global Journal Al-Thaqafah|date=December 2017 |volume=7 |issue=2 |issn=2232-0474 |page=62 |ref=RARDtQ2017 |doi=10.7187/GJAT122017-2 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. In 644, Muhammad's widow [[Hafsa bint Umar]] was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph, [[Uthman]] ({{Reign|644|656}}),<ref name="Donner-Companion" /> requested the standard copy from her.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wat is de Koran? |url=https://koran.nl/wat-is-de-koran/ |website=Koran.nl |language=nl |date=18 February 2016}}</ref> According to historian [[Michael Cook (historian)|Michael Cook]], early Muslim narratives about the collection and compilation of the Quran sometimes contradict themselves: "Most ... make Uthman little more than an editor, but there are some in which he appears very much a collector, appealing to people to bring him any bit of the Quran they happen to possess." Some accounts also "suggest that in fact the material" Abu Bakr worked with "had already been assembled", which since he was the first caliph, would mean they were collected when Muhammad was still alive.{{sfn|Cook|2000|p=121}}

Around the 650s, the Islamic expansion beyond the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and into [[Iran|Persia]], the [[Levant]] and [[North Africa]], as well as the use of the seven {{Transliteration|ar|ahruf}}, had caused some confusion and differences in the pronunciation of the Quran, and conflict was arising between different Arab tribes due to some claiming to be more superior to other Arab tribes and non-Arabs based on dialect, which Uthman noticed.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran.<ref name="Tabatabae1988p99">{{harvnb|Tabatabae|1988|p=99}}: {{Blockquote|Since the word of God seemed threatened with alteration, the [third] caliph ordered that five of the {{lang|arb-Latn|qurrā'}} from amongst the companions, (one of them being Zayd ibn Thābit who had compiled the first volume), produce other copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the first caliph and which had been kept with Ḥafṣah, the wife of the Prophet and daughter of the second caliph.

The other copies, already in the hands of Muslims in other areas, were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were burnt (or, according to some historians, were destroyed by boiling). Thus several copies were made, one being kept in Medina, one in Mecca, and one each sent to Sham (a territory now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan), Kufa and Basra.

It is said that beside these five, one copy was also sent to Yemen and one to Bahrein. These copies were called the Imam copies and served as original for all future copies. The only difference of order between these copies and the first volume was that the chapters "Spirits of War" and "Immunity" were written in one place between "The Heights" and "Jonah."}}</ref><ref name="sbukhari1">{{cite web|last=al-Bukhari|first=Muhammad|title=Sahih Bukhari, volume 6, book 61, narrations number 509 and 510|url=http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_6_61.php |orig-date=810–870 |website=sahih-bukhari.com|access-date=16 February 2018}}</ref> Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death in 632,{{sfn|Cook|2000|p=117}} the complete Quran was committed to written form as the [[Uthmanic codex]]. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed.<ref name="Tabatabae1988p99" /><ref name="rippin">{{harvnb|Rippin|2006}}:

*"Poetry and Language", by [[Navid Kermani]], pp. 107–20.
*For the history of compilation see "Introduction," by [[Tamara Sonn]], pp. 5–6
*For eschatology, see "Discovering (final destination)", by Christopher Buck, p. 30.
*For literary structure, see "Language," by Mustansir Mir, p. 93.
*For writing and printing, see "Written Transmission", by [[François Déroche]], pp. 172–87.
*For recitation, see "Recitation," by [[Anna M. Gade]] pp. 481–93</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Mohamad K. |last=Yusuff |url=http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_251_300/zayd_ibn_thabit_and_the_glorious.htm |title=Zayd ibn Thabit and the Glorious Qur'an}}</ref>{{sfn|Cook|2000|pp=117–124}} and the six other {{Transliteration|ar|ahruf}} of the Quran fell out of use.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.<ref name="watt" /><ref name="chi" />{{Efn|"Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."<ref name=peters-1991>{{harvnb|Peters|1991|pp=3–5}}</ref> There is some disagreement among early Muslim sources disagree over who was the first to collect the narrations. At least one source credits Salim, the freed slave of [[Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah|Abu Hudhaifah]] with collecting the Quran into a mushaf:
"It is reported... from Ibn Buraidah who said:
{{blockquote |The first of those to collect the Qur'an into a mushaf ([[codex]]) was Salim, the freed slave of [[Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah|Abu Hudhaifah]].<ref>John Gilchrist, Jam' Al-Qur'an. ''The Codification of the Qur'an Text A Comprehensive Study of the Original Collection of the Qur'an Text and the Early Surviving Qur'an Manuscripts'', [MERCSA, Mondeor, 2110 Republic of South Africa, 1989], Chapter 1. "The Initial Collection of the Qur'an Text", citing as-Suyuti, ''Al-Itqan fii Ulum al-Qur'an'', p. 135).</ref>}}}}

[[File:Quran by Imam ali.JPG|thumb|Quran − in [[Mashhad]], Iran − [[Mushaf of Ali|said to be written by Ali]]]]

[[Qira'at]] which is a way and method of reciting the Quran was developed sometime afterwards. There are [[Ten recitations|ten canonical recitations]] and they are not to be confused with ahruf. Shias recite the Quran according to the {{Transliteration|ar|qira'at}} of [[Hafs]] on authority of [[Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud|‘Asim]], which is the prevalent {{Transliteration|ar|qira'at}} in the Islamic world<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geocities.com/noorullahwebsite/shiites.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027121038/http://geocities.com/noorullahwebsite/shiites.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 October 2009|title=Noorullah Website - Is the Qur'an Corrupted? Shi'ites View|date=27 October 2009}}</ref> and [[Shia view of the Quran|believe that the Quran]] was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime.<ref name="Shirazi01">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Qur'an - When was it compiled? |year=2001 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London, UK |pages=5, 7}}</ref><ref name="Shirazi03">{{cite book |last=Shirazi |first=Muhammad |title=The Shi'a and their Beliefs |year=2008 |publisher=Fountain Books |location=London, UK |page=29}}</ref> It is claimed that the Shia had more than 1,000 [[hadith]]s ascribed to the [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Shia Imams]] which indicate the distortion of the Quran<ref>{{cite journal|author1=HADDADIAN ABDORREZA|author2=MOADDAB SEYYED REZA|title=A STUDY ON TRADITIONS OF DISTORTION IN AYYASHI EXEGESIS|journal=Hadith Studies|volume=4|issue=8|pages=141–166}}</ref> and according to Etan Kohlberg, this belief about Quran was common among Shiites in the early centuries of Islam.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari|editor1-last=Kohlberg|editor1-first=Etan|editor2-last=Amir-Moezzi|editor2-first=Mohammad Ali|title=Revelation and Falsification: The Kitab al-qira'at of Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Sayyari: Critical Edition with an Introduction and Notes by Etan Kohlberg and Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi|journal=Texts and Studies on the Qurʼān |date=2009 |volume=4 |page=vii |url=https://archive.org/details/KitabAlQiratOfAhmadB.MuhammadAlSayyari|publisher=BRILL|issn=1567-2808}}</ref> In his view, [[Ibn Babawayh]] was the first major [[Twelver]] author "to adopt a position identical to that of the [[Sunni]]s" and the change was a result of the "rise to power of the Sunni '[[Abbasid caliphate]]," whence belief in the corruption of the Quran became untenable vis-a-vis the position of Sunni "orthodoxy".<ref>Kohlberg & Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 24-26-27</ref> Alleged distortions have been carried out to remove any references to the rights of Ali, the Imams and their supporters and the disapproval of enemies, such as [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]] and Abbasids.<ref>Kohlberg & Amir-Moezzi 2009, pp.20, 24</ref>

Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including [[Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud|Ibn Mas'ud]]'s and [[Ubay ibn Ka'b]]'s codex, none of which exist today.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Tabatabae1988p99"/><ref name="leaman">{{cite book|editor-last=Leaman|editor-first=Oliver|editor-link=Oliver Leaman|url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse|title=The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=978-0-415-32639-1|location=New York|url-access=registration}}

* For God in the Quran (Allah), see "Allah", by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 33–40.
* For eschatology, see "Eschatology," by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 194–99.
* For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing, see "Cyberspace and the Qur'an", by [[Andrew Rippin]], pp. 159–63.
* For calligraphy, see by "Calligraphy and the Qur'an" by [[Oliver Leaman]], pp. 130–35.
* For translation, see "Translation and the Qur'an," by Afnan Fatani, pp. 657–69.
* For recitation, see "Art and the Qur'an" by [[Tamara Sonn]], pp. 71–81; and "Reading", by Stefan Wild, pp. 532–35.</ref>

==Academic research==
{{Main|Quranic studies|Early Quranic manuscripts}}
[[Quranic studies|Academic research on the Quran]] should primarily focus on three fundamental issues and seek answers to the following questions: What is [[Canonization of Islamic scripture|the canonical text]], from what geography did it originate, and when was it written? And sub-questions regarding how the text emerged; were there [[Historical criticism|preceding texts that formed the text]], what are the cultural geography or historical determinants of [[History of the Quran|its development]], what is the development of the final text, are there variants, if so, what are the differences between them, etc. However, studies on the Quran rarely went beyond [[textual criticism]].<ref>Religions of the world Lewis M. Hopfe – 1979 "Some Muslims have suggested and practiced textual criticism of the Quran in a manner similar to that practiced by Christians and Jews on their bibles. No one has yet suggested the [[higher criticism]] of the Quran."</ref><ref>Egypt's culture wars: politics and practice – Page 278 [[Samia Mehrez]] – 2008 Middle East report: Issues 218–222; Issues 224–225 Middle East Research & Information Project, JSTOR (Organization) – 2001 Shahine filed to divorce Abu Zayd from his wife, on the grounds that Abu Zayd's textual criticism of the Quran made him an apostate, and hence unfit to marry a Muslim. Abu Zayd and his wife eventually relocated to the Netherlands</ref> Until the early 1970s, non-Muslim scholars of Islam — while not accepting traditional explanations for divine intervention— accepted the above-mentioned traditional origin story in most details.<ref name="FMDQiRS2008:30">[[#FMDQiRS2008|Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008]]: p.30</ref><ref name="jecampo">{{cite book|last=Campo|first=Juan E.|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|year=2009|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1|pages=570–574}}</ref> Some Western scholars question the accuracy of the traditional accounts on whether the holy book existed in any form before the last decade of the seventh century ([[Patricia Crone]] and [[Michael Cook (historian)|Michael Cook]]);<ref name="Crone">Patricia Crone, Michael Cook, and Gerd R. Puin as quoted in {{cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199901/koran|work=The Atlantic Monthly|title=What Is the Koran?|author=Toby Lester|date=January 1999}}</ref> and/or argue it is a "cocktail of texts", some of which may have been existent a hundred years before Muhammad, that evolved ([[Gerd R. Puin]]),<ref name="Crone"/><ref>[http://individual.utoronto.ca/fantastic/The_History_of_the_Quranic_Text_from_Revelation_to_Compilation.pdf THE HISTORY OF THE QUR’ANIC TEXT FROM REVELATION TO COMPILATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427050217/http://individual.utoronto.ca/fantastic/The_History_of_the_Quranic_Text_from_Revelation_to_Compilation.pdf |date=2022-04-27 }} by Muhammad Mustafa Al-A’zami, Leicester: UK, page 12; Al-A’zami quotes a letter that was published in the Yemeni newspaper ''ath-Thawra'', 11 March 1999</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/education/2000/aug/08/highereducation.theguardian Querying the Koran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408141934/https://www.theguardian.com/education/2000/aug/08/highereducation.theguardian |date=2022-04-08 }}, by Abul Taher, The Guardian, 8 August 2000
</ref> or was redacted ([[John Wansbrough|J. Wansbrough]]),<ref>Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation (1977) and The Sectarian Milieu: Content and Composition of Islamic Salvation History (1978) by Wansbrough.</ref><ref>http://www.derafsh-kaviyani.com/english/quran3.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905183359/http://www.derafsh-kaviyani.com/english/quran3.html |date=2017-09-05 }} (Discusses Wansbrough)</ref> to form the Quran. [[File:Birmingham_mushaf_Bismillah.png|thumb|290x290px|The [[basmala]] as written on the [[Birmingham Quran manuscript|Birmingham {{transliteration|ar|mus'haf}} manuscript]], one of the oldest surviving copies of the Quran [[Rasm]]: "ٮسم الله الرحمں الرحىم"]] [[Fred Donner]] states that:<ref>{{cite journal|last=Donner|first=Fred M.|date=2014|title=Review: Textual Criticism and Qurʾān Manuscripts, by Keith E. Small|journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies|volume=73|issue=1|pages=166–169|doi=10.1086/674909}}</ref><blockquote>[T]here was a very early attempt to establish a uniform [[rasm|consonantal text of the Qurʾān]] from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission.… After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their [[Qira'at|numerous variants]]—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established.</blockquote>Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are.<ref name="melchert2" /><ref>Ibn Warraq, ''Which Koran? Variants, Manuscript, Linguistics'', p. 45. Prometheus Books, 2011. {{ISBN|1-59102-430-7}}</ref> There has been no [[critical text]] produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.{{efn|For both the claim that variant readings are still transmitted and the claim that no such critical edition has been produced, see Gilliot, C., "Creation of a fixed text"<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Gilliot |first=C. |chapter=Creation of a fixed text |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |encyclopedia=The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |page=52}}</ref>}}

[[File:Blue koran sanaa.jpg|thumb|A page from the [[Sanaa manuscript]]. Possibly the oldest, best preserved and most comprehensive [[Islamic archaeology|Islamic archaeological document]] to date. The double layer reveals additions to the original text and multiple differences with today's Quran.]]

In 1972, in a mosque in the city of [[Sanaa]], Yemen, manuscripts "consisting of 12,000 pieces" were discovered that were later proven to be the oldest Quranic text known to exist at the time. The [[Sanaa manuscript]]s contain [[palimpsest]]s, manuscript pages from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text ({{Transliteration|la|scriptio inferior}}) is still barely visible.<ref name=jqs1>{{cite journal|title='The Qur'an: Text, Interpretation and Translation' Third Biannual SOAS Conference, 16–17 October 2003|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|date=April 2004|volume=6|issue=1|pages=143–145|doi=10.3366/jqs.2004.6.1.143}}</ref> Studies using [[radiocarbon dating]] indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability.<ref name=bergmann>{{cite journal|last=Bergmann|first=Uwe|author2=Sadeghi, Behnam |title=The Codex of a Companion of the Prophet and the Qurān of the Prophet|journal=Arabica|date=September 2010|volume=57|issue=4|pages=343–436|doi=10.1163/157005810X504518}}</ref><ref name=sadeghi>{{cite journal|last=Sadeghi|first=Behnam|author2=Goudarzi, Mohsen |title=Ṣan'ā' 1 and the Origins of the Qur'ān|journal=Der Islam|date=March 2012|volume=87|issue=1–2|pages=1–129|doi=10.1515/islam-2011-0025|s2cid=164120434}}</ref> The [[Germany|German]] scholar [[Gerd R. Puin]] has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography, and suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one.<ref name="LESTER-1999"/>

It is also possible that the content of the Quran itself may provide data regarding the date and probably nearby geography of writing of the text. Sources based on some archaeological data give the construction date of [[Masjid al-Haram]], an architectural work mentioned 16 times in the Quran, as 78 AH<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/inscriptions/haram1.html | title=An Inscription Mentioning the Rebuilding of Al-Masjid Al-Haram, 78 AH / 697-698 CE}}</ref> an additional finding that sheds light on the evolutionary history of the Quranic texts mentioned,<ref name="LESTER-1999">{{cite magazine |author-link=Toby Lester |date=1 January 1999 |title=What Is the Koran? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/01/what-is-the-koran/304024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825233826/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/01/what-is-the-koran/304024/ |archive-date=25 August 2012 |access-date=16 May 2022 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |location=Washington, D.C. |issn=2151-9463 |oclc=936540106 |author-last=Lester |author-first=Toby}}</ref> which is known to continue even during the time of [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|Hajjaj]],{{sfn|Jeffrey|1952|pp=99–120}}{{sfn|Robinson|1996|p=56}}<ref>John Wansbrough argued that ḥadīth literature is exegetical in origin, i.e., the bulk of the tradition literature is closely tied to the interpretation of the Qur'an, which he believed did not take its final form/canonised until the late eighth / early ninth century.https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/inscriptions/earlysaw</ref> in a similar situation that can be seen with [[al-Aksa]], though different suggestions have been put forward -contrary to some of the hadiths of [[Isra' and Mi'raj|Muhammad's ascension]], which indicate that these places are architectural structures<ref>"When the Quraish disbelieved me (concerning my night journey), I stood up in Al- Hijr (the unroofed portion of the Ka`ba) and Allah displayed [[Bait-ul-Maqdis]] before me, and I started to inform them (Quraish) about its signs while looking at it." .https://sunnah.com/search?q=4710</ref>- to explain.{{efn|group=Note|Arabic and Persian writers such as 10th-century geographer [[al-Muqaddasi]],<ref name="MukaddasiNasir">{{cite book |last=Le Strange |first=Guy |author-link=Guy Le Strange |title=Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin |year=1890 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxUyssIX-H4C&pg=RA1-PA94 |pages=96 |quote=Great confusion is introduced into the Arab descriptions of the Noble Sanctuary by the indiscriminate use of the terms Al Masjid or Al Masjid al Akså, Jami' or Jami al Aksâ; and nothing but an intimate acquaintance with the locality described will prevent a translator, ever and again, misunderstanding the text he has before him-since the native authorities use the technical terms in an extraordinarily inexact manner, often confounding the whole, and its part, under the single denomination of "Masjid." Further, the usage of various writers differs considerably on these points : Mukaddasi invariably speaks of the whole Haram Area as Al Masjid, or as Al Masjid al Aksî, "the Akså Mosque," or "the mosque," while the Main-building of the mosque, at the south end of the Haram Area, which we generally term the Aksa, he refers to as Al Mughattâ, "the Covered-part." Thus he writes "the mosque is entered by thirteen gates," meaning the gates of the Haram Area. So also "on the right of the court," means along the west wall of the Haram Area; "on the left side" means the east wall; and "at the back" denotes the northern boundary wall of the Haram Area. Nasir-i-Khusrau, who wrote in Persian, uses for the Main-building of the Aksâ Mosque the Persian word Pushish, that is, "Covered part," which exactly translates the Arabic Al Mughatta. On some occasions, however, the Akså Mosque (as we call it) is spoken of by Näsir as the Maksurah, a term used especially to denote the railed-off oratory of the Sultan, facing the Mihrâb, and hence in an extended sense applied to the building which includes the same. The great Court of the Haram Area, Nâsir always speaks of as the Masjid, or the Masjid al Akså, or again as the Friday Mosque (Masjid-i-Jum'ah). |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719063147/https://books.google.com/books?id=BxUyssIX-H4C&pg=RA1-PA94 |url-status=live}}</ref> 11th-century scholar [[Nasir Khusraw]],<ref name=MukaddasiNasir/> 12th-century geographer [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Idrīsī |first1=Muhammad |authorlink1=Muhammad al-Idrisi |last2=Jaubert |first2=Pierre Amédée |authorlink2=Pierre Amédée Jaubert |title=Géographie d'Édrisi |publisher=à l'Imprimerie royale |year=1836 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRA7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA343 |language=fr |pages=343–344 |quote=Sous la domination musulmane il fut agrandi, et c'est (aujourd'hui) la grande mosquée connue par les Musulmans sous le nom de Mesdjid el-Acsa مسجد الأقصى. Il n'en existe pas au monde qui l'égale en grandeur, si l'on en excepte toutefois la grande mosquée de Cordoue en Andalousie; car, d'après ce qu'on rapporte, le toit de cette mosquée est plus grand que celui de la Mesdjid el-Acsa. Au surplus, l'aire de cette dernière forme un parallelogramme dont la hauteur est de deux cents brasses (ba'a), et le base de cents quatre-vingts. La moitié de cet espace, celle qui est voisin du Mihrab, est couverte d'un toit (ou plutôt d'un dôme) en pierres soutenu par plusieurs rangs de colonnes; l'autre est à ciel ouvert. Au centre de l'édifice est un grand dôme connu sous le nom de Dôme de la roche; il fut orné d'arabesques en or et d'autres beaux ouvrages, par les soins de divers califes musulmans. Le dôme est percé de quatre portes; en face de celle qui est à l'occident, on voit l'autel sur lequel les enfants d'Israël offraient leurs sacrifices; auprès de la porte orientale est l'église nommée le saint des saints, d'une construction élégante; au midi est une chapelle qui était à l'usage des Musulmans; mais les chrétiens s'en sont emparés de vive force et elle est restée en leur pouvoir jusqu'à l'époque de la composition du présent ouvrage. Ils ont converti cette chapelle en un couvent où résident des religieux de l'ordre des templiers, c'est-à-dire des serviteurs de la maison de Dieu. |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719063143/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRA7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA343 |url-status=live }} Also at {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=G. |last2=Willis |first2=R. |title=The Holy City: Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem |publisher=J.W. Parker |chapter=Account of Jerusalem during the Frank Occupation, extracted from the Universal Geography of Edrisi. Climate III. sect. 5. Translated by P. Amédée Jaubert. Tome 1. pp. 341—345. |issue=v. 1 |year=1849 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_sqAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA3-PA131 |ref=none |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719063201/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Holy_City/T_sqAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=RA3-PA131&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live}}</ref> and 15th-century Islamic scholar [[Mujir al-Din]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Islamic Sources |journal=Journal of the Central Conference of American Rabbis |date=Fall 2000 |pages=60–68 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6338726 |author=Mustafa Abu Sway |quote=Quoting [[Mujir al-Din]]: "Verily, ‘Al-Aqsa’ is a name for the whole mosque which is surrounded by the wall, the length and width of which are mentioned here, for the building that exists in the southern part of the Mosque, and the other ones such as the Dome of the Rock and the corridors and other [buildings] are novel" |access-date=29 May 2022 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529020617/https://www.academia.edu/6338726/The_Holy_Land_Jerusalem_and_Al_Aqsa_Mosque_in_the_Quran_Sunnah_and_other_Islamic_Literary_Sources_i |url-status=live}}</ref> as well as 19th-century North American and British [[Oriental studies|Orientalist scholars]] such as [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]], [[Guy Le Strange]], and [[Edward Henry Palmer]] explained that the term ''Masjid al-Aqsa'' refers to the entire esplanade plaza also known as the [[Temple Mount]] or ''Haram al-Sharif'' ('Noble Sanctuary')—i.e., the entire area including the [[Dome of the Rock]], the fountains, the [[Gates of the Temple Mount|gates]], and the [[Minarets of the Temple Mount|four minarets]]—because [[Historical reliability of the Quran|none of these buildings existed at the time when the Quran was written]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Le Strange |first=Guy |author-link=Guy Le Strange |title=Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin |year=1890 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxUyssIX-H4C&pg=RA1-PA89 |quote=THE AKSÀ MOSQUE. The great mosque of Jerusalem, Al Masjid al Aksà, the "Further Mosque," derives its name from the traditional Night Journey of Muhammad, to which allusion is made in the words of the Kuran (xvii. I)... the term "Mosque" being here taken to denote the whole area of the Noble Sanctuary, and not the Main-building of the Aksà only, which, in the Prophet's days, did not exist. |access-date=29 May 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719063144/https://books.google.com/books?id=BxUyssIX-H4C&pg=RA1-PA89 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Strange 1887 pp. 247–305">{{cite journal |last=Strange |first=Guy le |title=Description of the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem in 1470 A.D., by Kamâl (or Shams) ad Dîn as Suyûtî |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=1887 |issn=0035-869X |jstor=25208864 |pages=247–305 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00019420 |s2cid=163050043 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25208864 |quote=…the term Masjid (whence, through the Spanish Mezquita, our word Mosque) denotes the whole of the sacred edifice, comprising the main building and the court, with its lateral arcades and minor chapels. The earliest specimen of the Arab mosque consisted of an open courtyard, within which, round its four walls, run colonades or cloisters to give shelter to the worshippers. On the side of the court towards the Kiblah (in the direction of Mekka), and facing which the worshipper must stand, the colonade, instead of being single, is, for the convenience of the increased numbers of the congregation, widened out to form the Jami' or place of assembly… coming now to the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem, we must remember that the term 'Masjid’ belongs not only to the Aksa mosque (more properly the Jami’ or place of assembly for prayer), but to the whole enclosure with the Dome of the Rock in the middle, and all the other minor domes and chapels.|url-access=subscription}}</ref>}} These structures, -expected to be somewhere near Muhammad-{{efn|group=Note|While "masjid" may simply be used as a place of worship, meaning a place of [[Sujud|prostration]] traditionally used for worship, it may also refer to the buildings where these acts took place. In this case, the relevant verses could be dated after the construction of these buildings. Another verse alluding to Muhammad's Miraj story can be used to conclude that these two mosques are not that far apart. In this regard, one can consider the conclusions of scholars who point to Al-Aqsa being near Mecca —in the [[Al-Ji'rana]] region—<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grabar |first=Oleg |date=1959 |title=The Umayyad Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629098 |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=3 |pages=33–62 |jstor=4629098 |issn=0571-1371}}</ref> or, conversely, the [[Revisionist school of Islamic studies]], which suggests that the birth of Islam occurred in northwestern Arabia.}} which were placed in cities like Mecca and Jerusalem, which are thousands of kilometers apart today, with interpretations [[Isra' and Mi'raj|based on narrations and miracles]], were a miracle performed under a night's journey according to the outward and literal meaning of the verse.{{qref|17|1|c=y}} (See also:[[Bakkah]])

== Contents ==
{{Main|List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran|Historical reliability of the Quran|List of legends in the Quran}}

The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of [[God in Islam|God]] and the [[Islamic eschatology|resurrection]]. Narratives of the early [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]], ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and [[Salat|prayer]] also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons.<ref name=saeed>{{cite book|last=Saeed|first=Abdullah|title=The Qurʼan: an introduction|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-42124-9|page=62}}</ref> The style of the Quran has been called "[[allusive]]", with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named."<ref name="Crone-2008">{{cite web |last1=Crone |first1=Patricia |title=What do we actually know about Mohammed? |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/mohammed_3866jsp/ |website=Open Democracy |access-date=3 October 2019 |date=10 June 2008}}</ref> While [[tafsir]] in [[Ulama|Islamic sciences]] expresses the effort to understand the implied and implicit expressions of the Quran, [[fiqh]] refers to the efforts to expand the [[semantics|meaning of expressions]], especially in the verses related to [[Ahkam|the provisions]], as well as understanding it.<ref name=vogel>{{cite book|last=Vogel|first=Frank E.|title=Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia|date=2000|publisher=Brill|pages=4–5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-PfDuvnHMGoC&q=vogel+islamic+law|isbn=9004110623}}</ref>
[[File:'The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon', oil on canvas painting by Edward Poynter, 1890, Art Gallery of New South Wales.jpg|thumb|[[Solomon]], the son of [[David]], king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], had [[Solomon's Temple|his temple]] built; which is still the subject of intercultural heritage fights today, under the name of [[Al-Aqsa]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Isra – 7 |url=https://quran.com/al-isra/7 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=Quran.com |language=en}}</ref> and placed different idols there for his multinational wives according to the [[Bible]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Kings|11:1, 7–8|multi=yes}}</ref> Here he meets the legendary figure, [[Queen of Sheba|Bilqis]], by Edward Poynter, 1890.]]

[[Quranic studies]] state that, in the historical context, the content of the Quran is related to [[Rabbinic]], [[Jewish-Christian]], [[Syriac Christian]] and [[Hellenistic period|Hellenic]] literature, as well as [[pre-Islamic Arabia]].
Many places, subjects and mythological figures in the [[Arabic mythology|culture of Arabs]] and many nations in their historical neighbourhoods, especially [[Biblical and Quranic narratives|Judeo-Christian stories]],<ref name="Bietenholz">{{Cite book |last=Bietenholz |first=Peter G. |title=Historia and fabula: myths and legends in historical thought from antiquity to the modern age |publisher=Brill |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFjXaCAWoOUC&pg=PA123 |isbn=978-9004100633}}</ref> are included in the Quran with small allusions, references or sometimes small narratives such as [[Garden of Eden|jannāt ʿadn]], [[Valley of Hinnom|jahannam]], [[Seven Sleepers]], [[Queen of Sheba]] etc. The stories of [[Surah Yusuf|Yusuf and Zulaikha]], [[Moses]], [[Al Imran|Family of Amram]] (parents of [[Mary in Islam|Mary]] according to the Quran) and mysterious hero<ref>{{harvnb|Watt|1960–2007}}: "It is generally agreed both by Muslim commentators and modéra [sic] occidental scholars that Dhu ’l-Ḳarnayn [...] is to be identified with Alexander the Great." {{harvnb|Cook|2013}}: "[...] {{transliteration|ar|Dhū al-Qarnayn|italic=no}} (usually identified with Alexander the Great) [...]".</ref><ref>{{Cite book| publisher = BRILL| isbn = 978-90-04-27764-9| last = Hämeen-Anttila| first = Jaakko| title = Khwadāynāmag The Middle Persian Book of Kings| date = 17 April 2018|quote=Many Mediaeval scholars argued against the identification, though. Cf., e.g., the discussion in al-Maqrizi, ''Khabar'' §§212-232.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Maqrīzī |first1=Aḥmad Ibn-ʿAlī al- |title=Al-Maqrīzī's al-Ḫabar ʻan al-bašar: vol. V, section 4: Persia and its kings, part I |last2=Hämeen-Anttila |first2=Jaakko |date=2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-35599-6 |series=Bibliotheca Maqriziana Opera maiora |location=Leiden Boston |pages=279–281}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing| isbn = 978-1-78673-131-9| last = Zadeh| first = Travis| title = Mapping Frontiers Across Medieval Islam: Geography, Translation and the 'Abbasid Empire| date = 28 February 2017|pages=97–98|quote=In the early history of Islam there was a lively debate over the true identity of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn. One prominent identification was with an ancient South Arabian Ḥimyarī king, generally referred to in the sources as al-Ṣaʿb b. Dhī Marāthid. [...] Indeed the association of Dhū 'l-Qarnayn with the South Arabian ruler can be traced in many early Arabic sources.}}</ref> [[Dhul-Qarnayn]] ("the man with two horns") who built a barrier against [[Gog and Magog]] that will remain until the [[end times|end of time]] are more detailed and longer stories. Apart from semi-historical events and characters such as [[King Solomon]] and [[David]], about [[Jewish history]] as well as the [[The Exodus|exodus of the Israelites from Egypt]], [[Qisas al-Anbiya|tales of the hebrew prophets accepted in Islam]], such as [[Creationism|Creation]], [[Noah in Islam|the Flood]], [[Abraham in Islam|struggle of Abraham]] with [[Nimrod]], sacrifice of [[Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)|his son]] occupy a wide place in the Quran.

Some philosophers and scholars such as [[Mohammed Arkoun]], who emphasize the mythological content of the Quran, are met with rejectionist attitudes in Islamic circles.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fazeli |first1=Hamidreza |last2=Tali Tabasi |first2=Marziyeh |last3=Fazeli |first3=Alireza |last4=Fararooei |first4=Shokrolla |title=A Critical Study of the Quran's Theory of Mythology (A Case Study on Mohammad Arkoun's Perspectives) |url=https://www.iraqoaj.net/iasj/download/194df3cf9e25bbef |website=Iraqi Open Access Journals |access-date=5 March 2024 |page=2 |quote=After examining the verses of the Quran to find where the word mythology has been used and seeking the accordance between the meaning and context with Quran’s purpose of knowledge and guidance, including rules and educational issues, we found that the concept of myth is not acceptable in the Quran. The result of this study show that Quran is not a myth, rather the stories are factual and based on reality. |archive-date=17 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250217194002/https://www.iraqoaj.net/iasj/download/194df3cf9e25bbef |url-status=dead}}</ref> In response to the fact that the people mentioned do not correspond to historically known figures, some modern commentators have suggested that these figures should be understood as representative figures portraying certain characters, rather than real ones.<ref>In his Encyclopaedia of the Social Concepts of the Qur’ân he mentions that we should understand evil people like Namrud (the king who humiliated and imprisoned Abraham), Haman, Qarun and Pharaoh ‘not as historical figures, but as concepts about human beings. To give an example, Shariati expressed as his opinion that Qarun/Korah was a symbol for the economic elite, while Pharaoh was the ultimate symbol for a tyrant.https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/210507/doeka.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y</ref> Furthermore, considering the findings of the [[revisionist school of Islamic studies]], it is clear that the expression of certain narrative concepts in the Quran that refer to places, people, and events (such as [[Quraysh]], [[Ababil (mythology)|Ababil]], and [[Abu Lahab]]) in a single word or a few short sentences will require new interpretations and meanings that differ from the traditional narrative within this framework of understanding.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Celik | first1=Ercan | title=Quraish or Qorash (Q 106): From the perspectives of Qur'an and Bible | url=https://www.academia.edu/17665835 }}</ref> (see:[[Quranic hermeneutics]])

=== Creation and God ===
{{Main|God in Islam|Tawhid}}

{{Further|Quranic cosmology}}
The central theme of the Quran is [[monotheism]]. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran {{qref|2|20|pl=y}}, {{qref|2|29|pl=y}}, {{qref|2|255|pl=y}}). He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran {{qref|13|16|pl=y}}, {{qref|2|253|pl=y}}, {{qref|50|38|pl=y}}, etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.<ref name=watt /><ref name=saeed /> The Quran uses [[Cosmological argument|cosmological]] and [[Contingency (philosophy)|contingency arguments]] in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the [[existence of God]]. Therefore, the [[universe]] is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created [[seven heavens]] in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?"<ref>{{qref|67|3|b=y|pl=y}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Saritoprak |first=Zeki |date=2006 |article=Allah |pages=33–40 |title-link=iarchive:quranencyclopedi2006unse |encyclopedia=The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia |editor-link=Oliver Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |editor-last=Leaman |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}</ref>
[[File:Allah3.svg|thumb|right|180 px|The word 'Allah' in [[Arabic]] [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]]. Most considered it to be derived from a [[synalepha|contraction]] of the [[Arabic definite article|definitive article]] ''al-'' and ''[[Ilah|ilāh]]'' "god" meaning "the God".<ref>D.B. Macdonald. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "Ilah", Vol. 3, p. 1093.</ref>]]

"The Qur'ān insists that [[Muhammad]] and his followers worship the same God as the Jews ({{Qref|29|46}}). The Qur'an's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with [[Abraham]]". [[Francis Edward Peters]] states that the Qur'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than [[Yahweh]], and as a universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows [[Israel]]ites.<ref name="Peters1">F.E. Peters, ''Islam'', p. 4, Princeton University Press, 2003</ref> However, Yahweh is never used for God in the Quran and Islamic texts, but, [[Rabb]] is an [[Arabic]] word to refers to God meaning Lord<ref name="Yuskaev2017">{{cite book |last1=Yuskaev |first1=Timur R. |title=Speaking Qur'an: An American Scripture |date=18 October 2017 |publisher=Univ of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-795-4 |language=English |quote=Indeed, "Lord" is a direct translation of the Arabic word ''Rabb''.}}</ref> and the Quran cites in several places as in the [[Al-Fatiha]]; "All Praise and Gratitude is due to God, ''Lord'' of all the Universe".

Even though Muslims do not doubt about the existence and [[tawhid|unity of God]], they may have adopted [[Schools of Islamic theology|different attitudes]] that have changed and developed throughout history regarding his [[Attributes of God in Islam|nature (attributes)]], [[Names of God in Islam|names]] and relationship with creation. In contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian [[polytheism]], as stated by [[Gerhard Böwering]], God in Islam does not have associates and companions, nor is there any kinship between God and [[jinn]].<ref name="EoQ"/> Pre Islamic Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, unstoppable and insensible fate over which man had no control. This was replaced with the Islamic belief of a powerful yet benevolent and merciful God's control over man's life.<ref name="Britannica"/> In the early periods of Islam, the concept of God was established as a [[personal deity]]<ref name="ReferenceA">Williams, W. Wesley, "A study of anthropomorphic theophany and Visio Dei in the Hebrew Bible, the Quran and early Sunni Islam", University of Michigan, March 2009</ref> [[Hayy|living in the heavens]].<ref name="youtube.com">{{Cite web |title=bir söyleşide yaptığı ilgili açıklama | website=[[YouTube]] | date=15 August 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1HrZ8Yu1m2g |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205025925/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1HrZ8Yu1m2g |archive-date=5 December 2020 |access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref> This understanding developed over time under the influence of [[Islamic theology]], acquiring a transcendent character.{{Sfn|Williams|2002}} However, in contrast to this transcendent and absolute conception of God established among the elite,{{Sfn|Cook|2024|p=140–141}} the public and [[Sufis]]{{efn|'''Tajalli''' ({{langx|ar|تَجَلِّي |tajallī|manifestation}}) is the appearance and disclosure of [[God in Islam|God]] as truth in [[Sufism]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4FBXvfLySQwC|title=Ibn 'Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam|last=Knysh|first=Alexander D.|date=1999-01-01|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=9780791439678|language=en}}</ref> Tajalli is believed to be a process by which God manifests himself in concrete forms.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GPT9uAypnOEC|title=Sufism and Taoism: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts|last=Izutsu|first=Toshihiko|date=1984-01-01|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520052642|language=en}}</ref>}} maintained [[Anthropomorphism and corporealism in Islam|the traditional understanding on God]]. Also actions and attributes such as coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sadness etc. similar to humans used for this God in the Quran were considered {{transliteration|ar|[[mutashabihat]]}}—"no one knows [[Bila Kayf|its interpretation]] except God" ({{qref|3|7|b=y}})—by later scholars stating that God was [[Tanzih|free from resemblance to humans]] in any way.{{efn|[[Personal God|Human qualities which are attributed to Allah]] in the Quran such as coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sadness; "Allah has equipped them with words to bring them closer to our minds; in this respect, they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind and thus help the listener to clearly understand the idea he wants to express."<ref name="The Meaning">{{Cite web |first=Allamah |last=Tabatabai |author-link=Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai |title=Al-Mizan Discourses |url=https://almizan.org/Discourses/QD21.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208164643/http://almizan.org/Discourses/QD21.asp|website=Tafsir Al-Mizan <!-– Allamah Muhammad Hussein Tabatabai --> |archive-date=8 December 2008|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="Tabatabaee">{{cite web|url=http://www.maaref-foundation.com/english/beliefs/quran/05.htm|title=The Qur'an Possesses Revelation and Exegesis |website=Allamah Tabatabaee |publisher=Islamic Ma'aref Foundation Institute |date=1988 |pages=37–45 |url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216015310/http://www.maaref-foundation.com/english/beliefs/quran/05.htm |archive-date=16 February 2012}}</ref>}} [[Mustafa Öztürk]] points out the following words of [[Ahmad Ibn Hanbal]] in this regard: "Whoever says that Allah is everywhere is a heretic, an infidel. He should be invited to repent, but if he does not, be killed." This understanding changes later and gives way to the understanding that "God cannot be assigned a place and He is everywhere."<ref name="youtube.com"/>

=== Prophetic stories ===
{{Main|Qisas al-Anbiya|Manaqib|Prophets and messengers in Islam}}

In Islam, God speaks to people called prophets through a kind of [[revelation]] called ''[[wahy]]'', or through [[angel]]s. ({{qref|42|51|pl=y}}) ''[[nubuwwah]]'' ({{Langx|ar|نبوة}} 'prophethood') is seen as a duty imposed by God on individuals who have some characteristics such as intelligence, honesty, fortitude and justice: "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty."<ref>{{qref|41|43|b=y}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Islam regards [[Abraham]] as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in [[Muhammad]] via [[Ishmael]]{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=8}} and mentioned in 35 [[chapters of the Quran]], more often than any other biblical personage apart from [[Moses in Islam|Moses]].{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=9}} Muslims regard him as a ''[[hanif]]'',{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=200}} an archetype of the perfect Muslim, and revered prophet and builder of the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca.{{sfn|Lings|2004|p=}} The Quran consistently refers to Islam as 'the religion of Abraham' ({{tlit|ar|millat Ibrahim}}).<ref>{{qref|2|135|b=y}}</ref> In Islam, [[Eid-al-Adha]] is celebrated to commemorate [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham's attempt to sacrifice his son]] by surrendering in line with his dream, ([[As-Saaffat]]; 100–107) which he accepted as the will of God.<ref name="Glasse">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Glassé |first=Cyril |title=Kaaba |encyclopedia=The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=[[HarperSanFrancisco]], Suhail Academy |year=1991 |chapter=Abraham |pages=18–19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlPuAAAAMAAJ |isbn=0-0606-3126-0}}</ref>

[[File:Edinburgh Oriental Manuscript 20 fol 9r.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Asiya]] and her servants finding baby Moses in [[the Nile]], ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]''; possibly [[pious fiction]]<ref name="Ox1">{{cite web |title=Moses |url=http://www.oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/opr/t94/e1284 |website=Oxford Biblical Studies Online}}</ref> that follows the footsteps of [[Sargon of Akkad]]'s{{efn|My mother, the high priestess, conceived; in secret she bore me, She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid, She cast me into the river which rose over me.<ref>{{cite book |first=Timothy D. |last=Finlay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pOigG8qtC8oC&pg=PA236 |title=The Birth Report Genre in the Hebrew Bible |series=Forschungen zum Alten Testament |volume=12 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=2005 |page=236 |isbn= 978-3-16-148745-3}}</ref>}} [[Mythology|accounts]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Coogan|first1=Michael David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&q=michael+d+coogan&pg=PR5|title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World|last2=Coogan|first2=Michael D.|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513937-2|quote=Many of these forms are not, and should not be considered, historically based; Moses’ birth narrative, for example, is built on folkloric motifs found throughout the ancient world.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Text, Artifact, and Image: Revealing Ancient Israelite Religion |last=Rendsburg |first=Gary A. |publisher=Brown Judaic Studies |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-930675-28-5 |page=204 |editor-last=Beckman |editor-first=Gary M. |chapter=Moses as Equal to Pharaoh |editor-last2=Lewis |editor-first2=Theodore J. |chapter-url=https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/docman/rendsburg/118-moses-as-equal-to-pharaoh/file|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101135455/https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/docman/rendsburg/118-moses-as-equal-to-pharaoh/file|archive-date=2015-01-01}}</ref> It is a part of the [[founding myth]]s of the Israelites, which were [[Moses in Islam|widely covered in the Quran.]]]]

In Islam, [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] is a prominent prophet and messenger of God and the most frequently mentioned individual in the Quran, with [[#Quranic references|his name being mentioned 136 times]] and his life being narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet.<ref>{{cite book|title=Third Way (magazine)|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u20z-dBo6SIC&pg=PA18|date=May 1996|last1=Ltd|first1=Hymns Ancient Modern}}{{better source needed|date=October 2024}}</ref><ref name="Keeler"/> Unlike the hundreds of references in the Quran to the stories of prophets such as Moses and [[Jesus]], it provides very little information [[Muhammad in the Quran|about Muhammad himself]],{{sfn|Bennett|1998|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Peters|1994|p=261}} [[Companions of the Prophet|his companions]],<ref name="Watt2024">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2024 |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad |access-date=4 February 2023 |last1=Watt |first1=William Montgomery |author-link1=W. Montgomery Watt |last2=Sinai |first2=Nicolai |author-link2=Nicolai Sinai}}</ref> or his contemporaries. The individuals to whom the expressions used in [[Quranic counter-discourse|Quranic polemics]] belong and the contexts in which they were used are merely notes made in [[tafsir|commentaries]] written in later centuries. An exception is his slave/adopted son [[Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi|Zayd]], whose name is mentioned in the verses ([[Al-Aḥzāb]];37) in the context of his -divorced- wife being taken into [[Muhammad's marriages]]. Probably the clearest biographical account of Muhammad in the Quran is the brief mention of his followers' settlement in [[Yathrib]] after their expulsion by the [[Quraysh]], and of military encounters such as the [[Battle of Badr|Muslim victory at Badr]].<ref name="Watt2024"/>

Stories of the prophets in the Quran often revolve around a certain pattern, according to which a prophet is sent to a group of people, who then reject or attack him, and ultimately suffer extinction as God's punishment. However, the Quran, given its paraenetic character, does not offer a full narrative; but rather offers a parabolic reference to the doom of previous generations, assuming the audience is familiar with the told stories.<ref>Hagen, G. (2009). "From Haggadic Exegesis To Myth: Popular Stories Of The Prophets In Islam". In Sacred Tropes: Tanakh, New Testament, and Qur’an as Literature and Culture. Leiden, Niederlande: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004177529.i-536.65</ref>

=== Ethico-religious concepts ===
{{Main|Enjoining good and forbidding wrong}}

{{Further|Islamic views on slavery}}
While belief in God and obedience to the prophets are the main emphasis in the prophetic stories,<ref name=toshihiko>{{cite book|last=Izutsu|first=Toshihiko|title=Ethico-religious concepts in the Qur'an |date=6 June 2007 |orig-date=2002 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=978-0-7735-2427-9|page=184|edition=Repr.}}</ref> there are also non-prophetic stories in the Quran that emphasize the importance of humility and having profound-inner knowledge ([[hikmah]]) besides trusting in God. This is the main theme in the stories of [[Khidr]], [[Luqman]] and Dhul Qarnayn. According to the later ascriptions to these stories, it is possible for those with this knowledge and divine support to teach the prophets (Khidr-Moses story [[Quran 18:65–82]]) and employ [[jinn]] (Dhul Qarnayn). Those who "spend their wealth" on people who are in need because they devoted their lives to the way of Allah and whose situation is unknown because they are ashamed to ask, will be rewarded by Allah. ([[Al Baqara]]; 272-274) In the story of [[Korah|Qārūn]], the person who avoids searching for the [[afterlife]] with his wealth and becomes arrogant will be punished, arrogance befits only God. ([[Al Mutakabbir]]) Characters of the stories can be closed-mythical, (Khidr)<ref>Dalley defends traditional opinion: "The name or epithet of Atrahasis is used for the skillful god of craftmanship Kothar-wa-hasis in Ugaritic mythology, and is abbreviated to Chousor in the Greek account of Syrian origins related by Philo of Byblos. A similar abbreviation is used in the name of the Islamic sage Al-khidr..." [[Stephanie Dalley]], ''Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others'', Oxford, revised edition 2000, p. 2 {{ISBN|0-19-283589-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://culturalstudies101.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/dalley_myths-from-mesopotamia_atrahasis.pdf |title=Myths from Mesopotamia – Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others |access-date=2014-08-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905020213/http://culturalstudies101.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/dalley_myths-from-mesopotamia_atrahasis.pdf |archive-date=2014-09-05}}</ref> demi-mythologic or combined characters, and it can also be seen that they are Islamized. While some believe he was a prophet, some researchers equate Luqman with the [[Alcmaeon of Croton]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=Juan |title=Dyed in Virtue: The Qur'ān and Plato's Republic |journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies |date=2021 |volume=61 |page=582 |url=https://grbs.library.duke.edu/index.php/grbs/article/view/16591}}</ref> or [[Aesop]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kassis |first=Riad Aziz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_zvXrQ7W7PEC&pg=PA51 |title=The Book of Proverbs and Arabic Proverbial Works |publisher=Brill |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-04-11305-3 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Multiple image
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| image2 = Ibrahim's sacrifice of Emsaeil is stopped by Jibril delivering a sheep instead uncropped.jpg
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| caption1 = Islamic [[Persian miniature]] of Jibril protecting Ibrahim from [[Nimrod]]'s fire.
| caption2 = Sacrifice of Ibrahim's son. Quranic narratives affecting Islamic views: anti-idolatry, [[Qurban]], and circumcision.
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''Commanding ma’ruf and forbidding munkar'' (Ar. ٱلْأَمْرُ بِٱلْمَعْرُوفِ وَٱلنَّهْيُ عَنِ ٱلْمُنْكَرِ) is repeated or referred to in nearly 30 verses in different contexts in the Quran and is an important part of [[Islamism|Islamist]] / [[jihadist]] [[indoctrination]] today, as well as [[Shiite]] teachings.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/amr-be-maruf | title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref>

Although a common translation of the phrase is "[[enjoining good and forbidding wrong|Enjoining good and forbidding evil]]", the words used by [[Islamic philosophy]] determining [[good and evil]] in discourses are "[[istihsan|husn]]" and "qubh". The word ma’ruf literally means "known" or what is approved because of its familiarity for a certain society and its antithesis munkar means what is disapproved because it is unknown and extraneous.<ref>T. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an, London, McGillQueen’s University Press, 2002, p. 213</ref>

The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law (''[[sharia]]''). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the ''[[salat]]'' and [[fasting]] in the [[Ramadan|month of Ramadan]]. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to [[Ruku|prostration]].<ref name="jecampo" /><ref name="rcmartin">{{cite book |first=Farid |last=Esack |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Richard C.|title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world |year=2003 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8 |pages=568–562 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0028656032 |edition=Online-Ausg.}}</ref> The term chosen for charity, ''[[zakat]]'', literally means purification implies that it is a self-purification.<ref name="tsonn" /><ref>{{qref|9|103|b=y}}</ref> In [[fiqh]], the term [[fard]] is used for clear imperative provisions based on the Quran. However, it is not possible to say that the relevant verses are understood in the same way by all segments of Islamic commentators; For example, [[Hanafis]] accept [[Salah|5 daily prayers]] as fard. However, some religious groups such as [[Quranists]] and [[Shiites]], who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray two or three times,<ref>Zum Beispiel Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Vgl. Ahmad: ''Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857–1964''. 1967, S. 49.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ek 15 – Dini Görevler: Tanrı'dan Bir Armağan|url=http://www.teslimolanlar.org/ekler.php?ekid=15|access-date=2021-05-30|website=Teslimolanlar|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105182152/http://www.teslimolanlar.org/ekler.php?ekid=15|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Vgl. Birışık: "Kurʾâniyyûn" in ''Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi''. 2002, Bd. 26, S. 429.; Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh: ''Quran: A Reformist Translation''. 2007, S. 507.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=10. How Can we Observe the Sala Prayers by Following the Quran Alone? - Edip-Layth - quranix.org |url=http://quranix.org/appendix/qrt/10 |access-date=2023-08-14 |website=quranix.org}}</ref> not five times. About six verses address the way a woman should dress when in public;<ref name="bucar">{{cite book|title=Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women|author=Elizabeth M. Bucar|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQVxVEldP0sC&pg=PA118|page=118|isbn=9781589017528}}</ref> Some Muslim scholars consider this verse referring to the [[Hijab]]<ref name="Hameed">{{Cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404160153/https://islamonline.net/en/is-hijab-a-quranic-commandment/|archive-date=4 April 2023|date=9 October 2003|title=Is Hijab a Qur'anic Commandment?|url=https://islamonline.net/en/is-hijab-a-quranic-commandment/
|access-date=2023-06-01|first=Shahul |last=Hameed}}</ref> while others to clothings in general.<ref name="Asra-2015">{{cite news |last1=Nomani |first1=Asra Q. |last2=Arafa |first2=Hala |title=Opinion: As Muslim women, we actually ask you not to wear the hijab in the name of interfaith solidarity |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2015/12/21/as-muslim-women-we-actually-ask-you-not-to-wear-the-hijab-in-the-name-of-interfaith-solidarity/ |access-date=22 December 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=21 December 2015 |language=en}}</ref>{{efn|name="bilgin"|[[Beyza Bilgin]] states that the expression 'let them put their outer coverings over themselves' in the 59th verse of [[Al-Aḥzāb|Al-Ahzab]] was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day, considering them to be concubines, and commented as follows:<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |date=28 May 2008 |title="Örtünmek Allah'ın emri değil" |url=http://www.haberturk.com/yasam/haber/76927-ortunmek-allahin-emri-degil |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220131809/http://www.haberturk.com/yasam/haber/76927-ortunmek-allahin-emri-degil |archive-date=20 December 2016 |access-date=7 February 2017 |website= |publisher=haberturk.com |language=Turkish}}</ref><blockquote>In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law.</blockquote>She said the following about covering herself in [[Salah|prayer]]:<blockquote>They tell me; 'Do you cover yourself while praying?' Of course, I cover up when I'm in congregation. I am obliged not to disturb the peace. But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home. Because the Quran's requirement for prayer is not covering up, but ablution and turning towards the qibla. This is a thousand year old issue. It's so ingrained in us. But this should definitely not be underestimated. Because people do it thinking it is God's command. But on the other hand, we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman.<ref name=":0"/></blockquote>}}
[[File:PLATE8CX.jpg|thumb|Early costumes of (Free) [[Arab people|Arab]] women; It can provide clues in understanding some of the Quranic [[Urf]] related emphases [[Enjoining good and forbidding wrong|such as ma'ruf and munkar]] as well as sunnah and [[bid'a]] on favored female dressing.{{efn|A verse that demonstrates that the Quran is not overly concerned with form is found in Surah Al-A'raf-26; "O Children of Adam! We have bestowed upon you a garment to cover your shame and adornment. But the garment of [[taqwa]] is the best of all. That is one of the signs of Allah, so that they may remember." }}{{efn|Sunnah originally meant a tradition that did not contain the definition of good and bad. Later, "good traditions" began to be referred to as sunnah and the concept of "Muhammad's sunnah" was established.<ref name="Juynboll">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |date=1997 |title=Sunna |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |volume=9 |pages=878–879}}</ref>}}]]

Research shows that the rituals in the Quran, along with laws such as [[qisas]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zh.booksc.eu/book/52479161/c42c5a|title=Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society | SADIK KIRAZLI | download|access-date=12 July 2024|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129180325/https://zh.booksc.eu/book/52479161/c42c5a|url-status=dead}}</ref> and tax ([[zakat]]), developed as an evolution of [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n rituals. Arabic words meaning pilgrimage ([[hajj]]), prayer ([[salāt]]) and charity (zakāt) can be seen in pre-Islamic [[safaitic|Safaitic-Arabic]] inscriptions,{{Sfn|Al-Jallad|2022|p=41–44, 68}} and this continuity can be observed in many details, especially in hajj and [[umrah]].{{Sfn|Dost|2023}}

===As a source of law and judgment===
{{Main|Sharia}}

{{Further|Ulu'l-amr|Political aspects of Islam}}
A small number of verses in the Quran are about general rules of governance, [[Islamic inheritance jurisprudence|inheritance]], [[Marriage in Islam|marriage]], [[Hudud|crime and punishment]]. Although the Quran does not impose [[Political aspects of Islam|a specific legal-management system]], it emphasizes [[ma'ruf|custom]] in nearly 40 verses and commands [[Adl|justice]]. ([[An-Nahl]]; 90) The practices prescribed in the Quran are considered as reflections of [[Quranic hermeneutics|contextual legal understandings]], as can be clearly seen in some examples such as [[Qisas]] and [[Diya (Islam)|Diya]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://zh.booksc.eu/book/52479161/c42c5a |title=Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society | SADIK KIRAZLI | download |access-date=2022-01-31 |archive-date=2022-01-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129180325/https://zh.booksc.eu/book/52479161/c42c5a |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="tahir2009">{{Cite web | url=http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/61846/1/Tahir%20Wasti.pdf | title=The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Practice | author=Tahir Wasti | website=ndl.ethernet.edu.et}}</ref> The following statement in the Quran is thought to be the general rule of [[Status of women's testimony in Islam|testimony in Islam]]ic [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]], except for crime and punishment - for example, debt, shopping, etc.; O believers! When you contract a loan for a fixed period of time, commit it to writing....with justice. Call upon two of your men to witness. If two men cannot be found, then one man and two women of your choice will witness so if one of the women forgets the other may remind her.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Baqarah – 282 |url=https://quran.com/en/al-baqarah/282 |access-date=2024-12-16 |website=Quran.com |language=en}}</ref>{{qref|4|11|b=y|s=y}}<ref name=davidpowers>{{cite journal |last1=Powers |first1=David S. | title=Islamic Inheritance System: A Socio-Historical Approach |journal=Arab Law Quarterly |volume=8 |issue=1 |year=1993 |pages=13–29 |jstor=3381490 |doi=10.1163/157302593X00285}}</ref>

As a different example, in [[The Necklace Incident|the necklace story of Aisha]], called [[Asbab al-Nuzul]] for surah [[An-Nur]] :11-20 four witnesses were required for the accusation of adultery. In addition, those who made accusations that did not meet the specified conditions would be punished with 80 lashes. The jurisprudence of later periods stipulates that witnesses must be men, covering all [[hudud|hadd crimes]] and people who did not have credibility and honesty in society ([[Islamic views on slavery|slaves]], non-adl; [[fasiq|sinners]], infidels) could not testify against believers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Peters|first1=Rudolph|title=Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521796705|pages=53–55}}</ref> In addition, the Islamic judiciary did not require proof of the issues defined as [[tazir]].<ref name="tahir2009"/>{{rp|45|q=Oudah supports the 'medieval' classification of crimes into hudud, qisas and diyat, and tazir. The key factors that determine the classification of these crimes, he states, are the element of pardoning the accused, taking into account mitigating circumstances and the requirement of strict proof in proving the offences.}} The statement in the Quran that determines the status of slaves in community is; ''Ma malakat aymanuhum''<ref>{{URL|https://www.alhakam.org/what-is-the-meaning-of-those-whom-your-right-hand-possesses-milk-al-yamin}}</ref> meaning "[[Islamic views on slavery|those whom your right hands possess]]". The widespread use of [[history of slavery in the Muslim world|slavery in the Islamic world]] continued until the last century,{{efn|"The Caliphate in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace."<ref name= "amazon1">{{cite book |title=Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora |url=https://archive.org/details/islamsblackslave00sega |url-access=registration |isbn = 978-0374527976|last1 = Segal|first1 = Ronald|date = 9 February 2002|publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> The [[Arab slave trade]] typically dealt in the sale of castrated male slaves. Black boys at the age of eight to twelve had their penises and scrota completely amputated. Reportedly, about two out of three boys died, but those who survived drew high prices.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1210/jcem.84.12.6206| pmid= 10599682|title = Long-Term Consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts| journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism| volume=84| issue=12| pages=4324–4331|year = 1999|last1 = Wilson|first1 = Jean D.| last2=Roehrborn| first2=Claus| doi-access=free}}</ref>}} and the unrestricted sexual use of female slaves, with a few exceptions such as they couldn't be loaned out{{efn| In Shiite jurisprudence, it is unlawful for a master of a female slave to grant a third party the use of her for sexual relations. The Shiite scholar [[Shaykh al-Tusi]] stated: ولا يجوز إعارتها للاستمتاع بها لأن البضع لا يستباح بالإعارة "It is not permissible to loan (the slave girl) for enjoyment purpose, because sexual intercourse cannot be legitimate through loaning"<ref>Shaykh al-Tusi stated in Al-Mabsut, Volume 3 page 57</ref> and the Shiite scholars al-Muhaqiq al-Kurki, [[Allamah Al-Hilli]] and Ali Asghar Merwarid made the following ruling: ولا تجوز استعارة الجواري للاستمتاع
"It is not permissible to loan the slave girl for the purpose of sexual intercourse"<ref>al-Muhaqiq al-Kurki in ''Jame'a al-Maqasid'', Volume 6 page 62, Allamah al-Hilli in ''Al-Tadkira'', Volume 2 page 210 and Ali Asghar Merwarid in ''Al-Yanabi al-Fiqhya'', Volume 17 page 187</ref>}} in traditional islamic jurisprudence while stated today often that sharia provides many rights to slaves and aims to eradicate slavery over time.
[[File:Slaves Zadib Yemen 13th century BNF Paris.jpg|thumb|left|13th cc slave market, Yemen. [[Mustafa Öztürk]], following in the footsteps of [[Fazlur Rahman Malik|Fazlurrahman]], argues that the verses were revealed in a [[contextualism|historical context]] and derived rulings are not among the essence and [[maqasid|aims of religion]]; Slaves and female slaves were considered property within the framework derived from the Quranic verses;<ref name="jebro">Jonathan E. Brockopp (2000), Early Mālikī Law: Ibn ʻAbd Al-Ḥakam and His Major Compendium of Jurisprudence, Brill, {{ISBN|978-9004116283}}, p. 131</ref><ref>Levy (1957) p. 77</ref> Their masters could set them free, sell them, bequeath them, share them, or rent them out.{{sfn|Levy|1957|p=77}} Öztürk adds [[Al-Sarakhsi]]'s ijtihad that the paternity of the born child in this situation could be determined by [[Lottery|draw]] and asks; is there anyone among you who can accept this understanding today?<ref>{{YouTube|id=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jwl85m-bSeA |title=3 Çarpıcı Örnek: Kurban, Kölelik ve Allah Tasavvuru}}</ref>]]

[[Sharia]] is a collection of laws and rules created by scholars' interpretations on the Quran and hadith collections, and has been developed over the centuries, changing according to different geographies and societies. [[Madhab|Fiqh sects]] are schools of understanding that try to determine the actions that people should do or avoid based on the Quran and hadiths. The place of hadiths in legislation is controversial; for example, in the [[Hanafi school|Hanafi sect]], in order to claim that something is [[Fard|obligatory]], that issue must be clearly expressed in the Quran. Some of these results may also indicate exaggeration of statements, generalizations taken out of context, and imperative broadening of scope.{{efn|name="bilgin"}} Of the few criminal cases listed as crimes in the Quran, only a few of them are punished by the classical books of sharia as determined by the verses of the Quran and are called [[hudud laws]]. How the verse [[Al-Ma'idah]] 33, which describes the crime of [[hirabah]], should be understood is a matter of debate even today.<ref name="AutoN0-18">{{cite journal |last1=Khasan |first1=Moh |title=From Textuality to Universality: The Evolution of Ḥirābah Crimes in Islamic Jurisprudence |journal=Al-Jami'ah: Journal of Islamic Studies |date=24 May 2021 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–32 |doi=10.14421/ajis.2021.591.1-32 |url=https://aljamiah.or.id/index.php/AJIS/article/view/59101 |access-date=16 November 2024 |language=en |issn=2338-557X|doi-access=free }}</ref> The verse talks about the punishment of criminals by killing, hanging, having their [[Cross-amputation|hands and feet cut off on opposite sides]], and being exiled from the earth, in response to an -abstract- crime such as "fighting against Allah and His Messenger". Expanding or narrowing the conditions and scope of this crime according to new situations and universal legal standards are issues that continue to be discussed today<ref name="AutoN0-18"/> such as punishing in addition to rebellion against the legitimate government on "concrete sequential criminal acts" ie massacre, robbery and rape as preconditions.

Although the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its rules are largely preserved only in family law and criminal law in some. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century [[Dawah|brought calls]] by [[Islamism|Islamic movements]] for the full implementation of sharia, including [[corporal punishment]] such as [[stoning]] for [[adultery]],<ref name=vikor>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Knut S. |last=Vikør |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |url=http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604214623/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |archive-date=June 4, 2014}}</ref><ref name=mayer>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Ann Elizabeth |last=Mayer |title=Law. Modern Legal Reform |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121033722/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473 |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref> through a variety of propaganda methods, from civic political activities to [[Islamic terrorism|terrorism]].

=== Eschatology ===
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}}

{{Further|Garden of Eden|Jahannam}}
The doctrine of the last day and [[eschatology]] (the final fate of the universe) may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran.<ref name=watt /> It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Buck |first=Christopher |date=2006 |article=Discovering (final destination) |title-link=iarchive:blackwellcompani00ripp 0 |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an |edition=2a reimpr. |veditors=Rippin A, etal |editor-link1=Andrew Rippin |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-1752-4 |page=30}}</ref> The Quran does not assert a natural [[immortality]] of the human [[soul]], since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily [[resurrection]].<ref name=rcmartin />
[[File:Mortier, Situation du Paradise Terrestre, 1700 Cornell CUL PJM 1014 01.jpg|thumbnail|upright=0.8|Map by [[Pierre Daniel Huet]] (1700), locating [[Garden of Eden]] as described in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 2:10–14:<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|2:10–14|HE}}.</ref> also mentioned with the same name (jannāt ʿadn) in the Quran, with the difference is that it was not the place where [[Adam and Eve]] were sent down on earth, but the garden promised to believers after death.([[Al-Kahf]];30-31)]]

In the Quran belief in the afterlife is often referred in conjunction with belief in God: "Believe in God and the last day"<ref name=haleem>{{cite book|last=Haleem|first=Muhammad Abdel|title=Understanding the Qur'an: themes and style|year=2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-650-8|page=82|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingqur00abde/page/82}}</ref> emphasizing what is considered impossible is easy in the sight of God. A number of [[sura]]s such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and warn people to be prepared for the "imminent" day referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction', 'the Day of the Gathering' or 'the Day of the Meeting'.<ref name=watt />

While most topics known as "signs of the apocalypse" in Islamic eschatology are based on non-Quranic sources, some references in the Quran were frequently understood as apocalyptic terms, such as ''[[Fitna (word)|fitna]]'',<ref name=":6">Reeves, J. C. (2005). Trajectories in Near Eastern apocalyptic: a postrabbinic Jewish apocalypse reader (No. 45). Society of Biblical Lit. p. 109</ref><ref name=":5">Cook, (2002). Studies in Muslim apocalyptic, p. 269-306</ref> ''[[Beast of the Earth|Dabba]]'', and [[Gog and Magog]].<ref name=":5" /> At the time of the [[History of Islam#Mongol conquests|Mongol conquests]], ibn Kathir identified the latter with the historical Turks and Mongols.<ref name=":5" /> The apocalyptic writings frequently feature extra-Quranic figures such as the ''[[Dajjal|Dajjāl]]'' (corresponding to [[Armilos]] and [[Anti-Christ]]) and the ''[[Mahdi|Mahdī]]''.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="Farhang Dajjal 2017">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Farhang |author-first=Mehrvash |year=2017 |title=Dajjāl |translator-last=Negahban |translator-first=Farzin |editor1-last=Madelung |editor1-first=Wilferd |editor2-last=Daftary |editor2-first=Farhad |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_035982 |issn=1875-9823}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> The ''Dajjāl'' is supposed to become a cause of misguidance and causes havoc on earth, but is ultimately stopped by either the ''Mahdī'' or ''[[Jesus in Islam|ʿĪsā]]'' ([[Jesus]]) who returns to earth from heaven.<ref>Hamid, F.A. (2008). ''The Futuristic Thought of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad of Malaysia'', p. 209, in I. Abu-Rabi' (ed.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Sf6HxVjOLPsC ''The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought'']. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, pp.195–212</ref><ref name="Cook 2021">{{cite book |last=Cook |first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |year=2021 |orig-date=2002 |title=Studies in Muslim Apocalyptic |location=[[Berlin]] and [[London]] |publisher=Gerlach Press |pages=93–104 |isbn=9783959941211 |oclc=238821310}}</ref>

When the time of the apocalypse comes -which is told in a poetic form- the sun is rolled up, the stars fall down, seas are set on fire, mountains are moved people run away in fear and pregnant women miscarry.([[At-Takwir]] 1-7) Then a square is set up and the [[Malik|king or lord of the day]];(''māliki yawmi-d-dīn''){{efn|Qira’at: All except for ʻAsem, Al-Kesa’i, Yaʻqub and Khalaf in one of his narrations read it as '' {{verse||4}} King of the Day of Judgement''.}} comes and shows his shin;<ref>"Beware of˺ the Day the Shin ˹of Allah˺ will be bared, and the wicked will be asked to prostrate, but they will not be able to do so"{{cite web | url=https://quran.com/68?startingVerse=42 | title=Surah Al-Qalam - 1-52 }}</ref><ref>[[Sahih al-Bukhari]] 7439 In-book reference: Book 97, Hadith 65 USC-MSA web (English) reference: Vol. 9, Book 93, Hadith 532 (deprecated numbering scheme)</ref> the looks are fearful, those gathered in the square are invited to prostrate;([[Al-Qalam]] 42-43) the question asked is why [[Infanticide|the innocent female children were killed]].([[At-Takwir]] 8-9)

== Text and arrangement ==
{{Main|List of chapters in the Quran|Āyah}}

The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, known as a ''[[sūrah]]''. Each sūrah consists of verses, known as ''[[āyāt]]'', which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sūrah to sūrah. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the most popular [[Hafs Quran]] is 6,236;{{efn|Scholars disagree on the exact number but this is a disagreement over "the placing of the divisions between the verese, not on the text itself."{{sfn|Cook|2000|p=119}}}} however, the number varies if the ''bismillahs'' are counted separately. According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 [[Word stem|stems]], 3,382 [[Lemma (morphology)|lemmas]] and 1,685 [[Root (linguistics)|roots]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Dukes|first=Kais|title=RE: Number of Unique Words in the Quran|url=http://www.mail-archive.com/comp-quran@comp.leeds.ac.uk/msg00223.html|website=The Mail Archive|access-date=29 October 2012}}</ref>
[[File:Bilqis, Queen of Sheba, painting, album, Safavid dynasty, Iran.jpg|thumb|Belqeys, [[Queen of Sheba]], one of the legendary figures<ref>National Geographic, issue mysteries of history, September 2018, p. 45.</ref> in [[the Bible]] whose story is told without naming in the Quran,<ref>{{cite book |first=Robert D. |last=Burrowes |year=2010 |title=Historical Dictionary of Yemen |page=319 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-0810855281}}</ref> lying in a garden, facing a hoopoe, Solomon's messenger. Persian miniature (c. 1595).]]
Chapters are classified as [[Meccan sura|Meccan]] or [[Medinan sura|Medinan]], depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the [[Hijra (Islam)|migration]] of Muhammad to the city of Medina on traditional account. However, a sūrah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sūrah names are derived from a name or a character in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sūrah. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order, rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size.<ref>see {{cite book|title=Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAT1DwAAQBAJ&q=surah+arranged+theme&pg=PA580|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]]|page=580|author=Jamal Malik|date = 6 April 2020|isbn = 978-90-04-42271-1}}</ref> Each sūrah except the ninth starts with the ''[[Basmala|Bismillah]]'' ({{lang|ar|{{Script|Arab|بِسْمِ ٱللَّٰهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ}}}}), an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the ''Bismillah'' in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran {{qref|27|30|pl=y}} as the opening of [[Solomon in Islam|Solomon]]'s letter to the [[Queen of Sheba]].<ref>See:* "Kur`an, al-", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam Online''</ref>{{sfn|Allen|2000|p=53}}

The ''[[Muqattaʿat]]'' ({{langx|ar|حروف مقطعات}} {{Transliteration|ar|ḥurūf muqaṭṭaʿāt}}, 'disjoined letters, disconnected letters';<ref>{{langx|ar|مقطعات|label=none}} is the plural of a participle from {{langx|ar|[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/قطع قطع]|label=none}}, 'to cut, break'.</ref> also 'mysterious letters')<ref name="Massey2005" /> are combinations of between one and five [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic letters]] figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 chapters of the Quran just after the basmala.<ref name="Massey2005">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Massey |first=Keith |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |article=Mysterious Letters |chapter-url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran/mysterious-letters-EQCOM_00128 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān |date=2002 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-12354-7 |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00128 |volume=3 |issue=205 |page=472}}</ref> The letters are also known as ''[[Fawatih|fawātih]]'' ({{lang|ar|فواتح}}), or 'openers', as they form the opening verse of their respective suras. Four surahs are named for their {{Transliteration|ar|muqatta'at}}: [[Ta-Ha|''Ṭāʾ-Hāʾ'']], [[Ya Sin|''Yāʾ-Sīn'']], [[Sad (sura)|''Ṣād'']], and [[Qaf (sura)|''Qāf'']]. Various theories have been put forward; they were a secret communication language between Allah and Muhammad, abbreviations of various names or attributes of Allah,<ref>Suyūtī, al-Durr al-manthūr, vol. 1, p. 57.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Norman O. |author-link=Norman Oliver Brown |title=Apocalypse And/or Metamorphosis |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-07298-7 |page=81}}</ref> symbols of the versions of the Quran belonging to different companions, elements of a secret [[Quran code|coding system]],<ref>Rashad Khalifa, ''[http://www.masjidtucson.org/publications/books/vp/contents.html Quran: Visual Presentation of the Miracle]'', Islamic Productions International, 1982. {{ISBN|0-934894-30-2}}</ref> or expressions containing esoteric meanings.<ref name="marshall">{{cite web | title = What on earth is a disconnected letter? - Baha{{hamza}}u'llah's commentary on the disconnected letters| last = Marshall| first = Alison| access-date=19 March 2007 | url=http://bahai-library.com/marshall_disconnected_letters}}</ref> Some researchers associate them with [[Syriac sacral music|hymns used in Syrian Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Luxenberg, Christoph|title=The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran 1st Edition| year = 2009}}</ref> The phrases must have been part of these hymns or abbreviations of [[Mantra|frequently repeated introductory phrases]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor1-first=Gabriel Said |title=The Quran in its Historical Context |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |chapter=Notes on Medieval and Modern Emendations of the Qur'an|last1= Stewart |first1=Devin J. |page=234}}</ref><ref>Sedgwick, Mark (2004). Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515297-2. P. 66.</ref> Some of them, such as Nun, were used in symbolic meanings.<ref>{{cite book|author=Islahi, Amin Ahsan|title=Taddabur-i-Quran|publisher=Faraan Foundation| year=2004| pages=82–85}}</ref>

In addition of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 ''[[juz']]'' (plural {{Transliteration|ar|ajzāʼ}}) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. A {{Transliteration|ar|juz'}} is sometimes further divided into two ''[[hizb|ḥizb]]'' (plural {{Transliteration|ar|aḥzāb}}), and each {{Transliteration|ar|hizb}} subdivided into four {{Transliteration|ar|rubʻ al-ahzab}}. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, ''[[manzil]]'' (plural {{Transliteration|ar|manāzil}}), for it to be recited in a week.<ref name="Britannica" /> A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten {{Transliteration|ar|āyāt}} each. Such a section is called a ''[[ruku (Quran)|ruku]]''.

=== Literary style ===
{{Main|Quranic counter-discourse|Self-referential discourse of the Quran|Punishment narratives in the Quran}}

{{Further|Oral-formulaic composition}}
[[File:Touba3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Boys studying the Quran in [[Touba]], [[Senegal]]]]
The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ [[phonetics|phonetic]] and [[theme (literature)|thematic]] structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims, such as [[Mustafa Khattab|Dr. Mustafa Khattab]] in his ''The Clear Quran'' assert, according to the Quran itself, that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Khattab |first1=Mustafa |author1-link=Mustafa Khattab |title=The Clear Quran: A Thematic English Translation |date=2016 |publisher=Book of Signs Foundation |location=Lombard, Illinois, USA |isbn=978-0-9773009-6-9 |page=xi |edition=2nd |language=English}}</ref>

The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in [[Sura 81]], and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Mir |first=Mustansir |date=2006 |title=Language |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00ripp_0 |edition=2a reimpr. |veditors=Rippin A, etal |editor-link1=Andrew Rippin |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-1752-4 |page=93}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first1=Herman |last1=Rosenthal |first2=A. S. |last2=Waldstein |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=369&letter=K&search=Quran |access-date=15 August 2022 |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Körner, Moses B. Eliezer}}</ref>

Today, the Quranic text contains numerous expressions ('ql' meaning "say") that create the image of it as a direct divine word commanding Muhammad. In his doctoral dissertation on the textual analysis of Quranic manuscripts from the 7th-10th centuries CE, Daniel Brubaker illuminates the process of adding some of these words.<ref>Daniel Brubaker is a textual critic of Quran manuscripts of the 7th-10th centuries A.D. He defended his doctoral dissertation titled “Intentional Changes in Qurʾan Manuscripts” at Rice University in Houston in 2014. He has continued his work postdoctorally. So far, he has analyzed approximately 10,000 early Quran manuscript folios, most in person, in institutions and libraries in Paris, St. Petersburg, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Dublin, Doha, Manchester, Manama, Kuwait, Tashkent, and elsewhere. https://www.danielbrubaker.com/about/</ref> [[Michael Cook (historian)|Michael Cook]] has revealed another aspect of this phenomenon. There was no distinction between "say" or "he said" in the original texts ([[Rasm]]). However, later texts standardized the "ql" expression (which can be read as both "he said" and "say") in these texts to be read as "say" in many places.<ref name="MCKVSI2000:120">[[#MCKVSI2000|Cook, ''The Koran'', 2000]]: p.120</ref> (According to the current reading style, the word "Say" appears a total of 332 times in the Quran.)

The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net.<ref name="Britannica" /> The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness.{{efn|"The final process of collection and codification of the Quran text was guided by one {{sic|?|hide=y|over-|arching}} principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read."<ref name=blomm>''Approaches to the Asian Classics'', Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press, 1990, p. 65</ref> Samuel Pepys: "One feels it difficult to see how any mortal ever could consider this Quran as a Book written in Heaven, too good for the Earth; as a well-written book, or indeed as a book at all; and not a bewildered rhapsody; written, so far as writing goes, as badly as almost any book ever was!"<ref name=pepys>{{cite web |url=http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21 |last=Peterson |first=Daniel C. |title=Editor's Introduction: By What Measure Shall We Mete? |date=1990 |work=FARMS Review of Books |volume=2 |issue=1 |publisher=The Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship at BYU |access-date=30 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304110915/http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=21 |archive-date=4 March 2008}}</ref>}} [[Michael Sells]], citing the work of the critic [[Norman O. Brown]], acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression—its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase—is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated.<ref name="ApproachQuran">{{Citation |last=Sells |first=Michael |date=1999 |title=Approaching the Qur'ān |publisher=White Cloud Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author-link=Norman O. Brown |last=Brown |first=Norman O |date=Winter 1983–1984 |title=The Apocalypse of Islam |journal=Social Text |publisher=Duke University Press |doi=10.2307/466329 |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=155–71|jstor=466329 }}</ref> Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device. Another group of researchers explores the irregularities and repetitions mentioned in the Quranic text in a way that refutes the traditional claim that it was preserved by memorization alongside writing. According to them, an [[Oral tradition|oral period]] shaped the Quran as a text and order, and mentioned [[Oral-formulaic composition|repetitions and irregularities were remnants]] of this period.<ref name=AGBRtT2014:1-4>[[#AGBRtT2014|Bannister, "Retelling the Tale", 2014]]: p. 1-4</ref>

A text is [[Self-reference|self-referential]] when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this [[metatextuality]] by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation ({{Transliteration|ar|tanzil}}), remembrance (''[[dhikr]]''), news ({{Transliteration|ar|naba'}}), criterion ({{Transliteration|ar|furqan}}) in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?"),<ref>{{qref|21|50|b=y}}</ref> or in the frequent appearance of the "Say" tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance'", "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?'"). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Wild|editor-first=Stefan|title=Self-referentiality in the Qur'an|year=2006|publisher=Harrassowitz|location=Wiesbaden|isbn=978-3-447-05383-9}}</ref>

==== Inimitability ====
{{Main|I'jaz|Quran imitations|Islamic view of miracles}}

In [[Islam]], {{Transliteration|ar|’i‘jāz}} ({{langx|ar|اَلْإِعْجَازُ}}), "inimitability challenge" of the Quran in sense of feṣāḥa and [[rhetoric|belagha]] (both eloquence and rhetoric) is the doctrine which holds that the Quran has a miraculous quality, both in content and in form, that no human speech can match.<ref>Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: an encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 9780415326391</ref> According to this, the Quran is a [[miracle]] and its inimitability is the proof granted to [[Muhammad]] in authentication of his prophetic status.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |url=https://archive.org/details/monotheistsjewsc01pete |title=The Words and Will of God |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-691-11461-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/monotheistsjewsc01pete/page/12 12–13]}}</ref> The literary quality of the Quran has been praised by Muslim scholars and by many non-Muslim scholars.<ref name=comments>For example see comments by [[Arthur John Arberry]]: "to produce something which might be accepted as echoing however faintly the sublime rhetoric of the Arabic Koran, I have been at pains to study the intricate and richly varied rhythms which constitute the Koran's undeniable claim to rank amongst the greatest literary masterpieces of mankind'' Arberry, A.J (1955). The Koran: Interpreted. New York: Macmillan. pp. x''; [[Karen Armstrong]] : "It is as though Muhammad had created an entirely new literary form that some people were not ready for but which thrilled others. Without this experience of the Koran, it is extremely unlikely that Islam would have taken root." ''Armstrong, K (1994). A History of God.p.78''; [[Oliver Leaman]]: "the verses of the Qur'an represent its uniqueness and beauty not to mention its novelty and originality. That is why it has succeeded in convincing so many people of its truth. it imitates nothing and no one nor can it be imitated. Its style does not pall even after long periods of study and the text does not lose its freshness over time" ''Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia.p.404'' and similar views by [[Joseph Schacht]] (1974) ''The legacy of Islam'', [[Henry Stubbe]] ''An account of the Rise and Progress of Mohammadanism (1911)'', Martin Zammit ''A Comparative Lexical Study of Qur'anic Arabic (2002)'', and [[Alfred Guillaume]] ''Islam (1990)''</ref> The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.<ref name=sophia>{{cite journal|last=Vasalou|first=Sophia|title=The Miraculous Eloquence of the Qur'an: General Trajectories and Individual Approaches|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2002|volume=4|issue=2|pages=23–53|doi=10.3366/jqs.2002.4.2.23}}</ref>
[[File:Dresden MS Eb 445 Falnameh fol. 14v Mohammed Splits the Moon.jpg|thumb|[[Splitting of the Moon]], Muhammad with hidden face. 16th-century {{transliteration|ar|[[falnama]]}}. A possible [[idiom]], {{qref|54|1–2|c=y}} also mentioned in [[Imru' al-Qais]] poems,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/sources/bbqais | title=Well, Did Muhammad Not Copy Some Verses of the Qur'an from Imru'l Qais?}}</ref> was understood as the physical disintegration and supported by [[hadith]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sunnah.com/search?q=moon+split|title=Search Results - Search Results - moon split (page 1) - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|website=sunnah.com}}</ref> despite the Quran itself denies<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">Wensinck, A.J. "Muʿd̲j̲iza". ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007.</ref><ref name="EoQ">Denis Gril, ''Miracles'', [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], Brill, 2007.</ref> [[Islamic view of miracles|miracles]], in the traditional sense.{{efn|Mehmet Özdemir (prof.dr.) regarding [[Prophetic biography|sirah]] draws attention to the almost non-existent number of [[miracles]] (''dalāʾil al-nubuwwa'') in the first records and the hundreds of additions made in later periods.<ref>Özdemir, Mehmet, (2007). Siyer Yazıcılığı Üzerine, Milel ve Nihal, 4 (3), 129-162</ref>}}]]
The Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in [[Arabic literature]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Arberry |first=Arthur |title=The Koran Interpreted |orig-date=1956 |isbn=0-684-82507-4 |location=London |page=191 |quote=It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.}}{{clarify|reason=ISBNs didn't come into being until 1967 so a 1956 book cannot have an ISBN; there is a 1996 edition published in New York with this ISBN; same work?|date=November 2023}}</ref><ref name="Alpha"/><ref name="Esposito"/> The emergence of the Quran was an oral and aural [[poetic]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Chronology of the Qur'an According to Theodor Nöldeke and Sir William Muir (Analysis of the History of the Qur'an and Life of Mahomet) |url=https://bircu-journal.com/index.php/birci/article/download/5578/pdf |date=2024-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830224026/https://bircu-journal.com/index.php/birci/article/download/5578/pdf |archive-date=30 August 2024 |url-status=live |last1=Syukron |first1=Ahmad |last2=Khairiyah |first2=Nikmatul |access-date=21 February 2024}}</ref> experience; the aesthetic experience of reciting and hearing the Quran is often regarded as one of the main reasons behind conversion to Islam in the early days.<ref name="pure.ed.ac.uk">{{Cite journal | author=Siddiqui, M | year=2020 | title=Poetry, prophecy and the angelic voice: Reflections on the Divine Word | journal=Prophetic Witness and the Reimagining of the World: Poetry, Theology and Philosophy in Dialogue | volume=5 | pages=61–74 | doi=10.4324/9780367344092-6 | url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/75126557/Siddiqui2018PoetryProphecyAndTheAngelicVoice.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221094007/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/75126557/Siddiqui2018PoetryProphecyAndTheAngelicVoice.pdf | archive-date=2024-02-21}}</ref> [[Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry]] was an element of challenge, propaganda and warfare,<ref>{{cite web |title=WAR AND PEACE IN PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIC POETRY |url=https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/51535/1/Humanitas2A7.pdf |date=2024-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830223120/https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/51535/1/Humanitas2A7.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2024 |url-status=live |last1=FARRUGIA |first1=MARISA |access-date=21 February 2024 }}</ref> and those who incapacitated their opponents from doing the same in feṣāḥa and [[rhetoric|Belagha]] socially honored, as could be seen on [[Mu'allaqat]] poets. The etymology of the word "[[poet|shā'ir]]; (poet)" connotes the meaning of a man of inspirational knowledge, of unseen powers. `To the early Arabs poetry was ṣihr ḥalāl and the poet was a genius who had supernatural communications with the [[jinn]] or [[Ghost|spirits]], the muses who inspired him.’<ref name="pure.ed.ac.uk"/> Although pre-Islamic Arabs gave poets status associated with suprahuman beings, soothsayers and prophecies were seen as persons of lower status. Contrary to later [[hurufism|hurufic]] and recent [[Islamic attitudes towards science|scientific prophecy claims]], traditional [[miracle]] statements about the Quran hadn't focused on [[prophecies]], with a few exceptions like the Byzantine victory over the Persians<ref>{{cite web |title=THE QURANIC PROPHECY OF THE DEFEAT AND VICTORY OF THE BYZANTINES |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/341691 |date=2024-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221094005/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/341691 |archive-date=21 February 2024 |url-status=live |last1=EL-AWAISI |first1=Khalid |publisher=Mardin Artuklu University |access-date=21 February 2024 }}</ref> in wars that [[Roman–Persian Wars|continued for hundreds of years]] with mutual victories and defeats.

The first works about the {{Transliteration|ar|’i‘jāz}} of the Quran began to appear in the 9th century in the [[Mu'tazila]] circles, which emphasized only its literary aspect, and were adopted by other religious groups.<ref>Vgl. Martin 533</ref> According to grammarian [[Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī ibn ‘lsā al-Rummānī|Al-Rummani]] the [[eloquence]] contained in the Quran consisted of [[Simile|tashbīh]], [[metaphor|istiʿāra]], [[paronomasia|taǧānus]], [[hyperbole|mubālaġa]], concision, clarity of speech (bayān), and [[euphony|talāʾum]]. He also added other features developed by himself; the free variation of themes (taṣrīf al-maʿānī), the implication content (taḍmīn) of the expressions and the rhyming closures (fawāṣil).<ref>Vgl. Neuwirth 177 und Grotzfeld 65.</ref> The most famous works on the doctrine of inimitability are two medieval books by the grammarian [[Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani|Al Jurjani]] (d. 1078 CE), ''Dala’il al-i'jaz'' ('the Arguments of Inimitability') and ''Asraral-balagha'' ('the Secrets of Eloquence').<ref name=larkin>{{cite journal|last=Larkin|first=Margaret|title=The Inimitability of the Qur'an: Two Perspectives|journal=Religion & Literature|year=1988|volume=20|issue=1|pages=31–47}}</ref> Al Jurjani believed that Quran's eloquence must be a certain special quality in the manner of its stylistic arrangement and composition or a certain special way of joining words.<ref name=sophia/> [[Angelika Neuwirth]] lists the factors that led to the emergence of the doctrine of {{Transliteration|ar|’i‘jāz}}: The necessity of explaining some challenging verses in the Quran;<ref>{{qref|17|88|b=y}}</ref> In the context of the emergence of the theory of "proofs of prophecy" ([[Miracles of Muhammad|dâ'il an-nubuwwa]]) in [[Kalam|Islamic theology]], proving that the Quran is a work worthy of the emphasized superior place of Muhammad in the history of the prophets, thus gaining polemical superiority over Jews and Christians; Preservation of Arab national pride in the face of confrontation with the Iranian [[Shu'ubiyya]] movement, etc.<ref>Vgl. Neuwirth 172-175.</ref> Orientalist scholars [[Theodor Nöldeke]], [[Friedrich Schwally]] and [[John Wansbrough]], pointing out linguistic defects, held similar opinions on the Quranic text as careless and imperfect.<ref name=lm>{{cite book|editor-last=Leaman|editor-first=Oliver|title=The Qur'an: an encyclopedia|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415326391|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse}}</ref>

== Significance in Islam ==
{{Islam |texts}}
{{Further|Quranic createdness}}
[[File:Talismanic Shirt MET ISL108.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Talismanic tunic, North India-Deccan, Metropolitan Museum]]
Quran says, "We have sent down the Quran in truth, and with the truth it has come down"<ref>See:* {{harvnb|Corbin|1993|page=12}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wild|first=Stefan|title=The Quʼran as Text|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|year=1996|isbn=978-90-04-09300-3|pages=137, 138, 141, 147 |ref=none}}
* {{qref|2|97|b=y}}, {{qref|17|105}}</ref> and frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained.<ref name="jenssen2001">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Jenssen |first=H. |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |chapter=Arabic Language |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān |date=2001 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |volume=1 |pages=127–35}}</ref> The Quran speaks of a written pre-text that records God's speech before it is sent down, the "preserved tablet" that is the basis of [[Predestination in Islam|the belief in fate]] also, and Muslims believe that the Quran was sent down or started to be sent down on the [[Laylat al-Qadr]].<ref name="tsonn">{{cite book|last = Sonn|first = Tamara|title = Islam: a brief history|year = 2010|publisher = Wiley-Blackwell|isbn = 978-1-4051-8093-1|edition = Second}}</ref><ref>{{qref|85|22|b=y}}</ref>

Revered by pious Muslims as "the holy of holies",<ref name=AGI1954:74>[[#AGI1954|Guillaume, ''Islam'', 1954]]: p.74</ref> whose sound moves some to "tears and ecstasy",<ref name="meanings-iii">{{cite book |last1=Pickthall |first1=M.M. |title=The Glorious Qur'an |date=1981 |publisher=Iqra' Book Center|location=Chicago IL|page=vii}}</ref> it is the physical symbol of the faith, the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth, death, marriage. Traditionally, before starting [[recitation|to read the Quran]], [[Ritual purification|ablution]] is performed, one seeks refuge in Allah from the accursed [[Satan]], and the reading begins by mentioning the names of Allah, [[Rahman (name)|Rahman]] and [[Rahim]] together known as [[basmala]]. Consequently,
<blockquote> It must never rest beneath other books, but always on top of them, one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud, and it must be listened to in silence. It is a talisman against disease and disaster.<ref name=AGI1954:74 /><ref name=iWWINaM1995:105>[[#iWWINaM1995|Ibn Warraq, ''Why I'm Not a Muslim'', 1995]]: p. 105</ref></blockquote>

According to Islam, the Quran is the word of God ({{Transliteration|ar|Kalām Allāh}}). Its nature and [[Quranic createdness|whether it was created]] became a matter of fierce debate among religious scholars;<ref name="WMP1897:54">[[#WMP1897|Patton, ''Ibn Ḥanbal and the Miḥna'', 1897]]: p.54</ref><ref name="Ruthven-192">{{cite book |last1=Ruthven |first1=Malise |title=Islam in the World |date=1984 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530503-6 |page=192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92lQfWj6_VIC&q=uncreated+quran&pg=PA192 |access-date=28 February 2019}}</ref> and with the involvement of the political authority in the discussions, some Muslim religious scholars who stood against the political stance [[mihna|faced]] [[religious persecution]] during the [[Caliphate|caliph]] [[al-Ma'mun]] period and the following years.

Muslims believe that the present Quranic text corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran {{qref|15|9|pl=y}}, it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardians").<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mir Sajjad Ali |author2=Zainab Rahman |title=Islam and Indian Muslims|year=2010|publisher=Kalpaz Publications|isbn=978-81-7835-805-5|page=21}}</ref> Muslims consider the Quran to be a [[Miracles of Muhammad|sign of the prophethood of Muhammad]] and the truth of the religion. For this reason, in traditional Islamic societies, great importance was given to children memorizing the Quran, and those who memorized the entire Quran were honored with the title of [[Hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]]. Even today, "millions and millions of people refer to the Koran daily to explain their actions and to justify their aspirations"{{efn|Algerian Mohammed Arkoun, Professor Emeritus of Islamic Thought at the University of Paris .<ref name="what-atlantic-1999">{{cite journal |journal=Atlantic |last1=LESTER |first1=TOBY |date= January 1999 |title=What Is the Koran? | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1999/01/what-is-the-koran/304024/ |access-date=8 April 2019}}</ref>}} or see it as the source of scientific knowledge,<ref name="Guessoum-2008">{{cite journal |last1=Guessoum |first1=Nidhal |title=ThE QUR'AN, SCIENCE, AND THE (RELATED)CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM DISCOURSE |journal=Zygon |date=June 2008 |volume=43 |issue=2 |page=411+ |url=https://www.academia.edu/1447032 |access-date=15 April 2019 |issn=0591-2385|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9744.2008.00925.x |doi-access=free }}</ref> though this has been criticized as [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]].<ref name="SARDAR-2008">{{cite journal |last1=SARDAR |first1=ZIAUDDIN |title=Weird science |journal=New Statesman |date=21 August 2008 |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/books/2008/08/quran-muslim-scientific |access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref>

Muslims believe the Quran to be God's literal words,<ref name="Britannica" /> a complete code of life,<ref name="Carroll-Q-H">{{cite web |last1=Carroll |first1=Jill |title=The Quran & Hadith |url=https://www.world-religions-professor.com/quran.html |access-date=10 July 2019 |website=World Religions}}</ref> the final revelation to humanity, a work of divine guidance revealed to [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] through the [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|angel Gabriel]].<ref name = LivRlgP338 /><ref>Watton, Victor (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions: Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, p. 1. {{ISBN|978-0-340-58795-9}}</ref><ref name="Lambert">{{cite book |last1=Lambert |first1=Gray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV0mAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA287 |title=The Leaders Are Coming! |date=2013 |publisher=WestBow Press |isbn=978-1-4497-6013-7 |page=287}}</ref><ref name="Williams & Drew">{{cite book |author1=Roy H. Williams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mygRHh6p40kC&pg=PA143 |title=Pendulum: How Past Generations Shape Our Present and Predict Our Future |author2=Michael R. Drew |date=2012 |publisher=Vanguard Press |isbn=978-1-59315-706-7 |page=143 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> On the other hand it is believed in Muslim community that full understanding of it can only be possible with the depths obtained in the basic and religious sciences that the [[ulema]] ([[imams]] in [[shia]]<ref>{{harvnb|Corbin|1993|p=30}}</ref>) might access, as "heirs of the prophets".<ref>{{cite web |title=Book 26, Hadith 1 Chapter: Regarding the virtue of knowledge |url=https://sunnah.com/abudawud:3641 |date=2024-08-31}}</ref> For this reason, direct reading of the Quran or applications based on its literal translations are considered problematic except for some groups such as [[Quranists]] thinking that the Quran is a complete and clear book;<ref>Jens Zimmermann, ''Hermeneutics: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2015, pg. 90</ref> and [[tafsir]] / [[fiqh]] are brought fore to correct understandings in it. With a classical approach, scholars will discuss verses of the Quran in [[Context (linguistics)|context]] called [[asbab al-nuzul]] in islamic literature, as well as language and linguistics; will pass it through filters such as [[Muhkam and Mutashabih|muhkam and mutashabih]], [[Naskh (tafsir)|nasıkh and abrogated]]; will open the closed expressions and try to guide the believers. There is no standardization in Quran translations,<ref name="files.eric.ed.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1128456.pdf|title=Translation of the Holy Quran: A Call for Standardization}}</ref> and interpretations range from traditional scholastic, to [[Quranic literalism|literalist]]-[[salafist]] understandings to [[Esoteric interpretation of the Quran|Esoteric]]-[[Sufist]], to [[Islamic modernism|modern]] and [[secular]] [[exegesis]] according to the personal scientific depth and tendencies of scholars.<ref>{{cite web |title=Postmodernism Approach in Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh) |url=https://eprints.um.edu.my/6019/1/7.pdf |date=2024-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830223711/https://eprints.um.edu.my/6019/1/7.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=2 May 2024 }}</ref>

=== In worship ===
{{See also|Salah}}
Surah [[Al-Fatiha]], the first chapter of the Quran, is recited in full in every [[Rak'a|rakat]] of [[salah]] and on other occasions. This sura, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited surah of the Quran:<ref name=Britannica />
[[File:Jemaah salat tarawih.jpg|thumb|While standing in prayers, worshipers recite the first chapter of the Quran, [[al-Fatiha]], followed by any other section]]
{{Listen
|filename=Chapter 1, Al-Fatiha (Mujawwad) - Recitation of the Holy Qur'an.mp3
|title=''Al-Fatiha''
|pos=right
|description= Recitation of Al-Fatiha in [[mujawwad]].
|format=[[Mp3]]
}}
{{Verse translation | lang = ar | italicsoff = yes | rtl1 = yes
|{{Script|Arab|بِسْمِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ
ٱلْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ ٱلْعَٰلَمِينَ
ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ
مَٰلِكِ يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ
إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ
ٱهْدِنَا ٱلصِّرَٰطَ ٱلْمُسْتَقِيمَ
صِرَٰطَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِمْ غَيْرِ ٱلْمَغْضُوبِ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا ٱلضَّآلِّينَ}}
|In the Name of Allah the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful.
[All] praise is [due] to Allah, Lord of the worlds —
The Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful,
Sovereign of the Day of Recompense.
It is You we worship and You we ask for help
Guide us to the straight path—
The path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor, not of those who have evoked [Your] anger or of those who are astray.|attr1={{qref|1|1-7|b=y}}|attr2=''[[Sahih International]]'' English translation
}}

Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers. Sura [[Al-Ikhlāṣ]] is second in frequency of Quran recitation, for according to many early authorities, [[Muhammad]] said that ''Ikhlāṣ'' is equivalent to one-third of the whole Quran.<ref>[[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] (2015), ''The Study Quran'', HarperCollins, p. 1578.</ref>

{{Verse translation | lang = ar | italicsoff = yes | rtl1 = yes
|{{Script|Arab|
قُلۡ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ أَحَدٌ
ٱللَّهُ ٱلصَّمَدُ
لَمۡ یَلِدۡ وَلَمۡ یُولَدۡ
وَلَمۡ یَكُن لَّهُۥ كُفُوًا أَحَدُۢ
}}
|Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ "He is God—One ˹and Indivisible˺;
God—the Sustainer ˹needed by all˺.
He has never had offspring, nor was He born.
And there is none comparable to Him."
|attr1= Surah Al-Ikhlāṣ {{qref|112|1-4}} | attr2=''[[The Clear Quran]]'' English translation
}}

Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran {{qref|56|79|pl=y}} ("none shall touch but those who are clean"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water ([[wudu]] or [[ghusl]]) before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal.<ref name=Britannica />

Worn-out and old copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2012/02/afghan_quran_burning_protests_what_s_the_right_way_to_dispose_of_a_quran_.html|title=Afghan Quran-burning protests: What's the right way to dispose of a Quran?|website=Slate Magazine|date=22 February 2012}}</ref> While praying, the Quran is only recited in Arabic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Street |first=Brian V. |author-link=Brian V. Street |title=Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives |date=2001 |page=193}}</ref>

In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[Sufism|mysticism]] and [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]], have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings.<ref name=Britannica /> Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called {{Transliteration|ar|ajr}}, ''[[thawab]]'', or {{Transliteration|ar|hasanat}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sengers |first1=Erik|title=Dutch and Their Gods|date=2005|page=129}}</ref>

=== In Islamic art ===
The Quran also inspired [[Islamic art]]s and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]] and [[Ottoman illumination|illumination]].<ref name=Britannica /> The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as [[mosque lamp]]s, metal work, [[Islamic pottery|pottery]] and single pages of calligraphy for [[muraqqa]]s or albums.

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px">
File:Brooklyn Museum - Calligraphy - 3.jpg|[[Calligraphy]], 18th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]].
File:Quran inscriptions on wall, Lodhi Gardens, Delhi.jpg|Quranic inscriptions, [[Bara Gumbad|Bara Gumbad mosque]], [[Delhi]], [[India]].
File:Mosque lamp Met 91.1.1534.jpg|Typical [[mosque lamp]], of [[enamelled glass]], with the ''[[Verse of Light|Ayat an-Nur]]'' or "Verse of Light" (24:35).
File:Muhammad ibn Mustafa Izmiri - Right Side of an Illuminated Double-page Incipit - Walters W5771B - Full Page.jpg|Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period.
File:Mausolées du groupe nord (Shah-i-Zinda, Samarcande) (6016470147).jpg|Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, [[Samarkand]], [[Uzbekistan]].
File:4.8-17-1990-Guld-koranside-recto-og-verso.jpg|The leaves from Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink with a horizontal format suited to [[Kufic|classical Kufic calligraphy]], which became common under the early [[List of Abbasid caliphs|Abbasid caliphs]].
File:Quran rzabasi1.JPG|9th-century Quran in the [[Reza Abbasi Museum]]
File:Shikastah script.jpg|''Shikasta nastaliq'' script, 18th–19th centuries
</gallery>

== Interpretation ==
{{Main|Quranic hermeneutics|Muhkam and Mutashabih}}

{{Further|Historical criticism|Muqatta'at}}
[[File:Iskandar (Alexander) builds a wall against Gog and Magog (CBL Per. 395.1).jpg|thumb|Mysterious personalities in the Quran ([[Al-Kahf]] 94-97); [[Dhu al-Qarnayn]], building a wall with the help of the [[jinn]]s to keep away [[Gog and Magog]]. [[Miniature art|Miniature]], [[Chester Beatty Library]].]]
''[[Tafsir]]'' ({{langx|ar|تفسير|tafsīr}} {{IPAc-ar|t|a|f|'|s|I|r}}; {{langx|en|explanation}}) refers to an [[exegesis]], or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a ''tafsir'' is a ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|mufassir}}'' ({{langx|ar|مُفسّر}}; plural: {{langx|ar|مفسّرون|mufassirūn}}). A Quranic ''tafsir'' attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of [[God in Islam|God]]'s will in [[Islam]].<ref name="Jo" /> In the classical approach, the [[exegesis]] of the Qur'an is built on the 7th verse of [[Al Imran]]-7;

"He is the one who has sent down to you the Book. In it are verses that are sound (muhkamat), which are the foundation of the Book, and others that are assimilated (mutashabihat; resembling one another)." In classical approach verses that speak of Allah's "hand," "throne" ([[Throne of God in Islam|arsh]]), or His "sitting on throne" (istiwa) are considered mutashabih. These expressions are not believed to refer to a physical organ or action but are seen as metaphorical expressions symbolizing Allah's power, knowledge, or majesty.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D03262/2022_7/2022_7_YILMAZ.pdf | title=On Mutashabihat al-Quran: Theological Background of the Approach of the Iraqi Hanafis to the Subject | website=isamveri.org}}</ref>

Principally, a ''tafsir'' deals with the issues of [[Classical Arabic|linguistics]], [[Islamic jurisprudence|jurisprudence]], and [[Islamic theology|theology]]. In terms of perspective and approach, ''tafsir'' can be broadly divided into two main categories, namely ''tafsir bi-al-ma'thur'' (lit. received tafsir), which is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] and his [[Sahaba|companion]]s, and ''tafsir bi-al-ra'y'' (lit. ''tafsir'' by opinion), which is arrived through personal reflection or [[ijtihad|independent rational thinking]].<ref name="Jo" />

[[Contextualism|Knowledge of context]] / [[Asbab al-Nuzul]]; a scholar must understand the reasons and circumstances of a revelation in order to interpret the text correctly. If a verse is isolated without knowing the context, it can be misinterpreted.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wāḥidī |first=Abu-'l-Ḥasan ʿAlī Ibn-Aḥmad al- |title=Al-Wāḥidī's Asbāb al-nuzūl |date=2008 |publisher=Fons Vitae |others=Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought |isbn=978-1-891785-18-4 |series=Great commentaries on the Holy Qurʾan̄ |location=Louisville, KY |translator-last=Guezzou |translator-first=Mokrane}}</ref>

[[Quranic hermeneutics]], and hermeneutics in general, refers to efforts to understand the Quran and Islamic texts through a more objective and secular approach, using universal criteria and moving beyond traditionally imposed forms. [[The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran]] offers a new and compelling approach to understanding the implications of the Qur'an, based on linguistic and geographical-cultural knowledge that also coincides with the findings of historical research of the [[Revisionist school of Islamic studies|revisionist school]].

There are different characteristics and traditions for each of the ''tafsirs'' representing respective [[Islamic schools and branches|schools and doctrine]]s, such as [[Sunni Islam]], [[Shia Islam]], and [[Sufism]]. There are also general distinctions between classic ''tafsirs'' compiled by authoritative figures of [[Ulama|Muslim scholar]]ship during the [[Golden Age of Islam|formative ages of Islam]], and modern ''tafsir'' which seeks to address a wider audience, including the common people.<ref name="Jo">Mir, Mustansir. (1995). "Tafsīr". In John L. Esposito. ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>
[[File:cedararz.jpg|right|thumb|A cedar in Lebanon (Lebanon's sacred tree); Translations made through modern Arabic, unaware of the [[Contextualism|socio-cultural background]] and [[etymology|etymological development of the words]] and symbols that make up the language, can turn Quranic [[Sidrat al-Muntaha]] into the [[Ziziphus spina-christi|Lote tree]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farooqi |first1=M.I.H. |title=Cedar or Lote-Tree in the Light of al-Quran–A Scientific Study |url=https://www.irfi.org/articles4/articles_5001_6000/cedar_or_lotetree_in_the_light.html |website=IRFI |access-date=20 February 2025}}</ref>]]

=== Exoteric and Esoteric interpretations (''ta'wil'') ===
{{Main|Esoteric interpretation of the Quran}}

Commentaries dealing with the ''[[Zahir (Islam)|zahir]]'' ('outward aspects') of the text are called {{Transliteration|ar|tafsir}}, (explanation) and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the ''[[Batin (Islam)|batin]]'' are called ''[[Esoteric interpretation of the Quran|ta'wil]]'' ('interpretation'). Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God.<ref name="Britannica" /> Esoteric or [[sufism|Sufi]] interpretation relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (''[[Batin (Islam)|batin]]'') and metaphysical dimensions of existence and consciousness.<ref name=alangodlas>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Godlas|first=Alan|article=No tile given  |encyclopedia=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an|year=2008|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8820-3|pages=350–362|edition=Paperback}}</ref> According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, and are [[allusion]]s ({{Transliteration|ar|isharat}}) rather than explanations (''[[tafsir]]''). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of writers.<ref name=kristin>{{cite book|last=Sands|first=Kristin Zahra|title=Sufi commentaries on the Qur'an in classical Islam|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-36685-4|edition=1. publ., transferred to digital print.}}</ref>

Shias and Sunnis as well as some [[Islamic philosophy|Muslim philosophers]] believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect.<ref name="corbin1993">{{harvnb|Corbin|1993}}</ref>{{rp|7}} In contrast, [[Bi-la kaifa|Quranic literalism]], followed by [[Salafis]] and [[Zahiri]]s, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Quraishi |first=Asifa |date=2007 |title=Interpreting the Qur'an and the Constitution: Similarities in the Use of Text, Tradition, and Reason in Islamic and American Jurisprudence |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.963142 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.963142 |s2cid=143088125 |issn=1556-5068}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nakissa |first=Aria |date=20 May 2019 |title=The Anthropology of Islamic Law: Education, Ethics, and Legal Interpretation at Egypt's Al-Azhar |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/35028 |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=Oxford Academic |page=258 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190932886.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-093288-6 }}</ref> [[Henry Corbin]] narrates a [[hadith]] that goes back to [[Muhammad]]:

<blockquote>The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning. So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings.<ref name="corbin1993"/>{{rp|7}}</blockquote>

According to esoteric interpreters, the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Allamah |last=Tabataba'I |author-link=Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai |url=https://almizan.org/new/special/Aspects.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705110108/http://www.almizan.org/new/special/Aspects.asp|title=The Outward and Inward Aspects of the Qur'an |website=Tafseer Al-Mizan <!-– Allamah Muhammad Hussein Tabatabai -->|archive-date=5 July 2008|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref> Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in [[Islamic philosophy]], because [[Gnosiology]] itself goes hand in hand with [[prophet#Islam|prophetology]].<ref name="corbin1993"/>{{rp|13}}

== Translations ==
{{Main|Quran translations}}

{{See also|List of translations of the Quran}}
Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form.<ref name="slate">{{cite web | access-date=21 November 2008 | url=http://www.slate.com/id/2204849/?from=rss | website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] | last=Aslan | first=Reza|author-link=Reza Aslan| title=How To Read the Quran | date=20 November 2008}}</ref> An Arabic word may have a [[Polysemy|range of meanings]] depending on the context, making an accurate translation difficult.<ref name="Fatani-2006">{{Citation |last=Fatani |first=Afnan |date=2006 |chapter=Translation and the Qur'an |pages=657–69 |title=[[iarchive:quranencyclopedi2006unse|The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia]] |editor-link=Oliver Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |editor-last=Leaman |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}</ref> Moreover, one of the biggest difficulties in understanding the Quran for those who do not know [[Ancient Arabic|its language]] in the face of shifts in [[linguistics|linguistic usage]] over the centuries is [[semantic]] translations (meanings) that include the translator's contributions to the relevant text instead of literal ones. Although the author's contributions are often bracketed and shown separately, the author's individual tendencies may also come to the fore in making sense of the main text. These studies contain reflections and even distortions<ref>{{cite web |last1=Al-Jarf |first1=Reima |title=Itineraries in the Translation History of the Quran: A guide for Translation Students |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED613311.pdf |website=[[Education Resources Information Center|ERIC Institute of Education Sciences]] |access-date=22 August 2024 |location=[[University of Tartu|University of Tartu, Estonia]] |page=5 |quote=There are occasional misinterpretations, mistranslations, and even distortions. Translating the meanings of the Holy Quran has always been challenging for translators, as the Quran has an exoteric and an esoteric meaning.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ideologic Presuppositions Behind Translation: A Case Study of the Orientalist English Translations of the Quran |url=https://www.jspt.ir/article_167055_d4455677421c8d1c8ab05b048e5fb3a9.pdf |date=2024-08-31}}</ref> caused by the region, [[Islamic sects|sect]],<ref>{{cite web |title=The ideological factor in the translation of sensitive issues from the Quran into English, Spanish and Catalan |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/19576529.pdf |date=2024-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822074223/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/19576529.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2024 |url-status=live |access-date=22 August 2024 }}</ref> education, ideology and knowledge of the people who made them, and efforts to reach the real content are drowned in the details of volumes of commentaries. These distortions can manifest themselves in many areas of belief and practices such as [[hijab]].{{efn|"Let them draw their veils over their chests" (surah-24:31) In Luxenberg's [[The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran|Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran]], the verse instead commands women to "snap their belts around their waists." The belt was a sign of chastity in the Christian world.<ref name="chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it">{{Cite web|url=http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7025&eng=y|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120530155649/http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7025&eng=y|url-status=dead|title=The Virgins and the Grapes: the Christian Origins of the Koran|archivedate=May 30, 2012}}</ref> According to him, the meanings of the words in the relevant part of the verse are as follows:خِمار Khimar; cummerbund, جيب jyb; sinus, sac, وَلْيَضْرِبْنَ;"let them hit"}} In fact, every new interpretation and translation of the Quran inherently involves a new semantic restructuring of it.

[[File:عکس های مراسم ترتیل خوانی یا جزء خوانی یا قرائت قرآن در ایام ماه رمضان در حرم فاطمه معصومه در شهر قم 20.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Shia Islam|Shia]] Muslim girls reciting the Quran placed atop folding [[lectern]]s ([[Rehal (book rest)|''rehal'']]) during [[Ramadan]] in the city of [[Qom]], [[Iran]]]]
Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for [[Negus]] of [[Abyssinia]] and [[Byzantine]] Emperor [[Heraclius]], as both [[Muhammad's letters to the Heads-of-State|received letters by Muhammad]] containing verses from the Quran.<ref name="Fatani-2006" /> In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} The Quran has been [[translation|translated]] into most [[Africa]]n, [[Asia]]n, and [[Europe]]an languages.<ref name =leaman /> The first translator of the Quran was [[Salman the Persian]], who translated surat ''[[al-Fatiha]]'' into [[Persian language|Persian]] during the seventh century.<ref>[[Al-Nawawi|An-Nawawi]], ''Al-Majmu{{'}}'', (Cairo: Matba'at at-Tadamun n.d.), 380.</ref> Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in [[Alwar]] ([[Sindh]], [[India]], now [[Pakistan]]) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.<ref>{{cite web|title=English Translations of the Quran|date=July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429213509/http://www.monthlycrescent.com/understanding-the-quran/english-translations-of-the-quran/|archive-date=29 April 2014 |url=http://www.monthlycrescent.com/understanding-the-quran/english-translations-of-the-quran/ |work=Monthly Crescent}}</ref>

The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in [[Persian language|Persian]]. The [[Samanid Empire|Samanid]] king, [[Mansur I]] (961–976), ordered a group of scholars from [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] to translate the [[Tafsir al-Tabari]], originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari|Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari]] wrote a complete ''[[tafsir]]'' of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, [[Abu Hafs Omar al-Nasafi|Najm al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi]] translated the Quran into Persian.<ref>C.E. Bosworth. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Al-Tabari, Abu Djafar Muhammad b. Djarir b. Yazid", Vol. 10, p. 14.</ref> The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times. In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known.<ref name="Fatani-2006" /> In 2010, the ''[[Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review]]'' reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.<ref>{{Cite news
|title = More than 300 publishers visit Quran exhibition in Iran
|newspaper = Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review
|date = 12 August 2010
|url =http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=more-than-300-publishers-visit-koran-exhibition-in-iran-2010-08-12
|access-date = 
}}</ref>

[[Robert of Ketton]]'s 1143 translation of the Quran for [[Peter the Venerable]], ''[[Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete]]'', was the first into a Western language ([[Latin]]).<ref>{{cite book |last= Bloom | first= Jonathan |author2=Blair, Sheila | year=2002 | title=Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300094220 |url-access= registration | publisher=Yale University Press | location=New Haven | page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300094220/page/42 42]| isbn= 978-0-300-09422-0 }}</ref>
[[Alexander Ross (writer)|Alexander Ross]] offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of {{Lang|fr|[[L'Alcoran de Mahomet]]}} (1647) by [[Andre du Ryer]]. In 1734, [[George Sale]] produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by [[Richard Bell (Arabist)|Richard Bell]] in 1937, and yet another by [[Arthur John Arberry]] in 1955. While all these translators were non-Muslims, there have been numerous translations by Muslims: popular modern English translations by Muslims include The Oxford World Classics translation by [[Muhammad Abdel Haleem]], The Clear Quran by Mustafa Khattab, [[Sahih International]]'s translation, among various others. As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] and [[Marmaduke Pickthall]], use the plural and singular ''ye'' and ''thou'' instead of the more common ''[[you]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Al-i-Imran (The Family of Imran) Part 1 |website=Read Quran Online|url=http://readquranonline.info/surah003.html|access-date=21 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101118015724/http://www.readquranonline.info/surah003.html|archive-date=18 November 2010}}</ref>

The oldest [[Gurmukhi]] [[Gurmukhi version of the Quran|translation of the Quran Sharif]] has been found in village [[Lande, Punjab|Lande]] of [[Moga district]] of Indian Punjab which was printed in 1911.<ref>{{cite news |first=Amaninder |last=Pal |date=5 May 2016 |orig-date=4 April |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/gurmukhi-translation-of-quran-traced-to-moga-village/232193.html |title=Gurmukhi translation of Quran traced to Moga village |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |access-date=26 August 2016 |archive-date=6 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506011533/http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/gurmukhi-translation-of-quran-traced-to-moga-village/232193.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" widths="200px" heights="200px">
Page from the Qur'an of Sultan Ibrahim (TKS EH 209).jpg|1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script<ref>{{Cite web|author=Alya Karame|title=Qur'ans from the Eastern Islamic World between the 4th/10th and 6th/12th Centuries |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/28999/Karame2018%20text.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y |website=The University of Edinburgh |page=109|language=en}}</ref>
File:Ilkhanid Quran.jpg|Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid]] Era
File:Alcoran de Mahomet 1647.jpg|The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: {{Lang|fr|[[L'Alcoran de Mahomet]]}}, [[André du Ryer]], 1647
File:Koran by Megerlein 1772.jpg|Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran
File:Chinese quran.jpg|Verses 33 and 34 of surat [[Ya Sin|Yā Sīn]] in this Chinese translation of the Quran
</gallery>

== Recitation ==
[[File:Men reading the Koran in Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria.jpg|thumb|left|Men reading the Quran at the [[Umayyad Mosque]], [[Damascus]], [[Syria]]]]

=== Rules of recitation ===
{{See also|Tajwid}}
The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named ''[[tajwid]]'' which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to [[elision]]s, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s (the articulation of the Quranic [[phoneme]]s), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.<ref name="Routledge-2006">{{Citation |date=2006 |title=[[iarchive:quranencyclopedi2006unse|The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia]] |editor-link=Oliver Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |editor-last=Leaman |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}:{{Bulleted list|"Art and the Qur'an" by [[Tamara Sonn]], pp. 71–81;|"Reading," by Stefan Wild, pp. 532–35.}}</ref>

In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for {{Transliteration|ar|tajwid}} rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by [[Ibn al-Jazari]]<ref name="ilm-gate-jazari">{{cite web |last1=Thānawi |first1=Qāri Izhār |title=The Great Imām of Qirā'ah: Muhammad Ibn al-Jazari |url=https://www.ilmgate.org/the-great-imam-of-qiraah-muhammad-ibn-al-jazari/ |website=IlmGate |access-date=9 September 2020 |date=21 January 2019}}</ref> and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri.

The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like [[El Minshawy]], [[Al-Hussary]], [[Abdul Basit 'Abd us-Samad|Abdul Basit]], [[Mustafa Ismail]], were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation.<ref name="big41">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thedawoodibohras.com/2018/02/02/khalaf-from-hamzah-a-look-at-the-features-of-recitation-of-al-quran-by-shahzada-husain-bhaisaheb/|title=Khalaf from Hamzah – A look at the features of recitation of al-Qur'an by Shahzada Husain Bhaisaheb|date=2 February 2018|orig-date=28 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519004648/https://www.thedawoodibohras.com/2018/02/02/khalaf-from-hamzah-a-look-at-the-features-of-recitation-of-al-quran-by-shahzada-husain-bhaisaheb/|archive-date=19 May 2020|author=Taha Shoeb|work=The Dawoodi Bohras}}</ref><ref name=big42>{{Cite web|title=A Meeting with the Egyptian Giants, al-Minshāwī, al-Huṣrī, Muṣṭafā Ismāʿīl and ʿAbdul-Bāsit ʿAbdus-Ṣamad|work=islam21c.com|author=Ejaz Taj|url=https://www.islam21c.com/islamic-thought/shaykh-khalil-abdul-rahman-al-qari-a-quranic-legacy/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518025709/https://www.islam21c.com/islamic-thought/shaykh-khalil-abdul-rahman-al-qari-a-quranic-legacy/|archive-date=18 May 2020|access-date=18 May 2020|date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="big44">{{cite book |editor-last1=Nooshin |editor-first1=Laundan |first1=Michael |last1=Frishkopf |date=28 December 2009|title=In Music and Play of Power in the Middle East |chapter-url=https://pdfslide.net/documents/mediated-quranic-recitation-and-the-contestation-of-islam-in-.html |chapter=Mediated Qur'anic Recitation and the Contestation of Islam in Contemporary Egypt |language=en |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7546-3457-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519171344/https://pdfslide.net/documents/mediated-quranic-recitation-and-the-contestation-of-islam-in-.html |archive-date=19 May 2020|via=pdfslide.net}}</ref>{{rp|83}} Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as [[Maria Ulfah]] of [[Jakarta]].<ref name="Routledge-2006" /> Today, crowds fill auditoriums for public [[International Quran Recital Competition|Quran recitation competition]]s.<ref name="big43">{{Cite web|url=https://iqna.ir/en/news/3471344/best-quran-recitation-competition-for-students-planned-in-egypt|title=Best Quran Recitation Competition for Students Planned in Egypt|date=4 May 2020|website=iqna.ir|archive-date=19 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519023215/https://iqna.ir/en/news/3471344/best-quran-recitation-competition-for-students-planned-in-egypt}}</ref><ref name=Esposito/>

There are generally two types of recitation (based on pace of recitation):

# {{Transliteration|ar|Murattal}} is a recitation at moderate pace, used for study and practice.
# ''[[Mujawwad]]'' refers to a slower recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the {{Transliteration|ar|mujawwad}} reciter seeks to involve the listeners.<ref name="nelson">{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=Kristina|title=The art of reciting the Qur'an|year=2001|publisher=American Univ. in Cairo Press|location=Cairo [u.a.]|isbn=978-977-424-594-7|edition=New}}</ref>

=== Variant readings ===
{{See also|Qira'at|Ahruf|Seven readers|Ten recitations}}
[[File:Qur'an folio 11th century kufic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Page of the Quran with vocalization marks]]
The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant.<ref>{{harvnb|Rippin|2006}}:{{Bulleted list|"Written Transmission," by [[François Déroche]], pp. 172–87.|"Recitation," by Anna M. Gade, pp. 481–93}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Small| first = Keith E.| publisher = Lexington Books| isbn = 978-0-7391-4291-2| title = Textual Criticism and Qur'an Manuscripts| date = 2011 |pages=109–111}}</ref> According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.<ref name=Melchert>{{cite journal|last=Melchert|first=Christopher|title=The Relation of the [[Ten recitations|Ten Readings]] to One Another|journal=Journal of Quranic Studies|year=2008|volume=10|issue=2|pages=73–87|doi=10.3366/e1465359109000424}}</ref> Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, [[gemination]] (''[[shaddah]]''), [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] and [[Alternation (linguistics)|alternation]].<ref name=nasser>{{cite book|last=Hekmat Nasser|first=Shady|title=The Transmission of the Variant Readings of the Quran: The Problem of Tawatur and the Emergence of Shawdhdh|year=2012|publisher=Brill Academic Pub|isbn=978-90-04-24081-0}}</ref>

It is generally stated that there are small differences between readings. However, these small changes may also include differences that may lead to serious differences in Islam, ranging from the definition of God{{efn|Qira’at: All except for ʻAsem, Al-Kesa’i, Yaʻqub and Khalaf in one of his narrations read [māliki yawmi-d-dīn(i)] as ''{{verse||4}} King of the Day of Judgement''.}} to practices such as the [[wudu|formal conditions of ablution]].<ref name="Combat">{{cite book |last1=Al-Hurr al-Amili |first1=Muhammad |title=Combat with the Self |year=2003 |publisher=Saqi Books (November 8, 2003) |isbn=978-1904063148 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3g5I3nORiUC |author1-link=Al-Hurr al-Amili |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009193156/https://books.google.com/books?id=p3g5I3nORiUC |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The first Quranic manuscripts lacked marks, enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from [[Baghdad]], [[Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid|Ibn Mujāhid]], is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Kufa]], [[Basra]] and [[Damascus]]. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose [[seven readers]], rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven ''[[ahruf]]''. Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by [[Hafs|Ḥafṣ]] (d. 796) and [[Warsh]] (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, [[Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud]] (Kufa, d. 745) and [[Nafiʽ al-Madani]] (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard [[History of the Quran#1924 Cairo edition|Quran of Cairo]] uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.<ref name=rippin /><ref name=melchert2>{{cite journal|last=Melchert|first=Christopher|title=Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings|journal=Studia Islamica|year=2000|issue=91|pages=5–22|doi=10.2307/1596266|jstor=1596266}}</ref> Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of [[Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi]].<ref name=dutton>{{cite journal|last=Dutton|first=Yasin|title=An Early Mushaf According To The Reading Of Ibn ʻAmir|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2001|volume=3|issue=2|pages=71–89|doi=10.3366/jqs.2001.3.1.71}}</ref> Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of [[homs|himsi]] region.<ref name=rabb>{{cite journal|last=Rabb|first=Intisar |author-link=Intisar A. Rabb |title=Non-Canonical Readings of the Qur'an: Recognition and Authenticity (The Ḥimṣī Reading)|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|year=2006|volume=8|issue=2|pages=88–127|doi=10.3366/jqs.2006.8.2.84}}</ref>

According to [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds ([[Arabic diacritics|''tashkeel'']]) were introduced into the text of the Quran during the lifetimes of the last [[Companions of the Prophet|Sahabah]].<ref name="Ibn Taymiyyah" />

== Writing and printing ==
=== Writing ===
{{Main|Islamic calligraphy}}

Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphers]] and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in ''[[Hijazi script|Ḥijāzī]]''-typescript. The ''Hijazi'' style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as ''[[Kufic]]'' scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the ''[[Naskh (script)|naskh]]'', ''[[muhaqqaq]]'', ''[[rayḥānī]]'' and, on rarer occasions, the ''[[thuluth]]'' script. ''Naskh'' was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Iberia, the ''[[Maghrebi script|Maghribī]]'' style was popular. More distinct is the ''Bihari'' script which was used solely in the north of India. ''[[Nastaʿlīq script|Nastaʻlīq]]'' style was also rarely used in Persian world.<ref name="Déroche-2006">{{Cite encyclopedia |author-link=François Déroche |last=Déroche |first=François |date=2006 |article=Written Transmission |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an |title-link=iarchive:blackwellcompani00ripp 0 |edition=2a reimpr. |editor-last1=Rippin |editor-first1=Andrew |editor-link1=Andrew Rippin |display-editors=etal |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-1752-4 |pages=172–87}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author-link1=Peter Riddell |last1=Riddell |first1=Peter G. |last2=Street |first2=Tony |last3=Johns |first3=Anthony Hearle |date=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3nHpsDBm6QC&pg=PA170 |title=Islam: essays on scripture, thought and society: a festschrift in honour of Anthony H. Johns |pages=170–74 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-10692-5}}</ref>

In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or [[Arabic diacritics|tashkeel]]. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the [[Companions of the Prophet|Sahabah]].<ref name="Ibn Taymiyyah">{{Cite book |last=Ibn Taymiyyah |first=Ahmed  |url=https://shamela.ws/book/7289/6619 |title=Majmoo' al-Fatawa |publisher=[[King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran]] |year=2004 |volume=12 |publication-place=Madinah, Saudi Arabia |pages=576–578 |language=Arabic |script-title= |trans-title=}}</ref> Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or ''juzʼ''. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.<ref>{{cite book |first=Suraiya |last=Faroqhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95 |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |pages=134–136 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4}}</ref><ref name="MatbaaBosworth1989"/>

Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, [[Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=James |first=David |editor-first1=Emmanuel K |editor-first2=Henry Louis |editor-last1=Akyeampong |editor-last2=Gates |title=Amina bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif |date=1 January 2011 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001/acref-9780195382075-e-0171 |encyclopedia=Dictionary of African Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195382075.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-538207-5 |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" widths="200" heights="200">
File:Brooklyn Museum - Folio from the "Blue" Qur'an.jpg|Folio from the [[Blue Quran|"Blue" Quran]] at the [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Folio from a Koran (8th-9th century).jpg|''Kufic'' script, eighth or ninth century
File:Qur'anic Manuscript - Maghribi script.jpg|[[Maghrebi script|''Maghribi'' script]], 13th–14th centuries
File:Muhaqqaq script.gif|''[[Muhaqqaq]]'' script, 14th–15th centuries
</gallery>

=== Printing ===
[[File:Quran divided into 6 books.jpg|thumb|Quran divided into six books, published by Dar Ibn Kathir, Damascus-Beirut]]
[[Woodcut|Wood-block printing]] of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=940|title=Muslim Printing Before Gutenberg|website=muslimheritage.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315075541/http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=940|archive-date=2015-03-15}}</ref>

Arabic [[movable type]] printing was ordered by [[Pope Julius II]] ({{Reign|1503|1512}}) for distribution among [[Middle Eastern Christians]].<ref>{{harvnb|Krek|1979|p=203}}</ref> The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in [[Venice]] in 1537–1538 for the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] market by [[Paganino Paganini]] and Alessandro Paganini.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200802/east.meets.west.in.venice.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102232102/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200802/east.meets.west.in.venice.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World: East Meets West in Venice|archive-date=2 November 2013|website=archive.aramcoworld.com|access-date=16 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="Nuovo">{{cite journal |last1=Nuovo |first1=Angela |title=A Lost Arabic Koran Rediscovered |journal=The Library |date=1990 |volume=s6-12 |issue=4 |pages=273–292 |doi=10.1093/library/s6-12.4.273}}</ref> But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors.<ref name="madainpaganini">{{cite web |title=Paganini Quran |url=https://madainproject.com/paganini_quran |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506131717/https://madainproject.com/paganini_quran |archive-date=6 May 2020 |website=Madain Project |access-date=6 May 2020}}</ref> Two more editions include the [[Hinckelmann edition]] published by the pastor [[Abraham Hinckelmann]] in [[Hamburg]] in 1694,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/quran/qurans/printed|title=The Quran in East and West: Manuscripts and Printed Books|website=Columbia University Libraries Online Exhibitions|language=en-US|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref> and the edition by the Italian priest [[Louis Maracci|Ludovico Maracci]] in [[Padua]] in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/quran/item/6131|title=Alcorani textus universus ex correctioribus Arabum exemplaribus summa fide, atque pulcherrimis characteribus descriptus, vol. 2, p. i|website=Columbia University Libraries Online Exhibitions|language=en-US|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref>

Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from [[Ulama|Muslim legal scholars]]: printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the [[Ottoman empire]] between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death.<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Suraiya Faroqhi |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |date=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&pg=PA95 |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |pages=134–36}}</ref><ref name="MatbaaBosworth1989">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor-last=Bosworth |editor-first=Clifford Edmund |date=1989 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA803 |article=Matba'a |encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid |location=Leiden |publisher=E. J. Brill |page=803|isbn=90-04-09239-0 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Watson|1968|p=435}}; {{harvnb|Clogg|1979|p=67}}</ref> The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of [[Ibrahim Muteferrika]], who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.{{efn|"the major Ottoman printing houses published a combined total of only 142 books in more than a century of printing between 1727 and 1838. When taken in conjunction with the fact that only a minuscule number of copies of each book were printed, this statistic demonstrates that the introduction of the printing press did not transform Ottoman cultural life until the emergence of vibrant print media in the middle of the nineteenth century"<ref>{{Cite book |first=Şükrü |last=Hanioğlu |title=A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2010}}</ref>}}

In 1786, [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography" in [[Saint Petersburg]], with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in [[Kazan Governorate|Kazan]].{{efn|"at imperial expense, a 'Tatar and Turkish Typography' was established in St. Petersburg; a domestic scholar, Mullah Osman Ismail, was responsible for the manufacture of the types. One of the first products of this printing house was the Qur'ān. Through the doctor and writer, Johann Georg v. Zimmermann (d. 1795), who was befriended by Catherine II, a copy of the publication arrived in the Göttingen University library. Its director, the philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne (d. 1812), presented the work immediately in the ''Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen'' (28 July 1788); therein he pointed especially to the beauty of the Arabic types. To the Arabic text marginal glosses have been added that consist predominantly of reading variants. The imprint was reproduced unchanged in 1790 and 1793 in St. Petersburg (cf. Schnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, no. 384); later, after the transfer of the printing house to Kazan, editions appeared in different formats and with varying presentation<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=Dorn |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |article=Chronologisches Verzeichnis, 371 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān |date=2002 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-12354-7 |volume=3 |page=251}}</ref>}} The first edition printed in Iran appeared in [[Qajar Iran|Tehran]] (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in [[Constantinople]] between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the [[First Constitutional Era]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History: From the mid-19th century to the present day |last1=Iriye |first1=A. |last2=Saunier |first2=P. |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-349-74030-7 |page=627}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe|last=Kamusella|first=T.|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-0-230-58347-4|pages=265–266}}</ref>

[[Gustav Leberecht Flügel|Gustav Flügel]] published an [[Flügel edition|edition of the Quran]] in 1834 in [[Leipzig]], which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century, until Cairo's [[Al-Azhar University]] published an [[1924 Cairo edition|edition of the Quran in 1924]]. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.<ref name="Déroche-2006" />

== Criticism ==
{{Main|Criticism of the Quran}}

Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics{{Who|date=April 2025}} refer to pre-existing sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from [[Heresy in Christianity|heretic]], [[Apocryphia|Apocryphic]] and [[talmud]]ic sources, such as the [[Syriac Infancy Gospel]] and [[Gospel of James]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} The Quran acknowledges that accusations of borrowing popular ancient fables were being made against Muhammad.<ref>{{Qref|25|5|b=y}}</ref>

== Relationship with other literature ==
Some non-Muslim groups such as the [[Baháʼí Faith]] and [[Druze]] view the Quran as holy. In the Baháʼí Faith, the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions, Islam being viewed as a stage within the divine process of [[Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)|progressive revelation]]. [[Baháʼu'lláh|Bahá'u'lláh]], the Prophet-Founder of the Baháʼí Faith, wrote about the Quran.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Kitáb-i-Íqán |website=Bahá'í Reference Library |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/kitab-i-iqan/5#335712027 |access-date=6 August 2021}}</ref> [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]] may also seek inspiration from the Quran. It has been suggested that the Quran has some narrative similarities to the [[Diatessaron]], [[Gospel of James|Protoevangelium of James]], [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]] and the [[Syriac Infancy Gospel|Arabic Infancy Gospel]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Griffith |first=Signey |date=2008 |title=Christian Lore and the Arabic Qur'an |article-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbtkpgGn4CEC&dq=apocrypha+qur%27an+Diatessaron&pg=PA112 |encyclopedia=The Qurʼān in its Historical Context |editor-link=Gabriel Said Reynolds |editor-first=Gabriel S. |editor-last=Reynolds |publisher=Psychology Press |page=112 |isbn=978-0-203-93960-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=New Catholic Encyclopedia |title-link=New Catholic Encyclopaedia |volume=7 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Catholic University of America]] |date=1967 |page=677}}</ref> One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a [[gospel harmony]], may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Ibn |last=Rawandi |author-link=Ibn Rawandi |date=2002 |article=On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical texts in the Koran |title-link=What the Koran Really Says |title=What the Koran Really Says: Language, Text and Commentary |editor-first=Ibn |editor-last=Warraq |publisher=Prometheus |isbn=978-1-57392-945-5}}</ref>

=== Relationship with Jewish and Christian texts ===
{{See also|Biblical and Quranic narratives}}
[[File:Jonah and the Whale, Folio from a Jami al-Tavarikh (Compendium of Chronicles).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Jonah]] and the giant fish in the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'', [[Metropolitan Museum]]. A common folktale{{sfn|Ziolkowski|2007|page=78}} finds its place in the {{qref|37|139|c=y}} as well as in [[book of Jonah|other sacred texts]] and can be traced in [[Oannes (mythology)|Oannes]], Indian yogi [[Matsyendranatha]], and the Greek hero [[Jason]].]]

The Quran attributes its relationship with former books (the [[Torah in Islam|Torah, or ''Tawrāh'']] and the [[Gospel in Islam|Gospel, or ''ʾInjīl'']]) to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by Allah,<ref>{{cite book |author1-link=Ibn Kathir |title=Tafseer Ibn Kathir (Abridged) |publisher=Darussalam |location=Riyadh, Saudi Arabia |page=109 |url=https://ia803109.us.archive.org/33/items/tafseeribnkaseervol2/Tafseer%20Ibn%20Kaseer%20-%20Vol%202_text.pdf |access-date=31 January 2026}}</ref> through it asserts that Jews and Christians have corrupted it through falsification and alteration ([[Tahrif|''Taḥrīf'']]).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cuciniello |first=Antonio |date=2021 |title=The Prophetic Figure of Jesus in the Qur'ānic Text |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27119588 |journal=Aevum |volume=95 |issue=2 |page=284 |doi=10.26350/000193_000101 |issn=0001-9593 |jstor=27119588 |url-access=registration |quote="the Qur'ān affirms that the Jews and the Christians corrupted their Scriptures through falsification (taḥrīf) and alteration (tabdīl)"}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saleh |first=Walid A. |author-link=Walid Saleh |year=2016 |title=Narratives of Tampering in the Earliest Commentaries on the Qurʾān |journal=Al-Masāq |volume=28 |issue=1 |page=102 |doi=10.1080/09503110.2016.1152821 |quote=the scholarly consensus is that the Qurʾān does indeed make the charge that Jewish and Christian scriptures have been textually corrupted.}}</ref>

According to [[Christoph Luxenberg]] (in ''[[The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran]]'') the Quran's language was similar to the [[Syriac language]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Luxenberg |first=Christoph |title=The Syro-Aramaic reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran |publisher=H. Schiler |location=Berlin |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-89930-088-8}}</ref> The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] sacred books ([[Hebrew Bible|Tanakh]], [[Bible]]) and devotional literature ([[Apocrypha]], [[Midrash]]), although it differs in many details. [[Adam]], [[Enoch]], [[Noah]], [[Hud (prophet)|Eber]], [[Shelah (son of Judah)|Shelah]], [[Abraham]], [[Lot (biblical person)|Lot]], [[Ishmael]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]], [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]], [[Jethro (biblical figure)|Jethro]], [[David]], [[Solomon]], [[Elijah]], [[Elisha]], [[Jonah]], [[Aaron]], [[Moses]], [[Zechariah (New Testament figure)|Zechariah]], [[John the Baptist]] and [[Jesus]] are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Prophets of Islam]]). In fact, [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual.<ref name=Keeler>{{Cite encyclopedia |first=Annabel |last=Keeler |chapter=Moses from a Muslim Perspective |editor-last1=Solomon |editor-first1=Norman |editor-last2=Harries |editor-first2=Richard |editor-last3=Winter |editor-first3=Tim |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9A4JZ8CSJJwC&q=Moses&pg=PA55 |encyclopedia=Abraham's children: Jews, Christians and Muslims in conversation |publisher=T&T Clark |date=2005 |pages=55–66 |isbn=978-0-567-08171-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429081221/https://books.google.com/books?id=9A4JZ8CSJJwC&pg=PA55 |archive-date=29 April 2016}}</ref> Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as "The Prophet" or "The Apostle"), while [[Mary in Islam|Mary]] is mentioned in the Quran more than in the [[New Testament]].<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=John Esposito |last=Esposito |first=John L |date=2010 |title=The Future of Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/futureofislam0000espo/page/40 |location=US |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516521-0 |page=40 |quote=Christians are often surprised to discover that Jesus is mentioned by name in the Quran more than Muhammad and that Mary is mentioned more times in the Quran than in the New Testament. Both Jesus and Mary play important roles not only in the Quran but also in Muslim piety and spirituality.}}</ref>

=== Relationship with Arab writing ===
After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the [[Arabic alphabet]] developed rapidly into an art form.<ref name =leaman /> The Arabic grammarian [[Sibawayh]] wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar, referred to as "Al-Kitab", which relied heavily on the language in the Quran. [[Wadad Kadi]], Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at [[University of Chicago]], and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at [[Youngstown State University]], state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature's diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Kadi |first1=Wadad |author-link1=Wadad Kadi |last2=Mir |first2=Mustansir |editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |editor-last=McAuliffe |editor-first=Jane Dammen |article=Literature and the Quran |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān |date=2002 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-12354-7 |volume=3 |pages=213, 216}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Islam|Book|Middle Ages}}
{{Div col}}
* [[List of chapters in the Quran]]
* [[List of translations of the Quran]]
* [[Quran translations]]
* [[Historical reliability of the Quran]]
* [[Quran and miracles]]
* [[Quran code]]
* [[Criticism of the Quran]]
* [[Violence in the Quran]]
* [[Women in the Quran]]
* [[Digital Quran]]
* ''[[The True Furqan]]''
* [[Qira'at]]
* [[Hadith]]
* [[Hadith al-Thaqalayn]]
* [[Islamic schools and branches]]
* [[Schools of Islamic theology]]
* [[Attempted imitations of the Quran]]
{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
* {{Cite book |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |url=https://brill.com/display/title/61413 |title=The Religion and Rituals of the Nomads of Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Reconstruction Based on the Safaitic Inscriptions |date=2022 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-50427-1 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Roger|title=An Introduction to Arabic literature|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77657-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Clinton |author-link=Clinton Bennett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182 |title=In search of Muhammad |publisher=Continuum |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-304-70401-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bentlage |first1=Björn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism: A Sourcebook |last2=Eggert |first2=Marion |last3=Krämer |first3=Hans-Martin |last4=Reichmuth |first4=Stefan |publisher=Brill |year=2016 |isbn=9789004329003 |author4-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic)}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Berlin| first1 = Adele| title = The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion| chapter = Cosmology and creation| editor1-last = Berlin| editor1-first = Adele| editor2-last = Grossman| editor2-first = Maxine| year = 2011| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn =9780199730049| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&q=Bible+Cosmology&pg=PA189}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clogg |first=Richard |date=1979 |title=An Attempt to Revive Turkish Printing in Istanbul in 1779 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=10 |number=1 |pages=67–70 |doi=10.1017/s0020743800053320 |s2cid=159835641}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Cook|first1=David B.|author1-link=David Cook (historian)|date=2013|title=Gog and Magog|editor1-last=Fleet|editor1-first=Kate|editor2-last=Krämer|editor2-first=Gudrun|editor2-link=Gudrun Krämer|editor3-last=Matringe|editor3-first=Denis|editor4-last=Nawas|editor4-first=John|editor5-last=Rowson|editor5-first=Everett|editor5-link=Everett K. Rowson|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27495}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Michael |author-link=Michael Cook (historian) |title=The Koran; A Very Short Introduction |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285344-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/koranveryshorti00cook |url-access=registration |access-date=24 September 2019 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Cook |first=Michael |title=A History of the Muslim World |date=2024 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{Cite book|last=Corbin|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Corbin|title=History of Islamic Philosophy |translator-first1=Liadain |translator-last1=Sherrard |translator-first2=Philip |translator-last2=Sherrard |translator-link2=Philip Sherrard |location=London |publisher=Kegan Paul International in association with [[The Institute of Ismaili Studies|Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies]]|year=1993|orig-date=1964 (in French)|isbn=978-0-7103-0416-2}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dost |first=Suleyman |date=2023 |title=Pilgrimage in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Continuity and Rupture from Epigraphic Texts to the Qur'an |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/mill-2023-0003/html |journal=Millennium |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=15–32|doi=10.1515/mill-2023-0003 }}
* {{cite book|first=Nidhal |last=Guessoum|title=Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science|page=174|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84885-517-5|date=2011}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=Arthur |title=The Qur'an as Scripture |publisher=Russell F. Moore Company |year=1952 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Levenson |first=Jon Douglas | author-link= Jon D. Levenson |title=Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |year=2012 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EUO2Mhd-drcC&q=Inheriting+Abraham |isbn=978-0691155692 }}
* {{cite book | last=Levy |first=Reuben | title=The Social Structure of Islam | url=https://archive.org/details/socialstructureo0000levy_p7w6 | url-access=registration | location = UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year = 1957}}
* {{cite book|last=Lings|first=Martin |title=Mecca: From Before Genesis Until Now|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1JAwAAAAYAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Archetype|isbn=978-1-901383-07-2}}
* {{cite journal |first=Miroslav |last=Krek |date=1979 |title=The Enigma of the First Arabic Book Printed from Movable Type |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=38 |number=3 |pages=203–212 |doi=10.1086/372742|s2cid=162374182 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|title=Islam: Religion, History and Civilization|location=San Francisco|publisher=Harper|date=2003|isbn=978-0-06-050714-5|url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |title=Qurʾān |year=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |access-date=4 November 2007}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Francis E.|author-link=Francis Edward Peters|title=The Quest of the Historical Muhammad|journal=[[International Journal of Middle East Studies]]|volume=23|issue=3|pages=291–315|date=August 1991|doi=10.1017/S0020743800056312|s2cid=162433825 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FS8W4fEXJpsC |title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-4384-1597-0}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Rippin |editor-first1=Andrew |editor-link1=Andrew Rippin |display-editors=etal |title=The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an |year=2006 |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-1752-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00ripp_0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Neal |title=Discovering the Qur'an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text |year=1996 |publisher=SCM Press}}
* {{Cite book|last=Tabatabae|first=Mohammad Hosayn|author-link=Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai|title=The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims|publisher=Routledge|year=1988|isbn=978-0-7103-0266-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/quraninislamitsi0000taba}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Watt|first1=W. Montgomery|author1-link=W. Montgomery Watt|date=1960–2007|title=al-Iskandar|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3630}}
* {{cite journal |last=Watson |first=William J. |date=1968 |title=İbrāhīm Müteferriḳa and Turkish Incunabula |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=88 |number=3 |pages=435–441 |doi=10.2307/596868 |jstor=596868}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Wesley |date=2002 |title=Aspects of the Creed of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal: A Study of Anthropomorphism in Early Islamic Discourse |url=https://www.academia.edu/5259388 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=441–463|doi=10.1017/S0020743802003021 }}
* {{cite book|last=Ziolkowski|first=Jan M.|year=2007|title=Fairy Tales from Before Fairy Tales: The Medieval Latin Past of Wonderful Lies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJ12yPfBL4IC&q=Lucian%27s+True+Story+and+the+Book+of+Jonah&pg=PA80|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-03379-9}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}

=== Introductory texts ===
* {{Cite book|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-0597-2|last1=Bell|first1=Richard|first2=William Montgomery |last2=Watt|title=Bell's introduction to the Qurʼān|year=1970|author-link1=Richard Bell (Arabist)}}
* {{cite book|last=Hawting|first=G.R.|title=Approaches to the Qur'ān|year=1993|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-05755-4|edition=1}}
* {{cite book|last=Hixon|first=Lex|title=The heart of the Qurʼan: an introduction to Islamic spirituality|year=2003|publisher=Quest|isbn=978-0-8356-0822-0|edition=2}}
* {{Cite book|edition=Second|publisher=University Of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-70286-5|last=Rahman|first=Fazlur|author-link=Fazlur Rahman Malik|title=Major Themes of the Qur'an|year=2009|orig-date=1989}}
* {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Neal |author-link1=Neal Robinson (scholar) |date=2002 |title=Discovering the Qur'an |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-1-58901-024-6}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=Michael Sells |last=Sells |first=Michael |date=15 November 1999 |title=Approaching the Qur'ān: The Early Revelations |edition=Book & CD |publisher=White Cloud Press |isbn=978-1-883991-26-5}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wild|first=Stefan|title=The Quʼran as Text|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|year=1996|isbn=978-90-04-09300-3}}

=== Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir) ===
{{Main|List of tafsir works}}
* {{Cite book |author=Al-Tabari |author-link=Al-Tabari |chapter=Jāmiʻ al-bayān ʻan taʼwīl al-qurʼān |orig-date=Cairo 1955–69 |others=transl. J. Cooper (ed.) |title=The Commentary on the Qurʼān |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0-19-920142-6}}
* {{Cite book|last=Tabatabae|first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn|author-link=Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai|title=Tafsir al-Mizan|title-link=Tafsir al-Mizan}}

=== Topical studies ===
* {{Cite book|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-36470-6|last=McAuliffe|first=Jane Dammen|title=Qurʼānic Christians: an analysis of classical and modern exegesis|location=New York|year=1991|author-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Siljander|first1=Mark D.|first2=John David|last2=Mann|title=A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide|location=New York|publisher=Harper One|year=2008|isbn=978-0-06-143828-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stowasser |first=Barbara Freyer |title=Women in the Qur'an, Traditions and Interpretation |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=Reprint |date=1 June 1996 |isbn=978-0-19-511148-4}}

=== Literary criticism ===
* {{Cite book|edition=First|publisher=UK Islamic Academy|isbn=978-1-872531-65-6|author=M.M. Al-Azami|title=The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments|year=2003|author-link=M. M. Al-Azami}}
* {{Cite book |editor-link=Issa J. Boullata |editor-last=Boullata |editor-first=Issa J |date=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdgaD-7C6TkC |title=Literary Structures of Religious Meaning in the Qur'ān |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=0-7007-1256-9}}.
* {{Cite book |author-link=Gunter Luling |last=Luling |first=Gunter |date=2003 |title=A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations |location=New Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1952-8}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=Christoph Luxenberg |last=Luxenberg |first=Christoph |orig-date=2004 |title-link=The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran |title=The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran |location=Berlin |publisher=Verlag Hans Schiler |date=2007 |isbn=978-3-89930-088-8}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=Gerd R. Puin |last=Puin |first=Gerd R. |chapter=Observations on Early Qur'an Manuscripts in Sana'a' |title=The Qurʾan as Text |editor-first=Stefan |editor-last=Wild |location=Leiden|publisher=E.J. Brill |date=1996 |pages=107–111}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=John Wansbrough |last=Wansbrough |first=John |title=Quranic Studies |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1977}}

=== Encyclopedias ===
* {{Cite book|edition=First|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-90-04-11465-4|veditors=McAuliffe JD, etal |editor-link1=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |title=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|date=2001 |title-link=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an}}
* {{Cite book|edition=First|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-77529-8|veditors=Leaman O, etal |editor-link1=Oliver Leaman |title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia|date=2005}}
* {{Cite book|edition=First|publisher=Center for Islamic Sciences|isbn=978-1-926620-00-8|veditors=Iqbal M, etal  |title=The Integrated Encyclopedia of the Qur'an|date=2013|url=http://www.iequran.com}}

=== Academic journals ===
* ''[[Journal of Qur'anic Studies]]'' ({{ISSN|1465-3591}}), published by the [[School of Oriental and African Studies]]
* ''[http://jqrs.qurancomplex.gov.sa/en/ Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies]'', published by King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links}}

=== Reference material ===
* [https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/themes/islam The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts – Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317225853/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/themes/islam |date=17 March 2022 }}

=== Manuscripts ===
* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/islamic Several digitised Qurans in the Cambridge University Digital Library]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0031/html/2017_232_1.html 2017-232-1 al-Qurʼān. / القرآن at OPenn]
* [https://corpuscoranicum.de/en/verse-navigator/sura/1/verse/1/manuscripts Digitised Manuscripts Sorted by Verses at Corpus Coranicum]

=== Quran browsers and translation ===
* [http://quranmajeedpdf.com/ Quran Pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723090712/https://www.quranmajeedpdf.com/ |date=23 July 2023 }}
* [http://al-quran.info/ Al-Quran.info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129090725/http://al-quran.info/ |date=29 January 2009 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20210113112342/https://quran-archive.org/ Quran Archive – Texts and Studies on the Quran]
* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2002.02.0006 Quran text and translation] at [[Tufts University]]
* [http://tanzil.net/ Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator]
* [http://quran.com/ Quran.com]
* [https://previous.quran.com/1 Previous.quran.com] – By clicking Settings and selecting The Bridges’ translation by Fadel Soliman, words that have significant variants among the ten canonical [[qira'at]] are highlighted in red, together with a footnote listing the readers or transmitters and an English translation for each of the variant readings
* [http://www.yabiladi.com/coran/ Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian)]
* [https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/44967176/Koran-Transliteration.pdf Latin script transliterated Qur'an. Hans Zirker. University of Frankfurt.]

{{Characters and names in the Quran}}
{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Religious books}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Quran]]
[[Category:7th-century books]]
[[Category:Islamic theology]]
[[Category:Islamic texts]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Islamic terminology]]
[[Category:Literature about literature]]
[[Category:Miracles attributed to Muhammad]]
[[Category:7th-century Arabic-language books]]

Sendhil Ramamurthy

2026-03-12T20:56:23Z

ElenaEbersbacher: added lead as per guidelines and improved wording for consistency

{{Short description|Indian-American actor (born 1974)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sendhil Ramamurthy
| image = Sendhil Ramamurthy (1).jpg
| caption = Ramamurthy in 2008
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=y|1974|5|17}}
| birth_place = [[Chicago, Illinois]], U.S.
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1998–present
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Olga Sosnovska]]|1999}}
| children = 2
| education = [[Tufts University]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]]) [[Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art]] ([[Graduate diploma|GrDip]])
| relatives = [[Jay Chandrasekhar]] (cousin)
}}
'''Sendhil Amithab Ramamurthy''' (born May 17, 1974) is an Indian-American actor. He is best known for his roles as [[geneticist]] [[Mohinder Suresh]] in the [[NBC]] sci-fi drama ''[[Heroes (American TV series)|Heroes]]'' (2006–2010), Jai Wilcox in ''[[Covert Affairs]]'' (2010–2012), Gabriel "Gabe" Lowan in ''[[Beauty and the Beast (2012 TV series)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' (2013–2014), and Mohan in ''[[Never Have I Ever (TV series)|Never Have I Ever]]'' (2020).

==Early life and education==
Ramamurthy was born in Chicago to a family who emigrated from India; his father is a [[Kannada people|Kannadiga]]<ref name="Bollyhungama">{{cite news|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/929/Sendhil+Ramamurthy+has+exactly+15+Hindi+words+in+Ekta+Kapoor%27s+Shor|title=Sendhil Ramamurthy has exactly 15 Hindi words in Ekta Kapoor's Shor|work=Bollywood Hungama|date=14 December 2012|access-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210612184733/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/janhvi-kapoor-vision-white-thigh-high-slit-dress/|archive-date=12 June 2021|url-status=dead|quote=Sendhil's second language is Kannada since his father is from Karnataka. "My mother is Tamil. My dad is Kannada. I can barely manage Kannada.}}</ref> and his mother is [[Tamils|Tamil]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sawoman.com/2004/05/the-doctor-in-charge-dr-rajam-ramamurthy/|title=The Doctor In Charge: Dr. Rajam Ramamurthy|last=Thomas|first=Loydean|date=2 May 2004|website=sawoman.com|publisher=SA Woman|access-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210612183925/https://sawoman.com/2004/05/the-doctor-in-charge-dr-rajam-ramamurthy/|archive-date=12 June 2021|url-status=live|quote=Ramamurthy was born into the Pillay community, a small group of primarily farm families in the state of Kerala on the southern tip of India.}}</ref><ref name="Bollyhungama"/> He grew up speaking English and some [[Kannada]].<ref name="Bollyhungama"/> His parents are physicians.<ref>{{cite web|last=Joshi |first=Tushar |url=http://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/2010/apr/270410-Sendhil-Ramamurthy-Deepika-Padukone-Wonderful-Afterlife.htm |title=Sendhil wants Deepika to watch his film |publisher=Mid-day.com |date=27 April 2010 |access-date=1 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/jan/21/slide-show-1-sendhil-ramamurthy-on-shor.htm |title=An American Hero comes knocking |work=Rediff.com |date=21 January 2010 |access-date=1 January 2013}}</ref> He has one sister who is also a physician. He and his sister were raised in [[San Antonio]]. There, he went to [[Keystone School]] and graduated in 1991.

Ramamurthy attended [[Tufts University]] initially as a [[pre-med]] major to follow in his parents' footsteps.<ref name="Mangla">{{cite web|last=Mangla|first=Ismat Sarah|title=Holding Out for a Hero|work=[[Nirali]]|date=September 25, 2006|url=http://niralimagazine.com/2006/10/holding-out-for-a-hero/|access-date=January 7, 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070108064713/http://niralimagazine.com/2006/10/holding-out-for-a-hero/|archive-date=January 8, 2007}}</ref> He was also a member of the Kappa Charge of [[Theta Delta Chi]]. He became interested in acting when he took an "Intro to Acting" class during his junior year as part of his graduation requirement. After participating in several plays, including ''[[Our Country's Good]]'', he chose to change career goals. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in history and then attended the [[Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art]] in London in 1996, graduating in 1998.<ref name="Mangla" /><ref name="Etkin-Ives">{{cite news|last=Etkin-Ives |first=Sharla |title=Sendhil Ramamurthy |publisher=Zap2it |date=1 January 2007 |url=http://metromix.chicagotribune.com/news/celebrity/mmx-0701070482jan07,0,6707496.story?coll=mmx-celebrity_heds |access-date=7 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818172322/http://metromix.chicagotribune.com/news/celebrity/mmx-0701070482jan07%2C0%2C6707496.story?coll=mmx-celebrity_heds |archive-date=18 August 2007}}</ref>

==Career==
Ramamurthy has appeared in theatrical productions of ''[[A Servant of Two Masters]]'' in London's [[West End theatre|West End]], ''[[Indian Ink (play)|Indian Ink]]'' at the [[Soho Repertory Theatre]], and ''[[East is East (play)|East Is East]]'' at the [[Manhattan Theatre Club]]. His film credits include ''[[Love & Debate]]'' (originally titled ''Thanks to Gravity''), ''Orient Express'', ''[[Blind Dating]]'', ''Little India'', ''[[Shor in the City]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywood.com/sendhil-ramamurthy-heroes-fame-make-his-bollywood-debut-shor |title=Sendhil Ramamurthy of 'Heroes' fame to make his Bollywood debut with Shor | Bollywood.com : Entertainment news, movie, music and fashion reviews |publisher=Bollywood.com |access-date=1 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108112408/http://www.bollywood.com/sendhil-ramamurthy-heroes-fame-make-his-bollywood-debut-shor}}</ref> and [[Gurinder Chadha]]'s comedy film ''[[It's a Wonderful Afterlife]]''. In addition, he has appeared on several TV shows, including ''[[Ellen (TV series)|Ellen]]'', ''[[Casualty (TV series)|Casualty]]'', ''[[Guiding Light]]'', ''[[Grey's Anatomy]]'', ''[[Ultimate Force]]'', ''[[CSI: Miami]]'', ''[[Heroes (American TV series)|Heroes]]'', ''[[Covert Affairs]]'' and ''[[Numbers (TV series)|Numb3rs]]''.

He made a conscious decision to not audition for stereotypical Indian roles, although he has been offered such parts.<ref name="Mangla" /> Ramamurthy's role on ''Heroes'' was his biggest to date. Although the character of Mohinder Suresh was originally written for a 55-year-old, his audition tape and screen test were convincing enough for writers to rewrite the part for Ramamurthy. Ramamurthy starred in all four seasons of ''Heroes'', although his appearance in the final season was limited; had the series been recommissioned for a fifth season, he would not have returned for it.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8619825.stm |work=BBC News |first=Liam |last=Allen |title=Heroes star bemoans British drama |date=14 April 2010}}</ref>

In 2000, he appeared in [[NBC]]'s television biblical miniseries ''[[In the Beginning (2000 film)|In the Beginning]]'' in the role of Adam.

Ramamurthy guest starred in a season four episode of ''[[Psych (TV series)|Psych]]'' titled "Bollywood Homicide", directed by his cousin [[Jay Chandrasekhar]].<ref name="eolsendhil">{{cite web|url=http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/watch_with_kristin/b129338_heroes_star_sendhil_ramamurthy_guest_on.html |title=Exclusive: ''Heroes'' Star Sendhil Ramamurthy to Guest on ''Psych'' |access-date=15 June 2009 |last=Godwin |first=Jennifer |date=15 June 2009 |publisher=[[E! Online]] – Watch with Kristin |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617211032/http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/watch_with_kristin/b129338_heroes_star_sendhil_ramamurthy_guest_on.html |archive-date=17 June 2009}}</ref>

Ramamurthy joined the cast of the USA Network show ''[[Covert Affairs]]'' as Jai Wilcox from the second episode onward, replacing character Conrad Sheehan III, played by [[Eric Lively]] in the pilot.<ref name="The New York Times">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/13/arts/television/13covert.html?src=me |work=The New York Times |title=Cold War-Style Spying Is Back (How Quaint) |first=Alessandra |last=Stanley |date=13 July 2010}}</ref> The show premiered in July 2010.<ref name="Hollywood Reporter">{{cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/news/e3ib047da6a5b38efff9d285d48f1285b98 |work=The Hollywood Reporter |first=Nellie |last=Andreeva |title='Heroes' actor cast in new USA series |date=13 October 2010}}</ref> In the season 3 premiere, his character was killed off.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://insidetv.ew.com/2012/07/11/covert-affairs-season-premiere-jai-dies/|title=Covert Affairs season premiere: bosses sound off on shocking death|date=11 July 2011|author=Sandra Gonzalez|magazine=Entertainment Weekly|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref>

Ramamurthy appeared in the eighth and ninth season of ''[[The Office (American TV series)|The Office]]'' as [[Kelly Kapoor]]'s new boyfriend, Ravi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tvline.com/2012/02/06/office-season-8-sendhil-ramamurthy/|title=''Office scoop'':Kelly Kapoor's new boy toy is...|date=6 February 2012|author=Megan Masters|work=TVLine.com|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref>

On December 19, 2012, it was announced that he would appear in the CW show ''[[Beauty & the Beast (2012 TV series)|Beauty & the Beast]]'' as Gabriel Lowen, an assistant district attorney.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tvline.com/2012/12/19/beauty-beast-spoilers-cast-sendhil-ramamurthy-ada/|title=Scoop: Sendhil Ramamurthy joins ''Beauty and the Beast'' as 'great antagonist' for Vincent/Catherine|date=19 December 2012|author=Matt Webb Mitovich|work=TVLine.com|access-date=5 February 2013}}</ref>

In 2015, he reprised his role as Dr Mohinder Suresh in the ''Heroes'' series's continuation entitled ''[[Heroes: Reborn]]''.

He appeared as the main villain in the [[The Flash season 6|sixth season]] of the television series ''[[The Flash (2014 TV series)|The Flash]]'' as [[Bloodwork (comics)|Dr. Ramsey Rosso/Bloodwork]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Atkinson |first=John |date=2019-08-09 |title=The Flash Season 6 Villain Is Bloodwork - Here's Everything You Need To Know About Him |url=https://screenrant.com/flash-season-6-villain-bloodwork-explained/ |access-date=2023-05-26 |website=ScreenRant |language=en}}</ref> He reprised his role in the [[The Flash season 9|season nine]] episode "[[It's My Party and I'll Die If I Want To]]"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bankhurst |first=Adam |date=2023-01-03 |title=The Flash: New Final Season Details Revealed, Including the Return of Familiar Faces |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/the-flash-new-final-season-details-revealed-including-the-return-of-familiar-faces |access-date=2023-05-26 |website=IGN |language=en}}</ref>

As of 2020, he is part of the cast of the [[Netflix]] series ''[[Never Have I Ever (TV series)|Never Have I Ever]]'', playing Mohan Vishwakumar, the main character's father.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Petski |first1=Denise |title=Sendhil Ramamurthy Joins Mindy Kaling's Coming-Of-Age Series 'Never Have I Ever' |url=https://deadline.com/2019/09/sendhil-ramamurthy-joins-mindy-kalings-coming-of-age-series-1202748054/ |access-date=3 May 2020 |work=Deadline |date=September 30, 2019}}</ref> The series is produced by [[Mindy Kaling]], who had first worked with Ramamurthy when she was a writer and actor on ''The Office''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sittenfeld |first1=Curtis |title=A Long Day at "The Office" with Mindy Kaling |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/magazine/a-long-day-at-the-office-with-mindy-kaling.html?hp |access-date=3 May 2020 |work=The New York Times Magazine |date=September 23, 2011}}</ref>

In 2022, Ramamurthy appeared in season four of ''[[Doom Patrol (TV series)|Doom Patrol]]'' as [[Mister 104]].

==Personal life==
In 1999, Ramamurthy married actress [[Olga Sosnovska]]. They have two children, a daughter and a son, born in 2005 and 2008 respectively. He and his family previously lived in [[London]] and have since moved to [[New York City|New York]].<ref>{{cite web|author1=Jeanne Muchnik|title=New Rochelle Actor Discusses Latest Role at Pelham Picture House|url=http://pelham.dailyvoice.com/events/new-rochelle-actor-discusses-latest-role-at-pelham-picture-house/517224/|work=Daily Voice|access-date=4 September 2017|date=2 February 2015}}</ref>

Comedian and film director [[Jay Chandrasekhar]] is his cousin.<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=jaychandrasekha|number=326404207718580224 |title=My cousin Sendhil joined Twitter. Late, ya bastard. He was the movie star in Slammin' Salmon. So if you want to follow him: @Sendhil_Rama|access-date=23 April 2013|link=https://mobile.twitter.com/jaychandrasekha/status/326404207718580224|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210612190114/https://mobile.twitter.com/jaychandrasekha/status/326404207718580224|archive-date=12 June 2021}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Languages
! class="unsortable"|Notes
! class="unsortable"|{{abbr|Ref(s)|reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|2000
| ''[[In the Beginning (2000 film)|In the Beginning]]''
| [[Adam]]
|rowspan="5"|[[Cinema of United States|English]]
|
|
|-
| ''[[Death, Deceit & Destiny Aboard the Orient Express]]''
| Nikki
|
|
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Blind Dating]]''
| Arvind
|
|
|-
| 2009
| ''[[The Slammin' Salmon]]''
| Marlon Specter
|
|
|-
| 2010
| ''[[It's a Wonderful Afterlife]]''
| DS Raj Murthy
|
|
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Shor in the City]]''
| Abhay
|[[Hindi Cinema|Hindi]]
|
|
|-
| 2013
| ''[[The Lifeguard]]''
| Raj
|rowspan="3"|English
|
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Lego Jurassic World: The Indominus Escape]]''
| Simon Masrani
| Voice<ref name="btva">{{cite web |title=Sendhil Ramamurthy (visual voices guide) |url=http://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/Sendhil-Ramamurthy/ |access-date=November 13, 2023 |publisher=Behind The Voice Actors}} A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its credits or other reliable sources of information.</ref>
|
|-
| 2018
| ''[[After Everything (2018 film)|After Everything]]''
| David
|
|
|-
| 2024
| ''[[Do Aur Do Pyaar]]''
| Vikram Sehgal
|Hindi
| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/vidya-balan-pratik-gandhi-ileana-dcruz-sendhil-ramamurthy-star-upcoming-romantic-comedy-drama/|title=Vidya Balan, Pratik Gandhi, Ileana D'Cruz and Sendhil Ramamurthy to star in an upcoming romantic comedy-drama|date=11 November 2021|work=Bollywood Hungama|access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/vidya-balan-pratik-gandhi-ileana-dcruz-sendhil-ramamurthy-starrer-titled-aur-pyaar-set-release-march-29-2024/|title=Vidya Balan, Pratik Gandhi, Ileana D'Cruz and Sendhil Ramamurthy starrer titled Do Aur Do Pyaar; set to release on March 29, 2024|work=Bollywood Hungama|date=17 January 2024|access-date=17 January 2024}}</ref>
|
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable"|Notes
! class="unsortable"|{{abbr|Ref(s)|reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|2002
| ''[[Guiding Light]]''
| Lloyd
|
|
|-
| ''[[Ultimate Force]]''
| Corporal Alex Leonard
| Main role (season one)
| style="text-align:center;" |
|-
| rowspan="2"|2005
| ''[[Grey's Anatomy]]''
| Intern #2
| Pilot episode
|
|-
| ''[[Numb3rs]]''
| DOE Specialist
| Episode: "Dirty Bomb"
|
|-
| 2006–2010
| ''[[Heroes (American TV series)|Heroes]]''
| [[Mohinder Suresh]]
| Main role
|
|-
| 2009
| ''[[Psych]]''
| Rajesh
| Episode: Bollywood Homicide
|
|-
| 2010–2012
| ''[[Covert Affairs]]''
| Jai Wilcox
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"|2012–2013
| ''[[CSI: Miami]]''
| Raj Andari
|
|
|-
| ''[[The Office (American TV series)|The Office]]''
| Ravi
| 3 episodes
|
|-
| 2013–2014
| ''[[Beauty & the Beast (2012 TV series)|Beauty & the Beast]]''
| Gabriel Lowen
| Main role (seasons 1–2)
|
|-
| 2015
| ''[[Heroes Reborn (miniseries)|Heroes Reborn]]''
| Mohinder Suresh
| Guest
|
|-
| rowspan="4"|2016
| ''[[Stan Lee's Lucky Man]]''
| Nikhail Julian / Golding
|
|
|-
| ''[[Family Guy]]''
| Unknown
| Voice, episode: "[[Road to India (Family Guy)|Road to India]]"
|
|-
| ''[[Odd Mom Out]]''
| Bruce
| Episode: "Hanoi Jill"
|
|-
| ''[[Elementary (TV series)|Elementary]]''
| Ajit Dalal
| Episode: "Ill Tidings"
|
|-
| rowspan="3"|2018
| ''[[Reverie (TV series)|Reverie]]''
| Paul Hammond
| Main role
|
|-
| ''[[MacGyver (2016 TV series)|MacGyver]]''
| Samir
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Panduvamshis of Dakshina Kosala

2026-03-09T07:48:22Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Short description|7th–8th century Indian dynasty}}

{{Infobox Former Country
| conventional_long_name = Panduvamshis of Dakshina Kosala
| common_name = Panduvamshis of Dakshina Kosala
| era = Early medieval period
| year_start = c. 7th century CE
| year_end = c. 8th century CE
| religion = [[Hinduism]] [[Buddhism]]
| capital = [[Sirpur, Mahasamund]]
| government_type = Monarchy
| p1 = Sharabhapuriya dynasty
| s1 = Somavamshi dynasty
| image_map = {{South Asia in 600 CE|center|Location of the Panduvamshis of Dakshina Kosala and neighbouring South Asian polities circa 600 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=26,146 |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=063 |archive-date=2024-01-12 |access-date=2022-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112181611/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=063 |url-status=dead }}</ref>|{{Annotation|153|134|[[File:Long Fine Rectangle (plain).png|53px]]}}}}
}}
The '''Panduvamshis''' ([[IAST]]: Pāṇḍuvaṁśī) or Pandavas (IAST: Pāṇḍava) were an Indian dynasty that ruled the historical [[Dakshina Kosala]] region in present-day [[Chhattisgarh]] state of India, during the 7th and the 8th centuries. They may have been related to the earlier [[Panduvamshis of Mekala]]: both dynasties claimed [[Lunar dynasty|lunar lineage]] and descent from the legendary [[Pandavas]].

After the fall of the [[Sharabhapuriya dynasty|Sharabhapuriyas]] in the late 6th century, Dakshina Kosala appears to have been controlled by petty chiefs until the Panduvamshis gained control of the region. The Panduvamshis may have captured a part of the neighbouring [[Odisha|Utkala]] and [[Vidarbha]] regions at different times, but their control of these regions did not last long.

Their capital was probably located at [[Sirpur (ancient city)|Shripura]] (modern [[Sirpur, Mahasamund|Sirpur]]). The later [[Somavamshi dynasty]], which claimed lunar lineage, appears to have been related to them, but this cannot be said with certainty.

== Origin ==

=== Legendary descent claims ===
[[File:East-Hem 600ad.jpg|thumb|Territory of the Panduvamshis in 600 AD]]
Several records of the family claim a [[Lunar dynasty|lunar lineage]] for it:{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=132-133}}

* An inscription of the second Panduvamshi king Indrabala, discovered at the Lakshmaneshvara Temple at [[Kharod]], describes him as "the very full moon in the sky that is the ''shashi-kula'' (lunar family)"
* The Adbhar (Adhabhara) inscription of Nannaraja II states that his ancestor Tivaradeva was born in the ''shashi-vamsha'' ("moon lineage")
* The inscriptions of Balarjuna state that he was born in the ''soma-vamsha'' or ''shitamshu-vamsha'' (both meaning "moon lineage")
* The [[Sirpur Group of Monuments#Lakshmana temple|Sirpur Lakshmana temple]] inscription of Balarjuna states that his grandfather Chandragupta was born in the ''chandranvaya'' ("family of the moon")
* Another inscription of Balarjuna states that the dynasty's founder Udayana belonged to the ''shashadharaanvaya'' ("family of the moon")

Within the lunar lineage, the dynasty traced its descent to the legendary [[Pandavas]]. For example:{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=133}}

* The [[Arang]] stone inscription from the reign of Nannaraja I states that his ancestor Udayana was born in the Pandava-vamsha ("Pandava lineage")
* Three copper-plate inscriptions of Tivaradeva state that his father Nannaraja I adorned the Pandu-vamsha ("Lineage of [[Pandu]]")

The claim of belonging to the lunar lineage ("[[Somavamshi dynasty|Somavamshi]]") occurs in this dynasty's inscriptions throughout its lifetime. However, the claim of belonging to the [[Pandava]] lineage ("Panduvamshi") does not occur in the inscriptions issued after the reign of Tivaradeva. Despite this, modern scholars describe the dynasty as "Panduvamshi" so as to distinguish them from the later [[Somavamshi dynasty]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=133}}

=== Relationship to the Panduvamshis of Mekala ===
[[File:7th century Lakshmana Hindu temple, Sirpur Chhattisgarh India 1.jpg|thumb|[[Sirpur Group of Monuments|Laxman temple]] at Sirpur, 7th century CE.]]
Th Panduvamshis of Dakshina Kosala may have been related to the [[Panduvamshis of Mekala]], an earlier dynasty that ruled an adjacent area. Both dynasties claimed descent from the legendary Pandavas, and also claimed the lunar lineage.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=130}} However, based on the available evidence, the relationship between the two dynasties, if any, cannot be determined with certainty.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=130}}

Several arguments can be made in favour of the theory that the Panduvamshis of Dakshina Kosala were not descendants of the Panduvamshis of Mekala. For example:

* The inscriptions of the Dakshina Kosala kings do not mention the Mekala rulers, although they contain a detailed description of their dynasty.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=132}}
* Only one king of the Dakshina Kosala dynasty is known to have a name ending in "-bala", while all but one kings of the Mekala dynasty had names ending in -"bala".{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=131}}
* The copper-plate inscriptions of the Dakshina Kosala dynasty are composed in prose, and are inscribed in "box-headed" characters (although some private stone inscriptions from their reign are inscribed in "nail-headed" characters). On the other hand, the inscriptions of the Mekala dynasty are composed in a mixture of prose and verse, and are inscribed in "nail-headed" characters.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=131}}
* The Dakshina Kosala rulers were [[Vaishnavite]]s, unlike the Mekala rulers, who were [[Shaivite]]s.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=131}}

Some of these differences are explainable. For example, the Panduvamshis' use of the "box-headed" characters can be attributed to the influence of the [[Sharabhapuriya dynasty|Sharabhapuriyas]], who preceded them in the Dakshina Kosala region. It can be argued that the later Panduvamshis adopted Vaishnavism.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=131}} The Dakshina Kosala family may have been a collateral branch of the Mekala family, but this cannot be said with certainty in absence of concrete historical evidence.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=132}}

== Period ==
[[File:8th century couple embraced and mouth kissing at Tivara Deva temple, she stands on his feet, Sirpur monuments Chhattisgarh India.jpg|thumb|An 8th-century kissing couple artwork in the [[Sirpur Group of Monuments]].]]
The inscriptions of the Panduvamshi kings are dated in their regnal years instead of a [[calendar era]]. Therefore, historians have tried to determine the period of their rule using various other methods.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=139-141}} [[V. V. Mirashi]] and [[D. C. Sircar]] dated the Panduvamshi ruler Tivaradeva to the 6th century,{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=144}} but [[A. M. Shastri]] later disputed their methodology, and theorized that Tivaradeva ascended the throne around 660 CE.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=156}} According to Shastri's theory, the Panduvamshi rule in Dakshina Kosala started in the early 7th century,{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=156-157}} and ended in the 8th century.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=175}}

=== Methodology ===

; Identification of the [[Shailodbhava dynasty|Shailodbhava]] rival Trivara
: Shastri identifies Tivaradeva with the king Trivara mentioned in the inscriptions of the [[Shailodbhava]] chief Dharmaraja II alias Manabhita, who ruled in present-day [[Odisha]]. According to these inscriptions, Dharmaraja's younger brother Madhava allied with king Trivara in an attempt to dethrone him, but he defeated them at the foot of the [[Vindhyas]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=153-154}} Shastri notes that the [[Adbhar]] inscription of Tivaradeva's son Nannaraja II mentions Tivaradeva as the lord of [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] region in present-day Odisha. This corroborates the theory that Tivaradeva is same as Trivara, who must have invaded the Shailodbhava territory. Dharmaraja's grandfather Madhavaraja II alias Sainyabhita is attested by an inscription dated to 620-621 CE ([[Gupta era]] 300). This suggests that Dharmaraja and his contemporary Tivaradeva must have ruled around the mid-7th century.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=154}}

; Date of the preceding rulers
: The Panduvamshis ruled Dakshina Kosala after the [[Sharabhapuriya dynasty]], but they did not immediately succeed the Sharabhapuriyas. The Sharabhapuriya rule ended sometime around 590 CE. The [[Malhar, Chhattisgarh|Malhar]] inscription of Vyaghraraja suggests that his dynasty, known as the Amaraya-kula, ruled Dakshina Kosala after the Sharabhapuriyas. Similarly, the [[Arang]] inscription of Bhimasena II suggests that his dynasty, known as the Rajarshi-tulya-kula, ruled the region for sometime. In addition, Shastri theorizes that the last of the [[Panduvamshis of Mekala|Mekala Panduvamshis]] also ruled Dakshina Kosala for a brief time.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=153,156}}
: Shastri dates the Arang inscription of Bhimasena II to 601 CE (Gupta era 282). [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi]] read the inscription's date as Gupta era 182, but Shastri dismisses this reading as inaccurate, pointing out that the earlier scholars such as Hira Lal also deciphered the first figure of the date as "2", not "1". Based on paleographic evidence, the Arang stone inscription from the reign of the Panduvamshi king Nannaraja I can be dated to half-a-century later than Bhimasena's inscription. This further corroborates the theory that Nannaraja I and his son Tivaradeva ruled around the mid-7th century.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=154}}
: Shastri dates the beginning of the Panduvamshi rule in Dakshina Kosala to c. 620 CE, allowing three decades for the rule of the Amaraya-kula chiefs, the Rajarshi-tulya-kula chiefs, and the Mekala Panduvamshi king Udirnavaira. According to him, the first Panduvamshi king Udayana probably did not rule Dakshina Kosala, and his son Indrabala ruled during c. 620-640, which fits well with the theory dating Tivaradeva's ascension to the mid-7th century.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=156}}

; Date of the Somavamshis
: [[Alexander Cunningham]] dated Tivaradeva's reign to 425-450 CE, based on the ''[[Madala Panji]]'' palm-leaf manuscripts, which provide dates for the Somavamshi rulers, whom Cunningham theorized to be the descendants of the Panduvamshis. However, ''[[Madala Panji]]'' is no longer considered reliable by modern historians for determining the dates of the early Somavamshi rulers.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=139}} [[John Faithfull Fleet]] dated Tivaradeva's reign to post-800 CE, but the later epigraphic discoveries proved his theory wrong.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=139-141}}

; Identification of Suryavarman
: According to the Sirpur [[Lakshmana]] temple inscription of the Panduvamshi king Shivagupta Balarjuna, his mother Vasata was the daughter of king Suryavarman. Mirashi identified Suryavarman with the Maukhari prince Suryavarman, who is mentioned in the 554 CE Haraha inscription issued during the reign of the [[Maukhari]] king [[Ishanavarman]]. Based on this identification, Mirashi dated the beginning of the Panduvamshi rule to the 6th century.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=141}}
: Shastri disagrees with this identification, pointing out that according to the Sirpur Lakshmana Temple inscription, Suryavarman was a king (''nṛpa'') born in the family of [[Varman dynasty|Varman]]s, who were considered great for being the overlords of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=144}} However, there is no evidence that the [[Maukhari dynasty|Maukhari]] prince Suryavarman ever became a king: his Haraha inscription does not describe him as a crown prince, and the dynasty's records and other literary sources do not mention him in the genealogy of the Maukhari kings. Moreover, Ishanavarman's family mainly ruled parts of the present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]]. He did not rule the Magadha region, although he may have passed through Magadha to fight battles in the [[Gauḍa (region)|Gauda]] and [[Odisha]] regions, as claimed in his inscriptions. A feudatory Maukhari family is known to have ruled a small principality in the present-day [[Gaya district]] of the historical Magadha region, but it was distinct from Ishanavarman's family.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=145}} Lastly, although the names of the Maukhari kings ended in "-varman", the family itself was not known by that suffix. Shastri argues that if Suryavarman actually belonged to the Maukhari dynasty, the author of the inscription would not have failed to glorify his patron by explicitly mentioning Vasata's Maukhari lineage.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=146}}

; Identification of Tivaranagara
: The [[Ipur, Guntur district|Ipur]] inscription of the [[Vishnukundin]] ruler [[Madhava Varma II|Madhavavarman II Janashraya]] describes him as "the delighter of the hearts of the young ladies in the palace(s) of Trivara-nagara".{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=141-142}} His Polamuru inscription similarly states that he was "fond of sporting with the excellent young women in the palaces of Trivara-nagara". According to historians [[Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|V. V. Mirashi]] and [[D. C. Sircar]], the term "Trivara-nagara" can be interpreted as "the city of Trivara", and these expressions suggest that Madhavavarman defeated Trivara.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=142}} Both scholars dated Madhavavarman to the 6th century, and identified his rival Trivara with Tivaradeva.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=142-143}}
: Shastri disagrees with this identification, pointing out that no records of the Panduvamshi dynasty refer to its capital Shripura as "Trivara-nagara", and there are no known instances of ''any'' capital town being referred to by its king's name in the regional records. Moreover, other scholars have interpreted the term "Trivara-nagara" differently, theorizing that it was the name of the city where Madhavavarman resided (possibly modern [[Tiruvuru]]), or that it refers to his conquest of "three excellent cities" (''tri-vara-nagara'').{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=148-149}}

; Xuanzang's description
: The 7th century Chinese [[Buddhist]] traveler [[Xuanzang]] describes the contemporary king of Kosala as a [[Kshatriya]] Buddhist, and states that the kingdom had over 100 Buddhist monasteries with 10,000 [[Mahayana|Mahayanists]]. One theory identifies this king with Shivagupta Balarjuna, as some inscriptions from his reign (including one of his own inscriptions) record grants made to Buddhists.
: However, Shivagupta Balarjuna was a Shaivite, as attested by his own inscriptions. Historian [[Ajay Mitra Shastri|A. M. Shastri]] theorizes that Xuanzang mistook a tolerant attitude towards Buddhism as formal affiliation to Buddhism, and his generic description cannot be used to precisely identify and date the contemporary ruler of Kosala.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=155}}

=== Chronology of rulers ===

The following is a chronology of the dynasty's rulers, according to [[A. M. Shastri]]'s methodology (the rulers are sons of their predecessors, unless specified otherwise):{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=156-160}}

* Udayana, r. c. 600-620 CE, probably did not rule Dakshina Kosala
* Indrabala, r. c. 620-640 CE
** Indrabala's brother, whose name is lost in the damaged part of the [[Arang]] stone inscription, probably ruled simultaneously
* Nannaraja I, c. 640-660 CE
** Ishanadeva (a brother of Nannaraja I) and Bhavadeva (a son of Indrabala's brother) may have ruled independently, or as vassals of Nannaraja I
* Mahashiva Tivara alias Tivara-deva, r. c. 660-680 CE
* Nannaraja II alias Nanna II, r. c. 680-700 CE
* Chandragupta, r. c. 700-710 CE
* Harshagupta alias Harsha-deva, r. c. 710-730 CE
* Maha-Shivagupta alias Shivagupta alias Balarjuna, r. c. 730-790 CE

== Territory ==
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The Panduvamhis ruled the historical [[Dakshina Kosala]] region in the present-day [[Chhattisgarh]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=133}} Except the [[Kalinjar]] inscription of Udayana, all of the dynasty's inscriptions have been discovered in Chhattisgarh, which suggests that their core territory was limited to Chhattisgarh.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=133-134}}

The inscriptions of Tivaradeva describe him as ''Kosaladhipati'' ("Lord of [[Kosala]]"). The [[Adbhar]] inscription of his son Nannaraja II states that he became lord of all Kosala, [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] and other ''mandala''s (provinces) "by the valour of his own arms". However, Nannaraja II himself is mentioned only as the lord of Kosala.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=133}} This suggests that Tivaradeva's control of other regions such as Utkala did not last long. The Sonakpaat (or Senkapat) inscription from Shivagupta suggests that the Panduvamshi kingdom included a part of the [[Vidarbha]] region in present-day [[Maharashtra]], but this too, was temporary.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=134}}

Some earlier scholars believed that the dynasty originated from Vidarbha, based on an inscription from the reign of Nannaraja I, which records the construction of a Buddhist temple by his relative Bhavadeva. Rev. Dr. Stevenson, who first published this inscription, gave the [[find spot]] of this inscription as [[Bhadravati, Maharashtra|Bhadravati]] (Bhandak) in the Vidarbha region. However, Indologist [[Lorenz Franz Kielhorn]] stated that this inscription was found at [[Ratanpur, Chhattisgarh|Ratanpur]] in Chhattisgarh, from which it was moved to the [[Nagpur Central Museum]] in Vidarbha.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=134}} Historian [[V. V. Mirashi]], who once traced the dynasty's origin to Vidarbha based on this inscription, later changed his view, and agreed that the inscription was originally found in Chhattisgarh. Mirashi and Y. K. Deshpande later determined that the inscription was originally found at a temple in [[Arang]] in Chhattisgarh, based on the testimony of Vinayakrao Aurangabadkar, who was the first person to transcribe it.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=134-135}} Hira Lal, in ''Inscriptions In the Central Provinces And Berar'', earlier described a fragmentary inscription that mentions Ranakesarin. Based on this, historian [[D. C. Sircar]] speculated that there were two different inscriptions with similar content: one found at Arang (mentioned by Hira Lal and Aurangabadkar), and the other at Bhadravati (mentioned by Rev. Dr. Stevenson). However, historian [[A. M. Shastri]] pointed out that the inscriptions mentioned by Hira Lal and Aurangabadkar cannot be same: Hira Lal's inscription is a [[Vaishnavite]] record found at the Mahamayi temple in Arang, and begins with an invocation to [[Vishnu]]. Aurangabadkar's inscription, on the other hand, is a Buddhist record (although Aurangabadkar wrongly mentioned the temple commissioned by Ranakesarin as a [[Jainism|Jain]] shrine, confused by the use of the term ''[[Five Jinas|jina]]''). Therefore, there is no evidence to suggest that the Panduvamshis originated from Vidarbha.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=136}}

=== Capital ===

The capital of the dynasty was most probably located at Shripura ([[IAST]]: Śrīpura; modern [[Sirpur, Mahasamund|Sirpur]]), which had also served as the capital of the preceding [[Sharabhapuriya dynasty|Sharabhapuriya]] kings. The copper-plate charters of Tivaradeva and his son Nannaraja II state that they were issued from Shripura.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=136}} The subsequent inscriptions of the dynasty do not mention their place of issue, but many of them, issued during the reign of Balarjuna, have been discovered at Sirpur. This suggests that Shripura continued to serve as the dynasty's capital in the later times.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=137}}

== Political history ==

=== Udayana ===
[[File:8th century couple at Tivara Deva temple, she steps on his feet seeks forgiveness with namaste gesture, Sirpur monuments Chhattisgarh India.jpg|thumb|Sirpur relief excavated: she steps on his feet, seeks forgiveness with a namaste gesture. [[Sirpur Group of Monuments]], 8th century CE.]]
Udayana is the earliest king mentioned in the dynasty's inscriptions, including the [[Arang]] stone inscription of Nannaraja I and a [[Sirpur, Mahasamund|Sirpur]] stone inscription of Balarjuna, although no inscription from his own reign is available. A 9th century [[Kalinjar]] stone inscription states that the Pandava king Udayana built a Bhadreshvara ([[Shiva]]) temple at [[Kalinjar]]. Assuming this refers to the Panduvamshi king Udayana, it appears that Udayana was the ruler of a principality centered around Kalinjar. He may have conquered Dakshina Kosala, but this cannot be said with certainty. Most probably, he did not rule Dakshina Kosala, and the region was conquered by his descendants.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=158}}

=== Indrabala ===

Udayana's son Indrabala is the earliest ruler of the dynasty certainly known to have ruled over at least a part of Dakshina Kosala. The [[Kharod]] Lakshmaneshvara Temple inscription credits him with destroying his enemies, and states that "the rows of the crest-jewels of all the princes adorned his lotus-like feet".{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=158-159}} This description suggests that he was a sovereign monarch for some time.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=159}} The inscription also mentions a town called Indrapura, which served as the headquarters of a ''[[Vishaya]]'' (district). The name of the town suggests that it was established by Indrabala.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=159}}

Historian A. M. Shastri dates Indrabala's reign to c. 620-640 CE.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=156}} According to him, it is possible that when the forces of the northern emperor [[Harsha]] advanced up to Kalinjar, Indrabala was forced to leave his ancestral principality, and migrated southwards to Dakshina Kosala. Indrabala can be identified with ''Maha-[[samanta]]'' ("great feudatory") Indrabala-raja who held the office of ''Sarvādhikārādhikṛta'' under the [[Sharabhapuriya dynasty|Sharabhapuriya]] king Sudevaraja, as attested by the [[Dhamtari]] and Kauvatal inscriptions of the Sharabhapuriyas. He seems to have established da new kingdom after the fall of the Sharabhapuriyas, taking advantage of the political chaos in the region.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=159}}

Scholar Lochan Prasad Pandeya identified Indrabala as a grandson of the [[Panduvamshis of Mekala|Mekala Panduvamshi]] king Bharatabala alias Indra. Relying on this identification, historian [[V. V. Mirashi]] theorized that the [[Uchchhakalpa dynasty|Uchchhakalpas]] invaded Mekala, forcing Indrabala to migrate to Kosala, where he first ruled as a Sharabhapuriya [[:wikt:feudatory|feudatory]], and later, overthrew his overlords. However, this identification is based solely on similar-sounding names ("Indrabala" and "Bharatabala alias Indra"), and cannot be considered as certain.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=159}}

=== Indrabala's successors ===

The order of succession after Indrabala is not clear. The Arang stone inscription from the reign of Indrabala's son Nannaraja I states that Indrabala had a brother, although the name of the brother is lost in the damaged portion. It compares the brother to the legendary hero [[Krishna]], who followed his brother [[Balarama|Bala]], and destroyed his enemies. This description suggests that Indrabala's brother helped him consolidate his power in Dakshina Kosala.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=159}} The inscription terms the brother as ''nṛpa'' ("king").{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=160}}

Bhavadeva, the fourth son of Indrabala's brother, is termed as a ''nṛpa'' and as the "lord of the earth" in the Arang inscription.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=160}} He bore the following titles:{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=161-162}}

* ''Ranakesarin'' ("battle-lion"), because he killed the enemy elephants with his sword on the battlefield)
* ''Chinta-durga'', because he caused anxiety (''chinta'') to his enemies, and because the rival warriors found him difficult to surpass (''durga'') in combat
* ''Apriya-vaishika'' ("disdainful of prostitutes")

Indrabala's son Ishanadeva granted some villages for the maintenance of the Lakshmaneshvara Temple at Kharod, which suggests that he was also a ruler.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=160}} Nannaraja I, another son of Indrabala, bore the title ''Rajadhiraja'' ("king of kings"), and the subsequent rulers of the dynasty descended from him.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=160}}

It is possible that Bhavadeva, Ishanadeva, and Nannaraja I, all ruled different parts of the kingdom simultaneously; Nannaraja I subsequently acquired control of the entire kingdom, either by forcibly dethroning the other two rulers, or after the other two rulers died without heirs. Alternatively, it is possible that Bhavadeva and Ishanadeva ruled as subordinates of Nannaraja I. A third possibility is that Indrabala's brother ruled as a feudatory: his son Bhavadeva became the next king, because at the time of Indrabala's death, Indrabala's sons Ishanadeva and Nannaraja I were too young to ascend the throne. Subsequently, Nannaraja I ascended the throne, and Ishanadeva ruled as his feudatory.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=160}}

=== Tivaradeva ===

Nannaraja I was succeeded by his son Tivaradeva, who is also known as Mahashiva Tivara. The name "Tivaradeva" occurs on the seal of his inscriptions, and appears to have been his personal name. The name "Mahashiva Tivara" occurs in the text of the inscriptions, and was probably his coronation name.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=161}} [[John Faithfull Fleet|J. F. Fleet]] wrongly believed him to be an adopted son of Nannaraja I, based on the [[Rajim]] inscription, which contains a scribal error. The other two inscriptions of the king - discovered at [[Bonda people|Bonda]] and [[Baloda]] - make it clear that Tivaradeva was a biological son of Nannaraja I.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=162}}

Tivaradeva's inscriptions state that his feet were "rubbed by the edges of the crowns of many chiefs", which indicates that he considered himself to be a paramount sovereign.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=162}} The seals of the inscriptions describe him as ''Kosaladhipati'' ("Lord of Kosala"), and the text of the inscriptions states that he had the overlordship of the entire Kosala (''sakala-kosala-adhipatya'').{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=163}}

Tivaradeva also seems to have invaded the neighbouring [[Shailodbhava]] territory in present-day [[Odisha]]. The [[Adbhar]] inscription of his son Nannaraja II states that his father had become the master of Kosala, [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] (in present-day Odisha) and other regions "by the prowess of his own arms". The inscription describes Nannaraja II as the master of Kosala only, which indicates that the Panduvamshi control over other territories did not last long. An inscription of the Shailodbhava king Dharmaraja II (alias Manabhita) states that his brother Madhava tried to overthrow him, but was defeated at Phasika; Madhava then allied with king Trivara, but Dharmaraja defeated both rival kings at the foot of the [[Vindhyas]]. The Trivara of Dharamraja's inscription can be identified with Tivaradeva.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=163}}

Tivaradeva was succeeded by his son Nannaraja II, after whom the throne passed to his brother Chandragupta. He was one of the dynasty's most powerful rulers, but his name was omitted in the records of Chandragupta and the subsequent kings, as he was not their ancestor.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=165}}

=== Nannaraja II ===

Nannaraja II alias Maha-Nannaraja is attested by his Adbhar inscription. The inscription seems to have been incomplete for some reason, as indicated by the absence of a seal, the incomplete imprecatory stanza at the end, and the missing date. It compares him and his father to [[Pradyumna]] and [[Krishna]] respectively, and describes him as the enemy of [[Madhu-Kaitabha|Kaitabha]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=165}}

Nannaraja II may have expanded the Panduvamshi kingdom to include [[Vidarbha]]. This is suggested by the Sonakpaat (Senkapat) stone slab inscription issued during the reign of the later Panduvamshi king Shivagupta Balarjuna. The inscription mentions three generations of a family of Panduvamshi vassals: Shiva-rakshita, Deva-rakshita, and Durga-rakshita. It states that Deva-rakshita was a confidant of Nannaraja, who had given him the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhyan]] territory extending up to the Varada river (modern [[Wardha River]] in [[Vidarbha]]). Since Durga-rakshita was a contemporary of Balarjuna, the Nannaraja mentioned in this inscription must have been Nannaraja II (It is unlikely that Nannaraja I, who ruled much earlier, was a contemporary of Durga-rakshita's father Deva-rakshita). This suggests that a portion of Vidarbha was under the rule of Nannaraja II, although based on the available evidence, it cannot be determined for how long the Panduvamshis continued to control this territory. A [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] feudatory chief named Nannaraja is known to have ruled in a part of Vidarbha during the late 7th century and early 8th century, but it is not certain if he was related to the Panduvamshi king Nannaraja II in any way.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=166}}

Nannaraja II probably died without an heir, because of which he was succeeded by his uncle Chandragupta.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=167}}

=== Chandragupta and [[Harshagupta (ruler)|Harshagupta]] ===

Chandragupta was a son of Nannaraja I, and must have ascended the throne at an old age, as he succeeded his nephew Nannaraja II.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=167-168}} The Sirpur Lakshmana temple inscription of his grandson Balarjuna contains vague references to his military achievements, and describes him as a ''nrpati'' (king) who was "the lord of the rulers of the earth".{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=167}}

According to the [[Sanjan, Gujarat|Sanjan]] inscription of the [[Rashtrakuta]] king [[Amoghavarsha I]], his father [[Govinda III]] defeated a ruler called Chandragupta. Historian [[D. R. Bhandarkar]] identified this defeated ruler as the Panduvamshi king Chandragupta, but this identification is not correct: it results in chronological impossibilities, and moreover, the Sanjan inscription mentions Kosala as a later, distinct conquest of Govinda III.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=168}}

Chandragupta was succeeded by his son [[Harshagupta (ruler)|Harshagupta]], who is known from the inscriptions issued during the reign of his successor Balarjuna. The introductory portion of these inscriptions calls him Harshadeva, while the seal of the inscriptions calls him Harshagupta. He married Vasata, a daughter of king Suryavarman.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=168}} He was a Vaishnavite, and after his death, his wife Vasata built a Vishnu temple in his memory.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=169}}

=== [[Maha-Shivagupta Balarjuna]] ===
{{main|Maha-Shivagupta Balarjuna}}
[[Maha-Shivagupta Balarjuna|Balarjuna]] was a son of his predecessor Harshagupta and queen Vasata. His own copper-plate inscriptions call him Maha-Shivagupta, and the seals of these inscriptions call him Shivagupta; the other inscriptions issued during his reign generally call him either Shivagupta or Balarjuna, except one inscription that calls him Maha-Shivagupta.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=169}} [[Maha-Shivagupta Balarjuna|Balarjuna]] was probably his personal name, and [[Maha-Shivagupta Balarjuna|Mahashivagupta]] was probably his coronation name.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=161}}

An inscription dated to his 57th regnal year has been discovered, indicating that he ruled for at least 57 years. His younger brother Ranakesarin supported him in his military conquests. He had a son named Shivanandin.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=169}}

=== Decline ===

There is no record of Panduvamshis after Balarjuna,{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=172}} and their rule in Dakshina Kosala probably ended in the 8th century.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=175}} Their territory was subsequently ruled by the [[Nala dynasty|Nalas]], the Banas and the [[Kalachuris of Ratnapura|Kalachuris]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=172}} An inscription of the Nala king Vilasatunga, dated to the 8th century based on palaeographic grounds, records the construction of the Rajiv Lochan temple at [[Rajim]]. This suggests that the Nalas (possibly a branch of the [[Nala dynasty#Possible successors|earlier Nala dynasty]]) had conquered the area around present-day [[Raipur]] by the 8th century.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=171}}

=== Possible successors ===

The [[Somavamshi dynasty]], which ruled in present-day [[Odisha]] between 9th and 12th centuries appears to have been related to the Panduvamshis of Dakshina Kosala. Both dynasties claimed [[Lunar dynasty|lunar lineage]]. The Somavamshis did not claim descent from the legendary [[Pandava]]s, but this is also true for the Panduvamshis after Tivaradeva. Like the later Panduvamshis, the Somavamshi kings adopted names ending in ''-gupta''.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=172}} Multiple Somavamshi rulers bore the regnal name "Maha-shiva-gupta"; the Panduvamshi kings Tivaradeva and Balarjuna bore the regnal titles "Maha-shiva" and "Maha-shiva-gupta" respectively.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=173}} While the Panduvamshi copper-plate inscriptions are inscribed using "box-headed" characters, all the stone inscriptions starting from the reign of Balarjuna are inscribed in the [[Nagari script]], which is also the script of the Somavamshi inscriptions.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=175}} The early Somavamshi kings ruled in western Odisha, which once formed the eastern part of Dakshina Kosala,{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=172}} and the [[Choudwar]] inscription of the earliest known Somavamshi king Mahashivagupta I (alias Janamejaya) describes him as ''Kosalendra'' ("lord of Kosala").{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=174}} Several Somavamshi inscriptions record grants to people from Kosala, grants of villages located in Kosala, and appointment of Kosala-specific officers.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|pp=174-175}}

== Religion ==
[[File:7th - 9th century Surang tila temple, Sirpur monuments Chhattisgarh.jpg|thumb|Surang tila temple, [[Sirpur Group of Monuments]], 9th century CE.]]
The Panduvamshi kings generally followed [[Hinduism|Hindu traditions]], although they were also tolerant towards [[Buddhism]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=155}} Bhavadeva patronized Buddhism, and restored a Buddhist shrine originally built by Suryaghosha. Under his patronage, the monastery attached to the shrine was painted and adorned with a stepped well and gardens.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=161}} Ishanadeva constructed the Lakshmaneshvara temple at [[Kharod]], and granted some villages for its maintenance. Nannaraja I was probably a [[Shaivism|Shaivite]], as a Sirpur stone inscription of his descendant Balarjuna states that he "covered the earth" with Shiva temples.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=161}}

Tivaradeva was a [[Vaishnavite]], as evident by his title ''Parama-Vaishnava'', and his seals featured Vaishnavite emblems.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=176}} His son Nannaraja II also bore the title ''Parama-Vaishnava'', and his [[Adbhar]] inscription records a grant to a ''[[Bhagavata]]'', that is, a Vaishnavite. This inscription compares Tivaradeva to [[Vishnu]]'s [[Avatar|incarnation]] [[Krishna]], and Nannaraja II to Krishna's son [[Pradyumna]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=167}}

The dynasty's inscriptions describe Harshagupta as someone who worshipped [[Achyuta]] (that is, [[Vishnu]]) all the time.{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=169}} His wife Vasata commissioned the [[Sirpur Group of Monuments#Lakshmana temple|Lakshmana temple]] at [[Sirpur, Mahasamund|Sirpur]]: a commemorative stone inscription installed by her has been found at the site.{{sfn|Om Prakash Misra|2003|p=9}}

Shivagupta alias Balarjuna was a Shaivite, and his seal featured Shiva's bull [[Nandi (bull)|nandin]].{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=176}} He granted a village to a Buddhist monastery at the request of his maternal uncle [[Bhaskaravarman]] (a brother of Vasata).{{sfn|A. M. Shastri I|1995|p=169}}

== Inscriptions ==

The following inscriptions of the Pāṇḍuvaṁśins, all in [[Sanskrit]], have been discovered.

{| class="wikitable"
!Location
!Type
!Issuer
!Regnal year
!Place of issue
!Source
|-
|[[Arang]]
|stone
|Nannaraja I / Bhavadeva
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=95}}
|-
|Bonda
|copper-plates
|Tivaradeva
|5
|Shripura
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=102}}
|-
|[[Rajim]]
|copper-plates
|Tivaradeva
|7
|Shripura
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=107}}
|-
|[[Baloda]]
|copper-plates
|Tivaradeva
|9
|Shripura
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=112}}
|-
|[[Adbhar]]
|copper-plates
|Nannaraja II
|?
|Shripura
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=116}}
|-
|Bardula
|copper-plates
|Balarjuna
|9
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=119}}
|-
|Bonda
|copper-plates
|Balarjuna
|22
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=124}}
|-
|Lodhiya (Lodhia)
|copper-plates
|Balarjuna
|57
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=128}}
|-
|[[Malhar, Chhattisgarh|Malhar]]
|copper-plates
|Balarjuna
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=134}}
|-
|[[Malhar, Chhattisgarh|Malhar]]
|copper-plates
|Balarjuna
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=138}}
|-
|Sirpur (Lakshmana temple)
|stone
|Balarjuna
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=141}}
|-
|Sirpur
|stone slab
|Balarjuna
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=148}}
|-
|Sirpur
|stone
|Balarjuna
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=150}}
|-
|Sirpur (Gandhareshvara temple)
|?
|Balarjuna
|?
|Undated
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=152}}
|-
|Sonakpaat (also Senkapat or Senakapat)
|
|Shivagupta
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=154}}
|-
|Sirpur (Gandhareshvara temple)
|?
|?
|Undated
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=160}}
|-
|?
|copper-plate
|Balarjuna
|57
|?
|{{sfn|A. M. Shastri II|1995|p=162}}
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===

{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Idd9i5nP160C&pg=PA47|title=Inscriptions of the Śarabhapurīyas, Pāṇḍuvaṁśins, and Somavaṁśins: Part I|author=Ajaya Mitra Shastri|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1995|isbn=978-81-208-0635-1|ref={{harvid|A. M. Shastri I|1995}}}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7cyQ8BxzR4kC&pg=PR13|title=Inscriptions of the Śarabhapurīyas, Pāṇḍuvaṁśins and Somavaṁśins: Part II|author=Ajaya Mitra Shastri|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1995|isbn=978-81-208-0637-5|ref={{harvid|A. M. Shastri II|1995}}}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA9|title=Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh|author=Om Prakash Misra|publisher=Mittal|year=2003|isbn=978-81-7099-874-7|page=9}}
{{ref end}}

[[Category:Dynasties of Odisha]]
[[Category:History of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:7th century in India]]
[[Category:8th century in India]]
[[Category:History of Vidarbha]]
[[Category:Kosala]]
[[Category:Sanskrit inscriptions]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 8th century]]

Sambayya (film)

2026-03-03T18:27:35Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating a post

{{short description|1999 film by K. S. Nageswara Rao}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}

{{Infobox film
| name = Sambayya
| image = Sambayya (film).jpg
| caption = VCD cover
| director = K. S. Nageswara Rao
| producer = [[Bellamkonda Suresh]] Raghumudhri Srinivasa Rao {{small|(Presenter)}}
| writer = [[Posani Krishna Murali]] {{small|(Story, screenplay & dialogues)}}
| starring = [[Srihari (actor)|Srihari]] [[Prakash Raj]] [[Radhika Chaudhari]] [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
| music = [[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
| cinematography = Adusumilli Vijay Kumar
| editing = [[Marthand K. Venkatesh]]
| studio = Sri Sai Ganesh Productions
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1999|11|26}}
| runtime = 136 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
}}

'''''Sambayya''''' is a 1999 [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film directed by K. S. Nageswara Rao and written by [[Posani Krishna Murali]]. Produced by [[Bellamkonda Suresh]] under Sri Sai Ganesh Productions, the film stars [[Srihari]], [[Prakash Raj]], [[Radhika Chaudhari]] (in her acting debut), and [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]. The music was composed by [[Vandemataram Srinivas]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sambaiah (1999) |url=https://indiancine.ma/BGMQ |access-date=29 October 2024 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sambaiah (1999) |url=https://www.filmiclub.com/movie/sambaiah-1999-telugu-movie |access-date=29 October 2024 |website=FilmiClub |language=en-US |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712153242/https://www.filmiclub.com/movie/sambaiah-1999-telugu-movie |url-status=dead }}</ref> This film also marked the debut production of Bellamkonda Suresh, who later became a prominent producer in the [[Telugu cinema|Telugu film industry]].

== Plot ==
Sambayya, a small [[paan]]-shop owner and a kind-hearted man, lives in a slum with his mother, Manorama. Their peaceful life takes a tragic turn when Manorama witnesses the chief minister’s son murdering a police inspector. Determined to expose the crime, she decides to testify in court. However, the chief minister, in collusion with corrupt police officials, discredits her as insane. Unable to bear the humiliation, Manorama takes her own life.

Sambayya is subsequently arrested under pretenses for wearing [[Kumkuma|kumkum]] during a curfew. While in custody, his fiancée is brutally raped by the chief minister’s son, who escapes justice due to his political influence. Devastated by these events, Sambayya vows to seek vengeance.

Meanwhile, a parallel political drama unfolds as members of the opposition within the ruling party exploit Sambayya’s thirst for revenge to weaken the chief minister. Sambayya uses their help to pursue his vendetta. The film follows his journey as he confronts his enemies and exact revenge, or justice.

== Cast ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em|gap=2em}}
* [[Srihari (actor)|Srihari]] as Sambayya
* [[Prakash Raj]]
* [[Radhika Chaudhari]] as Sambayya's fiancé
* [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]] as Sambayya's mother
* [[Jai Varma|Jayaram]]
* [[Ranganath (actor)|Ranganath]]
* [[Jayaprakash Reddy]]
* [[M. S. Narayana]]
* [[M. Balayya]]
* [[Narra Venkateswara Rao]]
* [[Jeeva (Telugu actor)|Jeeva]]
* [[Mallikarjuna Rao (actor)|Mallikarjuna Rao]]
* [[Brahmaji]]
* [[Vinod Kumar Alva|Vinod Kumar]]
* [[Surya (Telugu actor)|Surya]]
* [[Banerjee (actor)|Banerjee]]
* [[Kavitha (actress)|Kavitha]]
* Siva Parvathi
* [[Venu Madhav (actor)|Venu Madhav]]
* [[Bandla Ganesh]]
{{div col end}}

== Music ==
The film's music was composed by [[Vandemataram Srinivas]], with lyrics penned by [[Bhuvana Chandra]]. The soundtrack features songs by renowned playback singers [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] and Swarnalatha.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sambayya (1999) Telugu Movie |url=https://moviegq.com/movie/sambayya-7912 |access-date=29 October 2024 |website=MovieGQ |language=en}}</ref>

# "Bhadradri Ramachandra"
# "Endi Iddari"

== Reception ==
Sri of ''[[Telugucinema.com]]'' reviewed ''Sambayya'' as a routine political revenge drama with strong performances by Srihari and Manorama, noting Posani Krishna Murali's impactful dialogues despite a dated storyline.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sri |date=1999 |title=Sambaiah Movie Review |url=http://www.telugucinema.com/movies/reviews/sambaiah.html |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=[[Telugucinema.com]] |archive-date=14 October 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001014104137/http://www.telugucinema.com/movies/reviews/sambaiah.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

Griddaluru Gopala Rao of ''[[Zamin Ryot]]'' gave the film a positive review, praising Posani Krishna Murali's socially conscious script and dialogues, which reflect contemporary politics, as well as Srihari's performance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Griddaluru Gopalrao |date=10 December 1999 |title=ఎగసిన మరో విప్లవ కెరటం - సాంబయ్య |trans-title=Sambayya - Another Revolutionary Wave That Has Risen |url=http://www.zaminryot.com/pdf/1999/Dec/10-dec-1999.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913132317/http://www.zaminryot.com/pdf/1999/Dec/10-dec-1999.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 October 2024 |website=[[Zamin Ryot]] |pages=9, 11 |language=te}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
{{Posani Krishna Murali}}
[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:1999 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vandemataram Srinivas]]
[[Category:1999 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Posani Krishna Murali]]

SAKSHAM

2026-03-02T00:22:03Z

ElenaEbersbacher: new

{{Short description|Indian military command & control system}}

{{Promotional|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox weapon
| name = SAKSHAM
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| type = [[Command and control]]
| origin = [[India]]

| service =
| used_by = [[Corps of Army Air Defence]]
| wars =

| designer =
*Indian Army
*Bharat Electronics
| design_date =
| manufacturer = [[Bharat Electronics]]
| developed_from =
| developed_into =
| unit_cost =
| production_date = {{start date|2025}} – ''present''
| number =
| variants =
}}

'''SAKSHAM''' ('''''S'''ituational '''A'''wareness for '''K'''inetic '''S'''oft and '''H'''ard Kill '''A'''ssets '''M'''anagement'')<ref name="Ray-2025">{{Cite web |last=Ray |first=Kalyan |date=2025-10-09 |title=Counter-UAS Grid: Indian Army's Advanced Drone Defense |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/indian-army-begins-induction-of-indigenous-saksham-counter-uas-grid-to-boost-air-defence-3758680 |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=[[Deccan Herald]] |language=en}}</ref> is a modular multi-layered, [[AI]]-enabled [[command and control]] (C2) platform, developed by the [[Indian Army]] in collaboration with Indian [[Public Sector Undertakings in India|public sector]] company [[Bharat Electronics]] to secure India's low-altitude airspace, and to enhance the airspace situational awareness and drone defence capabilities. It is part of the counter-[[UAV warfare|unmanned aerial system warfare]], integrating real-time detection, tracking, identification, and neutralization functions into a unified digital architecture grid.<ref name="The-Statesman-2025">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-10-09 |title=Indian Army deploys 'Saksham' counter-drone grid to dominate new tactical battlefield space |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/indian-army-deploys-saksham-counter-drone-grid-to-dominate-new-tactical-battlefield-space-1503496980.html |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=The Statesman |language=en}}</ref>

It is linked to the doctrinal shift from the Tactical Battle Area (TBA) to a broader Tactical Battlefield Space (TBS), encompassing the air littoral, or airspace up to {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=off}} above ground level which has been recognized as a contested operational layer requiring constant monitoring and control.<ref name="Bharat-Shakti-2025">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-10-09 |title=Indian Army Inducts AI-Driven Command System 'SAKSHAM' to Counter Drone Threats |url=https://bharatshakti.in/indian-army-inducts-ai-driven-command-system-saksham-to-counter-drone-threats/ |access-date=2025-12-20 |website=Bharat Shakti |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Singh-2025">{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Mayank |date=2025-10-09 |title=Indian Army begins induction of 'Saksham' counter-unmanned aerial threat grid system |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2025/Oct/09/indian-army-begins-induction-of-saksham-counter-unmanned-aerial-threat-grid-system |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
The [[Russo-Ukrainian war (2022–present)|Russo-Ukrainian war]], [[2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh]], [[Gaza war]] and [[2025 India–Pakistan conflict]] brought to light the increasing difficulty of hostile [[UAV]] activities and the necessity of real-time, multi-layered air defense solutions throughout [[Forward base|forward areas]]. Following [[Operation Sindoor]], when more drone incursions revealed the necessity for a real-time [[airspace management]] system, the idea of the Tactical Battlefield Space (TBS) was developed. For the Indian Army, air littoral control became essential to tactical supremacy. In order to combat in a multifaceted battlefield, SAKSHAM became necessary.<ref name="The-Hindu-2025">{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2025-10-09 |title=Indian Army inducts indigenous Saksham Counter-UAS grid to secure Tactical Battlefield Space |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian-army-inducts-indigenous-saksham-counter-uas-grid-to-secure-tactical-battlefield-space/article70143459.ece |access-date=2025-12-21 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Pubby |first=Manu |date=2025-10-10 |title=Indian Army deploys SAKSHAM system for real-time counter-drone defence |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indian-army-deploys-saksham-system-for-real-time-counter-drone-defence/articleshow/124435507.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-18 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2025-10-10 |title='SAKSHAM' India's new eye in the sky to neutralise aerial threats. |url=https://theoutlinemedia.com/13625/ |access-date=2026-01-18 |website=theoutlinemedia.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Shree-2025">{{Cite web |last=Shree |first=Chetna |date=2025-10-09 |title=Indian Army Begins Procurement Of Indigenous 'SAKSHAM' Anti-Drone Grid To Boost Airspace Security |url=https://www.thedailyjagran.com/india/indian-army-begins-procurement-of-indigenous-saksham-anti-drone-grid-to-boost-airspace-security-key-features-10272594 |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=thedailyjagran.com |language=en}}</ref>

The AI-enabled command and control platform for the [[C-UAS]] grid was created by the Indian Army in collaboration with Bharat Electronics. SAKSHAM bridges the gap between real-time airborne surveillance and ground-based air defense by controlling airspace up to {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=off}} above land.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Banerjee |first=Ajay |date=2025-10-09 |title=Indian Army approves Saksham counter-UAS grid to enhance drone detection, neutralisation capabilities |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/india/indian-army-approves-saksham-counter-uas-grid-to-enhance-drone-detection-neutralisation-capabilities/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=The Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-10-10 |title=SAKSHAM: Anti-drone grid to boost air defence |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/news/national/saksham-anti-drone-grid-to-boost-air-defence-1013303 |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref> By functioning as a centralized command node that integrates inputs from various sensors, radars, and missile systems, SAKSHAM can function flawlessly across the Army Data Network (ADN). Its modular architecture guarantees compatibility with current networks, such the [[Akashteer]], to improve target identification and coverage. As part of the Army's integrated air defense grid, the digital architecture enables the synthesis of sensor data to create a single airspace awareness image that can be shared across military units.<ref name="CNBC-TV18-2025">{{Cite web |date=2025-10-10 |title=What is 'Saksham', Indian Army's new indigenous counter-unmanned aerial system |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/what-is-saksham-indian-army-new-indigenous-counter-unmanned-aerial-system-19710396.htm |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=[[CNBC TV18]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="IANS-News-2025">{{Cite web |last= |date=2025-10-09 |title='SAKSHAM': India's new eye in the sky to neutralise aerial threats |url=https://ianslive.in/saksham-counter-drone-system-indias-new-eye-in-the-sky-to-neutralize-aerial-threats--20251009153614 |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=IANS News |language=en}}</ref>

== Function ==
In 2025, the Indian Army accepted the system under the Fast Track Procurement (FTP) process to combat low-cost aerial threats. Within the next year, deployment across all operational sectors is anticipated. It is designed to ensure supremacy in both defensive and offensive missions by offering early warning and engagement capabilities in networked, multi-domain operational conditions.<ref name="The-Statesman-2025" /><ref name="Bharat-Shakti-2025" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-10-10 |title=Indian Army Unveils Indigenous SAKSHAM Counter-UAS |url=https://raksha-anirveda.com/boosting-air-defence-indian-army-launches-indigenous-saksham-counter-uas-grid/ |access-date=2026-01-18 |website=raksha-anirveda.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Several counter-drone weaponry and sensors will be connected by SAKSHAM's modular grid, which will combine data from radar, [[Electro-optical sensor|electro-optical]] systems, and other sources to provide immediate threat alerts and response options. SAKSHAM will serve as the foundation of India's Counter-UAS grid once it is fully operational, providing military commanders situational awareness both on land and in the air. It will be able to quickly respond to drone threats in sensitive areas by integrating with current air defense and surveillance systems within the [[Indian Armed Forces]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kaul |first=Aditya Raj |date=2025-10-09 |title=Army Launches Indigenous 'SAKSHAM' Anti-Drone Grid To Boost Air Defence |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/army-launches-indigenous-saksham-counter-drone-grid-to-dominate-air-littoral-9426145 |access-date=2026-01-18 |work=ndtv.com}}</ref><ref name="Shree-2025" /> With a scalable, and flexible architecture that can be adjusted to changing UAS threats, SAKSHAM provides field commanders with automated decision-making and real-time 3D visualization. The system's AI-powered threat analysis for predictive identification and faster decision-making improves precision in neutralizing aerial targets.<ref name="CNBC-TV18-2025" /><ref name="IANS-News-2025" />

On a single [[Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics#INDIGIS-Enterprise|INDIGIS-Enterprise]] platform, SAKSHAM will combine its own and enemy UAS data, C-UAS sensors, and soft- and hard-kill systems. By classifying all airspace users in a battle zone as friendly, neutral, or hostile, the Akashteer further aids SAKSHAM in improving its situational awareness.<ref name="Ray-2025" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-09 |title=India's anti-drone future: The deadly new counter-UAS grid 'SAKSHAM' set to dominate drone wars |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/defence/2025/10/09/indias-anti-drone-future-the-deadly-new-counter-uas-grid-saksham-set-to-dominate-drone-wars.html |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=The Week |language=en}}</ref> Across the battlefield, a Recognized UAS Picture (RUASP) is continuously generated and updated in real time. For a coordinated defensive reaction, it has combined [[hard-kill]] (kinetic interception, [[Directed-energy weapon|directed energy]]) and [[soft-kill]] (jamming, [[Spoofing attack|spoofing]]) technologies. All of the Indian Armed Forces' current airspace management systems are compatible with it. Future sensors, weaponry, and AI tools may be added to the system as it develops to feed [[Mission Sudarshan Chakra]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Abhilash |date=2025-10-10 |title=Indian Army begins procurement of indigenous 'SAKSHAM' counter-drone system |url=http://eastmojo.com/free-digest/2025/10/10/indian-army-begins-procurement-of-indigenous-saksham-counter-drone-system/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=EastMojo |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-11 |title=Indian Army Launches 'Saksham' Counter-Drone Grid To Secure Air Littoral, Redefine Battlefield Control |url=https://rnamedia.in/army/indian-army-launches-saksham-counter-drone-grid-to-secure-air-littoral-redefine-battlefield-control/9515 |access-date=2026-01-18 |website=rnamedia.in |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SAKSHAM: Indian Army Deploys Homegrown Anti-Drone Defence System |url=https://www.faujidays.com/hub/read/news/indian-military-news/indian-army-newsdesk/saksham-indian-army-deploys-anti-drone-defence-system/ |access-date=2026-01-18 |website=faujidays.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-10 |title=Army Deploys 'Situational Awareness For Kinetic Soft And Hard Kill Assets Management' (SAKSHAM) Grid To Secure Tactical Battlefield Space |url=https://www.indiandefensenews.in/2025/10/army-deploys-situational-awareness-for.html |access-date=2026-01-18 |website=indiandefensenews.in}}</ref>

== Introduction ==
The [[Indian Army]] began the acquisition process in October 2025. The system will be under the [[Corps of Army Air Defence]], which will guarantee that ground forces maintain control over the airspace up to 3,000 meters over the ground. It will identify, track, and neutralize enemy drones or aircraft while permitting unrestricted movement of friendly aerial assets.<ref name="Singh-2025" /> In December 2025, the Indian Army placed an extra order with Bharat Electronics for SAKSHAM.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Waghbakriwala |first=Ali |date=2025-12-15 |title=Bharat Electronics Shares Trade Higher on Rs 776 Crore Orders |url=https://www.equitypandit.com/bharat-electronics-shares-trade-higher-on-rs-776-crore-order/ |access-date=2025-12-21 |website=Equitypandit |language=en-US}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Akashteer]] - Air Defence Control & Reporting System (Indian Army)
* [[Mission Sudarshan Chakra]] - proposed multi-layer defense system for India

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian Army]]
[[Category:Military equipment introduced in the 2020s]]

Vadnagar

2026-03-01T23:54:18Z

ElenaEbersbacher: rework information to improve readability

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vadnagar
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline = Vadnagar7.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Panoramic view of the town
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Gujarat##Location in India
| coordinates = {{coord|23.785|N|72.64|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of regions of India|Region]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mehsana district|Mehsana]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[North Gujarat]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Vadnagar Municipality
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 7.08
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 143
| population_total = 27,790
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=537034 |title=Census of India: Search Details |access-date=12 May 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924121335/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=537034 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 384355
| registration_plate = GJ-02
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Vadnagar''' is a town and [[municipality]] in the [[Mehsana district]] of the state of [[Gujarat]] in [[India]]. It is located {{cvt|35|km}} from [[Mehsana]]. Its ancient names include ''Anartapura'' (the capital of [[Anarta]]) and ''Anandapura.'' It was a location visited by [[Xuanzang]] in 640 C.E. The founder and the first Director-General of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI), [[Alexander Cunningham]], had identified ''Anandapura'' with the town of Vadnagar.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yH9Xef_vm1EC&pg=PA493 The Ancient Geography of India: I. The Buddhist Period, Including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang]. By [[Sir Alexander Cunningham]], p.493-494</ref> Vadnagar is also the birthplace of [[Narendra Modi]], the current [[Prime Minister of India]].

==History==
{{see also|Anarta}}
{{Further|Vadnagar archaeological site}}
The archeological excavations presented sequence assigned from 4th-3rd century BCE to the present period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rawat |first=Yadubirsingh |date=2011 |title=11. Recently Found Ancient Monastery and Other Buddhist Remains at Vadnagar and Taranga In North Gujarat, India |url=https://www.academia.edu/6973187 |journal=Bujang Valley and Early Civilisations in South East Asia, Malaysia |pages=209–232 |via=Academia}}</ref> Recent excavations, in six trenches, consider the beginning of the site to be around 800 BCE, (ca. 2754 calibrated years before present).<ref>Sarkar, Anindya, et al., (2024). [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379123005188 "Climate, human settlement, and migration in South Asia from early historic to medieval period: Evidence from new excavation at Vadnagar, Western India"], in: Quaternary Science Reviews, Volume 324, 15 January 2024, 108470: "Radiocarbon chronology of mollusc carbonates, charcoal and drill core sediments, retrieved from six trenches suggest that the settlement began at ~2754 years B.P. contemporary to Late-Vedic/pre-Buddhist Mahajanapadas or oligarchic republics of ancient India" (Conclusions).</ref>

Archaeologists found seven cultural periods of continuous human presence: 1) Pre-[[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]], (ca. 800-320 BCE), (contemporary to [[Vedic period|Late-Vedic]]/[[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|pre-Buddhist]] [[Mahajanapadas]] or [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]] republics), 2) Mauryan (ca. 320-185 BCE), 3) [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek]], 4) [[Indo-Scythians|Indo-Scythian]] or [[Western Satraps|Shaka-Kshatrapas]] (ca. 35-415 CE), ('[[Satrap]]s', descendants of provincial governors of the ancient [[Achaemenid Empire]]), 5) [[Solankis|Hindu-Solankis]], 6) [[Gujarat Sultanate|Sultanate]]-[[Gujarat Subah|Mughal (Islamic)]] to [[Gaekwad dynasty|Gaekwad-British colonial rule]] (ca. 318 years before present), and 7) Recent.<ref>Sarkar, Anindya, et al., (2024). [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379123005188 "Climate, human settlement, and migration in South Asia from early historic to medieval period: Evidence from new archaeological excavation at Vadnagar, Western India"], in: Quaternary Science Reviews, Volume 324, 15 January 2024, 108470.</ref>

Several ancient inscriptions and literary sources mention a town called ''Anartapura'' or ''Anandapura'', identified as the area in and around the present-day Vadnagar. The epic tale [[Mahabharata]] mentions the [[Anarta Kingdom]] in the northern part of present-day [[Gujarat]]. The oldest [[Purana|Puranic]] legend about Gujarat is about a king named Anartha. The town is mentioned in the [[Tirtha (Hinduism)#Tirtha|Tirtha Mahatmya]] section of the [[Skanda Purana#The seven khandas|Nagara Khanda]] of the [[Skanda Purana]], by the name of ''Chamatkarapura''.<ref name="purana">{{cite news|title=Tirtha Mahatmya Nagara Khanda Skanda Purana|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-skanda-purana/d/doc493310.html|work=Wisdomlib.org|access-date =12 January 2020}}</ref> The [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman|Junagadh rock inscription]] (dating from 150 C.E.) of the [[Western Kshatrapa]] King, [[Rudradaman I]], mentions a region called "Anartha" (meaningless) in northern present-day Gujarat.

The [[Maitraka]] rulers of [[Vallabhi]] (505-648 C.E.) issued land grants to the Brahmins of ''Anarthapura'' or ''Anandapura''.<ref name=toi>{{cite news|title=Lost city could be Gujarat's womb: Archaeologists|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Lost-city-could-be-Gujarats-womb-Archaeologists/articleshow/4973865.cms|work=The Times of India|date=4 September 2009|access-date =20 August 2014}}</ref> The [[Harsola copper plates]] (949 C.E.) of the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] king record the granting of two villages in Gujarat area to the [[Nagar Brahmin]]s, who originated from ''Anandapura''. which is also identified with Vadnagar, and is associated with the Nagar Brahmins.<ref>{{cite book |author=Harihar Vitthal Trivedi |title=Inscriptions of the Paramāras (Part 2) |series=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume VII: Inscriptions of the Paramāras, Chandēllas, Kachchapaghātas, and two minor dynasties |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B4LAQAAMAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.1451755 |page=5 }}</ref> In 2009, archaeologists discovered a 4 km long fortification near Vadnagar, which they believe could be the historical ''Anartapura''.<ref name=toi/>

Vadnagar has also yielded an image of [[Bodhisattva]] dated back to the 3rd or 4th century C.E. This image may have been brought from [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] to install in one of the town's Buddhist monasteries.{{cn|date=October 2023}} Vadnagar's old town is found inside the walls of a fort with six gates: Kirti, Arjun, Nadiol, Amarthol, Ghaskol and Pithori. The town was added to the [[World Heritage Site#Nomination process|tentative list of the UNESCO World Heritage sites]] in December 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-20 |title=Vadnagar town, Modhera Sun Temple, Unakoti sculptures added to UNESCO's tentative list of World Heritage Sites |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/vadnagar-town-modhera-sun-temple-unakoti-sculptures-added-to-unescos-tentative-list-of-world-heritage-sites/article66286396.ece |access-date=2022-12-21 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Geography==
Vadnagar is located at {{Coord|23.78|N|72.63|E|}}. It covers an area of about {{cvt|7.08|sqkm}} and has an average elevation of {{convert|143|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the [[mean sea level]]. It lies in a relatively flat and dry region, as compared to the rest of [[Gujarat]].<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/09/Vadnagar.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Vadnagar]</ref>

==Climate==
The climate in Vadnagar is generally cold during winters and hot in summers, with temperatures varying from {{cvt|14|°C}} to as high as {{cvt|42|°C}}. The average annual rainfall is about 670 mm. Relative humidity is generally high, especially in the monsoon and post–monsoon months, because of the interiorly location of the town.<ref>{{cite web|title=Yearly & Monthly weather - Vadnagar, India|url=https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/india/vadnagar-climate|website=Weather Atlas|access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref>

==Demographics==
As of [[2011 Census of India|Census 2011]], Vadnagar's population was 27,790, including 14,097 males and 13,693 females. Its female sex ratio is 971 compared to the state average of 919. Moreover, Vadnagar's child sex ratio is around 937 compared to the 890 state average. In Vadnagar, 12.26% of the population is under 6 years of age. Vadnagar's average literacy rate is 80.53%, higher than the 78.03% national average: male literacy is 90.41%, and female literacy is 70.42%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Census of India 2011: Data from the 2011 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42619|publisher=Census Commission of India|access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref>

==Economy==
Almost the entire population of Vadnagar is engaged in [[agriculture]] and [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]], because it is relatively isolated from the rest of [[Gujarat]], as compared to other towns and cities like [[Mehsana]], and developmental stages related to [[Secondary sector of the economy|secondary]] and [[Tertiary sector of the economy|tertiary sector]]s are yet to be done. The primary sector accounts for around 40% of the total workforce. Another important industry on which the population is dependent is [[tourism]], because in and around the town, there are many tourist attractions. Thus, it has a large potential yet to be tapped.

==Languages==
[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], being the state language of [[Gujarat]], is spoken by most of the people in Vadnagar. [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[English language|English]] are other common languages.

== Historic and cultural landmarks ==

* Sharmistha Lake: a lake with a small island, it is connected by a 7 km long inlet canal. The island has been developed into an urban park, including an open-air theatre.

* Buddhist monastery: The recent excavations have brought to light a Buddhist monastery belonging to the 2nd-7th century AD, within the fortified area of Vadnagar. The monastery had two [[votive]] [[stupa]]s and an open central courtyard, around which initially nine cells were constructed. The arrangement of the cells around the central courtyard creates a [[swastika]]-like pattern.<ref>{{cite web|title=Buddhist Monastery, Vadnagar|url=https://www.gujarattourism.com/north-zone/mehsana/vadnagar---buddhist-monastery.html|website=Gujarat Tourism|access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Vadnagar8.jpg|thumb|upright|Hatkeshwar Mahadev Temple]]
* Hatkeshwar Mahadev Temple: It is a 15th-century temple, and is the most significant of the numerous Shiva shrines. He is the family deity of the [[Nagar Brahmins]]. Facing east, the temple is enclosed by a high wall surmounted by three circular domes, interspersed with flat stretches, symbolising the [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]]. From the roof of the [[sanctum sanctorum]], a massive ''[[shikara]]'' rises high above into the sky. A massive congregation hall leads to the sanctum, which houses a Shiva ''[[linga]]'', and is said to have self-emerged, or as it is said, ''[[swayambhu]]'' (lit. has self-emerged). The premises also have an ancient Kashivishveshvara Shiva temple, a Swaminarayan temple and two [[Jain temple]]s. The temple's exterior is exquisitely and profusely decorated with the figures of [[Solar System|nine planets]], regent deities, the chief gods of the [[Hindu]] [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]], scenes from the life of [[Krishna]], [[Pandava]] princes [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], musicians, dancing [[apsara]]s, as well as varied animal and floral motifs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hatkeshwar Temple|url=https://www.gujarattourism.com/north-zone/mehsana/hatkeshwar-mandir--vadnagar.html|website=Gujarat Tourism|access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref>

* Sitala Mata Temple: It is ornately carved with figures of celestial beings. Its door frames and ceilings depict the ''Rasmandala'', portraying [[Krishna]] dancing with milkmaids.

[[File:Vadnagar's Kirti Toran full shot with beautiful clouds.JPG|250px|thumb|Kirti Toran]]

* [[Vadnagar Archaeological Experiential Museum]] was built at an estimated cost of {{INRconvert|298|c}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2025-01-16 |title=In Vadnagar today, Shah to dedicate archaeological museum, PM’s school to public |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/in-vadnagar-today-shah-to-dedicate-archaeological-museum-pms-school-to-public-9781144/ |access-date=2025-01-17 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> It was inaugurated on 16 January 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amit Shah inaugurates Vadnagar Archaeological Museum, Prerna Sankul and Vadnagar Sports Complex at Mehsana |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/politics/amit-shah-inaugurates-vadnagar-archaeological-museum-prerna-sankul-and-vadnagar-sports-complex-at-mehsana20250116175114/ |access-date=2025-01-17 |website=ANI News |language=en}}</ref> It is the first experiential archaeological museum in India.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Amit Shah to inaugurate archaeological museum in PM Modi’s hometown Vadnagar on Jan 16 |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/gujarat/amit-shah-to-inaugurate-archaeological-museum-in-pm-modis-hometown-vadnagar-on-jan-16-3357153 |access-date=2025-01-17 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> It was opened to the public from 1 February 2025.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=2024-01-16 |title=1 ફેબ્રુઆરીથી સામાન્ય જનતા મુલાકાત લઈ શકશે:સાત કાળના વડનગરની પ્રતીતિ કરાવતું મ્યુઝિયમ જોવામાં ત્રણ કલાક વીતી જશે |url=https://www.divyabhaskar.co.in/local/gujarat/mehsana/vadnagar/news/it-will-take-three-hours-to-see-the-museum-that-gives-a-glimpse-of-vadnagar-through-seven-eras-134300573.html |work=Divya Bhaskar |language=gu}}</ref> It covers 2500 years history of continuous human habitation of the town as well as its cultural history.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Amit Shah to inaugurate archaeological museum in PM Modi’s hometown Vadnagar on Jan 16 |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/gujarat/amit-shah-to-inaugurate-archaeological-museum-in-pm-modis-hometown-vadnagar-on-jan-16-3357153 |access-date=2025-01-17 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

* [[Kirti Toran]]: The town is famous for its two [[torana]]s, a pair of 12th-century columns supporting an arch, about 40 feet tall built in red and yellow sandstone, just north of the walled town. They stand on the bank of the Sharmistha Lake. Their pillars and arches are decorated with [[Lozenge (shape)|lozenges]] at the base and geometric and floral designs (i.e., leaves, creepers and lotus), animal motifs, human figures engaged in various activities, and divine figures in different poses. The one to the east is in better condition and has been used as a symbol of Gujarat in recent times. Initially, one ''torana'' was intact while the other was ruined. The ruined one was re-erected in 2007 by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-03-15 |title=ASI erects ancient Vadnagar gate |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/asi-erects-ancient-vadnagar-gate/articleshow/1764379.cms |access-date=2023-10-16 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The ''toranas'' might have served as an entrance to a large temple complex, but no remains of such have been found till date.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kirti Toran|url=https://www.gujarattourism.com/north-zone/mehsana/kirti-toran--vadnagar.html|website=Gujarat Tourism|access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref>

Other places include [[Tana and Riri|Tana-Riri]] garden and shrine, Gauri kund, Pancham Mehta's Vav (stepwell), Janjanio well, [[Pushtimarg Baithak|Baithakji of Gusaiji]], an ancient library and a directional stone from the Solanki period.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mahesana.nic.in/tourist-place/kirti-toran/ |title=Kirti Toran, Vadnagar {{pipe}} District Mahesana, Government of Gujarat {{pipe}} India |website=mahesana.nic.in |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819114355/https://mahesana.nic.in/tourist-place/kirti-toran/ |archive-date=19 August 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
File:Hathi Derasar, Vadnagar 1.jpg|Hathi Jain temple
File:Tana Riri Deri Vadnagar.JPG|Tana-Riri garden and shrine
File:Guri kund, Vadnagar.jpg|Gauri kund
File:Pancham Mehta Vav 1.jpg|Pancham Mehta's Vav
</gallery>

There are many temples, dedicated to almost every god in Hinduism:
* [[Shiva]]:
** Dwaneshwar Mahadev Temple,
** Somnath Mahadev Temple and
** Kashi Vishveshvara Temple,
* Vishnupuri Temple,
* Chhabila Temple,
* Hanuman Temple,
* Ashapuri Mata Temple,
* [[Ambaji]] Mata Temple,
* Sitla Mata Temple,
* Bhuvaneshpuri Temple,
* Amther Mata Temple,
* Gauri kund and
* [[Swaminarayan]] Temple.
There are remains of a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[monastery]] dating from the 7th century C.E., as well as two [[Jainism|Jain]] ''[[derasar]]s''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vadnagar |url=https://www.gujarattourism.com/search-page.html?search=Vadnagar |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=Gujarat Tourism}}</ref>

==Education==

;Schools
* Anarth Shikshan Kendra
* Shri B. N. High School
* [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya]]
* Navin Sarva Vidyalaya
* Pattharwali School
* Royal English Medium School
* Saraswati Vidya Mandir
* Sarvajanik Vidyayalaya, Vaghasi
* Vadnagar Girls High School

;Colleges
* Arts and Commerce College, Vadnagar
* GMERS Medical College, Vadnagar
* Government ITI, Vadnagar
* Government Polytechnic, Vadnagar
* Government Science College, Vadnagar

==Healthcare==
;Hospitals
* Bhavna Hospital
* Drishti Hospital
* GMERS Medical College & Civil Hospital
* Sadbhavna Hospital
* Sardar Patel General Hospital
* Vadnagar Nagrik Mandal Hospital
* Vasant Prabha Hospital

==Transport==
===Road===
The [[List of state highways in Gujarat#List of state highways|Gujarat State Highway 56]] (SH-56) passes through Vadnagar, that connects it directly with [[Mehsana]], [[Visnagar]] and [[Ambaji]].

===Rail===
The [[Vadnagar railway station]] lies on the [[Mehsana]]-[[Taranga Jain temple|Taranga]] line, that directly connects Vadnagar with the rest of the state and beyond through [[Mahesana Junction railway station|Mehsana Junction railway station]].

===Bus===
[[File:Vadnagar Bus Stand.jpg|thumb|Vadnagar bus stand]]
The Vadnagar bus station is located within the centre of the town. Buses are available from here to all major towns and cities in Gujarat and neighbouring states, that operate under [[Gujarat State Road Transport Corporation]] (GSRTC), private and tourism operators.

===Air===
The nearest airport is [[Mehsana Airport]], located {{cvt|36|km}} south-west from Vadnagar at [[Mehsana]]. However, currently, the airport is only used for private and government purposes, not for civilian or passenger services. Hence, the nearest operational airport is [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport]], located {{cvt|93|km}} south from the town at [[Ahmedabad]].

==Notable people==
* [[Shankar Chaudhary]], politician, current speaker of [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]], former Minister of State for Health and Family Welfare, Medical Education, Environment (All Independent charges) and Urban Development, [[Government of Gujarat]]
* [[Asit Kumarr Modi]], Indian TV producer and actor, known for ''[[Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah]]''
* [[Narendra Modi]], [[List of prime ministers of India|14th]] and current [[Prime Minister of India]]
* [[Vasant Parikh]], Indian politician

==See also==
* [[Mehsana]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{wikivoyage}}

{{Gujarat}}
{{Archaeological sites in India}}
{{Mehasana}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Mehsana district]]
[[Category:World Heritage Tentative List for India]]
[[Category:Vadnagar]]

Vishwavidyalaya metro station

2026-02-21T18:16:55Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating info

{{Short description|Metro station in Delhi, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:Delhi Metro logo.svg|50px]] Vishwavidyalaya
| type = {{Delhi Metro Infobox station line|line=Yellow}}
| style = Delhi Metro
| image = Vishwavidyalaya metro gate 3.jpg
| image_caption = Gate 3 of Vishwavidyalaya metro station
| address = The Mall Rd, New Delhi, 110007
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coord|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| line = {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Yellow|croute}}
| other =
| structure = Underground
| platform = {{ubl|[[Side platform]]|Platform-1 → {{ltl|Delhi Metro|Yellow|R}}|Platform-2 → {{ltl|Delhi Metro|Yellow|L}}}}
| depth =
| levels = 2
| tracks = 2
| parking = {{parking symbol}} Available
| bicycle =
| opened = {{start date and age|2004|12|20|df=yes}}
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} through [[Overhead line|overhead catenary]]
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| code = {{#property:P296}}
| owned = [[Delhi Metro]]
| zone =
| smartcardname =
| smartcardstatus =
| former =
| passengers = 757,865 24,447 Daily Average
| pass_year = 2015
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Delhi Metro|line=Yellow|left=Guru Tegh Bahadur Nagar|right=Vidhan Sabha}}
| route_map = {{Delhi Metro Yellow Line Route}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Delhi Metro|Yellow}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}
The '''Vishwavidyalaya''' metro station is located on the [[Yellow Line (Delhi Metro)|Yellow Line]] of the [[Delhi Metro]], which serves the [[University of Delhi]] North campus area and the [[Delhi University Stadium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.delhimetrorail.com/commuters/station_information.html|title=Station Information|access-date=2010-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619035828/http://delhimetrorail.com/commuters/station_information.html|archive-date=19 June 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-09-24 |title=Vishwavidyalaya Metro station gets a new name, students not pleased |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/vishwavidyalaya-metro-station-gets-a-new-name-students-not-pleased-3047216/ |access-date=2026-02-15 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
It is also the alternate northern terminus for the yellow line along with [[Kashmere Gate metro station|Kashmere Gate]]. It is connected to the at-grade Khyber Pass Depot.

== Station layout ==
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;border-top:solid 1px grey;" width=50 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100 valign=top|Street Level
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/Entrance
|-
|valign=top|'''L1'''
|valign=top|Concourse
|valign=top|Fare control, station agent, Metro Card vending machines, crossover
|-
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=50 rowspan=4 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px grey;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100|'''Platform 1''' '''Southbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500|Towards → {{ltl|Delhi Metro|Yellow|R}} '''Next Station:''' {{stl|Delhi Metro|Vidhan Sabha}}
|-
|'''Platform 2''' '''Northbound'''
|Towards ← {{ltl|Delhi Metro|Yellow|L}} '''Next Station:''' {{stl|Delhi Metro|GTB Nagar}}
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px grey;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=50 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=100|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px grey;" width=500|
|}

==Entry/exit==
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" width="65%"
|-
! align="center" colspan="4" style="background:#{{rcr|Delhi Metro|Yellow}};"| Vishwavidyalaya metro station entry/exits
|-
! style="width:15%;"|Gate No-1 {{access icon}}
! style="width:15%;"|Gate No-2 {{access icon}}
! style="width:15%;"|Gate No-3 {{access icon}}
! style="width:15%;"|Gate No-4 {{access icon}}
|-
| Riviera Apartments || Mall Road || Cavalry Lane || Chhatra Marg, University Campus, Khalsa College
|}

==Connections==
[[Delhi Transport Corporation]] bus routes number 7, 26, 101, 101B, 103, 104, 105, 108, 108STL, 112, 114ST, 120, 120A, 120B, 135, 140, 143, 162, 169, 171, 173, 185, 185LSTL, 191, 192, 193, 234, 234CL, 234CLE, 235, 259, 333, 341, 402, 402CL, 813, 813CL, 883, 883A, 901, 901CL, 921, 921CL, 971, 971A, 982, TMS(+) and TMS+ Punjabi Bagh serves the station.

==See also==
*[[List of Delhi Metro stations]]
*[[Transport in Delhi]]
*[[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]]
*[[Delhi Suburban Railway]]
*[[Delhi Transport Corporation]]
*[[North Delhi]]
*[[National Capital Region (India)]]
*[[List of rapid transit systems]]
*[[List of metro systems]]

{{Clear}}
{{Portal bar|Trains|Transport|Engineering}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Delhi Metro}}
{{Wikivoyage|Delhi}}
* [http://www.delhimetrorail.com/ Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)]
* [http://www.delhimetrorail.com/annual_report.aspx/ Delhi Metro Annual Reports]
* {{cite web|title=Station Information|work=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (DMRC)|url=http://www.delhimetrorail.com/commuters/station_information.html|access-date=5 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619035828/http://delhimetrorail.com/commuters/station_information.html|archive-date=19 June 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}
* [http://www.urbanrail.net ''UrbanRail.Net''] – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.

{{Delhi Metro}}
{{Delhi & NCR Metro stations|yellow line=yes}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2004]]
[[Category:Delhi Metro stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in North Delhi district]]
[[Category:2004 establishments in Delhi]]

{{Delhi-metro-stub}}
{{Delhi-railstation-stub}}

K. C. Verma

2026-02-18T13:55:41Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

{{short description|Indian police officer and spymaster}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Krishan Chander Verma
|image =
|imagesize = 100px
|order = [[Secretary of the Research and Analysis Wing]]
|term_start = 31 January 2009
|term_end = 30 December 2010
|predecessor = [[Ashok Chaturvedi]]
|successor = [[Sanjeev Tripathi]]
|party =
|birth_date =
|birth_place =
|profession =
|nationality = Indian
}}
'''Krishan Chander Verma''' (born 30 March 1949)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7kc1-AWUh2gC&q=k+c+verma The Civil List of Indian Police Service], Vol. 30, 1986, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, page 9</ref> was the Director of [[Research and Analysis Wing]] (R&AW), the external intelligence agency of [[India]], his official designation was Secretary (R).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?652641 |title=K C Verma Moves in as New Chief of RAW |publisher=news.outlookindia.com |accessdate=2010-08-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718083442/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?652641 |archive-date=2011-07-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Manish Tiwari, Fiasco on Flight 334, Hindustan Times, page 2, 12 July 2009</ref> He did his schooling from [[Mayo College]], Ajmer. He belongs to the 1971 [[Jharkhand]] [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] cadre.<ref>[http://newsx.com/story/42504]{{dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> He started his career at the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]], was appointed as head of the Narcotics Control Bureau in 2005,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/k-c-verma-to-be-new-raw-chief/414989/ |title=K C Verma to be new RAW chief |publisher=Indianexpress.com |date=2009-01-25 |accessdate=2010-08-20}}</ref> and was later elevated to the position of Secretary (Security) and also served as Internal Security Adviser to Home Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/india-news/kc-verma-to-be-new-raw-chief_100146896.html |title=K.C. Verma to be new RAW chief |publisher=Thaindian.com |date=2009-01-25 |accessdate=2010-08-20 |archive-date=19 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219132223/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/india-news/kc-verma-to-be-new-raw-chief_100146896.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> He was laterally transferred to head R&AW after [[Ashok Chaturvedi]] retired from the post on 31 January 2009. One of the major challenges for K. C. Verma had been professionalise and streamline the agency, which had been in news in recent times for various scandals and controversies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2009/feb/02can-new-chief-turn-raw-around.htm |title=Can its new chief turn R&AW around? |work=Rediff.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-20}}</ref>

Verma was scheduled to superannuate on 31 January 2011, whereas his second-in-command, [[Sanjeev Tripathi]] was due to retire on 31 December 2010. Verma had relinquished charge of Secretary (R) on 30 December 2010<ref>[https://archive.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=68728 Appointments by ACC], Press Information Bureau, 28 December 2010, [https://web.archive.org/web/20210912095003/https://archive.pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=68728 archived copy]</ref> on voluntary retirement, to allow Tripathi to take over, under an informal government promise to post him as Chairman, [[National Technical Research Organisation|NTRO]], because of Tripathi's influential lobby (his father-in-law being Gauri Shankar Bajpai, former R&AW chief);<ref>[https://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20101119/main7.htm It’s spy vs spy for top RAW job], ''The Tribune'', 29 November 2010</ref> but the government did not post Verma to NTRO.<ref>[http://www.sunday-guardian.com/news/important-raw-wing-is-headless-for-months Important RAW wing is headless for months]{{Dead link|date=February 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''The Sunday Guardian'', 30 January 2011</ref> Subsequently, P. Vijay Kumar was made NTRO chief.<ref>[https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-pv-kumar-named-ntro-chief-1526858 PV Kumar named NTRO chief], ''DNA India'', 1 April 2011</ref>

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Ashok Chaturvedi]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[R&AW#List of R&AW Secretaries|Secretary, R&AW]]
| years = 1 February 2009 – 30 December 2010
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Sanjeev Tripathi]]
}}
{{end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Verma, K. C.}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian police officers]]
[[Category:Secretaries of the Research & Analysis Wing]]

Sandakphu

2026-02-08T02:36:16Z

ElenaEbersbacher: minor changes

{{Short description|Mountain and highest point in West Bengal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Advert|date=April 2025}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Sandakphu
| photo = Sandakphu.jpg
| photo_caption = View from Sandakphu in Darjeeling West Bengal
| map = India West Bengal
| map_caption = Location of Sandakphu peak
| map_image= {{OSM Location map
| width=280| height=260| zoom=10
| coord={{coord|27|4|0|N|88|10|0|E}}| float=center|caption=Places and tea estates in the north-western portion of Darjeeling Sadar subdivision (including Darjeeling Pulbazar CD block) in Darjeeling district. Key: C: census town, R: rural/ urban centre, N: neighbourhood, H: hill centre, P: national park/ wildlife sanctuary, T: tourist attraction Abbreviations used in names – G for Tea Garden (town/village), E for Tea Estate Mouse over shows names of tea estates. Owing to space constraints in the small map, the locations in the larger map on click through may vary slightly.
|mark-sizeD=18,14
|shapeD=l-circle|shape-colorD= #A40000|shape-outlineD=white
|label-colorD= #800000 |label-sizeD=11
|mark-coord1={{coord|27|3|50|N|88|12|25|E}}| label-pos1=left|label1= | numbered1=C| mark-title1= [[Chongtong Tea Garden]] (census town)|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|27|4|50|N|88|17|58|E}}| label-pos2=left|label2=| numbered2=C| mark-title2= [[Ging Tea Garden]] (census town)
|mark-coord3={{coord|27|3|5|N|88|13|43|E}}| label-pos3=left|label3=| numbered3=C| mark-title3= [[Singtam Tea Garden]] (census town)
|mark-coord4={{coord|27|6|25|N|88|19|0|E}}| label-pos4= right|label4=| numbered4=E| mark-title4= [[Badamtam Tea Estate]] (TE)| shape-color4=#87A96B
|mark-coord5={{coord|27|1|25|N|88|15|10|E}}| label-pos5=right |label5=Darjeeling| numbered5=M| mark-title5= [[Darjeeling]] (M)| shape-color5=#800000
|mark-coord6={{coord|27|4|35|N|88|11|30|E}}| label-pos6=left|label6=| numbered6=R| mark-title6= [[Bijanbari]] (R)| shape-color6=#C42222
|mark-coord7={{coord|27|6|45|N|88|6|30|E}}| label-pos7=bottom|label7=| numbered7=R| mark-title7= [[Lodhoma]] (R)| shape-color7=#C42222
|mark-coord8={{coord|27|4|0|N|88|16|34|E}}| label-pos8= right |label8= | numbered8=E| mark-title8= [[Puttabong Tea Estate]] (TE)| shape-color8=#87A96B
|mark-coord9={{coord|27|7|35|N|88|6|25|E}}| label-pos9=left|label9=| numbered9=R| mark-title9= [[Rimbick]] (R)| shape-color9=#C42222
|mark-coord10={{coord|27|2|55|N|88|15|27|E}}| label-pos10=right|label10=| numbered10=R| mark-title10= [[Tukvar Tea Garden]] (R)| shape-color10=#C42222
|mark-coord11={{coord|27|7|10|N|88|18|5|E}}| label-pos11=left|label11=| numbered11=R| mark-title11= [[Singla Tea Garden]] (R)| shape-color11=#C42222
|mark-coord12={{coord|27|5|25|N|88|13|40|E}}| label-pos12=left|label12=| numbered12=R| mark-title12= [[Soom Tea Garden]] (R)| shape-color12=#C42222
|mark-coord13={{coord|27|2|20|N|88|12|50|E}}| label-pos13=left|label13=| numbered13=R| mark-title13= [[Rishihat Tea Garden]] (R)| shape-color13=#C42222
|mark-coord14={{coord|27|1|25|N|88|14|8|E}}| label-pos14=left|label14=| numbered14=R| mark-title14= [[Orange Valley Tea Garden]] (R)| shape-color14=#C42222
|mark-coord15={{coord|27|0|10|N|88|6|25|E}}| label-pos15=bottom|label15=| numbered15=R| mark-title15= [[Manebhanjyang, Darjeeling]] (R)| shape-color15=#C42222
|mark-coord16={{coord|27|1|50|N|88|5|10|E}}| label-pos16=top|label16=| numbered16=R| mark-title16= [[Tonglu, West Bengal]] (R)| shape-color16=#C42222
|mark-coord17={{coord|27|0|40|N|88|14|47|E}}| label-pos17=right|label17=Ghum| numbered17=N| mark-title17= [[Ghum, West Bengal]] (N)| shape-color17=#E97451
|mark-coord18={{coord|27|6|30|N|88|0|0|E}}| label-pos18=right|label18=Sandakphu| numbered18=H| mark-title18= Sandakphu (H)|shape18=triangle|shape-color18=black|mark-size18=22,14|label-size18=12|label-color18=black |ldx18=-5
|mark-coord19={{coord|27|12|30|N|88|1|30|E}}| label-pos19=right|dlx19=3|label19=Phalut| numbered19=H|shape19=triangle| mark-title19= [[Phalut]] (H)| shape-color19=#87410E
|mark-coord20={{coord|27|5|35|N|88|2|40|E}}| label-pos20=bottom|label20=[[Singalila National Park|Singalila^National^Park]]| numbered20=P| mark-title20= [[Singalila National Park]] (NP)| shape-color20=#228B22|ldx20=6
|mark-coord21={{coord|27|6|20|N|88|16|3|E}}| label-pos21=left|label21=| numbered21=E| mark-title21= [[North Tukvar Tea Estate]] (TE)| shape-color21=#87A96B
|mark-coord22={{coord|27|5|40|N|88|16|50|E}}| label-pos22=right|label22=| numbered22=E| mark-title22= [[Phoobsering Tea Estate]] (TE)| shape-color22=#87A96B
|mark-coord23={{coord|26|59|45|N|88|16|42|E}}| label-pos23=right|label23=[[Tiger Hill, Darjeeling|Tiger Hill]]| numbered23=H| mark-title23= [[Tiger Hill, Darjeeling]] (H)| shape-color23=#87410E|shape23=triangle
|mark-coord24={{coord|27|0|40|N|88|13|1|E}}| label-pos24=left|label24=| numbered24=T| mark-title24= [[Rock Garden, Darjeeling]] (T)| shape-color24=#228B22
|mark-coord25={{coord|26|59|20|N|88|15|54|E}}| label-pos25=bottom|label25=[[Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary]]| numbered25=P| mark-title25= [[Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary]] (NP)| shape-color25=#228B22|ldy25=-3
|mark-coord26={{coord|27|9|0|N|88|2|29|E}}|label26=Singalila Ridge| label-angle26=-70| label-pos26=top| label-size26=10| mark-size26=0| mark-title26 =none
|mark-coord27={{coord|27|9|20|N|88|10|0|E}}|label27=Rangeet| label-color27 = #77A1CB| label-angle27=70| label-pos27=top| label-size27=10| mark-size27=0| mark-title27 =none
|mark-coord28={{coord|27|7|1|N|88|12|0|E}}|label28= River| label-color28 = #77A1CB| label-angle28=7| label-pos28=top| label-size28=10| mark-size28=0| mark-title28 =none
|mark-coord29={{coord|27|7|0|N|88|7|50|E}}|label29= Rammam|labela29=River| label-color29 = #77A1CB| label-angle29=15| label-pos29=top| label-size29=10| mark-size29=0| mark-title329 =none
|arc-coordA={{coord|27|10|57|N|88|11|50|E}}|arc-textA= SIKKIM| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=-161| arc-gapA=-2| arc-radiusA=0.7
|arc-coordB={{coord|27|1|0|N|87|59|0|E}}|arc-textB= NEPAL| arc-text-colorB=hard grey| arc-angleB=40| arc-gapB=3.5| arc-radiusB=0.4
}}
| location = [[Darjeeling district]], [[West Bengal]], India; [[Ilam District]], [[Koshi Province]], Nepal
| coordinates = {{coord|27|6|21|N|88|0|6|E|type:mountain_region:IN_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_m = 3636
| elevation_ref =<ref name="PB">{{cite web|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=52149|access-date=21 December 2024|title=Sandakphu, India}}</ref>
| prominence_m = 356
| prominence_ref =<ref name="PB" />
| listing = [[List of Indian states and territories by highest point]]
| range = [[Singalila Ridge]]
| topo = Google topographic map<ref>[https://www.google.co.th/maps/place/Sandakphu/@27.106095,88.0023648,12z/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x0:0x6aa1ea3e41bc17bb Google topographic map]</ref>
| range_coordinates =
| coordinates_ref = <ref>[http://wikimapia.org/1272688/Sandakphu-Top Sandakphu Top - Wikimapia]</ref>
| easiest_route = Hiking or by car
|other_name =
| map_size = 300
}}
[[File:Panorama of the Kanchenjunga.jpg|alt=Panorama of the Kanchenjunga|thumb|left|831x831px|The Sleeping Buddha ]]
'''Sandakphu''' or '''Sandakpur''' at {{cvt|3636|m|ft}}<ref name="PB"/> is a mountain peak in the [[Singalila Ridge]] on the [[India–Nepal border|border]] between [[India]] and [[Nepal]]. It is the highest point of the ridge and of the state of [[West Bengal]], India. The peak is located at the edge of the [[Singalila National Park]] and has a small village on the summit with a few hotels. Four of the five highest peaks in the world, [[Mount Everest|Everest]], [[Kangchenjunga]], [[Lhotse]] and [[Makalu]] can be seen from its summit. It also affords a pristine view of the entire Kangchenjunga Range. Sandakphu is also known as the land of poisonous flowers.

==Etymology==
The name derives from the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] language and translates as "the height of the poisonous plant" - in reference to the former abundance at the locality (around a century ago) of the poisonous plants ''[[Aconitum ferox]]'' and certain [[rhododendron]] species. So great was the danger of fatal poisoning to sheep and cattle being driven through the area that they had to be [[Muzzle (mouth guard)|muzzled]] to prevent them grazing/browsing upon these toxic species (''Aconitum ferox'' has a good claim to being the most poisonous plant species in the world).<ref>Rai, Lalitkumar and Sharma, Eklabyar ''Medicinal Plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: Status, Uses and Potential'', pub. Govind Ballabh Pant Inst. Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh 1994 pps 25-7.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.herbcyclopedia.com/item/aconitum-ferox-the-strongest-poisonous-plant-2 |title=Aconitum Ferox Monkshood Strongest Poisonous Plant |access-date=2016-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604061053/http://www.herbcyclopedia.com/item/aconitum-ferox-the-strongest-poisonous-plant-2 |archive-date=2016-06-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Trekking==

=== India ===
The trek along the Singalila Ridge to Sandakphu and [[Phalut]] is one of the most popular in the [[Eastern Himalaya]]s, owing not only to the stupendous vistas of the Kangchenjunga and Everest ranges which it affords, but also to its seasonal wildflowers and opportunities for [[birdwatching]]. Treks begin at [[Manebhanjan]] which is {{cvt|28|km}} (approx. 1 hour by road) from [[Darjeeling]].<ref>[http://darjeeling.gov.in/treak.html/ , ''Sandakphu'', Trek to Sandakphu, 1 August 2015] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821055516/http://darjeeling.gov.in/treak.html |date=21 August 2015 }}</ref>

==== Ascent ====

The Sandakphu trekking routes inside the Singalila National Park have four legs or stages.
* Manebhanjan to [[Meghma]] – height {{cvt|2600|m}}: This is a 4-hour trek through the lower forest. The route goes via Chitre.
* Meghma to [[Gairibans]] – height {{cvt|2621|m}}: There are two alternative trekking routes. They respectively go via [[Tonglu, West Bengal|Tonglu]] – height {{cvt|3070|m}} and [[Tumling]] – height {{cvt|2900|m}}. From Tumling, a shorter trail cuts through Nepal and Jaubari – height {{cvt|2750|m}}. Jaubari is ward no 07 of jamuna VDC ilam.
* Gairibans to Sandakphu – height {{cvt|3636|m}}
* Sandakphu to Phalut – height {{cvt|3600|m}}: It is a one-day trek via Sabarkum – height {{cvt|3536|m}} covering {{cvt|21|km}}.

==== Descent ====

* Retracing the way back to Manebhanjan.
* A steep descent to the village of Sirikhola on the banks of the River Sirikhola, via Gurdum – height {{cvt|2300|m}}, and from there to [[Rimbick]].

'''Panorama of Peaks seen from Sandakphu and Phalut'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://himalayanhigh.in/sandakphu-phalut-trek|title=SANDAKPHU PHALUT TREK}}</ref>

[[Baruntse]] – height {{cvt|7220|m}}, [[Chamlang]] – height {{cvt|7319|m}}, [[Chomo Lonzo]] – height {{cvt|7818|m}}, Lhotse – height {{cvt|8516|m}}, Makalu – height {{cvt|8462|m}}, Mount Everest – height {{cvt|8848|m}}, [[Nuptse]] – height {{cvt|7861|m}}, Kanchenjunga – height {{cvt|8586|m}}, Talung – height {{cvt|7349|m}}, Rathong – height {{cvt|6679|m}}, Kabru N – height {{cvt|7353|m}}, Koktang – height {{cvt|6147|m}}, Simvo – height {{cvt|6812|m}}, Frey – height {{cvt|5853|m}}, Kabru S – height {{cvt|7318|m}}, Kabru Dome – height {{cvt|6600|m}}, Kabru Forked – height {{cvt|6100|m}}, [[Mount Pandim|Pandim]] – height {{cvt|6691|m}}, Tenchenkhang – height {{cvt|6010|m}}, Jupono – height {{cvt|5650|m}}

'''Villages At Glance:''' Gorkhey, Bhareng, Gairibas, Meghma, Maneybhanjyang, Rammam, Srikhola, Sepi, Molley, Gurdum.<ref name=":0" />

=== Nepal ===
The western part of Sandakphu peak is located in [[Sandakpur, Nepal|Sandakpur rural municipality]] (ward no. 2 & 4) of [[Ilam District]] of [[Province No. 1]].

The trekking starts from [[Ilam, Nepal|Ilam Bazar]] via [[Maipokhari]], [[Maimajhuwa]], [[Mabu, Nepal|Mabu]], Kala Pokhri Bikhe Bhyanjyang to Sandakpur, and also from Ilam Bazar via Sulubung, [[Jamuna, Nepal|Jamuna]], Hangetham (a special area for birds such as the [[spiny babbler]] and [[blue tit]]), Piple, Kalipokhari, Bikhe Vanjyang to Sandakpur. Jamuna is a highlight for trekkers. There are several beautiful places like Dhap Pokhari and Choyatar (special area for [[Red panda|red pandas]]) on the route.<ref name="commercialshouldberemovedwhenbettersources">{{Cite web |title=Sandakphu Trek |url=https://sandakphutrek.com/ |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=sandakphutrek.com}}</ref>

{{-}}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:From Sandakphu trek.jpg|Sunrise on Mt. Kanchendzonga from Aahl near Sandakphu or Sandakpur
File:Kanchendzonga from sandakaphu.jpg|Singalila Range and [[Kangchenjunga|Kanchenjungha]] seen from Sandakpur
File:Sandakphu panorama.jpg|A panoramic view of Sandakpur.
File:Domestic yak in Sandakpur.jpg|[[Yak|Domestic yak]] (''Bos grunniens'') near Sandakpur
File:Sandakpur top view.jpg|View of Sandakphu from above
File:Sandakpur, Ilam Nepal.jpg|Sandakphu: shrub-clad rocky ridge with toxic, pink-flowered [[rhododendron]] species - for which it was (in part) named
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Sandakphu}}
*[https://www.flickr.com/photos/95864028@N07/16495995394/in/set-72157649586827433 Mt Everest and Lhotse as seen from Sandakphu]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150817185900/http://conflatingvisions.com/2015/08/in-the-land-of-sleeping-buddha-sandakphu/ In the Land of Sleeping Buddha - A Guide to Sandakphu Trek]}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YNXU1IR2LR8 Land of the Land Rovers - Community fleet of 57 Series I in daily use from Maneybhanjang to the Sandakphu summit]
*[https://getsetgoonline.com/blog/20-stunning-photos-that-will-inspire-you-to-trek-to-sandakphu/ 20 Stunning Photos of Sandakphu]

{{West Bengal topics}}
{{Darjeeling District}}
{{Darjeeling}}

[[Category:Mountains of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Mountains of Koshi Province]]
[[Category:Villages in Darjeeling district]]
[[Category:Highest points of Indian states and union territories]]
[[Category:India–Nepal border]]
[[Category:Geography of Darjeeling district]]

Uttama Prajaakeeya Party

2026-02-07T13:28:58Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating entry

{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian political party
|party_name = Uttama Prajaakeeya Party
|logo = Prajakeeya Party Logo 1.png
|logo_upright = 1.2
|abbreviation = UPP
|colorcode = {{Party color|Uttama Prajaakeeya Party}}
|president = [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]]
|chairman =
|secretary =
|ppchairman =
|foundation = {{Start date and years ago|df=yes|p=y|2018|09|18}} ''Registered on 18 September 2018''<ref name= "UPP party launch">{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/upendra-launches-uttama-prajakeeya-party-actor-might-contest-2019-general-elections-from-south-bangalore-constituency-5208501.html|title=Upendra launches Uttama Prajaakeeya Party, actor might contest 2019 General Elections from South Bangalore constituency|website=Firstpost|date=18 September 2018|access-date=2019-04-19}}</ref>
|founder = Upendra
|headquarters = Bengaluru, Karnataka
|publication =
|students =
|youth =
|women =
|labour =
|peasants =
|membership =
|ideology = [[Socialist]]
|international =
|colours =
|position =
|eci = [[List of political parties in India|Unrecognised Registered Party]]
|alliance =
|national_convener =
|loksabha_seats =
|rajyasabha_seats =
|state_seats_name = [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
|state_seats = {{Composition bar|0|224|hex={{Party color|Uttama Prajaakeeya Party}}}}
|symbol =
|website = {{URL|http://www.prajaakeeya.org}}
|flag = File:Prajakeeya Party Logo 2.png
}}

'''Uttama Prajaakeeya Party''' ('''UPP''') is an Indian [[Socialism|Socialist]] [[political party]] based in [[Karnataka]]. The party contested the [[2019 Indian general election|2019 Lok Sabha Elections]] across all the constituencies in [[Karnataka]].<ref name="ref-ibt1">{{cite news |title=Karnataka assembly elections 2018: Upendra, Ramya, other Sandalwood star campaigners and contestants – IBTimes India |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/karnataka-assembly-elections-2018-upendra-ramya-other-sandalwood-star-campaigners-contestants-765150 |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=28 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="ref-bm1">{{cite news |title=Upendra: Uttama Prajakeeya Party (UPP) – Actor Upendra is Set To Announce New Political Party |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/a-second-innings-for-upendra-in-politics/articleshow/65833953.cms |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=17 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="ref-na1">{{cite news |title=Uttama Prajaakeeya Party will contest all seats in Lok Sabha polls in state: Upendra |url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/news/uttama-prajakeeya-party-will-contest-all-seats-in-lok-sabha-polls-in-state-upendra-plxnub |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=26 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="ref-bng1">{{cite news |title=Uttama Prajakeeya Party Candidate list – LS 2019 – Bangalorean |url=https://www.bangalorean.com/politics/uttama-prajakeeya-party-candidate-list-ls-2019/ |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=1 April 2019}}</ref>

==History==
On 12 August 2017, [[Kannada]] Actor and Director [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra Rao]], known for his movie direction, announced that he will stepping into administration and governance by starting his own political party under a socialist concept '''Prajaakeeya''' (translates to 'people-centric').<ref name="ref-toi1">{{cite news |title=upendra party name: Kannada film actor Upendra unveils name of his new political outfit – Bengaluru News – Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/kannada-film-actor-upendra-unveils-name-of-his-new-political-outfit/articleshow/61366803.cms |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=31 October 2017}}</ref>

===Karnataka Pragnyavantha Janatha Party===
He extended his support to an already existing politician, Mahesh Gowda and jointly formed a party called [[Karnataka Pragnyavantha Janatha Party|Karnataka Pragnyavantha Janatha Paksha (KPJP)]] and invited suggestions from the general public on improving various aspects of administration.<ref name="ref-dw1">{{cite news |title=Bengaluru: Upendra to enter politics through 'Prajakeeya', to contest next polls - Daijiworld.com |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=466360 |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=13 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="ref-na2">{{cite news |title=Upendra is not the founder of KPJP, here are details about the real founder |url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/karnataka/upendra-is-not-the-founder-of-kpjp-here-are-details-about-the-real-founder |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=31 March 2018}}</ref>

However, due to differences in ideologies with Mahesh, Upendra left the party in March 2018, stating that Mahesh's involvement in internal party corruption was not in line with his ideology of complete transparency and non-corruption.<ref name="ref-hi1">{{cite news |title=Upendra announces decision to quit KPJP – The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/upendra-announces-decision-to-quit-kpjp/article22945502.ece |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=7 March 2018}}</ref> Mahesh Gowda alleged that Upendra was acting like a dictator within the party.<ref name="ref-hi2">{{cite news |title=Upendra's KPJP hit by internal bickering – The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/upendras-kpjp-hit-by-internal-bickering/article22936612.ece |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=6 March 2018}}</ref> Sources inside KPJP refuted this, stating that Upendra had not taken it well when a video of certain people offering money to Gowda in exchange for party seats, had surfaced.<ref name="ref-nie1">{{cite news |title=Upendra announces split from KPJP; announces 'Prajaakeeya'- The New Indian Express |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2018/mar/06/upendra-announces-split-from-kpjp-announces-prajaakeeya-1782874.html |access-date=17 June 2019 |date=6 March 2018}}</ref> Upendra believed that this was against his core concept of Prajakeeya.<ref name="ref-tnm1">{{cite news |title=Upendra's messy break-up: Quits KPJP after filmy launch, now plans new outfit – The News Minute|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/upendras-messy-break-quits-kpjp-after-filmy-launch-now-plans-new-outfit-77500 |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=6 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="ref-ht1">{{cite news |title=Kannada actor Upendra quits KPJP, vows to start a new one – regional movies – Hindustan Times|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/kannada-actor-upendra-quits-his-own-party-kpjp-vows-to-start-a-new-one/story-iGh6t5eVuvpNya2FWcZnXO.html |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=7 March 2018}}</ref>

In May 2018, KPJP elected legislator R Shankar won the Ranibennur assembly seat and was seen supporting [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] after having extended support to [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] earlier that morning, prior to the results.<ref name="ref-dh1">{{cite news |title=Shankar backs BJP in morning, joins Cong later – Deccan Herald |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/shankar-backs-bjp-morning-joins-cong-later-670333.html |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=17 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="ref-cnbc1">{{cite news |title=Karnataka Elections: Newborn KPJP wins its first seat - cnbctv18.com |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/karnataka-elections-newborn-kpjp-wins-its-first-seat-60423.htm |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=15 May 2018}}</ref>

===Uttama Prajaakeeya Party===
[[File:Upendra (04).jpg|thumb|right|Upendra during a promotion campaign of the party]]
Following his exit from KPJP, Upendra launched his party called Uttama Prajaakeeya Party (acronym UPP) with a new manifesto based on ART of governance (acronym for Accountability, Responsibility and Transparency).<ref name="ref-nie2">{{cite news |title=Return of Uppi: Actor's party to contest all 28 Lok Sabha seats- The New Indian Express |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2019/jan/27/return-of-uppi-actors-party-to-contest-all-28-lok-sabha-seats-1930554.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190205013503/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2019/jan/27/return-of-uppi-actors-party-to-contest-all-28-lok-sabha-seats-1930554.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 February 2019 |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=27 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="ref-fp1">{{cite news |title=Upendra launches Uttama Prajakeeya Party, actor might contest 2019 General Elections from South Bangalore constituency – Firstpost |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/upendra-launches-uttama-prajakeeya-party-actor-might-contest-2019-general-elections-from-south-bangalore-constituency-5208501.html |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=18 September 2018}}</ref> Upendra registered the party and had the symbol 'auto-rickshaw' registered with the Election Commission.<ref name="ref-toi2">{{cite news |title=Upendra launches party for second time – Bengaluru News – Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/upendra-launches-party-for-second-time/articleshow/67705477.cms |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=27 January 2019}}</ref> UPP contested the 2019 Lok Sabha Elections with candidates in all 28 constituencies in Karnataka, with a strict rule against celebrities and only ordinary citizens with no criminal records or any corruption charges against them as the UPP candidates.<ref name="ref-nie3">{{cite news |title=Upendra's party to contest from all 28 Lok Sabha seats- The New Indian Express |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2019/mar/20/upendras-party-to-contest-from-all-28-lok-sabha-seats-1953321.html |access-date=17 June 2019 |date=20 March 2019}}</ref> [20] Upendra himself did not contest the said elections.

==Ideology==
Upendra built the idea for a regional party in Karnataka based on '''Prajaakeeya''' (people-oriented). This would focus mainly on the labour class with education, health and transparency in governance, detailed in his party manifesto.<ref name="ref-bm1"/> UPP has created a five-point program to convince people of their commitment to democratic principles: Selection, Election, Correction, Rejection, Promotion.<ref name="ref-hi3">{{cite news |title=Upendra's UPP to contest in 28 Lok Sabha constituencies on autorickshaw symbol – The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/upendras-upp-to-contest-in-28-lok-sabha-constituencies-on-autorickshaw-symbol/article26098195.ece |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=26 January 2019}}</ref> The ideology is built around the fact that citizen take an active role in the selection and election process and the people reserve the right to expel or promote an elected representative, based on their performance.<ref name="ref-hi3"/><ref name="ref-toi3">{{cite news |title=Uttama Prajakeeya Party: Karnataka: Uppi's party wants to put electorate at centre of democracy – Mangaluru News – Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mangaluru/karnataka-uppis-party-wants-to-put-electorate-at-centre-of-democracy/articleshow/68710544.cms |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=3 April 2019}}</ref>

Prajaakeeya revolves around the primary socialist sub-aspect of democracy as being "for the people". Additionally, administration is to be treated as a service and, as opposed to Rajakeeya, the elected administrators are supposed to be the servants of the people.<ref name="ref-toi3"/><ref name="ref-som1">{{cite news |title=Upendra campaigns for Uttama Prajakeeya Party candidate – Star of Mysore |url=https://starofmysore.com/upendra-campaigns-for-uttama-prajakeeya-party-candidate/ |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=17 June 2019}}</ref> Also, by conducting polls before sanctioning public projects, the control to make administrative decisions is extended to the general citizen.<ref name="ref-mdh1">{{cite news |title=Uttama Prajakeeya Party believes in real democracy : Upendra – Megamedia News English – DailyHunt |url=https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/megamedia+news+english-epaper-megameng/uttama+prajakeeya+party+believes+in+real+democracy+upendra-newsid-112837366 |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=4 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="ref-dw2">{{cite news |title=Udupi: Announcement of remaining 14 candidates after Apr 7 – UPP founder Upendra - Daijiworld.com |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=576014 |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=4 April 2019}}</ref>
Upendra also stressed on the need for a regional party to exist, so as to understand the issues with a particular region and act accordingly.<ref name="ref-hi3"/>

Party candidature is extended to the open public and candidates are chosen via a written test (based on the candidates reason for joining politics, their developmental plans, etc.), an interview and extensive background check. Additionally, candidates are expected to wear a uniform resembling a working structure as in any private establishment.<ref name="ref-tet1">{{cite news |title=Upendra's party out to professionalise politics – The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/upendras-party-out-to-professionalise-politics/articleshow/68797099.cms?from=mdr |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=9 April 2019}}</ref>

UPP has also eliminated the need for a party fund and the party runs without any monetary backup.<ref name="ref-hi3"/><ref name="ref-lm1">{{cite news |title=Personality-driven parties fail to make a mark in Karnataka |url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/uW4ZYc2eu6Ai1KJlxTjnIJ/Personalitydriven-parties-fail-to-make-a-mark-in-Karnataka.html |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=9 November 2017}}</ref>

==Electoral performance==
As per EC of India, UPP is a registered, yet a non-recognized party as of 2019.

UPP had candidates from various backgrounds contest the 2019 Lok Sabha Elections across all the constituencies of Karnataka.<ref name="ref-hi3"/>

As a party, UPP was not involved in any extensive on-the-ground promotional campaigns for the 2019 Lok Sabha Elections, as the party founder believes that the existence of technology in the current age negates the need for ground promotional campaigns and most of their campaigning was on social media.<ref name="ref-tet1"/><ref name="ref-dh2">{{cite news |title=Uttama Prajakeeya Party to contest from all seats – Deccan Herald |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/mangaluru/uttama-prajakeeya-party-to-contest-from-all-seats-726880.html |accessdate=17 June 2019 |date=4 April 2019}}</ref>

Many candidates supported by UPP contested Karnataka [[Panchayati raj|Panchayat]] Elections in 2020. Chethan one of the candidate supported by the party emerged victorious in the election from Arehalli village in [[Channagiri]] taluk, [[Davangere]] District. Actor Upendra Visited the village to congratulate the winner and assured the villagers that he will visit again in 6 months to check on the developmental works done by the winner<ref name="ref-dh3">{{cite news |title=Actor Upendra Visits Arehalli Village – Deccan Herald
|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/amp/state/actor-upendra-visits-arehalli-village-after-his-supporter-wins-gram-panchayat-polls-938333.html
|accessdate=13 Jan 2021|date=12 Jan 2021}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[https://www.prajaakeeya.org/ Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617081025/https://www.prajaakeeya.org/ |date=17 June 2019 }}
*[https://publictv.in/davanagere-real-star-upendra-prajakeeya]

[[Category:Political parties in Karnataka]]
[[Category:2018 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 2018]]

Bhanujeet Sudan

2026-02-06T06:01:23Z

ElenaEbersbacher: added article.

{{short description|Indian actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Bhanujeet Sudan
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1981|4|14|df=yes}}<ref name=sudan1>{{cite web|url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/celebs/tv/bhanujeet-sudan|title=Bhanujeet Sudan |website=Tellychakkar|accessdate=28 September 2017}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Kolkata]], [[India]]<ref name=sudan1/>
| occupation = Actor, Model
| years_active = 2000–2019
}}

'''Bhanujeet Sudan''' (born 14 April 1981) is an Indian model and television actor who made his debut in 2006 show ''[[Bhabhi (TV series)|Bhabhi]]'' in the lead role of Nihaal.<ref name=telegraph>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1060427/asp/calcutta/story_6152141.asp|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130203120422/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060427/asp/calcutta/story_6152141.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 February 2013|title= Rebel with a cause |website=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]|date=27 April 2006}}</ref> He has appeared on the show ''[[Pavitra Rishta]]'' as Rishabh,<ref name=pr>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Bhanujeet-Sudan-to-enter-Pavitra-Rishta/articleshow/27756293.cms|title=Bhanujeet Sudan to enter Pavitra Rishta|website=[[Times of India]]|date=22 December 2013}}</ref> ''[[SuperCops vs Supervillains]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/bhanujeet-sudan-and-priyanka-chhabra-feature-the-valentines-episode-of-shapath-150113|title=Bhanujeet Sudan and Paras Chhabra feature the valentines episode of shapath|website=tellychakkar|date=13 January 2015}}</ref> ''[[Itna Karo Na Mujhe Pyaar]]'' as Babu, ''[[Ye Hai Mohabbatein]]'' as Subbhu<ref name=yhm1>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Bhanujeet-Sudan-returns-with-Ekta-Kapoors-Custody/articleshow/18592387.cms|title=Bhanujeet Sudan returns with Ekta Kapoor's Custody|website= [[Times of India]]|date=20 February 2015}}</ref><ref name=yhm2>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Bhanujeet-Sudan-returns-to-Yeh-Hai-Mohabbatein/articleshow/46886382.cms|title=Bhanujeet Sudan returns to 'Yeh Hai Mohabbatein'|website=[[Times of India]]|accessdate=15 April 2015}}</ref> and ''[[Adaalat (TV series)|Adaalat]]'' as Sanjay Rathore. He is the younger brother of model Inder Mohan Sudan.<ref name=sudan1/> Bhanujeet, also a model has walked the ramp for designers [[Tarun Tahiliani]], [[Manish Malhotra]] and [[Ritu Beri]].<ref name=sudan1/>

==Television==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Ref.
|-
|2006 - 2008|| ''[[Bhabhi (TV series)|Bhabhi]]'' || Nihaal || <ref name=telegraph/>
|-
|2013 - 2014|| ''[[Pavitra Rishta]]'' || Rishabh Kapoor || <ref name=pr/>
|-
|2014|| ''[[Do Dil Bandhe Ek Dori Se]]'' || Rohit Seharia || <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/bhanujeet-sudan-enter-zee-tvs-do-dil-bandhe-ek-dori-se-raghus-brother-515|title=Bhanujeet Sudan to enter Zee TV's Do Dil Bandhe Ek Dori Se as Raghu's brother|website=Tellychakkar|date=9 June 2014}}</ref>
|-
|2015|| ''[[Itna Karo Na Mujhe Pyaar]]'' || Babu Bhai ||
|-
|2015 - 2016|| ''[[Ye Hai Mohabbatein]]'' || Dr. Subramaniam Chandran "Subbhu" || <ref name=yhm1/><ref name=yhm2/>
|-
|2016|| ''[[Adaalat (TV series)|Adaalat]]'' || Sanjay Rathore ||
|-
|2018-2019 || ''[[Patiala Babes]]'' || Ashok Khurana || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucnews.in/news/Bhanujeet-Sudan-to-play-the-parallel-lead-in-Patiala-Babes/590994029878656.html|title=Bhanujeet Sudan to play the parallel lead in Patiala Babes|website=UCNews|date=26 September 2018|access-date=3 December 2018|archive-date=30 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830172920/https://www.ucnews.in/news/Bhanujeet-Sudan-to-play-the-parallel-lead-in-Patiala-Babes/590994029878656.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|}

=== Music videos ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Song
!Singer
!Co-star(s)
!Role
!Note
!Ref
|-
| rowspan="2" |2005
|"Tera Mera Pyar"
|[[Kumar Sanu]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Nimrat Kaur]]
| rowspan="2" |Boy in theater
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 April 2019 |title=Bhanujeet Singh Sudan: Tera Mera Pyar with Nimrat Kaur was like a gift from God! |url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/bhanujeet-singh-sudan-tera-mera-pyar-nimrat-kaur-was-gift-god-190415 |website=TellyChakar}}</ref>
|-
|"Yeh Kya Hua"
|[[Shreya Ghoshal]]
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 February 2017 |title=Bollywood flashback: Remember Nimrat Kaur in these music videos? |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/bollywood-news/article/bollywood-flashback-nimrat-kaur-music-videos-tera-mera-pyar-yeh-kya-hua-actress-18017181 |website=Mid-day}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|5346933}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sudan, Bhanujeet}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from New Delhi]]
[[Category:Male actors from Kolkata]]

Asamardhuni Jivayatra

2026-01-31T06:19:14Z

ElenaEbersbacher: added a post

{{short description|1947 novel by Tripuraneni Gopich}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Asamardhuni Jivayatra
| image = Asamardhuni Jivayatra English.jpeg
| caption = Cover of English translation, 2003
| author = [[Tripuraneni Gopichand]]
| title_orig =
| orig_lang_code = te
| title_working =
| translator = D. S. Rao
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| subject =
| genre = [[Psychological novel]]
| set_in =
| publisher =
| publisher2 =
| pub_date = 1947
| english_pub_date = 2003
| published =
| awards =
| isbn =
| isbn_note =
| oclc =
| dewey =
| congress =
| native_wikisource =
| wikisource =
}}

'''''Asamardhuni Jivayatra''''' (literally: The Life Journey of a Hapless Soul, English title ''The Bungler'') is a 1947 [[Telugu language]] novel by [[Tripuraneni Gopichand]]. It is a [[psychological novel]], using [[stream of consciousness]] technique. One of Gopichand's best-known works, it is regarded as the first psychological novel in [[Telugu literature]].

==Characters==
The principle characters of the novel are:<ref name="KMGeorge1997">{{cite book|editor-last=George|editor-first=K. M.|editor-link=K. M. George (writer)|title=Masterpieces of Indian literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXFOAAAAYAAJ|volume=2|year=1997|publisher=[[National Book Trust]]|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-237-1978-7|pages=1413–1414|last=Rao|first=D. S.|chapter=Asamardhuni Jivayatra|access-date=2019-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221041043/https://books.google.com/books?id=dXFOAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=2016-12-21|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Sitaramrao{{snd}}the protagonist and the scion of a rich family
* Sitaramrao's wife
* Sitaramrao's daughter
* Ramayya{{snd}}an old man from Sitaramrao's village

==Plot==
The protagonist of the novel is Sitaramrao. He comes from a distinguished family, whose grandeur is celebrated. At the start of the novel, Sitaramrao's father on his deathbed commands his son to maintain the family's honour. Though The village elder Ramayya cautions him to be careful with his wealth, Sitaramrao, inspired by lofty ideals, pays for a lavish funeral, and arranges for people with large debts to his family to repay only a small proportion. He is soon reduced to straitened circumstances, and forced to seek employment, but fails to hold any job.<ref name="KMGeorge1997"/> One day he dreams of seeing an androgynous figure composed half by the goddess [[Parvati]] and half of [[Shiva|Paramesvara]]. As one side speaks, the other is veiled, but they both assure him that whatever he hungers after will be provided. On waking, a feeling of irritation provokes him to think that unless life is easy, and lived effortlessly, it is better to die.<ref name="KMGeorge1997"/>

Sitaramrao's uncle turns down a request for a loan, replying that Sitaramrao's father had treated him poorly: it was he who built the family's wealth, which Sitaramrao's father had squandered, and in his view, the son was behaving as his father had. Sitaramrao in turn insults his uncle. He begins to act strangely, beating in succession his daughter and his wife, and talking to a [[gecko]]. He drifts into fantasies of becoming a robber and raping a woman. He takes to wandering in [[bazaar]]s, singing or haranguing passers-by. He visits a prostitute, then challenges a speaker addressing a meeting and is beaten up, whereupon the wise Ramayya takes him to the shelter of a rain tree, and tries unsuccessfully to reason with him so that he might mend his ways and return home.<ref name="KMGeorge1997"/>

One day, sitting alone, Sitaramrao cries out "All is illusion" and walks to the [[cremation]] grounds, where he imagines seeing his father rolling his eyes, gnashing his teeth and chastising him as a wastrel. His own shadow seems to join with his father and attack him. The following day Ramayya passes by and, on examining the torn bones and scattered flesh there, identifies the mangled body as that of Sitaramrao.<ref name="KMGeorge1997"/>

==Analysis==

The novel was first published in 1947. The major portions of the narration is a stream of consciousness of the protagonist, Sitaramrao.<ref name="Nayak2003">{{cite journal|last=Nayak|first=Lipipuspa|title=Reviewed Work: The Bungler by Gopichand, D.S. Rao|journal=[[Indian Literature (journal)|Indian Literature]]|date=September–October 2003|volume=47|issue=5|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|publication-place=New Delhi|pages=195–197|jstor=23341502}} {{closed access}}</ref> Set in an unstated year during the 1940s, the story occurs in an unnamed village in [[Andhra Pradesh]], on its way to becoming a town.<ref name="KMGeorge1997"/> Sitaramrao inherited megalomania from his father and this theme pervades the novel.<ref name="George1993">{{cite book|editor-last=George|editor-first=K. M.|editor-link=K. M. George (writer)|title=Modern Indian Literature: an Anthology: Fiction|volume=2|year=1993|publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]]|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7201-506-2|pages=1089–1090}}</ref>

Sitaramrao's father's death-bed demand that he maintain the prestige of the family is a key point in Sitaramrao's life, causing an inner conflict between the self-aggrandizement which he inherited from his father and the gentler, more sensitive feelings from his mother's side. He is dominated by the former, which deprives him of his commonsense; as a result hunger, marriage, procreation and maintaining a family appear to be trivial and mean concerns to him. Paradoxically, when Sitaramrao falls in love himself, marries and has children, he considers this to be unnatural.<ref name="George1993"/>

His life and family is shattered due to his uncompromising character, but he attributes his misfortunes to others, and not to his own flaws. He tries to rationalise his defects, at the same time withdrawing into an imaginary world failing even to hold on to his job. When his maternal uncle deceives him, he thinks it a sign of his greatness that he does not concern himself with money matters. He cannot act against external events, only himself. He is sensitive enough to understand when others are hurt, but cannot express this to them. His wife Indira understands him and he loves her for this, nevertheless he is unable to express his love to her. He blames her for his own failings and the consequent inner turmoil sends him mad and leads to his death.<ref name="George1993"/>

==Reception and criticism==
Considered to be a classic of modern [[Telugu literature]], the novel is the best-known [[psychological novel]] in Telugu.<ref name="Datta1987">{{cite book|editor-last=Datta|editor-first=Amaresh|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA236|year=1987|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-260-1803-1|pages=236–237|access-date=2019-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430151743/https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA236|archive-date=2016-04-30|url-status=live}}</ref> It is regarded as the first psychological novel in Telugu literature<ref name="KMGeorge1997"/> and influenced the later development of Telugu writing.<ref name="Rāmakr̥ṣṇarāvu1975">{{cite book|last=Ramakrishna Rao|first=Adapa|title=Telugu Novel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mI4OAAAAYAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Yuvabharathi|location=Secunderabad|page=1|oclc=571019855}}</ref> It was translated into English by D. S. Rao under the title ''The Bungler'' (2003).<ref name="Nayak2003"/>

Lipipuspa Nayak observes, in her review, that "the novel seems to falter in the last chapter that narrates the transition of the protagonist from an incompetent illusionist, unable to overcome the hangover of the family values to a [[schizophrenic]] who eventually commits suicide." However, she notes that the end of the novel is thematically reasonable. She found the progression of protagonist from a romantic rebel to a questioning philosopher and a compulsive campaigner for his views to be "abrupt".<ref name="Nayak2003"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Google Books|id=eH1kAAAAMAAJ}} (English translation)

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1947 novels]]
[[Category:Telugu novels]]
[[Category:Novels set in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Psychological novels]]
[[Category:Stream of consciousness novels]]
[[Category:Novels about suicide]]

Deval Masjid

2026-01-30T23:52:14Z

ElenaEbersbacher: new first info first draft.

{{Short description|Former mosque and former Hindu temple in Bodhan, Telangana, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox religious building
| building_name = Deval Masjid
| infobox_width =
| image = Indranarayana Swamy Temple built by the Rashtrakuta King this also called Hundred Pillars Temple at Bodan Nizamabad.jpg
| caption = Partial ruins of the former temple and mosque, in 2020
| image_upright = 1.4
| alt =
| map_type = India Telangana
| map_size = 250
| map_relief = 1
| map_caption = Location of the former temple and mosque in [[Telangana]]
| location = [[Bodhan]], [[Nizamabad district]], [[Telangana]]
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|18.6635|77.8854|region:IN-TE|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| religious_affiliation = {{ubl|[[Buddhism]] / [[Jainism]] {{small|(possibly former)}}|[[Hinduism]] {{small|(former)}}|[[Islam]] {{small|(former)}}}}
| sect =
| festivals =
| consecration_year =
| status = {{ubl|[[Hindu temple|Temple]] {{small|({{circa}} 12th{{endash}}14th century)}}|[[Mosque]] {{small|(14th century{{endash}}????)}}}}
| functional_status = '''Abandoned'''; {{small|(partial ruinous state)}}
| heritage_designation =
| leadership =
| website =
| architect =
| architecture_type = {{nowrap|[[Hindu temple architecture]]}}
| architecture_style = {{ubl|[[Kakatiya architecture|Kakatiya]] {{small|(12th century)}}|{{nowrap|[[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic]] {{small|(14th century)}}}}}}
| founded_by =
| funded_by =
| general_contractor =
| facade_direction =
| groundbreaking =
| year_completed = {{circa|12th century}} [[Common Era|CE]]; [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya era]]
| construction_cost =
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| length =
| width =
| width_nave =
| height_max =
| dome_quantity = 12
| dome_height_outer =
| dome_height_inner =
| dome_dia_outer =
| dome_dia_inner =
| minaret_quantity =
| minaret_height =
| spire_quantity =
| spire_height =
| inscriptions = Several
| materials = Stone
| designated =
| module = {{Infobox historic site
| embed = yes
| designation1 = | designation1_offname = | designation1_type = | designation1_criteria = | designation1_date = | delisted1_date = | designation1_partof = | designation1_number = | designation1_free1name = | designation1_free1value = | designation1_free2name = | designation1_free2value = | designation1_free3name = | designation1_free3value = }}
}}
Bodhan is home to an ancient historical monument locally known as the Vanda Stambhala Gudi (“Hundred-pillared temple”), located in the Udmeer Gally area of the town. This site, now referred to as Deva Masjid, was originally been The ''Indranarayana Swamy Temple ( Hindu Temple)'' constructed in the 12th–13th century during the Kakatiya era. The pillared hall — noted for its numerous stone pillars — remains a prominent feature and is the reason for its local name. It was later converted into a mosque in the 14th century during the Delhi Sultanate period under Muhammad bin '''Tughluq’s expansion'''. The site is listed as a state protected monument under the Telangana Heritage Act.

== History ==
The temple was constructed in the late 12th or early 13th century, during the reign of the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya]] kingdom.{{sfn|Eaton|2011|p=180}} [[Ghulam Yazdani]] posits that it might have been a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] or [[Jainism|Jain]] temple before being used as Hindu temple, based on the imagery of all three religions being found in and around the temple.{{Sfn|Yazdani|1916|p=3}}

In the 14th century, the region was invaded and taken over by [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Ulugh Khan]], a general of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], who would later become its [[sultan]]. In 1323, Ulugh Khan encamped in [[Bodhan]], and a contemporary account by [[Abdul Malik Isami]] mentions that he laid siege to the fort of Bodhan for approximately two to three months. The report further states that the chief of Bodhan surrendered, converted to [[Islam]] with his family, and was granted amnesty.{{sfn|Eaton|2011|p=183}} The style of the mosque does not correspond with other [[Tughluq dynasty#Architecture|Tughluq architecture]] of the Deccan. [[Richard M. Eaton]] posited that the chief of Bodhan converted the temple into a mosque himself.{{sfn|Eaton|2011|pp=181–183}}

== Architecture ==
[[File:Indranarayana Swamy Temple built by the Rashtrakuta King At Bodan Nizamabad.jpg|thumb|The pillared hall, surmounted by several small brick domes, served as a pavilion leading to the prayer-hall.]]
The temple had a star-shaped plan, and it was composed of a ''[[garbhagriha]]'' (sanctum), ''[[antarala]]'' (antechamber), and ''[[mandapa]]'' (pillared hall). While the sanctum and antechamber were converted into a prayer-hall, the pillared hall remains almost completely intact, and serves as a pavilion leading up to the prayer-hall. Twelve small [[dome]]s, made out of brick, were added on the roof of the pillared hall. The large number of domes is unusual for Tughluq mosques, and were probably included in order to give the building a more [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic]] appearance.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Yazdani|1916|p=3}}

The pillared hall is divided into nine [[Bay (architecture)|bays]] and contains [[porch]]es in the middle of its northern, eastern, and southern sides. It stands upon a plinth, and is accessible by flights of steps with [[Baluster|balustrades]] on the northern and southern sides.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |author-link1=Richard M. Eaton |last2=Wagoner |first2=Phillip B. |date=2013-11-01 |title=Power, Memory, Architecture: Contested Sites on India's Deccan Plateau, 1300-1600 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/27797 |journal=OUP Academic |language=en |pages=50–52 |doi=10.1093/acprof:o |doi-broken-date=July 1, 2025 }}</ref> The prayer-hall is divided into forty-five [[Bay (architecture)|bays]]. The central bay is elaborately carved, and images of [[Narasimha]] can be found at its four corners.{{sfn|Yazdani|1916|p=3}} The western wall was closed up using rubble. A ''[[mihrab]]'' (prayer-niche) is carved into the western wall, and a ''[[minbar]]'' (pulpit) stands to its north.{{sfn|Eaton|2011|p=181}} The building is surrounded by a wall built out of dressed stone, with four entrances facing the four cardinal points.{{sfn|Yazdani|1916|p=3}}

== See also ==
{{stack|{{portal|India|Islam|Hinduism}}}}
* [[Islam in India]]
* [[Hinduism in India]]
* [[List of mosques in India]]
* [[List of Hindu temples in India]]
* [[List of State Protected Monuments in Telangana]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |author-link=Richard M. Eaton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWNHYID4WqAC&q=deval+masjid |title=Sultans of the South: Arts of India's Deccan Courts, 1323-1687 |year=2011 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-438-5 |editor-last=Haidar |editor-first=Navina Najat |pages=180–183 |language=en |chapter=Muhammad bin Tughluq and Temples of the Deccan, 1321-26 |editor-last2=Sardar |editor-first2=Marika}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yazdani |first=Ghulam |author-link=Ghulam Yazdani |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.09372/page/2/mode/2up |year=1916 |title=Annual report of the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizams Dominions, 1323-24 F. (1914-15 A.D.) |pages=3–4 |publisher=Baptist Mission Press}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons-inline}}

{{Mosques in India}}

[[Category:12th-century Hindu temples]]
[[Category:14th-century mosques in India]]
[[Category:Former Hindu temples in India]]
[[Category:Former mosques in India]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Nizamabad district]]
[[Category:Indo-Islamic mosques]]
[[Category:Kakatiya architecture]]
[[Category:Mosque buildings with domes in India]]
[[Category:Mosque ruins in India]]
[[Category:Mosques converted from Hindu temples]]
[[Category:Mosques in Telangana]]
[[Category:State protected monuments in Telangana]]

Charles M. Inglis

2026-01-29T19:13:11Z

ElenaEbersbacher: adjusted information to improve readability and cleaned formatting

{{EngvarB|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
[[File:Charles M. Inglis DSCN5098.jpg|thumb]]
'''Charles McFarlane Inglis''' [[Royal Entomological Society|FES]], [[Zoological Society of London|FZS]] (8 November 1870 – 13 February 1954) was a [[natural history|naturalist]] and [[curator]] of the [[Darjeeling]] museum in [[India]] from 1923 to 1948.<ref name=":0" /> The museum was run by the Bengal Natural History Society and many of his writings were published in that society's journal which he started and edited.

== Life and work ==
[[File:Entomology_meeting_1919.jpg|thumb|left|Inglis in 1919 (sitting fourth from left)]]
Inglis was born in Elgin, Scotland, the third son of Archibald William Inglis, a retired indigo planter in Bihar who had gone to India at the age of 18.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924024077806#page/n287/|pages=263–266|title=History of Behar|author=Wilson, Minden|year=1908| place=Calcutta|publisher=Calcutta General Printing Company}}</ref> A twin sister died in infancy. The family moved to Funchal, Madeira for his father's health and after his death there, the mother and children moved to Geneva. Charles and his brother Harold became interested in natural history. The family then moved to Clifton, Gloucestershire, where the boys continued to collect butterflies including some rare specimens from natural history specimen trader Mann. Their mother moved back to Geneva and the boys went to Stanley House, Stirlingshire, spending summers in Switzerland. They knew excellent French. At seventeen he worked in the Highand railway in Inverness while two older brothers moved to indigo farming in Bihar. He got a job at Roopachera estate in Hailekandi thanks to a godfather in Calcutta in 1889. He became interested in birds after a muslim collector working for [[Allan Octavian Hume]] showed him a specimen of an oriole and hired Inglis to collect for him at Rs 35 a month. He subsequently contacted [[E. C. Stuart Baker|E C Stuart Baker]]. In 1894 he moved the Larsingah tea estate in Happy Valley. Three years later he contracted malaria and spent about half a year in the Nilgiris to recover. He returned to Calcutta and once again got malaria. In 1898 he joined his brothers and became an indigo planter in Baghownie. During this time made studies of birds and collected many specimens of butterflies and dragonflies.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|title=Obituary|year= 1954 |journal=Journal of the Bengal Natural History Society |volume=24|pages=1–8|issn=0409-0756}}</ref><ref>Warr, F. E. 1996. Manuscripts and Drawings in the ornithology and Rothschild libraries of The Natural History Museum at Tring. BOC.</ref> He bred Burmese peafowl and swamp partridge in outdoor aviaries. In 1923 he took over as curator of the Darjeeling Natural History Museum. In September 1945 he married Sybil Dorothy Hunt. In 1948, he retired to Coonoor where he died in 1954.<ref>{{cite journal| journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=80| year=1983| pages=320–330 |title=Bombay Natural History Society - the Founders, the Builders and the Guardians. Part 4.| author=Ali, Salim| url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48743924}}</ref><ref name=obit>{{cite journal|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48184453 |title=Charles M. Inglis|volume=52| pages=565–568| journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|year=1955}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |author=Saha, J. C. |year=1954 |title=Charles McFarlane Inglis |url=https://collections.archives.ncbs.res.in/server/api/core/bitstreams/8657b734-cefd-44e8-b71f-8f48a8ba2e35/content |journal=Journal of the Bengal Natural History Society |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=1–5}}</ref> He encouraged the bird studies by Mrs [[Jamal Ara]], providing her with all his notes from Darbhanga.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ara, Mrs Jamal |author-link=Jamal Ara |year=1954 |title=Charles McFarlane Inglis: a tribute |url=https://collections.archives.ncbs.res.in/server/api/core/bitstreams/8657b734-cefd-44e8-b71f-8f48a8ba2e35/content |journal=Journal of the Bengal Natural History Society |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=6–8}}</ref>
[[File:Charles_McFarlane_Inglis_Tombstone_at_Tiger's_Hill_cemetery_Coonoor_20220130_152209.jpg|thumb|Grave at Tiger Hill cemetery, Coonoor]]
His ability to sketch and illustrate birds led to [[Thomas Bainbrigge Fletcher]] inviting him to produce a series of articles on birds of importance to agriculture in India. These were published in the Agricultural Journal of India and were later revised and published as a book ''Birds of an Indian Garden'' in 1924.<ref name=obit />

Inglis shot eight specimens of the [[pink-headed duck]] in [[Bihar]] from 1903, including the last known specimen collected in June 1935 from Baghownie.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Inglis |first=C.M. |date= 1940|title= Records of some rare, or uncommon, geese and ducks and other water birds and waders in North Bihar. |journal= Journal of the Bengal Natural History Society|volume=15|issue=2| pages=56–60 |issn= 0409-0756|oclc=10654633}}</ref> Several species of dragonflies were named from specimens he collected, these include ''Megalestes irma, Bayadera longicauda, Davidius zallorensis delineatus, Anormogomphus heteropterus''. The fish ''Nemacheilus rupicola'' var. ''inglisi'' was named after him as also the birds ''Prinia socialis inglisi,'' and ''[[Manipur bush quail|Cryptoplectron manipurensis inglisi]]''.<ref name=":1" /><gallery>
File:J D N H S.jpg|Cover of the Journal of the Darjeeling Natural History Society
File:Green Magpie Inglis.jpg|''[[Cissa chinensis]]''
File:Indian_Roller_Inglis.jpg|[[Indian roller]]
File:Coppersmith_Inglis.jpg|Coppersmith barbet
File:Upupa_Inglis.jpg|Hoopoe
File:White-eye_Inglis.jpg|Oriental white-eye
File:Terpsiphone_Inglis.jpg|Indian paradise flycatcher
File:Oriole_Inglis.jpg|Indian golden oriole
File:Magpie_Robin_Inglis.jpg|Oriental magpie robin
</gallery>
==Publications==
*Baker, H. R. & C. M. Inglis. ''[https://archive.org/details/the-birds-of-southern-india The Birds of Southern India including Madras, Malabar, Travancore, Cochin, Coorg and Mysore.]'' Government Press, Madras (1930)
*[[Thomas Bainbrigge Fletcher|Fletcher, T. B.]] and C. M. Inglis ''[https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.7158 Birds of an Indian Garden].'' Calcutta & Simla: Thacker, Spink & Co. (1924)
*Inglis C. M. The leaf insect – ''Phyllium scythe'' Gr. J. Darjeeling Nat Hist. Soc. 5 : 32–33 (1930)

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Sister project links| wikt=no | commons=no | b=no | n=no | q=no | s=Author:Charles McFarlane Inglis | v=no | voy=no | species=no | d=no}}
==External links==
*{{Internet Archive author |sname=Charles McFarlane Inglis |sopt=t}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Inglis, Charles M.}}
[[Category:British naturalists]]
[[Category:Indian naturalists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Zoological Society of London]]
[[Category:Owners of plantations in India]]
[[Category:1870 births]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]

[[Category:People from Darjeeling]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian biologists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian biologists]]
[[Category:Scientists from West Bengal]]
[[Category:British people in British India]]
[[Category:Scientists from British India]]

{{India-scientist-stub}}

Sakhi (2008 film)

2026-01-10T05:12:30Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating stub

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sakhi
| image = Sakhi Marathi Movie.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Sanjay Surkar]]
| producer = [[Lata Narvekar]] [[Bharti Achrekar]]
| screenplay =
| story =
| starring = [[Ashok Saraf]] [[Sonali Kulkarni]] [[Subodh Bhave]] [[Usha Nadkarni]]
| music = [[Ashok Patki]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2008|05|16}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Marathi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Sakhi''''' is a Marathi movie released on 16 May 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-07-09|title=Sakhi (2008) - Movie Review, Story, Trailers, Videos, Photos, Wallpapers, Songs, Trivia, Movie Tickets|url=http://www.gomolo.com/sakhi-movie/43047|access-date=2021-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709195106/http://www.gomolo.com/sakhi-movie/43047|archive-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> Produced by Lata Narvekar along with Bharti Achrekar and, directed by Sanjay Surkar.

== Cast ==

The cast includes
*[[Ashok Saraf]] as Suryankant Jagdale
*[[Sonali Kulkarni]] as Nishi Surve
*[[Subodh Bhave]] as Ravi Desai
*[[Usha Nadkarni]] as Kunda Tai & others

==Soundtrack==
The music is provided by Ashok Patki.

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/may/16sakhi.htm Sakhi: Good one-time watch - rediff.com]

[[Category:2008 films]]
[[Category:2000s Marathi-language films]]
[[Category:2008 Indian films]]

{{2000s-Marathi-film-stub}}

Balakrishnan Suresh

2026-01-01T23:24:25Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

{{short description|Indian air marshal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Air Marshal (India)|Air Marshal]]
| name = Balakrishnan Suresh
| honorific_suffix = [[PVSM]], [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal|AVSM]], [[Vayusena Medal|VM]], [[Aide-de-camp|ADC]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = File:Air Marshal Balakrishnan Suresh Indian Air Force.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| birth_date = 
| death_date = 
| birth_place = [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]], India<ref name="tribune-aop">{{cite web|title=Air Marshal hailing from Thiruvananthapuram takes over as AOP|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2016/aug/04/Air-Marshal-hailing-from-Thiruvananthapuram-takes-over-as-AOP-1503514.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025061943/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2016/aug/04/Air-Marshal-hailing-from-Thiruvananthapuram-takes-over-as-AOP-1503514.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 October 2016|website=NewIndianexpress|accessdate=4 August 2016}}</ref>
| death_place =
| placeofburial =
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| nickname =
| birth_name =
| allegiance = {{IND}}
| branch = {{air force|India}}
| serviceyears = 13 December 1980 - 31 July 2020
| rank = [[File:Air Marshal of IAF.png|20px]] [[Air Marshal (India)|Air Marshal]]
| servicenumber = 16206<ref name="pvsm"/>
| unit =
| commands = [[Western Air Command (India)|Western Air Command]] [[Southern Air Command (India)|Southern Air Command]] Air Officer in Charge of Personnel
| battles =
| battles_label =
| awards = [[File:Param Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|20px]][[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]] [[File:Ati Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|20px]][[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]] [[File:Vayusena Medal ribbon.svg|20px]][[Vayu Sena Medal]]
| relations =
| spouse =
| children =
| laterwork =
| signature =
| website =
| other_name =
| memorials =
| signature_size =
| signature_alt =
| module =
}}

[[Air Marshal (India)|Air Marshal]] '''Balakrishnan Suresh''' [[PVSM]], [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal|AVSM]], [[Vayusena Medal|VM]], [[Aide-de-camp|ADC]] is a retired officer of the [[Indian Air Force]]. He served as [[Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief]] (AOC-in-C), [[Western Air Command (India)|Western Air Command]] from 1 November 2019 following superannuation of Air Marshal [[Raghunath Nambiar]], till the day of his retirement on 31 July 2020.<ref name="pib-aocinc-wac">{{cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1589980|title=Air Marshal B Suresh Assumes the Command of Western Air Command as AOC-In-C|date=2019-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|user=DefencePROPalam|number=1190263283191672833|title=Air Marshal B Suresh took over as the AOC-in-C, Western Air Command today morning. The Air Marshal reviewed a ceremonial Guard of Honour & thereafter outlined his vision for the Western Air Command in consonance with the objectives of the IAF and the nation.|date=2019-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defenceaviationpost.com/2020/08/air-marshal-b-suresh-superannuated-after-illustrious-career-spanning-40-years/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804044945/https://www.defenceaviationpost.com/2020/08/air-marshal-b-suresh-superannuated-after-illustrious-career-spanning-40-years/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=4 August 2020|title=Air Marshal B Suresh superannuated after illustrious career spanning 40 years|date=2020-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|user=DefencePROPalam|number=1289152011691122688|title=After a distinguished service spanning almost 40 years, Air Marshal B Suresh PVSM, AVSM, VM, ADC, Air Officer Commanding in Chief, Western Air Command superannuated from the IAF today.|date=2020-07-31}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Air Marshal Suresh is an alumnus of the [[Rashtriya Indian Military College]] in [[Dehradun]], [[National Defence Academy]], in Khadakwasla, [[Air Force Academy (India)]] in Dundigal and the [[Defence Services Staff College]] in [[Wellington, Tamil Nadu|Wellington]]. He is a graduate of the [[Tactics and Air Combat Development Establishment]], and a post-graduate from [[Cranfield University]] in [[Shrivenham]], United Kingdom.<ref name="bs-aop">{{cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/air-marshal-suresh-new-iaf-personnel-chief-116073100666_1.html|title=Air Marshal Suresh new IAF personnel chief|date=31 July 2016|accessdate=3 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="pib-saso-wac"/><ref name="pib-aop"/>

==Career==
Air Marshal Suresh was commissioned as a fighter pilot in the Indian Air Force on 13 December 1980. He commanded [[No. 2 Squadron IAF|No. 2 Squadron]] 'The Winged Arrows' as a [[Wing commander (rank)|Wing Commander]] and [[Tactics and Air Combat Development Establishment]] (TACDE) as a [[group captain|Group Captain]]. Suresh also commanded a strategic fighter base as an [[air commodore|Air Commodore]].<ref name="iaf-aocinc">{{cite web|url=http://indianairforce.nic.in/content/aoc-c-3|title=AIR MARSHAL B SURESH AVSM VM, AOC-IN-C, SOUTHERN AIR COMMAND IAF|accessdate=3 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="pib-aop"/>

Air Marshal Suresh has held other positions including joint director and director for air staff inspection, Director Operations (Joint Planning), directing staff and commandant of TACDE, air assistant to the [[Chief of the Air Staff (India)|Chief of the Air Staff]], Assistant Chief of the Air Staff Operations (Air Defence), senior air staff officer at the [[Western Air Command (India)|Western Air Command]] and Air Officer-in-Chief Personnel at Air Headquarters.<ref name="iaf-aocinc"/><ref name="pib-aop">{{cite web|title=Air Marshal B Suresh Assumes Appointment of AOP|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=148067|date=31 July 2016|website=PIB|publisher=GOI|accessdate=12 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="pib-saso-wac">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=111020|title=Air Marshal B Suresh Takes Over as Senior Air Staff Officer Western Air Command, IAF|date=1 November 2014|accessdate=3 October 2017}}</ref>

He served as [[Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief]], [[Southern Air Command (India)|Southern Air Command]] from 1 August 2018 taking over from [[Rakesh Kumar Singh Bhadauria]], till 30 October 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/commanding-in-chief-of-sac-takes-charge/article24577575.ece|title=New Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief for SAC|website=[[The Hindu]] |date=2 August 2018}}</ref><ref name="sac-relinquish-tweet">{{cite tweet|user=DefencePROTvm|number=1189490849387700224|title=Air Mshl B Suresh AOC-in-C SAC will be assuming the charge of AOC-in-C Western Air Command on 01 Nov 19. He handed over the Command of SAC in Thiruvananthapuram & was presented with an impressive guard of honour and a formal send off was organised by all the personnel of SAC.|date=2019-10-30}}</ref> From there he moved to New Delhi and on 01 November 2019 took over command of [[Western Air Command (India)|Western Air Command]] as its [[Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief]]. He served as the AOC in C of the command until his superannuation on 31st July 2020.

==Awards and medals==

Air Marshal Suresh was awarded [[Vayu Sena Medal]] in 2001 and [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]] as a [[Group Captain]] in 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/16206|title=Service Record for Air Marshal Balakrishnan Suresh 16206 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb|access-date=2019-05-15}}</ref> He is probably one of youngest officers to be awarded the presidential award of [[AVSM]] as a [[Group Captain]]. He was awarded [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]] in 2019.<ref name="pvsm">{{cite web|title=411 Republic Day Gallantry and Other Defence Decorations Announced|publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=187777|website=pib.nic.in}}</ref><ref name="iaf-aocinc"/> He was appointed as [[Aide-de-camp]] of the president on 1 February 2019.<ref name="pib-aocinc-wac"/>

{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|{{Ribbon devices|ribbon=Param Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|ribbon=Ati Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|ribbon=Vayusena Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|[[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
|[[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]
|[[Vayu Sena Medal]]
|}

== Personal life ==
[[Air Marshal]] Suresh is married to Radha Suresh and they have a son and a daughter.<ref name="iaf-aocinc"/>

== References ==

{{Reflist}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{Succession box
| title = Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, [[Western Air Command (India)|Western Air Command]]
| years = 1 November 2019 - 31 July 2020
| before = [[Raghunath Nambiar]]
| after = [[Vivek Ram Chaudhari]]
}}
{{Succession box
| title = Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, [[Southern Air Command (India)|Southern Air Command]]
| years = 1 August 2018 - 30 October 2019
| before = [[Rakesh Kumar Singh Bhadauria]]
| after = [[Amit Tiwari (air marshal)|Amit Tiwari]]
}}
{{s-end}}



[[Category:Recipients of the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Vayu Sena Medal]]
[[Category:Indian Air Force air marshals]]
[[Category:National Defence Academy (India) alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Thiruvananthapuram]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Suresh, Balakrishnan}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Defence Services Staff College alumni]]

Arnala-class corvette

2025-12-23T07:22:29Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

{{Short description|Indian Navy ship class (1968–2003)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{distinguish|text = Arnala class, a subclass of [[Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft#Ships of the class|Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft]]s}}
{{Infobox ship
|section1={{Infobox ship/image
| image =
| image_caption =
}}

|section2={{Infobox ship/class overview
| name = ''Arnala''-class corvettes
| builders =
| operators = {{naval|India|2001}}
| class_before = *{{sclass|Bathurst|corvette|4}} 
*{{sclass|Flower|corvette|4}}
| class_after = {{sclass|Durg|corvette|4}}
| subclasses =
| built_range =
| in_commission_range = 1968–2003
| total_ships_building =
| total_ships_planned = 11
| total_ships_completed = 11
| total_ships_canceled =
| total_ships_active =
| total_ships_laid_up =
| total_ships_lost = 1
| total_ships_retired = 10
| total_ships_preserved =
}}

|section3={{Infobox ship/characteristics
| hide_header =
| header_caption =
| type = [[Anti-submarine]] [[corvette]]
| displacement = *950 tons (standard)
*1,150 tons (full load)
| length = {{convert|81.8|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| beam = {{convert|9.2|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| draught = {{convert|2.9|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| draft =
| propulsion = *2 shaft CODAG,
*2 gas turbines - 30,000 hp
*1 diesel - {{convert|6,000|hp|abbr=on}}
| speed = {{convert|30|kn|km/h}}
| range = *{{convert|4870|nmi|km|abbr=on}} at {{convert|10|kn|km/h}}
*{{convert|450|nmi|km|abbr=on}} at {{convert|30|kn|km/h}}
| complement = 90
| sensors = *'''Radar:''' Don-2, Slim Net, Hawk Screech
*'''Sonar:''' Herkules hull-mounted & dipping active sonar
| EW =
| armament = *4 [[AK-726|76mm]] guns (2 × 2)
*4 [[RBU-2500]] anti-submarine rocket launchers
*3 533mm torpedo tubes
*Depth charges, mines
| armor =
| aircraft =
| aircraft_facilities =
| notes =
}}
}}
'''''Arnala'' class''' was an Indian designation for the [[Petya-class frigate|Petya III-class]] vessels of the [[Indian Navy]].<ref name=gs-arnala>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/p-arnala.htm|title=P68 Arnala Class|publisher=GlobalSecurity.org|access-date=2012-05-16}}</ref>

Although these vessels were classified as frigates in the [[Soviet Navy]], they were classified by the Indian Navy as anti-submarine [[corvettes]] due to their role and smaller size. Vessels of the class were named for Indian islands.

==Operational history==
{{ship|INS|Kiltan|P79}} and {{ship|INS|Katchall|P81}} were part of the task force for [[Operation Trident (1971)|Operation Trident]] during the [[Indo-Pakistan War of 1971]].<ref name=br-trident>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html |title=Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926174134/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html |archive-date=26 September 2009 }}</ref><ref name=hiranandani-triumph>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFyMKROi46kC&q=venus%20challenger&pg=PA187|title=Transition to Triumph: History of the Indian Navy, 1965-1975|author=Gulab Mohanlal Hiranandani|author-link=Gulab Mohanlal Hiranandani|page=187|publisher=Lancer Publishers & Distributors|access-date=2012-05-16|isbn=9781897829721|year=2000}}</ref>

The hulls of this class were of relatively inferior quality built only 5mm thick for use in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic sea]] and [[Black Sea|Black seas]], compared to the rest of the Navy's mostly [[United Kingdom|British]] built ships which had 8mm thick hulls requiring the vessels to undergo major refit every 5 years to prevent [[corrosion]]. The Indian Navy constructed the Naval Dockyard at [[Visakhapatnam]], primarily to service [[Russia]]n vessels. But given the lack of engineering support from Russia there were inordinate delays in completing the servicing facility. This resulted in considerable delay of the second refit for {{ship|INS|Andaman|P74}}, which was in poor repair and subsequently was lost at sea in conditions, {{convert|140|mi|km}} east of [[Visakhapatnam]] on 21 August 1990 around 2:03 pm, where it was conducting anti-submarine exercises with five other Indian warships. The Andaman's loss cost the navy an estimated Rs 8 crore, including the initial cost of the ship and weapons on board, as well as the lives of 15 sailors.<ref name=in-andaman>{{cite book|url=http://indiannavy.nic.in/t2t2e/trans2emins/29_foundering_andaman.htm|title=Transition to Eminence: The Indian Navy 1976-1990|author=Gulab Mohanlal Hiranandani|page=243|publisher=Lancer Publishers & Distributors|access-date=2012-05-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Loss of INS Andaman points to maintenance problems in Indian Navy |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/defence/story/19900930-loss-of-ins-andaman-points-to-maintenance-problems-in-indian-navy-813061-1990-09-29 |access-date=2024-02-07 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

==Vessels==
The corvettes of this class constituted the 31st Patrol Vessel Squadron of the Eastern Naval Command and the 32nd Patrol Vessel Squadron of the Western Naval Command.<ref name=br-petya>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharatrakshak.com/NAVY/Ships/Past/5-Petya-II.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707231549/http://www.bharatrakshak.com/NAVY/Ships/Past/5-Petya-II.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-07 |title=Petya II Class |publisher=Bharat Rakshak |access-date=2012-05-16 }}</ref>

{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
!Name
!Pennant
!Builder
!Commissioned
!Decommissioned
!Fate
|-
| {{ship|INS|Arnala|1972|2}}|| P68 || || 29 June 1972 || 9 April 1999 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Androth|1972|2}} || P69 || || 30 June 1972 || 9 April 1999 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Anjadip|1972|2}} || P73 || || 23 December 1972 || 13 December 2003 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Andaman|1973|2}} || P74 || || 28 December 1973 || || Sunk in a Storm 22 August 1990
|-
| {{ship|INS|Amini|1974|2}} || P75 || || 12 December 1974 || 16 September 2002 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Kamorta|P77|2}} || P77 || || 21 November 1968 || 31 October 1991 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Kadmatt|P78|2}} || P78 || || 23 December 1968 || 30 November 1992 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Kiltan|P79|2}} || P79 || || 30 October 1969 || 30 June 1987 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Kavaratti|P80|2}} || P80 || || 23 December 1969 || 31 July 1986 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Katchall|P81|2}} || P81 || || 23 December 1969 || 31 December 1988 ||
|-
| {{ship|INS|Amindivi|P83|2}} || P83 || || 1976 || 1986–1988 ||
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Petya-class frigate}}
{{Ship classes of the Indian Navy}}
{{Corvettes_of_the_Indian_Navy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arnala-class corvette}}
[[Category:Arnala-class corvettes| ]]
[[Category:Corvette classes]]
[[Category:Corvettes of the Indian Navy]]
[[Category:India–Soviet Union relations]]

Sanjay Pinto

2025-11-15T09:46:39Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating new details

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Sanjay Pinto.jpg|thumb|Sanjay Pinto]]
'''Sanjay Pinto''' (born 14 November 1973) is an Indian Advocate practising at the Madras High Court, Legal Columnist, Author of 4 books, public speaker, Former Bureau Chief and Resident Editor at [[NDTV 24x7]] and Executive Editor at [[NDTV Hindu]].

==Early life==
Pinto was born to school teacher Judy Pinto and textile marketing executive Antony Vincent Pinto. Pinto studied at Don Bosco Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Egmore, [[Chennai]]. He appeared as the compere for his school play, ''Who Killed Cock Robin?''. He was the Troop Commander of the Road Safety Patrol and was adjudged the Best Outgoing Student in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Don-Bosco-alumni-relive-past-contribute-to-future/articleshow/39083976.cms|title=Don Bosco alumni relive past, contribute to future|website=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=2014-07-27|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/of-school-shirttails-and-crocker/article6221203.ece|title=Of school, shirttails, and Crocker|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=2014-07-17|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref>

==Education==
A student of History and Politics at [[Loyola College, Chennai]], Pinto founded and edited a students' magazine in college, the ''Loyola Herald'' and was the President of the Loyola Debating Society. He contributed to a column called ''Campus Beat'' in the ''[[Indian Express]]''. He won the Gold Medal and the "Most Outstanding Student of the year" award in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loyolacollege.edu/history.html|title=Loyola College|publisher=Loyolacollege.edu|accessdate=18 January 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118163214/http://www.loyolacollege.edu/history.html|archivedate=18 January 2015}}</ref>

While at Loyola, Pinto completed a twinning course on Creative Writing through the college's tie-up with [[Cornell University]].
Pinto won the national debating championship representing the [[Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College, Chennai]], where he completed his law degree in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://echovme.in/blog/launching-echovmes-digital-marketing-summit-2015-in-chennai-only-100-seats-available/|title=Sanjay Pinto - Speaker at echoVME's Digital Marketing Summit 2015|website=Echovme.in|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ritzmagazine.in/the-game-changer|title=The Game Changer|website=Ritzmagazine.in|date=2014-12-18|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kiruba.com/copyrightandleft/2011/07/mr-sanjay-pinto-receiving-the-first-copy|title=Mr Sanjay Pinto receiving the first copy - Copy Right and Left Book|website=Kiruba.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/school-notes-from-chennai/article2668377.ece|title=School notes from Chennai|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=2011-11-28|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.mylaw.net/breaking-news|title=Breaking News - The myLaw Blog|website=Blog.mylaw.net|date=2011-06-18|accessdate=2017-06-05}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> While in college, he was offered a weekly column in the ''Indian Express'' to review programmes on television.{{fact|date=December 2023}}

==Television journalism==
Pinto joined NDTV [[New Delhi Television]] in February 1998 as the Tamil Nadu correspondent for the 24 hour Star News Channel. He did live reports, news bulletins, and election special shows. Pinto became the Bureau Chief of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry of NDTV 24x7 in 2006. Pinto went on deputation to editorially head a new sister channel NDTV Hindu as its Executive Editor (Consultant-English News). At NDTV Hindu, Pinto spearheaded the live telecast of 17 news bulletins daily.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Pinto left NDTV Hindu in January 2012, took a sabbatical for a few months and returned to NDTV 24x7 as the Resident Editor (Consultant) for Tamil Nadu. Pinto quit NDTV in September 2012.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Pinto was conferred the Vocational Excellence Award for his contribution to the Indian Media by the Rotary Club of Madras North in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article370583.ece#.UvyhurQ0_ZI|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303172543/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article370583.ece#.UvyhurQ0_ZI|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 March 2014|title=Sanjay Pinto bags Rotary Excellence Award|work=The New Indian Express|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mylaporetimes.com/2012/04/sanjay-pinto-receives-award-for-vocational-excellence|title=MYLAPORE TIMES|publisher=Mylaporetimes.com|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref>

==Radio talk shows==
Pinto used to host shows on [[All India Radio]] even as a school and college student. In 2009, Pinto conceptualised and anchored a daily debate show on ChennaiLive 104.8 FM. This was followed by other shows like 'Voice of Chennai'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mxmindia.com/2012/11/chennai-live-104-8-fm-to-launch-vodafone-voice-of-chennai/|title=Chennai Live 104.8 FM to launch Vodafone Voice of Chennai|website=MxM India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.battleofideas.org.uk/2010/speaker_detail/5105/|title=Battle of Ideas 2010 - speaker - Sanjay Pinto|website=Battleofideas.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radioandmusic.com/content/editorial/news/chennai-live-registers-60-cent-growth-so-far-launch-vodafone-voice-chennai|title=Chennai Live registers 60 per cent growth so far; to launch 'Vodafone Voice of Chennai'|website=Radioandmusic.com|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref> and 'You're Hired'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://srikswhoelse.wordpress.com/2013/03/31/sriks-on-chennai-lve-104-8fm-chennai|title=Sriks on Chennai L!ve 104.8FM (Chennai)|website=Srikswhoelse.wordpress.com|date=2013-03-31|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref> (a career guidance show) and ‘Welcome Home’, a show on real estate and fine living.

==Columns==
Pinto has been writing a weekly legal column "Justice For ALL"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/byline/sanjay-pinto-1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222110245/http://deccanchronicle.com/byline/sanjay-pinto-1|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 February 2016|title=Sanjay Pinto|website=Deccanchronicle.com|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/op-ed/250417/justice-for-all-recovery-of-dues-not-so-civil.html|title=Justice for all: Recovery of dues - Not so civil|website=Deccanchronicle.com|access-date=2017-06-05}}</ref> in the ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'' and monthly columns in ''[[Ritz Newspaper]]'' on the bureaucracy "Corridors of Power"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ritzmagazine.in/the-real-power-star-dr-m-saikumar-ias-by-sanjay-pinto|title=THE REAL 'POWER' STAR!: Dr.M. Saikumar, IAS - Sanjay Pinto|website=Ritzmagazine.in|date=2017-01-06|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref> and social issues "point Blank".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ritzmagazine.in/jayalalithaa-as-i-knew-her-by-sanjay-pinto|title=Jayalalithaa: As I Knew Her|website=Ritzmagazine.in|date=2017-01-06|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref>

Pinto formerly wrote a national fortnightly column on the social media for ''[[The Hindu]]'' since 2012<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/article4705646.ece|title=Sanjay Pinto|work=The Hindu|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> and a column on political issues for ''[[Tehelka]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tehelka.com/author/sanjay-pinto|title=Sanjay Pinto profile|publisher=Tehelka.com|accessdate=18 January 2015|archive-date=18 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118192356/http://www.tehelka.com/author/sanjay-pinto/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Books==
Pinto's first book, ''Speakers Are Made Not Born'' is on public speaking and published by [[Covenant Media]] in 2013 and received positive reviews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Mastering-the-art-of-public-speaking/2013/07/23/article1696582.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118174924/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Mastering-the-art-of-public-speaking/2013/07/23/article1696582.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2015|title=Mastering the art of public speaking|work=The New Indian Express|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/the-gift-of-the-gab/article4951338.ece|title=The gift of the gab|work=The Hindu|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mylaporetimes.com/2013/07/sanjay-pinto-releases-his-book-on-public-speaking|title=MYLAPORE TIMES|publisher=Mylaporetimes.com|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/columns/work/Newsroom-to-court/articleshow/25334304.cms|title=Newsroom to court|accessdate=16 November 2013|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114015701/http://www.bangaloremirror.com/columns/work/Newsroom-to-court/articleshow/25334304.cms|archivedate=14 November 2013}}</ref>

His second book ''Justice For All'' earned testimonials from the Governor of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra Shri CH Vidyasagar Rao, and television journalist and Pinto's friend and former colleague, [[Arnab Goswami]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/a-law-book-for-the-layman/article18262835.ece|title=A law book for the layman|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=2017-04-28|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/a-laymans-guide-to-the-law-and-its-implementation/article18283319.ece|title=A layman's guide to the law and its implementation|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=2017-04-29|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/book-excerpts/parking-at-owners-risk-objection-sustained-1686633|title=Parking At Owners' Risk? Objection Sustained|website=Ndtv.com|date=2017-04-27|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mylaporetimes.com/2017/04/sanjay-pintos-new-book-justice-for-all-to-be-released-today|title=Sanjay Pinto's 2nd book 'Justice for All' was released in 2017|website=Mylaporetimes.com|accessdate=27 January 2018}}</ref> "My NDTV Days" published by Pan Macmillan and "High & Law" published by Thomson Reuters are his third and fourth books.

==Public speaking==
Pinto conducts the Landmark Debates every year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/school-notes-from-chennai/article2668377.ece|title=School notes from Chennai|work=The Hindu|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> It started as a series of debates involving public figures<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/ready-for-the-debate/article643738.ece|title=Ready for the debate?|work=The Hindu|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> but is now restricted to students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/education/student/article309500.ece#.Uvyp7bQ0_ZI|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303172530/http://www.newindianexpress.com/education/student/article309500.ece#.Uvyp7bQ0_ZI|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 March 2014|title=Landmark debate sets a benchmark|work=The New Indian Express|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/news/the-landmark-inter-school-debate-news-education-llvo67hjjfj.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122065916/http://www.sify.com/news/the-landmark-inter-school-debate-news-education-llvo67hjjfj.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 November 2011|title=The Landmark inter-school debate|work=Sify|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> He is a public speaker<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.battleofideas.org.uk/index.php/2010/speaker_detail/5105|title=Battle of Ideas 2010 - speaker - Sanjay Pinto|publisher=Battleofideas.org.uk|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> at seminars, conferences, and panel discussions<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/the-contours-of-a-partnership-discussed/article875193.ece|title=The contours of a partnership discussed|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> such as the Battle of Ideas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article285794.ece?service=print|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303172534/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article285794.ece?service=print|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 March 2014|title=Battle of Ideas|publisher=Newindianexpress.com|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> He regularly presides over Rotary Club events and Annual Day functions of educational institutions.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

==Legal practice==
Practicing as a lawyer at the [[Madras High Court]], he specialises in Media, Constitutional, Criminal, Consumer and Arbitration Law representing celebrity clients.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Dinesh-Karthik-sues-sports-car-designer-Dilip-Chhabria/articleshow/48690413.cms|title=Dinesh Karthik sues sports car designer Dilip Chhabria|website=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/Squash-champion-Dipika-wins-match-against-Axis-Bank-in-court/articleshow/32613888.cms|title=Squash champion Dipika wins match against Axis Bank in court|website=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=2014-03-24|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/squash-champ-dipika-pallikal-wins-19-48-lakh-in-litigation/articleshow/57889948.cms|title=Squash champ Dipika Pallikal wins 19-48 lakh in litigation|website=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=2017-03-29|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref>

Pinto represented India in the United States Consulate funded International Visitor's Leadership Program (IVLP) on the "Rule of Law & Judicial Reforms" in the United States in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://photos.state.gov/libraries/india/13974/PDFS/AlumniHighlightsMayNov15.pdf|format=PDF|title=Citizen Diplomacy|website=Photos.state.gov|accessdate=2017-06-05}}</ref> He is a regular panelist on legal and political issues on national TV debates.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4avg5AxT808|title=Jallikattu Debate: Sanjay Pinto Vs Abhishek M Singhvi|date=27 January 2017|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RPw-rFhOz34|title=Sasikala Verdict: Political-Legal Analysis by Sanjay Pinto on Times Now|date=14 February 2017|via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nGVuGgL3r2w|title=TN Floor Test: Sanjay Pinto Vs KTS Tulsi on Times No|date=14 February 2017|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> He is a guest faculty on Media Law at [[Symbiosis Law School]], Pune.{{fact|date=December 2023}}

==Personal life==
Pinto is married to Vidya, also an Advocate, a former television journalist and former college lecturer. They have twin children (Vidan and Sanvi Pinto)

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pinto, Sanjay}}
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian television directors]]
[[Category:Indian television presenters]]

Aniconism in Buddhism

2025-11-11T19:25:26Z

ElenaEbersbacher: reworked formatting based on references and fixed typos per standard format

{{short description|Purported concept of early Buddhists not to depict the Buddha's person}}
__NOTOC__
[[File:Miracle at Kapilavastu Suddhodana praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air with only path visible Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|thumb|Aniconism in ''Miracle at [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]'': King [[Suddhodana]] praying as his son the [[Buddha]] rises in the air, praised by celestial beings (but only the Buddha's path, the ''Chankrama'' horizontal slab in the air, is visible).<ref name="p.58 Third Panel">Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p.58 Third Panel]</ref>]]
Since the beginning of the serious study of the history of [[Buddhist art]] in the 1890s, the earliest phase, lasting until the 1st century CE, has been described as [[aniconic]]; the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] was only represented through symbols such as an [[Hetoimasia|empty throne]], [[Bodhi]] tree, a riderless horse with a parasol floating above an empty space (at [[Sanchi]]), [[Buddha footprint|Buddha's footprints]], and the [[dharma wheel]].<ref>Huntington, opening pages</ref>

This aniconism in relation to the image of the Buddha could be in conformity with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, known from the ''[[Sarvastivada]] [[vinaya]]'' (rules of the early Buddhist school of the [[Sarvastivada]]):<blockquote>"Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant [[Bodhisattva]]. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhi |first1=Ju-Hyung |title=From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=54 |issue=3/4 |date=1994 |pages=220–221 |doi=10.2307/3250056 |jstor=3250056 }}</ref></blockquote>Although there is still some debate, the first [[anthropomorphic]] representations of the Buddha himself are often considered a result of the [[Greco-Buddhist art|Greco-Buddhist]] interaction, in particular in [[Gandhara]], a theory first fully expounded by [[Alfred A. Foucher]], but criticised from the start by [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]]. Foucher also accounted for the origins of the aniconic symbols themselves in small souvenirs carried away from the main pilgrimage sites and so becoming recognised and popularized as symbolic of the events associated with the site. Other explanations were that it was inappropriate to represent one who had attained [[nirvana]].<ref>Krishan, 9</ref>

However, in 1990, the notion of aniconism in Buddhism was challenged by [[Susan Huntington]], initiating a vigorous debate among specialists that still continues.<ref>See [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZCl3DRN3vsC&dq=Early+Buddhist+Art+and+the+Theory+of+Aniconism&pg=PA132 note 7 here] for an update on the controversy as of 2007, and [https://books.google.com/books?id=FHxsDV1GDOIC&dq=Riderless+horse+Buddha&pg=PA20 here] for another from 2001.</ref> She sees many early scenes claimed to be aniconic as in fact not depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, but worship of [[cetiya]] (relics) or re-enactments by devotees at the places where these scenes occurred. Thus the image of the [[empty throne]] shows an actual relic-throne at [[Bodh Gaya]] or elsewhere. She points out that there is only one indirect reference for a specific aniconic doctrine in Buddhism to be found, and that pertaining to only one sect.<ref>(Huntington 1990) [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/huntin.htm] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=sgkKbE-9EhAC&dq=Early+Buddhist+Art+and+the+Theory+of+Aniconism&pg=PA73 here]</ref>

As for the archeological evidence, it shows some anthropomorphic sculptures of the Buddha actually existing during the supposedly aniconic period, which ended during the 1st century CE.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} Huntington also rejects the association of "aniconic" and "iconic" art with an emerging division between [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. Huntington's views have been challenged by Vidya Dehejia and others.<ref>(Huntington 1990) [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/huntin.htm] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=sgkKbE-9EhAC&dq=Early+Buddhist+Art+and+the+Theory+of+Aniconism&pg=PA73 here]</ref> Although some earlier examples have been found in recent years, it is common ground that the large free-standing iconic images of the Buddha so prominent in later Buddhist art are not found in the earliest period; discussion is focused on smaller figures in [[relief]] panels, conventionally considered to represent scenes from the life of the Buddha, and now re-interpreted by Huntington and her supporters.

<gallery widths="200" heights="200" perrow="4">
File:Pillar with Naga Muchalinda over the throne of the Buddha. Pauni (Bhandara District). Railing pillar from Jagannath Tekri. 2nd-1st century BCE.jpg|Pillar with Naga [[Mucalinda]] protecting the throne of the Buddha. Railing pillar from Jagannath Tekri, [[Pauni]] (Bhandara District). 2nd–1st century BCE. [[National Museum of India]].<ref>"The bas-relief at Pauni or Bharhut in India, which dates back to about the second century B.C., represents a vacant throne protected by a naga with many heads. It also bears an inscription of the Naga Mucalinda (Fig. 3)" {{cite book|title=SPAFA Digest: Journal Of SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA).|date=1987|publisher=SPAFA Co-ordinating Unit|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1FuAAAAMAAJ|language=en}}</ref>
File:MaraAssault.jpg|An aniconic representation of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]'s assault on the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], with an [[empty throne]], 2nd century, [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]], [[India]].<ref>Krishan, pp. 1 and 5, fig 4a caption</ref>
File:Kanaganahalli relief.jpg|Devotions to the empty throne of the Buddha, [[Kanaganahalli]], 1st–3rd century CE
</gallery>

==Aniconism and anthropomorphism==
Depending on the schools of art or the period, the Buddha can only appear through his symbols, or in anthropomorphological form, in similar works of art.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krishan |first1=Yuvraj |last2=Tadikonda |first2=Kalpana K. |title=The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development |date=1996 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-81-215-0565-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PP13 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dehejia |first1=Vidya |title=Aniconism and the Multivalence of Emblems |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=1991 |volume=21 |pages=45–66 |issn=0571-1371|jstor=4629413 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="6" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state=collapsed align=center colspan=6 style="background:#BC8F8F; font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"| '''Sanchi and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara'''
|-
|
|align="center"|'''Maya's dream'''
|align="center"|'''The Great Departure'''
|align="center"|'''Mara's attack'''
|align="center"|'''Enlightenment'''
|align="center"|'''The Buddha Preaching'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Sanchi''' (1st c. BCE/CE)
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Maya's dream Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern gateway.jpg|150px]] Maya's dream of a white elephant.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Departure of the Buddha from Kapilavastu Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gate.jpg|120px]] The Buddha, under the umbrella on the chariot, is not illustrated.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Temptation and enlightenment of the Buddha.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Enlightenment of the Buddha with the Nagas rejoincing.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Teaching the Sakyans Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|-
|align="center"|'''[[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]]''' (1st c.CE-4th c.CE)
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Maya's Dream and its Interpretation, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century AD, schist - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01634.JPG|150px]] Very similar illustration from Gandhara.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Scenes from the Life of the Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century, schist - Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive - DSC04149.JPG|170px]] The Buddha in person leaves the city.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:L'attaque de Mâra (musée d'art asiatique de Dahlem, Berlin) (12488794514).jpg|120px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Buddha's Sermon, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century AD, schist - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01650.JPG|120px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Preaching Buddha, Gandhara, c. 3rd-4th century AD, gray schist - Matsuoka Museum of Art - Tokyo, Japan - DSC07116.JPG|150px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|}

== Later periods ==
In later periods both the major schools of Buddhism have made great use of representational art, though [[Theravada]] temples and other sites typically concentrate on a single large sculpture of the Buddha, whereas [[Mahayana]] temples have larger numbers of images of a greater variety of figures with varying degrees of spiritual significance. However some schools, such as [[Zen Buddhism]] in [[Japan]], have also shown a general tendency towards aniconism, though without specific prohibition of figurative images.

== See also ==
* [[Gautama Buddha]]
* [[Buddhist paths to liberation|Dhamma]]
* [[Sangha]]
* [[Three Refuges]]
* [[Five Precepts]]
* [[Pāli Canon]]
* [[Cetiya]]
* [[Iconoclasm]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
*S. L. Huntington, ''[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ADM/huntin.htm Early Buddhist art and the theory of aniconism]'', ''Art Journal'', 49:4 (1990): 401–8. ]
*Krishan, Yuvraj, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C The Buddha image: its origin and development]'', 1996, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|81-215-0565-8}}, {{ISBN|978-81-215-0565-9}}. - a clear and well-illustrated account of the traditional view
* Rob Linrothe, ''[https://www.jstor.org/pss/29757094 Inquiries into the Origin of the Buddha Image: A Review]''. In: ''East and West'', 43 (1993): 241–256.

[[Category:Aniconism|Buddhism]]
[[Category:Buddhist art]]
[[Category:History of art]]
[[Category:Buddhist iconography]]

Vinith Venkatesh

2025-11-07T21:47:57Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating new details

{{short description|Indian footballer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Vinith Venkatesh
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| fullname = Vinith Venkatesh
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2005|7|31|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Bengaluru]], [[Karnataka]], India
| height = {{height|m=1.80}}
| position = [[Midfielder]]
| currentclub = [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
| clubnumber = 32
| youthyears1 = 2013–2023
| youthclubs1 = [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
| years1 = 2023–2024
| clubs1 = [[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru B]]
| caps1 = 11
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2024–
| clubs2 = [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
| caps2 = 19
| goals2 = 1
| nationalyears1 = 2025–
| nationalteam1 = [[India national under-23 football team|India U23]]
| nationalcaps1 = 2
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| club-update = 21:30, 14 September 2024 (UTC)
| nationalteam-update = August 2025
}}

'''Vinith Venkatesh''' (born 31 July 2005) is an Indian professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[midfielder]] for [[Indian Super League]] club [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]].

==Club career==
Promoted through [[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru FC youth system]],He Made his senior debut in The 2024 Durand Cup.He Scored a goal against Mohun Bagan in the Semi-Final Match Which Bengaluru Lost on Penalties.Vinith made his debut in [[Indian Super League|ISL]] against [[East Bengal FC|East Bengal]] on 14 September 2024 and scored the winning goal in the game.
Vinith won the ISL Emerging Player of the month for September.
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/indian-super-league/top-stories/indian-super-league-venkatesh-guides-bengaluru-to-win/articleshow/113361428.cms|title=Venkatesh guides Bengaluru to win|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=14 September 2024}}</ref>

== Career statistics ==
=== Club ===
{{updated|1 June 2025}}<ref>{{soccerway|vinith-venkatesh/992091|accessdate=1 June 2025}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|Cup
!colspan="2"|Continental
!colspan="2"|Other
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Bengaluru FC Reserves and Academy|Bengaluru B]]
|2022–23
| rowspan="2" |[[2023 Reliance Foundation Development League|Reliance Foundation Development League]]
|2
|0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|0
|-
|2023–24
|5
|0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|5
|0
|-
|[[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
|[[2024–25 Bengaluru FC season|2024–25]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Indian Super League]]
|19||1||1{{efn|name=Super CupCup|Appearance(s) in [[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]]}}||0||0{{efn|name=statsAFCC|Appearance(s) in [[AFC Cup]]}}||0||3{{efn|name=DurandCup|Appearance(s) in [[Durand Cup]]}}||2||4||3
|-
! colspan="3" |Career total
!26!!1!!1!!0!!0!!0!!3!!0!!30!!3
|}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.indiansuperleague.com/players/midfielder-184692-vinith-venkatesh-profile Vinith Venkatesh] at [[Indian Super League]]

{{Bengaluru FC squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venkatesh, Vinith}}
[[Category:2005 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:Bengaluru FC players]]
[[Category:Indian Super League players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Footballers from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Men's association football midfielders]]
[[Category:India men's youth international footballers]]

Thakkarbapa Nagar

2025-10-01T09:15:49Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Updated entries and formatting

#REDIRECT [[Thakkar Bapanagar]]

List of Odia films of 1973

2025-09-15T05:46:58Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Made a info w/ infobox

{{Short description|None}}
{{Ollywood films}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
A list of films produced by the [[Ollywood]] film industry based in [[Bhubaneshwar]] and [[Cuttack]] in 1973:

==A-Z==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Director !! Cast !! Genre !! Notes !! Source !! [[Central Board of Film Certification|CBFC]]
|-
| {{Year header}} | '''[[1973 in film|1973]]'''
|-
|''[[Ghara Sansara]]''||[[Byomokesh Tripathy]], [[Gopal Ghosh]] ||[[Sarat Pujari]], [[Prashanta Nanda]], [[Sujatha (actress)|Sujata]] || || ||<ref>{{Citation|title=Ghara Sansara|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1411695/|access-date=2019-02-01}} {{unreliable?|date=September 2022}}</ref> || U
|-
| ''[[Ghara Bahuda]]''||[[Sona Mukherjee]] ||[[Sujit (Odia actor)|Sujit]], [[Sujata Anand|Sujata]], [[Sahu Samuel|Babi]] || || ||<ref>{{Citation|title=Ghara Bahuda|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1411694/|access-date=2019-02-01}}</ref> || U
|-
|''Kanakalata''||[[Ghanashyam Mahapatra]]|| [[Harish Mahapatra|Harish]], [[Sujatha (actress)|Sujata]]|| ||||<ref>{{Citation|title=Kanakalata|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1404047/|access-date=2019-02-02}}</ref>|| U
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Indian film list}}
{{1973 films}}

[[Category:Lists of Odia films by year|1973]]
[[Category:Lists of 1973 films by language|Ollywood]]
[[Category:1973 in Indian cinema|Films, Ollywood]]
[[Category:1970s in Orissa]]

Pottery Town metro station

2025-07-21T05:35:50Z

ElenaEbersbacher: stub

{{Short description|Upcoming Namma Metro station under Pink Line}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Pottery Town
| type = {{Namma Metro Infobox station line|line=Pink}}
| style = Namma Metro
| image = Pottery Town metro station (Jan '25).jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Under Construction of this metro station under [[Pink Line (Namma Metro)|Pink Line]] of [[Namma Metro]] as of January 2025
| address = Byadarahalli, Pottery Town, Benson Town, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560046
| coordinates = {{coord|13.00049|77.60934|display=inline,title}}
| line = {{rcb|Namma Metro|Pink|croute}}
| other = {{rint|rail|1}} {{stnlnk|Bangalore East}} and {{stnlnk|Banaswadi}}
| structure = Underground, [[Double track]]
| platform = [[Island platform]] ''(TBC)'' 
Platform-1 → {{stl|Namma Metro|Kalena Agrahara}} Platform-2 → {{stl|Namma Metro|Nagawara}} ''Platform Numbers (TBC)''
| operator = [[Namma Metro]]
| depth =
| levels = 2 '''''(TBC)'''''
| tracks = 2 '''''(TBC)'''''
| parking = '''''(TBC)'''''
| bicycle =
| baggage_check =
| opened =
| opening = {{start date and age|December 2026|df=yes}} '''''(TBC)'''''
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = '''''(TBC)'''''
| accessible = '''''(TBC)'''''
| status = Under Construction
| code = '''''(TBC)'''''
| owned = [[Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd]] (BMRCL)
| architect = [[Larsen & Toubro]]
| architectural_style =
| wifi =
| zone =
| smartcardname =
| smartcardstatus =
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Namma Metro|line1=Pink|left1=Tannery Road|to-left1=Nagawara|note-mid1=''(Operational around December 2026)''|right1=Cantonment Railway Station|to-right1=Kalena Agrahara}}
| route_map = {{BMR Pink line}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Namma Metro|Pink}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Pottery Town''' is an upcoming underground metro station on the North-South corridor of the [[Pink Line (Namma Metro)|Pink Line]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Namma Metro Pink Line: Route, Status, Completion Date & More |url=https://timesproperty.com/amp/webstories/namma-metro-pink-line-details-wid-913 |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=timesproperty}}</ref> of [[Namma Metro]] in [[Bengaluru]], India. This metro station will consist of the main [[Bangalore East railway station|Bangalore East]] and [[Banaswadi railway station|Banaswadi]] railway stations along with many prime locations like '''St. Anthony's Chapel''', BBMP Regional Office (Pulikeshi Nagar) and surrounding suburban areas like '''Williams Town''', [[Fraser Town, Bangalore|Fraser Town]], [[Cox Town, Bangalore|Cox Town]] and Richards Town.

As per the latest updates, this metro station, under the second phase, covering the total distance of 13.8 km stretch ([[Dairy Circle metro station|Dairy Circle]] - [[Nagawara metro station|Nagawara]]) is expected to be operational around ''December 2026.'' <ref>{{Cite web |title=Bengaluru: Namma Metro pushes Pink Line deadline to December 2026 |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/bengaluru-namma-metro-pushes-pink-line-deadline-to-december-2026-3256417 |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-04 |title=Namma Metro's Pink line likely to open in phases |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/namma-metros-pink-line-likely-to-open-in-phases/article68484715.ece |access-date=2024-08-07 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-25 |title=Namma Metro's Pink Line: This Upcoming Corridor Is Set To Redefine The City Commute |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/bengaluru/namma-metros-pink-line-this-upcoming-corridor-is-set-to-redefine-the-city-commute-article-101255989 |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-10 |title=Namma Metro Phase 2 In Bengaluru To Be Operational By 2025, Announces Karnataka Deputy CM |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/bengaluru/namma-metro-phase-2-in-bengaluru-to-be-operational-by-2025-announces-karnataka-deputy-cm-dk-shivakumar-article-107571304 |access-date=2024-02-12 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Staff Reporter |date=2023-09-27 |title=Good News! Pink Line of Bengaluru Metro to be 90% Ready by Second-half of 2024 |url=https://www.metrorailnews.in/good-news-pink-line-of-bengaluru-metro-to-be-90-ready-by-second-half-of-2024/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=Metro Rail News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-31 |title=Namma Metro: Bengaluru's Under-Construction Pink Line Slated To Achieve 2 Milestones In a Week |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/bengaluru/namma-metro-bengalurus-under-construction-pink-line-slated-to-achieve-2-milestones-in-a-week-article-107286084 |access-date=2024-02-01 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref>

==History==

In June 2017, Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited (BMRCL) sought bids for constructing the Pottery Town metro station along the 2.88 km Shivaji Nagar - Shadi Mahal Ramp stretch of the 21.25 km Pink Line of Namma Metro. In November 2019, [[Larsen & Toubro|Larsen & Toubro (L&T)]] emerged as the lowest bidders for this stretch which aligned closely with the original estimate, thus leading to successful award for this company. They commenced the construction of this metro station as per the agreements.

==Station Layout==
'''''Station Layout - To Be Confirmed'''''
{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = Pottery Town track layout '''''(TBC)''''''
| title-bg = #{{rail color|Namma Metro|Pink}}
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = HSTg\HSTf
PSTR(L)\PSTR(R) ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Namma Metro|Tannery Road}} **
*'''P#'''\PSTR(L)\PSTR(R)\*'''P#'''
PSTR(L)\PSTR(R) ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Namma Metro|Cantonment Railway Station}} **
HSTg\HSTf
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and one Island platform ** '''Under Construction'''</div>
}}}}
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=30 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85 valign=top|Street level
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/ Entrance
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;"|'''L1'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;"|Mezzanine
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;"|Fare control, station agent, Ticket/token, shops
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=30 rowspan=3 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" width=85|'''Platform #''' '''Southbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px white;" width=500|Towards → {{stl|Namma Metro|Kalena Agrahara}} '''Next Station:''' [[Cantonment Railway Station metro station|Cantonment Railway Station]]
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Island platform]] | Doors will open on the right {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85|'''Platform #''' '''Northbound'''
| style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width="500" |Towards ← {{stl|Namma Metro|Nagawara}} '''Next Station:''' [[Tannery Road metro station|Tannery Road]]
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=30 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|
|}

==Connections==
{{Empty section|date=August 2024}}

==Entry/Exit==
{{Empty section|date=August 2024}}

==See also==
*[[Bangalore]]
*[[List of Namma Metro stations]]
*[[Transport in Karnataka]]
*[[List of metro systems]]
*[[Rapid transit in India|List of rapid transit systems in India]]
*[[Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://english.bmrc.co.in ''BMRCL English''] - BMRCL Official Website
* [http://www.urbanrail.net ''UrbanRail.Net''] – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.
{{Portal bar|Bangalore|Trains|Transport|Engineering}}
{{Namma Metro|pink line=yes}}

[[Category:Namma Metro stations]]

Kondarangi Hills

2025-06-19T17:44:35Z

ElenaEbersbacher: expand content further and cleaned formatting after review

{{Short description|Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple
| image = Kondarangi hills.jpg
| alt = Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple, Kondarangi Hills
| caption = Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple, Kondarangi Hills
| map_type = India Tamil Nadu
| map_type_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|10.627988|77.730901|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| native_name =
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Dindigul]]
| locale = [[Kondarangi keeranur]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Shiva]]
| festivals =
| architecture = [[TAMIL ARCHITECTURE]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity =
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator =
| website = {{URL|https://www.kondarangihills.com}}
}}

'''Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple''', also known as '''Kondarangi Hills''', is located in [[Kondarangi Keeranur]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kondarangihills.com/|title=Official Website of Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple, Kondarangi Hills|website=Kondarangihills.com|accessdate=16 February 2019}}</ref> Cut into the peak of a mountain, it is believed that worshipers who ascend to the temple may receive divine sanction and blessings from Lord [[Shiva]]. A sculpture there is a Swayambhu Lingam. Swayambhu is a Sanskrit word that means "something created by its own agreeing".

== History ==
{{See also|Yuga Cycle}}
The duration of human lives are under four periods called ''[[yuga]]s'': ''[[Satya Yuga]]'', ''[[Treta Yuga]]'', ''[[Dvapara Yuga]]'' and ''[[Kali Yuga]]''. Some [[Vedas]] give some reference that the energy of good vibes, which was considered to be a god in those days, will demolish and rebirth himself to build up lives on earth. During this period, Vedas say that two saints named Kagabajendra and Ganapathy re-birthed themselves as a crow. They stayed alive as an ambassador to a god to regenerate the new world, because of the former demolition.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} A small cave temple is situated in the top of the hill for the Kagabajendran sage.

It is said that Saint Kagabajendra will visit the temple to worship the god in the form of a mild storm at dusk. This storm will start from the bottom of the hill and end when it enters the temple, lasting for only two seconds.

== Architecture ==
Structures, buildings, and sculptures were built by excavating rock. The temple steps are in a rock-cut framework. Rain or high winds make it difficult to ascend or descend. A perennial spring operates on the top.

== Specialties ==
During British rule, they decided to develop a blueprint to restore the original borders.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} The blueprint consists of three access points to detect distorted places. The three hills are called Kodaikanal hills, Tirumala hills and Kondarangi hills, known locally as the Malliswar hills.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} This British framework is known as the Triangle survey. This survey was found to be useful to report the borders of Newland in [[Tamil Nadu]] after a severe earthquake.

Worshipers pray by joining hands in a pyramid format, as a reference to Kondarangi.

This place features as a preeminent site for bare-skinned meditation, mostly by maharishis. One point was carved by Pancha Pandavas to worship Lord Shiva. The temple has a Cave where Sidhhars and Thavasis have done meditation. Another temple located in the foothills is known as Ketti Malleswarar Sri Bhramaramba Temple.

== Transport ==
The temple is 19 km from Oddanchatram Railway station to Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple – Kondarangi Hills Temple.

== Festivals ==
The most celebrated festival is the Mahasivarathri and Chitra Pournami.

Other festivals are Paradhosam, Ammavasai, and Pournami. Paradhosam is a Lord Shiva prayer conducted after 15 days of each month.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pradosham.com/|title=Pradosham.com {{!}} Home|website=www.pradosham.com|access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref> Ammavasai is a new moon festival on the Hindu [[lunar calendar]] that is also celebrated in Kondarangi hills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hellotravel.com/events/amavasya|title=Amavasya 2019 in India, photos, Festival, Religion, Fair when is Amavasya 2019 - HelloTravel|website=www.hellotravel.com|access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref> The Pournami festival is a common Indian festival among the Tamil Hindus, a prayer festival dedicated to the Hindu god of underworld. On Mondays, special poojas may be conducted.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Dindigul district]]

City Centre, Mangaluru

2025-05-07T07:11:32Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

{{POV|date=March 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{infobox shopping mall
| name = City Centre
| image = City Centre Mall.jpg
| caption =
| location = [[Mangaluru]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|12.871421|74.842504|display=inline,title}}
| opening_date = 25 April 2010<ref name="Mangalore, 25 April, DHNS"/>
| developer = Mohtisham Complexes
| address = [[K S Rao Road]]
| floor_area = {{convert|540000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}}<ref name="Mangalore, 25 April, DHNS"/>
| architect =
| number_of_stores = 170
| number_of_anchors = 12
| parking = 1800
| floors = 7 (retail) + 5 (underground and rooftop parking)
| website = {{URL|www.citycentremangalore.com}}
}}

'''City Centre''' is a shopping mall in [[Mangaluru]], India. It is the fifth largest mall in [[Karnataka]] and the second largest mall in Mangaluru located at the [[K S Rao Road]] in Mangalore. It was opened to the public on 25 April 2010.<ref name="Mangalore, 25 April, DHNS">{{cite web|author=Mangalore, 25 April, DHNS|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/65911/city-centre-opens-mangalore.html|title=City centre opens in Mangalore|work=Deccan Herald|date=26 April 2010|accessdate=6 November 2012}}</ref> It provides shopping, dining, entertainment and leisure activities.

== Controversies ==
[[File:City Center Premises Mangalore.jpg|thumb|285x285px|City Centre Mall]]

=== Building violations and other irregularities ===
There were a number of controversies surrounding the mall's construction. According to a news report published in August 2009, the unscientific excavation done for the building posed a threat to Bavutagudda (Light House Hill), a place of historic prominence in Mangalore.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/218|title=City Centre bldg endangers Bavutagudda {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref> The excavation would have been dangerous to the residents of Bavutagudda. Consequently, the then Deputy Commissioner (DC) of Mangalore had ordered the builders to build a retention wall.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/18253|title=DC accused of evincing keen interest in regularizing City Centre bldg; CM orders probe {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref>

On 20 April 2009, there was an order issued by the Mangalore City Corporation (MCC) commissioner to demolish certain parts of the building including the seventh and eighth floor. As per the order, the building was not being constructed as per the approved blueprint.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/1545|title=MCC file seeking nod for 'City Centre' before DC {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref> The builders brought a stay on the order.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/19753|title=How was Cine Polis given go ahead when City Centre bldg is unauthorized? {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref>

The [[Karnataka State Pollution Control Board|Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB)]] had served a notice to the builders for causing environmental pollution. Three chimneys were installed without taking required permission from KSPCB. The smoke from the chimney was causing inconvenience to the nearby residents and they had lodged a complaint with KSPCB.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/247|title=Pollution Board serves notice to Citi Centre bldg {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref>

Prior to its inauguration on 25 April 2010, the Town Planning Officer of MCC made a statement saying it was illegal to go ahead with the opening of the mall without clearances.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/Mall-set-to-open-is-without-valid-licence-officer/article16371098.ece|title=Mall set to open is without valid licence: officer|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-11|language=en}}</ref> Four days prior to the inauguration, the MCC had served notice to the owners of the mall to vacate the building since the Fire and Emergency Services Department had not given a no-objection certificate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/4096|title=MCC had served notice to vacate City Centre {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref>

In August 2012, social activists had accused the then DC of Mangalore of showing unnecessary interest in regularizing the building.<ref name=":0" /> The DC himself had refused to give permission to a multiplex in the building as the building had not been given clearances from various departments. However, just before he was transferred to Bengaluru in December 2012, he had issued license to the multiplex.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/19739|title=Past DC gave go ahead for City Centre Cine Polis before relinquishing charge {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref>

=== Assault on employees ===
On 31 July 2010, four salesmen of the Mochi Shoe Shop at the mall were reportedly attacked. As per reports, one of the salesmen had washed his lunch box in a basin inside the bathroom. This did not go well with Mr. Dharmaraj, an architect at Mohtisham Complexes, also in-charge of the mall and he objected. Later, it is believed that, on orders from Mr. Dharmaraj, a group of 12 people barged to the shoe shop and attacked the four salesmen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/5753|title=Gang goes on rampage at City Centre's shoe shop {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref> By 5 August 2010, four people were arrested in connection with the attack, but Mr. Dharmaraj along with another accused had applied for anticipatory bail and had gone into hiding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thecanaratimes.com/epaper/index.php/archives/5828|title=City Centre assault case : 4 held, Dharmaraj missing {{!}} The Canara Times|website=thecanaratimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-11}}</ref>

== Fire break out ==
On 21 February 2019 a fire broke out in the mall.<ref>{{cite news |title=City Centre Mall fire: Fire breaks out at City Centre Mall in Mangalore {{!}} Mangaluru News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mangaluru/fire-breaks-out-at-city-centre-mall-in-mangaluru/articleshow/68094228.cms |accessdate=3 March 2020 |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Fire response to City Center Mall, Mangalore on 21st Feb, 2019 03.jpg|thumb|Fire response to City Center Mall, Mangalore on 21 February 2019|344x344px]]
==See also==
*[[Economy of Mangaluru]]
*[[List of shopping malls in India]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*http://www.citycentremangalore.com/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312114801/http://www.citycentremangalore.com/ |date=12 March 2020 }}
*[http://www.newskarnataka.com/mangalore/city-centre-celebrates-4th-anniversary/ City Centre 4th anniversary]

{{Shopping malls in India}}

[[Category:Shopping malls in Mangalore]]
[[Category:Shopping malls established in 2010]]
[[Category:2010 establishments in Karnataka]]

Sumdorong Chu

2025-04-12T07:03:21Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Creating new info

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Sumdorong Chu
| name_native = {{native name|bo|གསུམ་རྡོ་རོང་ཆུ}}
| name_other =
| name_etymology =
| nickname =

| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| image_alt =

| pushpin_map = Tibet#India Arunachal Pradesh
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption = Mouth of Sumdorong Chu in Nyamjang Chu
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_relief = 0

| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = China; India
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = [[Shannan, Tibet]]; [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name3 = [[Tsona County]]; [[Tawang district]]
| subdivision_type4 = City
| subdivision_name4 = Lė Township; Zemithang Circle
| subdivision_type5 =
| subdivision_name5 =

| source1 = Eastern [[Himalayas]]
| source1_location = Lė Township
| source1_coordinates = {{coord|27.7956|91.8216|format=dms}}
| source1_elevation = {{convert|4600|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| mouth = [[Nyamjang Chu]] valley
| mouth_location =
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|27.80|91.745|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation = {{convert|2350|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| progression = [[Nyamjang Chu]], [[Tawang Chu]], [[Manas River]]
| river_system = [[Brahmaputra]]
| extra =
}}
'''Sumdorong Chu''' ({{bo|t=གསུམ་རྡོ་རོང་ཆུ|w=gsum rdo rong chu}}; {{zh|c=桑多洛河|p=Sāng duō luò hé}})<ref>{{cite web |title=India-China Border Dispute |website=GlobalSecurity.org |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/india-china_conflicts.htm |access-date=1 August 2017}}</ref>
is a tributary of the [[Nyamjang Chu]] river that flows along the disputed Sino-Indian border between the [[Tsona County]] of Tibet and the [[Tawang district]] of [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. It originates in the Tokpo Shiri Glacier, about 7–10 kilometres east of [[Nyamjang Chu]], and flows down to the river.<ref>"Chinese troops in Kameng", ''The Hindustan Times'', 17 July 1986, in {{harvp|China and South Asia|1987}}.</ref>
Its junction with Nyamjang Chu is about two kilometers to the north of that of [[Namka Chu]], another contested river valley.

The Sumdorong Chu valley was the site of a [[1987 Sino-Indian skirmish|standoff]] between India and China in 1986–1987 which, despite giving rise to the fears of another war, deescalated successfully. Subsequently, India and China formulated agreements for managing future border tensions.<ref>{{cite web |author=V. Natarajan |title=The Sumdorong Chu Incident |website=Bharat Rakshak |url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/ARMY/history/siachen/286-Sumdorong-Incident.html |date=12 October 2006 |access-date=1 August 2017}}</ref>{{sfnp|Pardesi, Managing the Sumdorong Chu Crisis|2020}}

== Location ==
Sumdorong Chu flows in a disputed border region between Tibet's [[Tsona County]] and Arunachal Pradesh's [[Tawang district]]. The dispute arises due to differing interpretations of where the [[McMahon Line]] lies.

China adheres to the 1914 map of the McMahon Line, which shows the border as a straight line at 27°44'30" N latitude till the range of "Menlakathong La" (roughly the modern [[Bum La Pass]]).<ref>A. G. Noorani, [https://frontline.thehindu.com/world-affairs/article30218522.ece Perseverance in peace process], Frontline, 29 August 2003.</ref>
India believes that the true border lies along the highest watershed line in the region, which is to the north of the [[Namka Chu]] and Sumdorong Chu streams.<ref>[https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/bhuvan2d/bhuvan/bhuvan2d.php Bhuvan, Indian Geo-Platform of ISRO], search key: "Kenze Mane,ARUNACHAL PRADESH", retrieved 13 July 2020.</ref>

== 1987 standoff ==
{{main|Sumdorong Chu standoff}}
[[File:Sumdorong-Chu.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Sumdorong Chu and vicinity]]
In 1986–87, a military standoff took in the Sumdorong Chu Valley. It was initiated by China moving a company of troops to [[Wangdung]], a pasture to the south of Sumdorong Chu which India held to be part of its territory. The Indian troops stood their ground on the neighbouring Lungro la ridge and both the sides moved a large number of troops to the border. The crisis was diffused after the visit of [[Minister of External Affairs (India)|Indian Foreign Minister]] to Beijing in May 1987.

==See also==
* [[Namka Chu]]
* [[McMahon Line]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal | title = China and South Asia (July–September 1986)
| journal = China Report
| date = February 1987 | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–139
| doi = 10.1177/000944558702300111 | issn = 0009-4455 | s2cid = 220874000
| ref = {{sfnref|China and South Asia|1987}}
}}
*{{cite book| title = Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes
| last = Fravel | first = M. Taylor
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=02Hjr6RUckwC
| date = 2008
| isbn = 978-1-4008-2887-6
| ref = {{sfnref|Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation|2008}}
}}
*{{cite book| title = India and the China Crisis
| last = Hoffmann | first = Steven A. | year = 2018
| orig-year = first published 1990
| publisher = University of California Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_bjADwAAQBAJ
| isbn = 978-0-520-06537-6
| ref = {{sfnref|Hoffmann, India and the China Crisis|2018}}
}}
*{{cite journal | title = Managing the 1986-87 Sino-Indian Sumdorong Chu Crisis
| last = Pardesi | first = Manjeet S.
| journal = India Review
| year = 2020 | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 534–551
| doi = 10.1080/14736489.2019.1703364 | issn = 1473-6489 | s2cid = 213073300
| ref = {{sfnref|Pardesi, Managing the Sumdorong Chu Crisis|2020}}
}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:China–India border]]
[[Category:Rivers of Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rivers of Tibet]]
[[Category:Shannan, Tibet]]
[[Category:Tawang district]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes of China]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes of India]]
[[Category:Borders of Arunachal Pradesh]]

2018 Rajasthan Royals season

2025-04-11T17:46:03Z

ElenaEbersbacher: added new details

{{Short description|Indian Premier League cricket team season}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox cricket club season
| club = Rajasthan Royals
| season = [[2018 Indian Premier League|2018]]
| coach = [[Paddy Upton]]
| captain = [[Ajinkya Rahane]]
| ground = [[Sawai Mansingh Stadium]], [[Jaipur]]
| comp1 = [[2018 Indian Premier League|IPL]]
| comp1 result = 4th
| most runs = [[Jos Buttler]] (548)
| most wickets = [[Jofra Archer]] (15)
| prevseason = [[Rajasthan Royals in 2015|2015]]
| nextseason = [[Rajasthan Royals in 2019|2019]]
}}

The [[2018 Indian Premier League|2018 season]] was the 9th season for the [[Indian Premier League]] franchise [[Rajasthan Royals]].

==Offseason==
===Support staff changes===
* In January 2018, former Royals team director [[Zubin Bharucha]] was appointed as the team's head of cricket<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/sports/cricket-ipl-2018-rajasthan-royals-appoint-zubin-bharucha-as-head-of-cricket-423079|title=Rajasthan Royals appoint Zubin Bharucha as head of cricket|work=Indiatvnews|access-date=30 January 2018}}</ref>
* In February 2018, former Royals captain [[Shane Warne]] was named team mentor<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/22415522/shane-warne-returns-rajasthan-royals-mentor|title=Warne returns to Royals as mentor|work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=13 February 2018}}</ref>
* In February 2018, [[Sairaj Bahutule]] was appointed spin bowling coach<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricbuzz.com/amp/cricket-news/100628/sairaj-bahutule-appointed-spin-bowling-coach-rajasthan-royals-cricket-ipl-2018|title=Sairaj Bahutule appointed spin bowling coach of Rajasthan Royals|work=Cricbuzz|access-date=27 February 2018}}</ref>
* In March 2018, [[Amol Muzumdar]] and [[Dishant Yagnik]] were announced to be the team's batting coach and fielding coach respectively<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/100946/ipl-2018-cricket-news-amol-muzumdar-appointed-rajasthan-royals-batting-coach|title=Amol Muzumdar appointed Rajasthan Royals batting coach|work=CricBuzz|access-date=13 March 2018}}</ref>

===Others===
In January 2018, the BCCI cleared [[Sawai Mansingh Stadium]] in [[Jaipur]] to host the home matches of the Royals. The Royals had last played at Jaipur in 2013, after which they had to shift their base to Ahmedabad and Mumbai in 2014 and 2015 due to the BCCI's ban on the [[Rajasthan Cricket Association]].<ref>{{cite news|title=IPL: Jaipur to host Rajasthan Royals home games|url=http://www.sportstarlive.com/cricket/ipl/ipl-jaipur-to-host-rajasthan-royals-home-games/article22533305.ece|access-date=21 April 2018|work=Sportstarlive}}</ref>

In March 2018, in an event in Jaipur, the franchise unveiled the new team anthem "Phir Halla Bol" by [[Ila Arun]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Rajasthan Royals unveil team anthem 'Phir Halla Bol'|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/rajasthan-royals-unveil-team-anthem-phir-halla-bol-118031900042_1.html|access-date=21 April 2018|work=Business Standard}}</ref>

== Squad ==
* Players with international caps are listed in '''bold'''.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
!No.
!Name
!Nationality
!Birth date
!Batting style
!Bowling style
!Year signed
!Salary
!Notes
|-
! colspan="9" style="background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center;"| Batsmen
|-
|27|| '''[[Ajinkya Rahane]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1988|6|5|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|4|c|-3}} || Captain
|-
|52|| [[Rahul Tripathi]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1991|3|2|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|3.4|c|-3}} ||
|-
|{{NA}}|| '''[[Steve Smith (cricketer)|Steve Smith]]''' || {{cr|AUS}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1989|6|2|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[leg break]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|12|c|1}} || Overseas
|-
|{{NA}}|| [[Prashant Chopra]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1992|10|7|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[leg break]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|20|l|-3}} ||
|-
|{{NA}}||[[Aryaman Birla]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1997|7|9|df=y}} || Left-handed || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|30|l|-3}} ||
|-
! colspan="9" style="background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center;"| All-rounders
|-
|6|| [[Mahipal Lomror]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1999|11|16|df=y}} || Left-handed || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|20|l|-3}} ||
|-
|7|| [[Krishnappa Gowtham]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1988|10|20|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off break]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|6.2|c|-3}} ||
|-
|18|| [[Ankit Sharma (cricketer)|Ankit Sharma]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1991|04|20|df=y}} || Left-handed || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|20|l|-3}} ||
|-
|21|| '''[[D'Arcy Short]]''' || {{cr|AUS}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1990|8|9|df=y}} || Left-handed || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|4|c|-3}} || Overseas
|-
|37|| [[Shreyas Gopal]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1993|09|04|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[leg break]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|20|l|-3}} ||
|-
|55|| '''[[Ben Stokes]]''' || {{cr|ENG}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1991|6|4|df=y}} || Left-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast-medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|12.5|c|1}} || Overseas
|-
|84|| '''[[Stuart Binny]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1984|6|3|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|50|l|-3}} ||
|-
|{{NA}}||[[Jatin Saxena]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1982|8|4|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[leg break]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|20|l|-3}} ||
|-
! colspan="9" style="background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center;"| Wicket-keepers
|-
|8|| '''[[Sanju Samson]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1994|11|11|df=y}} || Right-handed || || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|8|c|1}} ||
|-
|45|| '''[[Heinrich Klaasen]]''' || {{cr|RSA}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1991|7|30|df=y}} || Right-handed || || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|50|l|-3}}|| Overseas
|-
|63|| '''[[Jos Buttler]]''' || {{cr|ENG}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1990|9|8|df=y}} || Right-handed || || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|4.4|c|-3}} || Overseas
|-
! colspan="9" style="background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center;"| Bowlers
|-
|22|| '''[[Jofra Archer]]''' || {{cr|ENG}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1995|4|1|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast-medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|7.2|c|1}} || Overseas
|-
|44|| [[Anureet Singh]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1988|3|2|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|30|l|-3}} ||
|-
|56|| '''[[Ben Laughlin (cricketer)|Ben Laughlin]]''' || {{cr|AUS}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1982|10|3|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast-medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|50|l|-3}} || Overseas
|-
|61||'''[[Ish Sodhi]]''' || {{cr|NZL}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1992|10|31|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[leg break]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|50|l|-3}} || Overseas
|-
|77|| '''[[Jaydev Unadkat]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1991|10|18|df=y}} || Right-handed || Left-arm [[Fast bowling|medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|11.5|c|1}} ||
|-
|91|| '''[[Dhawal Kulkarni]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1988|12|10|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|75|l|-3}} ||
|-
|{{NA}}||'''[[Dushmantha Chameera]]''' || {{cr|SRI}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1992|1|11|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|50|l|-3}} || Overseas
|-
|{{NA}}||[[Zahir Khan (Afghan cricketer)|Zahir Khan Pakteen]] || {{cr|AFG}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1998|12|20|df=y}} || Left-handed || [[Slow left-arm wrist-spin]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|60|l|-3}} || Overseas
|-
|{{NA}}|| [[Sudhesan Midhun]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{birth date and age2|2018|04|07|1994|10|7|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[leg break]] || style="text-align:center;"| 2018 || style="text-align:right;"| {{INRConvert|20|l|-3}} ||
|-
|}

==Season==
===League table===
{{2018 Indian Premier League Points table}}

===Results===
====League matches====
{{hatnote|All times are in [[Indian Standard Time]] ([[UTC+05:30]])}}
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match4}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match6}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match11}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match15}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match17}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match21}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match28}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match32}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match38}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match40}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match43}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match47}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match49}}
----
{{#section:2018 Indian Premier League|match53}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Rajasthan Royals}}

[[Category:Rajasthan Royals seasons]]

Lalit Vasoya

2025-02-18T10:26:21Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Made new bio w/ refs

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
'''Lalit Jashmat Vasoya''' is an [[Indian National Congress]] politician and was a member of the [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]] between 2017 and 2022, elected from [[Dhoraji Assembly constituency|Dhoraji]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/ex-cong-mla-vasoya-demands-compensation-from-cm-relief-fund-for-kin-of-tazia-victims-8870210/|title=Ex-Cong MLA Vasoya demands compensation from CM relief fund for kin of Tazia victims|date=1 August 2023|newspaper=The Indian Express|accessdate=13 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2022/Nov/07/congress-mla-of-dhoraji-lalit-vasoya-stir-uphornets-nest-by-asking-vote-for-bjp-2515835.html|title=Congress MLA of Dhoraji, Lalit Vasoya stir up hornet's nest by asking vote for BJP|first=Dilip Singh|last=Kshatriya|date=7 November 2022|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ourneta.com/neta/lalitkumar-jashmatbhai-vasoya/|title=Lalitkumar Jashmatbhai Vasoya, INC MLA from Dhoraji - Our Neta}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Gujarat MLAs 2017–2022]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:People from Rajkot district]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{Gujarat-politician-stub}}

Paisa Paisa

2025-01-27T06:20:37Z

ElenaEbersbacher:

'''Paisa Paisa''' may refer to these in Indian entertainment:
*[[Paisa Vasool (2017 film)|''Paisa Paisa'' (2017 film)]], an Indian Telugu-language film
* [[Paisa Paisa (2016 film)|''Paisa Paisa'' (2016 film)]], an Indian Marathi-language film by Joji Raechal Job
* [[Paisa Paisa (2013 film)|''Paisa Paisa'' (2013 film)]], an Indian Malayalam-language film
* [[Paisa Paisa (2009 song)|"Paisa Paisa" (2009 song)]], the theme song for the 2009 Indian Hindi-language film [[De Dana Dan]]
* [[Paisa Paisa (2007 song)|"Paisa Paisa" (2007 song)]], a song from the Tamil version of the 2007 Indian Hindi-language film ''Guru''
* "Paisa Paisa", a song by Suzanne D'Mello and Hamza Faruqui in the 2006 Indian Hindi-language film ''[[Apna Sapna Money Money]]''
* "Paisa Paisa", a 2002 Punjabi song by [[Daler Mehndi]] from the album ''Nach Ni Shaam Kaure''
** "Paisa Paisa", remake by Mehndi for the 2014 Indian film ''[[Namo Bhootatma]]''

==See also==
* [[Paisa (disambiguation)]]
* ''[[Paisa Yeh Paisa]]'', a 1985 Indian Bollywood film
* "Paisa Hai Power", a song by Dibyendu Mukherjee from the 2009 film ''[[Aa Dekhen Zara]]''

{{disambiguation}}

Madathukulam block

2024-11-24T17:27:24Z

ElenaEbersbacher: Improved wording and formatting

{{onesource|date=August 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
'''Madathukulam block''' is a revenue block in the [[Tiruppur district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. It has a total of 11 panchayat villages.

== References ==
* {{cite web|title=Map of revenue blocks of Tiruppur district |url=http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in/default.htm?blocks.php?dcode=32 |publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025417/http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in/default.htm?blocks.php%3Fdcode=32 |archivedate=2016-03-04 }}

{{coord missing|Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Revenue blocks of Tiruppur district]]

{{Tirupur-geo-stub}}